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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/7521-8.txt b/7521-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b828c8c --- /dev/null +++ b/7521-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,35877 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION, by ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION + +Author: ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY + +Release Date: February, 2005 [EBook #7521] +[This file was first posted on May 13, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO Latin-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION *** + + + + +Anne Soulard, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + +THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION + +EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE AND PROGRESS CONSIDERED AS A PHASE OF THE DEVELOPMENT +AND SPREAD OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION + +BY + +ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY + + +TO MY WIFE +FOR THIRTY YEARS BEST OF COMPANIONS IN BOTH WORK AND PLAY + + + + +PREFACE + + +The present volume, as well as the companion volume of _Readings_, arose +out of a practical situation. Twenty-two years ago, on entering Stanford +University as a Professor of Education and being given the history of the +subject to teach, I found it necessary, almost from the first, to begin +the construction of a Syllabus of Lectures which would permit of my +teaching the subject more as a phase of the history of the rise and +progress of our Western civilization than would any existing text. Through +such a study it is possible to give, better than by any other means, that +vision of world progress which throws such a flood of light over all our +educational efforts. The Syllabus grew, was made to include detailed +citations to historical literature, and in 1902 was published in book +form. In 1905 a second and an enlarged edition was issued, [1] and these +volumes for a time formed the basis for classwork and reading in a number +of institutions, and, though now out of print, may still be found in many +libraries. At the same time I began the collection of a series of short, +illustrative sources for my students to read. + +It had been my intention, after the publication of the second edition of +the Syllabus, to expand the outline into a Text Book which would embody my +ideas as to what university students should be given as to the history of +the work in which they were engaged. I felt then, and still feel, that the +history of education, properly conceived and presented, should occupy an +important place in the training of an educational leader. Two things now +happened which for some time turned me aside from my original purpose. The +first was the publication, late in 1905, of Paul Monroe's very +comprehensive and scholarly _Text Book in the History of Education_, and +the second was that, with the expansion of the work in education in the +university with which I was connected, and the addition of new men to the +department, the general history of education was for a time turned over to +another to teach. I then began, instead, the development of that +introductory course in education, dealing entirely with American +educational history and problems, out of which grew my _Public Education +in the United States_. + +The second half of the academic year 1910-11 I acted as visiting Lecturer +on the History of Education at both Harvard University and Radcliffe +College, and while serving in this capacity I began work on what has +finally evolved into the present volume, together with the accompanying +book of illustrative _Readings_. Other duties, and a deep interest in +problems of school administration, largely engaged my energies and writing +time until some three years ago, when, in rearranging courses at the +university, it seemed desirable that I should again take over the +instruction in the general history of education. Since then I have pushed +through, as rapidly as conditions would permit, the organization of the +parallel book of sources and documents, and the present volume of text. + +In doing so I have not tried to prepare another history of educational +theories. Of such we already have a sufficient number. Instead, I have +tried to prepare a history of the progress and practice and organization +of education itself, and to give to such a history its proper setting as a +phase of the history of the development and spread of our Western +civilization. I have especially tried to present such a picture of the +rise, struggle for existence, growth, and recent great expansion of the +idea of the improvability of the race and the elevation and emancipation +of the individual through education as would be most illuminating and +useful to students of the subject. To this end I have traced the great +forward steps in the emancipation of the intellect of man, and the efforts +to perpetuate the progress made through the organization of educational +institutions to pass on to others what had been attained. I have also +tried to give a proper setting to the great historic forces which have +shaped and moulded human progress, and have made the evolution of modern +state school systems and the world-wide spread of Western civilization +both possible and inevitable. + +To this end I have tried to hold to the main lines of the story, and have +in consequence omitted reference to many theorists and reformers and +events and schools which doubtless were important in their land and time, +but the influence of which on the main current of educational progress +was, after all, but small. For such omission I have no apology to make. In +their place I have introduced a record of world events and forces, not +included in the usual history of education, which to me seem important as +having contributed materially to the shaping and directing of intellectual +and educational progress. While in the treatment major emphasis has been +given to modern times, I have nevertheless tried to show how all modern +education has been after all a development, a culmination, a flowering-out +of forces and impulses which go far back in history for their origin. In a +civilization such as we of to-day enjoy, with roots so deeply embedded in +the past as is ours, any adequate understanding of world practices and of +present-day world problems in education calls for some tracing of +development to give proper background and perspective. The rise of modern +state school systems, the variations in types found to-day in different +lands, the new conceptions of the educational purpose, the rise of science +study, the new functions which the school has recently assumed, the world- +wide sweep of modern educational ideas, the rise of many entirely new +types of schools and training within the past century--these and many +other features of modern educational practice in progressive nations are +better understood if viewed in the light of their proper historical +setting. Standing as we are to-day on the threshold of a new era, and with +a strong tendency manifest to look only to the future and to ignore the +past, the need for sound educational perspective on the part of the +leaders in both school and state is given new emphasis. + +To give greater concreteness to the presentation, maps, diagrams, and +pictures, as commonly found in standard historical works, have been used +to an extent not before employed in writings on the history of education. +To give still greater concreteness to the presentation I have built up a +parallel volume of _Readings_, containing a large collection of +illustrative source material designed to back up the historical record of +educational development and progress as presented in this volume. The +selections have been fully cross-referenced (R. 129; R. 176; etc.) in the +pages of the Text. Depending, as I have, so largely on the companion +volume for the necessary supplemental readings, I have reduced the chapter +bibliographies to a very few of the most valuable and most commonly found +references. To add to the teaching value of the book there has been +appended to each chapter a series of questions for discussion, bearing on +the Text, and another series of questions bearing on the Readings to be +found in the companion volume. In this form it is hoped that the Text will +be found good in teaching organization; that the treatment may prove to be +of such practical value that it will contribute materially to relieve the +history of education from much of the criticism which the devotion in the +past to the history of educational theory has brought upon it; and that +the two volumes which have been prepared may be of real service in +restoring the subject to the position of importance it deserves to hold, +for mature students of educational practice, as the interpreter of world +progress as expressed in one of its highest creative forms. + +ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY +_Stanford University, Cal. September_ 4, 1920 + + + + +CONTENTS + + +INTRODUCTION: THE SOURCES OF OUR CIVILIZATION + + +PART I +THE ANCIENT WORLD +FOUNDATION ELEMENTS OF OUR WESTERN CIVILIZATION GREECE--ROME--CHRISTIANITY + +CHAPTER I. THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION + I. GREECE AND ITS PEOPLE + II. EARLY EDUCATION IN GREECE + +CHAPTER II. LATER GREEK EDUCATION + III. THE NEW GREEK EDUCATION + +CHAPTER III. THE EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME + I. THE ROMANS AND THEIR MISSION + II. THE PERIOD OF HOME EDUCATION + III. THE TRANSITION TO SCHOOL EDUCATION + IV. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM AS FINALLY ESTABLISHED + V. ROME'S CONTRIBUTION TO CIVILIZATION + +CHAPTER IV. THE RISE AND CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY + I. THE RISE AND VICTORY OF CHRISTIANITY + II. EDUCATIONAL AND GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION OF THE EARLY CHURCH + III. WHAT THE MIDDLE AGES STARTED WITH + +PART II +THE MEDIAEVAL WORLD +THE DELUGE OF BARBARISM; THE MEDIAEVAL STRUGGLE TO PRESERVE AND +REËSTABLISH CIVILIZATION + +CHAPTER V. NEW PEOPLES IN THE EMPIRE + +CHAPTER VI. EDUCATION DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES + I. CONDITION AND PRESERVATION OF LEARNING + +CHAPTER VII. EDUCATION DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES + I. SCHOOLS ESTABLISHED AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED + +CHAPTER VIII. INFLUENCES TENDING TOWARD A REVIVAL OF LEARNING + I. MOSLEM LEARNING FROM SPAIN + II. THE RISE OF SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY + III. LAW AND MEDICINE AS NEW STUDIES + IV. OTHER NEW INFLUENCES AND MOVEMENTS + +CHAPTER IX. THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES + +PART III +THE TRANSITION FROM MEDIAEVAL TO MODERN ATTITUDES +THE RECOVERY OF THE ANCIENT LEARNING; THE REAWAKENING OF SCHOLARSHIP; AND +THE RISE OF RELIGIOUS AND SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY + +CHAPTER X. THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING + +CHAPTER XI. EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING + +CHAPTER XII. THE REVOLT AGAINST AUTHORITY + +CHAPTER XIII. EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS + I. AMONG LUTHERANS AND ANGLICANS + +CHAPTER XIV. EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS + II. AMONG CALVINISTS AND CATHOLICS + +CHAPTER XV. EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS + III. THE REFORMATION AND AMERICAN EDUCATION + +CHAPTER XVI. THE RISE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY + +CHAPTER XVII. THE NEW SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS + I. HUMANISTIC REALISM + II. SOCIAL REALISM + III. SENSE REALISM + IV. REALISM AND THE SCHOOLS + +CHAPTER XVIII. THEORY AND PRACTICE BY THE MIDDLE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY + I. PRE-EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL THEORIES + II. MID-EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS + +PART IV +MODERN TIMES +THE ABOLITION OF PRIVILEGE; THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY; A NEW THEORY FOR +EDUCATION EVOLVED; THE STATE TAKES OVER THE SCHOOL + +CHAPTER XIX. THE EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY + I. WORK OF THE BENEVOLENT DESPOTS OF CONTINENTAL EUROPE + II. THE UNSATISFIED DEMAND FOR REFORM IN FRANCE + III. ENGLAND THE FIRST DEMOCRATIC NATION + IV. INSTITUTION OF CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT AND RELIGIOUS FREEDOM IN + AMERICA + V. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION SWEEPS AWAY ANCIENT ABUSES + +CHAPTER XX. THE BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION + I. NEW CONCEPTIONS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE + II. THE NEW STATE THEORY IN FRANCE + III. THE NEW STATE THEORY IN AMERICA + +CHAPTER XXI. A NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER FOR THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL + I. THE NEW THEORY STATED + II. GERMAN ATTEMPTS TO WORK OUT A NEW THEORY + III. THE WORK AND INFLUENCE OF PESTALOZZI + IV. REDIRECTION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL + +CHAPTER XXII. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA + I. THE BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL ORGANIZATION + II. A STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM AT LAST CREATED + +CHAPTER XXIII. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE AND ITALY + I. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE + II. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ITALY + +CHAPTER XXIV. THE STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND + I. THE CHARITABLE-VOLUNTARY BEGINNINGS + II. THE PERIOD OF PHILANTHROPIC EFFORT (1800-33) + III. THE STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL EDUCATION + IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM + +CHAPTER XXV. AWAKENING AN EDUCATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE UNITED STATES + I. EARLY NATIONAL ATTITUDES AND INTERESTS + II. AWAKENING AN EDUCATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS + III. SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC INFLUENCES + IV. ALIGNMENT OF INTERESTS, AND PROPAGANDA + +CHAPTER XXVI. THE AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE STATE SCHOOLS + I. THE BATTLE FOR TAX SUPPORT + II. THE BATTLE TO ELIMINATE THE PAUPER-SCHOOL IDEA + III. THE BATTLE TO MAKE THE SCHOOLS ENTIRELY FREE + IV. THE BATTLE TO ESTABLISH SCHOOL SUPERVISION + V. THE BATTLE TO ELIMINATE SECTARIANISM + VI. THE BATTLE TO ESTABLISH THE AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL + VII. THE STATE UNIVERSITY CROWNS THE SYSTEM + +CHAPTER XXVII. EDUCATION BECOMES A GREAT NATIONAL TOOL + I. SPREAD OF THE STATE-CONTROL IDEA + II. NEW MODIFYING FORCES + III. EFFECT OF THESE CHANGES ON EDUCATION + +CHAPTER XXVIII. NEW CONCEPTIONS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS + I. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION + II. NEW IDEAS FROM HERBARTIAN SOURCES + III. THE KINDERGARTEN, PLAY, AND MANUAL ACTIVITIES + IV. THE ADDITION OF SCIENCE STUDY + V. SOCIAL MEANING OF THESE CHANGES + +CHAPTER XXIX. NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS + I. POLITICAL + II. SCIENTIFIC + III. VOCATIONAL + IV. SOCIOLOGICAL + V. THE SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION + +CONCLUSION: THE FUTURE + + + + +LIST OF PLATES + + + 1. THE CLOISTERS OF A MONASTERY, NEAR FLORENCE, ITALY + 2. THE LIBRARY OF THE CHURCH OF SAINT WALLBERG, AT ZUTPHEN, HOLLAND + 3. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS + 4. A LECTURE ON THEOLOGY BY ALBERTUS MAGNUS + 5. STRATFORD-ON-AVON GRAMMAR SCHOOL + 6. EDUCATIONAL LEADERS IN PROTESTANT GERMANY + 7. THE FREE SCHOOL AT HARROW + 8. MAP SHOWING THE SPREAD OF JESUIT SCHOOLS IN NORTHERN TERRITORY BY THE + YEAR 1725 + 9. TWO TABLETS ON THE WEST GATEWAY AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY +10. JOHN AMOS COMENIUS (1592-1670) +11. JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI +12. FELLENBERG'S INSTITUTE AT HOFWYL +13. TWO LEADERS IN THE REGENERATION OF PRUSSIA +14. FRANCOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME GUIZOT (1787-1874) +15. JOHN POUNDS' RAGGED SCHOOL AT PORTSMOUTH +16. AN ENGLISH VILLAGE VOLUNTARY SCHOOL +17. TWO LEADERS IN THE EDUCATIONAL AWAKENING IN THE UNITED STATES +18. TWO LEADERS IN THE REORGANIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL THEORY + + + + +LIST OF FIGURES + + + 1. THE GREEK CONCEPTION OF THE WORLD + 2. ANCIENT GREECE AND THE AEGEAN WORLD + 3. THE CITY-STATE OF ATTICA + 4. DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION OF ATHENS AND ATTICA, ABOUT 430 B.C. + 5. A GREEK BOY + 6. AN ATHENIAN INSCRIPTION + 7. GREEK WRITING-MATERIALS + 8. A GREEK COUNTING-BOARD + 9. AN ATHENIAN SCHOOL + 10. GREEK SCHOOL LESSONS + 11. GROUND-PLAN OF THE GYMNASIUM AT EPHESOS, IN ASIA MINOR + 12. SOCRATES (469-399 B.C.) + 13. EVOLUTION OF THE GREEK UNIVERSITY + 14. THE GREEK UNIVERSITY WORLD + 15. THE KNOWN WORLD ABOUT 150 A.D. + 16. THE EARLY PEOPLES OF ITALY, AND THE EXTENSION OF THE ROMAN POWER + 17. THE PRINCIPAL ROMAN ROADS + 18. THE GREAT EXTENT OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE + 19. A ROMAN FATHER INSTRUCTING HIS SON + 20. CATO THE ELDER (234-148 B.C.) + 21. ROMAN WRITING-MATERIALS + 22. A ROMAN COUNTING-BOARD + 23. A ROMAN PRIMARY SCHOOL + 24. A ROMAN SCHOOL OF RHETORIC + 25. THE ROMAN VOLUNTARY EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM, AS FINALLY EVOLVED + 26. ORIGIN OF OUR ALPHABET + 27. THE GROWTH OF CHRISTIANITY TO THE END OF THE FOURTH CENTURY + 28. A BISHOP + 29. A BENEDICTINE MONK, ABBOT, AND ABBESS + 30. SHOWING THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE AND THE CHURCH + 31. A BODYGUARD OF GERMANS + 32. THE GERMAN MIGRATIONS + 33. THE KNOWN WORLD IN 800 + 34. A GERMAN WAR CHIEF + 35. ROMANS DESTROYING A GERMAN VILLAGE + 36. A PAGE OF THE GOTHIC GOSPELS + 37. A TYPICAL MONASTERY OF SOUTHERN EUROPE + 38. BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF A MEDIEVAL MONASTERY + 39. INITIAL LETTER FROM AN OLD MANUSCRIPT + 40. A MONK IN A SCRIPTORIUM + 41. CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE, AND THE IMPORTANT MONASTERIES OF THE TIME + 42. WHERE THE DANES RAVAGED ENGLAND + 43. AN OUTER MONASTIC SCHOOL + 44. THE MEDIAEVAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION SUMMARIZED + 45. A SCHOOL: A LESSON IN GRAMMAR + 46. AN ANGLO-SAXON MAP OF THE WORLD + 47. AN EARLY CHURCH MUSICIAN + 48. A SQUIRE BEING KNIGHTED + 49. A KNIGHT OF THE TIME OF THE FIRST CRUSADE + 50. EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES + 51. SHOWING CENTERS OF MOSLEM LEARNING + 52. ARISTOTLE + 53. THE CATHEDRAL OF NOTRE DAME, AT PARIS + 54. THE CITY-STATES OF NORTHERN ITALY + 55. FRAGMENT FROM THE RECOVERED "DIGEST" OF JUSTINIAN + 56. THE FATHER OF MEDICINE, HIPPOCRATES OF COS + 57. A PILGRIM OF THE MIDDLE AGES + 58. A TYPICAL MEDIAEVAL TOWN (PRUSSIAN) + 59. THE EDUCATIONAL PYRAMID + 60. TRADE ROUTES AND COMMERCIAL CITIES + 61. SHOWING LOCATION OF THE CHIEF UNIVERSITIES FOUNDED BEFORE 1600 + 62. SEAL OF A DOCTOR, UNIVERSITY OF PARIS + 63. NEW COLLEGE, AT OXFORD + 64. A LECTURE ON CIVIL LAW BY GUILLAUME BENEDICTI + 65. LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LEYDEN, IN HOLLAND + 66. A UNIVERSITY DISPUTATION + 67. A UNIVERSITY LECTURE AND LECTURE ROOM + 68. PETRARCH (1304-74) + 69. BOCCACCIO (1313-75) + 70. DEMETRIUS CHALCONDYLES (1424-1511) + 71. BOOKCASE AND DESK IN THE MEDICEAN LIBRARY AT FLORENCE + 72. TWO EARLY NORTHERN HUMANISTS + 73. AN EARLY SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRESS + 74. AN EARLY SPECIMEN OF CAXTON'S PRINTING + 75. THE WORLD AS KNOWN TO CHRISTIAN EUROPE BEFORE COLUMBUS + 76. SAINT ANTONINUS AND HIS SCHOLARS + 77. TWO EARLY ITALIAN HUMANIST EDUCATORS + 78. GUILLAUME BUDAEUS (1467-1540) + 79. COLLÈGE DE FRANCE + 80. JOHANN REUCHLIN (1455-1522) + 81. JOHANN STURM (1507-89) + 82. DESIDERIUS ERASMUS (1467-1536) + 83. SAINT PAUL'S SCHOOL, LONDON + 84. GIGGLESWICK GRAMMAR SCHOOL + 85. THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN STUDIES + 86. JOHN WYCLIFFE (1320?-84) + 87. RELIGIOUS WARFARE IN BOHEMIA + 88. SHOWING THE RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS + 89. HULDREICH ZWINGLI (1487-1531) + 90. JOHN CALVIN (1509-64) + 91. A FRENCH PROTESTANT (c. 1600) + 92. TWO EARLY VERNACULAR SCHOOLS + 93. THE FIRST PAGE OF WYCLIFFE'S BIBLE + 94. LUTHER GIVING INSTRUCTION + 95. JOHANNES BUGENHAGEN (1485-1558) + 96. EVOLUTION OF GERMAN STATE SCHOOL CONTROL + 97. A CHAINED BIBLE + 98. A FRENCH SCHOOL OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY + 99. A DUTCH VILLAGE SCHOOL +100. JOHN KNOX (1505?-72) +101. IGNATIUS DE LOYOLA (1491-1556) +102. PLAN OF A JESUIT SCHOOLROOM +103. AN URSULINE +104. A SCHOOL OF LA SALLE AT PARIS, 1688 +105. THE BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS BY 1792 +106. TENDENCIES IN EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EUROPE, 1500 TO 1700 +107. MAP SHOWING THE RELIGIOUS SETTLEMENTS IN AMERICA +108. HOMES OF THE PILGRIMS, AND THEIR ROUTE TO AMERICA +109. NEW ENGLAND SETTLEMENTS, 1660 +110. THE BOSTON LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL +111. WHERE YALE COLLEGE WAS FOUNDED +112. AN OLD QUAKER MEETING-HOUSE AND SCHOOL AT LAMPETER, PENNSYLVANIA +113. NICHOLAS KOPERNIK (COPERNICUS) (1473-1543) +114. TYCHO BRAKE (1546-1601) +115. GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642) +116. SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727) +117. WILLIAM HARVEY (1578-1657) +118. FRANCIS BACON (1561-1626) +119. THE LOSS AND RECOVERY OF THE SCIENCES +120. RENÉ DESCARTES (1596-1650) +121. FRANCOIS RABELAIS (1483-1553) +122. JOHN MILTON (1608-74) +123. MICHEL DE MONTAIGNE (1533-92) +124. JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704) +125. AN ACADEMIE DES ARMES +126. A SAMPLE PAGE FROM THE "ORBIS PICTUS" +127. PART OF A PAGE FROM A LATIN-ENGLISH EDITION OF THE "VESTIBULUM" +128. AUGUSTUS HERMANN FRANCKE (1663-1727) +129. A FRENCH SCHOOL BEFORE THE REVOLUTION +130. A HORN BOOK +131. THE WESTMINSTER CATECHISM +132. THOMAS DILWORTH (?-1780) +133. FRONTISPIECE TO NOAH WEBSTER'S "AMERICAN SPELLING BOOK" +134. TITLE-PAGE OF HODDER'S ARITHMETIC +135. A "CHRISTIAN BROTHERS" SCHOOL +136. AN ENGLISH DAME SCHOOL +137. GRAVEL LANE CHARITY-SCHOOL, SOUTHWARK +138. A CHARITY-SCHOOL GIRL IN UNIFORM +139. A CHARITY-SCHOOL BOY IN UNIFORM +140. ADVERTISEMENT FOR A TEACHER TO LET +141. A SCHOOL WHIPPING-POST +142. AN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY GERMAN SCHOOL +143. CHILDREN AS MINIATURE ADULTS +144. A PENNSYLVANIA ACADEMY +145. FREDERICK THE GREAT +146. MARIA THERESA +147. MONTESQUIEU (1689-1755) +148. TURGOT (1727-81) +149. VOLTAIRE (1694-1778) +150. DIDEROT (1713-84) +151. JOHN WESLEY (1707-82) +152. NATIONALITY OF THE WHITE POPULATION, AS SHOWN BY THE FAMILY NAMES + IN THE CENSUS OF 1790 +153. THE STATES-GENERAL IN SESSION AT VERSAILLES +154. ROUSSEAU (1712-78) +155. LA CHALOTAIS (1701-83) +156. ROLLAND (1734-93) +157. COUNT DE MIRABEAU (1749-91) +158. TALLEYRAND (1758-1838) +159. CONDORCET (1743-94) +160. THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE +161. LAKANAL (1762-1845) +162. THOMAS JEFFERSON (1743-1826) +163. THE ROUSSEAU MONUMENT AT GENEVA +164. BASEDOW (1723-90) +165. IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804) +166. THE SCENE OF PESTALOZZI'S LABORS +167. FELLENBERG (1771-1844) +168. THE SCHOOL OF A HANDWORKER +169. THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, 1740-86 +170. A GERMAN LATE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY SCHOOL +171. DINTER (1760-1831) +172. DIESTERWEG (1790-1866) +173. THE PRUSSIAN STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM CREATED +174. AN OLD FOUNDATION TRANSFORMED +175. COUNT DE FOURCROY (1755-1809) +176. VICTOR COUSIN (1792-1867) +177. OUTLINE OF THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE FRENCH STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM +178. EUROPE IN 1810 +179. THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY, SINCE 1848 +180. COUNT OF CAVOUR (1810-61) +181. OUTLINE OF THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE ITALIAN STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM +182. A RAGGED-SCHOOL PUPIL +183. ADAM SMITH (1723-90) +184. THE REVEREND T. R. MALTHUS (1766-1834) +185. THE CREATORS OF THE MONITORIAL SYSTEM +186. THE LANCASTRIAN MODEL SCHOOL IN BOROUGH ROAD, SOUTH-WARE, LONDON +187. MONITORS TEACHING READING AT "STATIONS" +188. PROPER MONITORIAL-SCHOOL POSITIONS +189. ROBERT OWEN (1771-1858) +190. LORD BROUGHAM (1778-1868) +191. AN ENGLISH VILLAGE SCHOOL IN 1840 +192. EXPENDITURE FROM THE EDUCATION GRANTS, 1839-70 +193. LORD T. B. MACAULAY (1800-59) +194. WORK OF THE SCHOOL BOARDS IN PROVIDING SCHOOL ACCOMMODATIONS +195. THE ENGLISH EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AS FINALLY EVOLVED +196. THE FIRST SCHOOLHOUSE BUILT BY THE FREE SCHOOL SOCIETY IN NEW YORK + CITY +197. "MODEL" SCHOOL BUILDING OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SOCIETY +198. EVOLUTION OF THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE AMERICAN PUBLIC SCHOOL + SYSTEM +199. DATES OF THE GRANTING OF FULL MANHOOD SUFFRAGE +200. THE FIRST FREE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN DETROIT +201. THE PENNSYLVANIA SCHOOL ELECTIONS OF 1835 +202. THE NEW YORK REFERENDUM OF 1850 +203. STATUS OF SCHOOL SUPERVISION IN THE UNITED STATES BY 1861 +204. A TYPICAL NEW ENGLAND ACADEMY +205. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES +206. THE FIRST HIGH SCHOOL IN THE UNITED STATES +207. HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES BY 1860 +208. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES ESTABLISHED BY 1860 +209. THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL LADDER +210. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF DENMARK +211. THE PROGRESS OF LITERACY IN EUROPE BY THE CLOSE OF THE NINETEENTH + CENTURY +212. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC +213. THE JAPANESE TWO-CLASS SCHOOL SYSTEM +214. THE CHINESE EDUCATIONAL LADDER +215. BARON JUSTUS VON LIEBIG (1803-73) +216. CHARLES DARWIN (1809-82) +217. LOUIS PASTEUR (1822-95) +218. MAN POWER BEFORE THE DAYS OF STEAM +219. THRESHING WHEAT A CENTURY AGO +220. A CITY WATER-SUPPLY, ABOUT 1830 +221. THE GREAT TRADE ROUTES OF THE MODERN WORLD +222. AN EXAMPLE OF THE SHIFTING OF OCCUPATIONS +223. THE PHILIPPINE SCHOOL SYSTEM +224. THE FIRST MODERN NORMAL SCHOOL +225. TEACHER-TRAINING IN THE UNITED STATES BY 1860 +226. EVOLUTION OF THE ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL CURRICULUM, AND OF METHODS OF + TEACHING +227. AN "USHER" AND HIS CLASS +228. REDIRECTED MANUAL TRAINING +229. HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903) +230. THOMAS H. HUXLEY (1825-95) +231. A REORGANIZED KINDERGARTEN +232. THE PEKING UNION MEDICAL COLLEGE +233. THE DESTRUCTION OF THE TRADES IN MODERN INDUSTRY +234. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE OF AMERICAN CHILDREN, FOURTEEN TO TWENTY YEARS OF + AGE +235. ABBÉ DE L'ÉPÉE (1712-89) +236. THE REVEREND THOMAS H. GALLAUDET TEACHING THE DEAF AND DUMB +237. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS MAINTAINED BY THE STATE +238. KARL GEORG VON RAUMER (1783-1865) +239. THE ESTABLISHED AND EXPERIMENTAL NATIONS OF EUROPE +240. THE EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS OF THE FUTURE + + + + +GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY + + +In addition to the List of Readings and the Supplemental References given +in the chapter bibliographies, the following works, not cited in the +chapter bibliographies, will be found in most libraries and may be +consulted, on all points to which they are likely to apply, for additional +material: + + +I. GENERAL HISTORIES OF EDUCATION + + 1. Davidson, Thomas. _History of Education_. 292 pp. New York, 1900. + Good on the interpretation of the larger movements of history. + +*2. Monroe, Paul. _Text Book in the History of Education_. 772 pp. + New York, 1905. + Our most complete and scholarly history of education. This volume + should be consulted freely. See analytical table of contents. + + 3. Munroe, Jas. P. _The Educational Ideal_. 262 pp. Boston, 1895. + Contains very good short chapters on the educational reformers. + +*4. Graves, F. P. _A History of Education_. 3 vols. New York, 1909- + 13. Vol. I. _Before the Middle Ages_. 304 pp. Vol. II. _During + the Middle Ages_. 314 pp. Vol. III. _In Modern Times_. 410 pp. + These volumes contain valuable supplementary material, and good + chapter bibliographies. + + 5. Hart, J. K. _Democracy in Education_. 418 pp. New York, 1918. + An interpretation of educational progress. + + 6. Quick, R. H. _Essays on Educational Reformers_. 508 pp. 2d ed., + New York, 1890. + A series of well-written essays on the work of the theorists in + education since the time of the Renaissance. + +*7. Parker, S. C. _The History of Modern Elementary Education_. 506 + pp. Boston, 1912. + An excellent treatise on the development of the theory for our modern + elementary school, with some good descriptions of modern practice. + + +II. GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF EDUCATION + + 1. Cubberley, E. P. _Syllabus of Lectures on the History of + Education_. 358 pp. New York. First ed., 1902; 2d ed., 1905. + Gives detailed and classified bibliographies for all phases of the + subject. Now out of print, but may be found in most normal school and + college libraries, and many public libraries. + + +III. CYCLOPAEDIAS + +*1. Monroe, Paul, Editor. _Cyclopedia of Education_. 5 vols. New + York, 1911-13. + The most important Cyclopaedia of Education in print. Contains + excellent articles on all historical points and events, with good + selected bibliographies. A work that should be in all libraries, and + freely consulted in using this Text. Its historical articles are too + numerous to cite in the chapter bibliographies, but, due to the + alphabetical arrangement and good cross-referencing, they may be found + easily. + +*2. _Encylopaedia Britannica_. 11th ed., 29 vols. Cambridge, 1910-11. + Contains numerous important articles on all types of historical + topics, and excellent biographical sketches. Should be consulted + freely in using this Text. + + +IV. MAGAZINES + +*1. Barnard's _American Journal of Education_. Edited by Henry + Barnard. 31 vols. Hartford, 1855-81. Reprinted, Syracuse, 1902. + _Index_ to the 31 vols. published by the United States Bureau of + Education, Washington, 1892. + A wonderful mine of all kinds of historical and educational + information, and should be consulted freely on all points relating to + European or American educational history. + +In the chapter bibliographies, as above, the most important references are +indicated with an asterisk (*). + + + + +THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION + + + + +INTRODUCTION + +THE SOURCES OF OUR CIVILIZATION + + +The Civilization which we of to-day enjoy is a very complex thing, made up +of many different contributions, some large and some small, from people in +many different lands and different ages. To trace all these contributions +back to their sources would be a task impossible of accomplishment, and, +while specific parts would be interesting, for our purposes they would not +be important. Especially would it not be profitable for us to attempt to +trace the development of minor features, or to go back to the rudimentary +civilizations of primitive peoples. The early development of civilization +among the Chinese, the Hindoos, the Persians, the Egyptians, or the +American Indians all alike present features which to some form a very +interesting study, but our western civilization does not go back to these +as sources, and consequently they need not concern us in the study we are +about to begin. While we have obtained the alphabet from the Phoenicians +and some of our mathematical and scientific developments through the +medium of the Mohammedans, the real sources of our present-day +civilization lie elsewhere, and these minor sources will be referred to +but briefly and only as they influenced the course of western progress. + +The civilization which we now know and enjoy has come down to us from four +main sources. The Greeks, the Romans, and the Christians laid the +foundations, and in the order named, and the study of the early history of +our western civilization is a study of the work and the blending of these +three main forces. It is upon these three foundation stones, superimposed +upon one another, that our modern European and American civilization has +been developed. The Germanic tribes, overrunning the boundaries of the +Roman Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries, added another new force of +largest future significance, and one which profoundly modified all +subsequent progress and development. To these four main sources we have +made many additions in modern times, building an entirely new +superstructure on the old foundations, but the groundwork of our +civilization is composed of these four foundation elements. For these +reasons a history of even modern education almost of necessity goes back, +briefly at least, to the work and contributions of these ancient peoples. + +Starting, then, with the work of the Greeks, we shall state briefly the +contributions to the stream of civilization which have come down to us +from each of the important historic peoples or groups or forces, and shall +trace the blending and assimilating processes of the centuries. While +describing briefly the educational institutions and ideas of the different +peoples, we shall be far less concerned, as we progress down the +centuries, with the educational and philosophical theories advanced by +thinkers among them than with what was actually done, and with the lasting +contributions which they made to our educational practices and to our +present-day civilization. + +The work of Greece lies at the bottom and, in a sense, was the most +important of all the earlier contributions to our education and +civilization. These people, known as Hellenes, were the pioneers of +western civilization. Their position in the ancient world is well shown on +the map reproduced opposite. To the East lay the older political +despotisms, with their caste-type and intellectually stagnant organization +of society, and to the North and West a little-known region inhabited by +barbarian tribes. It was in such a world that our western civilization had +its birth. These Greeks, and especially the Athenian Greeks, represented +an entirely new spirit in the world. In place of the repression of all +individuality, and the stagnant conditions of society that had +characterized the civilizations before them, they developed a civilization +characterized by individual freedom and opportunity, and for the first +time in world history a premium was placed on personal and political +initiative. In time this new western spirit was challenged by the older +eastern type of civilization. Long foreseeing the danger, and in fear of +what might happen, the little Greek States had developed educational +systems in part designed to prepare their citizens for what might come. +Finally, in a series of memorable battles, the Greeks, led by Athens, +broke the dread power of the Persian name and made the future of this new +type of civilization secure. At Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea the fate of +our western civilization trembled in the balance. Now followed the great +creative period in Greek life, during which the Athenian Greeks matured +and developed a literature, philosophy, and art which were to be enjoyed +not only by themselves, but by all western peoples since their time. In +these lines of culture the world will forever remain debtor to this small +but active and creative people. + +[Illustration: FIG. I. THE EARLY GREEK CONCEPTION OF THE WORLD +The World according to Hecataeus, a geographer of Miletus, Asia Minor. +Hecataeus was the first Greek traveler and geographer. The map dates from +about 500 B.C.] + +The next great source of our western civilization was the work of Rome. +Like the Greeks, the Romans also occupied a peninsula jutting southward +into the Mediterranean, but in most respects they were far different in +type. Unlike the active, imaginative, artistic, and creative Greeks, the +Romans were a practical, concrete, unimaginative, and executive people. +Energy, personality, and executive power were in greatest demand among +them. + +The work of Rome was political, governmental, and legal--not artistic or +intellectual. Rome was strong where Greece was weak, and weak where Greece +was strong. As a result the two peoples supplemented one another well in +laying the foundations for our western civilization. The conquests of +Greece were intellectual; those of Rome legal and governmental. Rome +absorbed and amalgamated the whole ancient world into one Empire, to which +she gave a common language, dress, manners, religion, literature, and +political and legal institutions. Adopting Greek learning and educational +practices as her own, she spread them throughout the then-known world. By +her political organization she so fixed Roman ideas as to law and +government throughout the Empire that Christianity built firmly on the +Roman foundations, and the German barbarians, who later swept over the +Empire, could neither destroy nor obliterate them. The Roman conquest of +the world thus decisively influenced the whole course of western history, +spread and perpetuated Greek ideas, and ultimately saved the world from a +great disaster. + +To Rome, then, we are indebted most of all for ideas as to government, and +for the introduction of law and order into an unruly world. In all the +intervening centuries between ancient Rome and ourselves, and in spite of +many wars and repeated onslaughts of barbarism, Roman governmental law +still influences and guides our conduct, and this influence is even yet +extending to other lands and other peoples. We are also indebted to Rome +for many practical skills and for important engineering knowledge, which +was saved and passed on to Western Europe through the medium of the monks. +On the other side of the picture, the recent great World War, with all its +awful destruction of life and property, and injury to the orderly progress +of civilization, may be traced directly to the Roman idea of world empire +and the sway of one imperial government, imposing its rule and its culture +on the rest of mankind. + +Into this Roman Empire, united and made one by Roman arms and government, +came the first of the modern forces in the ancient world--that of +Christianity--the third great foundation element in our western +civilization. Embracing in its early development many Greek philosophical +ideas, building securely on the Roman governmental organization, and with +its new message for a decaying world, Christianity forms the connecting +link between the ancient and modern civilizations. Taking the conception +of one God which the Jewish tribes of the East had developed, Christianity +changed and expanded this in such a way as to make it a dominant idea in +the world. Exalting the teachings of the fatherhood of God, the +brotherhood of man, the future life, and the need for preparation for a +hereafter, Christianity introduced a new type of religion and offered a +new hope to the poor and oppressed of the ancient world. In so doing a new +ethical force of first importance was added to the effective energies of +mankind, and a basis for the education of all was laid, for the first +time, in the history of the world. + +Christianity came at just the right time not only to impart new energy and +hopefulness to a decadent ancient civilization, but also to meet, conquer, +and in time civilize the barbarian hordes from the North which overwhelmed +the Roman Empire. A new and youthful race of German barbarians now +appeared upon the scene, with resulting ravage and destruction, and +anarchy and ignorance, and long centuries ensued during which ancient +civilization fell prey to savage violence and superstition. Progress +ceased in the ancient world. The creative power of antiquity seemed +exhausted. The digestive and assimilative powers of the old world seemed +gone. Greek was forgotten. Latin was corrupted. Knowledge of the arts and +sciences was lost. Schools disappeared. Only the Christian Church remained +to save civilization from the wreck, and it, too, was almost submerged in +the barbaric flood. It took ten centuries partially to civilize, educate, +and mould into homogeneous units this heterogeneous horde of new peoples. +During this long period it required the strongest energies of the few who +understood to preserve the civilization of the past for the enjoyment and +use of a modern world. + +Yet these barbarian Germans, great as was the havoc they wrought at first, +in time contributed much to the stream of our modern civilization. They +brought new conceptions of individual worth and freedom into a world +thoroughly impregnated with the ancient idea of the dominance of the State +over the individual. The popular assembly, an elective king, and an +independent and developing system of law were contributions of first +importance which these peoples brought. The individual man and not the +State was, with them, the important unit in society. In the hands of the +Angles and Saxons, particularly, but also among the Celts, Franks, +Helvetii, and Belgae, this idea of individual freedom and of the +subordination of the State to the individual has borne large fruit in +modern times in the self-governing States of France, Switzerland, Belgium, +England and the English self-governing dominions, and in the United States +of America. After much experimenting it now seems certain that the Anglo- +Saxon type of self-government, as developed first in England and further +expanded in the United States, seems destined to be the type of government +in future to rule the world. + +It took Europe almost ten centuries to recover from the effects of the +invasion of barbarism which the last two centuries of the Roman Empire +witnessed, to save itself a little later from Mohammedan conquest, and to +pick up the lost threads of the ancient life and begin again the work of +civilization. Finally, however, this was accomplished, largely as a result +of the labor of monks and missionaries. The barbarians were in time +induced to settle down to an agricultural life, to accept Christianity in +name at least, and to yield a more or less grudging obedience to monk and +priest that they might thereby escape the torments of a world to come. +Slowly the monasteries and the churches, aided here and there by far- +sighted kings, worked at the restoration of books and learning, and +finally, first in Italy, and later in the nations evolved from the tribes +that had raided the Empire, there came a period of awakening and +rediscovery which led to the development of the early university +foundations, a wonderful revival of ancient learning, a great expansion of +men's thoughts, a great religious awakening, a wonderful period of world +exploration and discovery, the founding of new nations in new lands, the +reawakening of the spirit of scientific inquiry, the rise of the +democratic spirit, and the evolution of our modern civilization. + +By the end of the eleventh century it was clear that the long battle for +the preservation of civilization had been won, but it was not until the +fourteenth century that the Revival of Learning in Italy gave clear +evidence of the rise of the modern spirit. By the year 1500 much had been +accomplished, and the new modern questioning spirit of the Italian Revival +was making progress in many directions. Most of the old learning had been +recovered; the printing-press had been invented, and was at work +multiplying books; the study of Greek and Hebrew had been revived in the +western world; trade and commerce had begun; the cities and the +universities which had arisen had become centers of a new life; a new sea +route to India had been found and was in use; Columbus had discovered a +new world; the Church was more tolerant of new ideas than it had been for +centuries; and thought was being awakened in the western world to a degree +that had not taken place since the days of ancient Rome. The world seemed +about ready for rapid advances in many directions, and great progress in +learning, education, government, art, commerce, and invention seemed +almost within its grasp. Instead, there soon opened the most bitter and +vindictive religious conflict the world has ever known; western Christian +civilization was torn asunder; a century of religious warfare ensued; and +this was followed by other centuries of hatred and intolerance and +suspicion awakened by the great conflict. + +Still, out of this conflict, though it for a time checked the orderly +development of civilization, much important educational progress was +ultimately to come. In promulgating the doctrine that the authority of the +Bible in religious matters is superior to the authority of the Church, the +basis for the elementary school for the masses of the people, and in +consequence the education of all, was laid. This meant the creation of an +entirely new type of school--the elementary, for the masses, and taught in +the native tongue--to supplement the Latin secondary schools which had +been an outgrowth of the revival of ancient learning, and the still +earlier cathedral and monastery schools of the Church. + +The modern elementary vernacular school may then be said to be essentially +a product of the Protestant Reformation. This is true in a special sense +among those peoples which embraced some form of the Lutheran or +Calvinistic faiths. These were the Germans, Moravians, Swedes, Norwegians, +Finns, Danes, Dutch, Walloons, Swiss, Scotch, Scotch-Irish, French +Huguenots, and the English Puritans. As the Renaissance gave a new +emphasis to the development of secondary schools by supplying them with a +large amount of new subject-matter and a new motive, so the Reformation +movement gave a new motive for the education of children not intended for +the service of the State or the Church, and the development of elementary +vernacular schools was the result. Only in England, of all the revolting +countries, did this Protestant conception as to the necessity of education +for salvation fail to take deep root, with the result that elementary +education in England awaited the new political and social and industrial +impulses of the latter half of the nineteenth century for its real +development. + +The rise of the questioning and inferring spirit in the Italian +Renaissance marked the beginnings of the transition from mediaeval to +modern attitudes, and one of the most important outgrowths of this was the +rise of scientific inquiry which in time followed. This meant the +application of human reason to the investigation of the phenomena of +nature, with all that this eventually implied. This, slowly to be sure, +turned the energies of mankind in a new direction, led to the substitution +of inquiry and patient experimentation for assumption and disputation, and +in time produced a scientific and industrial revolution which has changed +the whole nature of the older problems. The scientific spirit has to-day +come to dominate all lines of human thinking, and the applications of +scientific principles have, in the past century, completely changed almost +all the conditions surrounding human life. Applied to education, this new +spirit has transformed the instruction and the methods of the schools, led +to the creation of entirely new types of educational institutions, and +introduced entirely new aims and methods and purposes into the educational +process. + +From inquiry into religious matters and inquiry into the phenomena of +nature, it was but a short and a natural step to inquiry into the nature +and functions of government. This led to a critical questioning of the old +established order, the rise of new types of intellectual inquiry, the +growth of a consciousness of national problems, and the bringing to the +front of questions of political interest to a degree unknown since the +days of ancient Rome. The eighteenth century marks, in these directions, a +sharp turning-point in human thinking, and the end of mediaevalism and the +ushering in of modern forms of intellectual liberty. The eighteenth +century, too, witnessed a culmination of a long series of progressive +changes which had been under way for centuries, and the flood time of a +slowly but steadily rising tide of protest against the enslavement of the +intellect and the limitation of natural human liberties by either Church +or State. The flood of individualism which characterized the second half +of the eighteenth century demanded outlet, and, denied, it rose and swept +away ancient privileges, abuses, and barriers--religious, intellectual, +social, and political--and opened the way for the marked progress in all +lines which characterized the nineteenth century. Out of this new spirit +was to come the American and the French Revolutions, the establishment of +constitutional liberty and religious freedom, the beginnings of the +abolition of privilege, the rise of democracy, a great extension of +educational advantages, and the transfer of the control of the school from +the Church to the State that the national welfare might be better promoted +thereby. + +Now arose the modern conception of the school as the great constructive +instrument of the State, and a new individual and national theory as to +both the nature and the purpose of education was advanced. Schools were +declared to be essentially civil affairs; their purpose was asserted to be +to promote the common welfare and advance the interests of the political +State; ministers of education began to be appointed by the State to take +over and exercise control; the citizen supplanted the ecclesiastic in the +organization of education and the supervision of classroom teaching; the +instruction in the school was changed in direction, and in time vastly +broadened in scope; and the education of all now came to be conceived of +as a birthright of the child of every citizen. + +Since the middle of the nineteenth century a great world movement for the +realization of these new aims, through the taking-over of education from +religious bodies and the establishment of state-controlled school systems, +has taken place. This movement is still going on. Beginning in the nations +which were earliest in the front of the struggle to preserve and extend +what was so well begun by little Greece and Imperial Rome, the state- +control conception of education has, in the past three quarters of a +century, spread to every continent on the globe. For ages a Church and +private affair, of no particular concern to government and of importance +to but a relatively small number of the people, education has to-day +become, with the rise and spread of modern ideas as to human freedom, +political equality, and industrial progress, a prime essential to the +maintenance of good government and the promotion of national welfare, and +it is now so recognized by progressive nations everywhere. With the spread +of the state-control idea as to education have also gone western ideas as +to government, human rights, social obligations, political equality, pure +and applied science, trade, industry, transportation, intellectual and +moral improvement, and humanitarian influences which are rapidly +transforming and modernizing not only less progressive western nations, +but ancient civilizations as well, and along the lines so slowly and so +painfully worked out by the inheritors of the conceptions of human freedom +first thought out in little Greece, and those of political equality and +government under law so well worked out by ancient Rome, Western +civilization thus promises to become the dominant force in world +civilization and human progress, with general education as its agent and +greatest constructive force. + +Such is a brief outline sketch of the history of the rise and spread and +progress of our western civilization, as expressed in the history of the +progress of education, and as we shall trace it in much more detail in the +chapters which are to follow. The road that man has traveled from the days +when might made right, and when children had no claims which the State or +parents were bound to respect, to a time when the child is regarded as of +first importance, and adults represented in the State declare by law that +the child shall be protected and shall have abundant educational +advantages, is a long road and at times a very crooked one. Its ups and +downs and forward movements have been those of the progress of the race, +and in consequence a history of educational progress must be in part a +history of the progress of civilization itself. Human civilization, +though, represents a more or less orderly evolution, and the education of +man stands as one of the highest expressions of a belief in the +improvability of the race of which mankind is capable. + +It is such a development that we propose to trace, and, having now +sketched the broader outlines of the treatment, we next turn to a filling- +in of the details, and begin with the Ancient World and the first +foundation element as found in the little City-States of ancient Greece. + + + + +PART I + +THE ANCIENT WORLD + +THE FOUNDATION ELEMENTS OF OUR WESTERN CIVILIZATION +GREECE--ROME--CHRISTIANITY + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE OLD GREEK EDUCATION + + +I. GREECE AND ITS PEOPLE + +THE LAND. Ancient Greece, or Hellas as the Greeks called their homeland, +was but a small country. The map given below shows the Aegean world +superimposed on the States of the old Northwest Territory, from which it +may be seen that the Greek mainland was a little less than half as large +as the State of Illinois. Greece proper was about the size of the State of +West Virginia, but it was a much more mountainous land. No spot in Greece +was over forty miles from the sea. Attica, where a most wonderful +intellectual life arose and flourished for centuries, and whose +contributions to civilization were the chief glory of Greece, was smaller +than two average-size Illinois counties, and about two thirds the size of +the little State of Rhode Island. [1] The country was sparsely populated, +except in a few of the City-States, and probably did not, at its most +prosperous period, contain much more than a million and a half of people-- +citizens, foreigners, and slaves included. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. ANCIENT GREECE AND THE AEGEAN WORLD +Superimposed on the East-North-Central Group of American States, to show +relative size. Dotted lines indicate the boundaries of the American +States--Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, etc. All of Greece will be seen to be +a little less than half the size of the State of Illinois, the Aegean Sea +about the size of the State of Indiana, and Attica not quite so large as +two average-size Illinois counties.] + +The land was rough and mountainous, and deeply indented by the sea. The +climate and vegetation were not greatly unlike the climate and vegetation +of Southern California. Pine and fir on the mountain-slopes, and figs, +olives, oranges, lemons, and grapes on the hillsides and plains below, +were characteristic of the land. Fishing, agriculture, and the raising of +cattle and sheep were the important industries. A temperate, bracing +climate, short, mild winters, and a long, dry summer gave an opportunity +for the development of this wonderful civilization. Like Southern +California or Florida in winter, it was essentially an out-of-doors +country. The high mountains to the rear, the sun-steeped skies, and the +brilliant sea in front were alike the beauty of the land and the +inspiration of the people. Especially was this true of Attica, which had +the seashore, the plain, the high mountains, and everywhere magnificent +views through an atmosphere of remarkable clearness. A land of +incomparable beauty and charm, it is little wonder that the Greek citizen, +and the Athenian in particular, took pride in and loved his country, and +was willing to spend much time in preparing himself to govern and defend +it. + +THE GOVERNMENT. Politically, Greece was composed of a number of +independent City-States of small size. They had been settled by early +tribes, which originally held the land in common. Attica, with its +approximately seven hundred square miles of territory, was an average-size +City-State. The central city, the surrounding farming and grazing lands, +and the coastal regions all taken together, formed the State, the citizens +of which--city-residents, farmers, herdsmen, and fishermen--controlled the +government. There were in all some twenty of these City-States in mainland +Greece, the most important of which were Attica, of which Athens was the +central city; Laconia, of which Sparta was the central city; and Boeotia, +of which Thebes was the central city. Some of the States developed +democracies, of which class Athens became the most notable example, while +some were governed as oligarchies. Of all the different States but few +played any conspicuous part in the history of Greece. Of these few Attica +stands clearly above them all as the leader in thought and art and the +most progressive in government. Here, truly, was a most wonderful people, +and it is with Attica that the student of the history of education is most +concerned. The best of all Greece was there. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3. THE CITY-STATE OF ATTICA] + +The little City-States of Greece, as has just been said, were independent +States, just like modern nations. While all the Greeks regarded themselves +as tribes of a single family, descended from a common ancestor, Hellen, +and the bonds of a common race, language, and religion tended to unite +them into a sort of brotherhood, the different City-States were held apart +by their tribal origins, by narrow political sympathies, and by petty +laws. A citizen of one city, for example, was an alien in another, and +could not hold property or marry in a city not his own. Such attitudes and +laws were but natural, the time and age considered. + +Sometimes, in case of great danger, as at the time of the Persian +invasions (492-479 B.C.), a number of the States would combine to form a +defensive league; at other times they made war on one another. The federal +principle, such as we know it in the United States in our state and +national governments, never came into play. At different times Athens, +Sparta, and Thebes aspired to the leadership of Greece and tried to unite +the little States into a Hellenic Nation, but the mutual jealousies and +the extreme individualism of the people, coupled with the isolation of the +States and the difficulties of intercommunication through the mountain +passes, stood in the way of any permanent union. [2] What Rome later +accomplished with relative ease and on a large scale, Greece was unable to +do on even a small scale. A lack of capacity to unite for coöperative +undertakings seemed to be a fatal weakness of the Greek character. + +THE PEOPLE. The Greeks were among the first of the European peoples to +attain to any high degree of civilization. Their story runs back almost to +the dawn of recorded history. As early as 3500 B.C. they were in an +advanced stone age, and by 2500 B.C. had reached the age of bronze. The +destruction of Homer's Troy dates back to 1200 B.C., and the Homeric poems +to 1100 B.C., while an earlier Troy (Schliemann's second city) goes back +to 2400 B.C. This history concerns the mainland of Asia Minor. By 1000 +B.C. the southern peninsula of Greece had been colonized, between 900 and +800 B.C. Attica and other portions of upper Greece had been settled, and +by 650 B.C. Greek colonization had extended to many parts of the +Mediterranean. [3] + +The lower part of the Greek peninsula, known as Laconia, was settled by +the Dorian branch of the Greek family, a practical, forceful, but a wholly +unimaginative people. Sparta was their most important city. To the north +were the Ionic Greeks, a many-sided and a highly imaginative people. +Athens was their chief city. In the settlement of Laconia the Spartans +imposed themselves as an army of occupation on the original inhabitants, +whom they compelled to pay tribute to them, and established a military +monarchy in southern Greece. The people of Attica, on the other hand, +absorbed into their own body the few earlier settlers of the Attic plain. +They also established a monarchy, but, being a people more capable of +progress, this later evolved into a democracy. The people of Attica were +in consequence a somewhat mixed race, which possibly in part accounts for +their greater intellectual ability and versatility. [4] + +It accounts, though, only in part. Climate, beautiful surroundings, and +contact with the outside world probably also contributed something, but +the real basis underneath was the very superior quality of the people of +Attica. In some way, just how we do not know, these people came to be +endowed with a superior genius and the rather unusual ability to make +those progressive changes in living and government which enabled them to +make the most of their surroundings and opportunities, and to advance +while others stood still. Far more than other Greeks, the people of Attica +were imaginative, original, versatile, adaptable, progressive, endowed +with rare mental ability, keenly sensitive to beauty in nature and art, +and possessed of a wonderful sense of proportion and a capacity for +moderation in all things. Only on such an assumption can we account for +their marvelous achievements in art, philosophy, literature, and science +at this very early period in the development of the civilization of the +world. + +CLASSES IN THE POPULATION. Greece, as was the ancient world in general, +was built politically on the dominant power of a ruling class. In +consequence, all of course could not become citizens of the State, even +after a democracy had been evolved. Citizenship came with birth and proper +education, and, before 509 B.C., foreigners were seldom admitted to +privileges in the State. Only a male citizen might hold office, protect +himself in the courts, own land, or attend the public assemblies. Only a +citizen, too, could participate in the religious festivals and rites, for +religion was an affair of the ruling families of the State. In +consequence, family, religion, and citizenship were all bound up together, +and education and training were chiefly for citizenship and religious +(moral) ends. + +Even more, citizenship everywhere in the earlier period was a degree to be +attained to only after proper education and preliminary military and +political training. This not only made some form of education necessary, +but confined educational advantages to male youths of proper birth. There +was of course no purpose in educating any others. [5] From Figure 4 it +will be seen what a small percentage of the total population this +included. Education in Greece was essentially the education of the +children of the ruling class to perpetuate the rule of that class. + +Attica almost alone among the Greek States adopted anything approaching a +liberal attitude toward the foreign-born; in Sparta, and generally +elsewhere in Greece, they were looked upon with deep suspicion. As a +result most of the foreign residents of Greece were to be found in Athens, +or its neighboring port city (the Piraeus), attracted there by the +hospitality of the people and the intellectual or commercial advantages of +these cities. After Athens had become the center of world thought, many +foreigners took up their residence in the city because of the importance +of its intellectual life. Foreigners, though, they remained up to 509 B.C. +(See page 40.) Only rarely before this date, and then only for some +conspicuous act of patriotism, and by special vote of the citizens, was a +foreigner admitted to citizenship. Unlike Rome, which received those of +alien birth freely into its citizenship, and opened up to them large +opportunities of every kind, the Greeks persistently refused to assimilate +the foreign-born. Regarding themselves as a superior people, descended +from the gods, they held themselves apart rather exclusively as above +other peoples. This kept the blood pure, but, from the standpoint of world +usefulness, it was a serious defect in Greek life. [6] + +Beneath both citizens and foreign residents was a great foundation mass of +working slaves, who rendered all types of menial and intellectual +services. Sailors, household servants, field workers, clerks in shops and +offices, accountants, and pedagogues were among the more common +occupations of slaves in Greece. Many of these had been citizens and +learned men of other City-States or countries, but had been carried off as +captives in some war. This was a common practice in the ancient world, +slavery being the lot of alien conquered people almost without exception. +The composition of Attica, just before the outbreak of the Peloponnesian +War (431 B.C.) is shown in Figure 4. The great number of slaves and +foreigners is clearly seen, even though the citizenship had by this time +been greatly extended. In Sparta and in other City-States somewhat similar +conditions prevailed as to numbers [7] but there the slaves (Helots) +occupied a lower status than in Athens, being in reality serfs, tied to +and being sold with the land, and having no rights which a citizen was +bound to respect. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4. DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION OF ATHENS AND +ATTICA, ABOUT 430 B.C. (After Gulick)] + +Education, then, being only for the male children of citizens, and +citizenship a degree to be attained to on the basis of education and +training, let us next see in what that education consisted, and what were +its most prominent characteristics and results. + + +II. EARLY EDUCATION IN GREECE + +Some form of education that would train the son of the citizen for +participation in the religious observances and duties of a citizen of the +State, and would prepare the State for defense against outward enemies, +was everywhere in Greece recognized as a public necessity, though its +provision, nature, and extent varied in the different City-States. We have +clear information only as to Sparta and Athens, and will consider only +these two as types. Sparta is interesting as representing the old Greek +tribal training, from which Sparta never progressed. Many of the other +Greek City-States probably maintained a system of training much like that +of Sparta. Such educational systems stand as undesirable examples of +extreme state socialism, contributed little to our western civilization, +and need not detain us long. It was Athens, and a few other City-States +which followed her example, which presented the best of Greece and passed +on to the modern world what was most valuable for civilization. + +1. _Education in Sparta_ + +THE PEOPLE. The system of training which was maintained in Sparta was in +part a reflection of the character of the people, and in part a result of +its geographical location. A warlike people by nature, the Spartans were +for long regarded as the ablest fighters in Greece. Laconia, their home, +was a plain surrounded by mountains. They represented but a small +percentage of the total population, which they held in subjection to them +by their military power. [8] The slaves (Helots) were often troublesome, +and were held in check by many kinds of questionable practices. Education +for citizenship with the Spartans meant education for usefulness in an +intensely military State, where preparedness was a prerequisite to safety. +Strength, courage, endurance, cunning, patriotism, and obedience were the +virtues most highly prized, while the humane, literary, and artistic +sentiments were neglected (R. I). Aristotle well expressed it when he said +that "Sparta prepared and trained for war, and in peace rusted like a +sword in its scabbard." + +THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. At birth the child was examined by a council of +elders (R. I), and if it did not appear to be a promising child it was +exposed to die in the mountains. If kept, the mother had charge of the +child until seven if a boy, and still longer if a girl. At the beginning +of the eighth year, and until the boy reached the age of eighteen, he +lived in a public barrack, where he was given little except physical drill +and instruction in the Spartan virtues. His food and clothing were scant +and his bed hard. Each older man was a teacher. Running, leaping, boxing, +wrestling, military music, military drill, ball-playing, the use of the +spear, fighting, stealing, and laconic speech and demeanor constituted the +course of study. From eighteen to twenty was spent in professional +training for war, and frequently the youth was publicly whipped to develop +his courage and endurance. For the next ten years--that is, until he was +thirty years old--he was in the army at some frontier post. At thirty the +young man was admitted to full citizenship and compelled to marry, though +continuing to live at the public barrack and spending his energies in +training boys (R. 1). Women and girls were given gymnastic training to +make them strong and capable of bearing strong children. The family was +virtually suppressed in the interests of defense and war. [9] The +intellectual training consisted chiefly in committing to memory the Laws +of Lycurgus, learning a few selections from Homer, and listening to the +conversation of the older men. + +As might naturally be supposed, Sparta contributed little of anything to +art, literature, science, philosophy, or government. She left to the world +some splendid examples of heroism, as for example the sacrifice of +Leonidas and his Spartans to hold the pass at Thermopylae, and a warning +example of the brutalizing effect on a people of excessive devotion to +military training. It is a pleasure to turn from this dark picture to the +wonderful (for the time) educational system that was gradually developed +at Athens. + +2. _The old Athenian education_ + +SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS. Athenian education divides itself naturally into two +divisions--the old Athenian training which prevailed up to about the time +of the close of the Persian Wars (479 B.C.) and was an outgrowth of +earlier tribal observances and practices, and later Athenian education, +which characterized the period of maximum greatness of Athens and +afterward. We shall describe these briefly, in order. + +The state military socialism of Sparta made no headway in more democratic +Attica. The citizens were too individualistic, and did their own thinking +too well to permit the establishment of any such plan. While education was +a necessity for citizenship, and the degree could not be obtained without +it, the State nevertheless left every citizen free to make his own +arrangements for the education of his sons, or to omit such education if +he saw fit. Only instruction in reading, writing, music, and gymnastics +were required. If family pride, and the sense of obligation of a parent +and a citizen were not sufficient to force the father to educate his son, +the son was then by law freed from the necessity of supporting his father +in his old age. The State supervised education, but did not establish it. + +The teachers were private teachers, and derived their livelihood from +fees. These naturally varied much with the kind of teacher and the wealth +of the parent, much as private lessons in music or dancing do to-day. As +was common in antiquity, the teachers occupied but a low social position +(R. 5), and only in the higher schools of Athens was their standing of any +importance. Greek literature contains many passages which show the low +social status of the schoolmaster. [10] Schools were open from dawn to +dark. The school discipline was severe, the rod being freely used both in +the school and in the home. There were no Saturday and Sunday holidays or +long vacations, such as we know, but about ninety festival and other state +holidays served to break the continuity of instruction (R. 3). The +schoolrooms were provided by the teachers, and were wholly lacking in +teaching equipment, in any modern sense of the term. However, but little +was needed. The instruction was largely individual instruction, the boy +coming, usually in charge of an old slave known as a _pedagogue_, to +receive or recite his lessons. The teaching process was essentially a +telling and a learning-by-heart procedure. + +For the earlier years there were two schools which boys attended--the +music and literary school, and a school for physical training. Boys +probably spent part of the day at one school and part at the other, though +this is not certain. They may have attended the two schools on alternate +days. From sixteen to eighteen, if his parents were able, the boy attended +a state-supported _gymnasium_, where an advanced type of physical training +was given. As this was preparatory for the next two years of army service, +the _gymnasia_ were supported by the State more as preparedness measures +than as educational institutions, though they partook of the nature of +both. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5. A GREEK BOY] + +EARLY CHILDHOOD. As at Sparta the infant was examined at birth, but the +father, and not a council of citizens, decided whether or not it was to be +"exposed" or preserved. Three ceremonies, of ancient tribal origin, marked +the recognition and acceptance of the child. The first took place five +days after birth, when the child was carried around the family hearth by +the nurse, followed by the household in procession. This ceremony, +followed by a feast, was designed to place the child forever under the +care of the family gods. On the tenth day the child was named by the +father, who then formally recognized the child as his own and committed +himself to its rearing and education. The third ceremony took place at the +autumn family festival, when all children born during the preceding year +were presented to the father's clansmen, who decided, by vote, whether or +not the boy or girl was the legitimate and lawful child of Athenian +parents. If approved, the child's name was entered on the registry of the +clan, and he might then aspire to citizenship and inherit property from +his parent (R. 4). + +Up to the age of seven both boys and girls grew up together in the home, +under the care of the nurse and mother, engaging in much the same games +and sports as do children anywhere. From the first they were carefully +disciplined for good behavior and for the establishment of self-control +(R. 3). After the age of seven the boy and girl parted company in the +matter of their education, the girl remaining closely secluded in the home +(women and children were usually confined to the upper floor of the house) +and being instructed in the household arts by her mother, while the boy +went to different teachers for his education. Probably many girls learned +to read and write from their mothers or nurses, and the daughters of well- +to-do citizens learned to spin, weave, sew, and embroider. Music was also +a common accomplishment of women. [11] + +THE SCHOOL OF THE GRAMMATIST. A Greek boy, unlike a modern school child, +did not go to one teacher. Instead he had at least two teachers, and +sometimes three. To the _grammatist_, who was doubtless an evolution from +an earlier tribal scribe, he went to learn to read and write and count. +The grammatist represented the earliest or primary teacher. To the music +teacher, who probably at first taught reading and writing also, he went +for his instruction in music and literature. Finally, to the _palaestra_ +he went for instruction in physical training (R. 3). + +[Illustration: FIG. 6. AN ATHENIAN INSCRIPTION +A decree of the Council and Assembly, dating from about 450 B.C. Note the +difficulty of trying to read without any punctuation, and with only +capital letters.] + +Reading was taught by first learning the letters, then syllables, and +finally words. [12] Plaques of baked earth, on which the alphabet was +written, like the more modern horn-book (see Figure 130), were frequently +used. [13] The ease with which modern children learn to read was unknown +in Greece. Reading was very difficult to learn, as accentuation, +punctuation, spacing between words, and small letters had not as yet been +introduced. As a result the study required much time, [14] and much +personal ingenuity had to be exercised in determining the meaning of a +sentence. The inscription shown in Figure 6 will illustrate the +difficulties quite well. The Athenian accent, too, was hard to acquire. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7. GREEK WRITING-MATERIALS] + +The pupil learned to write by first tracing, with the stylus, letters cut +in wax tablets, and later by copying exercises set for him by his teacher, +using the wax tablet and writing on his knee. Still later the pupil +learned to write with ink on papyrus or parchment, though, due to the cost +of parchment in ancient times, this was not greatly used. Slates and paper +were of course unknown in Greece. + +There was little need for arithmetic, and but little was taught. +Arithmetic such as we teach would have been impossible with their cumbrous +system of notation. [15] Only the elements of counting were taught, the +Greek using his fingers or a counting-board, such as is shown in Figure 8, +to do his simple reckoning. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8 A GREEK COUNTING-BOARD +Pebbles of different size or color were used for thousands, hundreds, +tens, and units. Their position on the board gave them their values. The +board now shows the total 15,379.] + +GREAT IMPORTANCE OF READING AND LITERATURE. After the pupil had learned to +read, much attention was given to accentuation and articulation, in order +to secure beautiful reading. Still more, in reading or reciting, the parts +were acted out. The Greeks were a nation of actors, and the recitations in +the schools and the acting in the theaters gave plenty of opportunity for +expression. There were no schoolbooks, as we know them. The master +dictated and the pupils wrote down, or, not uncommonly, learned by heart +what the master dictated. Ink and parchment were now used, the boy making +his own schoolbooks. Homer was the first and the great reading book of the +Greeks, the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ being the Bible of the Greek people. +Then followed Hesiod, Theognis, the Greek poets, and the fables of Aesop. +[16] Reading, declamation, and music were closely interrelated. To appeal +to the emotions and to stir the will along moral and civic lines was a +fundamental purpose of the instruction (R. 5). A modern writer well +characterizes the ancient instruction in literature in the following +words: + +By making the works of the great poets of the Greek people the material of +their education, the Athenians attained a variety of objects difficult of +attainment by any other one means. The fact is, the ancient poetry of +Greece, with its finished form, its heroic tales and characters, its +accounts of peoples far removed in time and space, its manliness and +pathos, its directness and simplicity, its piety and wisdom, its respect +for law and order, combined with its admiration for personal initiative +and worth, furnished, in the hands of a careful and genial teacher, a +material for a complete education such as could not well be matched even +in our own day. What instruction in ethics, politics, social life, and +manly bearing could not find a fitting vehicle in the Homeric poems, not +to speak of the geography, the grammar, the literary criticism, and the +history which the comprehension of them involved? Into what a wholesome, +unsentimental, free world did these poems introduce the imaginative Greek +boy! What splendid ideals of manhood and womanhood did they hold up for +his admiration and imitation! From Hesiod he would learn all that he +needed to know about his gods and their relation to him and his people. +From the elegiac poets he would derive a fund of political and social +wisdom, and an impetus to patriotism, which would go far to make him a +good man and a good citizen. From the iambic poets he would learn to +express with energy his indignation at meanness, feebleness, wrong, and +tyranny, while from the lyric poets he would learn the language suitable +to every genial feeling and impulse of the human heart. And in reciting or +singing all these, how would his power of terse, idiomatic expression, his +sense of poetic beauty and his ear for rhythm and music be developed! With +what a treasure of examples of every virtue and vice, and with what a fund +of epigrammatic expression would his memory be furnished! How familiar he +would be with the character and ideals of his nation, how deeply in +sympathy with them! And all this was possible even before the introduction +of letters. With this event a new era in education begins. The boy now not +only learns and declaims his Homer, and sings his Simonides or Sappho; he +learns also to write down their verses from dictation, and so at once to +read and to write. This, indeed, was the way in which these two (to us) +fundamental arts were acquired. As soon as the boy could trace with his +finger in sand, or scratch with a stylus on wax, the forms of the letters, +and combine them into syllables and words, he began to write poetry from +his master's dictation. The writing-lesson of to-day was the reading, +recitation, or singing-lesson of to-morrow. Every boy made his own reading +book, and, if he found it illegible, and stumbled in reading, he had only +himself to blame. The Greeks, and especially the Athenians, laid the +greatest stress on reading well, reciting well, and singing well, and the +youth who could not do all three was looked upon as uncultured. Nor could +he hide his want of culture, since young men were continually called upon, +both at home and at more or less public gatherings, to perform their part +in the social entertainment. [17] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9. AN ATHENIAN SCHOOL +From a cup discovered at Caere, signed by the painter Duris, and now in +the Museum of Berlin. + +A LESSON IN MUSIC AND LANGUAGE _Explanation_: At the right is the +_paidagogos_; he is seated, and turns his head to look at his pupil, who +is standing before his master. The latter holds a writing-tablet and a +stylus; he is perhaps correcting a task. At the left a pupil is taking a +music lesson. On the wall are hung a roll of manuscript, a folded writing- +tablet, a lyre, and an unknown cross-shaped object. + +A LESSON IN MUSIC AND POETRY _Explanation_: At the right sits, cross- +legged, the _paidagogos_, who has just brought in his pupil. The boy +stands before the teacher of poetry and recites his lesson. The master, in +a chair, holds in his hand a roll which he is unfolding, upon which we see +Greek letters. Above these three figures we see on the wall a cup, a lyre, +and a leather case of flutes. To the bag is attached the small box +containing mouthpieces of different kinds for the flutes. Farther on a +pupil is receiving a lesson in music. The master and pupil are both seated +on seats without backs. The master, with head erect, looks at the pupil +who, bent over his lyre, seems absorbed in his playing. Above are hanging +a basket, a lyre, and a cup. On the wall is an inscription in Greek.] + +THE MUSIC SCHOOL. The teacher in this school gradually separated himself +from the grammatist, and often the two were found in adjoining rooms in +the same school. In his functions he succeeded the wandering poet or +minstrel of earlier times. Music teachers were common in all the City- +States of Greece. To this teacher the boy went at first to recite his +poetry, and after the thirteenth year for a special music course. The +teacher was known as a _citharist_, and the instrument usually used was +the seven-stringed lyre. This resembled somewhat our modern guitar. The +flute was also used somewhat, but never grew into much favor, partly +because it tended to excite rather than soothe, and partly because of the +contortions of the face to which its playing gave rise. Rhythm, melody, +and the feeling for measure and time were important in instruction, whose +office was to soothe, purge, and harmonize man within and make him fit for +moral instruction through the poetry with which their music was ever +associated. Instead of being a distinct art, as with us, and taught by +itself, music with the Greeks was always subsidiary to the expression of +the spirit of their literature, and in aim it was for moral-training ends. +[18] Both Aristotle and Plato advocate state control of school music to +insure sound moral results. Inferior as their music was to present-day +music, it exerted an influence over their lives which it is difficult for +an American teacher to appreciate. + +[Illustration: FIG. 10. GREEK SCHOOL LESSONS + +THE SINGING LESSON The boy is singing, to the accompaniment of a flute. On +the wall hangs a bag of flutes. + +THE LITERATURE LESSON The boy is reciting, while the teacher follows him +on a roll of manuscript.] + +The first lessons taught the use of the instrument, and the simple chants +of the religious services were learned. As soon as the pupil knew how to +play, the master taught him to render the works of the great lyric poets +of Greece. Poetry and music together thus formed a single art. At thirteen +a special music course began which lasted until sixteen, but which only +the sons of the more well-to-do citizens attended. Every boy, though, +learned some music, not that he might be a musician, but that he might be +musical and able to perform his part at social gatherings and participate +in the religious services of the State. Professional playing was left to +slaves and foreigners, and was deemed unworthy a free man and a citizen. +Professionalism in either music or athletics was regarded as disgraceful. +The purpose of both activities was harmonious personal development, which +the Greeks believed contributed to moral worth. + +THE PALAESTRA; GYMNASTICS. Very unlike our modern education, fully one +half of a boy's school life, from eight to sixteen, was given to sports +and games in another school under different teachers, known as the +palaestra. The work began gradually, but by fifteen had taken precedence +over other studies. As in music, harmonious physical development and moral +ends were held to be of fundamental importance. The standards of success +were far from our modern standards. To win the game was of little +significance; the important thing was to do the part gracefully and, for +the person concerned, well. To attain to a graceful and dignified carriage +of the body, good physical health, perfect control of the temper, and to +develop quickness of perception, self-possession, ease, and skill in the +games were the aims--not mere strength or athletic prowess (R. 2). Only a +few were allowed to train for participation in the Olympian games. + +The work began with children's games, contests in running, and ball games +of various kinds. Deportment--how to get up, walk, sit, and how to achieve +easy manners--was taught by the masters. After the pupils came to be a +little older there was a definite course of study, which included, in +succession: (1) leaping and jumping, for general bodily and lung +development; (2) running contests, for agility and endurance; (3) throwing +the discus, [19] for arm exercise; (4) casting the javelin, for bodily +poise and coördination of movement, as well as for future use in hunting; +(5) boxing and wrestling, for quickness, agility, endurance, and the +control of the temper and passions. Swimming and dancing were also +included for all, dancing being a slow and graceful movement of the body +to music, to develop grace of motion and beauty of form, and to exercise +the whole human being, body and soul. The minuet and some of our folk- +dancing are our nearest approach to the Greek type of dancing, though +still not like it. The modern partner dance was unknown in ancient Greece. + +The exercises were performed in classes, or in small groups. They took +place in the open air, and on a dirt or sandy floor. They were accompanied +by music--usually the flute, played by a paid performer. A number of +teachers looked after the boys, examining them physically, supervising the +exercises, directing the work, and giving various forms of instruction. + +THE GYMNASIAL TRAINING, SIXTEEN TO EIGHTEEN. Up to this point the +education provided was a private and a family affair. In the home and in +the school the boy had now been trained to be a gentleman, to revere the +gods, to be moral and upright according to Greek standards, and in +addition he had been given that training in reading, writing, music, and +athletic exercises that the State required parents to furnish. It is +certain that many boys, whose parents could ill afford further expense for +schooling, were allowed to quit the schools at from thirteen to fifteen. +Those who expected to become full citizens, however, and to be a part of +the government and hold office, were required to continue until twenty +years of age. Two years more were spent in schooling, largely athletic, +and two years additional in military service. Of this additional training, +if his parents chose and could afford it, the State now took control. + +[Illustration: FIG. II. GROUND-PLAN OF THE GYMNASIUM AT EPHESOS, IN ASIA +MINOR +_Explanation:_ A, B, C, pillared corridors, or portico; D, an open space, +possibly a palaestra, evidently intended to supply the peristylium; E, a +long, narrow hall used for games of ball; F, a large hall with seats; G, +in which was suspended a sack filled with chaff for the use of boxers; H, +where the young men sprinkled themselves with dust; I, the cold bath; K, +where the wrestling-master anointed the bodies of the contestants; L, the +cooling-off room; M, the furnace-room; N, the vapor bath; 0, the dry- +sweating apartment; P, the hot bath; Q, Q', rooms for games, for the +keepers, or for other uses; R, R', covered stadia, for use in bad weather; +S, S, S, S, S, rows of seats, looking upon T, the uncovered _stadium_; U, +groves, with seats and walks among the trees; V, V', recessed seats for +the use of philosophers, rhetoricians, and others.] + +For the years from sixteen to eighteen the boy attended a state +_gymnasium_, of which two were erected outside of Athens by the State, in +groves of trees, in 590 B.C. Others were erected later in other parts of +Greece. Figure 11 shows the ground plan of one of these _gymnasia_, and a +study of the explanation of the plan will reveal the nature of these +establishments. The boy now had for teachers a number of gymnasts of +ability. The old exercises of the _palaestra_ were continued, but running, +wrestling, and boxing were much emphasized. The youth learned to run in +armor, while wrestling and boxing became more severe. He also learned to +ride a horse, to drive a chariot, to sing and dance in the public +choruses, and to participate in the public state and religious +processions. + +Still more, the youth now passed from the supervision of a family +pedagogue to the supervision of the State. For the first time in his life +he was now free to go where he desired about the city; to frequent the +streets, market-place, and theater; to listen to debates and jury trials, +and to witness the great games; and to mix with men in the streets and to +mingle somewhat in public affairs. He saw little of girls, except his +sisters, but formed deep friendships with other young men of his age. [20] +Aside from a requirement that he learn the laws of the State, his +education during this period was entirely physical and civic. If he abused +his liberty he was taken in hand by public officials charged with the +supervision of public morals. He was, however, still regarded as a minor, +and his father (or guardian) was held responsible for his public behavior. + +THE CITIZEN-CADET YEARS, EIGHTEEN TO TWENTY. The supervision of the State +during the preceding two years had in a way been joint with that of his +father; now the State took complete control. At the age of eighteen his +father took him before the proper authorities of his district or ward in +the city, and presented him as a candidate for citizenship. He was +examined morally and physically, and if sound, and if the records showed +that he was the legitimate son of a citizen, his name was entered on the +register of his ward as a prospective member of it (R. 4). His long hair +was now cut, he donned the black garb of the citizen, was presented to the +people along with others at a public ceremony, was publicly armed with a +spear and a shield, and then, proceeding to one of the shrines of the +city, on a height overlooking it, he solemnly took the Ephebic oath: + + I will never disgrace these sacred arms, nor desert my companion in + the ranks. I will fight for temples and public property, both alone + and with many. I will transmit my fatherland, not only not less, but + greater and better, than it was transmitted to me. I will obey the + magistrates who may at any time be in power. I will observe both the + existing laws and those which the people may unanimously hereafter + make, and, if any person seek to annul the laws or to set them at + naught, I will do my best to prevent him, and will defend them both + alone and with many. I will honor the religion of my fathers. And I + call to witness Aglauros, Enyalios, Ares, Zeus, Thallo, Auxo, and + Hegemone. + +He was now an _Ephebos_, or citizen-cadet, with still two years of severe +training ahead of him before he could take up the full duties of +citizenship. The first year he spent in and near Athens, learning to be a +soldier. He did what recruits do almost everywhere--drill, camp in the +open, learn the army methods and discipline, and march in public +processions and take part in religious festivals. This first year was much +like that of new troops in camp being worked into real soldiers. At the +end of the year there was a public drill and inspection of the cadets, +after which they were sent to the frontier. It was now his business to +come to know his country thoroughly--its topography, roads, springs, +seashores, and mountain passes. He also assisted in enforcing law and +order throughout the country districts, as a sort of a state constabulary +or rural police. At the end of this second year of practical training the +second examination was held, the cadet was now admitted to full +citizenship, and passed to the ranks of a trained citizen in the reserve +army of defense, as does a boy in Switzerland to-day (R. 4). + +RESULTS UNDER THE OLD GREEK SYSTEM. Such was the educational system which +was in time evolved from the earlier tribal practices of the citizens of +old Athens. If we consider Sparta as representing the earlier tribal +education of the Greek peoples, we see how far the Athenians, due to their +wonderful ability to make progress, were able to advance beyond this +earlier type of preparation for citizenship (R. 5). Not only did Athens +surpass all Greece, but, for the first time in the history of the world, +we find here, expressing itself in the education of the young, the modern +western, individualistic and democratic spirit, as opposed to the +deadening caste and governmental systems of the East. Here first we find a +free people living under political conditions which favored liberty, +culture, and intellectual growth, and using their liberty to advance the +culture and the knowledge of the people (R. 6). + +Here also we find, for the first time, the thinkers of the State deeply +concerned with the education of the youth of the State, and viewing +education as a necessity to make life worth living and secure the State +from dangers, both within and without. To prepare men by a severe but +simple and honest training to fear the gods, to do honest work, to despise +comfort and vice, to obey the laws, to respect their neighbors and +themselves, and to reverence the wisdom of their race, was the aim of this +old education. The schooling for citizenship was rigid, almost +puritanical, but it produced wonderful results, both in peace and in war. +[21] Men thus trained guided the destinies of Athens during some two +centuries, and the despotism of the East as represented by Persia could +not defeat them at Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea. + +THE SIMPLE AND EFFECTIVE CURRICULUM. The simplicity of the curriculum was +one of its marked features. In a manner seldom witnessed in the world's +educational history, the Greeks used their religion, literature, +government, and the natural activities of young men to impart an education +of wonderful effectiveness. [22] The subjects we have valued so highly for +training were to them unknown. They taught no arithmetic or grammar, no +science, no drawing, no higher mathematics, and no foreign tongue. Music, +the literature and religion of their own people, careful physical +training, and instruction in the duties and practices of citizenship +constituted the entire curriculum. + +It was an education by doing; not one of learning from books. That it was +an attractive type of education there is abundant testimony by the Greeks +themselves. We have not as yet come to value physical education as did the +Greeks, nor are we nearly so successful in our moral education, despite +the aid of the Christian religion which they did not know. It was, to be +sure, class education, and limited to but a small fraction of the total +population. In it girls had no share. There were many features of Greek +life, too, that are repugnant to modern conceptions. Yet, despite these +limitations, the old education of Athens still stands as one of the most +successful in its results of any system of education which has been +evolved in the history of the world. Considering its time and place in the +history of the world and that it was a development for which there were +nowhere any precedents, it represented a very wonderful evolution. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Why are imaginative ability and many-sided natures such valuable +characteristics for any people? + +2. Why is the ability to make progressive changes, possessed so markedly +by the Athenian Greeks, an important personal or racial characteristic? + +3. Are the Athenian characteristics, stated in the middle of page 19, +characteristics capable of development by training, or are they native, or +both? + +4. How do you explain the Greek failure to achieve political unity? + +5. Would education for citizenship with us to-day possess the same defects +as in ancient Greece? Why? Do we give an equivalent training? + +6. Which is the better attitude for a nation to assume toward the +foreigner--the Greek, or the American? Why? + +7. Why does a state military socialism, such as prevailed at Sparta, tend +to produce a people of mediocre intellectual capacity? + +8. How do you account for the Athenian State leaving literary and musical +education to private initiative, but supporting state _gymnasia_? + +9. Would the Athenian method of instruction have been possible had all +children in the State been given an education? Why? + +10. How did the education of an Athenian girl differ from that of a girl +in the early American colonies? + +11. Why did the Greek boy need three teachers, whereas the American boy is +taught all and more by one primary teacher? + +12. Contrast the Greek method of instruction in music, and the purposes of +the instruction, with our own. + +13. How could we incorporate into our school instruction some of the +important aspects of Greek instruction in music? + +14. What do you think of the contentions of Aristotle and Plato that the +State should control school music as a means of securing sound moral +instruction? + +15. Does the Greek idea that a harmonious personal development contributes +to moral worth appeal to you? Why? + +16. Contrast the Greek ideal as to athletic training with the conception +of athletics held by an average American schoolboy. + +17. Contrast the education of a Greek boy at sixteen with that of an +American boy at the same age. + +18. Contrast the emphasis placed on expression as a method in teaching in +the schools of Athens and of the United States. + +19. Do the needs of modern society and industrial life warrant the greater +emphasis we place on learning from books, as opposed to the learning by +doing of the Greeks? + +20. Compare the compulsory-school period of the Greeks with our own. If we +were to add some form of compulsory military training, for all youths +between eighteen and twenty, and as a preparedness measure, would we +approach still more nearly the Greek requirements? + +21. Explain how the Athenian Greeks reconciled the idea of social service +to the State with the idea of individual liberty, through a form of +education which developed personality. Compare this with our American +ideal. + +22. The Greek schoolboy had no long summer vacation, as do American +children. Is there any special reason why we need it more than did they? + +23. Do we believe that virtue can be taught in the way the Hellenic +peoples did? Do we carry such a belief into practice? + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 1. Plutarch: Ancient Education in Sparta. + 2. Plato: An Athenian Schoolboy's Life. + 3. Lucian: An Athenian Schoolboy's Day. + 4. Aristotle: Athenian Citizenship and the Ephebic Years. + 5. Freeman: Sparta and Athens compared. + 6. Thucydides: Athenian Education summarized. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Describe and characterize the Laws which Lycurgus framed for Spartan +training (1). + +2. Describe and characterize the instruction of the Ireus at Sparta. +Compare with the training given among the best of the American Indian +tribes (1). + +3. Contrast the type of education given an Athenian and a Spartan boy, as +to nature and purpose and character (1 and 2). + +4. What degree of State supervision of education is indicated by Plato +(2)? By Freeman (5)? + +5. Compare an Athenian school day as described by Lucian (3) with a school +day in a modern Gary-type school. + +6. Compare the Ephebic years of an Athenian youth (4) with those of a +Spartan youth (1). + +7. What were some of the chief defects of Athenian schools (5)? + +8. What was the position of the State in the matter of the education of +youth (5)? + +9. What were the great merits of the Athenian educational and political +system of training (6)? + +(For SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES, see following chapter.) + + + + +CHAPTER II + +LATER GREEK EDUCATION + + +III. THE NEW GREEK EDUCATION + +POLITICAL EVENTS: THE GOLDEN AGE OF GREECE. The Battle of Marathon (490 +B.C.) has long been considered one of the "decisive battles of the world." +Had the despotism of the East triumphed here, and in the subsequent +campaign that ended in the defeat of the Persian fleet at Salamis (480 +B.C.) and of the Persian army at Plataea (479 B.C.), the whole history of +our western world would have been different. The result of the war with +Persia was the triumph of this new western democratic civilization, +prepared and schooled for great national emergencies by a severe but +effective training, over the uneducated hordes led to battle by the +autocracy of the East. This was the first, but not the last, of the many +battles which western democracy and civilization has had to fight to avoid +being crushed by autocracy and despotism. Marathon broke the dread spell +of the Persian name and freed the more progressive Greeks to pursue their +intellectual and political development. Above all it revealed the strength +and power of the Athenians to themselves, and in the half-century +following the most wonderful political, literary, and artistic development +the world had ever known ensued, and the highest products of Greek +civilization were attained. Attica had braved everything for the common +cause of Greece, even to leaving Athens to be burned by the invader, and +for the next fifty years she held the position of political as well as +cultural preëminence among the Greek City-States. Athens now became the +world center of wealth and refinement and the home of art and literature +(R. 7), and her influence along cultural lines, due in part to her mastery +of the sea and her growing commerce, was now extended throughout the +Mediterranean world. + +From 479 to 431 B.C. was the Golden Age of Greece, and during this short +period Athens gave birth to more great men--poets, artists, statesmen, and +philosophers--than all the world beside had produced [1] in any period of +equal length. Then, largely as a result of the growing jealousy of +military Sparta came that cruel and vindictive civil strife, known as the +Peloponnesian War, which desolated Greece, left Athens a wreck of her +former self, permanently lowered the moral tone of the Greek people, and +impaired beyond recovery the intellectual and artistic life of Hellas. For +many centuries Athens continued to be a center of intellectual +achievement, and to spread her culture throughout a new and a different +world, but her power as a State had been impaired forever by a revengeful +war between those who should have been friends and allies in the cause of +civilization. + +TRANSITION FROM OLD TO THE NEW. As early as 509 B.C. a new constitution +had admitted all the free inhabitants of Attica to citizenship, and the +result was a rapid increase in the prestige, property, and culture of +Athens. Citizenship was now open to the commercial classes, and no longer +restricted to a small, properly born, and properly educated class. Wealth +now became important in giving leisure to the citizen, and was no longer +looked down upon as it had been in the earlier period. After the +Peloponnesian War the predominance of Attica among the Greek States, the +growth of commerce, the constant interchange of embassies, the travel +overseas of Athenian citizens, and the presence of many foreigners in the +State all alike led to a tolerance of new ideas and a criticism of old +ones which before had been unknown. A leisure class now arose, and +personal interest came to have a larger place than before, with a +consequent change in the earlier conceptions as to the duty of the citizen +to the State. Literature lost much of its earlier religious character, and +the religious basis of morality [2] began to be replaced by that of +reason. Philosophy was now called upon to furnish a practical guide for +life to replace the old religious basis. A new philosophy in which "man +was the measure of all things" arose, and its teachers came to have large +followings. The old search for an explanation of the world of matter [3] +was now replaced by an attempt to explain the world of ideas and emotions, +with a resulting evolution of the sciences of philosophy, ethics, and +logic. It was a period of great intellectual as well as political change +and expansion, and in consequence the old education, which had answered +well the needs of a primitive and isolated community, now found itself but +poorly adapted to meet the larger needs of the new cosmopolitan State. [4] +The result was a material change in the old education to adapt it to the +needs of the new Athens, now become the intellectual center of the +civilized world. + +CHANGES IN THE OLD EDUCATION. A number of changes in the character of the +old education were now gradually introduced. The rigid drill of the +earlier period began to be replaced by an easier and a more pleasurable +type of training. Gymnastics for personal enjoyment began to replace drill +for the service of the State, and was much less rigid in type. The old +authors, who had rendered important service in the education of youth, +began to be replaced by more modern writers, with a distinct loss of the +earlier religious and moral force. New musical instruments, giving a +softer and more pleasurable effect, took the place of the seven-stringed +lyre, and complicated music replaced the simple Doric airs of the earlier +period. Education became much more individual, literary, and theoretical. +Geometry and drawing were introduced as new studies. Grammar and rhetoric +began to be studied, discussion was introduced, and a certain glibness of +speech began to be prized. The citizen-cadet years, from sixteen to +twenty, formerly devoted to rather rigorous physical training, were now +changed to school work of an intellectual type. + +NEW TEACHERS; THE SOPHISTS. New teachers, known as Sophists, who professed +to be able to train men for a political career, [5] began to offer a more +practical course designed to prepare boys for the newer type of state +service. These in time drew many Ephebes into their private schools, where +the chief studies were on the content, form, and practical use of the +Greek language. Rhetoric and grammar before long became the master studies +of this new period, as they were felt to prepare boys better for the new +political and intellectual life of Hellas than did the older type of +training. In the schools of the Sophists boys now spent their time in +forming phrases, choosing words, examining grammatical structure, and +learning how to secure rhetorical effect. Many of these new teachers made +most extravagant claims for their instruction (R. 8) and drew much +ridicule from the champions of the older type of education, but within a +century they had thoroughly established themselves, and had permanently +changed the character of the earlier Greek education. + +By 350 B.C. we find that Greek school education had been differentiated +into three divisions, as follows: + + 1. _Primary education_, covering the years from seven or eight to + thirteen, and embracing reading, writing, arithmetic, and chanting. + The teacher of this school came to be known as a _grammatist_. + + 2. _Secondary education_, covering the years from thirteen to + sixteen, and embracing geometry, drawing, and a special music + course. Later on some grammar and rhetoric were introduced into + this school. The teacher of this school came to be known as a + _grammaticus_. + + 3. _Higher or university education_, covering the years after + sixteen. + +THE FLOOD OF INDIVIDUALISM. This period of artistic and intellectual +brilliancy of Greece following the Peloponnesian War marked the beginning +of the end of Greece politically. The war was a blow to the strength of +Greece from which the different States never recovered. Greece was bled +white by this needless civil strife. The tendencies toward individualism +in education were symptomatic of tendencies in all forms of social and +political life. The philosophers--Xenophon, Plato, and Aristotle--proposed +ideal remedies for the evils of the State, [6] but in vain. The old ideal +of citizenship died out. Service to the State became purely subordinate to +personal pleasure and advancement. Irreverence and a scoffing attitude +became ruling tendencies. Family morality decayed. The State in time +became corrupt and nerveless. Finally, in 338 B.C., Philip of Macedon +became master of Greece, and annexed it to the world empire which he and +his son Alexander created. Still later, in 146 B.C., the new world power +to the west, Rome, conquered Greece and made of it a Roman province. + +Though dead politically, there now occurred the unusual spectacle of +"captive Greece taking captive her rude conqueror," and spreading Greek +art, literature, philosophy, science, and Greek ideas throughout the +Mediterranean world. It was the Greek higher learning that now became +predominant and exerted such great influence on the future of our world +civilization. It remains now to trace briefly the development and spread +of this higher learning, and to point out how thoroughly it modified the +thinking of the future. + +NEW SCHOOLS; SOCRATES. In the beginning each Sophist teacher was a free +lance, and taught what he would and in the manner he thought best. Many of +them made extraordinary efforts to attract students and win popular +approval and fees. Plato represents the Sophist Protagoras as saying, with +reference to a youth ambitious for success in political life, "If he comes +to me he will learn that which he comes to learn." At first the +instruction was largely individual, but later classes were organized. +Isocrates, who lived from 436 to 338 B.C., organized the instruction for +the first time into a well-graded sequence of studies, with definite aims +and work (R. 8). He shifted the emphasis in instruction from training for +success in argumentation, to training to think clearly and to express +ideas properly. His pupils were unusually successful, and his school did +much to add to the fame of Athens as an intellectual center. From his work +sprang a large number of so called Rhetorical Schools, much like our +better private schools and academies, offering to those Ephebes who could +afford to attend a very good preparation for participation in the public +life of the period. + +In contrast with the Sophists, a series of schools of philosophy also +arose in Athens. These in a way were the outgrowth of the work of +Socrates. Accepting the Sophists' dictum that "man is the measure of all +things," he tried to turn youths from the baser individualism of the +Sophists of his day to the larger general truths which measure the life of +a true man. In particular he tried to show that the greatest of all arts-- +the art of living a good life--called for correct individual thinking and +a knowledge of the right. "Know thyself" was his great guiding principle. +His emphasis was on the problems of everyday morality. Frankly accepting +the change from the old education as a change that could not be avoided, +he sought to formulate a new basis for education in personal morality and +virtue, and as a substitute for the old training for service to the State. +He taught by conversation, engaging men in argument as he met them in the +street, and showing to them their ignorance (R. 9). Even in Athens, where +free speech was enjoyed more than anywhere else in the world at that time, +such a shrewd questioner would naturally make enemies, and in 399 B.C. at +the age of seventy-one, he was condemned to death by the Athenian populace +on the charge of impiety and corrupting the youth of Athens. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12 SOCRATES (469-399 B.C.) +(After a marble bust in the Vatican Gallery, at Rome)] + +Socrates' greatest disciple was a citizen of wealth by the name of Plato, +who had abandoned a political career for the charms of philosophy, and to +him we owe our chief information as to the work and aims of Socrates. In +386 B.C. he founded the Academy, where he passed almost forty years in +lecturing and writing. His school, which formed a model for others, +consisted of a union of teachers and students who possessed in common a +chapel, library, lecture-rooms, and living-rooms. Philosophy, mathematics, +and science were taught, and women as well as men were admitted. + +Other schools of importance in Athens were the Lyceum, founded in 335 B.C. +by a foreign-born pupil of Plato's by the name of Aristotle, who did a +remarkable work in organizing the known knowledge of his time; [7] the +school of the Stoics, founded by Zeno in 308 B.C.; and the school of the +Epicureans, founded by Epicurus in 306 B.C. Each of these schools offered +a philosophical solution of the problem of life, and Plato and Aristotle +wrote treatises on education as well. Each school evolved into a form of +religious brotherhood which perpetuated the organization after the death +of the master. In time these became largely schools for expounding the +philosophy of the founder. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13. EVOLUTION OF THE GREEK UNIVERSITY] + +THE UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS. Coincident with the founding of these schools +and the political events we have previously recorded, certain further +changes in Athenian education were taking place. The character of the +changes in the education before the age of sixteen we have described. As a +result in part of the development of the schools of the Sophists, which +were in themselves only attempts to meet fundamental changes in Athenian +life, the education of youths after sixteen tended to become literary, +rather than physical and military. The Ephebic period of service (from +eighteen to twenty) was at first reduced from two years to one, and after +the Macedonian conquest, in 338 B.C., when there was no longer an Athenian +State to serve or protect, the entire period of training was made +optional. The Ephebic corps was now opened to foreigners, and in time +became merely a fashionable semi-military group. Instead of the military +training, attendance at the lectures of the philosophical schools was now +required, and attendance at the rhetorical schools was optional. Later the +philosophical schools were granted public support by the Athenian +Assembly, professorships were created over which the Assembly exercised +supervision, the rhetorical and philosophical schools were gradually +merged, the study years were extended from two to six, or seven, a form of +university life as regards both students and professors was developed, and +what has since been termed "The University of Athens" was evolved. Figure +13 shows how this evolution took place. + +As Athens lost in political power her citizens turned their attention to +making their city a center of world learning. This may be said to have +been accomplished by 200 B.C. Though Greece had long since become a +Macedonian province, and was soon to pass under the control of Rome, the +so-called University of Athens was widely known and much frequented for +the next three hundred years, and continued in existence until finally +closed, as a center of pagan thought, by the edict of the Roman-Christian +Emperor, Justinian, in 529 A.D. Though reduced to the rank of a Roman +provincial town, Athens long continued to be a city of letters and a +center of philosophic and scientific instruction. + +SPREAD AND INFLUENCE OF GREEK HIGHER EDUCATION. Alexander the Great +rendered a very important service in uniting the western Orient and the +eastern Mediterranean into a common world empire, and in establishing +therein a common language, literature, philosophy, a common interest, and +a common body of scientific knowledge and law. It was his hope to create a +new empire, in which the distinction between European and Asiatic should +pass away. No less than seventy cities were established with a view to +holding his empire together. These served to spread Hellenic culture. +Greek schools, Greek theaters, Greek baths, and Greek institutions of +every type were to be found in practically all of them, and the Greek +tongue was heard in them all. With Alexander the Great the history of +Greek life, culture, and learning merges into that of the history of the +ancient world. Everywhere throughout the new empire Greek philosophers and +scientists, architects and artists, merchants and colonists, followed +behind the Macedonian armies, spreading Greek civilization and becoming +the teachers of an enlarged world. [8] "Greek cities stretched from the +Nile to the Indus, and dotted the shores of the Black and the Caspian +seas. The Greek language, once the tongue of a petty people, grew to be a +universal language of culture, spoken even by barbarian lips, and the art, +the science, the literature, the principles of politics and philosophy, +developed in isolation by the Greek mind, henceforth became the heritage +of many nations." [9] + +Greek universities were established at Pergamum and Tarsus in Asia Minor; +at Rhodes on the island of that name in the Aegean; and at the newly +founded city of Alexandria in Egypt. Antioch, in Syria, became another +important center of Greek influence and learning. A large library was +developed at Pergamum, and it was here that writing on prepared skins of +animals [10] was begun, from which the term "parchment" (originally "per- +gament") comes. It was also at Pergamum that Galen (born c. 130 A.D.) +organized what was then known of medical science, and his work remained +the standard treatise for more than a thousand years. Rhodes became a +famous center for instruction in oratory. During Roman days many eminent +men, among whom were Cassius, Caesar, and Cicero, studied oratory here. + +[Illustration: FIG. 14 THE GREEK UNIVERSITY WORLD] + +MINGLING OF ORIENT AND OCCIDENT AT ALEXANDRIA. The most famous of all +these Greek institutions, however, was the University of Alexandria, which +gradually sapped Athens as a center of learning and became the +intellectual capital of the world. The greatest library of manuscripts the +world had ever known was collected together here. [11] It is said to have +numbered over 700,000 volumes. These included Greek, Jewish, Egyptian, and +Oriental works. In connection with the library was the museum, where men +of letters and investigators were supported at royal expense. These two +constituted an institution so like a university that it has been given +that name. Alexandria became not only a great center of learning, but, +still more important, the chief mingling place for Greek, Jew, Egyptian, +Roman, and Oriental, and here Greek philosophy, Hebrew and Christian +religion, and Oriental faith and philosophy met and mixed. It was this +mingled civilization and culture, all tinged through and through with the +Greek, with which the Romans came in contact as they pushed their +conquering armies into the eastern Mediterranean (R. 10). + +[Illustration: FIG. 15. THE KNOWN WORLD ABOUT 150 A.D. +A map by Ptolemy, geographer and astronomer at Alexandria. Compare this +with the map on page 4, and note the progress in geographical discovery +which had been made during the intervening centuries.] + +CHARACTER OF ALEXANDRIAN LEARNING. The great advances in knowledge made at +Alexandria were in mathematics, geography, and science. The method of +scientific investigation worked out by Aristotle at Athens was introduced +and used. Instead of speculating as to phenomena and causes, as had been +the earlier Greek practice, observation and experiment now became the +rule. Euclid (c. 323-283 B.C.) opened a school at Alexandria as early as +300 B.C., and there worked out the geometry which is still used in our +schools. Archimedes (287-212 B.C.), who studied under Euclid, made many +important discoveries and advances in mechanics and physics. Eratosthenes +(226-196 B.C.), librarian at Alexandria, is famous as a geographer [12] +and astronomer, and made some studies in geology as well. Ptolemy (b.?; d. +168 A.D.) here completed his Mechanism of the Heavens (_Syntaxis_) in 138 +A.D., and this became the standard astronomy in Europe for nearly fifteen +hundred years, while his geography was used in the schools until well into +the fifteenth century. The map of the known world, shown in Figure 15, was +made by him. Hipparcus, the Newton of the Greeks, studied the heavens both +at Alexandria and Rhodes, and counted the stars and arranged them in +constellations. Many advances also were made in the study of medicine, the +Alexandrian schools having charts, models, and dissecting rooms for the +study of the human body, The functions of the brain, nerves, and heart +were worked out there. + +Except in science and mathematics, though, the creative ability of the +earlier Greeks was now largely absent. Research, organization, and comment +upon what had previously been done rather was the rule. Still much +important work was done here. Books were collected, copied, and preserved, +and texts were edited and purified from errors. Here grammar, criticism, +prosody, and mythology were first developed into sciences. The study of +archaeology was begun, and the first dictionaries were made. The +translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek was begun for the benefit +of the Alexandrian Jews who had forgotten their Mother tongue, this being +the origin of the famous _Septuagint_ [13] version of the Old Testament. +It is owing to these Alexandrian scholars, also, that we now possess the +theory of Greek accents, and have good texts of Homer and other Greek +writers. + +ALEXANDRIA SAPPED IN TURN. In 30 B.C. Alexandria, too, came under Roman +rule and was, in turn, gradually sapped by Rome. Greek influence +continued, but the interest became largely philosophical. Ultimately +Alexandria became the seat of a metaphysical school of Christian theology, +and the scene of bitter religious controversies. In 330 A.D., +Constantinople was founded on the site of the earlier Byzantium, and soon +thereafter Greek scholars transferred their interest to it and made it a +new center of Greek learning. There Greek science, literature, and +philosophy were preserved for ten centuries, and later handed back to a +Europe just awakening from the long intellectual night of the Middle Ages. +In 640 A.D. Alexandria was taken by the Mohammedans, and the university +ceased to exist. The great library was destroyed, furnishing, it is said, +"fuel sufficient for four thousand public baths for a period of six +months," and Greek learning was extinguished in the western world. + +OUR DEBT TO HELLAS. As a political power the Greek States left the world +nothing of importance. As a people they were too individualistic, and +seemed to have a strange inability to unite for political purposes. To the +new power slowly forming to the westward--Rome--was left the important +task, which the Greek people were never able to accomplish, of uniting +civilization into one political whole. The world conquest that Greece made +was intellectual. As a result, her contribution to civilization was +artistic, literary, philosophical, and scientific, but not political. The +Athenian Greeks were a highly artistic and imaginative rather than a +practical people. They spent their energy on other matters than government +and conquest. As a result the world will be forever indebted to them for +an art and a literature of incomparable beauty and richness which still +charms mankind; a philosophy which deeply influenced the early Christian +religion, and has ever since tinged the thinking of the western world; and +for many important beginnings in scientific knowledge which were lost for +ages to a world that had no interest in or use for science. So deeply has +our whole western civilization been tinctured by Greek thought that one +enthusiastic writer has exclaimed,--"Except the blind forces of Nature, +nothing moves in this world which is not Greek in its origin." [14] (R. +11) + +In education proper the old Athenian education offers us many lessons of +importance that we of to-day may well heed. In the emphasis they placed on +moral worth, education of the body as well as the mind, and moderation in +all things, they were much ahead of us. Their schools became a type for +the cities of the entire Mediterranean world, being found from the Black +Sea south to the Persian Gulf and westward to Spain. When Rome became a +world empire the Greek school system was adopted, and in modified form +became dominant in Rome and throughout the provinces, while the +universities of the Greek cities for long furnished the highest form of +education for ambitious Roman youths. In this way Greek influence was +spread throughout the Mediterranean world. The higher learning of the +Greeks, preserved first at Athens and Alexandria, and later at +Constantinople, was finally handed back to the western world at the time +of the Italian Revival of Learning, after Europe had in part recovered +from the effects of the barbarian deluge which followed the downfall of +Rome. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Try to picture what might have been the result for western civilization +had the small and newly-developed democratic civilization of Greece been +crushed by the Persians at the time they overran the Greek peninsula. + +2. Do periods of great political, commercial, and intellectual expansion +usually subject old systems of morality and education to severe strain? +Illustrate. + +3. Why was the change in the type of Athenian education during the Ephebic +years a natural and even a necessary one for the new Athens? + +4. Do you understand that the system of training before the Ephebic years +was also seriously changed, or was the change largely a re-shaping and +extension of the education of youths after sixteen? + +5. Were the Sophists a good addition to the Athenian instructing force, or +not? Why? + +6. How may a State establish a corrective for such a flood of +individualism as overwhelmed Greece, and still allow individual +educational initiative and progress? + +7. Do we as a nation face danger from the flood of individualism we have +encouraged in the past? How is our problem like and unlike that of Athens +after the Peloponnesian War? + +8. What is the place in Greek life and thought of the ideal treatises on +education written by Xenophon, Plato, and Aristotle, after the flood of +individualism had set in? + +9. In what ways was the conquest of Alexander good for world civilization? + +10. Of what importance is it, in the history of our western civilization, +that Greek thought had so thoroughly permeated the eastern Mediterranean +world before Roman armies conquered the region? + +11. Picture for yourself the great intellectual advances of the Greeks by +contrasting the tribal preparedness-type of education of the early Greek +States and the learning possessed by the scholars of the University at +Alexandria. + +12. Compare the spread of Greek language and knowledge throughout the +eastern Mediterranean world, following the conquests of Alexander, with +the spread of the English language and ideas as to government throughout +the modern world. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 7. Wilkins: Athens in the Time of Pericles. + 8. Isocrates: The Instruction of the Sophists. + 9. Xenophon: An Example of Socratic Teaching. + 10. Draper: The Schools of Alexandria. + 11. Butcher: What we Owe to Greece. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Characterize the many educational influences of Athens, as pictured by +Wilkins (7). + +2. Were the evils of the Sophist teachers, which Isocrates points out (8), +natural ones? Compare with teachers of vocal training to-day. + +3. What would be necessary for the proper training of one for eloquence? +Could any Sophist teacher have trained anyone? + +4. Would it be possible to-day for any one city to become such a center of +the world's intellectual life as did Alexandria (10)? Why? + +5. Could the Socratic method (9) be applied to instruction in psychology, +ethics, history, and science equally well? Why? To what class of subjects +is the Socratic quiz applicable? + +6. How do you account for the fact that the wonderful promise of +Alexandrian science was not fulfilled? + +7. State our debt to the Greeks (11). + + +SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES + +_The most important references are indicated by an *_ + +* Bevan, J. O. _University Life in Olden Time_. +* Butcher, S. H. _Some Aspects of the Greek Genius_. +* Davidson, Thos. _Aristotle, and Ancient Educational Ideals_. +* Freeman, K. J. _Schools of Hellas_. + Gulick, C. B. _The Life of the Ancient Greeks_. +* Kingsley, Chas. _Alexandria and her Schools_. + Laurie, S. S. _Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education_. +* Mahaffy, J. P. _Old Greek Education_. + Sandys, J. E. _History of Classical Scholarship_, vol. I. + Walden, John W. H. _The Universities of Ancient Greece_. + Wilkins, A. S. _National Education in Greece in the Fourth + Century_, B.C. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE EDUCATION AND WORK OF ROME + + +I. THE ROMANS AND THEIR MISSION + +DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROMAN STATE. About the time that the Hellenes, in the +City-States of the Greek peninsula, had brought their civilization to its +Golden Age, another branch of the great Aryan race, which had previously +settled in the Italian peninsula, had begun the creation of a new +civilization there which was destined to become extended and powerful. At +the beginning of recorded history we find a number of tribes of this +branch of the Aryan race settled in different parts of Italy, as is shown +in Figure 16. Slowly, but gradually, the smallest of these divisions, the +Latins, extended its rule over the other tribes, and finally over the +Greek settlements to the south and the Gauls to the north, so that by 201 +B.C. the entire Italian peninsula had become subject to the City-State +government at Rome. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16. THE EARLY PEOPLES OF ITALY, AND THE EXTENSION OF +THE ROMAN POWER +In 509 B.C. Attica opened her citizenship to all free inhabitants, and +half a century later the Golden Age of Greece was in full swing. By 338 +B.C. Greece's glory had departed. Philip of Macedon had become master, and +its political freedom was over. By 264 B.C. the center of Greek life and +thought had been transferred to Alexandria, and Rome's great expansion had +begun.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17. THE PRINCIPAL ROMAN ROADS] + +By a wise policy of tolerance, patience, conciliation, and assimilation +the Latins gradually became the masters of all Italy. Unlike the Greek +City-States, Rome seemed to possess a natural genius for the art of +government. Upon the people she conquered she bestowed the great gift of +Roman citizenship, and she attached them to her by granting local +government to their towns and by interfering as little as possible with +their local manners, speech, habits, and institutions. By founding +colonies among them and by building excellent military roads to them, she +insured her rule, and by kindly and generous treatment she bound the +different Italian peoples ever closer and closer to the central government +at Rome. By a most wonderful understanding of the psychology of other +peoples, new in the world before the work of Rome, and not seen again +until the work of the English in the nineteenth century, Rome gradually +assimilated the peoples of the Italian peninsula and in time amalgamated +them into a single Roman race. In speech, customs, manners, and finally in +blood she Romanized the different tribes and brought them under her +leadership. Later this same process was extended to Spain, Gaul, and even +to far-off Britain. + +A CONCRETE, PRACTICAL PEOPLE. The Roman people were a concrete, practical, +constructive nation of farmers and herdsmen (R. 14), merchants and +soldiers, governors and executives. The whole of the early struggle of the +Latins to extend their rule and absorb the other tribes of the peninsula +called for practical rulers--warriors who were at the same time +constructive statesmen and executives who possessed power and insight, +energy, and personality. The long struggle for political and social +rights, [1] carried on by the common people (_plebeians_) with the ruling +class (_patricians_), tended early to shape their government along rough +but practical lines, [2] and to elevate law and orderly procedure among +the people. The later extension of the Empire to include many distant +lands--how vast the Roman Empire finally became may be seen from the map +on the following page--called still more for a combination of force, +leadership, tolerance, patience, executive power, and insight into the +psychology of subject people to hold such a vast empire together. Only a +great, creative people, working along very practical lines, could have +used and used so well the opportunity which came to Rome [3] + +[Illustration: FIG. 18. THE GREAT EXTENT OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE +The map shows the Roman Empire as it was by the end of the first century +A.D., and the tribes shown beyond the frontier are as they were at the +beginning of the fourth century A.D. It was 2500 miles, air line, from the +eastern end of the Black Sea to the western coasts of Spain, 1400 miles +from Rome to Palestine, and 1100 miles from Rome to northern Britain. To +maintain order in this vast area Rome depended on the loyalty of her +subjects, the strength of her armies, her military roads, and a messenger +service by horse, yet throughout this vast area she imposed her law and a +unified government for centuries.] + +THE GREAT MISSION OF ROME. Had Rome tried to impose her rule and her ways +and her mode of thought on her subject people, and to reduce them to +complete subjection to her, as the modern German and Austrian Empires, for +example, tried to do with the peoples who came under their control, the +Roman Empire could never have been created, and what would have saved +civilization from complete destruction during the period of the barbarian +invasions is hard to see. Instead, Rome treated her subjects as her +friends, and not as conquered peoples; led them to see that their +interests were identical with hers; gave them large local independence and +freedom in government, under her strong control of general affairs; opened +up her citizenship [4] and the line of promotion in the State to her +provincials; [5] and won them to the peace and good order which she +everywhere imposed by the advantages she offered through a common +language, common law, common coinage, common commercial arrangements, +common state service, and the common treatment of all citizens of every +race. [6] In consequence, the provincial was willingly absorbed into the +common Roman race [7]--absorbed in dress, manners, religion, political and +legal institutions, family names, and, most important of all, in language. +As a result, race pride and the native tongues very largely disappeared, +and Latin became the spoken language of all except the lower classes +throughout the whole of the Western Empire. Only in the eastern +Mediterranean, where the Hellenic tongue and the Hellenic civilization +still dominated, did the Latin language make but little headway, and here +Rome had the good sense not to try to impose her speech or her culture. +Instead she absorbed the culture of the East, while the East accepted in +return the Roman government and Roman law, and Latin in time became the +language of the courts and of government. + +Having stated thus briefly the most prominent characteristics of the Roman +people, and indicated their great work for civilization, let us turn back +and trace the development of such educational system as existed among +them, see in what it consisted, how it modified the life and habits of +thinking of the Roman people, and what educational organization or +traditions Rome passed on to western civilization. + + +II. THE PERIOD OF HOME EDUCATION + +THE EARLY ROMANS AND THEIR TRAINING. In the early history of the Romans +there were no schools, and it was not until about 300 B.C. that even +primary schools began to develop. What education was needed was imparted +in the home or in the field and in the camp, and was of a very simple +type. Certain virtues were demanded--modesty, firmness, prudence, piety, +courage, seriousness, and regard for duty--and these were instilled both +by precept and example. Each home was a center of the religious life, and +of civic virtue and authority. In it the father was a high priest, with +power of life and death over wife and children. He alone conversed with +the gods and prepared the sacrifices. The wife and mother, however, held a +high place in the home and in the training of the children, the marriage +tie being regarded as very sacred. She also occupied a respected position +in society, and was complete mistress of the house (R. 17). + +The religion of the city was an outgrowth of that of the home. Virtue, +courage, duty, justice--these became the great civic virtues. Their +religion, both family and state, lacked the beauty and stately ceremonial +of the Greeks, lacked that lofty faith and aspiration after virtue that +characterized the Hebrew and the later Christian faith, was singularly +wanting in awe and mystery, and was formal and mechanical and practical +[8] in character, but it exercised a great influence on these early +peoples and on their conceptions of their duty to the State. + +The father trained the son for the practical duties of a man and a +citizen; the mother trained the daughter to become a good housekeeper, +wife, and mother. Morality, character, obedience to parents and to the +State, and whole-hearted service were emphasized. The boy's father taught +him to read, write, and count. Stories of those who had done great deeds +for the State were told, and martial songs were learned and sung. After +450 B.C. every boy had to learn the Laws of the Twelve Tables (R. 12), and +be able to explain their meaning (R. 13). As the boy grew older he +followed his father in the fields and in the public place and listened to +the conversation of men. [9] If the son of a patrician he naturally +learned much more from his father, by reason of his larger knowledge and +larger contact with men of affairs and public business, than if he were +the son of a plebeian. Through games as a boy, and later in the exercises +of the fields and the camps, the boy gained what physical training he +received. [10] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19. A ROMAN FATHER INSTRUCTING HIS SON +(From a Roman Sarcophagus)] + +EDUCATION BY DOING. It was largely an education by doing, as was that of +the old Greek period, though entirely different in character. Either by +apprenticeship to the soldier, farmer, or statesman, or by participation +in the activities of a citizen, was the training needed imparted. Its +purpose was to produce good fathers, citizens, and soldiers. [11] Its +ideals were found in the real and practical needs of a small State, where +the ability to care for one's self was a necessary virtue. To be healthy +and strong, to reverence the gods and the institutions of the State, to +obey his parents and the laws, to be proud of his family connections and +his ancestors, to be brave and efficient in war, to know how to farm or to +manage a business, were the aims and ends of this early training. It +produced a nation of citizens who willingly subordinated themselves to the +interests of the State, [12] a nation of warriors who brought all Italy +under their rule, a calculating, practical people who believed themselves +destined to become the conquerors and rulers of the world, and a reserved +and proud race, trained to govern and to do business, but not possessed of +lofty ideals or large enthusiasms in life (Rs. 15, 16). + + +III. THE TRANSITION TO SCHOOL EDUCATION + +BEGINNINGS OF SCHOOL EDUCATION. Up to about 300 B.C. education had been +entirely in the home, and in the activities of the fields and the State. +It was a period of personal valor and stern civic virtue, in a rather +primitive type of society, as yet but little in contact with the outside +world, and little need of any other type of training had been felt. By the +end of the third century B.C., the influence of contact with the Greek +cities of southern Italy and Sicily (_Magna Graecia_), and the influence +of the extensive conquests of Alexander the Great in the eastern +Mediterranean (334-323 B.C.), had begun to be felt in Italy. By that time +Greek had become the language of commerce and diplomacy throughout the +Mediterranean, and Greek scholars and tradesmen had begun to frequent +Rome. By 303 B.C. it seems certain that a few private teachers had set up +primary schools at Rome to supplement the home training, and had begun the +introduction of the pedagogue as a fashionable adjunct to attract +attention to their schools. These schools, however, were only a fad at +first, and were patronized only by a few of the wealthy citizens. Up to +about 250 B.C., at least, Roman education remained substantially as it had +been in the preceding centuries. Reading, writing, declamation, chanting, +and the Laws of the Twelve Tables still constituted the subject-matter of +instruction, and the old virtues continued to be emphasized. + +By the middle of the third century B.C. Rome had expanded its rule to +include nearly all the Italian peninsula (see Figure 16), and was +transforming itself politically from a little rural City-State into an +Empire, with large world relationships. A knowledge of Greek now came to +be demanded both for diplomatic and for business reasons, and the need of +a larger culture, to correspond with the increased importance of the +State, began to be felt by the wealthier and better-educated classes. +Greek scholars, brought in as captured slaves from the Greek colonies of +southern Italy, soon began to be extensively employed as teachers and as +secretaries. + +About 233 B.C., Livius Andronicus, who had been brought to Rome as a slave +when Tarentum, one of the Greek cities of southern Italy, was captured, +[13] and who later had obtained his freedom, made a translation of the +Odyssey into Latin, and became a teacher of Latin and Greek at Rome. This +had a wonderful effect in developing schools and a literary atmosphere at +Rome. The _Odyssey_ at once became the great school textbook, in time +supplanting the Twelve Tables, and literary and school education now +rapidly developed. The Latin language became crystallized in form, and +other Greek works were soon translated. The beginnings of a native Latin +literature were now made. Greek higher schools were opened, many Greek +teachers and slaves offered instruction, and the Hellenic scheme of +culture, as it had previously developed in Attica, soon became the fashion +at Rome. + +CHANGES IN NATIONAL IDEALS. The second century B.C. was even more a period +of rapid change in all phases and aspects of Roman life. During this +century Rome became a world empire, annexing Spain, Carthage, Illyria, and +Greece, and during the century that followed she subjugated northern +Africa, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Gaul to the Elbe and the Danube (see Figure +18). Rome soon became mistress of the whole Mediterranean world. Her ships +plied the seas, her armies and governors ruled the land. The introduction +of wealth, luxuries, and slaves from the new provinces, which followed +their capture, soon had a very demoralizing influence upon the people. +Private and public religion and morality rapidly declined; religion came +to be an empty ceremonial; divorce became common; wealth and influence +ruled the State; slaves became very cheap and abundant, and were used for +almost every type of service. From a land of farmers of small farms, +sturdy and self-supporting, who lived simply, reared large families, +feared the gods, respected the State, and made an honest living, it became +a land of great estates and wealthy men, and the self-respecting peasantry +were transformed into soldiers for foreign wars, or joined the rabble in +the streets of Rome. [14] Wealth became the great desideratum, and the +great avenue to this was through the public service, either as army +commanders and governors, or as public men who could sway the multitude +and command votes and influence. Manifestly the old type of education was +not intended to meet such needs, and now in Rome, as previously in Athens, +a complete transformation in the system of training for the young took +place. The imaginative and creative Athenians, when confronted by a great +change in national ideals, evolved a new type of education adapted to the +new needs of the time; the unimaginative and practical Romans merely +adopted that which the Athenians had created. + +THE HELLENIZATION OF ROME. The result was the Hellenization of the +intellectual life of Rome, making complete the Hellenization of the +Mediterranean world. After the fall of Greece, in 146 B.C., a great influx +of educated Greeks took place. As the Latin poet Horace expressed it: + + Captive Greece took captive her rude conqueror, + And brought the arts to Latium. + +So completely did the Greek educational system seem to meet the needs of +the changed Roman State that at first the Greek schools were adopted +bodily--Greek language, pedagogue, higher schools of rhetoric and +philosophy, and all--and the schools were in reality Greek schools but +slightly modified to meet the needs of Rome. _Gymnasia_ were erected, and +wealthy Romans, as well as youths, began to spend their leisure in +studying Greek and in trying to learn gymnastic exercises. + +In time the national pride and practical sense of the Romans led them to +open so-called "culture schools" of their own, modeled after the Greek. +The Latin language then replaced the Greek as the vehicle of instruction, +though Greek was still studied extensively, and Rome began the development +of a system of private-school instruction possessing some elements that +were native to Roman life and Roman needs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20. CATO THE ELDER (234-149 B.C.)] + +STRUGGLE AGAINST, AND FINAL VICTORY. That this great change in national +ideals and in educational practice was accepted without protest should not +be imagined. Plutarch and other writers appealed to the family as the +center for all true education. Cato the elder, who died in 149 B.C., +labored hard to stem the Hellenic tide. He wrote the first Roman book on +education, in part to show what education a good citizen needed as an +orator, husbandman, jurist, and warrior, and in part as a protest against +Hellenic innovations. In 167 B.C., the first library was founded in Rome, +with books brought from Greece by the conqueror Paulus Emilius. In 161 +B.C., the Roman Senate directed the Praetor to see "that no philosophers +or rhetoricians be suffered in Rome" (R. 20 a), but the edict could not be +enforced. In 92 B.C., the Censors issued an edict expressing their +disapproval of such schools (R. 20 b). By 100 B.C., the Hellenic victory +was complete, and the Graeco-Roman school system had taken form. In 27 +B.C., Rome ceased to be a Republic and became an Empire, and under the +Emperors the professors of the new learning were encouraged and protected, +higher schools were established in the provinces, literature and +philosophy were opened as possible careers, and the Greek language, +literature, and learning were spread, under Roman imperial protection, to +every corner of the then civilized world. This victory of Hellenic thought +and learning at Rome, viewed in the light of the future history of the +civilization of the world, was an event of large importance. + + +IV. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM AS FINALLY ESTABLISHED + +THE LUDUS, OR PRIMARY SCHOOL. The elementary school, known as the _ludus_, +or _ludus literarum_, the teacher of which was known as a _ludi magister_, +was the beginning or primary school of the scheme as finally evolved. This +corresponded to the school of the Athenian _grammatist_, and like it the +instruction consisted of reading, writing, and counting. These schools +were open to both sexes, but were chiefly frequented by boys. They were +entered at the age of seven, sometimes six, and covered the period up to +twelve. Reading and writing were taught by much the same methods as in the +Greek schools, and approximately the same writing materials were used. +Something of the same difficulty was experienced also in mastering the +reading art (R. 21). Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek historian who +lived in Rome for twenty-two years, during the first century B.C., has +left us a clear description of the Roman method of teaching reading: + + When we learned to read was it not necessary at first to know the name + of the letters, their shape, their value in syllables, their + differences, then the words and their case, their quantity long or + short, their accent, and the rest? + + Arrived at this point we began to read and write, slowly at first and + syllable by syllable. Some time afterwards, the forms being + sufficiently engraved on our memory, we read more cursorily, in the + elementary book, then in all sorts of books, finally with incredible + quickness and without making any mistake. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21. ROMAN WRITING-MATERIALS. +Inkstand, pen, letter, box of manuscripts, wax tablets, stylus.] + +Writing seems rather to have followed reading, and, as in the Greek +schools, the pupils copied down from dictation and made their own books +(_dictata_). Literature received no such emphasis in the elementary +schools of Rome as in those of the Greeks, and the _palaestra_ of the +Greeks was not reproduced at Rome. + +Due in part to the practical character of the Roman people, to the +established habit of keeping careful household accounts, to the +difficulties of their system of calculation, [15] to the practice of +finger reckoning, and to the vast commercial and financial interests that +the Romans formed throughout the world which they conquered, arithmetic +became a subject of fundamental importance in their schools, and much time +was given to securing perfection in calculation and finger reckoning. [16] +Hence it occupied a place of large importance in the primary school. An +abacus or counting-board was used, similar to the one shown in Figure 22, +and Horace mentions a bag of stones (_calculi_) as a part of a schoolboy's +equipment. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22. A ROMAN COUNTING-BOARD. +Pebbles were used, those nearest the numbered dividing partition being +counted. Each pebble above when moved downward counted five of those in +the same division below. The board now shows 8,760,254.] + +THE _LUDI MAGISTER_. The _ludi magister_ at Rome held a position even less +enviable than that held by the _grammatist_ at Athens. "The starveling +Greek," who was glad to barter his knowledge for the certainty of a good +dinner, was sneered at by many Roman writers. Many slaves were engaged in +this type of instruction, bringing in fees for their owners. It was not +regarded as of importance that the teachers of these schools be of high +grade. The establishment of and attendance at these primary schools was +wholly voluntary, and the children in them probably represented but a +small percentage of those of school age in the total population. These +schools became quite common in the Italian cities, and in time were found +in the provincial cities of the Empire as well. They remained, however, +entirely private-adventure undertakings, the State doing nothing toward +encouraging their establishment, supervising the instruction in them, or +requiring attendance at them. They were in no sense free schools, nor were +the prices for instruction fixed, as in our private schools of to-day. +Instead, the pupil made a present to the master, usually at some +understood rate, though some masters left the size of the fee to the +liberality of their pupils. [17] The pedagogue, copied from Greece, was +nearly always an old or infirm slave of the family. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23. A ROMAN PRIMARY SCHOOL(_Ludus_) +(From a fresco found at Herculaneum). This shows a school held in a +portico of a house.] + +The schools were held anywhere--in a portico (see Figure 23), in a shed or +booth in front of a house, in a store, or in a recessed corner shut in by +curtains. A chair for the master, benches for the pupils, an outer room +for cloaks and for the pedagogues to wait in, and a bundle of rods +(_ferula_) constituted the necessary equipment. The pupils brought with +them boxes containing writing-materials, book-rolls, and reckoning-stones. +Schools began early in the morning, pupils in winter going with lanterns +to their tasks. There was much flogging of children, and in Martial we +find an angry epigram which he addressed to a schoolmaster who disturbed +his sleep (R. 23 a). + +THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Secondary or Latin grammar schools, under a +_grammaticus_, and covering instruction from the age of twelve to sixteen, +had become clearly differentiated from the primary schools under a _ludi +magister_ by the time of the death of Cato, 149 B.C. At first this higher +instruction began in the form of private tutors, probably in the homes of +the wealthy, and Greek was the language taught. By the beginning of the +first century B.C., however, Latin secondary schools began to arise, and +in time these too spread to all the important cities of the Empire. +Attendance at them was wholly voluntary, and was confined entirely to the +children of the well-to-do classes. The teachers were Greeks, or Latins +who had been trained by the Greeks. Each teacher taught as he wished, but +the schools throughout the Empire came to be much the same in character. +The course of study consisted chiefly of instruction in grammar and +literature, the purpose being to secure such a mastery of the Latin +language and Greek and Latin literatures as might be most helpful in +giving that broader culture now recognized as the mark of an educated man, +and in preparing the young Roman to take up the life of an orator and +public official (R. 24). Both Greek and Latin secondary schools were in +existence, and Quintilian, the foremost Roman writer on educational +practice, recommends attendance at the Greek school first. + +Grammar was studied first, and was intended to develop correctness in the +use of speech. With its careful study of words, phonetic changes, drill on +inflections, and practice in composing and paragraphing, this made a +strong appeal to the practical Roman and became a favorite study. +Literature followed, and was intended to develop an appreciation for +literary style, elevate thought, expand one's knowledge, and, by +memorization and repetition, to train the powers of expression. The method +practiced was much as follows: The selection was carefully read first by +the teacher, and then by the pupils. [18] After the reading the selection +was gone over again and the historical, geographical, and mythological +allusions were carefully explained by the teacher. [19] The text was next +critically examined, to point out where and how it might be improved and +its expressions strengthened, and much paraphrasing of it was engaged in. +Finally the study of the selection was rounded out by _a judgment_--that +is, a critical estimate of the work, a characterization of the author's +style, and a resume of his chief merits and defects. The foundations were +here laid for Grammar and Rhetoric as the great studies of the Middle +Ages. + +Homer and Menander were the favorite authors in Greek, and Vergil, Horace, +Sallust, and Livy in Latin, with much use of _Aesop's Fables_ for work in +composition. The pupils made their own books from dictation, though in +later years educated slave labor became so cheap that the copying and sale +of books was organized into a business at Rome, and it was possible for +the children of wealthy parents to own their own books. Grammar, +composition, elocution, ethics, history, mythology, and geography were all +comprehended in the instruction in grammar and literature in the secondary +schools. A little music was added at times, to help the pupil intone his +reading and declamation. A little geometry and astronomy were also +included, for their practical applications. The athletic exercises of the +Greeks were rejected, as contributing to immorality and being a waste of +time and strength. In a sense these schools were finishing schools for +Roman youths who went to any school at all, much as are our high schools +of to-day for the great bulk of American children. The schools were better +housed than those of the _ludi_, and the masters were of a better quality +and received larger fees. Like the elementary schools, the State exercised +no supervision or control over these schools or the teachers or pupils in +them. + +THE SCHOOLS OF RHETORIC. Up to this point the schools established had been +for practical and useful information (the primary schools) or cultural +(the grammar or secondary schools). On top of these a higher and +professional type of school was next developed, to train youths in +rhetoric and oratory, preparatory to the great professions of law and +public life at Rome. [20] These schools were direct descendants of the +Greek rhetorical schools, which evolved from the schools of the Sophists. +Suetonius [21] tells us that: + + Rhetoric, also, as well as grammar, was not introduced amongst us + till a late period, and with still more difficulty, inasmuch as we + find that, at times, the practice of it was even prohibited. [22] ... + However, by slow degrees, rhetoric manifested itself to be a useful + and honorable study, and many persons devoted themselves to it both as + a means of defense and of acquiring a reputation. In consequence, + public favor was so much attracted to the study of rhetoric that a + vast number of professional and learned men devoted themselves to it; + and it flourished to such a degree that some of them raised themselves + by it to the rank of senators and to the highest offices. + +These schools, the teachers of which were known as _rhetors_, furnished a +type of education representing a sort of collegiate education for the +period. They were oratorical in purpose, because the orator had become the +Roman ideal of a well-educated man (R. 24). During the life of the +Republic the orator found many opportunities for the constructive use of +his ability, and all young men ambitious to enter law or politics found +the training of these schools a necessary prerequisite. They were attended +for two or three years by boys over sixteen, but only the wealthier and +more aristocratic families could afford to send their boys to them. + +In addition to oratorical and some legal training, these schools included +a further linguistic and literary training, some mathematical and +scientific knowledge, and even some philosophy. The famous "Seven Liberal +Arts" of the Middle Ages--Grammar, Rhetoric, and Dialectic; Music, +Arithmetic, Geometry, and Astronomy--all seem to have been included in the +instruction of these schools. [23] The great studies, though, were the +first three and some Law, Music being studied largely to help with +gestures and to train the voice, Geometry to aid in settling lawsuits +relating to land, Dialectic (logic) to aid in detecting fallacies, and +Astronomy to understand the movements of the heavenly bodies and the +references of literary writers. [24] There was much work in debate and in +the declamation of ethical and political material the fine distinctions in +Roman Law and Ethics were brought out, [25] and there was much drill in +preparing and delivering speeches and much attention given to the factors +involved in the preparation and delivery of a successful oration (R. 25). + +[Illustration: FIG. 24. A ROMAN SCHOOL OF RHETORIC. +This picture, which has been drawn from a description, shows a much better +type of school than that of the _ludi_.] + +These schools became very popular as institutions of higher learning, and +continued so even after the later Emperors, by seizing the power of the +State, had taken away the inspiration that comes from a love of freedom +and had thus deprived the rhetorical art of practical value. The work of +the schools then became highly stilted and artificial in character, and +oratory then came to be cultivated largely as a fine art. [26] Men +educated in these schools came to boast that they could speak with equal +effectiveness on either side of any question, and the art came to depend +on the use of many and big words and on the manners of the stage. Such +ideals naturally destroyed the value of these schools, and stopped +intellectual progress so far as they contributed to it. + +Much was done by the later Emperors to encourage these schools, and they +too came to exist in almost every provincial city in the Empire. Often +they were supported by the cities in which they were located. The Emperor +Vespasian, about 75 A.D. began the practice of paying, from the Imperial +Treasury, the salaries of grammarians and rhetoricians [27] at Rome. +Antoninus Pius, who ruled as Emperor from 138 to 161 A.D., extended +payment to the provinces, gave to these teachers the privileges of the +senatorial class, and a certain number in each city were exempted from +payment of taxes, support of soldiers, and obligations to military +service. Other Emperors extended these special privileges (R. 26) which +became the basis for the special rights afterwards granted to the +Christian clergy (R. 38) and, still later, to teachers in the universities +(Rs. 101-04). + +UNIVERSITY LEARNING. Roman youths desiring still further training could +now journey to the eastward and attend the Greek universities (see Figure +14). A few did so, much as American students in the middle of the +nineteenth century went to Germany for higher study. Athens and Rhodes +were most favored. Brutus, Horace, and Cicero, among others, studied at +Athens; Caesar, Cicero, and Cassius at Rhodes. Later Alexandria was in +favor. In a library founded in the Temple of Peace by Vespasian (ruled 69 +to 79 A.D.) the University at Rome had its origin, and in time this +developed into an institution with professors in law, medicine, +architecture, mathematics and mechanics, and grammar and rhetoric in both +the Latin and Greek languages. In this many youths from provincial cities +came to study. The lines of instruction represented nothing, however, in +the way of scientific investigation or creative thought; the instruction +was formal and dogmatic, being largely a further elaboration of what had +previously been well done by the Greeks. + +NATURE OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM DEVELOPED. Such was the educational +system which was finally evolved to meet the new cultural needs of the +Roman Empire. In all its foundation elements it was Greek. Having +borrowed--conquered one might almost say--Greek religion, philosophy, +literature, and learning, the Romans naturally borrowed also the school +system that had been evolved to impart this culture. Never before or since +has any people adapted so completely to their own needs the system of +educational training evolved by another. To the Greek basis some +distinctively Roman elements were added to adapt it better to the peculiar +needs of their own people, while on the other hand many of the finer Greek +characteristics were omitted entirely. Having once adopted the Greek plan, +the constructive Roman mind organized it into a system superior to the +original, but in so doing formalized it more than the Greeks had ever done +(R. 19). + +[Illustration: FIG. 25. THE ROMAN VOLUNTARY EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM, AS FINALLY +EVOLVED] + +That the system afforded an opportunity to wealthy Romans to obtain for +their children some understanding and appreciation of the culture of the +Greek world with which their Empire was now in contact, and answered +fairly well the preparatory needs along political and governmental lines +of those Romans who could afford to educate their boys for such careers, +can hardly be doubted (R. 22). Roman writers on education, especially +Cicero (R. 24) and Quintilian (R. 25), give us abundant testimony as to +the value and usefulness of the system evolved in the training of orators +and men for the public service. In the provinces, too, we know that the +schools were very useful in inculcating Roman traditions and in helping +the Romans to assimilate the sons of local princes and leaders. [28] +During the days of the Republic the schools were naturally more useful +than after the establishment of the Empire, and especially after the later +Emperors had stamped out many of the political and civic liberties for the +enjoyment of which the schools prepared. On the other hand, the schools +reached but a small, selected class of youths, trained for only the +political career, and cannot be considered as ever having been general or +as having educated any more than a small percentage of the future citizens +of the State. Many of the important lines of activity in which the Romans +engaged, and which to-day are regarded as monuments to their constructive +skill and practical genius, such as architectural achievements, the +building of roads and aqueducts, the many skilled trades, and the large +commercial undertakings, these schools did nothing to prepare youths for. +The State, unlike Athens, never required education of any one, did not +make what was offered a preparation for citizenship, and made no attempt +to regulate either teachers or instruction until late in the history of +the Empire. Education at Rome was from the first purely a private- +adventure affair, most nearly analogous with us to instruction in music +and dancing. Those who found the education offered of any value could take +it and pay for it; those who did not could let it alone. A few did the +former, the great mass of the Romans the latter. For the great slave class +that developed at Rome there was, of course, no education at all. + +RESULTS ON ROMAN LIFE AND GOVERNMENT. Still, out of this private and +tuition system of schools many capable political leaders and executives +came--men who exercised great influence on the history of the State, +fought out her political battles, organized and directed her government at +home and in the provinces, and helped build up that great scheme of +government and law and order which was Rome's most significant +contribution to future civilization. [29] It was in this direction, and in +practical and constructive work along engineering and architectural lines, +that Rome excelled. The Roman genius for government and law and order and +constructive undertakings must be classed, in importance for the future of +civilization in the world, along with the ability of Greece in literature +and philosophy and art. "If," says Professor Adams, "as is sometimes said, +that in the course of history there is no literature which rivals the +Greek except the English, it is perhaps even more true that the Anglo- +Saxon is the only race which can be placed beside the Romans in creative +power and in politics." The conquest of the known world by this practical +and constructive people could not have otherwise than decisively +influenced the whole course of human history, and, coming at the time in +world affairs that it did, the influence on all future civilization of the +work of Rome has been profound. The great political fact which dominated +all the Middle Ages, and shaped the religion and government and +civilization of the time, was the fact that the Roman Empire had been and +had done its work so well. + + +V. ROME'S CONTRIBUTION TO CIVILIZATION + +GREECE AND ROME CONTRASTED. The contrast between the Greeks and the Romans +is marked in almost every particular. The Greeks were an imaginative, +subjective, artistic, and idealistic people, with little administrative +ability and few practical tendencies. The Romans, on the other hand, were +an unimaginative, concrete, practical, and constructive nation. Greece +made its great contribution to world civilization in literature and +philosophy and art; Rome in law and order and government. The Greeks lived +a life of aesthetic enjoyment of the beautiful in nature and art, and +their basis for estimating the worth of a thing was intellectual and +artistic; to the Romans the aesthetic and the beautiful made little +appeal, and their basis for estimating the worth of a thing was +utilitarian. The Greeks worshiped "the beautiful and the good," and tried +to enjoy life rationally and nobly, while the Romans worshiped force and +effectiveness, and lived by rule and authority. The Greeks thought in +personal terms of government and virtue and happiness, while the Romans +thought in general terms of law and duty, and their happiness was rather +in present denial for future gain than in any immediate enjoyment. + +As a result the Romans developed no great scholarly or literary +atmosphere, as the Greeks had done at Athens, They built up no great +speculative philosophies, and framed no great theories of government. Even +their literature was, in part, an imitation of the Greek, though +possessing many elements of native strength and beauty. They were a people +who knew how to accomplish results rather than to speculate about means +and ends. Usefulness and effectiveness were with them the criteria of the +worth of any idea or project. They subdued and annexed an empire, they +gave law and order to a primitive world, they civilized and Romanized +barbarian tribes, they built roads connecting all parts of their Empire +that were the best the world had ever known, their aqueducts and bridges +were wonders of engineering skill, their public buildings and monuments +still excite admiration and envy, in many of the skilled trades they +developed tools and processes of large future usefulness, and their +agriculture was the best the world had known up to that time. They were +strong where the Greeks were weak, and weak where the Greeks were strong. + +By reason of this difference the two peoples supplemented one another well +in the work of laying the foundations upon which our modern civilization +has been built. Greece created the intellectual and aesthetic ideals and +the culture for our life, while Rome developed the political institutions +under which ideals may be realized and culture may be enjoyed. From the +Greeks and Hebrews our modern life has drawn its great inspirations and +its ideals for life, while from the Romans we have derived our ideals as +to government and obedience to law. One may say that the Romans as a +people specialized in government, law, order, and constructive practical +undertakings, and bequeathed to posterity a wonderful inheritance in +governmental forms, legal codes, commercial processes, and engineering +undertakings, while the Greeks left to us a philosophy, literature, art, +and a world culture which the civilized world will never cease to enjoy. +The Greeks were an imaginative, impulsive, and a joyous people; the Romans +sedate, severe, and superior to the Greeks in persistence and moral force. +The Greeks were ever young; the Romans were always grown and serious men. + +ROME'S GREAT CONTRIBUTION. Rome's great contribution, then, was along the +lines just indicated. To this, the school system which became established +in the Roman State contributed only indirectly and but little. The +unification of the ancient world into one Empire, with a common body of +traditions, practices, coinage, speech, and law, which made the triumph of +Christianity possible; the formulation of a body of law [30] which +barbarian tribes accepted, which was studied throughout the Middle Ages, +which formed the basis of the legal system of the mediaeval Church, and +which has largely influenced modern practice; the development of a +language from which many modern tongues have been derived, and which has +modified all western languages; and the perfection of an alphabet which +has become the common property of all nations whose civilization has been +derived from the Greek and Roman--these constitute the chief contributions +of Rome to modern civilization. + +Roman city government, too, had been established throughout all the +provincial cities, and this remained after the Empire had passed away. The +municipal corporation, with its charter of rights, has ever since been a +fixed idea in the western world. Roman law, organized into a compact code, +and studied in the law schools of the Middle Ages, has modified our modern +ideas and practices to a degree we scarcely realize. It was accepted by +the German rulers as a permanent thing after they had overrun the Empire, +and it remained as the law of the courts wherever Roman subjects were +tried. Preserved and codified at Constantinople under Justinian in the +sixth century, and re-introduced into western Europe when the study of law +was revived in the newly founded universities in the twelfth and +thirteenth centuries, Roman law has greatly modified all modern legal +practices and has become the basis of the legal systems of a number of +modern states. [31] + +[Illustration: FIG. 26. ORIGIN OF OUR ALPHABET +The German type, like the so-called Old English (see Fig. 45), illustrates +the corruption of letter forms through the copying of manuscripts during +the Middle Ages.] + +Of all the Roman contributions to modern civilization perhaps the one that +most completely permeates all our modern life is their alphabet and +speech. Figure 26 shows how our modern alphabet goes back to the old +Roman, which they obtained from the Greek colonies in southern Italy, and +which the Greeks obtained from the still earlier Phoenicians. This +alphabet has become the common property of almost all the civilized world. +[32] In speech, the French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian tongues go +back directly to the Latin, and these are the tongues of Mexico and South +America as well. The English language, which is spoken throughout a large +part of the civilized world, and by one third of its inhabitants, has also +received so many additions from Romanic sources that we to-day scarcely +utter a sentence without using some word once used by the citizens of +ancient Rome. + +Among the smaller but nevertheless important contributions which we owe to +Rome, and which were passed on to mediaeval and modern Europe, should be +mentioned certain practical knowledge in agriculture and the mechanic +arts; many inventions and acquired skills in the arts and trades; an +organized sea and land trade and commerce; cleared and improved lands, +good houses, roads and bridges; great architectural and engineering +remains, scattered all through the provinces; the beginnings of the +transformation of the slave into the serf, from which the great body of +freemen of modern Europe later were evolved; and certain educational +conceptions and practices which later profoundly influenced educational +methods and procedure. + +How large these contributions were we shall appreciate better as we +proceed with our history. Of the negative contributions, the most +dangerous has been the idea of the rule of one imperial government, which +has inspired the autocratic governments of modern Europe to try to imitate +the world-wide rule of Imperial Rome. + +THE WAY PAVED FOR CHRISTIANITY. It was the great civilizing and unifying +work of the Roman State that paved the way for the next great contribution +to the foundations of the structure of our modern civilization--the +contribution of Christianity. Had Italy never been consolidated; had the +barbarian tribes to the north never been conquered and Romanized; had +Spain and Africa and the eastern Mediterranean never known the rule of +Rome; had the Latin language never become the speech of the then civilized +peoples; had Roman armies never imposed law and order throughout an unruly +world; had Roman governors and courts never established common rights and +security; had Roman municipal government never come to be the common type +in the cities of the provinces; had Roman schools in the provincial cities +never trained the foreign citizen in Roman ways and to think Roman +thoughts; had Rome never established free trade and intercourse throughout +her Empire; had Rome never developed processes and skills in agriculture +and the creative arts; had there been no Roman roads and common coinage; +and had Rome not done dozens of other important things to unify and +civilize Europe and reduce it to law and order, it is hard to imagine the +chaos that would have resulted when the Empire gave way to the barbarian +hordes which finally overwhelmed it. Where we should have been to-day in +the upward march of civilization, without the work of Rome, it is +impossible to say. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Contrast the Romans as a colonizing power with the modern Germans. The +English. The French. + +2. At what period in our national development did home education with us +occupy substantially the same place as it did in Rome before 300 B.C.? In +what respects was the education given boys and girls similar? Different? + +3. What was the most marked advance over the Greeks in the early Roman +training? + +4. Contrast the education of the Athenian, Spartan, and Roman boy, during +the early period in each State. + +5. To what extent does early Roman education indicate the importance of +the parent and of study of biography in the education of the young? + +6. Was the change in character of the education of Roman youths, after the +expansion of the Roman State and the establishment of world contacts, +preventable, or was it a necessary evolution? Why? Have we ever +experienced similar changes? + +7. As a State increases in importance and enlarges its world contacts, is +a correspondingly longer training and enlarged culture necessary at home? + +8. What idea do you get as to the extent to which the Latinized Odyssey +was read from the fact that the Latin language was crystallized in form +shortly after the translation was made? + +9. What does the rapid adoption of the Greek educational system, and the +later evolution of a native educational system out of it, indicate as to +the nature of Roman expansion? + +10. Was the introduction of the Greek pedagogue as a fashionable adjunct +natural? Why? + +11. Why is a period of very rapid expansion in a State likely to be +demoralizing? How may the demoralization incident to such expansion be +anticipated and minimized? + +12. Why does the coming of large landed estates introduce important social +problems? Have we the beginnings of a social problem of this type? What +correctives have we that Rome did not have? + +13. State the economic changes which hastened the introduction of a new +type of higher training at Rome. + +14. Was the Hellenization of Rome which ensued a good thing? Why? + +15. How do you account for Rome not developing a state school system in +the period of great national need and change, instead of leaving the +matter to private initiative? Do you understand that any large percentage +of youths in the Roman State ever attended any school? + +16. Why do older people usually oppose changes in school work manifestly +needed to meet changing national demands? + +17. Compare the difficulties met with in learning to read Greek and Latin. +Either and English. + +18. How do you account for the much smaller emphasis on literature and +music in the elementary instruction at Rome than at Athens? How for the +much larger emphasis on formal grammar in the secondary schools at Rome? + +19. What subjects of study as we now know them were included in the Roman +study of grammar and rhetoric? + +20. How do you explain the greater emphasis placed by the Romans on +secondary education than on elementary education? + +21. What particular Roman need did the higher schools of oratory and +rhetoric supply? + +22. What does the exclusive devotion of these schools to such studies +indicate as to professional opportunities at Rome? + +23. How do you account for the continuance of these schools in favor, and +for the aid and encouragement they received from the later Emperors, when +the very nature of the Empire in large part destroyed the careers for +which they trained? + +24. Compare Rome and the United States in their attitudes toward foreign- +born peoples. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 12. The Laws of the Twelve Tables. + 13. Cicero: Importance of the Twelve Tables in Education. + 14. Schreiber: A Roman Farmer's Calendar. + 15. Polybius: The Roman Character. + 16. Mommsen: The Grave and Severe Character of the Earlier Romans. + 17. Epitaph: The Education of Girls. + 18. Marcus Aurelius: The Old Roman Education described. + 19. Tacitus: The Old and the New Education contrasted. + 20. Suetonius: Attempts to Prohibit the Introduction of Greek Higher + Learning. + (a) Decree of the Roman Senate, 161 B.C. + (b) Decree of the Censor, 92 B.C. + 21. Vergil: Difficulty experienced in Learning to Read. + 22. Horace: The Education given by a Father. + 23. Martial: The Ludi Magister. + (a) To the Master of a Noisy School. + (b) To a Schoolmaster. + 24. Cicero: Oratory the Aim of Education. + 25. Quintilian: On Oratory. + 26. Constantine: Privileges granted to Physicians and Teachers. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Give reasons why the Laws of the Twelve Tables (12) were considered of +such fundamental importance (13) in the education of the early Roman boy? +How do you explain their being supplanted later by the Latinized +_Odyssey_? + +2. What does the Farmer's Calendar (14) reveal as to the character of +Roman life? + +3. Contrast the Roman character (15, 16) with that of the Athenian. + +4. Compare the education of a Roman matron, as revealed by the epitaph +(17), with that of a girl in later American colonial times. + +5. After reading Marcus Aurelius (18) and Tacitus (19), what is your +judgment as to the relative merits of the old and the new education: (_a_) +as a means of training youths? (_b_) as adapted to the changed conditions +of Imperial Rome? + +6. How do you account for the attempts of the conservative officials of +the State to prohibit the introduction of Greek higher schools (20 a-b) +proving so unsuccessful? + +7. Compare the difficulties involved in learning to read Greek (Fig. 6) +and Latin (21). Either and English. + +8. What type of higher educational advantages does the selection from +Horace (22) indicate as prevailing in Roman cities? Compare with present- +day advanced education. + +9. What do Martial's Epigrams to the Roman schoolmasters (23 a-b) indicate +as to the nature of the schools, school discipline, and social status of +the Roman primary teacher? + +10. Do the selections from Cicero (24) and Quintilian (25) satisfy you +that oratory was a sufficiently broad idea for the higher education of +youths under the Empire? Why? + +11. What does the decree of Constantine (26) indicate as to the social +status of the higher teachers under the Empire? + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + + Abbott, F. F. _Society and Politics in Ancient Rome_. +* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. + Anderson, L. F. "Some Facts regarding Vocational Education among the + Greeks and Romans"; in _School Review_, vol. 20, pp. 191-201. +* Clarke, Geo. _Education of Children at Rome_. +* Dill, Sam'l. _Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western + Empire_. +* Laurie, S. S. _Historical Survey of Pre-Christian Education_. + Mahaffy, J. P. _The Silver Age of the Greek World_. + Ross, C. F. "The Strength and Weakness of Roman Education"; in + _School and Society_, vol. 6, pp. 457-63. + Sandys, J. E. _History of Classical Scholarship_, vol. i. + Thorndike, Lynn. _History of Mediaeval Europe_. + Westermann, W. L. Vocational Training in Antiquity; in _School + Review_, vol. 22, pp. 601-10. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE RISE AND CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY + + +I. THE RISE AND VICTORY OF CHRISTIANITY + +RELIGIONS IN THE ROMAN WORLD. As was stated in the preceding chapter (p. +58), the Roman state religion was an outgrowth of the religion of the +home. Just as there had been a number of fireside deities, who were +supposed to preside over the different activities of the home, so there +were many state deities who were supposed to preside over the different +activities of the State. In addition, the Romans exhibited toward the +religions of all other peoples that same tolerance and willingness to +borrow which they exhibited in so many other matters. Certain Greek +deities were taken over and temples erected to them in Rome, and new +deities, to guard over such functions as health, fortune, peace, concord, +sowing, reaping, etc., were established. [1] Extreme tolerance also was +shown toward the special religions of other peoples who had been brought +within the Empire, and certain oriental divinities had even been admitted +and given their place in Rome. + +Like many other features of Roman life, their religion was essentially of +a practical nature, dealing with the affairs of everyday life, and having +little or no relation to personal morality. [2] It promised no rewards or +punishments or hopes for a future life, but rather, by uniting all +citizens in a common reverence and fear of certain deities, helped to +unify the Empire and hold it together. After the death of Augustus (14 +A.D.), the Roman Senate deified the Emperor and enrolled his name among +the gods, and Emperor worship was added to their ceremonies. This +naturally spread rapidly throughout the Empire, tended to unite all +classes in allegiance to the central government at Rome, and seemed to +form the basis for a universal religion for a universal empire. + +FEELING THE NEED FOR SOMETHING MORE. As an educated class arose in Rome, +this mixture of diverse divinities failed to satisfy; the Roman religion, +made up as it was of state and parental duties and precautions, lost with +them its force; and the religious ceremonies of the home and the State +lost for them their meaning. The mechanical repetition of prayers and +sacrifices made no appeal to the emotions or to the moral nature of +individuals, and offered no spiritual joy or consolation as to a life +beyond. The educated Greeks before had had this same feeling, and had +indulged in much speculation as to the moral nature of man. Many educated +Romans now turned to the Greek philosophers for some more philosophical +explanation of the great mystery of life and death. + +Of all the philosophies developed in the philosophical schools of Athens, +the one that made the deepest appeal to the practical Roman mind was that +of the Stoics, founded by Zeno, 308 B.C. Virtue, claimed the Stoics, +consists in so living that one's life is in accordance with that Universal +Reason which rules the world. Riches, position, fame, success--these count +for but little. He who trains himself to be above grief, hope, joy, fear, +and the ills of life--be he slave or peasant or king--may be happy because +he is virtuous. Reason, rather than the feelings, is the proper rule of +life. The Stoics also preached the brotherhood of man, and to a degree +expressed a humble reliance on a providence which controlled affairs. This +philosophy in a way met the need for a religion among the better-educated +Romans, and made considerable headway during the early days of the Empire. +[3] While serving as a sort of religion for those capable of embracing it, +it was too intellectual to reach more than a few, and was not adapted to +become a universal religion for all sorts and conditions of men. What was +needed was a new moral philosophy or religion that would touch all +mankind. To do this it must appeal to the emotions more than to the +intellect. Such a religion was at this time taking shape and gathering +force and strength in a remote corner of the Empire. + +WHERE THIS NEW RELIGION AROSE. Far to the eastern end of the Mediterranean +there had long lived a branch of the Semitic race, which had developed a +national character and made a contribution of first importance to the +religious thought of the world. These were the Hebrew people who, leaving +Egypt about 1500 B.C., in the Exodus, had come to inhabit the land of +Canaan, south of Phoenicia and east and north of Egypt. From a wandering, +pastoral people they had gradually changed to a settled, agricultural +people, and had begun the development of a regular State. Unwilling, +however, to bear the burdens of a political State, and objecting to +taxation, a standing army, and forced labor for the State, the nationality +which promised at one time fell to pieces, and the land was overrun by +hostile neighbors and the people put under the yoke. After a sad and +tempestuous history, which culminated in the destruction of Jerusalem by +the Romans in 70 A.D., the inhabitants were sold into slavery and +dispersed throughout the Roman Empire. + +These people developed no great State, and made no contributions to +government or science or art. Their contribution was along religious +lines, and so magnificent and uplifting is their religious literature that +it is certain to last for all time. Alone among all eastern people they +early evolved the idea of one omnipotent God. The religion that they +developed declared man to be the child of God, erected personal morality +and service to God as the rule of life, and asserted a life beyond the +grave. It was about these ideas that the whole energy of the people +concentrated, and religion became the central thought of their lives. This +religion, unlike the other religions of the Mediterranean world, +emphasized duty to God, service, personal morality, chastity, honesty, and +truth as its essential elements. The Law of Moses became the law of the +land. Woman was elevated to a new place in the life of the ancient world. +[4] Children became sacred in the eyes of the people. Their literary +contribution, the Old Testament--written by a series of patriarchs, +lawgivers, prophets, and priests--pictures, often in sublime language, the +various migrations, deliverances, calamities, and religious hopes, +aspirations, and experiences of this Chosen People. + +THE UNITY OF THIS PEOPLE. Just before their country was overrun and they +were carried captive to Babylon, in 588 B.C., the Pentateuch [5] had been +reduced to writing and made an authoritative code of laws for the people. +This served as a bond of union among them during the exile, and after +their return to Palestine, in 538 B.C., the study and observance of this +law became the most important duty of their lives. The synagogue was +established in every village for its exposition, where twice on every +Sabbath day the people were to gather to hear the law expounded. A race of +_Scribes_, or scripture scholars, also arose to teach the law, as well as +means for educating additional scribes. They were to interpret the law, +and to apply it to the daily lives of the people. As the law was a +combination of religious, ceremonial, civil, and sanitary law, these +scribes became both teachers and judges for the people. In time they +became the depositaries of all learning, superseded the priesthood, and +became the leaders (_rabbins_, whence _rabbi_) of the people. "The voice +of the rabbi is the voice of God," says the Talmud, a collection of Hebrew +customs and traditions, with comments and interpretations, written by the +rabbis after 70 B.C. By most Jews this is held to be next in sacredness to +the Old Testament (R. 27). + +Realizing, after the return from captivity, that the future existence of +the Hebrew people would depend, not upon their military strength, but upon +their moral unity, and that this must be based upon the careful training +of each child in the traditions of his fathers, the leaders of the people +began the evolution of a religious school system to meet the national +need. Realizing, too, that parents could not be depended upon in all cases +to provide this instruction, the leaders provided it and made it +compulsory. Great open-air Bible classes were organized at first, and +these were gradually extended to all the villages of the country. +Elementary schools were developed later and attached to the synagogues, +and finally, in 64 A.D., the high priest, Joshua ben Gamala, ordered the +establishment of an elementary school in every village, made attendance +compulsory for all male children, and provided for a combined type of +religious and household instruction at home for all girls. Reading, +writing, counting, the history of the Chosen People, the poetry of the +Psalms, the Law of the Pentateuch, and a part of the Talmud constituted +the subject-matter of instruction. The instruction was largely oral, and +learning by heart was the common teaching plan. The child was taught the +Law of his fathers, trained to make holiness a rule of his life and to +subordinate his will to that of the one God, and commanded to revere his +teachers (R. 27) and uphold the traditions of his people. + +After the destruction of Jerusalem (70 A.D.) and the scatterment of the +people, the school instruction was naturally more or less disrupted, but +in one way or another the Hebrew people have ever since managed to keep up +the training of rabbis and the instruction of the young in the Law and the +traditions of their people, and as a consequence of this instruction we +have to-day the interesting result of a homogeneous people who, for over +eighteen centuries, have had no national existence, and who have been +scattered and persecuted as have no other people. History offers us no +better example of the salvation of a people by means of the compulsory +education of all. + +THE NEW CHRISTIAN FAITH. It was into this Hebrew race that Jesus was born, +[6] and there he lived, learned, taught, made his disciples, and was +crucified. Building on the old Hebrew moral law and the importance of the +personal life, Jesus made his appeal to the individual, and sought the +moral regeneration of society through the moral regeneration of individual +men and women. This idea of individuality and of personal souls worth +saving was a new idea in a world where the submergence of the individual +in the State had everywhere up to that time been the rule. Even the +Hebrews, in their great desire to perpetuate their race and faith, had +suppressed and absorbed the individual in their religious State. The +teachings of Jesus, on the other hand, with their emphasis on charity, +sympathy, self-sacrifice, and the brotherhood of all men, tended to +obliterate nationality, while the emphasis they gave to the future life, +for which life here was but a preparation, tended to subordinate the +interests of the State and withdraw the concern of men from worldly +affairs. In a series of simple sermons, Jesus set forth the basis of this +new faith which he, and after him his disciples, offered to the world. + +At the time of his crucifixion his disciples numbered scarcely one hundred +persons. For some years after his death his disciples remained in +Jerusalem, preaching that he was the Messiah or Christ, whom the Hebrew +people had long expected, and making converts to the idea. Later in +Samaria, Damascus, and Antioch they made additional converts among the +Jews. Up to this point the Christians had been careful to keep up all the +old Jewish customs, and it was even doubted at first whether any but Jews +could properly be admitted to the new faith. A new convert, Saul of +Tarsus, a Jew who had studied in the Greek university there and who +afterwards became the Apostle Paul, did much to open the new faith to the +Gentiles, as the men of other nations were known. Speaking Greek, and +being versed in Greek philosophy, and especially Stoicism, he gave thirty +years of most effective service to the establishment of Christian churches +[7] in Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece (R. 29), and Italy (R. 28). His work +was so important that he has often been called the second founder of the +Christian Church. + +THE CHALLENGE OF CHRISTIANITY. Into a Roman world that had already passed +the zenith of its greatness came this new Christian faith, challenging +almost everything for which the Roman world had stood. In place of Roman +citizenship and service to the State as the purpose of life, the +Christians set up the importance of the life to come. Instead of pleasure +and happiness and the satisfaction of the senses as personal ends, the +Christians preached denial of all these things for the greater joy of a +future life. In a society built on a huge basis of slavery and filled with +social classes, the Christians proclaimed the equality of all men before +God. To a nation in which family life had become corrupt, infidelity and +divorce common, and infanticide a prevailing practice, the Christians +proclaimed the sacredness of the marriage tie and the family life, and the +exposure of infants as simple murder. In place of the subjection of the +individual to the State, the Christians demanded the subjection of the +individual only to God. In place of a union of State and religion, the +Christians demanded the complete separation of the two and the +subordination of the State to the Church. Unlike all other religions that +Rome had absorbed, the Christians refused to be accepted on any other than +exclusive terms. The worship of all other gods the Christians held to be +sinful idol-worship, a deadly sin in the eyes of God, and they were +willing to give up their lives rather than perform the simplest rite of +what they termed pagan worship (R. 28). To the deified Emperor the +Christians naturally could not bend the knee (Rs. 30 b, 31 a-b, 34). + +At first the new faith attracted but little attention from anybody of +education or influence. Its converts were few during the first century, +and these largely from among the lowest social classes in the Empire. +Workmen and slaves, and women rather than men, constituted the large +majority of the early converts to the new faith. The character of its +missionaries [8] also was against it, and its challenge of almost all that +characterized the higher social and governmental life of Rome was certain +to make its progress difficult, and in time to awaken powerful opposition +[9] to it. Yet, notwithstanding all these obstacles, its progress was +relatively rapid. + +THE VICTORY OF CHRISTIANITY. By the close of the first century there were +Christian churches throughout most of Judea and Asia Minor, and in parts +of Greece and Macedonia. During the second century other churches were +established in Asia Minor, in Greece, and along the Black Sea, and at a +few places in Italy and France; and before four centuries had elapsed from +the crucifixion Christian churches had been established throughout almost +all the Roman world. This is well shown by the map on the opposite page. +The message of hope that Christianity had to offer to all; the simplicity +of its organization and teachings; the great appeal which it made to the +emotional side of human life; the hope of a future life of reward for the +burdens of this which it extended to all who were weary and heavy laden; +the positiveness of conviction of its apostles and followers; and the +completeness with which it satisfied the religious need and longings of +the time, first among the poor and among women and later among educated +men--all helped the new faith to win its way. The unity in that Rome had +everywhere established; [10] the Roman peace (_pax Romana_) that Rome had +everywhere imposed; the spread of the Greek and Latin languages and ideas +throughout the Mediterranean world; the right of freedom of travel and +speech enjoyed by a Roman citizen, and of which Saint Paul and others on +their travels took advantage; [11] the scatterment of Jews throughout the +Empire, after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A.D.--all these elements +also helped. + +[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 27. THE GROWTH OF CHRISTIANITY TO THE END OF THE +FOURTH CENTURY] + +That Christianity made its headway unmolested must not be supposed. While +at first the tendency of educated Romans and of the government was to +ignore or tolerate it, its challenge was so direct and provocative that +this attitude could not long continue. Under the Emperor Claudius (41-54 +A.D.) "all the Jews who were continually making disturbances at the +instigation of one Chrestus" were unsuccessfully ordered banished from +Rome. In the reign of the Emperor Nero, in 64 A.D., many horrible tortures +were inflicted on this as yet small sect. It was not, however, till later, +when the continued refusal of the Christians to offer sacrifices to the +Emperor brought them under the law as disloyal (R. 30 a) subjects, that +they began to be much punished for their faith (R. 31 a-b). The times were +bad and were going from bad to worse, and the feelings of many were that +the adverse conditions in the Empire--war, famine, floods, pestilence, and +barbarian inroads--were due to the neglect of the old state religion and +to the tolerance extended the vast organized defiance of the law by the +Christians. In the first century they had been largely ignored. In the +second, in some places, they were punished. In the third century, impelled +by the calamities of the State and the urging of those who would restore +the national religion to its earlier position, the Emperors were gradually +driven to a series of heavy persecutions of the sect (R. 30 a). But it had +now become too late. The blood of the martyrs proved to be the seed of the +Church (R. 35). The last great persecution under the Emperor Diocletian, +in 303 (R. 33), ended in virtual failure. In 311 the Emperor Galerius +placed Christianity on a plane of equality with other forms of worship (R. +36). In 313 Constantine made it in part the official religion of the State +[12] and ordered freedom of worship for all. He and succeeding Emperors +gradually extended to the Christian clergy a long list of important +privileges (R. 38) and exemptions, [13] analogous to those formerly +enjoyed by the teachers of rhetoric under the Empire (R. 26), and likewise +began the policy, so liberally followed later, of endowing the Church. In +391 the Emperor Theodosius forbade all pagan worship, thus making the +victory of Christianity complete. In less than four centuries from the +birth of its founder the Christian faith had won control of the great +Empire in which it originated. In 529 the Emperor Justinian ordered the +closing of all pagan schools, and the University of Athens, which had +remained the center of pagan thought after the success of Christianity, +closed its doors. The victory was now complete. + +THE CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIANITY. We have now before us the third great +contribution upon which our modern civilization has been built. To the +great contributions of Greece and Rome, which we have previously studied, +there now was added, and added at a most opportune time, the contribution +of Christianity. In taking the Jewish idea of one God and freeing it from +the narrow tribal limitations to which it had before been subject, +Christianity made possible its general acceptance, first in the Roman +world, and later in the Mohammedan world. [14] With this was introduced +the doctrine of the fatherhood of God and his love for man, the equality +before God of all men and of the two sexes, and the sacredness of each +individual in the eyes of the Father. An entirely new conception of the +individual was proclaimed to the world, and an entirely new ethical code +was promulgated. The duty of all to make their lives conform to these new +conceptions was asserted. These ideas imparted to ancient society a new +hopefulness and a new energy which were not only of great importance in +dealing with the downfall of civilization and the deluge of barbarism +which were impending, but which have been of prime importance during all +succeeding centuries. In time the church organization which was developed +gradually absorbed all other forms of government, and became virtually the +State during the long period of darkness known as the Middle Ages. + +It remains now to sketch briefly how the Church organized itself and +became powerful enough to perform its great task during the Middle Ages, +what educational agencies it developed, and to what extent these were +useful. + + +II. EDUCATIONAL AND GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION OF THE EARLY CHURCH + +SCHOOLING OF THE EARLY CHURCH; CATECHUMENAL INSTRUCTION. The early +churches were bound together by no formal bond of union, and felt little +need for such. It was the belief of many that Christ would soon return and +the world would end, hence there was little necessity for organization. +There was also almost no system of belief. An acknowledgment of God as the +Father, a repentance for past sins, a godly life, and a desire to be saved +were about all that was expected of any one. [15] The chief concern was +the moral regeneration of society through the moral regeneration of +converts. To accomplish this, in face of the practices of Roman society, a +process of instruction and a period of probation for those wishing to join +the faith soon became necessary. Jews, pagans, and the children of +believers were thereafter alike subjected to this before full acceptance +into the Church. At stated times during the week the probationers met for +instruction in morality and in the psalmody of the Church (R. 39). These +two subjects constituted almost the entire instruction, the period of +probation covering two or three years. The teachers were merely the older +and abler members of the congregation. + +This personal instruction became common everywhere in the early Church, +and the training was known as _catechumenal_, that is, rudimentary, +instruction. Two sets of catechumenal lectures have survived, which give +an idea as to the nature of the instruction. They cover the essentials of +church practice and the religious life (RS. 39, 40). It was dropped +entirely in the conversion of the barbarian tribes. This instruction, and +the preaching of the elders (presbyters, who later evolved into priests), +constituted the formal schooling of the early converts to Christianity in +Italy and the East. Such instruction was never known in England, and but +little in Gaul. + +The life in the Church made a moral and emotional, rather than an +intellectual appeal. In fact the early Christians felt but little need for +the type of intellectual education provided by the Roman schools, and the +character of the educated society about them, as they saw it, did not make +them wish for the so-called pagan learning. Even if the parents of +converts wished to provide additional educational advantages for their +children, what could they do? A modern author states well the predicament +of such Christian parents, when he says: + + All the schools were pagan. Not only were all the ceremonies of the + official faith--and more especially the festivals of Minerva, who was + the patroness of masters and pupils--celebrated at regular intervals + in the schools, but the children were taught reading out of books + saturated with the old mythology. There the Christian child made his + first acquaintance with the deities of Olympus. He ran the danger of + imbibing ideas entirely contrary to those which he had received at + home. The fables he had learned to detest in his own home were + explained, elucidated, and held up to his admiration every day by his + masters. Was it right to put him thus into two schools of thought? + What could be done that he might be educated, like every one else, + and yet not run the risk of losing his faith? [16] + +CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS. After Christianity had begun to make converts among +the more serious-minded and better-educated citizens of the Roman Empire, +the need for more than rudimentary instruction in the principles of the +church life began to be felt. Especially was this the case in the places +where Christian workers came in contact with the best scholars of the +Hellenic learning, and particularly at Alexandria, Athens, and the cities +of Asia Minor. The speculative Greek would not be satisfied with the +simple, unorganized faith of the early Christians. He wanted to understand +it as a system of thought, and asked many questions that were hard to +answer. To meet the critical inquiry of learned Greeks, it became +desirable that the clergy of the Church, in the East at least, should be +equipped with a training similar to that of their critics. As a result +there was finally evolved, first at Alexandria, and later at other places +in the Empire, training schools for the leaders of the Church. + +These came to be known as _catechetical_ schools, from their oral +questioning method of instruction, and this term was later applied to +elementary religious instruction (whence _catechism_) throughout western +Europe. Pantaenus, a converted Greek Stoic, who became head of the +catechumenal instruction at Alexandria, in 179 A.D., brought to the +training of future Christian leaders the strength of Greek learning and +Greek philosophic thought. He and his successors, Clement and Origen, +developed here an important school of Christian theology where Greek +learning was used to interpret the Scriptures and train leaders for the +service of the Church. Similar schools were opened at Antioch, Edessa, +Nisibis, and Caesarea (See Map, p. 89), and these developed into a +rudimentary form of theological schools for the education of the eastern +Christian clergy. In these schools Christian faith and doctrine were +formulated into a sort of system, the whole being tinctured through and +through with Greek philosophic thought. Out of these schools came some of +the great Fathers of the early Church; men who strove to uphold the pagan +learning and reconcile Christianity and Greek philosophic thinking. [17] + +REJECTION OF PAGAN LEARNING IN THE WEST. In the West, where the leaders of +the Church came from the less philosophic and more practical Roman stock, +and where the contact with a decadent society wakened a greater reaction, +the tendency was to reject the Hellenic learning, and to depend more upon +emotional faith and the enforcement of a moral life. By the close of the +third century the hostility to the pagan schools and to the Hellenic +learning had here become pronounced (R. 41). Even the Fathers of the Latin +Church, the greatest of whom had been teachers of oratory or rhetoric in +Roman schools before their conversion, [18] gradually came to reject the +pagan learning as undesirable for Christians and in a large degree as a +robbery from God. Saint Augustine, in his _Confessions_, hopes that God +may forgive him for having enjoyed Vergil. Jerome's dream [19] was known +and quoted throughout the Middle Ages. Tertullian, in his _Prescription +against Heresies_, exclaims: + + What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem? What concord is there + between the Academy and the Church? What between heretics and + Christians?... Away with all attempts to produce a mottled + Christianity of Stoic, Platonic, and dialectic composition. + +Gregory the Great, Pope of the Church from 590 to 604, and who had been +well educated as a youth in the surviving Roman-type schools, turned +bitterly against the whole of pagan learning. "I am strongly of the +opinion," he says, "that it is an indignity that the words of the oracle +of Heaven should be restrained by the rules of Donatus" (grammar). In a +letter to the Bishop of Vienne he berates him for giving instruction in +grammar, concluding with--"the praise of Christ cannot lie in one mouth +with the praise of Jupiter. Consider yourself what a crime it is for +bishops to recite what would be improper for religiously-minded laymen." + +As a result Hellenic learning declined rapidly in importance in the West +as the Church attained supremacy, and finally, in 401, the Council of +Carthage, largely at the instigation of Saint Augustine, forbade the +clergy to read any pagan author. In time Greek learning largely died out +in the West, and was for a time almost entirely lost. Even the Greek +language was forgotten, and was not known again in the West for nearly a +thousand years. [20] + +THE CHURCH PERFECTS A STRONG ORGANIZATION. As was previously stated (p. +92), but little need was felt during the first two centuries for a system +of belief or church government. As the expected return of Christ did not +take place, and as the need for a formulation of belief and a system of +government began to be felt, the next step was the development of these +features. The system of belief and the ceremonials of worship finally +evolved are more the products of Greek thought and practices of the East, +while the form of organization and government is derived more from Roman +sources. In the second century the Old Testament was translated into Greek +at Alexandria, and the "Apostles' Creed" was formulated. During the third +century the writings deemed sacred were organized into the New Testament, +also in Greek. In 325 the first General Council of the Church was held at +Nicaea, in Asia Minor. It formulated the Nicene Creed (R. 42), and twenty +canons or laws for the government of the Church. A second General Council, +held at Constantinople in 381, revised the Nicene Creed and adopted +additional canons. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28. A BISHOP +Seventh Century (Santo Venanzio, Rome)] + +The great organizing genius of the western branch of the Church was Saint +Augustine (354-430). He gave to the Western or Latin Church, then +beginning to take on its separate existence, the body of doctrine needed +to enable it to put into shape the things for which it stood. The system +of theology evolved before the separation of the eastern and western +branches of the Church was not so finished and so finely speculative as +that of the Greek branch, but was more practical, more clearly legal, and +more systematically organized. + +The influence of Rome was strong also in the organization of the system of +government finally adopted for the Church. There being no other model, the +Roman governmental system was copied. The bishop of a city corresponded to +the Roman municipal officials; the archbishop of a territory to the +governor of a province; and the patriarch to the ruler of a division of +the Empire. As Rome had been a universal Empire, and as the city of Rome +had been the chief governing city, [21] the idea of a universal Church was +natural and the supremacy of the Bishop of Rome was gradually asserted and +determined. [22] + +A STATE WITHIN A STATE. There was thus developed in the West, as it were a +State within a State. That is, within the Roman Empire, with its Emperor, +provincial governors, and municipal officials, governing the people and +drawing their power from the Roman Senate and imperial authority, there +was also gradually developed another State, consisting of those who had +accepted the Christian faith, and who rendered their chief allegiance, +through priest, bishop, and archbishop, to a central head of the Church +who owed allegiance to no earthly ruler. That Christianity, viewed from +the governmental point of view, was a serious element of weakness in the +Roman State and helped its downfall, there can be no question. In the +eastern part of the Empire the Church was always much more closely +identified with the State. Fortunately for civilization, before the Roman +Empire had fallen and the impending barbarian deluge had descended, the +Christian Church had succeeded in formulating a unifying belief and a form +of government capable of commanding respect and of enforcing authority, +and was fast taking over the power of the State itself. + +THE CATHEDRAL OR EPISCOPAL SCHOOLS. The first churches throughout the +Empire were in the cities, and made their early converts there. [23] +Gradually these important cities evolved into the residences of a +supervising priest or bishop, the territory became known as a _bishopric_, +and the church as a _cathedral church_. In time, also, some of the +outlying territory was organized into parishes, and churches were +established in these. These were made tributary to and placed under the +direction of the bishop of the large central city. To supply clergy for +these outlying parishes came to be one of the functions of the bishop, +and, to insure properly trained clergy and to provide for promotions in +the clerical ranks, schools of a rudimentary type were established in +connection with the cathedral churches. These came to be known as +_cathedral_, or _episcopal schools_. At first they were probably under the +immediate charge of the bishop, but later, as his functions increased, the +school was placed under a special teacher, known as a _Scholasticus_, or +_Magister Scholarum_, who directed the cathedral school, assisted the +bishop, and trained the future clergy. As the pagan secondary schools died +out, these cathedral schools, together with the monastic schools which +were later founded, gradually replaced the pagan schools as the important +educational institutions of the western world. In these two types of +schools the religious leaders of the early Middle Ages were trained. + +THE MONASTIC ORGANIZATION. In the early days of Christianity, it will be +remembered (p. 87), the Christian convert held himself apart from the +wicked world all about him, and had little to do with the society or the +government of his time. He regarded the Church as having no relationship +to the State. As the Church grew stronger, however, and became a State +within a State, the Christian took a larger and larger part in the world +around him, and in time came to be distinguished from other men by his +profession of the Christian religion rather than by any other mark. Many +of the early bishops were men of great political sagacity, fully capable +of realizing to the full the political opportunities, afforded by their +position, to strengthen the power of the Church. It was the work of men of +this type that created the temporal power of the Church, and made of it an +institution capable of commanding respect and enforcing its decisions. + +To some of the early Christians this life did not appeal. To them holiness +was associated with a complete withdrawal from contact with this sinful +world and all its activities. Some betook themselves to the desert, others +to the forests or mountains, and others shut themselves up alone that they +might be undisturbed in their religious meditations. To such devoted souls +monasticism, a scheme of living brought into the Christian world from the +East, made a strong appeal. It provided that such men should live together +in brotherhoods, renouncing the world, taking vows of poverty, chastity, +and obedience, and devoting their lives to hard labor and the +mortification of the flesh that the soul might be exalted and made +beautiful. The members lived alone in individual cells, but came together +for meals, prayer, and religious service. + +As early as 330 a monastery had been organized on the island of Tebernae, +in the Nile. About 350 Saint Basil introduced monasticism into Asia Minor, +where it flourished greatly. In 370 the Basilian order was founded. The +monastic idea was soon transferred to the West, a monastery being +established at Rome probably as early as 340. The monastery of Saint +Victor, at Marseilles, was founded by Cassian in 404, and this type of +monastery and monastic rule was introduced into Gaul, about 415. The +monastery of Lerins (off Cannes, in southern France) was established in +405. During the fifth century a rapid extension of monastic foundations +took place in western Europe, particularly along the valleys of the Rhone +and the Loire in Gaul. + +[Illustration: FIG. 29. A BENEDICTINE MONK, ABBOT, AND ABBESS +(From a thirteenth-century manuscript)] + +In 529 Saint Benedict, a Roman of wealth who fled from the corruption of +his city, founded the monastery of Monte Cassino, south of Rome, and +established a form of government, or rule of daily life, which was +gradually adopted by nearly all the monasteries of the West. In time +Europe came to be dotted with thousands of these establishments, many of +which were large and expensive institutions both to found and to maintain. +[24] By the time the barbarian invasions were in full swing monasticism +had become an established institution of the Christian Church. Nunneries +for women also were established early. A letter from Saint Jerome to +Marcella, a Roman matron, in 382, in which he says that "no high-born lady +at Rome had made profession of the monastic life ... or had ventured ... +publicly to call herself a nun," would seem to imply that such +institutions had already been established in Rome. + +MONASTIC SCHOOLS. Poverty, chastity, obedience, labor, and religious +devotion were the essential features of a monastic life. The Rule of Saint +Benedict (R. 43) organized in a practical way the efforts of those who +took the vows. In a series of seventy-three rules which he laid down, +covering all phases of monastic life, the most important from the +standpoint of posterity was the forty-eighth, prescribing at least seven +hours of daily labor and two hours of reading "for all able to bear the +load." From that part of the rule requiring regular manual labor the monks +became the most expert farmers and craftsmen of the early Middle Ages, +while to the requirement of daily reading we owe in large part the +development of the school and the preservation of learning in the West +during the long intellectual night of the mediaeval period (R. 44). + +Into these monastic institutions the _oblati_, that is, those who wished +to become monks, were received as early as the age of twelve, and +occasionally earlier (R. 53 a). The final vows (R. 53 b) could not be +taken until eighteen, so during this period the novice was taught to work +and to read and write, given instruction in church music, and taught to +calculate the church festivals and to do simple reckoning. In time some +condensed and carefully edited compendium of the elements of classical +learning was also studied, and still later a more elaborate type of +instruction was developed in some of the monasteries. This, however, +belongs to a later division of this history, and further description of +church and monastic education will be deferred until we study the +intellectual life of the Middle Ages. + +THE EDUCATION OF GIRLS. Aside from the general instruction in the +practices of the church and home instruction in the work of a woman, there +was but little provision made for the education of girls not desiring to +join a convent or nunnery. A few, however, obtained a limited amount of +intellectual training. The letter of Saint Jerome to the Roman lady Paula +(R. 45), regarding the education of her daughter, is a very important +document in the history of early Christian education for girls. Dating +from 403, it outlines the type of training a young girl should be given +who was to be properly educated in Christian faith and properly +consecrated to God. What he outlined was education for nunneries, a number +of which had been founded in the East and a few in the West. In the West +these institutions later experienced an extensive development, and offered +the chief opportunity for any intellectual education for women during the +whole of the Middle Ages. + + +III. WHAT THE MIDDLE AGES STARTED WITH + +WHAT THE CHURCH BROUGHT TO THE MIDDLE AGES. From a small and purely +spiritual organization, devoting its energies to exhortation and to the +moral regeneration of mankind, and without creed or form of government, as +the Christian Church was in the first two centuries of its development, we +have traced the organization of a body of doctrine, the perfection of a +strong system of church government, and the development of a very limited +educational system designed merely to train leaders for its service. We +have also shown how it added to its early ecclesiastical organization a +strong governmental organization, became a State within a State, and +gradually came to direct the State itself. It was thus ready, when the +virtual separation of the Roman Empire into an eastern and western +division took place, in 395, and when the western division finally fell +before the barbarian onslaughts, to take up in a way the work of the +State, force the barbarian hordes to acknowledge its power, and begin the +process of civilizing these new tribes and building up once more a +civilization in the western world. In addition to its spiritual and +political power, the Church also had developed, in its catechumenal +instruction and in the cathedral and monastic schools, a very meager form +of an educational system for the training of its future leaders and +servants. A great change had now taken place in the nature of education as +a preparation for life, and intellectual education, in the sense that it +was known and understood in Greece and Rome, was not to be known again in +the western world for almost a thousand years. The distinguishing +characteristic of the centuries which follow, up to the Revival of +Learning, are, first, a struggle against very adverse odds to prevent +civilization from disappearing entirely, and later a struggle to build up +new foundations upon which world civilization might begin once more where +it had left off in Greece and Rome. + +THE THREE GREAT CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ANCIENT WORLD. Thus, before the +Middle Ages began, the three great contributions of the ancient world +which were to form the foundations of our future western civilization had +been made. Greece gave the world an art and a philosophy and a literature +of great charm and beauty, the most advanced intellectual and aesthetic +ideas that civilization has inherited, and developed an educational system +of wonderful effectiveness--one that in its higher development in time +took captive the entire Mediterranean world and profoundly modified all +later thinking. Rome was the organizing and legal genius of the ancient +world, as Greece was the literary and philosophical. To Rome we are +especially indebted for out conceptions of law, order, and government, and +for the ability to make practical and carry into effect the ideals of +other peoples. To the Hebrews we are indebted for the world's loftiest +conceptions of God, religious faith, and moral responsibility, and to +Christianity and the Church we are indebted for making these ideas +universal in the Roman Empire and forcing them on a barbaric world. + +All these great foundations of our western civilization have not come down +to us directly. The hostility to pagan learning that developed on the part +of the Latin Fathers; the establishment of an eastern capital for the +Empire at Constantinople, in 328; the virtual division of the Empire into +an East and West, in 395; and the final division of the Christian Church +into a Western Latin and an Eastern Greek Church, which was gradually +effected, finally drove Greek philosophy and learning and the Greek +language from the western world. Greek was not to be known again in the +West for hundreds of years. Fortunately the Eastern Church was more +tolerant of pagan learning than was the Western, and was better able to +withstand conquest by barbarian tribes. In consequence what the Greeks had +done was preserved at Constantinople until Europe had once more become +sufficiently civilized and tolerant to understand and appreciate it. +Hellenic learning was then handed back to western Europe, first through +the medium of the Saracens, and then in that great Revival of Learning +which we know as the _Renaissance_. Of the Latin literature and learning +much was lost, and much was preserved almost by accident in the +monasteries of mediaeval Europe. Even the Church itself was seriously +deflected from its earlier purpose and teachings during the long period of +barbarism and general ignorance through which it passed, and only in +modern times has it tried to come back to the spirit of the teachings of +its founder. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30. SHOWING THE FINAL DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE AND THE +CHURCH + +The map also shows conditions as they were in Europe at the end of the +fourth century A.D. Syria, Egypt, Africa, and a portion of Asia Minor were +overwhelmed by the Saracens in the seventh century and became Mohammedan, +but Constantinople held out until 1453. The eastern division eventually +gave rise to the Greek Catholic Church of Greece, the Balkans, and Russia, +while the western division became the Roman Catholic Church of western +Europe. At Constantinople Greek learning was preserved until the West was +again ready to receive it. The Eastern Empire for a time retained control +of Sicily and southern Italy (the old _Magna Graecia_), but eventually +these were absorbed by western or Latin Christianity.] + +THE FUTURE STORY. For the long period of intellectual stagnation which now +followed, the educational story is briefly told. But little formal +education was needed, and that of but one main type. It was only after the +Church had won its victory over the barbarian hordes, and had built up the +foundations upon which a new civilization could be developed, that +education in any broad and liberal sense was again needed. This required +nearly a thousand years of laborious and painful effort. Then, when +schools again became possible and learning again began to be demanded, +education had to begin again with the few at the top, and the +contributions of Greece and Rome had to be recovered and put into usable +form as a basis upon which to build. It is only very recently that it has +become possible to extend education to all. + +In Part II we shall next trace briefly the intellectual life of the Middle +Ages, and the reawakening, and in Part III we shall, among other things, +point out the deep and lasting influence of the work of these ancient +civilizations on our modern educational thoughts and practices. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Point out the many advantages of a universal religion for such a +universal Empire as Rome developed, and the advantages of Emperor worship +for such an Empire. + +2. What do modern nations have that is much akin to Emperor worship? + +3. Explain why Stoicism made such an appeal to the better-educated classes +at Rome. + +4. Why is an emotional faith better adapted to the mass of people than an +intellectual one? + +5. Explain how the Hebrew scribes, administering such a mixed body of +laws, naturally came to be both teachers and judges for the people. + +6. Illustrate how the Hebrew tradition that the moral and spiritual unity +of a people is stronger than armed force has been shown to be true in +history. + +7. What great lessons may we draw from the work of the Hebrews in +maintaining a national unity through compulsory education? + +8. Why was Jesus' idea as to the importance of the individual destined to +make such slow headway in the world? What is the status of the idea to-day +(a) in China? (b) in Germany? (c) in England? (d) in the United States? Is +the idea necessarily opposed to nationality or even to a strong state +government? + +9. Show how the political Church, itself the State, was the natural +outcome during the Middle Ages of the teachings of the early Christians as +to the relationship of Church and State. + +10. Is it to be wondered that the Romans were finally led to persecute +"the vast organized defiance of law by the Christians"? + +11. Show how the Christian idea of the equality and responsibility of all +gave the citizen a new place in the State. + +12. State the reasons for the gradually increasing lack of sympathy and +understanding between the eastern and western Fathers of the Church, and +which finally led to the division of the Church. + +13. Explain what is meant by "a State within a State" as applied to the +Church of the third and fourth centuries. Did this prove to be a good +thing for the future of civilization? Why? + +14. Would Rome probably have been better able to withstand the barbarian +invasions if Christianity had not arisen, or not? Why? + +15. Show how the Christian attitude toward pagan learning tended to stop +schools and destroy the accumulated learning. + +16. What was the effect of the Christian attitude toward the care of the +body, on scientific and medical knowledge, and on education? Was the +Christian or the pagan attitude more nearly like that of modern times? + +17. Why did the emphasis on form of belief, in the third and fourth +centuries, come to supersede the emphasis on personal virtues and simple +faith of the first and second centuries? + +18. Compare the work of the Sunday School of to-day with the catechumenal +instruction of the early Christians. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 27. The Talmud: Educational Maxims from. + 28. Saint Paul: Epistle to the Romans. + 29. Saint Paul: To the Athenians. + 30. The Crimes of the Christians. + (a) Minucius Felix: The Roman Point of View. + (b) Tertullian: The Christian Point of View. + 31. Persecution of the Christians as Disloyal Subjects of the Empire. + (a) Pliny to Trajan. + (b) Trajan to Pliny. + 32. Tertullian: Effect of the Persecutions. + 33. Eusebius: Edicts of Diocletian against the Christians. + 34. Workman: Certificate of having Sacrificed to the Pagan Gods. + 35. Kingsley: The Empire and Christianity in Conflict. + 36. Lactantius: The Edict of Toleration by Galerius. + 37. Theodosian Code: The Faith of Catholic Christians. + 38. Theodosian Code: Privileges and Immunities granted the Clergy. + 39. Apostolic Constitutions: How the Catechumens are to be instructed. + 40. Leach: Catechumenal Schools of the Early Church. + 41. Apostolic Constitutions: Christians should abstain from all Heathen + Books. + 42. The Nicene Creed of 325 A.D. + 43. Saint Benedict: Extracts from the Rule of. + 44. Lanfranc: Enforcing Lenten Reading in the Monasteries. + 45. Saint Jerome: Letter on the Education of Girls. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Characterize the type of education to be provided and the status of the +teacher, as shown in the selections from the Talmud (27). Compare with +Rome. With Athens. + +2. Characterize the attitude of Saint Paul toward the Romans (28). Does +his description of Athens (29) tally with the description of the Athenians +given in the text? + +3. Was it possible for the Roman and the Christian to understand one +another, thinking as they did in such different terms (30 a-b)? + +4. Considering Pliny and Trajan (31 a-b) as Roman officials, with the +Roman point of view, and taking into account the time in the history of +world civilization, would you say that they were quite tolerant of rebels +within the State? + +5. Compare the privileges and immunities granted the clergy (38) with the +privileges previously given by Constantine to physicians and teachers +(26). + +6. Characterize the irrepressible conflict as pictured by Kingsley (35). +Name a few other somewhat similar conflicts in world history. + +7. Outline the type of instruction for catechumens as directed in the +Apostolic Constitutions (39). + +8. What would have been the effect of the continued rejection of secular +books called for in the Apostolic Constitutions (41)? + +9. What was the governmental advantage of the adoption of the Nicene Creed +(42)? + +10. Why did the rule of Saint Benedict (43) requiring readings and study +lead to the copying and preservation of manuscripts? + +11. What does the selection from Lanfranc (44) indicate as to the state of +monastic learning? + +12. Was there anything pedagogically sound about the letter of Saint +Jerome (45) on the education of girls? Discuss. + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + +* Dill, Sam'l. _Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western + Empire_. + Fisher, Geo. P. _Beginnings of Christianity_. +* Fisher, Geo. P. _History of the Christian Church_. +* Hatch, Edw. _Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian + Church_. (Hibbert Lectures, 1888.) + Hodgson, Geraldine. _Primitive Church Education_. + Kretzmann, P. E. _Education among the Jews_. + MacCabe, Joseph. _Saint Augustine_. +* Monro, D. C. and Sellery, G. E. _Mediaeval Civilization_. +* Swift, F. H. _Education in Ancient Israel to 70 A.D._ + Taylor, H. O. _Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages_. + Wishart, A. W. _Short History of Monks and Monasticism_. + + + + +PART II + +THE MEDIAEVAL WORLD + +THE DELUGE OF BARBARISM +THE MEDIAEVAL STRUGGLE TO PRESERVE AND REËSTABLISH CIVILIZATION + + + + +CHAPTER V + +NEW PEOPLES IN THE EMPIRE + + +THE WEAKENED EMPIRE. Though the first and second centuries A.D. have often +been called one of the happiest ages in all human history, due to a +succession of good Emperors and peace and quiet throughout the Roman +world, [1] the reign of the last of the good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius +(161-180 A.D.), may be regarded as clearly marking a turning-point in the +history of Roman society. Before his reign Rome was ascendant, prosperous, +powerful; during his reign the Empire was beset by many difficulties-- +pestilence, floods, famine, troubles with the Christians, and heavy German +inroads--to which it had not before been accustomed; and after his reign +the Empire was distinctly on the defensive and the decline. Though the +elements contributing to this change in national destiny had their origin +in the changes in the character of the national life at least two +centuries earlier, it was not until now that the Empire began to feel +seriously the effects of these changes in a lowered vitality and a +weakened power of resistance. + +The virtues of the citizens of the early days of the Republic, trained +according to the old ideas, had gradually given way in the face of the +vices and corruption which beset and sapped the life of the upper and +ruling classes in the later Empire. The failure of Rome to put its +provincial government on any honest and efficient civil-service basis, the +failure of the State to establish and direct an educational system capable +of serving as a corrective of dangerous national tendencies, the lack of a +guiding national faith, the gradual admission of so many Germans into the +Empire, the great extent and demoralizing influence of slavery [2]--all +contributed to that loss of national strength and resisting power which +was now becoming increasingly evident. Other contributing elements of +importance were the almost complete obliteration of the peasantry by the +creation of great landed estates and cattle ranches worked by slaves, in +place of the small farms of earlier days; the increase of the poor in the +cities, and the declining birth-rate; the introduction of large numbers of +barbarians as farmers and soldiers; and the demoralization of the city +rabble by political leaders in need of votes. Captured slaves performed +almost every service, and a lavish display of wealth on the part of a few +came to be a characteristic feature of city life. [3] The great middle, +commercial, and professional classes were still prosperous and contented, +but luxury, imported vices, slavery, political corruption, and new ideals +[4] had gradually sapped the old national vitality and destroyed the +resisting power of the State in the face of a great national calamity. +Rome now stood, much like the shell of a fine old tree, apparently in good +condition, but in reality ready to fall before the blast because it had +been allowed to become rotten at the heart. Sooner or later the boundaries +of the Empire, which had held against the pressure from without for so +long, were destined to be broken and the barbarian deluge from the north +and east would pour over the Empire. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31. A BODYGUARD OF GERMANS +A relief from the Column of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome, erected to celebrate +his victories over the Marcomanni, and other German tribes.] + +THE BOUNDARIES OF THE EMPIRE ARE BROKEN. While temporary extensions of +territory had at times been made beyond the Rhine and the Danube, these +rivers had finally come to be the established boundaries of the Empire on +the north, and behind these rivers the Teutonic barbarians, or _Germani_, +as the Romans called them, had by force been kept. To do even this the +Romans had been obliged to admit bands of Germans into the Empire, and had +taken them into the Roman army as "allies," making use of their great love +for fighting to hold other German tribes in check. In 166 A.D. the plague, +brought back by soldiers returning from the East, carried off +approximately half the population of Italy. This same year the Marcomanni +(see Figure 18), a former friendly tribe, invaded the Empire as far as the +head of the Adriatic Sea, and it required thirteen years of warfare to put +them back behind the Danube. Even this was accomplished only by the aid of +friendly German tribes. From this time on the Empire was more or less on +the defensive, with the barbarian tribes to the north casting increasingly +longing eyes toward "a place in the sun" and the rich plunder that lay to +the south, and frequently breaking over the boundaries. Rome, though, was +still strong enough to put them back again. + +In 275 A.D., after a five years' struggle, the Eastern Emperor gave the +province of Dacia, to the south of the Danube, to the Visigoths, in an +effort to buy them off from further invasion and warfare. This eased the +pressure for another century. In 378 A.D., now pressed on by the terrible +Huns from behind, the Visigoths, as a body, invaded the Eastern Empire, +and in the Battle of Adrianople, near Constantinople, defeated the Roman +army, slew the Roman Emperor, definitely broke the boundaries of the +Empire, and they and the Ostrogoths now moved southward and settled in +Moesia and Thrace. The Germans at Adrianople learned that they could beat +the Roman legions, and from this time on it was they, and not the Romans, +who named the terms of ransom and the price of peace. A few years later, +under Alaric, the Visigoths invaded Greece, then turned westward through +Illyria to the valley of the Po, in northern Italy, which they reached in +the year 400. In 410 the great calamity came when they captured and sacked +Rome. The effect produced on the Roman world by the fall of the Eternal +City, as the news of the almost incredible disaster penetrated to the +remote provinces, was profound (R. 48). For eight hundred years Rome had +not been touched by foreign hands, and now it had been captured and +plundered by barbarian hordes. It seemed to many as though the end of the +world were approaching. The Visigoths now turned west once more, carrying +with them the beautiful sister of the Emperor as a captive bride of the +chief, and finally settled in Spain and southern Gaul, which provinces +were thenceforth lost to Rome. This was the first of the great permanent +inroads into the Empire, and from now on Roman resistance seemed powerless +to stop the flood. + +[Illustration: FIG. 32. THE GERMAN MIGRATIONS +The barriers of the Empire along the Rhine and the Danube now are broken +down. Take a pencil and trace the route followed by each of these +peoples.] + +A PERIOD OF TRIBAL MOVEMENTS. The Hunnish pressure also started the +Vandals and Suevi, and within fifty years they had been able to move +across Germany, France, and Spain, plundering the cities on their way. +Finally they crossed to the northern coast of Africa, where they became +noted as the great sea pirates of the Mediterranean. In 455 they crossed +back to Italy, and Rome was sacked for the second time by barbarian +hordes. The Huns, under the leadership of Attila, the so-called "Scourge +of God," now moved in and ravaged Gaul (451) and northern Italy (452), and +then, at the intercession of the Roman Pope Leo, were induced by a ransom +price to return to the lower Danube, where they have since remained. In +476 the barbarian soldiers of the Empire, tired of camp life and demanding +land on which they too might settle, rose in revolt, displaced the last of +the Western Emperors, and elevated Odovacar, a tribesman from the north, +as ruler in his stead. The Western Roman Empire was now at an end. In 493 +Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, became king of Italy. + +Between 443 and 485 the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes left their earlier homes +in what is now Denmark and northwestern Germany, and overran eastern and +southern Britain. In 486 the Franks, a great nation living along the lower +Rhine, began to move, and within two generations had overrun almost all of +Gaul. In 586 the Lombards invaded and settled the valleys of northern +Italy, displacing the Ostrogoths there. Slavic tribes now moved into the +Eastern Empire--Serbs and Bulgars--and settled in Moesia and Thrace. +Southeastern Europe thus became Slavic-Greek, as western Europe had become +Teutonic-Latin. Figure 32 shows the results of these different migrations +up to about 500 A.D. + +EUROPE TO BE TEUTONIC-LATIN. In the seventh century another great wave of +people, of a different racial stock and religion--Semitic and Mohammedan-- +starting from Arabia and along the shores of the Red Sea, swept rapidly +through Egypt and Africa and across into Spain and France. For a time it +looked as though they might overrun all western Europe and bring the +German tribes under subjection. Fortunately they were definitely stopped +and decisively defeated by the Franks, in the great Battle of Tours, in +732. They also overran Syria and Persia, but were held in check in Asia +Minor by the Eastern Empire, which did not completely succumb to barbarian +inroads until Constantinople was taken by the Turks, in 1453. + +The importance of the result, to the future of our western civilization, +of this battle in the West can hardly be overestimated. The future of +European government, law, education, and civilization was settled on that +Saturday afternoon in October, on the battle plains of Tours. [5] It was a +struggle for mastery and dominion between the Aryan and Semitic races, +between the Christian and Mohammedan religions, between the forces +representing order on the one side and destruction on the other, and +between races destined to succeed to the civilization of Greece and Rome +and a race representing oriental despotism and static conditions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 33. THE KNOWN WORLD IN 800 +This map shows the great extent of the Mohammedan conquests. The part +marked as "European Heathen" was added to Christianity within the next few +centuries, and became a part of our Latin-Teutonic or western +civilization.] + +Driven back across the Pyrenees by the Franks, these people settled in +Spain; later developed there, for a short period, a for-the-time +remarkable civilization, but one that only slightly influenced the current +of European development; and then disappeared as a force in our western +development and progress. We shall meet them again a little later, but +only for a little while, and then they concern our western development no +more. + +Our interest from now on lies with the Teutonic-Latin peoples of western +Europe, for it is through them that our western civilization has been +worked out and has come down to us. + +WHO THESE INVADERS WERE. A long-continued series of tribal migrations, +unsurpassed before in history, had brought a large number of new peoples +within the boundaries of the old Empire. They finally came so fast that +they could not have been assimilated even in the best days of Rome, and +now the assimilative and digestive powers of Rome were gone. Tall, huge of +limb, white-skinned, flaxen-haired, with fierce blue eyes, and clad in +skins and rude cloths, they seemed like giants to the short, small, dark- +skinned people of the Italian peninsula. Quarrelsome; delighting in +fighting and gambling; given to drunkenness and gluttonous eating; +possessed of a rude polytheistic religion in which _Woden_, the war god, +held the first place, and Valhalla was a heaven for those killed in +battle; living in rude villages in the forest, and maintaining themselves +by hunting and fishing--it is not to be wondered that Rome dreaded the +coming of these forest barbarians (R. 46). + +[Illustration: FIG 34. A GERMAN WAR CHIEF +Restored, and rather idealized (From the Musée d'Artillerie at Paris)] + +The tribes nearest the Rhine and the Danube had taken on a little +civilization from long contact with the Romans, but those farther away +were savage and unorganized (Rs. 46, 47). In general they represented a +degree of civilization not particularly different from that of the better +American Indians in our colonial period, [6] though possessing a much +larger ability to learn. The "two terrible centuries" which brought these +new peoples into the Empire were marked by unspeakable disorder and +frightful destruction. It was the most complete catastrophe that had ever +befallen civilized society. + +[Illustration: FIG. 35. ROMANS DESTROYING A GERMAN VILLAGE +(From the Column of Marcus Aurelius, at Rome) Note the circular huts of +reeds, without windows, and with but a single door.] + +THEY SETTLE DOWN WITHIN THE EMPIRE. Finally, after a period of wandering +and plundering, each of these new peoples settled down within the Empire +as rulers over the numerically larger native Roman population, and slowly +began to turn from hunting to a rude type of farming. For three or four +centuries after the invasions ceased, though, Europe presented a dreary +spectacle of ignorance, lawlessness, and violence. Force reigned where law +and order had once been supreme. Work largely ceased, because there was no +security for the results of labor. The Roman schools gradually died out, +in part because of pagan hostility (all pagan schools were closed by +imperial edict in 529 A.D.), and in part because they no longer ministered +to any real need. The church and the monastery schools alone remained, the +instruction in these was meager indeed, and they served almost entirely +the special needs of the priestly and monastic classes. The Latin language +was corrupted and modified into spoken dialects, and the written language +died out except with the monks and the clergy. Even here it became greatly +corrupted. Art perished, and science disappeared. The former Roman skill +in handicrafts was largely lost. Roads and bridges were left without +repair. Commerce and intercourse almost ceased. The cities decayed, and +many were entirely destroyed (R. 49). + +The new ruling class was ignorant--few could read or write their names-- +and they cared little for the learning of Greece and Rome. Much of what +was excellent in the ancient civilizations died out because these new +peoples were as yet too ignorant to understand or use it, and what was +preserved was due to the work of others than themselves. It was with such +people and on such a basis that it was necessary for whatever constructive +forces still remained to begin again the task of building up new +foundations for a future European civilization. This was the work of +centuries, and during the period the lamp of learning almost went out. + +BARBARIAN AND ROMAN IN CONTACT. Civilization was saved from almost +complete destruction chiefly by reason of the long and substantial work +which Rome had done in organizing and governing and unifying the Empire; +by the relatively slow and gradual coming of the different tribes; and by +the thorough organization of the governing side of the Christian Church, +which had been effected before the Empire was finally overrun and Roman +government ceased. In unifying the government of the Empire and +establishing a common law, language, and traditions, and in early +beginning the process of receiving barbarians into the Empire and +educating them in her ways and her schools, [7] Rome rendered the western +world a service of inestimable importance and one which did much to +prepare the way for the reception and assimilation of the invaders. [8] In +the cities, which remained Roman in spirit even after their rulers had +changed, and where the Roman population greatly preponderated even after +the invaders had come, some of the old culture and handicrafts were kept +up, and in the cities of southern Europe the municipal form of city +government was retained. Roman law still applied to trials of Roman +citizens, and many Roman governmental forms passed over to the invader +chiefly because he knew no other. The old Roman population for long +continued to furnish the clergy, and these, because of their ability to +read and write, also became the secretaries and advisers of their rude +Teutonic overlords. In one capacity or another they persuaded the leaders +of the tribes to adopt, not only Christianity, but many of the customs and +practices of the old civilization as well. These various influences helped +to assimilate and educate the newcomers, and to save something of the old +civilization for the future. Being strong, sturdy, and full of youthful +energy, and with a large capacity for learning, the civilizing process, +though long and difficult, was easier than it might otherwise have been, +and because of their strength and vigor these new races in time infused +new life and energy into every land from Spain to eastern Europe (R. 50). + +The most powerful force with which the barbarians came in contact, though, +and the one which did most to reduce them to civilization, was the +Christian Church. Organized, as we have seen, after the Roman governmental +model, and as a State within a State, the Church gained in strength as the +Roman government grew weaker, and was ready to assume governmental +authority when Rome could no longer exert it. The barbarians here +encountered an organization stronger than force and greater than kings, +[9] which they must either accept and make terms with or absolutely +destroy. As all the tribes, though heathen, possessed some form of spirit +or nature worship or heathen gods, which served as a basis for +understanding the appeal of the Church, the result was the ultimate +victory, and the Christianizing, in name at least, of all the barbarian +tribes. This was the first step in the long process of civilizing and +educating them. + +THE IMPRESS OF CHRISTIANITY UPON THEM. The importance of the services +rendered by bishops, priests, and monks during what are known as the _Dark +Ages_ can hardly be overestimated. In the face of might they upheld the +right of the Church and its representatives to command obedience and +respect. [10] The Christian priest gradually forced the barbarian chief to +do his will, though at times he refused to be awed into submission, +murdered the priest, and sacked the sacred edifice. That the Church lost +much of its early purity of worship, and adopted many practices fitted to +the needs of the time, but not consistent with real religion, there can be +no question. In time the Church gained much from the mixture of these new +peoples among the old, as they infused new vigor and energy into the blood +of the old races, but the immediate effect was quite otherwise. The Church +itself was paganized, but the barbarians were in time Christianized. + +Priests and missionaries went among the heathen tribes and labored for +their conversion. Of course the leaders were sought out first, and often +the conversion of a chieftain was made by first converting his wife. After +the chieftain had been won the minor leaders in time followed. The lesson +of the cross was proclaimed, and the softening and restraining influences +of the Christian faith were exerted on the barbarian. It was, however, a +long and weary road to restore even a semblance of the order and respect +for life and property which had prevailed under Roman rule. + +One of the most interesting of all the conversions was that made by the +Bishop Ulphilas (c. 313-383) among the Visigoths, before they moved +westward from their original home north of the Danube, in what is now +southwestern Russia. Ulphilas was made bishop and sent among them in 343, +and spent the remainder of his life in laboring with them. He devised an +alphabet for them, based on the Greek, and gave them a written language +into which he translated for them the Bible, or rather large portions of +it. In the translation he omitted the two books of Kings and the two +Samuels, that the people might not find in them a further stimulus to +their great warlike activity. + +[Illustration: FIG. 36. A PAGE OF THE GOTHIC GOSPELS (_reduced_) +One of the treasures of the library of the University or Upsala, in +Sweden, is a manuscript of this translation by Bishop Ulphilas. Greek +letters, with a few Runic signs were used to represent Gothic sounds. The +word "rune" comes from a Gothic word meaning "mystery." To the primitive +Germans it seemed a mysterious thing that a series of marks could express +thought.] + +Christianity had been carried early to Great Britain by Roman +missionaries, and in 440 Saint Patrick converted the Irish. In 563 Saint +Columba crossed to Scotland, founded the monastery at Iona, and began the +conversion of the Scots. After the Angles and Saxons and Jutes had overrun +eastern and southern Britain there was a period of several generations +during which this portion of the island was given over to Teutonic +heathenism. In 597 Saint Augustine, "the Apostle to the English," landed +in Kent and began the conversion of the people, that year succeeding in +converting Ethelbert, King of Kent. In 626 Edwin, King of Northumbria, was +converted, and in 635 the English of Wessex accepted Christianity. The +English at once became strong supporters of the Christian faith, and in +878 they forced the invading Danes to accept Christianity as one of the +conditions of the Peace of Wedmore. (See Map, Figure 42.) + +In 496 Clovis, King of the Franks, and three thousand of his followers +were baptized, following a vow and a victory in battle; [11] in 587 +Recarred, King of the Goths in Spain, was won over; and in 681 the South +Saxons accepted Christianity. The Germans of Bavaria and Thuringia were +finally won over by about 740. Charlemagne repeatedly forced the northern +Saxons to accept Christianity, between 772 and 804, when the final +submission of this German tribe took place. Finally, in the tenth century, +Rollo, Duke of the Normans, was won (912); Boleslav II, King of the +Bohemians, in 967; and the Hungarians in 972. In the tenth century the +Slavs were converted to the Eastern or Greek type of Christianity, and +Poland, Norway, and Sweden to the Western or Roman type. The last people +to be converted were the Prussians, a half-Slavic tribe inhabiting East +Prussia and Lithuania, along the eastern Baltic, who were not brought to +accept Christianity, in name, until near the middle of the thirteenth +century, though efforts were begun with them as early as 900. As late as +1230 they were still offering human sacrifices to their heathen gods to +secure their favor, but soon after this date they were forced to a nominal +acceptance of Christianity as a result of conquest by the "Teutonic +Knights." It was thus a thousand years after its foundation before Europe +had accepted in name the Christian faith. To change a nominal acceptance +to some semblance of a reality has been the work of the succeeding +centuries. + +WORK OF THE CHURCH DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. Everywhere throughout the old +Empire, and far into the forest depths of barbarian lands, went bishops, +priests, and missionaries, and there parishes were organized, rude +churches arose, and the process of educating the fighting tribesmen in the +ways of civilized life was carried out. It was not by schools of learning, +but by faith and ceremonial that the Church educated and guided her +children into the type she approved. Schools for other than monks and +clergy for a time were not needed, and such practically died out. The +Church and its offices took the place of education and exercised a +wholesome and restraining influence over both young and old throughout the +long period of the Middle Ages. These the Church in time taught the +barbarian to respect. The great educational work of the Church during this +period of insecurity and ignorance has seldom been better stated than in +the following words by Draper: + + Of the great ecclesiastics, many had risen from the humblest ranks + of society, and these men, true to their democratic instincts, were + often found to be the inflexible supporters of right against might. + Eventually coming to be the depositaries of the knowledge that then + existed, they opposed intellect to brute force, in many instances + successfully, and by the example of the organization of the Church, + which was essentially republican, they showed how representative + systems may be introduced into the State. Nor was it over communities + and nations that the Church displayed her chief power. Never in the + world before was there such a system. From her central seat at Rome, + her all-seeing eye, like that of Providence itself, could equally take + in a hemisphere at a glance, or examine the private life of any + individual. Her boundless influences enveloped kings in their palaces, + and relieved the beggar at the monastery gate. In all Europe there was + not a man too obscure, too insignificant, or too desolate for her. + Surrounded by her solemnities, every one received his name at her + altar; her bells chimed at his marriage, her knell tolled at his + funeral. She extorted from him the secrets of his life at her + confessionals, and punished his faults by her penances. In his hour of + sickness and trouble her servants sought him out, teaching him, by her + exquisite litanies and prayers, to place his reliance on God, or + strengthening him for the trials of life by the example of the holy + and just. Her prayers had an efficacy to give repose to the souls of + his dead. When, even to his friends, his lifeless body had become an + offense, in the name of God she received it into her consecrated + ground, and under her shadow he rested till the great reckoning-day. + From little better than a slave she raised his wife to be his equal, + and, forbidding him to have more than one, met her recompense for + those noble deeds in a firm friend at every fireside. Discountenancing + all impure love, she put round that fireside the children of one + mother, and made that mother little less than sacred in their eyes. In + ages of lawlessness and rapine, among people but a step above savages, + she vindicated the inviolability of her precincts against the hand of + power, and made her temples a refuge and sanctuary for the despairing + and oppressed. Truly she was the shadow of a great rock in many a + weary land. [12.] + +THE CIVILIZING WORK OF THE MONASTERIES. No less important than the Church +and its clergy was the work of the monasteries and their monks in building +up a basis for a new civilization. These, too, were founded all over +Europe. To make a map of western Europe showing the monasteries +established by 800 A.D. would be to cover the map with a series of dots. +[13] The importance of their work is better understood when we remember +that the Germans had never lived in cities, and did not settle in them on +entering the Empire. The monasteries, too, were seldom established in +towns. Their sites were in the river valleys and in the forests (R. 69), +and the monks became the pioneers in clearing the land and preparing the +way for agriculture and civilization. Not infrequently a swamp was taken +and drained. The Middle-Age period was essentially a period of settlement +of the land and of agricultural development, and the monks lived on the +land and among a people just passing through the earliest stages of +settled and civilized life. In a way the inheritors of the agricultural +and handicraft knowledge of the Romans, the monks became the most skillful +artisans and farmers to be found, and from them these arts in time reached +the developing peasantry around them. Their work and services have been +well summed up by the same author just quoted, as follows: + + It was mainly by the monasteries that to the peasant class of Europe + was pointed out the way of civilization. The devotions and charities; + the austerities of the brethren; their abstemious meal; their meager + clothing, the cheapest of the country in which they lived; their + shaven heads, or the cowl which shut out the sight of sinful objects; + the long staff in their hands; their naked feet and legs; their + passing forth on their journeys by twos, each a watch on his brother; + the prohibitions against eating outside of the wall of the monastery, + which had its own mill, its own bakehouse, and whatever was needed in + an abstemious domestic economy (Figure 38); their silent hospitality + to the wayfarer, who was refreshed in a separate apartment; the lands + around their buildings turned from a wilderness into a garden, and, + above all, labor exalted and ennobled by their holy hands, and + celibacy, forever, in the eye of the vulgar, a proof of separation + from the world and a sacrifice to heaven--these were the things that + arrested the attention of the barbarians of Europe, and led them on to + civilization. [14] + +THE PROBLEM FACED BY THE MIDDLE AGES. That the lamp of learning burned low +during this period of assimilation is no cause for wonder. Recovery from +such a deluge of barbarism on a weakened society is not easy. In fact the +recovery was a long and slow process, occupying nearly the whole of a +thousand years. The problem which faced the Church, as the sole surviving +force capable of exerting any constructive influence, was that of changing +the barbarism and anarchy of the sixth century, with its low standards of +living and lack of humane ideals, into the intelligent, progressive +civilization of the fifteenth century. This was the work of the Middle +Ages, and largely the work of the Christian Church. It was not a period of +progress, but one of assimilation, so that a common western civilization +might in time be developed out of the diverse and hostile elements mixed +together by the rude force of circumstances. The enfeebled Roman race was +to be reinvigorated by mixture with the youthful and vigorous Germans (R. +50); to the institutions of ancient society were to be added certain +social and political institutions of the Germanic peoples; all were to be +brought under the rule of a common Christian Church; and finally, when +these people had become sufficiently civilized and educated to enable them +to understand and appreciate, "nearly every achievement of the Greeks and +the Romans in thought, science, law, and the practical arts" was to be +recovered and made a part of our western civilization. + +In this chapter we have dealt largely with the great fundamental movements +which have so deeply influenced the course of human history. In the +chapters which immediately follow we shall tell how learning was preserved +during the period and what facilities for education actually existed; +trace the more important efforts made to reëstablish schools and learning; +and finally describe the culmination of the process of absorbing and +educating the Germans in the civilization they had conquered that came in +the great period of recovery of the ancient learning and civilization--the +age of the Renaissance. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Do the peculiar problems of assimilation of the foreign-born, revealed +to us by the World War, put us in a somewhat similar position to Rome +under the Empire as relates to the need of a guiding national faith? + +2. Outline how Rome might have been helped and strengthened by a national +school system under state control. + +3. Outline how our state school systems could be made much more effective +as national instruments by the infusion into their instruction of a strong +national faith. + +4. Try to picture the results upon our civilization had western Europe +become Mohammedan. + +5. The movement of new peoples into the Roman Empire was much slower than +has been the immigration of foreign peoples into the United States, since +1840. Why the difference in assimilative power? + +6. How do you think the Roman provinces and Italy, after the tribes from +the North had settled down within the Empire, compared with Mexico after +the years of revolution with peons and brigands in control? With Russia, +after the destruction wrought by the Bolshevists? + +7. Explain the importance of the long civilizing and educating work of +Rome among the German tribes, in preparing the means for the preservation +of Roman institutions after the downfall of the Roman government. + +8. What does the fact that Roman institutions and Roman thinking continued +and profoundly modified mediaeval life indicate as to the nature of Roman +government and the Roman power of assimilation? + +9. Though Rome never instituted a state school system, was there not after +all large educational work done by the government through its intelligent +administration? + +10. Show how the breakdown of Roman government and Roman institutions was +naturally more complete in Gaul than in northern Italy, and more complete +in northern than in central or southern Italy, and hence how Roman +civilization was naturally preserved in larger measure in the cities of +Italy than elsewhere. + +11. Show how the Christian Church, too, could not have completely +dispensed with Roman letters and Roman civilization, had it desired to do +so, but was forced of necessity to preserve and pass on important portions +of the civilization of Rome. + +12. What do you think would have been the effect on the future of +civilization had the barbarian tribes overrun Spain, Italy, and Greece +during the Age of Pericles? + +13. What modern analogies do we have to the civilizing work of the monks +and clergy during the Middle Ages? + +14. Picture the work of the monasteries in handing on to western Europe +the arts and handicrafts and skilled occupations of Rome. Cite some +examples. + +15. What civilizing problem, somewhat comparable to that of barbarian +Europe, have we faced in our national history? Why have we been able to +obtain results so much more rapidly? + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 46. Caesar: The Hunting Germans and their Fighting Ways. + 47. Tacitus: The Germans and their Domestic Habits. + 48. Dill: Effect on the Roman World of the News of the Sacking of Rome + by Alaric. + 49. Giry and Reville: Fate of the Old Roman Towns. + 50. Kingsley: The Invaders, and what they brought. + 51. General Form for a Grant of Immunity to a Bishop. + 52. Charlemagne: Powers and Immunities granted to the Monastery of Saint + Marcellus. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. State the differences in character Caesar observes (46) between the +Gauls to the west of the Rhine and the Germans to the east. + +2. What German characteristics that Tacitus describes (47) would prove +good additions to Roman life? + +3. Do the emotions of Saint Jerome on hearing of the sacking of Rome (48) +reveal anything as to the extent to which the Roman had become a Churchman +and the Churchman a Roman? Illustrate. + +4. Is it probable that a quarter-century of Bolsheviki rule in Russia +would produce results comparable to those described by Giry and Réville +(49)? + +5. Is Kingsley right in stating (50) that the best elements of all the +modern European peoples came from the barbarian invaders? State what seem +to you to be the important contributions of barbarian invader, Roman, and +Churchman. + +6. Do the grants of privileges and immunities shown in the general form +(51)and the specific form (52) seem to follow naturally from the earlier +grants to physicians and teachers (26) and to the clergy (38)? Point out +the relationship. + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + +* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. + Church, R. W. _The Beginnings of the Middle Ages_. + Kingsley, Chas. _The Roman and Teuton_. +* Thorndike, Lynn. _History of Mediaeval Europe_. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +EDUCATION DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES [1] + + +I. CONDITION AND PRESERVATION OF LEARNING + +THE LOW INTELLECTUAL LEVEL. As was stated in the preceding chapter, the +lamp of learning burned low throughout the most of western Europe during +the period of assimilation and partial civilization of the barbarian +tribes. The western portion of the Roman Empire had been overrun, and rude +Germanic chieftains were establishing, by the law of might, new kingdoms +on the ruins of the old. The Germanic tribes had no intellectual life of +their own to contribute, and no intellectual tastes to be ministered unto. +With the destruction of cities and towns and country villas, with their +artistic and literary collections, much that represented the old culture +was obliterated, [2] and books became more and more scarce. [3] The +destruction was gradual, but by the beginning of the seventh century the +loss had become great. The Roman schools also gradually died out as the +need for an education which prepared for government and gave a knowledge +of Roman law passed away, and the type of education approved by the Church +was left in complete control of the field. As the security and leisure +needed for study disappeared, and as the only use for learning was now in +the service of the Church, education became limited to the narrow lines +which offered such preparation and to the few who needed it. Amid the +ruins of the ancient civilization the Church stood as the only +conservative and regenerative force, and naturally what learning remained +passed into its hands and under its control. + +The result of all these influences and happenings was that by the +beginning of the seventh century Christian Europe had reached a very low +intellectual level, and during the seventh and eighth centuries conditions +grew worse instead of better. Only in England and Ireland, as will be +pointed out a little later, and in a few Italian cities, was there +anything of consequence of the old Roman learning preserved. On the +Continent there was little general learning, even among the clergy (R. 64 +a). Many of the priests were woefully ignorant, [4] and the Latin writings +of the time contain many inaccuracies and corruptions which reveal the low +standard of learning even among the better educated of the clerical class. +The Church itself was seriously affected by the prevailing ignorance of +the period, and incorporated into its system of government and worship +many barbarous customs and practices of which it was a long time in +ridding itself. So great had become the ignorance and superstition of the +time, among priests, monks, and the people; so much had religion taken on +the worship of saints and relics and shrines; and so much had the Church +developed the sensuous and symbolic, that religion had in reality become a +crude polytheism instead of the simple monotheistic faith of the early +Church. Along scientific lines especially the loss was very great. +Scientific ideas as to natural phenomena disappeared, and crude and +childish ideas as to natural forces came to prevail. As if barbarian +chiefs and robber bands were not enough, popular imagination peopled the +world with demons, goblins, and dragons, and all sorts of superstitions +and supernatural happenings were recorded. Intercommunication largely +ceased; trade and commerce died out; the accumulated wealth of the past +was destroyed; and the old knowledge of the known world became badly +distorted, as is evidenced by the many crude mediaeval maps. (See Figure +46.) The only scholarship of the time, if such it might be called, was the +little needed by the Church to provide for and maintain its government and +worship. Almost everything that we to-day mean by civilization in that age +was found within the protecting walls of monastery or church, and these +institutions were at first too busy building up the foundations upon which +a future culture might rest to spend much time in preserving learning, +much less in advancing it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 37. A TYPICAL MONASTERY of SOUTHERN EUROPE] + +THE MONASTERIES DEVELOP SCHOOLS. In this age of perpetual lawlessness and +disorder the one opportunity for a life of repose and scholarly +contemplation lay in the monasteries. Here the rule of might and force was +absent (R. 52), and the timid, the devout, and the studiously inclined +here found a refuge from the turbulence and brutality of a rude +civilization. The early monasteries, and especially the monastery of Saint +Victor, at Marseilles, founded by Cassian in 404, had represented a +culmination of the western feeling of antagonism to all ancient learning, +but with the founding of Monte Cassino by Saint Benedict, in 529 A.D., and +the promulgation of the Benedictine rule (R. 43), a more liberal attitude +was shown. [5] This rule was adopted generally by the monasteries +throughout what is now Italy, Spain, France, Germany, and England, and the +Benedictine became the type for the monks of the early Middle Ages. To +this order we are largely indebted for the copying of books and the +preservation of learning throughout the mediaeval period. + +The 48th rule of Saint Benedict, it will be remembered (R. 43), had +imposed reading and study as a part of the daily duty of every monk, but +had said nothing about schools. Subsequent regulations issued by superiors +had aimed at the better enforcement of this rule (R. 44), that the monks +might lead devout lives and know the Bible and the sacred writings of the +Church. Imposed at first as a matter of education and discipline for the +monks, this rule ultimately led to the establishment of schools and the +development of a system of monastic instruction. As youths were received +at an early age [6] into the monasteries to prepare for a monastic life, +it was necessary that they be taught to read if they were later to use the +sacred books. This led to the duty of instructing novices, which marks the +beginning of monastic instruction for those within the walls. As books +were scarce and at the same time necessary, and the only way to get new +ones was to copy from old ones, the monasteries were soon led to take up +the work once carried on by the publishing houses of ancient Rome, and in +much the same way. This made writing necessary, and the novices had to be +instructed carefully in this, as well as in reading. [7] The chants and +music of the Church called for instruction of the novices in music, and +the celebration of Easter and the fast and festival days of the Church +called for some rudimentary instruction in numbers and calculation. + +Out of these needs rose the monastery school, the copying of manuscripts, +and the preservation of books. Due to their greater security and quiet the +monasteries became the leading teaching institutions of the early part of +the Middle-Age period, and those who wished their children trained for the +service of the Church gave them to the monasteries (R. 53 a). The +development of the monastic schools was largely voluntary, though from an +early date bishops and rulers began urging the monasteries to open schools +for boys in connection with their houses, and schools became in time a +regular feature of the monastic organization. From schools only for those +intending to take the vows (_oblati_), the instruction was gradually +opened, after the ninth century, to others (_externi_) not intending to +take the vows, and what came to be known as "outer" monastic schools were +in time developed. + +[Illustration: FIG. 38. BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF A MEDIAEVAL MONASTERY +(From an engraving by Viollet-le-Duc, dated 1718, of the Cistercian Abbey +of Cîteaux, in France) This monastery was founded in the forests of what +is now northeastern France, in 1198 A.D., and was the first of a reformed +Benedictine order, known as Cistercians. For an explanation of the +monastery, see the opposite page. (Note: explanation follows.) + +_Explanation of the Monastery opposite_: The cross, by the roadside, +indicates the entrance gate. Passing through the orchards and fields, the +traveler reached the outer gate-house. At the almonry (_C_) food and drink +were given out; on the second floor rooms for the night could be had; in +the little chapel (_D_) prayers could be said; and in the stable (_F_) the +traveler's horse could be cared for for the night. An inner gate through +(_E_) opened into an inner court, around which were the barns, chicken- +yards, cow-sheds, etc. The Abbot lived at _H_. _G_ was a dormitory for the +lay brothers who did the heavy work of the monastery, and who entered the +church (_N_) at the rear through a special doorway (_S_). All of these +buildings were considered as outside the monastery proper. + +Inside were the great church (_N_), with the library (_P_) in the rear. +Seven _scriptoria_ are shown on the side of the library building. _M_ was +the large dormitory for the monks, and _R_ the infirmary for old and sick +brothers. _I_ was the kitchen, _K_ was the dining-hall (refectory), and +_L_ the stairs to the upper dormitory rooms. _C_ and _E_ are two cloisters +with corridors on the four sides, somewhat similar to the cloisters shown +for the monastery on Plate I. The copying of books often took place in +these cloisters, though a _scriptorium_ was usually found under the +library, the library proper, as in Plate 2, being on the second floor +(_P_) and reached by a winding stair. A wall surrounded the monastery +grounds, and a stream of running water passed through them.] + +The monasteries became the preservers of learning. Another need developed +the copying of pagan books, and incidentally the preservation of some of +the best of Roman literature. The language of the Church very naturally +was Latin, as it was a direct descendant of Roman life, governmental +organization, citizenship, and education. The writings of the Fathers of +the Western Church had all been in Latin, and in the fourth century the +Bible had been translated from the Greek into the Latin. This edition, +known as the _Vulgate_ [8] _Bible_, became the standard for western Europe +for ten centuries to come. The German tribes which had invaded the Empire +had no written languages of their own, and their spoken dialects differed +much from the Latin speech of those whom they had conquered. Latin was +thus the language of all those of education, and naturally continued as +the language of the Church and the monastery for both speech and writing. +All books were, of course, written in Latin. + +Under the rude influences and the general ignorance of the period, though, +the language was easily and rapidly corrupted, and it became necessary for +the monasteries and the churches to have good models of Latin prose and +verse to refer to. These were best found in the old Latin literary +authors--particularly Caesar, Cicero, and Vergil. To have these, due to +the great destruction of old books which had taken place during the +intervening centuries, it was necessary to copy these authors, [9] as well +as the Psalter, the Missal, [10] the sacred books, and the writings of the +Fathers of the Church (Rs. 55, 56). It thus happened that the monasteries +unintentionally began to preserve and use the ancient Roman books, and +from using them at first as models for style, an interest in their +contents was later awakened. While many of the monasteries remained as +farming, charitable, and ascetic institutions almost exclusively, and were +never noted for their educational work, a small but increasing number +gradually accumulated libraries and became celebrated for their literary +activity and for the character of their instruction. The monasteries thus +in time became the storehouses of learning, the publishing houses of the +Middle Ages (Rs. 54, 55, 56), teaching institutions of first importance, +and centers of literary activity and religious thought, as well as centers +for agricultural development, work in the arts and crafts, and Christian +hospitality. Many developed into large and important institutions (R. 69). + +THE COPYING OF MANUSCRIPTS. [11] The work of the more important +monasteries and the monastic churches in copying books was a service to +learning of large future significance. While many of the books copied were +for the promotion of the religious service, such as Missals and Psalters +(R. 55), and many others were tales of saints and wearisome comments on +the sacred writings, a few were old classical texts representing the best +of Roman literary work. A few monastic chronicles and histories of +importance were composed by the brothers, and also preserved for us by the +copying process. + +The production of a single book was a task of large proportions, and +explains in part the small number of volumes the monasteries accumulated. +After the raids of the Mohammedans across Egypt, in the seventh century, +the supply of Egyptian papyrus stopped because of the interruption of +communications, and the only writing material during the Middle Ages was +the skin of sheep or goats or calves. Sheepskins were chiefly used, and a +book of size might require a hundred or more skins. These were first +soaked in limewater to loosen the hair, then scraped clean of hair and +flesh, and then carefully stretched on board frames to dry. After they had +dried they were again scraped with sharp knives to secure an even +thickness, and then rubbed smooth with pumice and chalk. When finished, +the clean, shining, cream-colored skin was known as vellum, [12] or +parchment. This was next cut into pages of the desired size and arranged +ready for writing. The larger pieces were used for large books, such as +are shown in Plate 2, and the remnants to produce small books. The inks, +too, had to be prepared, and the pages ruled. + +The main writing was done with black, but the page was frequently bordered +with red, gold, or some other bright color, while many beautiful +illustrations were inserted by artistic monks. Sometimes an initial letter +was beautifully embellished, as is shown in Figure 39; sometimes +illustrations were introduced in the body of the page, of which Figures 39 +and 40 are types; and sometimes a colored illustration was painted on a +sheet of vellum and inserted in the book. Figure 44 represents such an +illustrated page in an old manuscript. Finally, when completed, the +lettered and illustrated parchment sheets were arranged in order, sewed +together with a deerskin or pigskin string, bound together between oaken +boards and covered with pigskin, properly lettered in gold, fitted with +metal corners and clasps (R. 57), as shown in Plate 2, and often chained +to their bookrack in the library with heavy iron chains as well. (See +Figure 71 and Plate 2.) Still further to protect the volume from theft, an +anathema against the thief was usually lettered in the volume (R. 58). + +[Illustration: FIG. 39. INITIAL LETTER FROM AN OLD MANUSCRIPT +This shows the beautiful work done by some of the nuns and monks in +"illuminating" the books they copied. This was done in colors by a nun, +who pictured her own work in this initial letter L.] + +Such was the painfully slow method of producing and multiplying books +before the advent of printing, and in days when skill in copying +manuscripts was not particularly common, even among the monks. It required +from a few months to a year or more to produce a few copies, depending on +the size and nature of the work, whereas to-day, with printing-presses, +five thousand copies of such a book as this can be printed and bound in a +few days. + +[Illustration: FIG. 40. A MONK IN A SCRIPTORIUM +(From an illuminated picture in a manuscript in the Royal Library at +Brussels) This picture shows the beautiful work done in "illuminating" +manuscript books by mediaeval writers. Each copy was a work of art. This +represents a better type of _scriptorium_ than is usually shown.] + +THE SCRIPTORIUM. An important part of the material equipment of many +monasteries, in consequence, came to be a _scriptorium_, or writing-room, +where the copying of manuscripts could take place undisturbed. In some +monasteries one general room was provided, though it was customary to have +a number of small rooms at the side of the library. In the monastery shown +in Figure 38, seven small rooms for this purpose are shown built out on +one side of the library. Sometimes individual cells along a corridor were +provided. The advantage of the single room in which a number of monks +worked came when an edition of eight or ten copies of a book was to be +prepared. One monk could then dictate, while eight or ten others carefully +printed on the skins before them what was dictated by the reader. [13] +Figure 40 shows a monk at work, though here he is copying from a book +before him. After an edition of eight or ten copies of a book had been +prepared and bound the extra copies were sent to neighboring and sometimes +distant monasteries, sometimes in exchange for other books, and sometimes +as gifts to brothers who had longed to read the work (R. 55). New +monasteries were provided with the beginnings of a library in this way, +and churches were supplied with Missals, Psalters, and other books needed +for their services. + +The writing-room, or rooms, came to be a very important place in those +monasteries noted for their literary activity. West gives an interesting +description of the _scriptorium_ at Tours, where the learned English monk, +Alcuin, was Abbot from 796 to 804, and which at the time was the principal +book-writing monastery in Frankland. Describing Alcuin's labors to secure +books to send to other monasteries in Charlemagne's kingdom, he says: + +We can almost reconstruct the scene. In the intervals between the hours of +prayer and the observance of the round of cloister life, come hours for +the copying of books under the presiding genius of Alcuin. The young monks +file into the _scriptorium_, and one of them is given the precious +parchment volume containing a work of Bede or Isidore or Augustine, or +else some portion of the Latin Scriptures, or even a heathen author. He +reads slowly and clearly at a measured rate while all the others seated at +their desks take down his words, and thus perhaps a score of copies are +made at once. Alcuin's observant eye watches each in turn, and his +correcting hand points out the mistakes in orthography and punctuation. +The master of Charles the Great, in that true humility that is the charm +of his whole behavior, makes himself the writing-master of his monks, +stooping to the drudgery of faithfully and gently correcting their many +puerile mistakes, and all for the love of studies and the love of Christ. +Under such guidance, and deeply impressed by the fact that in the copying +of a few books they were saving learning and knowledge from perishing, and +thereby offering a service most acceptable to God, the copying in the +_scriptorium_ went on in sobriety from day to day. Thus were produced +those improved copies of books which mark the beginning of a new age in +the conserving and transmission of learning. Alcuin's anxiety in this +regard was not undue, for the few monasteries where books could be +accurately transcribed were as necessary for publication in that time as +are the great publishing houses to-day. [14] + +[Illustration: FIG. 41. CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE, AND THE IMPORTANT +MONASTERIES OF THE TIME +Charlemagne's empire at his death is shaded darker than other parts of the +map.] + +MONASTIC COLLECTION. Despite the important work done by a few of the +monasteries in preserving and advancing learning, large collections of +books were unknown before the Revival of Learning, in the fourteenth +century. The process of book production in itself was very slow, and many +of the volumes produced were later lost through fire, or pillage by new +invaders. During the early days of wood construction a number of monastic +and church libraries were burned by accident. In the pillaging of the +Danes and Northmen on the coasts of England and northern France, in the +ninth and tenth centuries, a number of important monastic collections +there were lost. In Italy the Lombards destroyed some collections in their +sixth-century invasion, and the Saracens burned some in southern Italy in +the ninth. Monte Cassino, among other monasteries, was destroyed by both +the Lombards and the Saracens. From a number of extant catalogues of old +monastic libraries we know that, even as late as the thirteenth and +fourteenth centuries, a library of from two to three hundred volumes was +large. [15] The catalogues show that most of these were books of a +religious nature, being monastic chronicles, manuals of devotion, comments +on the Scriptures, lives of miracle-working saints, and books of a similar +nature (Rs. 55, 56). A few were commentaries on the ancient learning, or +mediaeval textbooks on the great subjects of study of the time (R. 60). A +still smaller number were copies of old classical literary works, and of +the utmost value (R. 57). + +THE CONVENTS AND THEIR SCHOOLS. The early part of the Middle Ages also +witnessed a remarkable development of convents for women, these receiving +a special development in Germanic lands. Filled with the same aggressive +spirit as the men, but softened somewhat by Christianity, many women of +high station among the German tribes founded convents and developed +institutions of much renown. This provided a rather superior class of +women as organizers and directors, and a conventual life continued, +throughout the entire Middle Ages, to attract an excellent class of women. +This will be understood when it is remembered that a conventual life +offered to women of intellectual ability and scholarly tastes the one +opportunity for an education and a life of learning. The convents, too, +were much earlier and much more extensively opened for instruction to +those not intending to take the vows than was the case with the +monasteries, and, in consequence, it became a common practice throughout +the Middle Ages, just as it is to-day among Catholic families, to send +girls to the convent for education and for training in manners and +religion. Many well-trained women were produced in the convents of Europe +in the period from the sixth to the thirteenth centuries. + +The instruction consisted of reading, writing, and copying Latin, as in +the monasteries, as well as music, weaving and spinning, and needlework. +Weaving and spinning had an obvious utilitarian purpose, and needlework, +in addition to necessary sewing, was especially useful in the production +of altar-cloths and sacred vestments. The copying and illuminating of +manuscripts, music, and embroidering made a special appeal to women (R. +56), and some of the most beautifully copied and illuminated manuscripts +of the mediaeval period are products of their skill. [16] Their +contribution to music and art, as it influenced the life of the time, was +also large. The convent schools reached their highest development about +the middle of the thirteenth century, after which they began to decline in +importance, + +LEARNING IN IRELAND AND BRITAIN. As was stated earlier in this chapter, +the one part of western Europe where something of the old learning was +retained during this period was in Ireland, and in those parts of England +which had not been overrun by the Germanic tribes. Christian civilization +and monastic life had been introduced into Ireland probably as early as +425 A.D., and probably by monastic missionaries from Lerins and Saint +Victor (see Figure 41). Saint Patrick preached Christianity to the Irish, +about 440 A.D., and during the fifth and sixth centuries churches and +monasteries were founded in such numbers over Ireland that the land has +been said to have been dotted all over with churches, monasteries, and +schools. Saint Patrick had been educated in the old Roman schools, +probably at Tours when it was still an important Roman provincial city. +Other early missionaries had had similar training, and these, not sharing +the antipathy to pagan learning of the early Italian church fathers, had +carried Greek and Latin languages and learning to Ireland. Here it +flourished so well, largely due to the island being spared from invasion, +that Ireland remained a center for instruction in Greek long after it had +virtually disappeared elsewhere in western Christendom. So much was this +the case, says Sandys, in his _History of Classical Scholarship_, "that if +any one knew Greek it was assumed that he must have come from Ireland." + +In 565 A.D., Saint Columba, an eminent Irish scholar and religious leader, +crossed over to what is now southwestern Scotland, founded there the +monastery of Iona, and began the conversion of the Picts. Saint Augustine +landed in Kent in 597, and had begun the conversion of the Angles and +Saxons and Jutes who had settled in southeastern Britain, while shortly +afterwards the Irish monks from Iona began the conversion of the people of +the north of Britain. The monastery of Lindisfarne was founded about 635 +A.D., and soon became an important center of religious and classical +learning in the north. Irish and English monks also crossed in numbers to +northern Frankland, and labored for the conversion of the Franks and +Saxons. + +In 664 A.D., at a council held at Whitby, the Irish Church in England and +the Roman Church were united, and a great enthusiasm for religion and +learning swept over the island. In 670, Theodore of Tarsus and the Abbot +Hadrian, whom Bede, the scholar and historian of the early English Church, +describes as men "instructed in secular and divine literature both Greek +and Latin" (R. 59 a), arrived in England from southern Italy and began +their work of instructing pupils in Greek and Latin (R. 59 b). Both taught +at Canterbury, and raised the cathedral school there to high rank. In 674 +the monastery at Wearmouth was founded, and in 682 its companion Yarrow. +These were endowed with books from Rome and Vienne, and soon became famous +for the instruction they provided. It was at the twin monasteries of +Wearmouth and Yarrow that the Venerable Bede (673-735), whose +_Ecclesiastical History of England_ gives us our chief picture of +education in Britain in his time, was educated and remained as a lifelong +student. [17] As a result of all these efforts a number of northern +monasteries, as well as a few of the cathedral schools, early became +famous for their libraries, scholars, and learning. This culture in +Ireland and Britain was of a much higher standard than that obtaining on +the Continent at the time, because the classical inheritance there had +been less corrupted. + +THE CATHEDRAL SCHOOL AT YORK. One of the schools which early attained fame +was the cathedral school at York, in northern England. This had, by the +middle of the eighth century, come to possess for the time a large +library, and contained most of the important Latin authors and textbooks +then known (R. 61). In this school, under the _scholasticus_ Aelbert, was +trained a youth by the name of Alcuin, born in or near York, about 735 +A.D. In a poem describing the school (R. 60), he gives a good portrayal of +the instruction he received, telling how the learned Aelbert "moistened +thirsty hearts with diverse streams of teaching and the varied dews of +learning," and sorted out "youths of conspicuous intelligence" to whom he +gave special attention. Alcuin afterward succeeded Aelbert as +_scholasticus_, and was widely known as a gifted teacher. Well aware of +the precarious condition of learning amid such a rude and uncouth society, +he handed on to his pupils the learning he had received, and imbued them +with something of his own love for it and his anxiety for its preservation +and advancement. It was this Alcuin who was soon to give a new impetus to +the development of schools and the preservation of learning in Frankland. + +CHARLEMAGNE AND ALCUIN. In 768 there came to the throne as king of the +great Frankish nation one of the most distinguished and capable rulers of +all time--a man who would have been a commanding personality in any age or +land. His ancestors had developed a great kingdom, and it was his +grandfather who had defeated the Saracens at Tours (p. 113) and driven +them back over the Pyrenees into Spain. This man Charlemagne easily stands +out as one of the greatest figures of all history. For five hundred years +before and after him there is no ruler who matched him in insight, force, +or executive capacity. He is particularly the dominating figure of +mediaeval times. Born in an age of lawlessness and disorder, he used every +effort to civilize and rule as intelligently as possible the great +Frankish kingdom. Wars he waged to civilize and Christianize the Saxon +tribes of northern Germany, to reduce the Lombards of northern Italy to +order, and to extend the boundaries of the Frankish nation. At his death, +in 814, his kingdom had succeeded to most of the western possessions of +the old Roman Empire, including all of what to-day comprises France, +Belgium, Holland, and Switzerland, large portions of what is now western +Germany and northern Italy, and portions of northern Spain. (See Figure +41.) + +Realizing better than did his bishops and abbots the need for educational +facilities for the nobles and clergy, he early turned his attention to +securing teachers capable of giving the needed instruction. These, though, +were scarce and hard to obtain. After two unsuccessful efforts to obtain a +master scholar to become, as it were, his minister of education, he +finally succeeded in drawing to his court perhaps the greatest scholar and +teacher in all England. At Parma, in northern Italy, Charlemagne met +Alcuin, in 781, and invited him to leave York for Frankland. After +obtaining the consent of his archbishop and king, Alcuin accepted, and +arrived, with three assistants, at Charlemagne's court, in 782, to take up +the work of educational propaganda in Frankland. + +[Illustration: PLATE 1. THE CLOISTERS OF A MONASTERY, NEAR FLORENCE, +ITALY. +This monastery, located on a high hill and resembling a mediaeval fortress +as one approaches it, was founded in 1341 by a Florentine merchant. The +picture shows the cloisters and interior court. Eighteen cells, two +churches, and other rooms are entered from the cloisters. A few monks were +still in residence there late as 1905, one of whom is seen, but the +monastery was then in the process of being closed by the Italian +Government.] + +[Illustration: PLATE 2. THE LIBRARY OF THE CHURCH OF SAINT WALLBERG, AT +ZUTPHEN, HOLLAND + +"Ponderous Folios for Scholastics made" + +This shows the large oak-bound and chained books as well as a common type +of bookrack used in churches and monasteries during the earlier period.] + +The plight in which he found learning was most deplorable, presenting a +marked contrast to conditions in England. Learning had been almost +obliterated during the two centuries of wild disorder from 600 on. From +600 to 850 has often been called the darkest period of the Dark Ages, and +Alcuin arrived when Frankland was at its worst. The monastic and cathedral +schools which had been established earlier had in large part been broken +up, and the monasteries had become places for the pensioning of royal +favorites and hence had lost their earlier religious zeal and +effectiveness. The abbots and bishops possessed but little learning, and +the lower clergy, recruited largely from bondmen, were grossly ignorant, +greatly to the injury of the Church. The copying of books had almost +ceased, and learning was slowly dying out. + +THE PALACE SCHOOL. There had for some time been a form of school connected +with the royal court, known as the _palace school_, though the study of +letters had played but a small part in it. To the reorganization of this +school Alcuin first addressed himself, introducing into it elementary +instruction in that learning of which he was so fond. The school included +the princes and princesses of the royal household, relatives, attachés, +courtiers, and, not least in importance as pupils, the king and queen. To +meet the needs of such a heterogeneous circle was no easy task. + +The instruction which Alcuin provided for the younger members of the +circle was largely of the question and answer (catechetical) type, both +questions and answers being prepared by Alcuin beforehand and learned by +the pupils. Fortunately examples of Alcuin's instruction have been +preserved to us in a dialogue prepared for the instruction of Pepin, a son +of Charlemagne, then sixteen years old (R. 62). With the older members the +questions and answers were oral. For all, though, the instruction was of a +most elementary nature, ranging over the elements of the subjects of +instruction of the time. Poetry, arithmetic, astronomy, the writings of +the Fathers, and theology are mentioned as having been studied. +Charlemagne learned to read Latin, but is said never to have mastered the +art of writing. It was not an easy position for any one to fill. To quote +from West's description: [18] + + Charles wanted to know everything and to know it at once. His strong, + uncurbed nature eagerly seized on learning, both as a delight for + himself and a means of giving stability to his government, and so, + while he knew he must be docile, he was at the same time imperious. + Alcuin knew how to meet him, and at need could be either patiently + jocular or grave and reproving. Thus, on one occasion when he had been + informed of the great learning of Augustine and Jerome, he impatiently + demanded of Alcuin, "Why can I not have twelve clerks such as these?" + Twelve Augustines and Jeromes! and to be made arise at the king's + bidding! Alcuin was shocked. "What!" he discreetly rejoined, "the Lord + of heaven and earth had but two such, and wouldst thou have twelve?" + But his personal affection for the king was most unselfish, and he + consequently took great delight in stimulating his desire for + learning.... + + He studied everything Alcuin set before him, but had special anxiety + to learn all about the moon that was needed to calculate Easter. With + such an eager and impatient pupil as Charles, the other scholars were + soon inspired to beset Alcuin with endless puzzling questions, and + there are not wanting evidences that some of them were disposed to + levity and even carped at his teachings. But he was indefatigable, + rising with the sun to prepare for teaching. In one of his poetical + exercises he says of himself that "as soon as the ruddy charioteer of + the dawn suffuses the liquid deep with the new light of day, the old + man rubs the sleep of night from his eyes and leaps at once from his + couch, running straightway into the fields of the ancients to pluck + their flowers of correct speech and scatter them in sport before his + boys." + +CHARLEMAGNE'S PROCLAMATIONS ON EDUCATION. After reorganizing the palace +school, Alcuin and Charlemagne turned their attention to the improvement +of education among the monks and clergy throughout the realm. The first +important service was the preparation and sending out of a carefully +collected and edited series of sermons to the churches containing, "in two +volumes, lessons suitable for the whole year and for each separate +festival, and free from error." These Charlemagne ordered used in the +churches (R. 63). He also says, "we have striven with watchful zeal to +advance the cause of learning, which has been almost forgotten by the +negligence of our ancestors; and, by our example, also we invite those +whom we can to master the study of the liberal arts," meaning thereby to +incite the bishops and clergy to a study of the learning of the mediaeval +time. The volumes and letter were sent out in 786, four years after +Alcuin's arrival at the court. Further to aid in the revival of learning, +Charlemagne, in 787, imported a number of monks from Italy, who were +capable of giving instruction in arithmetic, singing, and grammar, and +sent them to the principal monasteries to teach. + +In 787 the first general proclamation on education of the Middle Ages was +issued (R. 64 a), and from it we can infer much as to the state of +learning among the monks and clergy of the time. In this document the king +gently reproves the abbots of his realm for their illiteracy, and exhorts +them to the study of letters. The signature is Charlemagne's, but the hand +is Alcuin's. In it he tells the abbots, in commenting on the fact that +they had sent letters to him telling him that "sacred and pious prayers" +were being offered in his behalf, that he recognized in "most of these +letters both correct thoughts and uncouth expressions; because what pious +devotion dictated faithfully to the mind, the tongue, uneducated on +account of the neglect of study, was not able to express in a letter +without error." He therefore commands the abbots neither to neglect the +study of letters, if they wish to have his favor, nor to fail to send +copies of his letter "to all your suffragans and fellow bishops, and to +all the monasteries." Two years later (789) Charlemagne supplemented this +by a further general admonition (R. 64 b) to the ministers and clergy of +his realm, exhorting them to live clean and just lives, and closing with: + + And let schools be established in which boys may learn to read. + Correct carefully the Psalms, the signs in writing, the songs, the + calendar, the grammar, in each monastery and bishopric, and the + catholic book; because often some desire to pray to God properly, but + they pray badly because of incorrect books. + +In 802 he further commanded that "laymen shall learn thoroughly the Creed +and the Lord's Prayer" (R. 64 c). Finally, in his enthusiasm for schools, +Charlemagne went so far as to direct that "every one should send his son +to school to study letters, and that the child should remain at school +with all diligence until he should become well instructed in learning." +Charlemagne, of course, was addressing freemen of the court and the +official classes. That he ever meant to include the children of the +laboring classes, or that the idea of compulsory education ever entered +his head, may well be doubted. + +EFFECT OF THE WORK OF CHARLEMAGNE AND ALCUIN. The actual results of the +work of Charlemagne and Alcuin were, after all, rather meager. The +difficulties they faced are almost beyond our comprehension. Nobles and +clergy were alike ignorant and uncouth. There seemed no place to begin. It +may be said that by Charlemagne's work he greatly widened the area of +civilization, created a new Frankish-Roman Empire to be the inheritor of +the civilization and culture of the old one, checked the decline in +learning and reawakened a desire for study, and that he began the +substitution of ideas for might as a ruling force among the tribes under +his rule. That for a time he gave an important impetus to the study of +letters, which resulted in a real revival in the educational work of some +of the monasteries and cathedral schools, seems certain. Men knew more of +books and wrote better Latin than before, and those who wished to learn +found it easier to do so. The state of society and the condition of the +times, however, were against any large success for such an ambitious +educational undertaking, and after the death of Charlemagne, the division +of his empire, and the invasions of the Northmen, education slowly +declined again, though never to quite the level it had reached when +Charlemagne came to the throne. In a few schools there was no decline, and +these became the centers of learning of the future. Charlemagne having +substituted merit for favoritism in his realm, promoting to be bishops and +abbots the most learned men of his time, many of these became zealous +workers in the cause of education and did much to keep up and advance +learning after his death. + +Among the most able of his helpers was Theodulf, Bishop of Orleans. He +carried out most thoroughly in his diocese the instructions of the king, +giving to his clergy the following directions: + + Let the priests hold schools in the towns and villages, and if any of + the faithful wish to entrust their children to them for the learning + of letters, let them not refuse to receive and teach such children. + Moreover, let them teach them from pure affection, remembering that it + is written, "the wise shall shine as the splendor of the firmament," + and "they that instruct many in righteousness shall shine as the stars + forever and forever." And let them exact no price from the children + for their teaching, nor receive anything from them, save what their + parents may offer voluntarily and from affection. + +Another able assistant was Alcuin himself, who, after fourteen years of +strenuous service at Charlemagne's court, was rewarded by the king with +the office of Abbot at the monastery of Saint Martin, at Tours. There he +spent the last eight years of his life in teaching, copying manuscripts, +and writing letters to bishops and abbots regarding the advancement of +religion and learning. The work of Alcuin in directing the copying of +manuscripts has been described. In a letter to Charlemagne, soon after his +appointment, he reviews his labors, contrasts the state of learning in +England and Frankland, and appeals to Charlemagne for books from England +to copy (R. 65). So important was his work as a teacher as well that at +his death, in 814, most of the important educational centers of the +kingdom were in the hands of his former pupils. Perhaps the most important +of all these was Rabanus Maurus, who became head of the monastery school +at Fulda. We shall learn more of him in the next chapter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 42. WHERE THE DANES RAVAGED ENGLAND.] + +NEW INVASIONS; THE NORTHMEN. Five years after Alcuin went to Frankland to +help Charlemagne revive learning in his kingdom, a fresh series of +barbarian invasions began with the raiding of the English coast by the +Danes. In raid after raid, extending over nearly a hundred years, these +Danes gradually overran all of eastern and central England from London +north to beyond Whitby, plundering and burning the churches and +monasteries, and destroying books and learning everywhere. By the Peace of +Wedmore, effected by King Alfred in 878, the Danes were finally given +about one half of England, and in return agreed to settle down and accept +Christianity. The damage done by these invaders was very large, and King +Alfred, in his introduction to an Anglo-Saxon translation of Pope +Gregory's _Pastoral Care_ (R. 66), gives a gloomy picture of the +destruction wrought to the churches and the decay of learning in England. + +Other bands of these Northmen (Danes and Norwegians) began to prey on the +northern coast of Frankland, and in the tenth century seized all the coast +of what is now northern France and down as far as Paris and Tours. From +Tours to Corbie (see Figure 41) churches and monasteries were pillaged and +burned, Tours and Corbie with their libraries both perishing. Amiens and +Paris were laid siege to, and disorder reigned throughout northern +Frankland. _The Annals of Xanten_ and the _Annals of Saint Vaast_, two +mediaeval chronicles of importance, give gloomy pictures of this period. +Three selections will illustrate: + + According to their custom the Northmen plundered East and West Frisia + and burned ... towns.... With their boats filled with immense booty, + including both men and goods, they returned to their own country. [19] + + The Normans inflicted much harm in Frisia and about the Rhine. A + mighty army of them collected by the river Elbe against the Saxons, + and some of the Saxon towns were besieged, others burned, and most + terribly did they oppress the Christians. [20] + + The Northmen ceased not to take Christian people captive and kill + them, and to destroy churches and houses and burn villages. Through + all the streets lay bodies of the clergy, of laymen, nobles, and + others, of women, children, and suckling babes. There was no road or + place where the dead did not lie, and all who saw Christian people + slaughtered were filled with sorrow and despair. [21] + +After much destruction, Rollo, Duke of the Normans, finally accepted +Christianity, in 912, and agreed to settle down in what has ever since +been known as _Normandy_. From here portions of the invaders afterward +passed over to England in the Norman Conquest of 1066. This was the last +of the great German tribes to move, and after they had raided and +plundered and settled down and accepted Christianity, western Europe, +after six centuries of bloodshed and pillage and turmoil and disorder, was +at last ready to begin in earnest the building-up of a new civilization +and the restoration of the old learning. + +WORK OF ALFRED IN ENGLAND. The set-back to learning caused by this latest +deluge of barbarism was a serious one, and one from which the land did not +recover for a long time. In northern Frankland and in England the results +were disastrous. The revival which Charlemagne had started was checked, +and England did not recover from the blow for centuries. Even in the parts +of England not invaded and pillaged, education sadly declined as a result +of nearly a century of struggle against the invaders (R. 66). Alfred, +known to history as _Alfred the Great_, who ruled as English king from 871 +to 901, made great efforts to revive learning in his kingdom. Probably +inspired by the example of Charlemagne, he established a large palace +school (R. 68), to the support of which he devoted one eighth of his +income; he imported scholars from Mercia and Frankland (R. 67); restored +many monasteries; and tried hard to revive schools and encourage learning +throughout his realm, and with some success. [22] With the great decay of +the Latin learning he tried to encourage the use of the native Anglo-Saxon +language, [23] and to this end translated books from Latin into Anglo- +Saxon for his people. In his Introduction to Gregory's volume (R. 66) he +expresses the hope, "If we have tranquillity enough, that all the free- +born youth now in England, who are rich enough to be able to devote +themselves to it ... be set to learn ... English writing," while those who +were to continue study should then be taught Latin. The coming of the +Normans in 1066, with the introduction of Norman-French as the official +language of the court and government, for a time seriously interfered with +the development of that native English learning of which Alfred wrote. + +In the preceding chapter and in this one we have traced briefly the great +invasions, or migrations, which took place in western Europe, and +indicated somewhat the great destruction they wrought within the bounds of +the old Empire. In this chapter we have traced the beginnings of Christian +schools to replace the ones destroyed, the preservation of learning in the +monasteries, and the efforts of Charlemagne and Alfred to revive learning +in their kingdoms. In the chapter which follows we shall describe the +mediaeval system of education as it had evolved by the twelfth century, +after which we shall be ready to pass to the beginnings of that Revival of +Learning which ultimately resulted in the rediscovery of the learning of +the ancient world. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Picture the gradual dying-out of Roman learning in the Western Empire, +and explain why pagan schools and learning lingered longer in Britain, +Ireland, and Italy than elsewhere. + +2. At what time was the old Roman civilization and learning most nearly +extinct? + +3. Explain how the monasteries were forced to develop schools to maintain +any intellectual life. + +4. Explain how the copying of manuscripts led to further educational +development in the monasteries. + +5. Would the convents have tended to attract a higher quality of women +than the monasteries did of men? Why? + +6. Explain why Greek was known longer in Ireland and Britain than +elsewhere in the West. + +7. What was the relative condition of learning in Frankland and England, +about 900 A.D.? + +8. What light is thrown on the conditions of the civilization of the time +by the small permanent success of the efforts of Charlemagne, looking +toward a revival of learning in Frankland? + +9. Explain how Latin came naturally to be the language of the Church, and +of scholarship in western Europe throughout all the Middle Ages. + +10. After reading the story of the migrations, and of the fight to save +some vestiges of the old civilization, try to picture what would have been +the result had Rome not built up an Empire, and had Christianity not +arisen and conquered. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 53. Migne: Forms used in connection with monastery life: + (a) Form for offering a Child to a Monastery. + (b) The Monastic Vow. + (c) Letter of Honorable Dismissal from a Monastery. + 54. Abbot Heriman: The Copying of Books at a Monastery. + 55. Othlonus: Work of a Monk in writing and copying Books. + 56. A Monk: Work of a Nun in copying Books. + 57. Symonds: Scarcity and Cost of Books. + 58. Clark: Anathemas to protect Books from Theft. + 59. Bede: On Education in Early England. + (a) The Learning of Theodore. + (b) Theodore's Work for the English Churches. + (c) How Albinus succeeded Abbot Hadrian. + 60. Alcuin: Description of the School at York. + 61. Alcuin: Catalogue of the Cathedral Library at York. + 62. Alcuin: Specimens of the Palace School Instruction. + 63. Charlemagne: Letter sending out a Collection of Sermons. + 64. Charlemagne: General Proclamations as to Education. + (a) The Proclamation of 787 A.D. + (b) General Admonition of 789 A.D. + (c) Order as to Learning of 802 A.D. + 65. Alcuin: Letter to Charlemagne as to Books and Learning. + 66. King Alfred: State of Learning in England in his Time. + 67. Asser: Alfred obtains Scholars from Abroad. + 68. Asser: Education of the Son of King Alfred. + 69. Ninth-Century Plan of the Monastery at Saint Gall. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Point out the similarity between: (a) The form for offering a child to +a monastery and the monastic vow (53 a-b), and a modern court form for +renouncing or adopting a child. (b) The letter of dismissal from a +monastery (53 c), and the modern letter of honorable dismissal of a +student from a college or normal school. + +2. Compare the type of books copied by the Abbot of Saint Martins (55) and +those copied by the nun at Wessebrunn (56). + +3. Was the evolution of the school-teacher out of the copyist at Ratisbon +(55), by a specialization of labor, analogous to the process in more +modern times? + +4. Explain the mediaeval belief in the effectiveness to protect books from +theft of such anathemas as are reproduced in 58. + +5. What do the selections from Bede (59 a-c) indicate as to the +preservation of the old learning in the cities of southern Italy? What as +to the condition of learning and teaching in England in Bede's day? + +6. What is the status of education indicated by the selections from +Alcuin, on the cathedral school at York (60) and the palace school +instruction of Pepin (62)? + +7. What was the condition of learning among the higher clergy and monks as +shown by Charlemagne's proclamations (64)? + +8. What was the extent of the destruction wrought by the Danes in England, +as indicated by King Alfred's Introduction to Pope Gregory's _Pastoral +Care_ (66), and his efforts to obtain scholars from abroad (67)? + +9. What was the character of the education King Alfred provided for his +son (68)? + +10. Study out the plan of the monastery of Saint Gall (69), and enumerate +the various activities of such a center. + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + +* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. +* Clark, J. W. _Libraries in the Medieval and Renaissance Period_. +* Cutts, Edw. L. _Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages_. +* Eckenstein, Lina. _Women under Monasticism_. + Leach, A. F. _The Schools of Mediaeval England_. + Munro, D. C. and Sellery, G. E. _Medieval Civilization_. + Montalembert, Count de. _The Monks of the West_. + Taylor, H. O. _Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages_. + Thorndike, Lynn. _History of Mediaeval Europe_. + West, A. F. _Alcuin, and the Rise of Christian Schools_. +* Wishart, A. W. _Short History of Monks and Monasticism_. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +EDUCATION DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES + + +II. SCHOOLS ESTABLISHED AND INSTRUCTION PROVIDED + + +1. _Elementary instruction and schools_ + +MONASTIC AND CONVENTIONAL SCHOOLS. In the preceding chapters we found +that, by the tenth century, the monasteries had developed both inner +monastic schools for those intending to take the vows (oblati), and outer +monastic schools for those not so intending (externi). The distinction in +name was due to the fact that the _oblati_ were from the first considered +as belonging to the brotherhood, participating in the religious services +and helping the monks at their work. The others were not so admitted, and +in all monasteries of any size a separate building, outside the main +portion of the monastery (see Figure 38), was provided for the outer +school. A similar classification of instruction had been evolved for the +convents. + +[Illustration: FIG. 43. AN OUTER MONASTIC SCHOOL +(After an old wood engraving)] + +The instruction in the inner school was meager, and in the outer school +probably even more so. Reading, writing, music, simple reckoning, +religious observances, and rules of conduct constituted the range of +instruction. Reading was taught by the alphabet method, as among the +Romans, and writing by the use of wax tablets and the stylus. Much +attention was given to Latin pronunciation, as had been the practice at +Rome. As Latin by this time had practically ceased to be a living tongue, +outside the Church and perhaps in Central Italy, the difficulties of +instruction were largely increased. The Psalter, or book of Latin psalms, +was the first reading book, and this was memorized rather than read. Copy- +books, usually wax, with copies expressing some scriptural injunction, +were used. Music, being of so much importance in the church services, +received much time and attention. In arithmetic, counting and finger +reckoning, after the Roman plan, was taught. Latin was used in +conversation as much as possible, some of the old lesson books much +resembling conversation books of to-day in the modern languages (R. 75). +Special attention seems to have been given to teaching rules of conduct to +the _oblati_, [1] and much corporal punishment was used to facilitate +learning. Up to the eleventh century this instruction, meager as it was, +constituted the whole of the preparatory training necessary for the study +of theology and a career in the Church. In the convents similar schools +were developed, though, as stated in the last chapter, much more attention +was given to the education of those not intending to take the vows. + +SONG AND PARISH SCHOOLS. In the cathedral churches, and other larger non- +cathedral churches, the musical part of the service was very important, +and to secure boys for the choir and for other church services these +churches organized what came to be known as _song schools_ (R. 70). In +these a number of promising boys were trained in the same studies and in +much the same way as were boys in the monastery schools, except that much +more attention was given to the musical instruction. The students in these +schools were placed under the _precentor_ (choir director) of the +cathedral, or other large church, the _scholasticus_ confining his +attention to the higher or more literary instruction provided. The boys +usually were given board, lodging, and instruction in return for their +services as choristers. As the parish churches in the diocese also came to +need boys for their services, parish schools of a similar nature were in +time organized in connection with them. It was out of this need, and by a +very slow and gradual evolution, that the parish school in western Europe +was developed later on. + +CHANTRY SCHOOLS. Still another type of elementary school, which did not +arise until near the latter part of the period under consideration in this +chapter, but which will be enumerated here as descriptive of a type which +later became very common, came through wills, and the schools came to be +known as _chantry schools_, or _stipendary schools_. Men, in dying, who +felt themselves particularly in need of assistance for their misdeeds on +earth, would leave a sum of money to a church to endow a priest, or +sometimes two, who were to chant masses each day for the repose of their +souls. Sometimes the property was left to endow a priest to say mass in +honor of some special saint, and frequently of the Virgin Mary. As such +priests usually felt the need for some other occupation, some of them +began voluntarily to teach the elements of religion and learning to +selected boys, and in time it became common for those leaving money for +the prayers to stipulate in the will that the priest should also teach a +school. Usually a very elementary type of school was provided, where the +children were taught to know the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Salutation +to the Virgin, certain psalms, to sign themselves rightly with the sign of +the cross, and perhaps to read and write (Latin). Sometimes, on the +contrary, and especially was this the case later on in England, a grammar +school was ordered maintained. After the twelfth century this type of +foundation (R. 73) became quite common. + + +2. _Advanced instruction_ + +CATHEDRAL AND HIGHER MONASTIC SCHOOLS. As the song schools developed the +cathedral schools were of course freed from the necessity of teaching +reading and writing, and could then develop more advanced instruction. +This they did, as did many of the monasteries, and to these advanced +schools those who felt the need for more training went. As grammar was, +throughout all the early part of the Middle Ages, the first and most +important subject of instruction, the advanced schools came to be known as +_grammar schools_, as well as cathedral or episcopal schools (R. 72). The +cathedral churches and monasteries of England and France early became +celebrated for the high character of their instruction (R. 71) and the +type of scholars they produced. All these schools, though, suffered a +serious set-back during the period of the Danish and Norman invasions, +many being totally destroyed. On the continent, due to the greater deluge +of barbarism and the more unsettled condition of society, more difficulty +was experienced in getting cathedral schools established, as the following +decree of the Lateran Church Council of 826 indicates: + + Complaints have been made that in some places no masters nor + endowment for a grammar school is found. Therefore all bishops shall + bestow all care and diligence, both for their subjects and for other + places in which it shall be found necessary, to establish masters and + teachers who shall assiduously teach grammar schools and the + principles of the liberal arts, because in these chiefly the + commandments of God are manifest and declared. + +These two types of advanced schools--the cathedral or episcopal and the +monastic--formed what might be called the secondary-school system of the +early Middle Ages (Rs. 70, 71). They were for at least six hundred years +the only advanced teaching institutions in western Europe, and out of one +or the other of these two types of advanced schools came practically all +those who attained to leadership in the service of the Church in either of +its two great branches. Still more, out of the impetus given to advanced +study by the more important of these schools, the universities of a later +period developed; and numerous private gifts of lands and money were made +to establish grammar schools to supplement the work done by the cathedral +and other large church schools. + +THE SEVEN LIBERAL ARTS. The advanced studies which were offered in the +more important monastery and cathedral schools comprised what came to be +known as _The Seven Liberal Arts_ [2] of the Middle Ages. The knowledge +contained in these studies, taught as the advanced instruction of the +period, represents the amount of secular learning which was intentionally +preserved by the Church from neglect and destruction during the period of +the barbarian deluges and the reconstruction of society. + +These Seven Liberal Arts were comprised of two divisions, known as: + +I. THE TRIVIUM: + (1) Grammar; + (2) Rhetoric; + (3) Dialectic (Logic). + +II. THE QUADRIVIUM: + (4) Arithmetic; + (5) Geometry; + (6) Astronomy; + (7) Music. + +[Illustration: FIG. 44. THE MEDIEVAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION SUMMARIZED +Allegorical representation of the progress and degrees of education, from +an illuminated picture in the 1508 (Basel) edition of the _Margarita +Philosophica_ of Gregory de Reisch. + +The youth, having mastered the Hornbook (ABC's) and the rudiments of +learning (reading, writing, and the beginnings of music and numbers), +advances toward the temple of knowledge. Wisdom is about to place the key +in the lock of the door of the temple. On the door is written the word +_congruitas_, signifying Grammar. ("Gramaire first hath for to teche to +speke upon congruite.") On the first and second floors of the temple he +studies the Grammar of Donatus, and of Priscian, and at the first stage at +the left on the third floor he studies the Logic of Aristotle, followed by +the Rhetoric and Poetry of Tully, thus completing the _Trivium_. The +Arithmetic of Boethius also appears on the third floor. On the fourth +floor he completes the studies of the _Quadrivium_, taking in order the +Music of Pythagoras, Euclid's Geometry, and Ptolemy's Astronomy. The +student now advances to the study of Philosophy, studying successively +Physics, Seneca's Morals, and the Theology (or Metaphysics) of Peter +Lombard, the last being the goal toward which all has been directed.] + +Beyond these came Ethics or Metaphysics, and the greatest of all studies, +Theology. This last represented the one professional study of the early +middle-age period, and was the goal toward which all the preceding studies +had tended. This mediaeval system of education is well summarized in the +drawing given on the opposite page, taken from an illuminated picture +inserted in a famous mediaeval manuscript, recopied at Basle, Switzerland, +in 1508. + +Not all these studies were taught in every monastery or cathedral school. +Many of the lesser monasteries and schools offered instruction chiefly in +grammar, and only a little of the studies beyond. Others emphasized the +Trivium, and taught perhaps only a little of the second group. Only a few +taught the full range of mediaeval learning, and these were regarded as +the great schools of the times (R. 71). + +Rhabanus Maurus (776-865), one of the greatest minds of the Middle Ages, +Abbot for years at Fulda, and a mediaeval textbook writer of importance, +has left us a good description of each of the Seven Liberal Arts studies +as they were developed in his day, and their use in the Christian scheme +of education (R. 74). + + +I. THE TRIVIUM + +Of the three studies forming the _Trivium_, grammar always came first as +the basal subject. No uniformity existed for the other two. + +1. GRAMMAR. The foundation and source of all the Liberal Arts was grammar, +it being, according to Maurus, "the science which teaches us to explain +the poets and historians, and the art which qualifies us to speak and +write correctly" (R. 74 a). In the introduction to an improved Latin +grammar, [3] published about 1119, grammar is defined as "The doorkeeper +of all the other sciences, the apt expurgatrix of the stammering tongue, +the servant of logic, the mistress of rhetoric, the interpreter of +theology, the relief of medicine, and the praiseworthy foundation of the +whole quadrivium." Figure 45, from one of the earliest books printed in +English, also emphasizes the great importance of grammar with the words: +"Wythout whiche science (s)ycherly alle other sciences in especial ben of +lytyl recomme(d)." In addition to grammar in the sense we know the study +to-day, grammar in the old Roman and mediaeval mind also included much of +what we know as the analytical side of the study of literature, such as +comparison, analysis, versification, prosody, word formations, figures of +speech, and vocal expression (R. 76). These were considered necessary to +enable one to read understandingly the Holy Scriptures, and hence, "though +the art be secular," says Maurus, "it has nothing unworthy about it." + +[Illustration: FIG. 45. A SCHOOL: A LESSON IN GRAMMAR +(After a woodcut printed by Caxton in _The Mirror of the World_, 1481 (?). +From Blades' _Life and Typography of William Caxton_, ii, Plate LVI) + +This is a good example of early English printing. Can you read it? This +"Old English," like the German type (see Fig. 26), shows the change in +Latin letters which came about with the copying of manuscripts during the +Middle Ages. After the invention of printing the English soon returned to +the Latin forms; the Germans are only now doing so.] + +The leading textbook was that of Donatus, [4] written in the fourth +century, and Donatus (_donat_) and grammar came to be synonymous terms. +The text by Priscian, [5] written in the sixth century, was also +extensively used. The treatment in each was catechetical in form; that is, +questions and answers, which were learned. The text was of course in +Latin, and the teacher usually had the only copy, so that the pupils had +to learn from memory or copy from dictation. The cost of writing-material +usually precluded the latter method. After sufficient ability in grammar +had been attained, simple reading exercises or colloquies (R. 75), usually +of a religious or moralizing nature, were introduced, though where +permitted the Latin authors, especially Vergil, [6] were read. At Saint +Gall, in Switzerland, and at some other places, many Latin authors were +read; at Tours, on the other hand, we find the learned Abbot Alcuin saying +to the monks: "The sacred poets are sufficient for you; there is no reason +why you should sully your mind with the rank luxuriance of Vergil's +verse." + +2. RHETORIC. Rhetoric, as defined by Maurus, was "the art of using secular +discourse effectively in the circumstances of daily life," and enabling +the preacher or missionary to put the divine message in eloquent and +impressive language (R. 74 b). Much of the old Roman rhetoric had been +taken over by grammar, but in its place was added a certain amount of +letter and legal documentary writing. The priest, it must be remembered, +became the secretary and lawyer of the Middle Ages, as well as the priest, +and upon him devolved the preparation of most of the legal papers of the +time, such as wills, deeds, proclamations, and other formal documents. +Accordingly the art of letter-writing [7] and the preparation of legal +documents were made a part of the study of rhetoric, and some study of +both the civil ("worldly") and canon (church) law was gradually +introduced. + +3. DIALECTIC. Dialectic, or logic, says Maurus, is the science of +understanding, and hence the science of sciences (R. 74 c). By means of +its aid one was enabled to unmask falsehood, expose error, formulate +argument, and draw conclusions accurately. The study was one of +preparation for ethics and theology later on. Extracts from the works of +Aristotle, prepared by Boethius, and later his complete works, constituted +the texts used. While grammar was the great subject of the seven during +all the early Middle Ages, dialectic later came to take its place. After +the rise of the universities and the organization of schools of theology, +with theology more of a rational science and less a matter of dogma, +dialectic came to hold first place in importance as a preparation for the +disputations of the later Middle Ages. Theological questions formed the +practical exercises, and the schools doing most in dialectic attracted +many students because of this. + +These three studies, constituting the _Trivium_, based as they were +directly on the old Roman learning and schools, contained more that was +within the teaching knowledge of the time than did the subjects of the +_Quadrivium_, and also subject-matter which was much more in demand. + + +II. THE QUADRIVIUM + +The _trivial_ studies, in most cases before the thirteenth century, +sufficed to prepare for the study of theology, though those few who +desired to prepare thoroughly also studied the subjects of the +_quadrivium_. In schools not offering instruction in this advanced group +some of the elements of its four studies were often taught from the +textbooks in use for the _Trivium_. Particularly was this the case during +the early Middle Ages, when the knowledge of arithmetic, geometry, and +astronomy possessed by western Europe was exceedingly small. No regular +order in the study of the subjects of this group was followed. + +4. ARITHMETIC. Naturally little could be done in this subject as long as +the Roman system of notation was in use (see footnote, i, p. 64), and the +Arabic notation was not known in western Christian Europe until the +beginning of the thirteenth century, and was not much used for two or +three centuries later. So far as arithmetic was taught before that time, +it was but little in advance of that given to novitiates in the +monasteries, except that much attention was devoted to an absurd study of +the properties of numbers, [8] and to the uses of arithmetic in +determining church days, calculating the date of Easter, and interpreting +passages in the Scriptures involving measurements (R. 74 d). The textbook +by Rhabanus Maurus _On Reckoning_, issued in 820, is largely in dialogue +(catechetical) form, and is devoted to describing the properties of +numbers, "odd, even, perfect, imperfect, composite, plane, solid, +cardinal, ordinal, adverbial, distributive, multiple, denunciative, etc."; +to pointing out the scriptural significance of number; [9] and to an +elaborate explanation of finger reckoning, after the old Roman plan (see +p. 65). Near the end of the tenth century Gerbert, [10] afterwards Pope +Sylvester II, devised a simple abacus-form for expressing numbers, simple +enough in itself, but regarded as wonderful in its day. This greatly +simplified calculation, and made work with large numbers possible. He also +devised an easier form for large divisions. + +Gerbert's form for expressing numbers may be shown from the following +simple sum in addition: + +_Arabic Form_ _Roman Form_ _Gerbert's Form_ + _M C X I_ + + 1204 MCCIV I II IV + 538 DXXXVIII V III VIII + 2455 MMCCCCLV II IV V V + 619 DCXIX VI I IX + ----- --------- ------------------- + 4816 MMMMDCCCXVI IV VIII I VI + +No study of arithmetic of importance was possible, however, until the +introduction of Arabic notation and the use of the zero. + +5. GEOMETRY. This study consisted almost entirely of geography and +reasoning as to geometrical forms until the tenth century, when Boethius' +work on _Geometry_, containing some extracts from Euclid, was discovered +by Gerbert. The geography of Europe, Asia, and Africa also was studied, as +treated in the textbooks of the time, and a little about plants and +animals as well was introduced. The nature of the geographic instruction +may be inferred from Figure 46, which reproduces one of the best world +maps of the day. The main geographical features of the known world can be +made out from this, but many of the mediaeval maps are utterly +unintelligible. + +To illustrate the reasoning as to geometrical forms which preceded the +finding of Euclid we quote from Maurus, who says that the science of +geometry "found realization also at the building of the tabernacle and the +temple; and that the same measuring rod, circles, spheres, hemispheres, +quadrangles, and other figures were employed. The knowledge of all this +brings to him, who is occupied with it, no small gain for his spiritual +culture." (R. 74 e). After Gerbert's time some geometry proper and the +elements of land surveying were introduced. The real study of geometry in +Europe, however, dates from the twelfth century, when Euclid was +translated into Latin from the Arabic. + +6. ASTRONOMY. In astronomy the chief purpose of the instruction was to +explain the seasons and the motions of the planets, to set forth the +wonders of the visible creation, and to enable the priests "to fix the +time of Easter and all other festivals and holy days, and to announce to +the congregation the proper celebration of them." (R. 74 g). + +[Illustration: FIG. 46. AN ANGLO-SAXON MAP OF THE WORLD +(From a tenth-century map in the British Museum) + +This is one of the better maps of the period. Note the mixture of Biblical +and classical geography (Bethlehem, Jerusalem, Pillars of Hercules), and +the animal life (lion) introduced in the upper corner. The Mediterranean +Sea in the center, the Greek islands, the British isles, the Italian +peninsula, the Nile, and the northern African coast are easily recognized. +Western Europe, the best-known part of the world at that time, is very +poorly done.] + +Even after Ptolemy's _Mechanism of the Heavens_ (p. 49) and Aristotle's +_On the Heavens_ had filtered across the Pyrenees from the Saracens, in +the eleventh century, the Ptolemaic theory of a flat earth located at the +center of the heavenly bodies and around which they all revolved, while a +very pleasing theological conception, was absolutely fatal to any +instruction in astronomy worth while and to any astronomical advance. All +mediaeval astronomy, too, was saturated with astrology, as the selection +on the motion of the heavenly bodies reproduced from Bartholomew Anglicus +shows (R. 77 b), and the supernatural was invoked to explain such +phenomena as meteors, comets, and eclipses. The Copernican theory of the +motion of the heavenly bodies was not published until 1543, and all our +modern ideas date from that time. + +Physics was often taught as a part of the instruction in astronomy, and +consisted of lessons on the properties of matter (R. 77 a) and some of the +simple principles of dynamics. Little else of what we to-day know as +physics was then known. + +7. MUSIC. Unlike the other studies of the _Quadrivium_, the instruction in +music was quite extensive, and from early times a good course in musical +theory was taught (R. 74 f). Boethius' _De Musica_, written at the +beginning of the sixth century, was the text used. Music entered into so +many activities of the Church that much naturally was made of it. The +organ, too, is an old instrument, going back to the second century B.C., +and the organ with a keyboard to the close of the eleventh century. This +instrument added much to the value of the music course, and the hymns +composed by Christian musicians form an important part of our musical +heritage. [11] The cathedral school at Metz and the monastery at Saint +Gall became famous as musical centers, and of the work of one of the +teachers of music at Saint Gall (Notker) it was written by his biographer: +"Through different hymns, sequences, tropes, and litanies, through +different songs and melodies as well as through ecclesiastical science, +the pupils of this man made the church of God famous not merely in +Alemannia, but everywhere from sea to sea." + +[Illustration: FIG. 47. AN EARLY CHURCH MUSICIAN +(From a fourteenth-century manuscript, now in the British Museum)] + +THE GREAT TEXTBOOKS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. While the textbooks mentioned +under the description of each of the Liberal Arts formed the basis of the +instruction given, most of the instruction before the twelfth century was +not given from editions of the original works, but from abridged +compendiums. Six of these were so famous and so widely used that each +deserves a few words of description. + +1. _The Marriage of Mercury and Philology_, written by Martianus Capella, +between 410 and 427 A.D., was the first of the five great mediaeval +textbooks. Mercury, desiring to marry, finally settles on the learned +maiden Philology, and the seven bridesmaids--Grammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric, +Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and Music--enter in turn at the ceremony +and tell who they are and what they represent. The speeches of the seven +maidens summarized the ancient learning in each subject. This textbook was +more widely used during the Middle Ages than any other book. + +2. _Boethius_ (475-524) was another important mediaeval textbook writer, +having prepared textbooks on dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, music, and +ethics. Nearly all of what the Middle Ages knew of Aristotle's _Logic_ and +_Ethics_, and of the writings of Plato, were contained in the texts he +wrote. His _De Musica_ was used in the universities as a textbook until +near the middle of the eighteenth century. + +3. _Cassiodorus_ [12] (c. 490-585), in his _On the Liberal Arts and +Sciences_, prepared a digest of each of the Seven Liberal Arts for +monastic use, fixing the number at seven by scriptural authority. [13] + +4. _Isidore_, Bishop of Seville (c. 570-636), under the title of +_Etymologies_ or _Origines_, prepared an encyclopaedia of the ancient +learning for the use of the monks and clergy which was intended to be a +summary of all knowledge worth knowing. While he drew his knowledge from +the writings of the Greeks and Romans, with many of which he was familiar, +contrary to the attitude of Cassiodorus he forbade the monks and clergy to +make any use of them whatever. Cassiodorus was still in part a Roman; +Isidore was a full mediaeval. + +5. _Alcuin_, a learned scholar of the eighth century, whom we met in the +preceding chapter (p. 140), wrote treatises on the studies of the +_Trivium_ and on astronomy which were used in many schools in Frankland. + +6. _Maurus_. In 819 the learned monk of Fulda, Rhabanus Maurus, a pupil of +Alcuin, issued his volume _On the Instruction of the Clergy_, in the third +part of which he describes the uses and the subject-matter of each of the +Arts (R. 74). He also wrote texts on grammar and astronomy, and in 844 +issued an encyclopaedia, _De Universo_, based largely on the work of +Isidore, but supplemented from other sources. + +These were the great textbooks for the study of the _Trivium_ and the +_Quadrivium_ throughout all the early Middle Ages. Considering that they +were in manuscript form and were in one volume, [14] their extent and +scope can be imagined. The teacher usually had or had access to a copy, +though even a teacher's books in that day were few in number (R. 78). +Pupils had no books at all. These "great" texts were composed of brief +extracts, bits of miscellaneous information, and lists of names. Their +style was uninviting. They were at best a mere shell, compared with the +Greek and Roman knowledge which had been lost. Some of these books were in +question-and-answer (catechetical) form. Their purpose was not to +stimulate thinking, but to transmit that modicum of secular knowledge +needed for the service of the Church and as a preparation for the study of +the theological writings. For nearly eight hundred years education was +static, the only purpose of instruction being to transmit to the next +generation what the preceding one had known. For such a period such +textbooks answered the purpose fairly well. + + +3. _Training of the nobility_ + +TENTH-CENTURY CONDITIONS. Following the death of Charlemagne and the +break-up of the empire held together by him, a period of organized anarchy +followed in western Europe. Authority broke down more completely than +before, and Europe, for protection, was forced to organize itself into a +great number of small defensive groups. Serfs, [15] freemen lacking land, +and small landowners alike came to depend on some nobleman for protection, +and this nobleman in turn upon some lord or overlord. For this protection +military service was rendered in return. The lord lived in his castle, and +the peasantry worked his land and supported him, fighting his battles if +the need arose. This condition of society was known as _feudalism_, and +the feudal relations of lord and vassal came to be the prevailing +governmental organization of the period. Feudalism was at best an +organized anarchy, suited to rude and barbarous times, but so well was it +adapted to existing conditions that it became the prevailing form of +government, and continued as such until a better order of society could be +evolved. With the invention of gunpowder, the rise of cities and +industries, the evolution of modern States by the consolidation of numbers +of these feudal governments, and the establishment of order and +civilization, feudalism passed out with the passing of the conditions +which gave rise to it. From the end of the ninth to the middle of the +thirteenth centuries it was the dominant form of government. + +The life of the nobility under the feudal régime gave a certain +picturesqueness to what was otherwise an age of lawlessness and disorder. +The chief occupation of a noble was fighting, either in his own quarrel or +that of his overlord. It is hard for us to-day to realize how much +fighting went on then. Much was said about "honor," but quarrels were +easily started, and oaths were poorly kept. It was a day of personal feuds +and private warfare, and every noble thought it his right to wage war on +his neighbor at any time, without asking the consent of any one. [16] As a +preparation for actual warfare a series of mimic encounters, known as +tournaments, were held, in which it often happened that knights were +killed. In these encounters mounted knights charged one another with spear +and lance, performing feats similar to those of actual warfare. This was +the great amusement of the period, compared with which the German duel, +the Mexican bullfight, or the American game of football are mild sports. +The other diversions of the knights and nobles were hunting, hawking, +feasting, drinking, making love, minstrelsy, and chess. Intellectual +ability formed no part of their accomplishments, and a knowledge of +reading and writing was commonly regarded as effeminate. + +To take this carousing, fighting, pillaging, ravaging, destructive, and +murderous instinct, so strong by nature among the Germanic tribes, and +refine it and in time use it to some better purpose, and in so doing to +increasingly civilize these Germanic lords and overlords, was the problem +which faced the Church and all interested in establishing an orderly +society in Europe. As a means of checking this outlawry the Church +established and tried to enforce the "Truce of God" (R. 79), and as a +partial means of educating the nobility to some better conception of a +purpose in life the Church aided in the development of the education of +chivalry, the first secular form of education in western Europe since the +days of Rome, and added its sanction to it after it arose. + +THE EDUCATION OF CHIVALRY. This form of education was an evolution. It +began during the latter part of the ninth century and the early part of +the tenth, reached its maximum greatness during the period of the Crusades +(twelfth century), and passed out of existence by the sixteenth. The +period of the Crusades was the heroic age of chivalry. The system of +education which gradually developed for the children of the nobility may +be briefly described as follows: + +1. _Page._ Up to the age of seven or eight the youth was trained at home, +by his mother. He played to develop strength, was taught the meaning of +obedience, trained in politeness and courtesy, and his religious education +was begun. After this, usually at seven, he was sent to the court of some +other noble, usually his father's superior in the feudal scale, though in +case of kings and feudal lords of large importance the children remained +at home and were trained in the palace school. From seven to fourteen the +boy was known as a page. He was in particular attached to some lady, who +supervised his education in religion, music, courtesy, gallantry, the +etiquette of love and honor, and taught him to play chess and other games. +He was usually taught to read and write the vernacular language, and was +sometimes given a little instruction in reading Latin. [17] To the lord he +rendered much personal service such as messenger, servant at meals, and +attention to guests. By the men he was trained in running, boxing, +wrestling, riding, swimming, and the use of light weapons. + +2. _Squire._ At fourteen or fifteen he became a squire. While continuing +to serve his lady, with whom he was still in company, and continuing to +render personal service in the castle, the squire became in particular the +personal servant and bodyguard of the lord or knight. He was in a sense a +_valet_ for him, making his bed, caring for his clothes, helping him to +dress, and looking after him at night and when sick. He also groomed his +horse, looked after his weapons, and attended and protected him on the +field of combat or in battle. He himself learned to hunt, to handle shield +and spear, to ride in armor, to meet his opponent, and to fight with sword +and battle-axe. As he approached the age of twenty-one, he chose his lady- +love, who was older than he and who might be married, to whom he swore +ever to be devoted, even though he married some one else. He also learned +to rhyme, [18] to make songs, sing, dance, play the harp, and observe the +ceremonials of the Church. Girls were given this instruction along with +the boys, but naturally their training placed its emphasis upon household +duties, service, good manners, conversational ability, music, and +religion. + +3. _Knight._ At twenty-one the boy was knighted, and of this the Church +made an impressive ceremonial. After fasting, confession, a night of vigil +in armor spent at the altar in holy meditation, and communion in the +morning, the ceremony of dubbing the squire a knight took place in the +presence of the court. He gave his sword to the priest, who blest it upon +the altar. He then took the oath "to defend the Church, to attack the +wicked, to respect the priesthood, to protect women and the poor, to +preserve the country in tranquillity, and to shed his blood, even to its +last drop, in behalf of his brethren." The priest then returned him the +sword which he had blessed, charging him "to protect the widows and +orphans, to restore and preserve the desolate, to revenge the wronged, and +to confirm the virtuous." He then knelt before his lord, who, drawing his +own sword and holding it over him, said: "In the name of God, of our Lady, +of thy patron Saint, and of Saint Michael and Saint George, I dub thee +knight; be brave (touching him with the sword on one shoulder), be bold +(on the other shoulder), be loyal (on the head)." + +[Illustration: FIG. 48. A SQUIRE BEING KNIGHTED (From an old manuscript)] + +THE CHIVALRIC IDEALS. Such, briefly stated, was the education of chivalry. +The cathedral and monastery schools not meeting the needs of the nobility, +the castle school was evolved. There was little that was intellectual +about the training given--few books, and no training in Latin. Instead, +the native language was emphasized, and squires in England frequently +learned to speak French. It was essentially an education for secular ends, +and prepared not only for active participation in the feuds and warfare of +the time, but also for the Seven Perfections of the Middle Ages: (1) +Riding, (2) Swimming, (3) Archery, (4) Fencing, (5) Hunting, (6) Whist or +Chess, and (7) Rhyming. It also represents the first type of schooling in +the Middle Ages designed to prepare for life here, rather than hereafter. +For the nobility it was a discipline, just as the Seven Liberal Arts was a +discipline for the monks and clergy. Out of it later on was evolved the +education of a gentleman as distinct from that of a scholar. + +That such training had a civilizing effect on the nobility of the time +cannot be doubted. Through it the Church exercised a restraining and +civilizing influence on a rude, quarrelsome, and impetuous people, who +resented restraints and who had no use for intellectual discipline. It +developed the ability to work together for common ends, personal loyalty, +and a sense of honor in an age when these were much-needed traits, and the +ideal of a life of regulated service in place of one of lawless +gratification was set up. What monasticism had done for the religious life +in dignifying labor and service, chivalry did for secular life. The Ten +Commandments of chivalry, (1) to pray, (2) to avoid sin, (3) to defend the +Church, (4) to protect widows and orphans, (5) to travel, (6) to wage +loyal war, (7) to fight for his Lady, (8) to defend the right, (9) to love +his God, and (10) to listen to good and true men, while not often +followed, were valuable precepts to uphold in that age and time. In the +great Crusades movement of the twelfth century the Church consecrated the +military prowess and restless energy of the nobility to her service, but +after this wave had passed chivalry became formal and stilted and rapidly +declined in importance (R. 80). + +[Illustration: FIG. 49. A KNIGHT OF THE TIME OF THE FIRST CRUSADE +(From a manuscript in the British Museum)] + + +4. _Professional study_ + +As the one professional study of the entire early Middle-Age period, and +the one study which absorbed the intellectual energy of the one learned +class, the evolution of the study of Theology possesses particular +interest for us. + +THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY. During the earlier part of the period under +consideration the preparatory study necessary for service in the Church +was small, and very elementary in character. The elements of reading, +writing, reckoning, and music, as taught to _oblati_ in the monasteries, +sufficed. As knowledge increased a little the study of grammar at first, +and later all the studies of the _Trivium_ came to be common as +preparatory study, while those who made the best preparation added the +subjects of the _Quadrivium_. Ethics, or metaphysics, taught largely from +the digest of Aristotle's _Ethics_ prepared in the sixth century by +Boethius, was the text for this study until about 1200, when Aristotle's +_Metaphysics_, _Physics_, _Psychology_, and _Ethics_ were re-introduced +into Europe from Saracen sources (R. 87). + +The theological course proper experienced a similar development. At first, +as we saw in chapter V, there were but few principles of belief, and the +church organization was exceedingly simple. In 325 A.D. the Nicene Creed +was formulated (p. 96), and the first twenty canons (rules) adopted for +the government of the clergy. With the translation of the Bible into the +Latin language (_Vulgate_, fourth century), the writings of the early +Latin Fathers, and additional canons and expressions of belief adopted at +subsequent church councils, an increasing amount relating to belief, +church organization, and pastoral duties needed to be imparted to new +members of the clergy. Still, up to the eleventh century at least, the +theological course remained quite meager. In a tenth-century account the +following description of the theological course of the time is given: [19] + + 1. Elements of grammar and the first part of Donatus. + 2. Repeated readings of the Old and New Testaments. + 3. Mass prayers. + 4. Rules of the Church as to time reckoning. + 5. Decrees of the Church Councils. + 6. Rules of penance. + 7. Prescriptions for church services. + 8. Worldly laws. + 9. Collections of homilies (sermons). + 10. Tractates on the Epistles and Gospels. + 11. Lives of the Saints. + 12. Church music. + +It will be seen from this tenth-century course of theological study that +it was based on reading, writing, and reckoning, and a little music as +preparatory studies; that it began with the first of the subjects of the +_Trivium_, which was studied only in part; and that its purpose was to +impart needed information as to dogma, church practices, canon (church) +law, and such civil (worldly) law as would be needed by the priest in +discharging his functions as the notary and lawyer of the age. There is no +suggestion of the study of Theology as a science, based on evidences, +logic, and ethics. Such study was not then known, and would not have been +tolerated. There were no other professions to study for. + +SYSTEMATIC INSTRUCTION BEGINS. About 1145 Peter the Lombard published his +_Book of Sentences_, and this worked a revolution in the teaching of the +subject. In topics, arrangement, and method of treatment the book marked a +great advance, and became the standard textbook in Theology for a long +time. It did much to change the study of Theology from dogmas to a +scientific subject, and made possible schools of Theology in the +universities now about to arise. In the thirteenth century it was made the +official textbook at both the universities of Oxford and Paris. The +studies of dialectic and ethics were raised to a new plane of importance +by the publication of this book. + +By the close of the twelfth century the interest of the Church in a +better-trained clergy had grown to such an extent that theological +instruction was ordered established wherever there was an Archbishop. In a +decree issued by Pope Innocent III and the General Council it was ordered: + + In every cathedral or other church of sufficient means, a master ought + to be elected by the prelate or chapter, and the income of a prebend + assigned to him, and in every metropolitan church a theologian also + ought to be elected. And if the church is not rich enough to provide a + grammarian and a theologian, it shall provide for the theologian from + the revenues of his church, and cause provision to be made for the + grammarian in some church of his city or diocese. [20] + +We also, in the early thirteenth century, find bishops enforcing +theological training on future priests by orders of which the following is +a type: + + Hugh of Scawby, clerk, presented by Nigel Costentin to the church of + (Potter) Hanworth, was admitted and canonically instituted in it as + parson, on condition that he comes to the next orders to be ordained + subdeacon. But on account of the insufficiency of his grammar, the + lord bishop ordered him on pain of loss of his benefice to attend + school. And the Dean of Wyville was ordered to induct him into + corporal possession of the said church in form aforesaid, and to + inform the lord bishop if he does not attend school. [21] + + +5. _Characteristics of mediaeval education_ + +FOUNDATIONS LAID FOR A NEW ORDER. The education which we have just +described covers the period from the time of the downfall of Rome to the +twelfth or the thirteenth century. It represents what the Church evolved +to replace that which it and the barbarians had destroyed. Meager as it +still was, after seven or eight centuries of effort, it nevertheless +presents certain clearly marked lines of development. The beginnings of a +new Christian civilization among the tribes which had invaded and overrun +the old Roman Empire are evident, and, toward the latter part of the +Middle Ages, we note the development of a number of centers of learning +(R. 71) and the beginnings of that specialization of knowledge (church +doctrine, classical learning, music, logic and ethics, theology), at +different church and monastery schools, which promised much for the future +of learning. We also notice, and will see the same evidence in the +following chapter, the beginnings of a class of scholarly men, though the +scholarship is very limited in scope and along lines thoroughly approved +by the Church. + +In education proper, in the sense that we understand it, the schools +provided were still for a very limited class, and secondary rather than +elementary in nature. They were intended to meet the needs of an +institution rather than of a people, and to prepare those who studied in +them for service to that institution. That institution, too, had +concentrated its efforts on preparing its members for life in another +world, and not for life or service in this. There were as yet no +independent schools or scholars, the monks and clergy represented the one +learned class, Theology was the one professional study, the ability to +read and write was not regarded by noble or commoner as of any particular +importance, and all book knowledge was in a language which the people did +not understand when they heard it and could not read. Society was as yet +composed of three classes--feudal warriors, who spent their time in +amusements or fighting, and who had evolved a form of knightly training +for their children; privileged priests and monks and nuns, who controlled +all book learning and opportunities for professional advancement; and the +great mass of working peasants, engaged chiefly in agriculture, and +belonging to and helping to fight the battles of their protecting lord. + +For these peasants there was as yet no education aside from what the +Church gave through her watchful oversight and her religious services (R. +81), and but little leisure, freedom, wealth, security, or economic need +to make such education possible or desirable. Moreover, the other-worldly +attitude of the Church made such education seem unnecessary. It was still +the education of a few for institutional purposes, though here and there, +by the close of the twelfth century, the Church was beginning to urge its +members to provide some education for their children (R. 82), and the +world was at last getting ready for the evolution of the independent +scholar, and soon would be ready for the evolution of schools to meet +secular needs. + +REPRESSIVE ATTITUDE OF THE MEDIAEVAL CHURCH. The great work of the Church +during this period, as we see it to-day, was to assimilate and +sufficiently civilize the barbarians to make possible a new civilization, +based on knowledge and reason rather than force. To this end the Church +had interposed her authority against barbarian force, and had slowly won +the contest. Almost of necessity the Church had been compelled to insist +upon her way, and this type of absolutism in church government had been +extended to most other matters. The Bible, or rather the interpretations +of it which church councils, popes, bishops, and theological writers had +made, became authoritative, and disobedience or doubt became sinful in the +eyes of the Church. [22] The Scriptures were made the authority for +everything, and interpretations the most fantastic were made of scriptural +verses. Unquestioning belief was extended to many other matters, with the +result that tales the most wonderful were recounted and believed. To +question, to doubt, to disbelieve--these were among the deadly sins of the +early Middle Ages. This attitude of mind undoubtedly had its value in +assimilating and civilizing the barbarians, and probably was a necessity +at the time, but it was bad for the future of the Church as an +institution, and utterly opposed to scientific inquiry and intellectual +progress. Monroe well expresses the situation which came to exist when he +says: + + The validity of any statement, the actuality of any alleged instance, + came to be determined, not by any application of rationalistic + principle, not by inherent plausibility, not by actual inquiry into + the facts of the case, but by its agreement with religious feelings or + beliefs, its effect in furthering the influence of the Church or the + reputation of a saint--in general, by its relationship to matters of + faith. Thus it happens that the chronicles of the monks and the lives + of the saints, charming and interesting as they are in their naïveté, + their simplicity, their trustful credulity, and their pictures of a + life and an attitude of mind so remote from ours, are filled with + incidents given as facts that test the greatest faith, strain the most + vivid imagination, and shock that innate respect for reality, that it + is the purpose of modern education to inculcate. [23] + +This authoritative and repressive attitude of the Church expressed itself +in many ways. The teaching of the period is an excellent example of this +influence. The instruction in the so-called Seven Liberal Arts remained +unchanged throughout a period of half a dozen centuries--so much +accumulated knowledge passed on as a legacy to succeeding generations. It +represented mere instruction; not education. As a recent writer has well +expressed it, the whole knowledge and culture contained in the Seven +Liberal Arts remained "like a substance in suspension in a medium +incapable of absorbing it; unchanged throughout the whole mediaeval +period." Inquiry or doubt in religious matters was not tolerated, and +scientific inquiry and investigation ceased to exist. The notable +scientific advances of the Greeks, their literature and philosophy, and +particularly their genius for free inquiry and investigation, no longer +influenced a world dominated by an institution preparing its children only +for life in a world to come. Not until the world could shake off this +mediaeval attitude toward scientific inquiry and make possible honest +doubt was any real intellectual progress possible. In a rough, general way +the turn in the tide came about the beginning of the twelfth century, and +for the next five centuries the Church was increasingly busy trying, like +King Canute of old, to stop the waves of free inquiry and scientific doubt +from rising higher against the bulwarks it had erected. + +THE MEDIAEVAL EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. The educational system which the Church +had developed by 1200 continued unchanged in its essential features until +after the great awakening known as the Revival of Learning, or +Renaissance. This system we have just sketched. For instruction in the +elements of learning we have the inner and outer monastery and convent +schools, and, in connection with the churches, song schools, and chantry +or stipendary schools. In these last we have the beginnings of the parish +school for instruction in the elements of learning and the fundamentals of +faith for the children of the faithful. In the monasteries, convents, and +in connection with the cathedral churches we have the secondary +instruction fairly well organized with the _Trivium_ and the _Quadrivium_ +as the basis. At the close of the period under consideration in this +chapter a few privately endowed grammar schools were just beginning to be +founded to supplement the work of the cathedral schools (RS. 141-143). In +some of the inner monastery schools and a few of the cathedral schools we +also have the beginnings of higher instruction, with theology as the one +professional subject and the one learned career. + +[Illustration: FIG. 50. EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION DURING THE EARLY MIDDLE +AGES +The relative weight of the lines indicates approximate development. The +lines along which educational evolution took place in the later Middle +Ages are here clearly marked out.] + +All these schools, too, were completely under the control of the Church. +There were no private schools or teachers before about 1200. Only the +chivalric education was under the control of princes or kings, and even +this the Church kept under its supervision. The Church was still the +State, to a large degree, and the Church, unlike Greece or Rome, took the +education of the young upon itself as one of its most important functions. +The schools taught what the Church approved, and the instruction was for +religious and church ends. The monks who gave instruction in the +monasteries were responsible to the Abbot, who was in turn responsible to +the head of the order and through him to the Pope at Rome. Similarly the +_scholasticus_ in the cathedral school and the _precentor_ in the song +school were both responsible to the Bishop, and again through Archbishop +and Cardinal to the Pope. + +THE FIRST TEACHER'S CERTIFICATES AND SCHOOL SUPERVISION. Toward the latter +part of the period under consideration in this chapter an interesting +development in church school administration took place. As the cathedral +and song schools increased assistant teachers were needed, and the +_scholasticus_ and _precentor_ gradually withdrew from instruction and +became the supervisors of instruction, or rather the principals of their +respective schools. As song or parish schools were established in the +parishes of the diocese teachers for these were needed, and the +_scholasticus_ and _precentor_ extended their authority and supervision +over these, just as the Bishop had done much earlier (p. 97) over the +training and appointment of priests. By 1150 we have, clearly evolved, the +system of central supervision of the training of all teachers in the +diocese through the issuing, for the first time in Europe, of licenses to +teach (R. 83). The system was finally put into legal form by a decree +adopted by a general council of the Church at Rome, in 1179, which +required that the _scholasticus_ "should have authority to superintend all +the schoolmasters of the diocese and grant them licenses without which +none should presume to teach," and that "nothing be exacted for licenses +to teach" issued by him, thus stopping the charging of fees for their +issuance. The _precentor_, in a similar manner, claimed and often secured +supervision of all elementary, and especially all song-school instruction. +Teachers were also required to take an oath of fealty and obedience (R. 84 +b). + +As a result of centuries of evolution we thus find, by 1200, a limited but +powerful church school system, with centralized control and supervision of +instruction, diocesan licenses to teach, and a curriculum adapted to the +needs of the institution in control of the schools. We also note the +beginnings of secular instruction in the training of the nobility for +life's service, though even this is approved and sanctioned by the Church. +The centralized religious control thus established continued until the +nineteenth century, and still exists to a more or less important degree in +the school systems of Italy, the old Austro-Hungarian States, Germany, +England, and some other western nations. As we shall see later on, one of +the big battles in the process of developing state school systems has come +through the attempt of the State to substitute its own organization for +this religious monopoly of instruction. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Outline the instruction in an inner monastery school. + +2. Show how the mediaeval parish school naturally developed as an offshoot +of the cathedral schools, and was supplemented later by the endowed +chantry schools. + +3. What effect did the development of song-school instruction have on the +instruction in the cathedral schools? + +4. Why was it difficult to develop good cathedral schools during the early +Middle Ages? + +5. About how much training would be represented to-day by the Seven +Liberal Arts, (_a_) assuming the body of knowledge then known? (_b_) +assuming the body of knowledge for each subject known to-day? + +6. What great subject of study has been developed out of one part of the +study of mediaeval rhetoric? + +7. Why would dialectic naturally not be of much importance, so long as +instruction in theology was dogmatic and not a matter of thinking? + +8. Characterize the instruction in arithmetic, geometry, and geography +during the early Middle Ages. Would we consider such knowledge as of any +value? Explain the attention given to such instruction. + +9. What great modern subjects of study have been developed out of the +mediaeval subjects of arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy? + +10. Compare the knowledge of mediaevals and moderns in (a) geography, (b) +astronomy. + +11. What does the fact that the few great textbooks were in use for so +many centuries indicate as to the character of educational progress during +the Middle Ages? + +12. Was the Church wise in adopting and sanctifying the education of +chivalry? Why? + +13. What important contributions to world progress came out of chivalric +education? + +14. What ideals and practices from chivalry have been retained and are +still in use to-day? Does the Boy Scouts movement embody any of the +chivalric ideas and training? + +15. Compare the education of the body by the Greeks and under chivalry. + +16. Compare the Athenian ephebic oath with the vows of chivalry. + +17. Picture the present world transferred back to a time when theology was +the one profession. + +18. What educational theory, conscious or unconscious, formed the basis +for mediaeval education and instruction? + +19. Explain why the Church, after six or seven centuries of effort, still +provided schools only for preparation for its own service. + +20. What does the lack of independent scholars during the Middle Ages +indicate as to possible leisure? + +21. Was the attitude of Anselm a perfectly natural one for the Middle +Ages? Can progress be made with such an attitude dominant? + +22. Contrast the deadly sins of the Middle Ages with present-day +conceptions as to education. + +23. Contrast the purposes of mediaeval education and the education of to- +day. + +24. When Greece and Rome offered no precedents, how did the Church come to +so fully develop and control the education which was provided? + +25. Compare the supervisory work of a modern county superintendent with +that of a _scholasticus_ of a mediaeval cathedral. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 70. Leach: Song and Grammar Schools in England. + 71. Mullinger: The Episcopal and Monastic Schools. + 72. Statutes: The School at Salisbury Cathedral. + 73. Aldwincle: Foundation Grant for a Chantry School. + 74. Maurus: The Seven Liberal Arts. + 75. Leach: A Mediaeval Latin Colloquy. + 76. Quintilian: On the Importance of the Study of Grammar. + 77. Anglicus: The Elements, and the Planets. + (a) Of the Elements. + (b) Of Double Moving of the Planets. + 78. Cott: A Tenth Century Schoolmaster's Books. + 79. Archbishop of Cologne: The Truce of God. + 80. Gautier: How the Church used Chivalry. + 81. Draper: Educational Influences of the Church Services. + 82. Winchester Diocesan Council: How the Church urged that the Elements + of Religious Education be given. + 83. Lincoln Cathedral: Licenses required to teach Song. + 84. English Forms: Appointment and Oath of a Grammar-School Master. + (a) Northallerton: Appointment of a master of Song and Grammar. + (b) Archdeacon of Ely: Oath of a Grammar-School Master to. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Distinguish between song and grammar schools (70), and state what was +taught in each. Do we have any modern analogy to the same teacher teaching +both schools, as was sometimes done? + +2. Distinguish between monastic and episcopal (cathedral) schools (71). +When was the great era of each? How do you explain the change in relative +importance of the two? + +3. Explain the process of evolution of a parish school out of a chantry +school. + +4. What was the nature of the cathedral school at Salisbury (72)? + +5. What type of a school was provided for in the Aldwincle chantry (73)? +Why was it not until after the twelfth century that the endowing of +schools (73) began to supersede the endowing of priests, churches, and +monasteries? + +6. How do you explain the need for so many years to master the Seven +Liberal Arts (74)? + +7. Into what subjects of study have we broken up the old subject of +grammar, as described by Quintilian (76), and how have we distributed them +throughout our school system? Is technical grammar at present taught in +the best possible place? + +8. What stage in scientific knowledge do the selections from Anglicus (77 +a-b) indicate? What rate of scientific progress is indicated by its +translation and length of use? + +9. What scope of knowledge is represented in the library (78) of the +tenth-century schoolmaster? What does the list indicate as to the state of +learning of the time? + +10. Picture the manners and morals of a time which called for the +proclamation of a Truce of God (79). Would the rate of progress of +civilization and the rate of elimination of warfare up to then, and since, +indicate that the Church has been very successful in imposing its will? + +11. Show how Chivalry was made a great asset to the Church (80). + +12. How do you explain the much greater simplicity of the church service +of modern Protestant churches than that of the Roman (81) or Greek +Catholic churches? + +13. Explain the form of mild compulsion toward learning which the diocesan +council of Winchester (82) attempted to institute. + +14. Is the modern state teacher's certificate a natural outgrowth of the +mediaeval licenses (83) to teach grammar and song? Why did the Church +insist on these when Rome had not required such? + +15. Show how the modern oath of office of a teacher, and the possibility +of dismissal for insubordination, is a natural development from the oath +of fealty and obedience (84 b) of the mediaeval teacher? Is this true also +for our modern notices of appointment (84 a)? + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + +* Abelson, Paul. _The Seven Liberal Arts_. + Addison, Julia de W. _Arts and Crafts in the Middle Ages_. + Besant, W. _The Story of King Alfred_. +* Clark, J. W. _The Care of Books_. + Davidson, Thomas. "The Seven Liberal Arts"; in _Educational + Review_, vol. II, pp. 467-73. (Also in his _Aristotle_.) + Mombert, J. I. _History of Charles the Great_. +* Mullinger, J. B. _The Schools of Charles the Great_. + Sandys, J. E. _History of Classical Scholarship_, vol. I. + Scheffel, Victor. _Ekkehard_. (Historical novel of monastic life.) + Steele, Philip. _Mediaeval Lore_. (Anglicus' Cyclopaedia.) + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +INFLUENCES TENDING TOWARD A REVIVAL OF LEARNING + + +I. MOSLEM LEARNING FROM SPAIN + +THE MOHAMMEDANS IN SPAIN. It will be recalled that in chapter V we +mentioned briefly the Mohammedan migrations of the seventh century, and +said that we should meet them again a little later on as one of the minor +forces in the development of our western civilization. After their defeat +at Tours (732) the Mohammedans retired into Spain, mixed with the Iberian- +Roman-Visigothic peoples inhabiting the peninsula, and began to develop a +civilization there. Figure 33 (p. 114) shows how much of the world the +Mohammedans had overrun by 800 A.D., and how much of Spain was in their +possession. + +In Spain they developed a skillful agriculture (R. 85), as, in lands as +hot and dry as Spain, all agriculture to be successful must be. They +introduced irrigation, gave special attention to the breeding of horses +and cattle, and developed garden and orchard fruits. To them western +Europe is indebted for the introduction of many of its orchard fruits, +useful plants, and garden vegetables, as well as for a number of important +manufacturing processes. The orange, lemon, peach, apricot, and mulberry +trees; the spinach, artichoke, and asparagus among vegetables; cotton, +rice, sugar cane, and hemp among useful plants; the culture of the +silkworm, and the manufacture of silk and cotton garments; the manufacture +of paper from cotton, and the making of morocco leather--these are among +our debts to these people. Though many of the above had been known to +antiquity, they had been lost during the barbarian invasions and were +restored only through their re-introduction by the Moslems. + +GREAT ABSORPTIVE POWER FOR LEARNING. The original Arabians themselves were +not a well-educated people. Before the time of Mohammed we have +practically no records as to any education among them. When in their +religious conquests they overran Syria (see Map, p. 103), they came in +contact with the survivals of that wonderful Greek civilization and +learning, and this they absorbed with greatest avidity. + +It will be recalled, too, that in chapter IV (p. 94), it was stated that +the early Christians developed very important catechetical schools in +Egypt and Syria, and especially at Alexandria, Antioch, Edessa, Nisibis, +Harran, and Caesarea. [1] (See Figure 27, p. 89.) It was also stated that +the Christian instruction imparted at these eastern schools was tinctured +through and through with Greek learning and Greek philosophic thought. +Here monasteries also were developed in numbers, and Syrian monks had for +centuries been busy translating Greek authors into Syriac. It was also +stated (p. 94) that the Eastern or Greek division of the Christian Church, +of which Constantinople became the central city, was more liberal toward +Greek learning than was the Western or Latin division of the Church. + +By the fifth century, though, due in part to the breakdown of government, +the increasing barbarity of the age, and the greater control of all +thinking by the Church, the Eastern Church lost somewhat of its earlier +tolerance. In 431 the Church Council of Ephesus put a ban on the +Hellenized form of Christian theology advocated by Nestorius, then +Patriarch of Constantinople, and drove him and his followers, known as +_Nestorian Christians_, from the city. These Nestorians now fled to the +old Syrian cities, which early had been so hospitable to Greek learning +and thinking. [2] Being now beyond the reach of Christian intolerance and +in a friendly atmosphere, they remained there, developing excellent higher +schools of the old Greek type, and there the Mohammedans found them when +they overran Syria, in 635 A.D. + +Mohammedanism now came in contact with an educated people, as it did also +in Babylonia (637), in Assyria (640), and in Egypt (642), and the need of +a better statement of the somewhat crude faith now became evident. The +same process now took place as had occurred earlier with Christianity. The +Nestorian Christians and the Syrian monks became the scholars for the +Mohammedans, and the Mohammedan faith was clothed in Greek forms and +received a thorough tincturing of Greek philosophic thought. Within a +century they had translated from Syriac into Arabic, or from the original +Greek, much of the old Greek learning in philosophy, science, and +medicine, and the cities of Syria, and in particular their capital, +Damascus, became renowned for their learning. In 760 Bagdad, on the +Tigris, was founded, and superseded Damascus as the capital. Extending +eastward, these people were soon busy absorbing Hindu mathematical +knowledge, obtaining from them (c. 800) the so-called Arabic notation and +algebra. + +THEY DEVELOP SCHOOLS AND ADVANCE LEARNING. In 786 Haroun-al-Raschid became +Caliph at Bagdad, and he and his son made it an intellectual center of +first importance. In all the known world probably no city, not even +Constantinople, during the latter part of the eighth century and most of +the ninth, could vie with Bagdad as a center of learning. Basra, Kufa, and +other eastern cities were also noted places. Schools were opened in +connection with the mosques (churches), a university after the old Greek +model was founded, a large library was organized, and an observatory was +built. Large numbers of students thronged the city, learned Greeks and +Jews taught in the schools, and a number of advances on the scientific +work done by the Greeks were made. A degree of the earth's surface [3] was +measured on the shores of the Red Sea; the obliquity of the ecliptic was +determined (c. 830); astronomical tables were calculated; algebra and +trigonometry were perfected; discoveries in chemistry not known in Europe +until toward the end of the eighteenth century, and advances in physics +for which western Europe waited for Newton (1642-1727), were made; and in +medicine and surgery their work was not duplicated until the early +nineteenth century. Their scholars wrote dictionaries, lexicons, +cyclopaedias, and pharmacopoeias of merit (R. 86). + +This eastern learning was now gradually carried to Spain by traveling +Mohammedan scholars, and there the energy of conquest was gradually turned +to the development of schools and learning. By 900 a good civilization and +intellectual life had been developed in Spain, and before 1000 the +teaching in Spain, especially along Greek philosophical lines, had become +sufficiently known to attract a few adventurous monks from Christian +Europe. Gerbert (953-1003), afterward Pope Sylvester II (p. 159), was one +of the first to study there, though for this he was accused of having +transactions with the Devil, and when he died suddenly at fifty, four +years after having been elevated to the Papacy, monks over Europe are +recorded as having crossed themselves and muttered that the Devil had now +claimed his reward. A monk from Monte Cassino also studied at Bagdad, and +brought back some of the eastern learning to his monastery. + +[Illustration: FIG. 51. SHOWING CENTERS OF MOSLEM LEARNING] + +MOHAMMEDAN REACTION SENDS SCHOLARS TO SPAIN. The great intellectual +development at Bagdad was in part due to the patronage of a few caliphs of +large vision, and was of relatively short duration. The religious +enthusiasts among the Mohammedans were in reality but little more zealous +for Hellenic learning than the Fathers of the Western Church had been. +Finally, about 1050, they obtained the upper hand and succeeded in driving +out the Hellenic Mohammedans, just as the Eastern Christians had driven +out the Nestorians, and these scholars of the East now fled to northern +Africa and to Spain. [4] Almost at once a marked further development in +the intellectual life of Spain took place. In Cordova, Granada, Toledo, +and Seville strong universities were developed, where Jews and Hellenized +Mohammedans taught the learning of the East, and made further advances in +the sciences and mathematics. Physics, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, +physiology, medicine, and surgery were the great subjects of study. Greek +philosophy also was taught. They developed schools and large libraries, +taught geography from globes, studied astronomy in observatories, counted +time by pendulum clocks, invented the compass and gunpowder, developed +hospitals, and taught medicine and surgery in schools (R. 86). + +Their cities were equally noteworthy for their magnificent palaces, [5] +mosques, public baths, market-places, aqueducts, and paved and lighted +streets--things unknown in Christian Europe for centuries to come (R. 85). +It became fashionable for wealthy men to become patrons of learning, and +to collect large libraries and place them at the disposal of scholars, +thus revealing interests in marked contrast to those of the fighting +nobility of Christian Europe. + +THEIR INFLUENCE ON WESTERN EUROPE. Western Europe of the tenth to the +twelfth centuries presented a dreary contrast, in almost every particular, +to the brilliant life of southern Spain. Just emerging from barbarism, it +was still in an age of general disorder and of the simplest religious +faith. [6] The age of reason and of scientific experiment as a means of +arriving at truth had not yet dawned, and would not do so for centuries to +come. Monks and clerics, representing the one learned class, regarded this +Moslem science as "black art," and in consequence Europe, centuries later, +had slowly to rediscover the scientific knowledge which might have been +had for the taking. Only the book science of Aristotle would the Church +accept, and even this only after some hesitation (Rs. 89, 90). + +Western Europe had, however, advanced far enough through the study of the +Seven Liberal Arts to desire corrected and additional texts of the earlier +classical writers, particularly Aristotle, and also to be willing to +accept some of the mathematical knowledge of these Saracens. It was here +that the Moslem learning in Spain helped in the intellectual awakening of +the rest of Europe. Adelhard, an English monk, studied at Cordova about +1120, and took back with him some knowledge of arithmetic, algebra, and +geometry. His Euclid was in general use in the universities by 1300. +Gerard of Cremona, in Lombardy (1114-1187), who studied at Toledo a little +later, rendered a similar service for Italy. He also translated many works +from the Arabic, including Ptolemy's Almagest (p. 49), a book of +astronomical tables, and Alhazen's (Spanish scholar, c. 1100) book on +Optics. Other monks studied in the Spanish cities during the twelfth +century, a few of whom brought back translations of importance. Frederick +II [7] employed a staff of Jewish physicians to translate Arabic works +into Latin, but, due to his continual war against the Pope and his final +outlawry by the Church, his work possessed less significance than it +otherwise might have done. Among the books thus translated was the medical +textbook of Avicenna (980-1037), based in turn on the Greek works by Galen +and Hippocrates of Cos (p. 197). This book described ailments and their +treatment in detail, became the standard textbook in the medical faculties +of the universities, and was used until the seventeenth century. Another +Moslem whose translated writings had great influence on Europe was +Averroës (1126-1198) who tried to unite the philosophy of Aristotle with +Mohammedanism (R. 88). His influence on the thinkers of the later Middle +Ages was large, he being regarded as the greatest commentator on Aristotle +from the days of Rome to the time of the Renaissance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 52. ARISTOTLE] + +What Europe obtained through Moslem sources which it prized most, though, +was the commentary on Aristotle by Averroës and the works of Aristotle (R. +88). The list of the books of Aristotle in use in the mediaeval +universities by 1300 (R. 87) reveals the great importance of the additions +made. By the middle of the twelfth century Aristotle's _Ethics_, +_Metaphysics_, _Physics_, and _Psychology_, as well as some of his minor +works, had been translated into Latin and were beginning to be made +available for study. The translation route through which these works had +been derived was a roundabout one--Greek, Syriac, Arabic, Castilian, +Latin--and hence the translations could not be very accurate, but they +sufficed for the needs of Europe until the original Greek versions were +recovered when the Venetians and Crusaders took and sacked Constantinople, +in 1204. These were then translated directly into the Latin. Western +Europe also was ready to use the Arabic (Hindu) system of notation, the +elements of algebra, Euclid's geometry, and Ptolemy's work on the motion +of the heavens. These contributions western Europe was ready for; the +larger scientific knowledge of the Saracens, their pharmacopoeias, +dictionaries, cyclopaedias, histories, and biographies, it was not yet +ready to receive. + +One other influence crept in from these peoples which was of large future +importance--the music and light literature and love songs of Spain. There +had been developed in this sunny land a life of light gayety, chivalrous +gallantry, elegant courtesies, and poetic and musical charm, and this +gradually found its way across the Pyrenees. At first it affected Provence +and Languedoc, in southern France, then Sicily and Italy, and finally the +gay contagion of lute and mandolin and love songs spread throughout all +western Europe. A race of troubadours and minnesingers arose, singing in +the vernacular, traveling about the country, and being entertained in +castle halls. + + Lordlyng listneth to my tale + Which is merryr than the nightengale + +won admission at any castle gate. "Out of these genial but not orthodox +beginnings the polite literature of modern Europe arose." + + +II. THE RISE OF SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY + +THE ELEVENTH CENTURY A TURNING POINT. By the end of the eleventh century a +distinct turning-point had been reached in the struggle to save +civilization from perishing. From this time on it was clear that the +battle had been won, and that a new Christian civilization would in time +arise in western Europe. Much still remained to be done, and centuries of +effort would be required, but the Church, almost for the first time in +more than six hundred years, felt that it could now pause to organize and +systematize its faith. The invasions and destruction of the Northmen had +at last ceased, the Mohammedan conquests were over, almost the last of the +Germanic tribes in Europe had settled down and had accepted Christianity, +[8] and the fighting nobility of Europe were being held somewhat in +restraint by the might of the Church, the "Truce of God" (R. 79), and the +softening influence of chivalric education (R. 80). There were many +evidences, too, by the end of the eleventh century, that the western +Christian world, after the long intellectual night, was soon to awaken to +a new intellectual life. The twelfth century, in particular, was a period +when it was evident that some new leaven was at work. + +Up to about the close of the eleventh century western Europe had been +living in an age of simple faith. The Christian world everywhere lay under +"a veil of faith, illusion, and childish prepossession." The mysteries of +Christianity and the many inconsistencies of its teachings and beliefs +were accepted with childlike docility, and the Church had felt little call +to organize, to systematize, or to explain. Here and there, to be sure, +some questioning monk or cleric had raised questions over matters [9] of +faith which his reason could not explain, and had, perhaps, for a time +disturbed the peace of orthodoxy, but a statement somewhat similar to that +made by Anselm of Canterbury (footnote, p. 173), as to the precedence of +faith over reason, had usually been sufficient to silence all inquiry. +Once, in the latter part of the eleventh century, when a great discussion +as to the nature of knowledge had taken place among the leaders of the +Church, a church council had been called to pass upon and give final +settlement to the questions raised. [10] + +RISE OF THE SPIRIT OF INQUIRY. As the cathedral schools grew in importance +as teaching institutions, and came to have many teachers and students, a +few of them became noted as places where good instruction was imparted and +great teachers were to be found. Canterbury in England, Paris and Chartres +in France, and several of the cities in northern Italy early were noted +for the quality of their instruction. The great teachers and the keenest +students of the time were to be found in the cathedral schools in these +places, and the monastic schools now lost their earlier importance as +teaching institutions. By the twelfth century they had been completely +superseded as important teaching centers by the rapidly developing +cathedral schools. To these more important cathedral schools students now +came from long distances to study under some noted teacher. Says McCabe: +[11] + + The scholastic fever which was soon to influence the youth of Europe, + had already set in. You could not travel far over the rough roads of + France without meeting some footsore scholar, making for the nearest + large monastery or cathedral town. Robbers, frequently in the service + of the lord of the land, infested every province. It was safest to don + the coarse frieze tunic of the pilgrim, without pockets, sling your + little wax tablets and stylus at your girdle, strap a wallet of bread + and herbs and salt on your back, and laugh at the nervous folk who + peeped out from their coaches over a hedge of pikes and daggers. Few + monasteries refused a meal or a rough bed to the wandering scholar. + Rarely was any fee exacted for the lesson given. + +The cathedral school in connection with the church of Notre Dame [12] +became especially famous for its teachers of the Liberal Arts +(particularly Dialectic) and of Theology, and to this school, just as the +eleventh century was drawing to a close, came a youth, then barely twenty +years of age, who is generally regarded as having been the keenest scholar +of the twelfth century. His brilliant intellect soon enabled him to refute +the instruction of his teachers and to vanquish them in debate. His name +was Abelard. Before long he himself became a teacher of Grammar and Logic +at Paris, and later of Theology, and, so widely had he read, so clearly +did he appeal to the reason of his hearers, and so incisive was his +teaching, that he attracted large numbers of students to his lectures. To +assist in his teaching of Theology he prepared a little textbook, _Sic et +Non_ (Yea and Nay), in which he raised for debate many questions as to +church teachings (R. 91 b), such as "That faith is based on reason, or +not." In the introduction to this textbook he held that "constant and +frequent questioning is the first key to wisdom" (R. 91 a). His method was +to give the authorities on both sides, but to render no decision. His +boldness in raising such questions for debate was new, and his failure to +give the students a decision was quite unusual, while his claim that +reason was antecedent to faith was startling. Even after being driven from +Paris, in part because of this boldness and in part because of a most +unfortunate incident which deservedly ruined his career in the Church, +students in numbers followed him to his retreat and listened to his +teachings. His method of instruction was for the time so unusual and his +spirit of inquiry so searching that he stimulated many a young mind to a +new type of thinking. One of his pupils was Peter the Lombard (p. 171), +who completely redirected the teaching of theology with his _Book of +Sentences_ (c. 1145)--This was based largely on Abelard's method, except +that a positive and orthodox decision was presented for each question +raised. + +[Illustration: FIG. 53. THE CATHEDRAL OF NOTRE DAME, AT PARIS +The present cathedral was begun in 1163, consecrated in 1182, and +completed in the thirteenth century. It is built on an island in the +Seine, and on the site of a church built in the fourth century. The little +community which grew up about the cathedral church formed the nucleus +about which the city of Paris eventually grew. This cathedral front, with +its statues and beautiful carving, formed a type much followed during the +great period of cathedral-building (thirteenth century) in Europe. The +school in connection with this cathedral early became famous.] + +What took place at Paris also took place, though generally on a smaller +scale, at many other cathedral and monastery schools of western Europe. +The spirit of inquiry had at last been awakened, the Church was being +respectfully challenged by its children to prove its faith, and the +learning of the Saracens in Spain, which now began to filter across the +Pyrenees, added to the strength of their challenge. Returning pilgrims and +crusaders (First Crusade, 1099) also began to ask for an explanation of +the doubts which had come to them from the contact with Greek and Arab in +the East. A desire for a philosophy which would explain the mysteries and +contradictions of the Christian faith found expression among the scholars +of the time. In the larger cathedral schools, at least, it became common +to discuss the doctrines of the Church with much freedom. + +THE RISE OF SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY. The Church, in a very intelligent and +commendable manner, prepared to meet and use this new spirit in the +organization, systematization, and restatement of its faith and doctrine, +and the great era of Scholasticism [13] now arose. During the latter part +of the twelfth and in the thirteenth century Scholasticism was at its +height; after that, its work being done, it rapidly declined as an +educational force, and the new universities inherited the spirit which had +given rise to its labors. + +With the new emphasis now placed on reasoning, Dialectic or Logic +superseded Grammar as the great subject of study, and logical analysis was +now applied to the problems of religion. The Church adopted and guided the +movement, and the schools of the time turned their energy into directions +approved by it. Aristotle also was in time adopted by the Church, after +the translation of his principal works had been effected (Rs. 87, 90), and +his philosophy was made a bulwark for Christian doctrine throughout the +remainder of the Middle Ages. For the next four centuries Aristotle +thoroughly dominated all philosophic thinking. [14] The great development +and use of logical analysis now produced many keen and subtle minds, who +worked intensively a narrow and limited field of thought. The result was a +thorough reorganization and restatement of the theology of the Church. + +[Illustration: PLATE 3. SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS] + +This was the work of Scholasticism. The movement was not characterized by +the evolution of new doctrines, but by a systematization and organization +into good teaching form of what had grown up during the preceding thousand +years. To a large degree it was also an "accommodation" of the old +theology to the new Aristotelian philosophy which had recently been +brought back to western Europe, and the statement of the Christian +doctrines in good philosophic form. + +THE ORGANIZING WORK OF THE SCHOOLMEN. Peter the Lombard (1100-1160), whose +_Book of Sentences_, mentioned above, had so completely changed the +character of the instruction in Theology, began this work of theological +reorganization. Albert the Great (_Albertus Magnus_, 1193-1280) was the +first of the great Schoolmen, and has been termed "the organizing +intellect of the Middle Ages." He was a German Dominican monk [15], born +in Swabia, and educated in the schools of Paris, Padua, and Bologna. Later +he became a celebrated teacher at Paris and Cologne. He was the first to +state the philosophy of Aristotle in systematic form, and was noted as an +exponent of the work of Peter the Lombard. Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225-1274), +the greatest and most influential scholastic philosopher of the Middle +Ages, studied first at Monte Cassino and Naples, and then at Paris and +Cologne, under Albertus Magnus. He later became a noted teacher of +Philosophy and Theology at Rome, Bologna, Viterbo, Perugia, and Naples. +Under him Scholasticism came to its highest development in his harmonizing +the new Aristotelianism with the doctrines of the Church. His class +teaching was based on Aristotle, [16] the Vulgate Bible, and Peter the +Lombard's _Book of Sentences_. During the last three years of his life he +wrote his _Summa Theologiae_, a book which has ever since been accepted as +an authoritative statement of the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church. + +The character of the organization made by Peter the Lombard and Thomas +Aquinas may be seen from an examination of their method of presentation, +which was dogmatic in form and similar in the textbooks of each. The field +of Christian Theology was divided out into parts, heads, subheads, etc., +in a way that would cover the subject, and a group of problems, each +dealing with some doctrinal point, was then presented under each. The +problem was first stated in the text. Next the authorities and arguments +for each solution other than that considered as orthodox were presented +and confuted, in order. The orthodox solution was next presented, the +arguments and authorities for such solution quoted, and the objections to +the correct solution presented and refuted (R. 152). + +RESULTS OF THEIR WORK. The work of the Schoolmen was to organize and +present in systematic and dogmatic form the teachings of the Church (R. +92). This they did exceedingly well, and the result was a thorough +organization of Theology as a teaching subject. They did little to extend +knowledge, and nothing at all to apply it to the problems of nature and +man. Their work was abstract and philosophical instead, dealing wholly +with theological questions. The purpose was to lay down principles, and to +offer a training in analysis, comparison, classification, and deduction +which would prepare learned and subtle defenders of the faith of the +Church. So successful were the Schoolmen in their efforts that instruction +in Theology was raised by their work to a new position of importance, and +a new interest in theological scholarship and general learning was +awakened which helped not a little to deflect many strong spirits from a +life of warfare to a life of study. They made the problems of learning +seem much more worth while, and their work helped to create a more +tolerant attitude toward the supporters of either side of debatable +questions by revealing so clearly that there are two sides to every +question. This new learning, new interest in learning, and new spirit of +tolerance the rising universities inherited. + + +III. LAW AND MEDICINE AS NEW STUDIES + +THE OLD ROMAN CITIES. The old Roman Empire, it will be remembered, came to +be largely a collection of provincial cities. These were the centers of +Roman civilization and culture. After the downfall of the governing power +of Rome, the great highways were no longer repaired, brigandage became +common, trade and intercourse largely ceased, and the provincial cities +which were not destroyed in the barbarian invasions declined in population +and number, passing under the control of their bishops who long ruled them +as feudal lords. During the long period of disorder many of the old Roman +cities entirely disappeared (R. 49). Only in Italy, and particularly in +northern Italy, did these old cities retain anything of their earlier +municipal life, or anything worth mentioning of their former industry and +commerce. But even here they lost most of their earlier importance as +centers of culture and trade, becoming merely ecclesiastical towns. After +the death of Charlemagne, the break-up of his empire, and the institution +of feudal conditions, the cities and towns declined still more in +importance, and few of any size remained. + +In Italy feudalism never attained the strength it did in northern Europe. +Throughout all the early Middle Ages the cities there retained something +of their old privileges, though ruled by prince-bishops residing in them. +They also retained something of the old Roman civilization, and Roman +legal usages and some knowledge of Roman law never quite died out. In +other respects they much resembled mediaeval cities elsewhere. + +REESTABLISHMENT OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE. After the disintegration of +Charlemagne's empire, the portion of it now known as Germany broke up into +fragments, largely independent of one another, and full of fight and +pride. The result there was continual and pitiless warfare. This, coupled +with the raids of the Northmen along the northern coast and the Magyars on +the east, led to the election of a king in 919 (Henry the Fowler) who +could establish some semblance of unity and order. By 961 the German +duchies and small principalities had been so consolidated that a +succeeding king (Otto I) felt himself able to attempt to reëstablish the +Holy Roman Empire by subjugating Italy and annexing it as an appendage +under German rule. + +He descended into Italy (961), subjugated the cities, overthrew the +Papacy, created a pope to his liking, and reëstablished the old Empire, in +name at least. For a century the German rule was nominal, but with the +outbreak of the conflict in the eleventh century between king and pope +over the question of which one should invest the bishops with their +authority (known as the _investiture conflict_, 1075-1122), Pope Gregory +VII humbled the German king (Henry IV) at Canossa (1077) and won a partial +success. Then followed repeated invasions of Italy, and a century and a +half of conflicts between pope and king before the dream of universal +empire under a German feudal king ended in disaster, and Italy was freed +from Teutonic rule. + +[Illustration: FIG. 54, THE CITY-STATES OF NORTHERN ITALY +All of the cities in the valley of the Po, except Turin, Pavia, and +Mantua, were members of the Lombard League of 1167.] + +THE ITALIAN CITIES REVIVE THE STUDY OF ROMAN LAW. As was stated above, +Roman legal usages and some knowledge of Roman law had never quite died +out in these Italian cities. But, while regarded with reverence, the law +was not much understood, little study was given to it, and important parts +of it were neglected and forgotten. The struggle with the ruling bishops +in the second half of the eleventh century, and the discussions which +arose during the investiture conflict, caused new attention to be given to +legal questions, and both the study of Roman (civil) and Church (canon) +law were revived. The Italian cities stood with the Papacy in the +struggles with the German kings, and, in 1167, those in the Valley of the +Po formed what was known as the _Lombard League_ for defense. Under the +pressure of German oppression they now began a careful study of the known +Roman law in an effort to discover some charter, edict, or grant of power +upon which they could base their claim for independent legal rights. The +result was that the study of Roman law was given an emphasis unknown in +Italy since the days of the old Empire. What had been preserved during the +period of disorder at last came to be understood, additional books of the +law were discovered, and men suddenly awoke to a realization that what had +been before considered as of little value actually contained much that was +worth studying, as well as many principles of importance that were +applicable to the conditions and problems of the time. + +[Illustration: FIG. 55. FRAGMENT FROM THE RECOVERED "DIGEST" OF JUSTINIAN +Capitals and small letters are here used, but note the difficulty of +reading without spacing or punctuation.] + +The great student and teacher of law of the period was Irnerius of Bologna +(c. 1070-1137), who began to lecture on the _Code_ and the _Institutes_ of +Justinian about 1110 to 1115, and soon attracted large numbers of students +to hear his interpretations. About this same time the _Digest_, much the +largest and most important part of the old law, was discovered and made +known. [17] + +This gave clearness to the whole, as before its discovery the study of +Roman law was like the study of Aristotle when only parts of the _Organon_ +were known. Irnerius and his co-laborers at Bologna now collected and +arranged the entire body of Roman civil law (_Corpus Juris Civilis_) (R. +93), introduced the _Digest_ to western Europe, and thus made a new +contribution of first importance to the list of possible higher studies. +Law now ceased to be a part of Rhetoric (p. 157) and became a new subject +of study, with a body of material large enough to occupy a student for +several years. This was an event of great intellectual significance. A new +study was now evolved which offered great possibilities for intellectual +activity and the exercise of the critical faculty, while at the same time +showing veneration for authority. Law was thus placed alongside Theology +as a professional subject, and the evolution of the professional lawyer +from the priest was now for the first time made possible. + +CANON LAW ALSO ORGANIZED AS A SUBJECT OF STUDY. Inspired by the revival of +the study of civil law, a monk of Bologna, Gratian by name, set himself to +make a compilation of all the Church canons which had been enacted since +the Council of Nicaea (325) formulated the first twenty (p. 96), and of +the rules for church government as laid down by the church authorities. +This he issued in textbook form, about 1142, under the title of _Decretum +Gratiani_. So successful were his efforts that his compilation was "one of +those great textbooks that take the world by storm." It did for canon +(church) law what the rediscovery of the Justinian _Code_ had done for +civil law; that is, it organized canon law as a new and important teaching +subject. + +The _Decretum_ of Gratian was published in three parts, and was organized +after the same plan as Abelard's _Sic et Non_, except that Gratian drew +conclusions from the mass of evidence he presented on each topic. It +contained 147 "Distinctions" (questions; cases of church policy), upon +each of which were cited the church canons and the views and decisions of +important church authorities. [18] This volume was added to by popes later +on, [19] so that by the fifteenth century a large body of canon law had +grown up, which was known as the _Corpus Juris Canonici_. Canon Law was +thus separated from Theology and added to Civil Law as another new subject +of study for both theological and legal students, and the two subjects of +Canon and Civil Law came to constitute the work of the law faculties in +the universities which soon arose in western Europe. + +[Illustration: FIG. 56. THE FATHER OF MEDICINE HIPPOCRATES OF COS (460- +367? B.C.)] + +THE BEGINNINGS OF MEDICAL STUDY. The Greeks had made some progress in the +beginnings of the study of disease (p. 47). Aristotle had given some +anatomical knowledge in his writings on animals, and had theorized a +little about the functions of the human body. The real founder of medical +science, though, was Hippocrates, of the island of Cos (c. 460-367 B.C.), +a contemporary of Plato. He was the first writer on the subject who +attempted to base the practice of the healing art on careful observation +and scientific principles. He substituted scientific reason for the wrath +of offended deities as the causes of disease, and tried to offer proper +remedies in place of sacrifices and prayers to the gods for cures. His +descriptions of diseases were wonderfully accurate, and his treatments +ruled medical practice for ages. [20] He knew, however, little as to +anatomy. Another Greek writer, Galen [21](131-201 A.D.), wrote extensively +on medicine and left an anatomical account of the human body which was +unsurpassed for more than a thousand years. His work was known and used by +the Saracens. Avicenna (980-1037), an eastern Mohammedan, wrote a _Canon +of Medicine_ in which he summarized the work of all earlier writers, and +gave a more minute description of symptoms than any preceding writer had +done. These works, together with a few minor writings by teachers in Spain +and Salerno, formed the basis of all medical knowledge until Vesalius +published his _System of Human Anatomy_, in 1543. + +The Roman knowledge of medicine was based almost entirely on that of the +Greeks, and after the rise of the Christians, with their new attitude +toward earthly life and contempt for the human body, the science fell into +disrepute and decay. Saint Augustine (354-430), in his great work on _The +City of God_, speaks with some bitterness of "medical men who are called +anatomists," and who "with a cruel zeal for science have dissected the +bodies of the dead, and sometimes of sick persons, who have died under +their knives, and have inhumanly pried into the secrets of the human body +to learn the nature of disease and its exact seat, and how it might be +cured." [22] During the early Middle Ages the Greek medical knowledge +practically disappeared, and in its place came the Christian theories of +satanic influence, diabolic action, and divine punishment for sin. +Correspondingly the cures were prayers at shrines and repositories of +sacred relics and images, which were found all over Europe, and to which +the injured or fever-stricken peasants hied themselves to make offerings +and to pray, and then hope for a miracle. + +Toward the middle of the eleventh century Salerno, a small city +delightfully situated on the Italian coast (see Map, p. 194), thirty-four +miles south of Naples, began to attain some reputation as a health resort. +In part this was due to the climate and in part to its mineral springs. +Southern Italy had, more than any other part of western Europe, retained +touch with old Greek thought. The works of Hippocrates and Galen had been +preserved there, the monks at Monte Cassino had made some translations, +and sometime toward the middle of the eleventh century the study of the +Greek medical books was revived here. The Mohammedan medical work by +Avicenna (p. 185), also early became known here in translation. About 1065 +Constantine of Carthage, a converted Jew and a learned monk, who had +traveled extensively in the East [23] and who had been forced to flee from +his native city because of a suspicion of "black art," began to lecture at +Salerno on the Greek and Mohammedan medical works and the practice of the +medical art. In 1099 Robert, Duke of Normandy, returning from the First +Crusade, stopped here to be cured of a wound, and he and his knights later +spread the fame of Salerno all over Europe. The result was the revival of +the study of Medicine in the West, and Salerno developed into the first of +the medical schools of Europe. Montpellier, in southern France, also +became another early center for the study of Medicine, drawing much of its +medical knowledge from Spain. Another new subject of professional study +was now made possible, and Faculties of Medicine were in time organized in +most of the universities as they arose. The instruction, though, was +chiefly book instruction, Galen being the great textbook until the +seventeenth century. + + +IV. OTHER NEW INFLUENCES AND MOVEMENTS + +THE CRUSADES. Perhaps the most romantic happenings during the Middle Ages +were that series of adventurous expeditions to the then Far East, +undertaken by the kings and knights of western Europe in an attempt to +reclaim the Holy Land from the infidel Turks, who in the eleventh century +had pushed in and were persecuting Christian pilgrims journeying to +Jerusalem. For centuries single pilgrims, small bands of pilgrims, and +sometimes large numbers led by priest or noble, had journeyed to distant +shrines, to Rome, and to the birthplace of the Saviour, [24] impelled by +pure religious devotion, a desire to do penance for sin, or seeking a cure +from some disease by prayer and penance. It was the spirit of the age. +Says Adams: [25] + + A pilgrimage was ... in itself a religious act securing merit and + reward for the one who performed it, balancing a certain number for + his sins, and making his escape from the world of torment hereafter + more certain. The more distant and more difficult the pilgrimage, the + more meritorious, especially if it led to such supremely holy places + as those which had been sanctified by the presence of Christ himself. + For the man of the world, for the man who could not, or would not, go + into monasticism, the pilgrimage was the one conspicuous act by which + he could satisfy the ascetic need, and gain its rewards. A crusade was + a stupendous pilgrimage, under especially favorable and meritorious + conditions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 57. A PILGRIM OF THE MIDDLE AGES +(From an old manuscript in the British Museum)] + +The Mohammedan Arabs who took possession of the Holy Land in the seventh +century had treated the pilgrims considerately, but the Turks were of a +different stamp. In 1071 they had defeated the Eastern Emperor, captured +all Asia Minor, and had taken possession of the fortress of Nicaea (Map, +p. 183), near Constantinople. The Eastern Emperor now appealed to Rome for +help. In 1077 the Turks captured Jerusalem, and returning pilgrims soon +began to report having experienced great hardships. In 1095 Pope Urban, in +a stirring address to the Council of Clermont (France), issued a call to +the lords, knights, and foot soldiers of western Christendom to cease +destroying their fellow Christians in private warfare, and to turn their +strength of arms against the infidel and rescue the Holy Land. The journey +was to take the place of penance for sin, many special privileges were +extended to those who went, and those who died on the journey or in battle +with the infidels were promised entrance into heaven. [26] nobles and +peasants, filled with a desire for adventure and a sense of personal sin, +no surer way of satisfying either was to be found than the long pilgrimage +to the Saviour's tomb. In France and England the call met with instant +response. Unfortunately for the future of civilization, the call met with +but small response from the nobles of German lands. + +The First Crusade set out in 1096. A second went in 1144, and a third in +1187. These were the great Crusades, though five others were undertaken +during the thirteenth century. Jerusalem was taken and lost. The +Christians quarreled with one another and with the Greeks, though with the +Saracens they established somewhat friendly relations, and a mutual +respect arose. The armies which went were composed of all kinds of people +--lords, knights, merchants, adventurers, peasants, outlaws--and a spirit +of adventure and a desire for personal gain, as well as a spirit of +religious devotion, actuated many who went. In 1204 the Venetians diverted +the fourth crusade to the capture of Constantinople, and established there +an outpost of their great commercial empire. The history of the crusades +we do not need to trace. The important matter for our purpose was the +results of the movement on the intellectual development of western Europe. + +RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES ON WESTERN EUROPE. In a sense the Crusades were an +outward manifestation of the great change in thinking and ideals which had +begun sometime before in western Europe. They were at once both a sign and +a cause of further change. The old isolation was at last about to end, and +intercommunication and some common ideas and common feelings were being +brought about. Both those who went and those who remained at home were +deeply stirred by the movement. Christendom as a great international +community, in which all alike were interested in a common ideal and in a +common fight against the infidel, was a new idea now dawning upon the mass +of the people, whereas before it had been but little understood. + +The travel to distant lands, the sight of cities of wealth and power, and +the contact with peoples decidedly superior to themselves in civilization, +not only excited the imagination and led to a broadening of the minds of +those who returned, but served as well to raise the general level of +intelligence in western Europe. Some new knowledge also was brought back, +but that was not at the time of great importance. The principal gain came +in the elimination forever of thousands of quarreling, fighting noblemen, +[27] thus giving the kingly power a chance to consolidate holdings and +begin the evolution of modern States; in the marked change of attitude +toward the old problems; in the awakening of a new interest in the present +world; in the creation of new interests and new desires among the common +people; in the awakening of a spirit of religious unity and of national +consciousness; and especially in the awakening of a new intellectual life, +which soon found expression in the organization of universities for study +and in more extensive travel and geographical exploration than the world +had known since the days of ancient Rome. The greatest of all the results, +however, came through the revival of trade, commerce, manufacturing, and +industry in the rising cities of western Europe, with the consequent +evolution of a new and important class of merchants, bankers, and +craftsmen, who formed a new city class and in time developed a new system +of training for themselves and their children. + +THE REVIVAL OF CITY LIFE. The old cities of central and northern Italy, as +was stated above, continued through the early Middle Ages as places of +some little local importance. In the eleventh century they overthrew in +large part the rule of their Prince-Bishops, and became little City- +Republics, much after the old Greek model. Outside of Italy almost the +only cities not destroyed during the period of the barbarian invasions +were the episcopal cities, that is cities which were the residences of +bishops. + +Outside of Italy the present cities of western Europe either rose on the +ruins of former Roman provincial cities, or originated about some +monastery or castle, on or adjacent to land at one time owned by monks or +feudal lord. An ever-increasing company of peasants, themselves little +more than serfs in the beginning, huddled together in such places for the +protection afforded, and a walled feudal town eventually resulted (R. 94 +a). This later, in one way or another, secured its freedom from monastic +control or feudal lord, and evolved into the free city we know to-day. +Originally each little city was a self-sustaining community. The farming +and grazing lands lay outside, while the people were crowded compactly +together within the protecting town walls. The need for walls that could +be manned for defense, gates that could shut out the marauder, the narrow, +dirty streets, and the lack of any sanitary ideas, all alike tended to +keep the towns small. [28] The insecurity of life, the constant warfare, +the repeated failures or destruction of crops without and want within, and +the high death-rate from disease, all kept down the population. A town of +a thousand people in the early Middle Ages was a place of some importance, +while probably no city outside of Italy, excepting Paris and London, had +ten thousand inhabitants before the year 1200. In all England there were +but 2,150,000 people, according to the Domesday Survey (1086), while to- +day the city of London alone contains nearly three times that number. + +[Illustration: FIG. 58. A TYPICAL MEDIAEVAL TOWN (PRUSSIAN) +All the elements of a typical mediaeval town are seen here--the walls for +defense, the watch-towers, the churches, the tall cathedral, the castle, +and the high houses huddled together.] + +After about the year 1000 a revival of something like city life begins to +be noticeable here and there in the records of the time (R. 94 a), and by +1100 these signs begin to manifest themselves in many places and lands. By +1200 the cities of Europe were numerous, though small, and their +importance in the life of the times [29] was rapidly increasing (R. 94 b). + +THE RISE OF A CITY CLASS. As the mediaeval towns increased in size and +importance the inhabitants, being human, demanded rights. Between 1100 and +1200 there were frequent revolts of the people of the mediaeval towns +against their feudal overlord, and frequent demands were made for charters +granting privileges to the towns. Sometimes these insurrections were put +down with a bloody hand. Sometimes, on the contrary, the overlord granted +a charter of rights, willingly or unwillingly, and freed the people from +obligation to labor on the lands in return for a fixed money payment. +Sometimes the king himself granted the inhabitants a charter by way of +curbing the power of the local feudal lord or bishop. The towns became +exceedingly skillful in playing off lord against bishop, and the king +against both. In England, Flanders, France, and Germany some of the towns +had become wealthy enough to purchase their freedom and a charter at some +time when their feudal overlord was particularly in need of money. These +charters, or birth certificates for the towns, were carefully drawn and +officially sealed documents of great value, and were highly prized as +evidences of local liberty. The document created a "free town," and gave +to the inhabitants certain specified rights as to self-government, the +election of magistrates--aldermen, mayor, burgomaster--the levying and +payment of taxes, and the military service to be rendered. Before the +evolution of strong national governments these charters created hundreds +of what were virtually little City-States throughout Europe (R. 95). + +In these towns a new estate or class of people was now created (R. 96), in +between the ruling bishops and lords on the one hand and the peasants +tilling the land on the other. These were the citizens--freemen, +bourgeoisie, burghers. Out of this new class of city dwellers new social +orders--merchants, bankers, tradesmen, artisans, and craftsmen--in time +arose, and these new orders soon demanded rights and obtained some form of +education for their children. The guild or apprenticeship education which +early developed in the cities to meet the needs of artisans and craftsmen +(R. 99), and the burgh or city schools of Europe, which began to develop +in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, were the educational results +of the rise of cities and the evolution of these new social classes. The +time would soon be ripe for the mysteries of learning to be passed +somewhat farther down the educational pyramid, and new classes in society +would begin the mastery of its symbols. + +[Illustration: FIG. 59. THE EDUCATIONAL PYRAMID +(From Smith, W. R., _Educational Sociology_, p. 176) +The concave pyramid suggests comparative numbers. Formal education began +at the top, and has slowly worked downward.] + +THE REVIVAL OF COMMERCE. The first city of mediaeval Europe to obtain +commercial prominence was Venice. She early sold salt and fish obtained +from the lagoons to the Lombards in the Valley of the Po, and sent trading +ships to the Greek East. By the year 1000 Venetian ships were bringing the +luxuries and riches of the Orient to Venice, and the city soon became a +great trading center. There the partially civilized Christian knight +"spent splendidly," and the Bohemian, German, and Hunnish lords came [30] +to buy such of the luxuries of the East as they could afford. By 1100 +Venice was a free City-State, the mistress of the Adriatic, and the trade +of the East with Christian Europe passed over her wharves. From the +Crusades she profited greatly, carrying knights eastward in the great +fleet she had developed, and carpets, fabrics, perfumes, spices, dyes, +drugs, silks, and precious stones on the return voyage. From Tana and +Trebizond her traders penetrated far into the interior. Her ships and +merchants "held the Golden East in fee." By 1400 she was the wealthiest +and most powerful city in Europe. + +[Illustration: FIG. 60. TRADE ROUTES AND COMMERCIAL CITIES] + +Genoa in time became the great rival of Venice. Marseilles also developed +a large trade in the Mediterranean and with the north. From these three +cities trade routes ran to the cities of Flanders, England, and Germany, +as is shown in the map below. By the thirteenth century, Augsburg, +Nuremburg, Magdeburg, Hamburg, Lübeck, Bremen, Antwerp, Ghent, Ypres, +Bruges, and London were developing into great commercial cities. Despite +bad roads, bad bridges, [31] bad inns, "robber knights" and bandits, the +commerce once carried on by Rome with her provinces was reviving. Great +fairs, or yearly markets, came to be held in the large interior towns, to +which merchants came from near and far to display and exchange their +wares, and, still more important, from the standpoint of advancing general +education, to exchange ideas and experiences. The "luxuries" displayed at +these markets by traveling merchants from the south--salt, pepper, spices, +sugar, drugs, dyestuffs, glass beads, glassware, table implements, +perfumes, ornaments, underwear, articles of dress, silks, velvets, +carpets, rugs--dazzled and astounded the simple townspeople of western +Europe. These fairs became educational forces of a high order. + +THE REVIVAL OF INDUSTRY AND BANKING. The trading of articles at seaports +and at the interior city fairs came first, and this soon worked a +revolution in industry. Instead of agriculture being almost the only +occupation, and the feeding of the local population the only purpose, with +only such arts and industries practiced as were needed to supply the wants +of the townsmen, it now became possible to create a surplus to barter at +the fairs for luxuries from the outside. Local industries, heretofore of +but little importance, now developed into trades, and the manufacture of +articles for outside sale was begun. At first manufacturing was very +limited in scope, and confined largely to local handicrafts or the +imitation of imported articles, but later new and important industries +arose--the glass industry in Venice, the gold and silver industry of +Florence, the weaving industry at Mainz and Erfurt, and the wool industry +of Flanders. The craftsman and artisan, as well as the merchant and +trader, were now developed in the towns, and soon became important members +of the new social order. As serfs and villeins [32] were set free from the +land [33] they came to the towns, adding more members to the new +industrial classes (R. 96). From 1200 on there was a great revival of +industry in western Europe, and by 1500 merchants and craftsmen had won +back the place once held by merchants and craftsmen in Roman life and +trade. + +At Florence a banking class arose, and instead of barter, banks and the +use of money and credit were developed. From Florence this system +gradually extended to the other commercial cities. Gradually the mediaeval +objection to the taking of interest for the use of money, which the Church +had forbidden in the early Middle Ages as "usury" and wicked, was +overcome, and Italian bankers and merchants led the world in the +establishment of that credit which has made modern trade and industry +possible. With money once more in general use as a measure of value, the +Arabic system of notation in use for commercial transactions, and credit +at reasonable interest rates provided as a basis for finance, an era in +trade and commerce and manufacturing set in unknown since the days of +Roman rule. Order, security, and a wider extension of educational +advantages now were needed, and nothing contributed more to securing these +than the growth of wealth and manufacturing industries in the towns, and +the extension of commerce and the use of money throughout the country. +Nothing tends so powerfully to demand or secure these things as the +possession of wealth among a people. + +EDUCATION FOR THESE NEW SOCIAL CLASSES. With the evolution of these new +social classes an extension of education took place through the formation +of guilds. [34] The merchants of the Middle Ages traded, not as +individuals, nor as subjects of a State which protected them, for there +were as yet no such States, but as members of the guild of merchants of +their town, or as members of a trading company. Later, towns united to +form trading confederations, of which the Hanseatic League of northern +Germany was a conspicuous example. These burgher merchant guilds became +wealthy and important socially; [35] they were chartered by kings and +given trading privileges analogous to those of a modern corporation (R. +95); they elbowed their way into affairs of State, and in time took over +in large part the city governments; they obtained education for +themselves, and fought with the church authorities for the creation of +independent burgh schools; [36] they began to read books, and books in the +vernacular began to be written for them; [37] they in time vied with the +clergy and the nobility in their patronage of learning; they everywhere +stood with the kings and princes to compel feudal lords to stop warfare +and plundering and to submit to law and order; [38] and they entertained +royal personages and drew nobles, clergy, and gentry into their honorary +membership, thus serving as an important agency in breaking down the +social-class exclusiveness of the Middle Ages. In these guilds, which were +self-governing bodies debating questions and deciding policies and +actions, much elementary political training was given their members which +proved of large importance at a later time. + +In the same way the craft guilds rendered a large educational service to +the small merchant and worker, as they provided the technical and social +education of such during the later period of the Middle Ages and in early +modern times, and protected their members from oppression in an age when +oppression was the rule. With the revival of trade and industry craft +guilds arose all over western Europe. One of the first of these was the +candle-makers' guild, organized at Paris in 1061. Soon after we find large +numbers of guilds--masons, shoemakers, harness-makers, bakers, smiths, +wool-combers, tanners, saddlers, spurriers, weavers, goldsmiths, +pewterers, carpenters, leather-workers, cloth-workers, pinners, +fishmongers, butchers, barbers--all organized on much the same plan. These +were the working-men's fraternities or labor unions of mediaeval Europe. +Each trade or craft became organized as a city guild, composed of the +"masters," "journeymen" (paid workmen), and "apprentices." The great +mediaeval document, a charter of rights guaranteeing protection, was +usually obtained. The guild for each trade laid down rules for the number +and training of apprentices, [39] the conditions under which a +"journeyman" could become a "master," [40] rules for conducting the trade, +standards to be maintained in workmanship, prices to be charged, and dues +and obligations of members (R. 97). They supervised work in their craft, +cared for the sick, buried the dead, and looked after the widows and +orphans. Often they provided one or more priests of their own to minister +to the families of their craft, and gradually the custom arose of having +the priest also teach something of the rudiments of religion and learning +to the children of the members. In time money and lands were set aside or +left for such purposes, and a form of chantry school, which later evolved +into a regular school, often with instruction in higher studies added, was +created for the children of members [41] of the guild (R. 98). + +APPRENTICESHIP EDUCATION. For centuries after the revival of trade and +industry all manufacturing was on a small scale, and in the home-industry +stage. There was, of course, no machinery, and only the simple tools known +from ancient times were used. In a first-floor room at the back, master, +journeymen, and apprentices working together made the articles which were +sold by the master or the master's wife and daughter in the room in front. +The manufacturer and merchant were one. Apprentices were bound to a master +for a term of years (R. 99), often paying for the training and education +to be received, and the master boarded and lodged both the apprentices and +the paid workmen in the family rooms above the shop and store. + +The form of apprenticeship education and training which thus developed, +from an educational point of view, forms for us the important feature of +the history of these craft guilds. With the subdivision of labor and the +development of new trades the craft-guild idea was extended to the new +occupations, and a steady stream of rural labor flowing to the towns was +absorbed by them and taught the elements of social usages, self- +government, and the mastery of a trade. Throughout all the long period up +to the nineteenth century this apprenticeship education in a trade and in +self-government constituted almost the entire formal education the worker +with his hands received. The sons of the barbarian invaders, as well as +their knightly brothers, at last were busy learning the great lessons of +industry, coöperation, and personal loyalty. Here begins, for western +Europe, "the nobility of labor--the long pedigree of toil." So well in +fact did this apprentice system of training and education meet the needs +of the time that it persisted, as was said above, well into the nineteenth +century (Rs. 200, 201, 242, 243), being displaced only by modern power +machinery and systematized factory methods. During the later Middle Ages +and in modern times it rendered an important educational service; in the +later nineteenth century it became such an obstacle to educational and +industrial progress that it has had to be supplemented or replaced by +systematic vocational education. + +INFLUENCE OF THESE NEW MOVEMENTS. We thus see, by the end of the twelfth +century, a number of new influences in western Europe which point to an +intellectual awakening and to the rise of a new educated class, separate +from the monks and clergy on the one hand or the nobility on the other, +and to the awakening of Europe to a new attitude toward life. Saracen +learning, filtering across from Spain, had added materially to the +knowledge Europe previously had, and had stimulated new intellectual +interests. Scholasticism had begun its great work of reorganizing and +systematizing theology, which was destined to free philosophy, hitherto +regarded as a dangerous foe or a suspected ally, from theology and to +remake entirely the teaching of the subject. Civil and canon law had been +created as wholly new professional subjects, and the beginnings of the +teaching of medicine had been made. Instead of the old Seven Liberal Arts +and a very limited course of professional study for the clerical office +being the entire curriculum, and Theology the one professional subject, we +now find, by the beginning of the thirteenth century, a number of new and +important professional subjects of large future significance--subjects +destined to break the monopoly of theological study and put an end to +logistic hair-splitting. The next step in the history of education came in +the development of institutions where thinking and teaching could be +carried on free from civil or ecclesiastical control, with the consequent +rise of an independent learned class in western Europe. This came with the +rise of the universities, to which we next turn, and out of which in time +arose the future independent scholarship of Europe, America, and the world +in general. + +We also discover a series of new movements, connected with the Crusades, +the rise of cities, and the revival of trade and industry, all of which +clearly mark the close of the dark period of the Middle Ages. We note, +too, the evolution of new social classes--a new Estate--destined in time +to eclipse in importance both priest and noble and to become for long the +ruling classes of the modern world. We also note the beginnings of an +important independent system of education for the hand-workers which +sufficed until the days of steam, machinery, and the evolution of the +factory system. The eleventh and twelfth centuries were turning-points of +great significance in the history of our western civilization, and with +the opening of the wonderful thirteenth century the western world is well +headed toward a new life and modern ways of thinking. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Why is it that a strong religious control is never favorable to +originality in thinking? + +2. Show how the work of the Nestorian Christians for the Mohammedan faith +was another example of the Hellenization of the ancient world. + +3. Would it be possible for any people anywhere in the world today to make +such advances as were made at Bagdad, in the late eighth and early ninth +centuries, without such work permanently influencing the course of +civilization and learning everywhere? To what is the difference due? + +4. What were the chief obstacles to Europe adopting at once the learning +from Mohammedan Spain, instead of waiting centuries to discover this +learning independently? 5. Why did Aristotle's work seem of much greater +value to the mediaeval scholar than the Moslem science? What are the +relative values to-day? + +6. Why should the light literature of Spain be spoken of as a gay +contagion? Did this Christian attitude toward fiction and poetry continue +long? + +7. In what ways was the _Sic et Non_ of Abelard a complete break with +mediaeval traditions? + +8. How did the fact that Dialectic (Logic) now became the great subject of +study in itself denote a marked intellectual advance? What was the +significance of the prominence of this study for the future of thinking? + +9. What was the effect on inquiry and individual thinking of the method of +presentation used by Saint Thomas Aquinas in his _Summa Theologica_? + +10. How do you explain the all-absorbing interest in scholasticism during +the greater part of a century? + +11. State the significance, for the future, of the revival of the study of +Roman law: (a) intellectually; (b) in shaping future civilization. + +12. How do you explain the Christian attitude toward disease, and the +scientific treatment of it? Has that attitude entirely passed away? +Illustrate. + +13. Why was it such a good thing for the future of civilization in England +and France that so many of its nobility perished in the Crusades? + +14. State a number of ways in which the Crusade movements had a beneficial +effect on western Europe. + +15. Show how the revival of commerce was an educative and a civilizing +influence of large importance. 16. Would the organization of commerce and +banking, and the establishment of the sanctity of obligations in a +country, be one important measure of the civilization to which that +country had attained? Illustrate. + +17. Show how the development of industry and commerce and the accumulation +of wealth tend to promote order and security, and to extend educational +advantages. + +18. Contrast a mediaeval guild and a modern labor union. A guild and a +modern fraternal and benevolent society. + +19. Why did apprenticeship education continue so long with so little +change, when it is now so rapidly being superseded? + +20. Does the rise of a new Estate in society indicate a period of slow or +rapid change? Why is such an evolution of importance for education and +civilization? + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 85. Draper: The Moslem Civilization in Spain. + 86. Draper: Learning among the Moslems in Spain. + 87. Norton: Works of Aristotle known by 1300. + 88. Averroës: On Aristotle's Greatness. + 89. Roger Bacon: How Aristotle was received at Oxford. + 90. Statutes: How Aristotle was received at Paris. + (a) Decree of Church Council, 1210 A.D. + (b) Statutes of Papal Legate, 1215 A.D. + (c) Statutes of Pope Gregory, 1231 A.D. + (d) Statutes of the Masters of Arts, 1254 A.D. + 91. Cousin: Abelard's _Sic et Non_. + (a) From the Introduction. + (b) Types of Questions raised for Debate. + 92. Rashdall: The Great Work of the Schoolmen. + 93. Justinian: Preface to the Justinian Code. + 94. Giry and Réville: The Early Mediaeval Town. + (a) To the Eleventh Century. + (b) By the Thirteenth Century. + 95. Gross: An English Town Charter. + 96. London: Oath of a New Freeman in a Mediaeval Town. + 97. Riley: Ordinances of the White-Tawyers' Guild. + 98. State Report: School of the Guild of Saint Nicholas. + 99. England, 1396: A Mediaeval Indenture of Apprenticeship. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Contrast the state of civilization in Spain and the rest of Europe +about 1100 (85, 86). + +2. Considering Aristotle's great intellectual worth (88) and work (87), is +it to be wondered that the mediaevals regarded him with such reverence? + +3. Do we today accept Abelard's premise (91 a) as to attaining wisdom? +Would his questions (91 b) excite much interest to-day? + +4. How do you explain the change in attitude toward him shown by the +successive statutes enacted (90 a-d) for the University of Paris? + +5. Would the extract from Roger Bacon (89) lead you to think him a man +ahead of the times in which he lived? Why? + +6. Did scholasticism represent the innocent intellectual activity, from +the Church point of view, pictured by Rashdall (92)? + +7. What were the main things Justinian hoped to accomplish by the +preparation of the great Code, as set forth in the Preface (93)? + +8. Characterize the mediaeval town by the eleventh century (94 a). What +was the nature of the progress from that time to the thirteenth century +(94 b)? + +9. What were the chief privileges contained in the town charter of +Walling-ford (95), and what position does it indicate was held by the +guild-merchant therein? + +10. What does the oath of a freeman (96) indicate as to social conditions? + +11. State the chief regulations imposed on its members by the White- +Tawyers' Guild (97). Compare these regulations with those of a modern +labor union, such as the plumbers. With a fraternal order, such as the +Masons. + +12. What is indicated as to the educational advantages provided by the +Guild of Saint Nicholas, in the city of Worcester, by the extract (98) +taken from the Report of the King's Commissioner? + +13. Does a comparison of Readings 99, 201, and 242 indicate a static +condition of apprenticeship education for centuries? + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + +* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. + Ameer, Ali. _A Short History of the Saracens_. +* Ashley, W. J. _Introduction to English Economic History_. + Cutts, Edw. L. _Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages_. +* Gautier, Léon. _Chivalry_. +* Giry, A., and Réville, A. _Emancipation of the Mediaeval Towns_. + Hibbert, F. A. _Influence and Development of English Guilds_. +* Hume, M. A. S. _The Spanish People_. +* Lavisse, Ernest. _Mediaeval Commerce and Industry_. +* MacCabe, Jos. _Peter Abelard_. +* Munro, D. C., and Sellery, G. E. _Mediaeval Civilization_. + Poole, R. L. _Illustrations of Mediaeval Thought_. +* Rashdall, H. _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_, vol. I. + Routledge, R. _Popular History of Science_. + Sandys, J. E. _History of Classical Scholarship_, vol. i. + Scott, J. F. _Historical Essays on Apprenticeship and Vocational + Education_. (England.) +* Sedgwick, W. J., and Tyler, H. W. _A Short History of Science_. + Taylor, H. C. _The Mediaeval Mind_. + Thorndike, Lynn. _History of Mediaeval Europe_. + Townsend, W. J. _The Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages_. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES + + +EVOLUTION OF THE _STUDIUM GENERALE_. In the preceding chapter we described +briefly the new movement toward association which characterized the +eleventh and the twelfth centuries--the municipal movement, the merchant +guilds, the trade guilds, etc. These were doing for civil life what +monasticism had earlier done for the religious life. They were collections +of like-minded men, who united themselves into associations or guilds for +mutual benefit, protection, advancement, and self-government within the +limits of their city, business, trade, or occupation. This tendency toward +association, in the days when state government was weak or in its infancy, +was one of the marked features of the transition time from the early +period of the Middle Ages, when the Church was virtually the State, to the +later period of the Middle Ages, when the authority of the Church in +secular matters was beginning to weaken, modern nations were beginning to +form, and an interest in worldly affairs was beginning to replace the +previous inordinate interest in the world to come. + +We also noted in the preceding chapters that certain cathedral and +monastery schools, but especially the cathedral schools, [1] stimulated by +the new interest in Dialectic, were developing into much more than local +teaching institutions designed to afford a supply of priests of some +little education for the parishes of the bishopric. Once York and later +Canterbury, in England, had had teachers who attracted students from other +bishoprics. Paris had for long been a famous center for the study of the +Liberal Arts and of Theology. Saint Gall had become noted for its music. +Theologians coming from Paris (1167-68) had given a new impetus to study +among the monks at Oxford. A series of political events in northern Italy +had given emphasis to the study of law in many cities, and the Moslems in +Spain had stimulated the schools there and in southern France to a study +of medicine and Aristotelian science. Rome was for long a noted center for +study. Gradually these places came to be known as _studia publica_, or +_studia generalia_, meaning by this a generally recognized place of study, +where lectures were open to any one, to students of all countries and of +all conditions. [2] Traveling students came to these places from afar to +hear some noted teacher read and comment on the famous textbooks of the +time. + +From the first both teachers and students had been considered as members +of the clergy, and hence had enjoyed the privileges and immunities +extended to that class, but, now that the students were becoming so +numerous and were traveling so far, some additional grant of protection +was felt to be desirable. Accordingly the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, +[3] in 1158, issued a general proclamation of privileges and protection +(R. 101). In this he ordered that teachers and students traveling "to the +places in which the studies are carried on" should be protected from +unjust arrest, should be permitted to "dwell in security," and in case of +suit should be tried "before their professors or the bishop of the city." +This document marks the beginning of a long series of rights and +privileges granted to the teachers and students of the universities now in +process of evolution in western Europe. + +THE UNIVERSITY EVOLUTION. The development of a university out of a +cathedral or some other form of school represented, in the Middle Ages, a +long local evolution. Universities were not founded then as they are to- +day. A teacher of some reputation drew around him a constantly increasing +body of students. Other teachers of ability, finding a student body +already there, also "set up their chairs" and began to teach. Other +teachers and more students came. In this way a _studium_ was created. +About these teachers in time collected other university servants-- +"bedells, librarians, lower officials, preparers of parchment, scribes, +illuminators of parchment, and others who serve it," as Count Rupert +enumerated them in the Charter of Foundation granted, in 1386, to +Heidelberg (R. 103). At Salerno, as we have already seen (p. 199), medical +instruction arose around the work of Constantine of Carthage and the +medicinal springs found in the vicinity. Students journeyed there from +many lands, and licenses to practice the medical art were granted there as +early as 1137. At Bologna, we have also seen (p. 195), the work of +Irnerius and Gratian early made this a great center for the study of civil +and canon law, and their pupils spread the taste for these new subjects +throughout Europe. Paris for two centuries had been a center for the study +of the Arts and of Theology, and a succession of famous teachers--William +of Champeaux, Abelard, Peter the Lombard--had taught there. So important +was the theological teaching there that Paris has been termed "the Sinai +of instruction" of the Middle Ages. + +By the beginning of the thirteenth century both students and teachers had +become so numerous, at a number of places in western Europe, that they +began to adopt the favorite mediaeval practice and organized themselves +into associations, or guilds, for further protection from extortion and +oppression and for greater freedom from regulation by the Church. They now +sought and obtained additional privileges for themselves, and, in +particular, the great mediaeval document--a charter of rights and +privileges. [4] As both teachers and students were for long regarded as +_clerici_ the charters were usually sought from the Pope, but in some +cases they were obtained from the king. [5] These associations of +scholars, or teachers, or both, "born of the need of companionship which +men who cultivate their intelligence feel," sought to perform the same +functions for those who studied and taught that the merchant and craft +guilds were performing for their members. The ruling idea was association +for protection, and to secure freedom for discussion and study; the +obtaining of corporate rights and responsibilities; and the organization +of a system of apprenticeship, based on study and developing through +journeyman into mastership, [6] as attested by an examination and the +license to teach. In the rise of these teacher and student guilds [7] we +have the beginnings of the universities of western Europe, and their +organization into chartered teaching groups (R. 100) was simply another +phase of that great movement toward the association of like-minded men for +worldly purposes which began to sweep over the rising cities in the +eleventh and twelfth centuries. [8] + +The term _universitas_, or _university_, which came in time to be applied +to these associations of masters and apprentices in study, was a general +Roman legal term, practically equivalent to our modern word _corporation_. +At first it was applied to any association, and when used with reference +to teachers and scholars was so stated. Thus, in addressing the masters +and students at Paris, Pope Innocent, in 1205, writes: "_Universis +magistris et scholaribus Parisiensibus_", that is, "to the corporation of +masters and scholars at Paris." Later the term _university_ became +restricted to the meaning which we give it to-day. + +The university mothers. Though this movement for association and the +development of advanced study had manifested itself in a number of places +by the close of the twelfth century, two places in particular led all the +others and became types which were followed in charters and in new +creations. These were Bologna and Paris. [9] After one or the other of +these two nearly all the universities of western Europe were modeled. +Bologna or Paris, or one of their immediate children, served as a pattern. +Thus Bologna was the university mother for almost all the Italian +universities; for Montpellier and Grenoble in southern France; for some of +the Spanish universities; and for Glasgow, Upsala, Cracow, and for the Law +Faculty at Oxford. Paris was the university mother for Oxford, and through +her Cambridge; for most of the northern French universities; for the +university of Toulouse, which in turn became the mother for other southern +French and northern Spanish universities; for Lisbon and Coimbra in +Portugal; for the early German universities at Prague, Vienna, Cologne, +and Heidelberg; and through Cologne for Copenhagen. Through one of the +colleges at Cambridge--Emmanuel--she became, indirectly, the mother of a +new Cambridge in America--Harvard--founded in 1636. Figure 61 shows the +location of the chief universities founded before 1600. Viewed from the +standpoint of instruction, Paris was followed almost entirely in Theology, +and Bologna in Law, while the three centers which most influenced the +development of instruction in medicine were Salerno, Montpellier, and +Salamanca. + +[Illustration: FIG. 61. SHOWING LOCATION OF THE CHIEF UNIVERSITIES FOUNDED +BEFORE 1600] + +While the earlier universities gradually arose as the result of a long +local evolution, it in time became common for others to be founded by a +migration of professors from an older university to some cathedral city +having a developing _studium_. In the days when a university consisted +chiefly of master and students, when lectures could be held in any kind of +a building or collection of buildings, and when there were no libraries, +laboratories, campus, or other university property to tie down an +institution, it was easy to migrate. Thus, in 1209, the school at +Cambridge was created a university by a secession of masters from Oxford, +much as bees swarm from a hive. Sienna, Padua, Reggio, Vicenza, Arezzo +resulted from "swarmings" from Bologna; and Vercelli from Vicenza. In +1228, after a student riot at Paris which provoked reprisals from the +city, many of the masters and students went to the studium towns of +Angers, Orleans, and Rheims, and universities were established at the +first two. Migrations from Prague helped establish many of the German +universities. In this way the university organization was spread over +Europe. In 1200 there were but six _studia generalia_ which can be +considered as having evolved into universities--Salerno, Bologna, and +Reggio, in Italy; Paris and Montpellier, in France; and Oxford, in +England. By 1300 eight more had evolved in Italy, three more in France, +Cambridge in England, and five in Spain and Portugal. By 1400 twenty-two +additional universities had developed, five of which were in German lands, +and by 1500 thirty-five more had been founded, making a total of eighty. +By 1600 the total had been raised to one hundred and eight (R. 100, for +list by countries, dates, and method of founding). Some of these +(approximately thirty) afterwards died, while in the following centuries +additional ones were created. [10] + +PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES GRANTED. The grant of privileges to physicians +and teachers made by the Emperor Constantine, in 333 A.D. (R. 26), and the +privileges and immunities granted to the clergy (_clerici_) by the early +Christian Roman Emperors (R. 38), doubtless formed a basis for the many +grants of special privileges made to the professors and students in the +early universities. The document promulgated by Frederick Barbarossa, in +1158 (R. 101), began the granting of privileges to the _studia generalia_, +and this was followed by numerous other grants. The grant to students of +freedom from trial by the city authorities, and the obligation of every +citizen of Paris to seize any one seen striking a student, granted by +Philip Augustus, in 1200 (R. 102), is another example, widely followed, of +the bestowal of large privileges. Count Rupert I, in founding the +University of Heidelberg, in 1386, granted many privileges, exempted the +students from "any duty, levy, imposts, tolls, excises, or other exactions +whatever" while coming to, studying at, or returning home from the +university (R. 103). The exemption from taxation (R. 104) became a matter +of form, and was afterwards followed in the chartering of American +colleges (R. 187). Exemption from military service also was granted. + +So valuable an asset was a university to a city, and so easy was it for a +university to move almost overnight, that cities often, and at times even +nations, encouraged not only the founding of universities, but also the +migration of both faculties and students. An interesting case of a city +bidding for the presence of a university is that of Vercelli (R. 105), +which made a binding agreement, as a part of the city charter, whereby the +city agreed with a body of masters and students "swarming" from Padua to +loan the students money at lower than the regular rates, to see that there +was plenty of food in the markets at no increase in prices, and to protect +the students from injustice. An instance of bidding by a State is the case +of Cambridge, which obtained quite an addition by the coming of striking +Paris masters and students in 1229, in response to the pledge of King +Henry III (R. 109), who "humbly sympathized with them for their sufferings +at Paris," and promised them that if they would come "to our kingdom of +England and remain there to study" he would assign to them "cities, +boroughs, towns, whatsoever you may wish to select, and in every fitting +way will cause you to rejoice in a state of liberty and tranquillity." + +One of the most important privileges which the universities early +obtained, and a rather singular one at that, was the right of _cessatio_, +which meant the right to stop lectures and go on a strike as a means of +enforcing a redress of grievances against either town or church authority +(R. 107). This right was for long jealously guarded by the university, and +frequently used to defend itself from the smallest encroachments on its +freedom to teach, study, and discipline the members of its guild as it saw +fit, and often the right not to discipline them at all. Often the +_cessatio_ was invoked on very trivial grounds, as in the case of the +Oxford _cessatio_ of 1209 (R. 108), the Paris _cessatio_ of 1229 (R. 109), +and the numerous other _cessationes_ which for two centuries [11] +repeatedly disturbed the continuity of instruction at Paris. + +DEGREES IN THE GUILD. The most important of the university rights, +however, was the right to examine and license its own teachers (R. 110), +and to grant the license to teach (Rs. 111, 112). Founded as the +universities were after the guild model, they were primarily places for +the taking of apprentices in the Arts, developing them into journeymen and +masters, and certifying to their proficiency in the teaching craft. [12] +Their purpose at first was to prepare teachers, and the giving of +instruction to students for cultural ends, or a professional training for +practical use aside from teaching the subject, was a later development. + +Accordingly it came about in time that, after a number of years of study +in the Arts under some master, a student was permitted to present himself +for a test as to his ability to define words, determine the meaning of +phrases, and read the ordinary Latin texts in Grammar, Rhetoric, and Logic +(the _Trivium_), to the satisfaction of other masters than his own. In +England this test came to be known by the term _determine_. Its passage +was equivalent to advancing from apprenticeship to the ranks of a +journeyman, and the successful candidate might now be permitted to assist +the master, or even give some elementary instruction himself while +continuing his studies. He now became an assistant or companion, and by +the fourteenth century was known as a _baccalaureus_, a term used in the +Church, in chivalry, and in the guilds, and which meant a _beginner_. +There was at first, though, no thought of establishing an examination and +a new degree for the completion of this first step in studies. The +bachelor's degree was a later development, sought at first by those not +intending to teach, and eventually erected into a separate degree. + +When the student had finally heard a sufficient number of courses, as +required by the statutes of his guild, he might present himself for +examination for the teaching license. This was a public trial, and took +the form of a public disputation on some stated thesis, in the presence of +the masters, and against all comers. It was the student's "masterpiece," +analogous to the masterpiece of any other guild, and he submitted it to a +jury of the masters of his craft. [13] Upon his masterpiece being adjudged +satisfactory, he also became a master in his craft, was now able to define +and dispute, was formally admitted to the highest rank in the teaching +guild, might have a seal, and was variously known as master, doctor, or +professor, all of which were once synonymous terms. [14] If he wished to +prepare himself for teaching one of the professional subjects he studied +still further, usually for a number of years, in one of the professional +faculties, and in time he was declared to be a Doctor of Law, or Medicine, +or of Theology. + +[Illustration: FIG 62. SEAL OF A DOCTOR, UNIVERSITY OF PARIS] + +THE TEACHING FACULTIES. The students for a long time grouped themselves +for better protection (and aggression) according to the nation from which +they came, [15] and each "nation" elected a _councilor_ to look after the +interests of its members. Between the different nations there were +constant quarrels, insults were passed back and forth, and much bad blood +engendered. [16] On the side of the masters the organization was by +teaching subjects, and into what came to be known as _faculties_. [17] +Thus there came to be four faculties in a fully organized mediaeval +university, representing the four great divisions of knowledge which had +been evolved--Arts, Law, Medicine, and Theology. Each faculty elected a +_dean_, and the deans and councilors elected a _rector_, who was the head +or president of the university. The _chancellor_, the successor of the +cathedral school _scholasticus_, was usually appointed by the Pope and +represented the Church, and a long struggle ensued between the rector and +the chancellor to see who should be the chief authority in the university. +The rector was ultimately victorious, and the position of chancellor +became largely an honorary position of no real importance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 63. NEW COLLEGE, AT OXFORD +One of the oldest of the Oxford colleges, having been founded in 1379. The +picture shows the chapel, cloisters (consecrated in 1400), and a tall +tower, once forming a part of the Oxford city walls. Note the similarity +of this early college to a monastery, as in Plate 1.] + +The Arts Faculty was the successor of the old cathedral-school instruction +in the Seven Liberal Arts, and was found in practically all the +universities. The Law Faculty embraced civil and canon law, as worked out +at Bologna. The Medical Faculty taught the knowledge of the medical art, +as worked out at Salerno and Montpellier. The Theological Faculty, the +most important of the four, prepared learned men for the service of the +Church, and was for some two centuries controlled by the scholastics. The +Arts Faculty was preparatory to the other three. As Latin was the language +of the classroom, and all the texts were Latin texts, a reading and +speaking knowledge of Latin was necessary before coming to the university +to study. This was obtained from a study of the first of the Seven Arts-- +Grammar--in some monastery, cathedral, or other type of school. Thus a +knowledge of Latin formed practically the sole requirement for admission +to the mediaeval university, and continued to be the chief admission +requirement in our universities up to the nineteenth century (R. 186 a). +In Europe it is still of great importance as a preparatory subject, but in +South American countries it is not required at all. + +Very few of the universities, in the beginning, had all four of these +faculties. The very nature of the evolution of the earlier ones precluded +this. Thus Bologna had developed into a _studium generale_ from its +prominence in law, and was virtually constituted a university in 1158, but +it did not add Medicine until 1316, or Theology until 1360. Paris began +sometime before 1200 as an arts school, Theology with some instruction in +Canon Law was added by 1208, a Law Faculty in 1271, and a Medical Faculty +in 1274. Montpellier began as a medical school sometime in the twelfth +century. Law followed a little later, a teacher from Bologna "setting up +his chair" there. Arts was organized by 1242. A sort of theological school +began in 1263, but it was not chartered as a faculty until 1421. So it was +with many of the early universities. These four traditional faculties were +well established by the fourteenth century, and continued as the typical +form of university organization until modern times. With the great +university development and the great multiplication of subjects of study +which characterized the nineteenth century, many new faculties and schools +and colleges have had to be created, particularly in the United States, in +response to new modern demands. [18] + +NATURE OF THE INSTRUCTION. The teaching material in each faculty was much +as we have already indicated. After the recovery of the works of Aristotle +he came to dominate the instruction in the Faculty of Arts. [19] The +Statutes of Paris, in 1254, giving the books to be read for the A.B. and +the A.M. degrees (R. 113), show how fully Aristotle had been adopted there +as the basis for instruction in Logic, Ethics, and Natural Philosophy by +that time. The books required for these two degrees at Leipzig, in 1410 +(R. 114), show a much better-balanced course of instruction, though the +time requirements given for each subject show how largely Aristotle +predominated there also. Oxford (R. 115) kept up better the traditions of +the earlier Seven Liberal Arts in its requirements, and classified the new +works of Aristotle in three additional "philosophies"--natural, moral, and +metaphysical. From four to seven years were required to complete the arts +course, though the tendency was to reduce the length of the arts course as +secondary schools below the university were evolved. [20] + +In the Law Faculty, after Theology the largest and most important of all +the faculties in the mediaeval university, the _Corpus Juris Civilis_ of +Justinian (p. 195) and the _Decretum_ of Gratian (p. 196) were the +textbooks read, with perhaps a little more practical work in discussion +than in Arts or Medicine. The Oxford course of study in both Civil and +Canon Law (R. 116 b-c) gives a good idea as to what was required for +degrees in one of the best of the early law faculties. + +In the Medical Faculty a variety of books--translations of Hippocrates (p. +197), Galen (p. 198), Avicenna (p. 198), and the works of certain writers +at Salerno and Jewish and Moslem writers in Spain--were read and lectured +on. The list of medical books used at Montpellier, [21] in 1340, which at +that time was the foremost place for medical instruction in western +Europe, shows the book-nature and the extent of the instruction given at +the leading school of medicine of the time. It was, moreover, customary at +Montpellier for the senior students to spend a summer in visiting the sick +and doing practical work. We have here the merest beginnings of clinical +instruction and hospital service, and at this stage medical instruction +remained until quite modern times. The medical courses at Paris (R. 117) +and Oxford (R. 116 d) were less satisfactory, only book instruction being +required. + +[Illustration: FIG. 64. A LECTURE ON CIVIL LAW BY GUILLAUME BENEDICTI +(After a sixteenth-century wood engraving, now in the National Library, +Paris, Cabinet of Designs)] + +Both Law and Medicine were so dominated by the scholastic ideal and +methods that neither accomplished what might have been possible in a freer +atmosphere. + +In the Theological Faculty the _Sentences_ of Peter Lombard (p. 189) and +the _Summa Theologiae_ of Thomas Aquinas (p. 191) were the textbooks used. +The Bible was at first also used somewhat, but later came to be largely +overshadowed by the other books and by philosophical discussions and +debates on all kinds of hair-splitting questions, kept carefully within +the limits prescribed by the Church. The requirements at Oxford (R. 116 a) +give the course of instruction in one of the best of the theological +faculties of the time. The teachers were scholastics, and scholastic +methods and ideals everywhere prevailed. Roger Bacon's (1214-1294) +criticism of this type of theological study (R. 118), which he calls +"horse loads, not at all [in consonance] with the most holy text of God," +and "philosophical, both in substance and method," gives an idea of the +kind of instruction which came to prevail in the theological faculties +under the dominance of the scholastic philosophers. + +Years of study were required in each of these three professional +faculties, as is shown by the statement of requirements as given for +Montpellier, Paris (R. 117), and Oxford (R. 116 a). + +[Illustration: FIG. 65. LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LEYDEN, IN HOLLAND +(After an engraving by J. C. Woudanus, dated 1610) +This shows well the chained books, and a common type of bookcase in use in +monasteries, churches, and higher schools. Counting 35 books to the case, +this shows a library of 35 volumes on mathematics; 70 volumes each on +literature, philosophy, and medicine; 140 volumes of historical books; 175 +volumes on civil and canon law; and 160 volumes on theology, or a total of +770 volumes--a good-sized library for the time.] + +METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. A very important reason why so long a period of +study was required in each of the professional faculties, as well as in +the Faculty of Arts, is to be found in the lack of textbooks and the +methods of instruction followed. While the standard textbooks were +becoming much more common, due to much copying and the long-continued use +of the same texts, they were still expensive and not owned by many. [22] + +[Illustration: PLATE 4. A LECTURE ON THEOLOGY BY ALBERTUS MAGNUS +An illuminated picture in a manuscript of 1310, now in the royal +collection of copper engravings, at Berlin. The master in his chair is +here shown "reading" to his students.] + +To provide a loan collection of theological books for poor students we +find, in 1271, a gift by will to the University of Paris (R. 119) of a +private library, containing twenty-seven books. Even if the students +possessed books, the master "read" [23] and commented from his "gloss" at +great length on the texts being studied. Besides the mere text each +teacher had a "gloss" or commentary for it--that is, a mass of explanatory +notes, summaries, cross-references, opinions by others, and objections to +the statements of the text. The "gloss" was a book in itself, often larger +than the text, and these standard glosses, [24] or commentaries, were used +in the university instruction for centuries. In Theology and Canon Law +they were particularly extensive. + +All instruction, too, was in Latin. The professor read from the Latin text +and gloss, repeating as necessary, and to this the student listened. +Sometimes he read so slowly that the text could be copied, but in 1355 +this method was prohibited at Paris (R. 121), and students who tried to +force the masters to follow it "by shouting or whistling or raising a din, +or by throwing stones," were to be suspended for a year. The first step in +the instruction was a minute and subtle analysis of the text itself, in +which each line was dissected, analyzed, and paraphrased, and the comments +on the text by various authors were set forth. Next all passages capable +of two interpretations were thrown into the form of a question; _pro_ and +_contra_, after the manner of Abelard. The arguments on each side were +advanced, and the lecturer's conclusion set forth and defended. The text +was thus worked over day after day in minute detail. Having as yet but +little to teach, the masters made the most of what they had. A good +example of the mediaeval plan of university instruction is found in the +announcement of Odofredus, a distinguished teacher of Law at Bologna, +about the middle of the thirteenth century, which Rashdall thinks is +equally applicable to methods in other subjects. Odofredus says: + + First, I shall give you summaries of each title before I proceed to + the text; secondly, I shall give you as clear and explicit a statement + as I can of the purport of each Law (included in the title); thirdly, + I shall read the text with a view to correcting it; fourthly, I shall + briefly repeat the contents of the Law; fifthly, I shall solve + apparent contradictions, adding any general principles of Law (to be + extracted from the passage), and any distinctions and subtle and + useful problems arising out of the Law with their solutions, as far as + the Divine Providence shall enable me. And if any Law shall seem + deserving, by reason of its celebrity or difficulty, of a Repetition, + I shall reserve it for an evening Repetition. + +It will be seen that both students and professors were bound to the text, +as were the teachers of the Seven Liberal Arts in the cathedral schools +before them. There was no appeal to the imagination, still less to +observation, experiment, or experience. Each generation taught what it had +learned, except that from time to time some thinker made a new +organization, or some new body of knowledge was unearthed and added. + +Another method much used was the debate, or disputation, and participation +in a number of these was required for degrees (R. 116). These disputations +were logical contests, not unlike a modern debate, in which the students +took sides, cited authorities, and summarized arguments, all in Latin. +Sometimes a student gave an exhibition in which he debated both sides of a +question, and summarized the argument, after the manner of the professors. +As a corrective to the memorization of lectures and texts, these +disputations served a useful purpose in awakening intellectual vigor and +logical keenness. They were very popular until into the sixteenth century, +when new subject-matter and new ways of thinking offered new opportunities +for the exercise of the intellect. + +[Illustration: FIG. 66. A UNIVERSITY DISPUTATION +(From Fick's _Auf Deutschland's Höhen Schulen_)] + +In teaching equipment there was almost nothing at first, and but little +for centuries to come. Laboratories, workshops, _gymnasia_, good buildings +and classrooms--all alike were equally unknown. Time schedules of lectures +(Rs. 122, 123) came in but slowly, in such matters each professor being a +free lance. Nor were there any libraries at first, though in time these +developed. For a long time books were both expensive and scarce (Rs. 78, +119, 120). After the invention of printing (first book printed in 1456), +university libraries increased rapidly and soon became the chief feature +of the university equipment. Figure 65 shows the library of the University +of Leyden, in Holland, thirty-five years after its foundation, and about +one hundred and fifty years after the beginnings of printing. It shows a +rather large increase in the size of book collections [25] after the +introduction of printing, and a good library organization. + +[ILLUSTRATION: FIG 67. A UNIVERSITY LECTURE AND LECTURE ROOM +(From a woodcut printed at Strassburg, 1608)] + +VALUE OF THE TRAINING GIVEN. Measured in terms of modern standards the +instruction was undoubtedly poor, unnecessarily drawn out, and the +educational value low. We could now teach as much information, and in a +better manner, in but a fraction of the time then required. Viewed also by +the standards of instruction in the higher schools of Greece and Rome the +conditions were almost equally bad. Viewed, though, from the standpoint of +what had prevailed in western Europe during the dark period of the early +Middle Ages, it represented a marked advance in method and content--except +in pure literature, where there was an undoubted decline due to the +absorbing interest in Dialectic--and it particularly marked a new spirit, +as nearly critical as the times would allow. Despite the heterogeneous and +but partially civilized student body, youthful and but poorly prepared for +study, the drunkenness and fighting, the lack of books and equipment, the +large classes and the poor teaching methods, and the small amount of +knowledge which formed the grist for their mills and which they ground +exceeding small, these new universities held within themselves, almost in +embryo form, the largest promise for the intellectual future of western +Europe which had appeared since the days of the old universities of the +Hellenic world (R. 124). In these new institutions knowledge was not only +preserved and transmitted, but was in time to be tremendously advanced and +extended. They were the first organizations to break the monopoly of the +Church in learning and teaching; they were the centers to which all new +knowledge gravitated; under their shadow thousands of young men found +intellectual companionship and in their classrooms intellectual +stimulation; and in encouraging "laborious subtlety, heroic industry, and +intense application", even though on very limited subject-matter, and in +training "men to think and work rather than to enjoy" (R. 124), they were +preparing for the time when western Europe should awaken to the riches of +Greece and Rome and to a new type of intellectual life of its own. From +these beginnings the university organization has persisted and grown and +expanded, and to-day stands, the Synagogue and the Catholic Church alone +excepted, as the oldest organized institution of human society. + +The manifest tendency of the universities toward speculation, though for +long within limits approved by the Church, was ultimately to awaken +inquiry, investigation, rational thinking, and to bring forth the modern +spirit. The preservation and transmission of knowledge was by the +university organization transferred from the monastery to the school, from +monks to doctors, and from the Church to a body of logically trained men, +only nominally members of the _clerici_. Their successors would in time +entirely break away from connections with either Church or State, and +stand forth as the independent thinkers and scholars in the arts, +sciences, professions, and even in Theology. University graduates in +Medicine would in time wage a long struggle against bigotry to lay the +foundations of modern medicine. Graduates in Law would contend with kings +and feudal lords for larger privileges for the as yet lowly common man, +and would help to usher in a period of greater political equality. The +university schools of Theology were in time to send forth the keenest +critics of the practices of the Church. Out of the university cloisters +were to come the men--Dante, Petrarch, Wycliffe, Huss, Luther, Calvin, +Copernicus, Galileo, Newton--who were to usher in the modern spirit. + +The universities as a public force. Almost from the first the universities +availed themselves of their privileges and proclaimed a bold independence. +The freedom from arrest and trial by the civil authorities for petty +offenses, or even for murder, and the right to go on a strike if in any +way interfered with, were but beginnings in independence in an age when +such independence seemed important. These rights were in time given up, +[26] and in their place the much more important rights of liberty to study +as truth seemed to lead, freedom in teaching as the master saw the truth, +and the right to express themselves as an institution on public questions +which seemed to concern them, were slowly but definitely taken on in place +of the earlier privileges. Virtually a new type of members of society--a +new Estate--was evolved, ranking with Church, State, and nobility, and +this new Estate soon began to express itself in no uncertain tones on +matters which concerned both Church and State. The universities were +democratic in organization and became democratic in spirit, representing a +heretofore unknown and unexpressed public opinion in western Europe. They +did not wait to be asked; they gave their opinions unsolicited. "The +authority of the University of Paris," writes one contemporary, "has risen +to such a height that it is necessary to satisfy it, no matter on what +conditions." The university "wanted to meddle with the government of the +Pope, the King, and everything else," writes another. We find Paris +intervening repeatedly in both church and state affairs, [27] and +representing French nationality before it had come into being, as the so- +called Holy Roman Empire represented the Germans, and the Papacy +represented the Italians. In Montpellier, professors of Law were +considered as knights, and after twenty years of practice they became +counts. In Bologna we find the professors of Law one of the three +assemblies of the city. Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, and the Scottish +universities were given representation in Parliament. The German +universities were from the first prominent in political affairs, and in +the reformation struggle of the early sixteenth century they were the +battle-grounds. + +In an age of oppression these university organizations stood for freedom. +In an age of force they began the substitution of reason. In the centuries +from the end of the Dark Ages to the Reformation they were the homes of +free thought. They early assumed national character and proclaimed a bold +independence. Questions of State and Church they discussed with a freedom +before unknown. They presented their grievances to both kings and popes, +from both they obtained new privileges, to both they freely offered their +advice, and sometimes both were forced to do their bidding. At times +important questions of State, such as the divorce of Philip of France and +that of Henry VIII of England, were submitted to them for decision. They +were not infrequently called upon to pass upon questions of doctrine or +heresy. "Kings and princes," says Rashdall, in an excellent summary as to +the value and influence of the mediaeval university instruction (R. 124), +"found their statesmen and men of business in the universities, most +often, no doubt, among those trained in the practical science of Law." +Talleyrand is said to have asserted that "their theologians made the best +diplomats." For the first time since the downfall of Rome the +administration of human affairs was now placed once more in the hands of +educated men. By the interchange of students from all lands and their +hospitality, such as it was, to the stranger, the universities tended to +break down barriers and to prepare Europe for larger intercourse and for +more of a common life. + +On the masses of the people, of course, they had little or no influence, +and could not have for centuries to come. Their greatest work, as has been +the case with universities ever since their foundation, was that of +drawing to their classrooms the brightest minds of the times, the most +capable and the most industrious, and out of this young raw material +training the leaders of the future in Church and State. Educationally, one +of their most important services was in creating a surplus of teachers in +the Arts who had to find a market for their abilities in the rising +secondary schools. These developed rapidly after 1200, and to these we owe +a somewhat more general diffusion of the little learning and the +intellectual training of the time. In preparing future leaders for State +and Church in law, theology, and teaching, the universities, though +sometimes opposed and their opinions ignored, nevertheless contributed +materially to the making and moulding of national history. The first great +result of their work in training leaders we see in the Renaissance +movement of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, to which we next turn. +In this movement for a revival of the ancient learning, and the subsequent +movements for a purer and a better religious life, the men trained by the +universities were the leaders. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Why would the _studia publica_ tend to attract a different type of +scholar than those in the monasteries, and gradually to supersede them in +importance? + +2. Show how the mediaeval university was a gradual and natural evolution, +as distinct from a founded university of to-day. + +3. Show that the university charter was a first step toward independence +from church and state control. + +4. Show the relation between the system of apprenticeship developed for +student and teacher in a mediaeval university, and the stages of student +and teacher in a university of to-day. + +5. Show how the chartered university of the Middle Ages was an +"association of like-minded men for worldly purposes." + +6. To what university mother does Harvard go back, ultimately? + +7. Show how the English and the German universities are extreme evolutions +from the mediaeval type, and our American universities a combination of +the two extremes. + +8. Do university professors to-day have privileges akin to those granted +professors in a mediaeval university? + +9. What has caused the old Arts Faculty to break up into so many groups, +whereas Law, Medicine, and Theology have stayed united? + +10. Do universities, when founded to-day, usually start with all four of +the mediaeval faculties represented? + +11. Which of the professional faculties has changed most in the nature and +character of its instruction? Why has this been so? + +12. Enumerate a number of different things which have enabled the modern +university greatly to shorten the period of instruction? + +13. Aside from differences in teachers, why are some university subjects +today taught much more compactly and economically than other subjects? + +14. After admitting all the defects of the mediaeval university, why did +the university nevertheless represent so important a development for the +future of western civilization? + +15. What does the long continuance, without great changes in character, of +the university as an institution indicate as to its usefulness to society? + +16. Does the university of to-day play as important a part in the progress +of society as it did in the mediaeval times? Why? + +17. Is the chief university force to-day exerted directly or indirectly? +Illustrate. + +18. What is probably the greatest work of any university, in any age? + +19. Compare the influence of the mediaeval university, and the Greek +universities of the ancient world. + +20. Explain the evolution of the English college system as an effort to +improve discipline, morals, and thinking. Has it been successful in this? + +21. Show how the mediaeval university put books in the place of things, +whereas the modern university tries to reverse this. + +22. Show how the rise of the universities gave an educated ruling class to +Europe, even though the nobility may not have attended them. + +23. Show how, in an age of lawlessness, the universities symbolized the +supremacy of mind over brute force. + +24. Show how the mediaeval universities aided civilization by breaking +down, somewhat, barriers of nationality and ignorance among peoples. + +25. Show how the university stood, as the crowning effort of its time, in +the slow upward struggle to rebuild civilization on the ruins of what had +once been. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 100. Rashdall and Minerva: University Foundations before 1600. + 101. Fr. Barbarossa: Privileges for Students who travel for Study. + 102. Philip Augustus: Privileges granted Students at Paris. + 103. Count Rupert: Charter of the University of Heidelberg. + 104. Philip IV: Exemption of Students and Masters from Taxation. + 105. Vercelli: Privileges granted to the University by the City. + 106. Villani: The Cost to a City of maintaining a University. + 107. Pope Gregory IX: Right to suspend Lectures (_Cessatio_). + 108. Roger of Wendover: a _Cessatio_ at Oxford. + 109. Henry III: England invites Scholars to leave Paris. + 110. Pope Gregory IX: Early Licensing of Professors to teach. + 111. Pope Nicholas IV: The Right to grant Licenses to teach. + 112. Rashdall: A University License to teach. + 113. Paris Statutes, 1254: Books required for the Arts Degree. + 114. Leipzig Statutes, 1410: Books required for the Arts Degree. + 115. Oxford Statutes, 1408-31: Books required for the Arts Degree. + 116. Oxford, Fourteenth Century: Requirements for the Professional + Degrees. + (a) In Theology. (c) In Civil Law. + (b) In Canon Law. (d) In Medicine. + 117. Paris Statutes, 1270-74: Requirements for the Medical Degree. + 118. Roger Bacon: On the Teaching of Theology. + 119. Master Stephen: Books left by Will to the University of Paris. + 120. Roger Bacon: The Scarcity of Books on Morals. + 121. Balaeus: Methods of Instruction in the Arts Faculty of Paris. + 122. Toulouse: Time-Table of Lectures in Arts, 1309. + 123. Leipzig: Time-Table of Lectures in Arts, 1519. + 124. Rashdall: Value and Influence of the Mediaeval University. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. What does a glance at the page giving the university foundations before +1600 (100) show as to the rate and direction of the university movement? + +2. How do you account for the very large privileges granted university +students in the early grants (101, 102) and charters (103)? Should a +university student to-day have any privileges not given to all citizens? +Why? + +3. Do universities, when founded to-day, secure a charter? If so, from +whom, and what terms are included? Do normal schools? What form of a +charter, if any, has your university or normal school? + +4. Compare the freedom from taxation granted to masters and students at +Paris (104) with the grant to professors at Brown University (187b). Was +the Brown University grant exceptional, or common in other American +foundations? + +5. Do any American cities to-day maintain colleges or universities, as did +the Italian cities (105)? Normal schools? Are somewhat similar ends +served? + +6. What does the _cessatio_, as exercised by the mediaeval university +(107, 108), indicate as to standards of conduct on the part of teachers +and students? + +7. Why is the licensing of university professors to teach not followed in +our American universities? What has taken the place of the license? What +did the mediaeval license (110, 111, 112) really signify? + +8. Compare the license to teach (112) with a modern doctor's diploma. + +9. Compare the requirements for the Arts degree (113, 114, 115) with the +requirements for the Baccalaureate degree at a modern university. + +10. Compare the additional length of time for professional degrees (116, +117). + +11. How do you account for the American practice of admitting students to +the professional courses without the Arts course? What is the best +American practice in this matter to-day, and what tendencies are +observable? + +12. Characterize the medical course at Paris (117) from a modern point of +view. + +13. Compare the instruction in medicine at Paris (117) and Toulouse (122). +How do you account for the superiority shown by one? Which one? + +14. What does the extract from Roger Bacon (118) indicate as to the +character of the teaching of Theology? + +15. What was the nature and extent of the library of Master Stephen (119)? +Compare such a library with that of a scholar of to-day. + +16. Show how the Paris statute as to lecturing (121) was an attempt at an +improvement of the methods of instruction and individual thinking. + +17. What do the two time-tables reproduced (122, 123) reveal as to the +nature of a university day, and the instruction given? + +18. Show how Rashdall's statement (124) that lawyers have been a +civilizing agent is true. + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + + Boase, Charles William. _Oxford_ (Historic Towns Series). + Clark, Andrew. _The Colleges at Oxford_. + Clark, J. W. _Libraries in the Medieval and Renaissance Periods_. +* Clark, J. W. _The Care of Books_. + Corbin, John. _An American at Oxford_. +* Compayré, G. _Abelard, and the Origin and Early History of the + Universities_. +* Jebb, R. C. _The Work of the Universities for the Nation_. + Mullinger, J. B. _History of the University of Cambridge_. +* Norton, A. 0. _Readings in the History of Education; Medieval + Universities_. +* Paetow, L. J. _The Arts Course at Mediaeval Universities_. (Univ. + Ill. Studies, vol. in, no. 7, Jan. 1910). +* Paulsen, Fr. _The German Universities_. + Rait, R. S. _Life of a Mediaeval University_. +* Rashdall, H. _Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_. + Sandys, J. E. _History of Classical Scholarship_, vol. I. + Sheldon, Henry. _Student Life and Customs_. + + + + +PART III + +THE TRANSITION FROM MEDIAEVAL TO MODERN ATTITUDES + +THE RECOVERY OF THE ANCIENT LEARNING +THE REAWAKENING OF SCHOLARSHIP AND +THE RISE OF RELIGIOUS AND SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING + + +THE PERIOD OF CHANGE. The thirteenth century has often been called the +wonderful century of the mediaeval world. It was wonderful largely in that +the forces struggling against mediaevalism to evolve the modern spirit +here first find clear expression. It was a century of rapid and +unmistakable progress in almost every line. By its close great changes +were under way which were destined ultimately to shake off the incubus of +mediaevalism and to transform Europe. In many respects, though, the +fourteenth was a still more wonderful century. + +The evolution of the universities which we have just traced was one of the +most important of these thirteenth-century manifestations. Lacking in +intellectual material, but impelled by the new impulses beginning to work +in the world, the scholars of the time went earnestly to work, by +speculative methods, to organize the dogmatic theology of the Church into +a system of thinking. The result was Scholasticism. From one point of view +the result was barren; from another it was full of promise for the future. +Though the workers lacked materials, were overshadowed by the mediaeval +spirit of authority, and kept their efforts clearly within limits approved +by the Church, the "heroic industry" and the "in tense application" +displayed in effecting the organization, and the logical subtlety +developed in discussing the results, promised much for the future. The +rise of university instruction, and the work of the Scholastics in +organizing the knowledge of the time, were both a resultant of new +influences already at work and a prediction of larger consequences to +follow. In a later age, and with men more emancipated from church control, +the same spirit was destined to burst forth in an effort to discover and +reconstruct the historic past. + +During the thirteenth century, too, the new Estate, which had come into +existence alongside of the clergy and the nobility, began to assume large +importance. The arts-and-crafts guilds were attaining a large development, +and out of this new burgher class the great general public of modern times +has in time evolved. Trade and industry were increasing in all lands, and +merchants and successful artisans were becoming influential through their +newly obtained wealth and rights. The erection of stately churches and +town halls, often beautifully carved and highly ornamented, was taking +place. Great cathedrals, those "symphonies in stone," of which Notre Dame +(Figure 53) is a good example, were rising or being further expanded and +decorated at many places in western Europe. Mystery and miracle plays had +begun to be performed and to attract great attention. In the fourteenth +century religious pageants were added. "All art was still religion," but +an art was unmistakably arising amid cathedral-building and the setting- +forth of the Christian mysteries, and before long this was to flower in +modern forms of expression in painting, sculpture, and the drama. + +THE NEW SPIRIT OF NATIONALITY. The new spirit moving in western Europe +also found expression in the evolution of the modern European States, +based on the new national feeling. As the kingly power in these was +consolidated, the developing States, each in its own domain, began to curb +the dominion of the universal Church, slowly to deprive it of the +governmental functions it had assumed and exercised for so long, and to +confine the Pope and clergy more and more to their original functions as +religious agents. The Papacy as a temporal power passed the maximum period +of its greatness early in the thirteenth century; in the nineteenth +century the last vestiges of its temporal power were taken away. + +New national languages also were coming into being, and the national epics +of the people--the Cid, the Arthurian Legends, the _Chansons_, and the +_Nibelungen Lied_--were reduced to writing. With the introduction from the +East, toward the close of the thirteenth century, of the process of making +paper for writing, and with the increase of books in the vernacular, the +English, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages rapidly took +shape. Their development was expressive of the new spirit in western +Europe, as also was the fact that Dante (1264-1321), "the first literary +layman since Boethius" (d. 524), wrote his great poem, _The Divine +Comedy_, in his native Italian instead of in the Latin which he knew so +well--an evidence of independence of large future import. New native +literatures were springing forth all over Europe. Beginning with the +_troubadours_ in southern France (p. 186), and taken up by the _trouvères_ +in northern France and by the _minnesingers_ in German lands, the new +poetry of nature and love and joy of living had spread everywhere. [1] A +new race of men was beginning to "sing songs as blithesome and gay as the +birds" and to express in these songs the joys of the world here below. + +TRANSFORMATION OF THE MEDIAEVAL MAN. The fourteenth century was a period +of still more rapid change and transformation. New objects of interest +were coming to the front, and new standards of judgment were being +applied. National spirit and a national patriotism were finding +expression. The mediaeval man, with his feeling of personal +insignificance, lack of self-confidence, "no sense of the past behind him, +and no conception of the possibilities of the future before him," [2] was +rapidly giving way to the man possessed of the modern spirit--the man of +self-confidence, conscious of his powers, enjoying life, feeling his +connection with the historic past, and realizing the potentialities of +accomplishment in the world here below. It was the great work of the +period of transition, and especially of the thirteenth and fourteenth +centuries, to effect this change, "to awaken in man a consciousness of his +powers, to give him confidence in himself, to show him the beauty of the +world and the joy of life, and to make him feel his living connection with +the past and the greatness of the future he might create." [3] As soon as +men began clearly to experience such feelings, they began to inquire, and +inquiry led to the realization that there had been a great historic past +of which they knew but little, and of which they wanted to know much. When +this point had been reached, western Europe was ready for a revival of +learning. + +THE BEGINNINGS IN ITALY. This revival began in Italy. The Italians had +preserved more of the old Roman culture than had any other people, and had +been the first to develop a new political and social order and revive the +refinements of life after the deluge of barbarism which had engulfed +Europe. They, too, had been the first to feel the inadequacy of mediaeval +learning to satisfy the intellectual unrest of men conscious of new +standards of life. This gave them at least a century of advance over the +nations of northern Europe. The old Roman life also was nearer to them, +and meant more, so that a movement for a revival of interest in it +attracted to it the finest young minds of central and northern Italy and +inspired in them something closely akin to patriotic fervor. They felt +themselves the direct heirs of the political and intellectual eminence of +Imperial Rome, and they began the work of restoring to themselves and of +trying to understand their inheritance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 68. PETRARCH (1304-74) +"The Morning Star of the Renaissance"] + +In Petrarch (1304-74) we have the beginnings of the movement. He has been +called "the first modern scholar and man of letters." Repudiating the +other-worldliness ideal and the scholastic learning of his time, [4] +possessed of a deep love for beauty in nature and art, a delight in +travel, a desire for worldly fame, a strong historical sense, and the +self-confidence to plan a great constructive work, he began the task of +unearthing the monastic treasures to ascertain what the past had been and +known and done. At twenty-nine he made his first great discovery, at +Liège, in the form of two previously unknown orations of Cicero. Twelve +years later, at Verona, he found half of one of the letters of Cicero +which had been lost for ages. All his life he collected and copied +manuscripts. His letter to a friend telling him of his difficulty in +getting a work of Cicero copied, and his joy in doing the work himself (R. +125), is typical of his labors. He began the work of copying and comparing +the old classical manuscripts, and from them reconstructing the past. He +also wrote many sonnets, ballads, lyrics, and letters, all filled with a +new modern classical spirit. He also constructed the first modern map of +Italy. + +[Illustration: FIG. 69. BOCCACCIO (1313-75) +"The Father of Italian Prose"] + +Through Boccaccio, whom he first met in 1350, Petrarch's work was made +known in Florence, then the wealthiest and most artistic and literary city +in the world, [5] and there the new knowledge and method were warmly +received. Boccaccio equaled Petrarch in his passion for the ancient +writers, hunting for them wherever he thought they might be found. One of +his pupils has left us a melancholy picture of the library at Monte +Cassino, as Boccaccio found it at the time of his visit (R. 126). He wrote +a book of popular tales and romances, filled with the modern spirit, which +made him the father of Italian prose as Dante was of Italian poetry; +prepared the first dictionaries of classical geography and Greek +mythology; and was the first western scholar to learn Greek. + + "In the dim light of learning's dawn they stand, + Flushed with the first glimpses of a long-lost land." + +A CENTURY OF RECOVERY AND RECONSTRUCTION. The work done by these two +friends in discovering and editing was taken up by others, and during the +century (1333-1433) dating from the first great "find" of Petrarch the +principal additions to Latin literature were made. The monasteries and +castles of Europe were ransacked in the hope of discovering something new, +or more accurate copies of previously known books. At monasteries and +churches as widely separated as Monte Cassino, near Naples: Lodi, near +Milan; Milan, itself; and Vercelli, in Italy: Saint Gall and other +monasteries, in Switzerland: Paris; Cluny, near the present city of Macon; +Langres, near the source of the Marne; and monasteries in the Vosges +Mountains, in France: Corvey, in Westphalia; and Hersfeld, Cologne, and +Mainz in Germany--important finds were made. [6] Thus widely had the old +Latin authors been scattered, copied, and forgotten. In a letter to a +friend (R. 127 a) the enthusiast, Poggio Bracciolini, tells of finding +(1416) the long-lost _Institutes of Oratory_ of Quintilian, at Saint Gall, +and of copying it for posterity. This, and the reply of his friend (R. 127 +b), reveal something of the spirit and the emotions of those engaged in +the recovery of Latin literature and the reconstruction of Roman history. + +The finds, though, while important, were after all of less value than the +spirit which directed the search, or the careful work which was done in +collecting, comparing, questioning, inferring, criticizing, and editing +corrected texts, and reconstructing old Roman life and history. [7] We +have in this new work a complete break with scholastic methods, and we see +in it the awakening of the modern scientific spirit. [8] It was this same +critical, constructive spirit which, when applied later to Christian +practices, brought on the Reformation; when applied to the problems of the +universe, revealed to men the wonderful world of science; and when applied +to problems of government, led to the questioning of the theory of the +divine right of kings, and to the evolution of democracy. We have here a +modern spirit, a craving for truth for its own sake, an awakening of the +historical sense, [9] and an appreciation of beauty in literature and +nature which was soon to be followed by an appreciation of beauty in art. +A worship of classical literature and classical ideas now set in, of which +rich and prosperous Florence became the center, with Venice and Rome, as +well as a number of the northern Italian cities, as centers of more than +minor importance. + +THE REVIVAL OF GREEK IN THE WEST. With the new interest in Latin +literature it was but natural that a revival of the study of Greek should +follow. While a knowledge of Greek had not absolutely died out in the West +during the Middle Ages, there were very few scholars who knew anything +about it, and none who could read it. [10] It was natural, too, that the +revival of it should come first in Italy. Southern Italy (_Magna Graecia_) +had remained under the Eastern Empire and Greek until its conquest by the +Normans (1041-71), and to southern Italy a few Greek monks had from time +to time migrated. With southern Italy, though, papal Italy and the western +Christian world seem to have had little contact. In 1339, and again in +1342, a Greek monk from southern Italy visited the Pope, coming as an +ambassador from Constantinople, and from him Petrarch learned the Greek +alphabet. In 1353 another envoy brought Petrarch a copy of Homer. This he +could not read, but in time (1367) a poor translation into Latin was +effected. Boccaccio studied Greek, being the first western scholar to read +Homer in the original. + +Near the end of the fourteenth century it became known in Florence that +Manuel Chrysoloras (c. 1350-1415), a Byzantine of noble birth, a teacher +of rhetoric and philosophy at Constantinople, and the most accomplished +Greek scholar of his age, had arrived in Venice as an envoy from the +Eastern Emperor. Florentine scholars visited him, and on his return +accompanied him to Constantinople to learn Greek. In 1396 Chrysoloras was +invited by Florence to accept an appointment, in the university there, to +the first chair of Greek letters in the West, and accepted. From 1396 to +1400 he taught Greek in the rich and stately city of Florence, at that +time the intellectual and artistic center of Christendom. For a few years, +beginning in 1402, he also taught Greek at the University of Pavia. He had +earlier written a _Catechism of Greek Grammar_, and at Pavia he began a +literal rendering of Plato's _Republic_ into Latin. From his visit dates +the enthusiasm for the study of Greek in the West. + +OTHER GREEK SCHOLARS ARRIVE IN ITALY. Chrysoloras returned to +Constantinople for a time, in 1403, and Guarino of Verona, who had been +one of his pupils, accompanied him and spent five years there as a member +of his household. When he returned to Italy he brought with him about +fifty manuscripts, and before his death he had translated a number of them +into Latin. He also prepared a Greek grammar which superseded that of +Chrysoloras. In 1412 he was elected to the chair at Florence formerly held +by Chrysoloras, and later he established an important school at Ferrara, +based largely on instruction in the Latin and Greek classics, which will +be referred to again in the next chapter. + +A rage for Greek learning and Greek books now for a time set in. Aurispa, +a Sicilian, went to Constantinople, learned Greek, and returned to Italy, +in 1422, with 238 Greek manuscripts. Messer Filelfo, of Padua, after seven +years at Constantinople, returned, in 1427, with forty manuscripts and +with the grand-niece of Chrysoloras as his wife. In 1448 Theodorus Gaza +(c. 1400-75), a learned Greek from the city of Thessalonica, who had fled +from his native city just before its capture by the Turks (1430), came to +Ferrara as the first professor of Greek in the university there. He made +many translations, prepared a very popular Greek grammar, and in 1451 +became professor of philosophy at Rome. + +Another Greek of importance was Demetrius Chalcondyles of Athens (1424- +1511), who reached Italy in 1447. In 1450 he became professor of Greek at +Perugia, and of his lectures there one of his enthusiastic pupils [11] +wrote: + + A Greek has just arrived, who has begun to teach me with great pains, + and I to listen to his precepts with incredible pleasure, because he + is a Greek, because he is an Athenian, and because he is Demetrius. It + seems to me that in him is figured all the wisdom, the civility, and + the elegance of those so famous and illustrious ancients. Merely + seeing him you fancy you are looking on Plato; far more when you hear + him speak. + +In 1463 Demetrius transferred to Padua as professor of Greek, and was the +first professor of Greek in a western European university to be paid a +fixed salary. He also taught for a time at Milan, and from 1471 to 1491 +was professor of Greek at Florence. + +A number of other learned Greeks had reached Italy prior to the fall of +Constantinople (1453) before the advancing Turks, [12] and after its fall +many more sought there a new home. Many of these found, on landing, that +their knowledge of Greek and the possession of a few Greek books were an +open sesame to the learned circles of Italy. + +[Illustration: FIG. 70. DEMETRIUS CHALCONDYLES (1424-1511) +(Drawn from a picture of a fresco by Ghirlandajo, painted in 1490, on the +walls of the church of Santa Maria Novella, at Florence)] + +ENTHUSIASM FOR THE NEW MOVEMENT; LIBRARIES AND ACADEMICS FOUNDED. The +enthusiasm for the recovery and restoration of ancient literature and +history which this work awakened among the younger scholars of Italy can +be imagined. While most of the professors in the universities and most of +the church officials at first had nothing to do with the new movement, +being wedded to scholastic methods of thinking, the leaders of the new +learning drew about them many of the brightest and most energetic of the +young men who came to those universities which were hospitable to the new +movement. [13] Greek scholars in the university towns were followed by +admiring bands of younger students, [14] who soon took up the work and +superseded their masters. Academies, named after the one conducted by +Plato in the groves near Athens, whose purpose was to promote literary +studies, were founded in all the important Italian cities (R. 129). The +members usually Latinized their names, and celebrated the ancient +festivals. In Venice a Greek Academy was formed in which all the +proceedings were in Greek, and the members were known by Greek names. The +_Academia of Aldus_, at Venice, of which his celebrated press was a +department, became a veritable university for classical learning, and to +participate in its proceedings scholars came from many lands. It was the +curious and enthusiastic Italians who, more than the Greek scholars who +taught them the language, opened up the literature and history of Athens +to the comprehension of the western world. + +The financial support of the movement came from the wealthy merchant +princes, reigning dukes, and a few church authorities, who assisted +scholars and spent money most liberally in collecting manuscripts and +accumulating books. Says Symonds: + + Never was there a time in the world's history when money was spent + more freely upon the collection and preservation of MSS., and when a + more complete machinery was put in motion for the sake of securing + literary treasures. Prince vied with prince, and eminent burgher with + burgher, in buying books. The commercial correspondents of the Medici + and other great Florentine houses, whose banks and discount offices + extended over Europe and the Levant, were instructed to purchase + relics of antiquity without regard for cost, and to forward them to + Florence. The most acceptable present that could be sent to a king was + a copy of a Roman historian. The best credentials which a young Greek + arriving from Byzantium could use to gain the patronage of men like + Palla degli Strozzi was a fragment of some ancient; the merchandise + insuring the largest profit to a speculator who had special knowledge + in such matters was old parchment covered with crabbed characters. + [15] + +Cosimo de' Medici (1393-1464), a banker and ruler of Florence, spent great +sums in collecting and copying manuscripts. Vespasiano, a fifteenth- +century bookseller of Florence, has left us an interesting picture of the +work of Cosimo in founding (1444) the great Medicean library [16] at +Florence (R. 130) and of the difficulties of book collecting in the days +before the invention of printing. + +[Illustration: FIG. 71. BOOKCASE AND DESK IN THE MEDICEAN LIBRARY AT +FLORENCE +(Drawn from a photograph) +This library was founded in 1444. It contains to-day about 10,000 Greek +and Latin manuscripts, many of them very rare, and of a few the only +copies known. The building was designed by Michael Angelo, and its +construction was begun in 1525. The bookcases are of about this date. It +shows the early method of chaining books to the shelves, and cataloguing +the volumes on the end of each stack.] + +Under Cosimo's grandson, Lorenzo the Magnificent, who died in 1492, two +expeditions were sent to Greece to obtain manuscripts for the Florentine +library. Vespasiano also describes for us the books collected (c. 1475-80) +for the great ducal library at Urbino (R. 131), the greatest library in +the Christian world at the time of its completion, and the work of Pope +Nicholas V [17] (1447-1455) in laying the foundations (1450) for the great +Vatican Library at Rome (R. 132). Nicholas was an enthusiast in the new +movement, and formed a plan for the translation of all the Greek writers +into Latin. A later Pope, Leo X (1513-1521), planned to make Rome the +international center for Greek learning. + +THE MOVEMENT EXTENDS TO OTHER COUNTRIES. Petrarch made his first great +find in 1333, and up to 1450 the Revival of Learning, often termed the +Renaissance, was entirely an Italian movement. By that date the great work +in Italy had been done, and the Italians were once more in possession of +the literature and history of the past. With them the movement was +literary, historical, and patriotic in purpose and spirit. With them the +movement was known as _humanism_, from an old Roman word (_humanitas_) +meaning culture, and this term came to be applied to the new studies in +all other lands. In their work with the literatures, inscriptions, coins, +and archaeological remains of the Greeks and Romans, their own literature, +history, mythology, and political and social life was reconstructed. The +methods employed were the methods used in modern science, and the result +was to develop in Italy a new type of scholar, possessed of a literary, +artistic, and historical appreciation unknown since the days of ancient +Rome, and with the greatest enthusiasm for Latin as a living language. + +By the time the revival had culminated in Italy it began to be heard of +north of the Alps. France was the first country to take up the study of +Greek, a professorship being established at Paris in 1458. There was but +little interest in the subject, however, or in any of the new studies, +until two events of political importance, forty years later, brought +Frenchmen in close touch with what had been done in northern Italy. In +1494 Charles VIII, of France, claiming Naples as his possession, took an +army into Italy, and forcibly occupied Rome and Florence. Four years later +his successor, Louis XII, claimed Milan also and seized it and Naples, +maintaining a French court at Milan from 1498 to 1512. Though both these +expeditions were unsuccessful, from a political point of view, the effect +of the direct contact with humanism in its home was lasting. New ideas in +architecture, art, and learning were carried back to France, French +scholars traveled to Italy, and early in the sixteenth century Paris +became a center for the new humanistic studies. In Greek, France +completely superseded Italy as the interpreter of Greek life and +literature to the modern world. + +In 1473 a Spanish scholar, Mebrissensis (1444-1522), returned home after +twenty years in Italy and introduced Greek at Seville, Salamanca, and +Alcalà. + +[Illustration: FIG. 72. TWO EARLY NORTHERN HUMANISTS + +RUDOLPH AGRICOLA (1443-85) Early Dutch Humanist. +Lectured at Heidelberg (From a contemporary engraving) + +THOMAS LINACRE (c. 1460-1524) English Professor of Medicine +and Lecturer on Greek (From a portrait in the British Museum)] + +About 1488 Thomas Linacre (c. 1460-1524) and William Grocyn (1446-1514), +two Oxford graduates, went to Florence from England, studying Greek under +Demetrius Chalcondyles, and, returning, introduced the new learning at +Oxford. [18] Linacre, as professor of medicine, translated much of Galen +(p. 198) from the Greek, and he and Grocyn lectured on Greek at the +University. From Oxford the new learning was transmitted to Cambridge, +and, over a century afterward, to Harvard in America. A third Oxford man +to study Greek in Italy was John Colet (1467-1519), who studied in +Florence from 1493 to 1496, and returned home an enthusiastic humanist. He +was the first Englishman to attract much attention to the new studies, and +to him is chiefly due their introduction into the English secondary +school. + +The first German of whom we have any record as having studied in Italy was +Peter Luder (c. 1415-74), who returned in 1456, and lectured on the new +learning at the Universities of Heidelberg, Erfurt, and Leipzig, but +awakened no response. In 1470 Johann Wessel (1420-89) and in 1476 Rodolph +Agricola (1443-85), two noted Dutch scholars, studied in Italy. On +returning, Agricola, [19] who has been called "the Petrarch of German +lands," did much "to spread the great inheritance of antiquity and the new +civilization to which it had given birth among his uncouth countrymen" +(_barbari_, he calls them). He made Heidelberg, for a time, a center of +humanistic appreciation. Johann Reuchlin (1455-1522), a German by birth, +studied in Florence and elsewhere in Italy in 1481 to 1490, and there +learned Hebrew. Returning, he became a professor at Heidelberg and the +father of modern Hebrew studies. In 1506 he published the first Hebrew +grammar. In 1493 the University of Erfurt established a professorship of +Poetry and Eloquence, this being the first German university to +countenance the new learning. In 1523 the first chair of Greek was +established at Vienna. Thus slowly did the revival of learning spread to +northern lands. + +THE REVIVAL AIDED BY THE INVENTION OF PAPER AND PRINTING. Very fortunately +for the spread of the new learning an important process and a great +invention now came in at a most opportune time. The process was the +manufacture of paper; the invention that of printing. + +The manufacture of paper is probably a Chinese invention, early obtained +by the Arabs. During the Mohammedan occupation of Spain paper mills were +set up there, and a small supply of their paper found its way across the +Pyrenees. The Christians who drove the Mohammedans out lost the process, +and it now came back once more from the East. By about 1250 the Greeks had +obtained the process from Mohammedan sources, and in 1276 the first paper +mill was set up in Italy. In 1340 a paper factory was established at +Padua, and soon thereafter other factories began to make paper at +Florence, Bologna, Milan, and Venice. In 1320 a paper factory was +established at Mainz, in Germany, and in 1390 another at Nuremberg. By +1450 paper was in common use and the way was now open for one of the +world's greatest inventions. + +This was the invention of printing. From the difficulty experienced in +securing books for the great libraries at Florence, Urbino, and Rome, as +we have seen (Rs. 130, 131, 132), and the great cost of reproducing single +copies of books, we can see that the work of the humanists of the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in Italy probably would have had but +little influence elsewhere but for the invention of printing. To +disseminate a new learning involving two great literatures by copying +books, one at a time by hand, would have prevented instruction in the new +subjects becoming general for centuries, and would have materially +retarded the progress of the world. The discovery of the art of printing, +coming when it did, scattered the new learning over Europe. + +[Illustration: FIG. 73. AN EARLY SIXTEENTH-CENTURY PRESS +"The prynters have founde a crafte to make bokis by brasen letters sette +in ordre by a frame." An engraving, dated 1520. The man at the right is +setting type, and the one at the lever is making an impression. A number +of four-page printed sheets are seen on the table at the right of the +press.] + +SPREAD AND WORK OF THE PRESS. The dates connected with this new invention +and its diffusion over Europe are: + + 1423. Coster of Harlem made the first engraved single page. + 1438. Gutenberg invented movable wooden types. + 1450. Schoeffer and Faust cast first metal type. + 1456. Bible printed in Latin by Gutenberg and Faust at Mainz. This the + first complete book printed. [20] + 1457. The Mayence Psalter, the first dated book, printed. [21] + 1462. Adolph of Nassau pillaged Mainz, drove out the printers, and in + consequence scattered the art over Europe. + 1465. Press set up in the German monastery of Subiaco, in the Sabine + Mountains, in Italy. + 1467. This press moved to Rome. + 1469. Presses at Paris and Vienna. + 1470. Printing introduced into Switzerland. + 1471. Presses set up at Florence, Milan, and Ferrara. + 1473. Printing introduced into Holland and Belgium. + 1474. Printing introduced into Spain. + 1474-77. Printing introduced into England. Caxton set up his press in + 1477. + 1476. First book printed in Greek at Milan. + 1490. The Aldine press established at Venice, by Aldus Manutius. + 1501. First Greek book printed in Germany, at Erfurt. + 1563. First newspaper established, in Venice. + +Inventions traveled but slowly in those days, yet in time the press was to +be found in every country of Europe. The professional copyists made a +great outcry against the innovation; presses were at first licensed and +closely limited in number; in France the University of Paris was given the +proceeds of a tax levied on all books printed; and in England the +beginnings of the modern copyright are to be seen in the necessity of +obtaining a license from the ecclesiastical authorities to be permitted to +print a book. + +[Illustration: FIG. 74. AN EARLY SPECIMEN OF CAXTON'S PRINTING] + +In cutting and casting the first type a style of heavy-faced letter, much +like that written by the mediaeval monks--the so-called _Gothic_--was +used. Caxton, in England, used this at first, and the Germans have +continued its use up to the present time. The Italians, however, soon +devised a type with letters like those used by the old Romans--the so- +called Roman type, this type which was soon accepted in all non-German +European countries. The Italians also devised a compressed type--the +_Italic_--which enabled printers to get more words on a page. + +Venice, almost from the first, became the center of the book trade, and +books literally poured from the presses there. By 1500 as many as five +thousand editions, often of as many as a thousand copies to an edition, +had been printed in Italy. [22] Of this number 2835 had been printed in +Venice, and most of them by the Aldine press of Aldus Manutius, and edited +by the _Academia_ (p. 250) connected therewith. [23] By 1500 many books +had also been printed in a number of northern cities, [24] and Lyons, +Paris, Basel, Nuremberg, Cologne, Leipzig, and London soon became centers +of the northern book trade. Caxton in England soon vied with Aldus in +Venice as a printer of beautiful books. When we remember that it required +fifty-three days (Sandys) to make by hand one copy of Quintilian's +_Institutes_, and forty-five copyists twenty-two months to reproduce two +hundred volumes for the Medicean Library at Florence (R. 130), the +enormous importance of an invention which would print rapidly a thousand +or more copies of a book, all exactly alike and free from copyist errors, +can be appreciated. It tremendously cheapened books, [25] made the +general use of the textbook method of teaching possible, and paved the way +for a great extension of schools and learning (R. 134). From now on the +press became a formidable rival to the pulpit and the sermon, and one of +the greatest of instruments for human progress and individual liberty. +From this time on educational progress was to be much more rapid than it +had been in the past. From an educational point of view the invention of +printing might almost be taken as marking the close of the mediaeval and +the beginning of modern times. + +RISE OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY. The new influences awakened by the Revival +of Learning found expression in other directions. One of these was +geographical discovery, itself an outgrowth of that series of movements +known as the _Crusades_, with the accompanying revival of trade and +commerce. These led to travel, exploration, and discovery. By the latter +part of the thirteenth century the most extensive travel which had taken +place since the days of ancient Rome had begun, and in the next two and a +half centuries a great expansion of the known world took place. + +[Illustration: FIG. 75. THE WORLD AS KNOWN TO CHRISTIAN EUROPE BEFORE +COLUMBUS] + +Marco Polo and Sir John Mandeville made extended travels to the Orient, +and returning (Polo returned, 1295) described to a wondering Europe the +new lands and peoples they had seen. The _Voyages_ of Polo and the +_Travels_ of Mandeville were widely read. By the beginning of the +fourteenth century the compass had been perfected, in Naples, and a great +era of exploration had been begun. In 1402 venturesome sailors, out beyond +the "Pillars of Hercules," discovered the Canary Islands; in 1419 the +Madeira Islands were reached; in 1460 the Cape Verde Islands were found; +in 1497 Bartholomew Diaz rounded the southern tip of Africa; and in 1497 +Vasco da Gama discovered the long-hoped-for sea route to India. Five years +later, sailing westward with the same end in view, Columbus discovered the +American continent. Finally, in 1519-22, Magellan's ships circumnavigated +the globe, and, returning safely to Spain, proved that the world was +round. In 1507 Waldenseemüller published his _Introduction to Geography_, +a book that was widely read, and one which laid the foundations of this +modern study. + +The effect of these discoveries in broadening the minds of men can be +imagined. The religious theories and teachings of the Middle Ages as to +the world were in large part upset. New races and new peoples had been +found, a round earth instead of a flat one had been proved to exist, new +continents had been discovered, and new worlds were now ready to be opened +up for scientific exploration and colonization. + +ABOUT 1500 A STIMULATING TIME. The latter part of the fifteenth century +and the earlier part of the sixteenth was a stimulating period in the +intellectual development of Christian Europe. The Turks had closed in on +Constantinople (1453) and ended the Eastern Empire, and many Greek +scholars had fled to the West. Though the Revival of Learning had +culminated in Italy, its influence was still strongly felt in such cities +as Florence and Venice, while in German lands and in England the reform +movement awakened by it was at its height. Greek and Hebrew were now +taught generally in the northern universities. Everywhere the old +scholastic learning and methods were being overturned by the new humanism, +and scholastic teachers were being displaced from their positions in the +universities and schools. The new humanistic university at Wittenberg, +founded in 1502, was exerting large influence among German scholars and +attracting to it the brightest young minds in German lands. Erasmus was +the greatest international scholar of the age, though ably seconded by +distinguished humanistic scholars in Italy, France, England, the Low +Countries, and German lands. The court schools of Italy (R. 135) and the +municipal colleges of France (R. 136) were marking out new lines in the +education of the select few. Colet was founding his reformed grammar +school (1510) at Saint Paul's, in London (R. 138), the first of a long +line of English humanistic grammar schools. Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, +and Michael Angelo were adding new fame to Italy, and carrying the +Renaissance movement over into that art which the world has ever since +treasured and admired. + +The Italian cities, particularly Genoa and Venice, had become rich from +their commerce, as had many cities in northern lands. Everywhere the +cities were centers for the new life in western Christendom. England was +rapidly changing from an agricultural to a manufacturing nation. The serf +was evolving into a free man all over western Europe. Italian navigators +had discovered new sea routes and lands, and robbed the ocean of its +terrors. Columbus had discovered a new world, soon to be peopled and to +become the home of a new civilization. Magellan had shown that the world +was round and poised in space, instead of flat and surrounded by a +circumfluent ocean. The printing-press had been perfected and scattered +over Europe, and was rapidly multiplying books and creating a new desire +to read (R. 134). The Church was more tolerant of new ideas than it had +been in the past, or soon was to be for centuries to come. All of these +new influences and conditions combined to awaken thought as had not +happened before since the days of ancient Rome. The world seemed about +ready for rapid advances in many new directions, and great progress in +learning, education, government, art, commerce, and invention seemed +almost within grasp. Unfortunately the promise was not to be fulfilled, +and the progress that seemed possible in 1500 was soon lost amid the +bitterness and hatreds engendered by a great religious conflict, then +about to break, and which was destined to leave, for centuries to come, a +legacy of intolerance and suspicion in all lands. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. In what way was the fact that Dante wrote his _Divine Comedy_ in +Italian instead of Latin an evidence of large independence? + +2. Was it a good thing for peace and civilization that the modern +languages arose, instead of all speaking and writing Latin? Why? + +3. Of what value to one is a "sense of the past behind him, and a +conception of the possibilities of the future before him," by way of +giving perspective and self-confidence? Do we have many mediaeval-type +people to-day? + +4. Show how the work of Petrarch required a man with a strong historic +sense. + +5. Show the awakening of the modern scientific spirit in the critical and +reconstructive work of the scholars of the Revival. + +6. Of what was the exposure of the forgery of the "Donation of +Constantine" a precursor? + +7. Contrast the modern and the mediaeval spirit as related to learning. + +8. Suppose that we should unexpectedly unearth in Mexico a vast literature +of a very learned and scholarly people who once inhabited the United +States, and should discover a key by which to read it. Would the interest +awakened be comparable with that awakened by the revival of Greek in +Italy? Why? + +9. What does the fact that no copy of Quintilian's _Institutes_, a very +famous Roman book, was known in Europe before 1416 indicate as to the +destruction of books during the early Christian period? + +10. What does the fact that the Christians knew little about Greek +literature or scholarship for centuries, and that the awakening was in +large part brought about by the pressure of the Turks on the Eastern +Empire, indicate as to intercourse among Mediterranean peoples during the +Middle Ages? + +11. How do you explain the fact that the recovery of the ancient learning +was very largely the work of young men, and that older professors in the +universities frequently held aloof from any connection with the movement? + +12. Compare the financial support of the Revival in Italy with the support +of universities and of scientific undertakings in America during recent +times. + +13. Explain the long-delayed interest in the Revival in the northern +countries. + +14. Trace the larger steps in the transference of Greek literature and +learning from Athens, in the fifth century B.C., to its arrival at +Harvard, in Massachusetts, in 1636. + +15. What was the importance of the rediscovery of Hebrew? + +16. Show how the invention of printing was a revolutionary force of the +first magnitude. + +17. Why should a license from the Church have been necessary to print a +book? Have we any remaining vestiges of this church control over books? + +18. Do you see any special reason why Venice should have become the early +center of the book trade? + +19. Show how the printing-press became "a formidable rival to the pulpit +and the sermon, and one of the greatest instruments for human progress and +liberty." + +20. One writer has characterized the Revival of Learning as the beginnings +of the emergence of the individual from institutional control, and the +substitution of the humanities for the divinities as the basis of +education. Is this a good characterization of a phase of the movement? + +21. Counting each edition of a printed book at only three hundred copies, +how many volumes had been printed before 1500 at the places listed in +footnote 3, page 257? + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 125. Petrarch: On copying a Work of Cicero. + 126. Benvenuto: Boccaccio's Visit to the Library at Monte Cassino. + 127. Symonds: Finding of Quintilian's _Institutes_ at Saint Gall. + (a) Letter of Poggio Bracciolini on the "Find." + (b) Reply of Lionardo Bruni. + 128. MS.: Reproducing Books before the Days of Printing. + 129. Symonds: Italian Societies for studying the Classics. + 130. Vespasiano: Founding of the Medicean Library at Florence. + 131. Vespasiano: Founding of the Ducal Library at Urbino. + 132. Vespasiano: Founding of the Vatican Library at Rome. + 133. Green: The New Learning at Oxford. + 134. Green: The New Taste for Books. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Is it probable that Petrarch's explanation (125) of why many of the +older Latin books were copied so infrequently, psalters being preferred +instead, is correct? + +2. How do you explain the later neglect of so valuable a library as that +at Monte Cassino (126) or Saint Gall (127 a)? + +3. Was Lionardo Bruni's letter to Poggio (127 b) overdrawn? + +4. Was there anything unnatural about the work and customs of the Italian +societies for studying the classics (129)? Compare with a modern literary +or scientific society, or with the National Dante Society. + +5. What does the extract from Vespasiano, telling how he got books for +Cosimo de' Medici (130), indicate as to the scarcity of books in Italy +toward the middle of the fifteenth century? + +6. The library of the Duke of Urbino (131) was the most complete collected +up to that time. List the larger classifications of the books copied, as +to the lines represented in a great library of that day. + +7. What does the work of Pope Nicholas V, in establishing the Vatican +Library (132), indicate as to his interest in the new humanistic movement? + +8. Show from the selection from Green (133) that the revival movement in +England was essentially a religious revival. + +9. Explain Green's cause-and-effect theory, as given in selection 134. + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + +* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. + Blades, William. _William Caxton_. + Duff, E. G. _Early Printed Books_. +* Field, Lilian F. _Introduction to the Study of the Renaissance_. +* Howells, W. D. _Venetian Days_ (Venetian commerce). +* Keane, John. _The Evolution of Geography_. + La Croix, Paul. _The Arts in the Middle Ages and at the Period of the + Renaissance_. +* Loomis, Louise. _Mediaeval Hellenism_. + Oliphant, Mrs. _Makers of Venice_. +* Robinson, J. H., and Rolfe, H. W. _Petrarch, the First Modern Scholar + and Man of Letters_. + Sandys, J. E. _History of Classical Scholarship_, vol. II. +* Sandys, J. E. _Harvard Lectures on the Revival of Learning_. + Scaife, W. B. _Florentine Life during the Renaissance_. + Sedgwick, H. D. _Italy in the Thirteenth Century_. +* Symonds, J. A. _The Renaissance in Italy_; vol. II, _The Revival + of Learning_. + Thorndike, Lynn. _History of Mediaeval Europe_. + Whitcomb, M. _Source Book of the Italian Renaissance_. +* Walsh, Jas. J. _The Thirteenth, Greatest of Centuries_. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING + + +SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING. It is often stated that the roots +of all our modern educational practices in secondary education lie buried +deep in the great Italian Revival of Learning. If we limit the statement +to the time preceding the middle of the nineteenth century we shall be +more nearly correct, as tremendous changes in both the character and the +purpose of secondary education have taken place since that time. The +important and outstanding educational result of the revival of ancient +learning by Italian scholars was that it laid a basis for a new type of +education below that of the university, destined in time to be much more +widely opened to promising youths than the old cathedral and monastic +schools had been. This new education, based on the great intellectual +inheritance recovered from the ancient world by a relatively small number +of Italian scholars, dominated the secondary-school training of the middle +and higher classes of society for the next four hundred years. It clearly +began by 1450, it clearly controlled secondary education until at least +after 1850. Out of the efforts of Italian scholars to resurrect, +reconstruct, understand, and utilize in education the fruits of their +legacy from the ancient Greek and Roman world, arose modern secondary +education, as contrasted with mediaeval church education. + +Mediaeval education, after all, was narrowly technical. It prepared for +but one profession, and one type of service. There was little that was +liberal, cultural, or humanitarian about it. It prepared for the world to +come, not for the world men live in here. The new education developed in +Italy aimed to prepare directly for life in the world here, and for useful +and enjoyable life at that. Combining with the new humanistic (cultural) +studies the best ideals and practices of the old chivalric education-- +physical training, manners and courtesy, reverence--the Italian pioneers +devised a scheme of education, below that of the universities, which they +claimed prepared youths not only for an intellectual appreciation of the +great and wonderful past of which they were descendants, but also for +intelligent service in the two great non-church occupations of Italy in +the fifteenth century--public service for the City-State, and commerce and +a business life. This new type of education spread to other lands, and a +new type of secondary-school training, actuated by a new and a modern +purpose, thus came out of the revival of learning in Italy. + +THE MOVEMENT IN ITALY PATRIOTIC. The inspiration for the revival of +learning in Italy did not originate with the universities. Even the new +chairs when established in the universities were regarded as inferior, +and, in true university fashion, the occupants were tolerated by the other +professors rather than approved of by them. Some of the universities-- +Pavia and Bologna, in particular--had practically nothing to do with the +new movement. [1] Even in the rich and learned city of Florence, the head +and front of the revival movement, the church scholars and many university +men took little or no part in the restoration of the old studies. The +learned archbishop, Saint Antoninus, who presided over the cathedral at +Florence during the brightest days of that city's history, pursued his +mediaeval scholastic instruction undisturbed, and even wrote a _Summa +Theologica_ of his own. + +[Illustration: FIG. 76. SAINT ANTONINUS AND HIS SCHOLARS +Saint Antoninus (1380-1459) was the learned and pious Archbishop of +Florence from 1446 until his death. The picture of him giving instruction +is from the Venice (1503) edition of his _Summa Theologica_.] + +The revival movement, on the contrary, was directed in its beginnings by a +small group of patriotic Italians possessed of a modern spirit, and was +financed by intelligent and patriotic merchants, bankers, and princes. +Surrounded on all sides by monuments and remains testifying to Roman +greatness, and with Roman speech in constant use by the scholars of the +Church, the revival of Latin literature meant more to Italian scholars +than to those of any other country. It seemed to them still possible to +revive Roman life and make Roman speech once more the language of the +learned world. The revival of Latin literature, too, meant much more to +them than the revival of Greek. The chief value of the latter was to open +up a still greater past, and through this to illuminate Roman life and +literature. After about 1500 the enthusiasm for Greek rapidly died out in +Italy, and the further interpretation of Greek life and thought was left +to the northern nations. + +In this effort to revive the old Roman world the Italian scholars received +the sympathy of the great men of wealth, and of some of the popes of the +time. It was the Medici family at Florence who aided the movement +liberally there, rejuvenated the university of Florence along new +humanistic lines, accumulated libraries there (R. 130) and at Venice, and +aided scholars all over Italy. At Milan the Visconti family paid the +expenses of a chair of Latin and Greek, established in the university +there in 1440. Popes Nicholas V and Leo X were prodigal in their support +of the new learning at Rome (R. 132), and the university there was +reconstructed along modern lines. At Venice the rulers gave large +financial and other support to the leaders of the new learning. Academies +(R. 129), under the patronage of the nobility, were founded in almost all +the northern Italian cities, and those in political power did much to make +their cities notable centers for classical studies. + +NEW SCHOOLS CREATED. The "finds" began with Petrarch's discovery of two +orations of Cicero, in 1333, and by the time "the century of finds" (1333- +1433) was drawing to a close the materials for a new type of secondary +education had been accumulated. Not only was the old literature discovered +and edited, but the finding of a complete copy of Quintilian's "Institutes +of Oratory" at Saint Gall (R. 127), in 1416, gave a detailed explanation +of the old Roman theory of education at its best. A number of "court +schools" now arose in the different cities, to which children from the +nobility and the banking and merchant classes were sent to enjoy the +advantages they offered over the older types of religious schools. + +[Illustration: FIG. 77. TWO EARLY ITALIAN HUMANIST EDUCATORS + +GUARINO DA VERONA (1374-1460) +(Drawn from a photograph of a contemporary painting. School at Ferrara, +1429-1460) + +VITTORINO DA FELTRE (1378-1446) +(Drawn from a medallion in the British Museum. School at Mantua, 1423-46)] + +Two of the most famous teachers in these court schools were Vittorino da +Feltre, who conducted a famous school at Mantua from 1423 to 1446, and +Guarino da Verona, who conducted another almost equally famous school at +Ferrara from 1429 to 1460. Taking boys at nine or ten and retaining them +until twenty or twenty-one, their schools were much like the best private +boarding-schools of England and America to-day. Drawing to them a selected +class of students; emphasizing physical activities, manners, and morals; +employing good teaching processes; and providing the best instruction the +world had up to that time known--the influence of these court schools was +indeed large. Many of the most distinguished leaders in Church and State +and some of the best scholars of the time were trained in them. By better +methods they covered, in shorter time, as much or more than was provided +in the Arts course of the universities, and so became rivals of them. The +ultimate result was that, with the evolution of a series of secondary +schools which prepared for admission to the universities, the gradual +"humanizing" of the universities, and the introduction of printed +textbooks, the Arts courses in the universities were advanced to a much +higher plane. We have here one of the first of a number of subsequent +steps by means of which new knowledge, organized into teaching shape, has +been passed on down to lower schools to teach, while the universities have +stepped forward into new and higher fields of endeavor. + +THE HUMANISTIC COURSE OF STUDY. The new instruction was based on the study +of Greek and Latin, combined with the courtly ideal and with some of the +physical activities of the old chivalric education. Latin was begun with +the first year in school, and the regular Roman emphasis was placed on +articulation and proper accent. After some facility in the language had +been gained, easy readings, selected from the greatest Roman writers, were +attempted. As progress was made in reading and writing and speaking Latin +as a living language, Cicero and Quintilian among prose writers, and +Vergil, Lucan, Horace, Seneca, and Claudian among the poets, were read and +studied. History was introduced in these schools for the first time and as +a new subject of study, though the history was the history of Greece and +Rome and was drawn from the authors studied. Livy and Plutarch were the +chief historical writers used. Nothing that happened after the fall of +Rome was deemed as of importance. Much emphasis was placed on manners, +morality, and reverence, with Livy and Plutarch again as the great guides +to conduct. Throughout all this the use of Latin as a living language was +insisted upon; declamation became a fine art; and the ability to read, +speak, and compose in Latin was the test. Cicero, in particular, because +of the exquisite quality of his Latin style, became the great prose model. +Quintilian was the supreme authority on the purpose and method of teaching +(R. 25). Greek also was begun later, though studied much less extensively +and thoroughly. The Greek grammar of Theodorus Gaza (p. 248) was studied, +followed by the reading of Xenophon, Isocrates, Plutarch, and some of +Homer and Hesiod. + +This thorough drill in ancient history and literature was given along with +careful attention to manners and moral training, and each pupil's health +was watchfully supervised--an absolutely new thought in the Christian +world. Such physical sports and games as fencing, wrestling, playing ball, +football, running, leaping, and dancing were also given special emphasis. +Competitive games between different schools were held, much as in modern +times. + +The result was an all-round physical, mental, and moral training, vastly +superior to anything previously offered by the cathedral and other church +schools, and which at once established a new type which was widely copied. +A number of these new teachers, called _humanists_, wrote treatises on the +proper order of studies, the methods to be employed, the right education +of a prince, liberal education, and similar topics. [2] One of these, +Battista Guarino, describing the education provided in the school which +his father founded at Ferrara (R. 135), laid down a dictum which was +accepted widely until the middle of the nineteenth century, when he wrote: + + I have said that ability to write Latin verse is one of the essential + marks of an educated person. I wish now to indicate a second, which is + of at least equal importance, namely, familiarity with the literature + and language of Greece. The time has come when we must speak in no + uncertain voice upon this vital requirement of scholarship. + +HUMANISM IN FRANCE. From Italy the new humanism was carried to France, +along with the retreating armies that had occupied Naples, Florence, and +Milan (p. 252), and when Francis I came to the French throne, in 1515, the +new learning found in him a willing patron. Though there had been +beginnings before this, the new learning really found a home in France now +for the first time. Here, too, it became associated with court and noble, +and the schools created to furnish this new instruction were provided at +the instigation of some form of public authority. The greatest humanistic +scholar in France at the time, Budaeus, was made royal librarian, in 1522. +His study of the old Roman coinage, upon which he spent nine years, would +pass to-day as a study representing a high grade of scholarship, and was +in marked contrast with the scholastic methods of the university. In his +writings Budaeus set forth for France the dictum that every man, even if +he be a king, should be devoted to letters and liberal learning, and that +this culture can be obtained only through Greek and Latin, and of these, +unlike the Italians, he held Greek to be the more important. Other +scholars now helped to transfer the center for Greek scholarship to Paris, +where it remained for the next two centuries. + +[Illustration: FIG. 78. GUILLAUME BUDAEUS (1467-1540)] + +A royal press was set up in Paris, in 1526, to promote the introduction of +the new learning. Libraries were built up, as in Italy. Humanist scholars +were made secretaries and ambassadors. The _College de France_ was +established at Paris, by direction of the King, with chairs in Latin, +Greek, Hebrew, and mathematics. To Hebrew the Italians had given almost no +attention, but in France, and particularly in Germany, Hebrew became an +important study. The development of schools in northern France was +hindered by the dissensions following the religious revolts of Luther and +Calvin, but in southern France many of the cities founded municipal +colleges, much like the court schools of northern Italy in type. The work +of the city of Bordeaux in reorganizing its town school along the new +lines was typical of the work of other southern cities. Good teachers, +liberal instruction, and a broad-minded attitude on the part of the +governing authorities [3] made this school, known as the _Collège de +Guyenne_, notable not only for humanistic instruction, but for intelligent +public education during the second half of the sixteenth century. The +picture of this college (school) left us by its greatest principal, Elie +Vinet (R. 136), gives an interesting description of its work. + +[Illustration: FIG. 79. COLLÈGE DE FRANCE +Founded at Paris, in 1530, by King Francis I. for instruction in the new +humanistic learning] + +HUMANISM IN GERMANY. The French language and life was closely related to +that of northern Italy, and French religious thought had always been so +closely in touch with that of Rome that something of the Italian feeling +for the old Roman culture and institutions was felt by the humanists of +France. In Germany and England no such feeling existed, and in these +countries any effort to discredit the rising native languages was much +more likely to be regarded as mere pedantry. In both these countries, +though, Latin was still the language of the Church, of the universities, +of all learned writing, and the means of international intercourse, and +after the new humanism had once obtained a foothold it was welcomed by +scholars as a great addition to existing knowledge. Erasmus, the foremost +scholar of his day, not only labored hard to introduce the new learning in +the schools, but welcomed the restored Roman tongue as an international +language for scholarship, as a potent weapon for destroying barriers of +language, religion, law, and possibly in time governments based on +nationality, and for the promise it gave of peace in international +relationships. In both Germany and England, in place of the patriotic +fervor of the Italians, religious zeal, as we shall see later on, was +kindled by the new humanistic studies. + +[Illustration: FIG. 80. JOHANN REUCHLIN (1455-1522) +"Father of modern Hebrew Studies"] + +Among the universities Vienna, Heidelberg, Erfurt, Tübingen, and Leipzig +(see Figure 61) were foremost in the introduction of the new learning. +Erfurt became the center of a group of humanistic scholars during the +closing years of the fifteenth century, and the first Greek book printed +in Germany appeared there, in 1501. At both Tübingen and Heidelberg +Reuchlin (p. 254) taught for a time, and both institutions early became +centers for the study of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. At Leipzig the reigning +duke brought various humanistic scholars to the university to lecture, +after 1507, and in 1519 entirely reformed the university by subordinating +the mediaeval disciplines to the new studies. Four new universities-- +Wittenberg (1502), Marburg (1527), Königsberg (1544), and Jena (1558)-- +were established on the new humanistic basis, and from their beginning +were centers for the new learning. At Wittenberg, Martin Luther had been +made Professor of Theology, in 1508, when but twenty-five years of age, +and to Wittenberg the Electoral Prince, in 1518, brought the young +Melanchthon, then but twenty-one, as Professor of Greek. The universities +of Germany were more profoundly affected by the introduction of the new +learning than were those of any other country. The monastic orders and the +Scholastics, who had for long controlled the German institutions, were +overthrown by the aid of the ruling princes, and by the close of the first +quarter of the sixteenth century the new humanism was everywhere +triumphant in German lands. + +GERMAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The enthusiasm of the humanists for the new +learning led them to urge the establishment of humanistic secondary +schools in the German cities. The schools of "The Brethren of the Common +Life" (Hieronymians), a teaching order founded by Gerhard Grote at +Deventer, Holland, in 1384, and which had established forty-five houses by +the time the new learning came into the Netherlands from Italy, at once +adopted the new studies, soon trebled the number of its houses, and for +decades supplied teachers of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew to all the +surrounding countries. [4] Wessel, Agricola, Hegius, Reuchlin, and Sturm +were among their greatest teachers, and Erasmus their greatest pupil. Here +and there in German cities Latin schools, teaching the subjects of the +_Trivium_, but principally the elements of Latin and grammar, had been +established in the course of the later Middle Ages, and to these scholars +trained in the new learning gradually made their way, secured employment, +and thus quietly introduced a purified Latin and the intellectual part of +the new humanistic course of study. Up to 1520 this method was followed +entirely in German lands. + +As in Italy, the commercial cities were among the first to provide schools +of the new type. In 1526 the commercial city of Nuremberg, in southern +Germany, opened one of the first of the new city humanistic secondary +schools, Melanchthon being present and giving the dedicatory address. A +number of similar schools were founded about this time in various German +cities--Ilfeld, Frankfort, Strassburg, Hamburg, Bremen, Dantzig--among the +number. Many of these failed, as did the one at Nuremberg, to meet the +needs of the people in essentially commercial cities. Whatever might have +been true in more cultured Italy, in German cities a rigidly classical +training for youth and early manhood was found but poorly suited to the +needs of the sons of wealthy burghers destined to a commercial career. The +rising commerce of the world apparently was to rest on native languages, +and not on elegant Latin verse and prose. The commercial classes soon fell +back on burgher schools, elementary vernacular schools, writing and +reckoning schools, business experience, and travel for the education of +their sons, leaving the Latin schools of the humanists to those destined +for the service of the Church, the law, teaching, or the higher state +service. + +[Illustration: FIG. 81. JOHANN STURM (1507-89) +(After a contemporary engraving by Stofflin)] + +THE WORK OF JOHANN STURM. The most successful classical school in all +Germany, and the one which formed the pattern for future classical +creations, was the _gymnasium_ [5] at Strassburg, under the direction +(1536-82) of the famous Johann Sturm, or Sturmius, as he came to call +himself. This was one of the early classical schools founded by the +commercial cities, but it had not been successful. In 1536 the authorities +invited Sturm, a graduate of the University of Louvain, and at that time a +teacher of classics and dialectic at Paris, where he had come in contact +with the humanism brought from Italy, to become head of the school and +reorganize it. This he did, and during the forty-five years he was head of +the school it became the most famous classical school in continental +Europe. His _Plan of Organization_, published in 1538; his _Letters to the +Masters_ on the course of study, in 1565; and the record of an examination +of each class in the school, conducted in 1578, all of which have been +preserved, give us a good idea as to the nature of the organization and +instruction (R. 137). + +Sturm was a strong and masterful man, with a genius for organization. +Probably adopting the plan of the French colleges (R. 136), he organized +his school into ten classes, [6] one for each year the pupil was to spend +in the school, and placed a teacher in charge of each. The aim and end of +education, as he stated it, was "piety, knowledge, and the art of +speaking," and "every effort of teachers and pupils" should bend toward +acquiring "knowledge, and purity and elegance of diction." Of the ten +years the pupil was to spend in the _gymnasium_, seven were to be spent in +acquiring a thorough mastery of pure idiomatic Latin, and the three +remaining years to the acquisition of an elegant style. Cicero was the +great model, but Vergil, Plautus, Terence, Martial, Sallust, Horace, and +other authors were read and studied. Except that the Catechism was first +studied in the native German, Latin was made the language of the +classroom. Great emphasis was placed on letter-writing, declamation, and +the acting of plays. Rhetoric, too, was made a very important subject of +study. Greek was begun in the fifth year of school and continued +throughout, all instruction in Greek being given through the medium of the +Latin. [7] The instruction in both Latin and Greek was much like that of +the court schools of Italy, except that in Greek the New Testament was +read in addition. The plays and games and physical training of the Italian +schools, however, were omitted; much less emphasis was placed on manners +and gentlemanly conduct; and in educational purpose a narrow drill was +substituted for the broad cultural spirit of the French and Italian +schools. + +Sturm was the greatest and most successful schoolman of his day. In +clearly defined aim, thorough organization, carefully graded instruction, +good teaching, and sound scholarship, his school surpassed all others. +Sturm's aim was to train pious, learned, and eloquent men for service in +Church and State, using religion and the new learning as means, and in +this he was very successful. In a short time after taking charge his +_gymnasium_ had six hundred pupils, and in 1578 there were "thousands of +pupils, representing eight nations," in attendance. Sturm became widely +known throughout northern Europe, and scholars and princes passing through +Strassburg stopped to visit his school and secure his advice. He +corresponded with scholars in many lands, and the influence of his +institution was enormous. He was the author of many school textbooks, and +of half a dozen works on the theory and practice of education. He fixed +both the type and the name--_gymnasium_--of the German classical secondary +school, which to-day is not very materially changed from the form and +character which Sturm gave it. Sturm's work deeply influenced many later +foundations in Germany, and also helped to mould the educational system +devised later on by the Jesuits. + +[Illustration: FIG. 82. DESIDERIUS ERASMUS (1467-1536) +A contemporary portrait by the German artist, Hans Holbein the Younger, in +the Louvre, Paris] + +HUMANISM IN ENGLAND. Grocyn, Linacre, and Colet had introduced the new +learning at Oxford, as we have already seen (p. 253), in the closing years +of the fifteenth century (R. 133), but had made but little impression. +They were ably seconded by Erasmus, who taught Greek at Cambridge (1510- +14), and who labored hard to substitute true classical culture for the +poor Latin and the empty scholasticism of his time. He wrote textbooks [8] +to help introduce the new learning, urged the importance of history, +geography, and science as serving to elucidate the classics, edited +editions of the classical authors, wrote two treatises of importance on +education, [9] and in two other books [10] ridiculed those who mistook the +form for the spirit of the ancient learning. His Latin Greek edition of +the New Testament definitely fixed the place of the New Testament in the +humanistic schools. + +In spite of the opposition of monks and scholastics in the universities of +Oxford and Cambridge, and in the face of the coming religious turmoil in +the days of Henry VIII, the new learning made steady progress in the +universities, [11] with the court, and among the scholars and statesmen of +the time. With the coming of Elizabeth to the throne, [12] in 1558, the +court, from the Queen down, was imbued with the spirit of the new learning +(R. 139). Elizabeth appointed new chancellors for the two universities, +and these institutions were soon transformed from places for the training +of mediaeval scholars and theologians into places for the production of a +"due supply of fit persons to serve God in Church and State." As Sir +Thomas Elyot so well expressed it, in his _The Governour_ (1544)--a book +on the education of rulers for a State, and which was permeated by the new +spirit--"the new political order requires qualified instruments for its +administration, and a trained governing class must henceforth take the +place of the privileged caste and the clerk [cleric] education under the +mediaeval disciplines." + +COLET AND SAINT PAUL'S SCHOOL. The first real establishment of the new +learning in England came through the secondary schools, and through the +refounding of the cathedral school of Saint Paul's, in London, by the +humanist John Colet, in 1510. Colet had become Dean of Saint Paul's +Church, and Erasmus urged him to embrace the opportunity to reconstruct +the school along humanistic lines. This he did, endowing it with all his +wealth, and in a series of carefully drawn-up Statutes (R. 138), which +were widely copied in subsequent foundations, Colet laid special emphasis +on the school giving training in the new learning and in Christian +discipline. Erasmus gave much of his time for years to finding teachers +and writing textbooks for the school. William Lily (1468-1522), another +early humanist recently returned from study in Italy, and the author of a +widely known and much used textbook [13]--_Lily's Latin Grammar_ (R. 140) +--was made headmaster of the school. + +[Illustration: FIG. 83. SAINT PAUL'S SCHOOL, LONDON] + +The course of study was of the humanistic type already described, coupled +with careful religious instruction. In place of the monkish Latin pure +Latin and Greek were to be taught, and the best classical authors took the +place of the old mediaeval disciplines. The school met with much +opposition, was denounced as a temple of idolatry and heathenism by the +men of the old schools, and even the Bishop of London tried twice to +convict Colet of heresy and suppress the instruction. Notwithstanding this +the school became famous for its work, not only in London but throughout +England. From its desks came a long line of capable statesmen, learned +clergy, brilliant scholars, and literary men. + +[Illustration: FIG. 84. GIGGLESWICK GRAMMAR SCHOOL +One of the chief schools of Yorkshire, England, and dating back to 1499. +This building was erected in 1507-12 by a chantry priest named James Carr +(Ker). Drawn from an old print. On the front of the building was a Latin +tablet (shown in the drawing), now in the British Museum, which, +translated, read: "Kindly mother of God, defend James Ker from ill. For +priests and young clerks this house is made, in 1512. Jesus, have mercy on +us. Old men and children praise the name of the Lord."] + +INFLUENCE ON OTHER ENGLISH GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. In a preceding chapter (p. +152) we mentioned the founding of many English grammar schools after 1200. +At the time Saint Paul's School was refounded there were something like +three hundred of these, of all classes, in England. They existed in +connection with the old monasteries, cathedrals, collegiate churches, +guilds, and charity foundations in connection with parish churches, while +a few were due to private benevolence and had been founded independently +of either Church or State. The Sevenoaks Grammar School, founded by the +will of William Sevenoaks, in 1432 (R. 141), and for which he stated in +his will that he desired as master "an honest man, sufficiently advanced +and expert in the science of Grammar, B.A., by no means in holy orders," +and the chantry grammar school founded by John Percyvall, in 1503 (R. +142), are examples of the parish type. The famous Winchester Public +School, founded by Bishop William of Wykeham, in 1382, to emphasize +grammar, religion, and manners, and to prepare seventy scholars for New +College, at Oxford, [14] where they were to be trained as priests; and +Eton College, founded by Henry VI, in 1440, to prepare students for King's +College, at Cambridge, are examples of the larger private foundations. A +few, such as the grammar school at Sandwich (1579), owed their origin (R. +143) to the initiative of the city authorities. Most of these grammar +schools were small, but a few were large and wealthy establishments. + +These old foundations, with their mediaeval curriculum, after a time began +to feel the influence of Colet's school. Within a century, due to one +influence or another, practically all had been remodeled after the new +classical type set up by Colet. In the course of study given for Eton (R. +144), for 1560, we see the new learning fully established, and in the +course of study for a small country grammar school, in 1635 (R. 145), we +see how fully the new learning, with its emphasis on Latin as a living +language, had by this time extended to even the smallest of the English +grammar schools. The new foundations, after 1510, were almost entirely +new-learning grammar schools, with large emphasis on grammar, good Latin +and Greek, games and sports, and the religious spirit. One of the most +conspicuous of these later foundations was Merchant Taylor's School, [15] +founded in London in 1561, and of which Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611), the +author of two important books on educational theory, [16] was for long the +headmaster. The first American Latin grammar school (Boston, 1635) was a +direct descendant of these English influences and traditions. + +[Illustration: PLATE 5. STRATFORD-ON-AVON GRAMMAR SCHOOL +Established by the Holy Cross Guild of Stratford-on-Avon, at the beginning +of the fifteenth century. The Grammar School was built in 1426, of wood, +and at a cost of £10, 5_s_., 3-1/2_d_. The school was held on the upper +floor, the lower being used as a guild-hall. Here Shakespeare went to +school, and saw companies of strolling players in the hall below. The +lower picture shows the grammar-school room after its "restoration," in +1892.] + +THE REACTION AGAINST MEDIAEVALISM. Having traced the introduction of the +new learning by countries, it still remains to point out certain +significant educational features of the movement which were common in all +lands, and which profoundly modified subsequent educational practice. Both +the purpose and the method of education were permanently changed. + +Up to about the middle of the fourth Christian century the aim of both +Greek and Roman education had been to prepare men to become good and +useful citizens in the State. Then the Church gained control of education, +and for a thousand years the chief object was to prepare for the world to +come. Success and good citizenship in this world counted for little, +religious devotion took the place of the old state patriotism, the +salvation of souls took the place of the promotion of the social welfare, +and the aim and end of life here was to attain everlasting bliss in the +world to come. To be able to appease the dread Judge at the Day of +Judgment, prayer, penance, and holy contemplation were the important +things here below. It was preëminently the age of the self-abasing monk, +and this mental attitude dominated all thinking and learning. + +The spirit behind the Revival of Learning was a protest against this +mediaeval attitude, and the protest was vigorous and successful. The +Revival of Learning was a clear break with mediaeval traditions and with +mediaeval authority. It restored to the world the ideals of earlier +education--self-culture, and preparation for usefulness and success in the +world here. In Italy, France, Germany, and England the movement, too, met +with the most thorough approval from modern men--merchants, court +officials, and scholars who were ready to break with the mediaeval type of +thinking. The court and other types of secondary schools now established +were popular with the higher classes in society, and this aristocratic +stamp the humanistic schools and courses have ever since retained. These +schools restored to the world the practical education of the days of +Cicero, and preparation for intelligent service in the Church, State, and +the larger business life became one of their important purposes. Supported +as they were by the ruling classes, the new schools were close to the most +progressive forces in the national life of the different countries. They +represented an unmistakable reaction against the world of the mediaeval +monk and the Scholastic, and their early success was in large part because +of this. + +MODIFICATION OF THE MEDIAEVAL CURRICULUM. The mediaeval curriculum, as we +have seen (chap. VII), was based on instruction in the Seven Liberal Arts. +Grammar at first was the great subject, but later Dialectic became the +master science. Knowledge was regarded as an organic whole, capable of +being stated in a brief encyclopaedia, and each man could learn it all. +With the rise of university instruction some new knowledge was added, +chiefly from Moslem sources, and the old knowledge was minutely re-ground. +With the revival of the ancient learning there came, within a little more +than a century, an enormous increase in the world's sum of knowledge, and +the invention of printing came just in time to multiply and scatter this +new knowledge throughout western Europe. To all the old subjects a new +wealth of detail was added which made teaching encyclopaedias impossible. +New purposes in education now came to prevail, and the great mediaeval +teaching curriculum was changed in content and in relative importance. + +Of the subjects in the old _Trivium_, Dialectic or Logic, which +Scholastics had raised to the place of first importance, was dethroned, +and relegated to a minor position in university instruction. In its place +Grammar, as Quintilian knew and used the term (R. 76) and as based on and +including Literature, was raised once more to the place of first +importance. Out of this, Literature--at first the classical and later the +modern--later came as a separate study, as did also the study of History +and Mythology. By the latter part of the sixteenth century technical +Grammar had been separated from Literature, and made a more elementary +subject, while Rhetoric had developed into a critical study of literary +art. Of the subjects of the _Quadrivium_, Arithmetic, Geometry, and +Astronomy were each greatly expanded, as a result of the introduction of +much new knowledge, and each was reduced to textbook form, while Algebra +and Trigonometry were now organized as teaching subjects. Due to their +newness and difficulty these subjects were taught chiefly in the +universities. There they remained for a long time before being passed down +to the secondary schools. Out of the very elemental instruction given in +Geography and Astronomy were in time evolved all the biological and +physical sciences, though this development belongs to a later chapter +(XVII), and these new subjects did not reach the secondary schools until +well into the nineteenth century. The last of the quadrivial subjects, +Music, experienced a different history in different countries. In the +Germanic countries it continued to receive its old emphasis, while in +England and France much less was made of it. After the setting-in of +Puritanism in England, when music was regarded with great disfavor, it in +large part passed out of the English curriculum. As a result the Germanic +and Scandinavian nations are to-day singing nations, while the English and +American are not. In early America, in particular, was the religious +reaction against music especially strong. + +[Illustration: FIG. 85. THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN STUDIES +The great study of each period is in CAPITALS; subjects in _italics_ +indicate that they also were quite important. Least important subjects in +ordinary type.] + +NEW TEACHING METHODS. Such important changes naturally called for a +progressively evolving series of printed textbooks, and these now came +fast from the presses. The day of one textbook, which could dominate all +instruction for hundreds of years, was over forever. A few books, such as +Lily's or Melanchthon's Latin grammars and the textbooks of Erasmus, were +still used for a long time, but throughout the sixteenth century, before +the schools became formalized and lost their earlier purpose, each +textbook issued was soon superseded by a better one. The invention of +printing, too, changed teaching from a reading-by-the-professor to a +textbook method, and tremendously shortened the time necessary to give +instruction in any subject. With the manufacture of paper the written +theme, too, displaced the disputation, with great gains in accuracy of +thinking and refinement in the use of words. It was still the Latin theme +or verse or oration, to be sure, and the object of the new instruction was +to teach Latin as a living language, but before long the time was to come +when the same methods would be transferred to instruction in the native +tongues and for national ends. + +To make the instruction as practical as possible, and thus prepare the +pupils for service as Latin scholars in public or scholarly pursuits, the +ancient literature was studied in part as a storehouse of adequate and +elegant expression, and numerous phrase books [17] were written for use in +the schools. When we remember that Latin was still the language of all +learned literature, of the university classroom, of most diplomatic and +legal documents, and a practical necessity for travel or communication +abroad, we can realize why so much emphasis was placed on the constant use +of Latin as the language of the school. [18] As Leach [19] so well puts +it: + + "The learned professions required a competent knowledge of Latin far + more directly then than now. A need for Latin was not confined to the + Church and the priest. The diplomatist, the lawyer, the civil servant, + the physician, the naturalist, the philosopher, wrote, read, and to a + large extent spoke and perhaps thought in Latin. Nor was Latin only + the language of the higher professions. A merchant, or a bailiff of a + manor, wanted it for his accounts; every town clerk or guild clerk + wanted it for his minute book. Columbus had to study for his voyages + in Latin; the general had to study tactics in it. The architect, the + musician, every one who was neither a mere soldier nor a mere + handicraftsman, wanted, not a smattering of grammar, but a living + acquaintance with the tongue, as a spoken as well as a written + language." + +THE SCHOOLS BECOME FORMAL. After the new learning had obtained a firm +footing in the schools there happened what has often happened in the +history of new educational efforts--that is, the new learning became +narrow, formal, and fixed, and lost the liberal spirit which actuated its +earlier promoters. In the beginning the Italian humanists had aimed at +large personal self-culture and individual development, and the northern +humanists at moral and religious reform and preparation for useful +service, both using the classics as a means to these new ends. After about +1500 in Italy, and 1600 in the northern countries, when the new-learning +schools had become well established and thoroughly organized, the tendency +arose to make the means an end in itself. Instead of using the classical +literatures to impart a liberal education, give larger vision, and prepare +for useful public service, they came to be used largely for disciplinary +ends. The teaching of Campion at Prague (1574) well illustrates this +degeneracy (R. 146). This change alienated practical men from the schools. +French now in turn became the language of the court and of diplomacy, and +the work of the schools tended to be confined largely to preparing +students to enter the universities or the service of the Church. Men of +the world hence turned to a new type of schools which now arose (chapter +xvii), and which made preparation for social efficiency in a modern world +their aim. + +In consequence the aim of the new humanistic education came in time to be +thought of in terms of languages and literatures, instead of in terms of +usefulness as a preparation for intelligent living, and educational effort +was transferred from the larger human point of view of the early +humanistic teachers to the narrower and much less important one of +mastering Greek and Latin, writing verses, and cultivating a good +(Ciceronian) Latin style. Sturm's school at Strassburg clearly shows the +beginnings of such a transformation (R. 137). As Latin came to be less and +less used by scholars in writing, passed out of use as the language of +government and of international communication, was replaced by French as +the language of polite society, and was gradually superseded in the +university lecture room by the vernaculars, the practical motive for +learning Latin died out, except for service in the Church, and the +disciplinary and cultural value of the study of the classics alone +remained. The disciplinary, being easier to give, and better within the +understanding of most teachers, gradually won over the cultural. As a +result, classical education gradually became narrow and formal, and drill +in composition and declamation and imitation of the style of ancient +authors--particularly Cicero, whence the term "Ciceronianism" which came +to be applied to it--grew to be the ruling motives in instruction. By the +end of the sixteenth century this change had taken place in both the +secondary schools and the universities, and this narrow linguistic +attitude continued to dominate classical education, in German lands until +the mid-eighteenth, and in all other western European countries and in +America until near the middle of the nineteenth century. It was not until +vigorously challenged by the enthusiasts for modern scientific studies +that the teachers of the classics awoke to the need of improving their +instruction and restoring something of the old cultural value to what they +were teaching. + +The new learning in northern and western Europe was also much changed in +character by the violent religious dissensions, following the Protestant +Revolt, to a consideration of which we next turn. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Explain just what is meant by the statement that mediaeval education +was narrowly technical. + +2. State the educational ideals of the new secondary schools evolved by +the Italian humanistic scholars, and show whether these ideals have been +best embodied in the German _gymnasium_ or the English grammar school. + +3. How do you explain the merchants and bankers and princes of Italy being +more interested in the revival-of-learning movement than the Church and +university scholars? Do such classes to-day show the same type of interest +in aiding learning? + +4. What was the particular importance of the recovery of Quintilian's +_Institutes_? Of Cicero's _Orations_ and _Letters_? + +5. What better methods could the Italian court schools have used to enable +them to cover the university Arts course in shorter time? How would this +have advanced the character of the instruction in Arts in the university? + +6. Show how the type of education developed in the Italian court schools +was superior to that of the best of the cathedral schools. To that +developed by Sturm. + +7. Show how the new type of secondary schools was naturally associated +with court and nobility and men of large worldly affairs, and how in +consequence the new secondary education became and for long continued to +be considered as aristocratic education. + +8. Explain how the terms _college_, _lycée_, _gymnasium_, _academy_, and +_grammar school_ all came to be employed, in different countries, to +designate about the same type of secondary school. + +9. Had the purified Latin been restored, as the general international +language of learning and government, would it have helped materially in +bringing about the civilizing influences Erasmus saw in it? + +10. Has the development of separate nationalities and different national +languages aided in advancing international peace and civilization? Why? + +11. Why should the new humanistic studies have developed religious fervor +in Germany and England, in place of the patriotic fervor of the Italian +scholars? + +12. Was the struggle against the introduction of the new learning into the +German universities parallel to the late struggle against the introduction +of science into American universities? + +13. Contrast the aim of Sturm's school with that of the Italian court +schools, and the English grammar schools. Point out the new tendencies in +his work. + +14. Does the sentence quoted from Elyot's _Governour_ express well the +changed conditions in England at the middle of the sixteenth century? Do +such changed conditions always demand educational reorganizations? + +15. What basis, if any, did the opponents of Colet's school have for +denouncing it as a temple of idolatry and heathenism? + +16. Show how it was natural that the first American school should have +been a Latin grammar school in type. + +17. Show that the new conception as to education, as expressed by the new +humanism, found a public ready to support it. What was the nature of this +public? + +18. Show how the new schools were "close to the most progressive forces in +the national life," and the influence of this, particularly in England and +America, in fixing classical training as the approved type of secondary +education. + +19. Explain how the written theme of to-day is the successor of the +mediaeval disputation. + +20. Show how the methods of instruction employed in the new Latin grammar +schools have been passed over to the native-language schools. + +21. From the paragraph quoted from Leach (p. 282), explain why a knowledge +of Latin was for so long regarded as synonymous with being educated. + +22. Show how instruction in Latin, by being changed from cultural to +disciplinary ends, made French the language of diplomacy and society, +tended to elevate all the vernacular tongues, and marked the beginnings of +the end of the importance of Latin as a school study except for the +purposes of the Roman Catholic Church. + +23. What was the purpose of the Latin instruction, as you received it? + +24. Does it require a higher quality of teaching to impart the cultural +aspect of a study than is required for the disciplinary? + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 135. Guarino: On Teaching the Classical Authors. + 136. Vinet: The Collège de Guyenne at Bordeaux. + 137. Sturm: Course of Study at Strassburg. + 138. Colet: Statutes for St. Paul's School, London. + (a) Religious Observances. + (b) Admission of Children. + (c) The Course of Study. + 139. Ascham: On Queen Elizabeth's Learning. + 140. Colet: Introduction to Lily's Latin Grammar. + 141. William Sevenoaks: Foundation Bequest for Sevenoaks Grammar School. + 142. John Percyvall: Foundation Bequest for a Chantry Grammar School. + 143. Sandwich: A City Grammar School Foundation. + 144. Eton: Course of Study in 1560. + 145. Martindale: Course of Study in an English Country Grammar School. + 146. Simpson: Degeneracy of Classical Instruction. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Show the large scope of Grammar, as outlined by Guarino (135). + +2. How generally was his dictum that a knowledge of Latin and Greek were +essential for a well-educated gentleman (135) accepted? + +3. Compare the course of study in Sturm's school (137) with that at +Bordeaux (136), and with that at Eton (144) a little later. + +4. From Ascham's statements (139), what do you infer as to the reception +of the new learning at the English court? + +5. Show how Colet (138 a) and William Sevenoaks (141) both aimed to +provide for real teachers, specialized for the service, and not for +teaching as an adjunct to priestly duties. What was the significance of +these provisions? + +6. Show that Colet (138 b) desired to train leaders, rather than +followers. + +7. Show that he clearly provided (138 c) for a humanistic school of the +reformed type. + +8. Characterize Colet's Introduction to Lily's Grammar (140). + +9. What was the educational significance of such a bequest as that of +William Sevenoaks (141)? + +10. What did the founding of a chantry grammar school (142), instead of a +song school, indicate as to the progress of education? + +11. Would the action taken by the authorities of the City of Sandwich +(143) indicate that the humanistic grammar school had taken a deep hold on +English thought, or not? The same with reference to the course given in a +small English country grammar school, as described by Martindale (145)? + +12. Just what does the instruction described as given by Campion (146) +indicate? + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + +* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. + Jebb, R. C. _Humanism in Education_. + Laurie, S. S. _Development of Educational Opinion since the + Renaissance_. + Laurie, S. S. "The Renaissance and the School, 1440-1580"; in _School + Review_, vol. 4, pp. 140-48, 202-14. +* Lupton, J. H. _A Life of John Colet_. + Palgrave, F. T. "The Oxford Movement in the Fifteenth Century"; in + _Nineteenth Century_, vol. 28, pp. 812-30. (Nov. 1890.) + Seebohm, F. _The Oxford Reformers of 1498; Colet, Erasmus, More_. +* Stowe, A. M. _English Grammar Schools in the Reign of Queen + Elizabeth_. +* Thurber, C. H. "Vittorino da Feltre"; in School _Review_, vol. 7, + pp. 295-300. + Watson, Foster. _English Grammar Schools to 1660_. +* Woodward, W. H. _Vittorino da Feltre, and other Humanistic + Educators_. +* Woodward, W. H. _Education during the Renaissance_. + Woodward, W. H. _Desiderius Erasmus, Concerning the Method and Aim of + Education_. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE REVOLT AGAINST AUTHORITY + + +THE NEW QUESTIONING ATTITUDE. The student can hardly have followed the +history of educational development thus far without realizing that a +serious questioning of the practices and of the dogmatic and repressive +attitude of the omnipresent mediaeval Church was certain to come, sooner +or later, unless the Church itself realized that the mediaeval conditions +which once demanded such an attitude were rapidly passing away, and that +the new life in Christendom now called for a progressive stand in +religious matters as in other affairs. The new life resulting from the +Crusades, the rise of commerce and industry, the organization of city +governments, the rise of lawyer and merchant classes, the formation of new +national States, the rise of a new "Estate" of tradesmen and workers, the +new knowledge, the evolution of the university organizations, and the +discovery of the art of printing--all these forces had united to develop a +new attitude toward the old problems and to prepare western Europe for a +rapid evolution out of the mediaeval conditions which had for so long +dominated all action and thinking. This the Church should have realized, +and it should have assumed toward the progressive tendencies of the time +the same intelligent attitude assumed earlier toward the rise of +scholastic inquiry. But it did not, and by the fifteenth century the +situation had been further aggravated by a marked decline in morality on +the part of both monks and clergy, which awakened deep and general +criticism in all lands, but particularly among the northern peoples. + +The Revival of Learning was the first clear break with mediaevalism. In +the critical and constructive attitude developed by the scholars of the +movement, their renunciation of the old forms of thinking, the new craving +for truth for its own sake which they everywhere awakened, and their +continual appeal to the original sources of knowledge for guidance, we +have the definite beginnings of a modern scientific spirit which was +destined ultimately to question all things, and in time to usher in modern +conceptions and modern ways of thinking. The authority of the mediaeval +Church would be questioned, and out of this questioning would come in time +a religious freedom and a religious tolerance unknown in the mediaeval +world. The great world of scientific truth would be inquired into and the +facts of modern science established, regardless of what preconceived +ideas, popular or religious, might be upset thereby. The divine right of +kings to rule, and to dispose of the fortunes and happiness of their +peoples as they saw fit, was also destined to be questioned, and another +new "Estate" would in time arise and substitute, instead, in all +progressive lands, the divine right of the common people. Religious +freedom and toleration, scientific inquiry and scholarship, and the +ultimate rise of democracy were all involved in the critical, questioning, +and constructive attitude of the humanistic scholars of the Renaissance. +These came historically in the order just stated, and in this order we +shall consider them. + +HUMANISM BECAME A RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENT IN THE NORTH. In Italy the +Revival of Learning was classical and scientific in its methods and +results, and awakened little or no tendency toward religious and moral +reform. Instead it resulted in something of a paganization of religion, +with the result that the Papacy and the Italian Church probably reached +their lowest religious levels at about the time the great religious +agitation took place in northern lands. In the latter, on the contrary, +the introduction of humanism awakened a new religious zeal, and religious +reform and classical learning there came to be associated almost as one +movement. In England, Germany, the Low Countries, and in large parts of +northern France, the new learning was at once directed to religious and +moral ends. The patriotic emotions roused in the Italians by the +humanistic movement were in the northern countries superseded by religious +and moral emotions, and the constant appeal to sources turned the northern +leaders almost at once back to the Church Fathers and the original Greek +and Hebrew Testaments for authority in religious matters. + +Colet, from England, who had spent the years 1493-96 in Florence (p. 254), +during the period when Savonarola (1452-98) was preaching moral reform +there, returned home, not only a humanist, but a religious reformer as +well, and began to lecture at Oxford on the Epistles of Saint Paul in the +Greek. Linacre, Grocyn, Colet, Erasmus, and Sir Thomas More (author of +_Utopia_), among others, formed a little group of humanists all of whom +were also deeply interested in a reform of the practices of the Church. +Erasmus, in particular, labored hard by his writings to remove religious +abuses. His _Colloquies_ (1519), a widely used Latin reading book, was +banned from the classrooms of the University of Paris (1528), and +forbidden to be used in Catholic lands by the Church Council of Trent +(1564), because of the way in which it held up to ridicule the abuses in +the Church, the superstitions of the age, and the immoralities in the +lives of the monks and clergy. His work as Professor of Divinity at +Cambridge, his numerous editions of the writings of the Church Fathers, +and his Latin-Greek edition (1516), of the New Testament [1] all alike +tended to turn theological scholars back to the original sources instead +of to the scholastics for the foundations of their religious faith. In +Germany such men as Hegius (p, 271), Reuchlin (p. 254), and Melanchthon +(p. 270) began, by similar methods, to go back to Greek and Hebrew sources +and to the Church Fathers for new interpretations as to religious +doctrines. In so doing they discovered that many practices and demands of +the Church, all of which had grown up during the long mediaeval period, +were not in harmony with the earlier teachings of Christ, the Apostles, or +the early Fathers. In France, Jacques Lefèvre (c. 1455-1536), a humanist +and a pioneer Protestant, contended for the rule of the Scriptures and for +justification by faith, and translated the Bible into the French (New +Testament, 1523; complete, 1530) that the people might read it. + +EVOLUTION OR REVOLUTION. The reaction against the mediaeval dogmas of the +Church and the demand by the humanists of the North for a return to the +simpler religion of Christ gradually grew, and in time became more and +more insistent. This demand was not something which broke out all at once +and with Luther, as many seem to think. Had this been so he would soon +have been suppressed, and little more would have been heard of him. +Instead, the literature of the time clearly reveals that there had been, +for two centuries, an increasing criticism of the Church, and a number of +local and unsuccessful efforts at reform had been attempted. The demand +for reform was general, and of long standing, outside of Italy and +southern France. Had it been heeded probably much subsequent history might +have been different. A few of the more important attempts at reform may be +mentioned here, as a background for our study. + +The first organized revolt against the Church occurred in southern France, +in the early thirteenth century, and the revolters (_Albigenses_) were so +fearfully punished by fire and sword that it was not attempted there +again. + +[Illustration: FIG. 86. JOHN WYCLIFFE (1320?-84) +A popular English preacher (Drawn from an old print)] + +In 1378 there was a disputed papal election, and for nearly forty years +there were two Popes, one at Rome, and one at Avignon in southern France, +each attempting to control the Church and each denouncing the other as +Antichrist. The discussions which accompanied this "Great Schism" did much +to weaken the authority of the Church in all Christian lands. In England a +popular preacher and Oxford divinity graduate by the name of John Wycliffe +was led, by the sad condition of the Church there, to a careful study of +the Bible. He came to the conclusion that many of the claims of the Popes +and many practices of the Church were wrong (R. 147) and he refused to +accept teachings of the Church for which he could not find sanction in the +Bible. His revolt was as direct and vigorous as that of Luther, in German +lands, a century and a half later (R. 148). So great was his zeal for +reform that he and his scholars attempted a translation of the Bible [2] +into English (see Figure 93), that the people might read it, and he and +his followers (called _Lollards_) went about the country teaching what +they believed to be the true Christianity. What had before in England been +a widespread but undefined feeling of disaffection for the rich and +careless clergy and monks, the work of Wycliffe organized into a political +and social force. + +Due to the then close connection of the English and Bohemian courts, +through royal marriages, Wycliffe's teachings were carried to Bohemia, +where a popular preacher and university theologian by the name of John +Huss (1373-1415) expounded them. He denounced the evil conduct of the +clergy, and he and his followers tried to introduce several new customs +into the Church. For this Huss was first excommunicated, and then burned +at the stake as a dangerous heretic. [3] After a series of terrible +massacres his followers were forced, in large part, to accept once more +the old system. + +[Illustration: FIG. 87. RELIGIOUS WARFARE IN BOHEMIA +Sacking a village in true German style (From a picture in the Germanic +Museum at Nuremberg)] + +In 1414 a Council of the Church was called at Constance, in Switzerland, +to heal the papal schism, and this Council made a serious attempt at +church reform. After reuniting the Church under one Pope, it drew up a +list of abuses which it ordered remedied (R. 149). It also attempted to +establish a democratic form of organization for the government of the +Church, with Church Councils meeting from time to time to advise with the +Pope and formulate church policy, much like the government of a modern +parliament and king. Had this succeeded, much future history might have +been different [4] and the civilization of the world to-day much advanced. +But the attempt failed, and the absolutism of the reunited Papacy became +stronger than ever before. Protests of princes, actions of legislative +assemblies, [5] protests sometimes of bishops, [6] the failing allegiance +of men of affairs, the increasing condemnation and ridicule from laymen +and scholars--all signs of a strong undercurrent of public opinion--seemed +to have no effect on those responsible for the policy of the Church. + +That the different rebellions and refusals of reform helped directly to +the ultimate break of Luther is not probable, as Luther seems to have +worked out his position by himself. Each of these earlier defiances of +authority and the later defiance of Luther were alike, though, in two +respects. Each demanded a return to the usages and beliefs and practices +of the earlier Christian Church, as derived from a study of the Bible and +of the writings of the early Christian Fathers; and each insisted that +Christians should be permitted to study the Bible for themselves, and +reach their own conclusions as to Christian duty. In this demand to be +allowed to go back to the original sources for authority, and the +assertion of the right to personal investigation and conclusions, we see +the new intellectual standards established by the Revival of Learning in +full force. After 1500 the rising demands for moral reform and the +recognition of individual judgment could not be put aside much longer. +Unless there could be evolution there would be revolution. Evolution was +refused, [7] and revolution was the result. + +DISCONTENT IN GERMAN LANDS. It happened that the first revolt to be +successful in a large way broke out in Germany, and about the person of an +Augustinian monk and Professor of Theology in the University of Wittenberg +by the name of Martin Luther (1483-1546). Had it not centered about Luther +the revolt would have come about some one else; had it not come in Germany +it would have come in some other land. It was the modern scientific spirit +of inquiry and reason in conflict with the mediaeval spirit of dogmatic +authority, and two such forces are sooner or later destined to clash. +Whether we be Catholic or Protestant, and whether we approve or disapprove +of what Luther did or of his methods, makes little difference in this +study. Over a question involving so much religious partisanship we do not +need to take sides. All that we need concern ourselves with is that a +certain Martin Luther lived, did certain things, made certain stands for +what he believed to be right, and what he did, whether right or wrong, +whether beneficial to progress and civilization or not, stands as a great +historical fact with which the student of the history of education must +take account. That the same or even better results might have been arrived +at in time by other methods may be true, but what we are concerned with is +the course which history actually took. [8] + +There were special reasons why the trouble, when once it broke, made such +rapid entry in German lands. The Germans had a long-standing grudge +against the Italian papal court, chiefly because it had for long been +draining Germany of money to support the Italian Church. Germany's +greatest minnesinger, Walther von der Vogelweide (1170-1228), three +centuries before Luther had sung to the German people how the Pope made +merry over the stupid Germans. + + "All their goods will be mine, + Their silver is flowing into my far-away chest; + Their priests are living on poultry and wine, + And leaving the silly layman to fast." + +Many positions in the German Church had been filled by the Pope with +Italians, who not infrequently drew the perquisites, but did not reside in +Germany. The princely and feudal Archbishops of Mayence, Treves, Cologne, +and Salzburg, with their fortified castles and lands and troops and large +governmental powers, frequently proved to be serious sources of +irritation. The most widespread discontent, though, arose over the heavy +church taxation, which drained the money of the people to Italy. The whole +German people, from the princes down to the peasants, felt themselves +unjustly treated, that the German money which flowed to Rome should be +kept at home, and that the immoral and inefficient clergy should be +replaced by upright, earnest men who would attend better to their +religious duties (R. 150). It was these conditions which prepared the +Germans for revolt, and enabled Luther to rally so many of the princes and +people to his side when once he had defied authority. + +THE GERMAN REVOLT. The crisis came over the sale of indulgences for sins +by the papal agent, Tetzel, who began the practice in the neighborhood of +Wittenberg, where Luther was a Professor of Theology, in 1516. There is +little doubt but that Tetzel, in his zeal to raise money for the +rebuilding of the church of Saint Peter's at Rome, a great undertaking +then under way, exceeded his instructions and made claims as to the nature +and efficacy of indulgences which were not warranted by church doctrines. +Such would be only human. The sale, however, irritated Luther, and he +appealed to the Archbishop of Magdeburg to prohibit it. Failing to obtain +any satisfaction, he followed the old university custom, made out ninety- +five theses, or reasons, why he did not believe the practice justifiable, +detailed the abuses, set forth what he conceived to be the true Christian +doctrine in the matter, and challenged all comers to a debate on the +theses (R. 151). Following true university custom, also, these theses were +made out in Latin, and in October, 1517, Luther followed still another +university custom and nailed them to the church door in Wittenberg. Luther +was probably as much surprised as any one to find that these were at once +translated into German, printed, and in two weeks had been scattered all +over Germany. Within a month they were known in all the important centers +of the Western Christian world. They had been carried everywhere on the +currents of discontent. Luther at first intended no revolt from the +Church, but only a protest against its practices. From one step to +another, though, he was gradually led into open rebellion, and finally, in +1520, was excommunicated from the Church. He then expressed his defiance +by publicly burning the bull of excommunication, together with a volume of +the canon law. This was open rebellion, and such heresy (R. 152) must +needs be stamped out. Luther took his stand on the authority of the +Scriptures, and the battle was now joined between the forces representing +the authority of the Church _versus_ the authority of the Bible, and +salvation through the Church _versus_ salvation through personal faith and +works. [9] Luther also forced the issue for freedom of thought in +religious matters. It was, to be sure, some three centuries before freedom +in religious thinking and worship became clearly recognized, but what the +early university masters and scholars had stood for in intellectual +matters, Luther now asserted in religious affairs as well. + +[Illustration: FIG. 88. SHOWING THE RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS] + +We do not need to follow the details of the conflict. Suffice it to know +that great portions of northern and western Germany followed Luther, as is +shown in Figure 88, and that the Western Church, which had remained one +for so many centuries and been the one great unifying force in western +Europe, was permanently split by the Protestant Revolt. The large success +of Luther is easily explained by the new life which now permeated western +Europe. The world was rapidly becoming modern, while the Church, with a +perversity almost unexplainable, insisted upon remaining mediaeval and +tried to force others to remain mediaeval with it. Adams expresses the +situation well when he says: [10] + + A revolution had been wrought in the intellectual world in the century + between Huss and Luther. At the death of Huss the world had only just + begun the study of Greek. Since that date, the great body of classical + literature had been recovered, and the sciences of philology and + historical criticism thoroughly established. As a result Luther had at + his command a well-developed method ... impossible to any earlier + reformer.... The world also had become familiar with independent + investigation, and with the proclamation of new views and the + upsetting of old ones. By no means the least of the great services of + Erasmus to civilization had been to hold up before all the world so + conspicuous an example of the scholar following, as his inalienable + right, the truth as he found it and wherever it appeared to lead him, + and honest in his public utterances as to the results of his + studies.... His was the crowning work of a century which had produced + in the general public a greatly changed attitude of mind toward + intellectual independence since the days of Huss. The printing press + was of itself almost enough to account for Luther's success as + compared with his predecessors. Wycliffe made almost as direct and + vigorous an appeal to the public at large, and with "an amazing + industry he issued tract after tract in the tongue of the people," but + Luther had the advantage in the rapid multiplication of copies and in + their cheapness, and he covered Europe with the issues of his + press.... Luther spoke to a very different public from that which + Wycliffe or Huss had addressed,--a public European in extent, and one + not merely familiar with the assertion of new ideas, but tolerant, in + a certain way, of the innovator, and expectant of great things in the + future. + +A revolution it undoubtedly was, but a revolution in thinking much more +than a political revolution. It was but a further manifestation of the +inquiring and questioning tendency awakened by the Revival of Learning. It +might in a sense be dated from Wycliffe and Huss, as well as from Erasmus +and Luther. Luther did not create the Reformation. He rather popularized +the work of preceding protesters, giving the impress of his powerful +personality to the movement, and directing and moulding its form. + +[Illustration: FIG. 89. HULDREICH ZWINGLI (1487-1531)] + +REVOLTS IN OTHER LANDS. The outbreak in Germany soon spread to other +lands. Lutheranism made rapid headway in Denmark, where the German +grievances against Italian rule were equally familiar, and in 1537 the +Danish Diet severed all connection with Rome and established Lutheranism +as the religion of the country. Norway, being then a part of Denmark, was +carried for Lutheranism also. In Sweden the Church was shorn of some of +its powers and property in 1527, and in 1592 Lutheranism was definitely +adopted as the religion for the nation. This included Finland, then a part +of Sweden. An independent reform movement, closely akin to Lutheranism in +its aims, made considerable headway in German Switzerland +contemporaneously with the reform work of Luther in Germany. This was +under the leadership of a popular humanist preacher in Zurich by the name +of Huldreich Zwingli. In 1519 he began a series of sermons on real +religion, as he had learned it from a study of the New Testament writings. +Zwingli, being supported by the people, made many changes in church +practices and worship, eventually even abolishing the mass. Many other +towns took up this reform movement, and civil war was the result. Zwingli +was killed in battle between Swiss partisans of the old regime and +reformers, in 1531, but his work though checked persisted, and German +Switzerland became mixed Catholic and Protestant. [11] + +In England the struggle came nominally over the divorce (1533) of Henry +VIII from Catherine of Aragon, though the independence of the English +Church had been asserted from time to time for two centuries, and a free +National Church had for long been a growing ideal with English statesmen. +In 1534 Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy (R. 153) which severed +England from Rome. By it the King was made head of the English National +Church. The change was in no sense a profound one, such as had taken place +in Lutheran Germany. The priests who took the new oath of allegiance to +the King instead of the Pope as the head of the Church, as most of them +did, continued in the churches, the service was changed to English, some +reforms were instituted, but the people did not experience any great +change in religious feeling or ideas. This new National Church became +known as the English or Anglican Church. + +So far as the early history of America is concerned, the most important +reform movement was neither Lutheranism nor Anglicanism, but Calvinism. In +1537 John Calvin, a French Protestant who had fled to Switzerland, [12] +was invited to submit a plan for the educational and religious +reorganization of the city of Geneva, and in 1541 he was entrusted with +the task of organizing there a little religious City-Republic. For this he +established a combined church and city government, in which religious +affairs and the civil government were as closely connected as they had +ever been in any Catholic country. During the twenty-three years that +Calvin dominated Geneva it became the Rome of Protestantism. Calvin's _The +Institutes of Christianity_, published in Latin in 1536, and in French in +1541, was the first orderly presentation of the principles of Christian +faith from the Protestant standpoint, [13] while his French _Catechism_ +(1537) was extensively used [14] in Calvinistic lands as a basis for +elementary religious instruction. + +[Illustration: FIG. 90. JOHN CALVIN (1509-1564) +(Drawn from a contemporary painting)] + +From Geneva a reformed Calvinistic religion spread over northern France, +[15] where its followers became known as _Huguenots_; to Scotland (1560), +where they were known as _Scotch Presbyterians_; to the Netherlands +(1572), where originated the Dutch Reformed Church; and to portions of +central England, where those who embraced it became known as _Puritans_. +Through the Puritans who settled New England, and later through the +Huguenots in the Carolinas, the Scotch Presbyterians in the central +colonies, and the Dutch in New York, Calvinism was carried to America, was +for long the dominant religious belief, and profoundly colored all early +American education. Lutheranism also came in through the Swedes along the +Delaware and the Germans in Pennsylvania, while the Anglican Church, known +in America as the _Episcopalian_, came in through the landed aristocracy +in Virginia and the later settlers in New York. The early settlement of +America was thus a Protestant settlement, while the migration to America +of large numbers of peoples from Catholic lands is a relatively recent +movement. + +RELIGIOUS FREEDOM AND RELIGIOUS WARFARE. Of course the revolt against the +authority of the Church, once inaugurated, could not be stopped. The same +right to freedom in religious belief which Luther claimed for himself and +his followers had of course to be extended to others. This the Protestants +were not much more willing to grant than had been the Catholics before +them. The world was not as yet ready for such rapid advances, and +religious toleration, [16] though established in principle by the revolt, +was an idea to which the world has required a long time to become +accustomed. It took two centuries of intermittent religious warfare, +during which Catholic and Protestant waged war on one another, plundered +and pillaged lands, and murdered one another for the salvation of their +respective souls, before the people of western Europe were willing to stop +fighting and begin to recognize for others that which they were fighting +for for themselves. When religious tolerance finally became established by +law, civilization had made a tremendous advance. + +The religious wars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were waged +with greatest intensity in Spain, France, and the German States, though no +land wholly escaped. The result of this religious strife was to check the +progress of the higher civilization of the people for nearly three +centuries, and to delay greatly the coming of the great blessing of +freedom in matters of religious belief, while the poverty and misery +resulting from the devastation of these religious wars left neither the +energy for nor the interest in educational or political progress. + +The struggle to suppress Lutheranism in Germany was postponed for twenty- +five years--due to outside pressure, chiefly that of the Turks in +southeastern Europe--from the time that the Diet of Worms decided against +Luther (1521). Finally, in 1546, the German-Spanish Emperor Charles V felt +at last free to proceed against the Lutheran heresy, and from the +breaking-out in that year of the struggle between Charles and the German +princes who sided with Luther, to the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, +represents a century of almost continual religious warfare in the German +States. The worst of the period was the last thirty years, when religious +ferocity and hatred reached its climax in the period known as the _Thirty +Years' War_ (1618-48). Though fought on German soil, France, Spain, and +Sweden were deeply involved in the struggle. It left Germany a ruin. From +the most prosperous State in Europe, in 1550, Germany was so reduced that +it was not until the second third of the nineteenth century that central +and southern Germany had fully recovered. More than half the population +and two thirds of the movable property were swept away. The people were so +reduced by starvation that cannibalism was openly practiced. But one tenth +of the inhabitants of the Duchy of Würtemberg were left alive. Land tilled +for centuries became a wilderness, thousands of towns were destroyed, +whole trades were swept away, and the generation which survived the war +came to manhood without knowing education, religion, law and order, or +organized industry. Not until the end of the eighteenth century was +Germany again able to make any significant contribution to education or +civilization, and not until the middle of the nineteenth century did parts +of Germany come to have as many people or cattle as before this +devastating religious war broke out. + +[Illustration: FIG. 91. A FRENCH PROTESTANT (c. 1600) +A restoration, Musée d'Artillerie, Paris] + +From 1560 to 1629 in France, also, a period of carnage and devastation +prevailed, due to an attempt to exterminate the Calvinistic Huguenots. In +the massacre of Saint Bartholomew's eve, in 1572, ten thousand Protestants +are said to have perished in Paris alone, and forty-five thousand +additional outside the city. Though the Edict of Nantes (1598) had granted +religious toleration, this never was fully accomplished, and in 1685 the +Edict was revoked. The Huguenots were now given fifteen days to become +Catholics or leave France. The demands were enforced with great severity, +and the sect, which embraced one tenth of the population of France, was +stamped out and France became once more a Catholic country. In a short +time four hundred thousand thrifty and highly intelligent Huguenots had +left France for other lands. In Southern German lands, Holland, England, +and America many found a new home. + +CHANGED ATTITUDE TOWARD THE OLD PROBLEMS. The Peace of Westphalia (1648), +which ended the bloody Thirty Years' War, itself the culmination of a +century of bitter and vindictive religious strife, has often been regarded +as both an end and a beginning. Though the persecution of minorities for a +time continued, especially in France, this treaty marked the end of the +attempt of the Church and the Catholic States to stamp out Protestantism +on the continent of Europe. The religious independence of the Protestant +States was now acknowledged, and the beginnings of religious freedom were +established by treaty. This new freedom of conscience, once definitely +begun for the ruling princes, was certain in time to be extended further. +Ultimately the day must come, though it might be centuries away, when +individual as well as national freedom in religious matters must be +granted as a right, and one of the greatest blessings of mankind finally +be firmly established by law. [17] + +The end of the period of bitter religious warfare, too, was followed by a +reaction against religious intolerance which contained within itself the +germs of much future liberty and human progress. Paulsen has well +expressed the change, in the following words: [18] + + The long and terrible wars to which the ecclesiastical schism had + everywhere given rise--the wars of the Huguenots in France, the Thirty + Years War, and the Civil War in England--had, in the end, created a + feeling of indifference toward religious and theological problems. Did + it really pay, people asked themselves, to kill each other and + devastate each other's countries for the sake of such questions? Could + these problems ever be decided at all? If not, was it not much more + reasonable to let everyone believe what he could, and, instead of + wasting breath and arguments, convincing to nobody, on + transubstantiation, predestination, and real presence, to cultivate + sciences which really placed lasting and verifiable truths within the + reach of the understanding, such as mathematics and natural + philosophy, geography and astronomy? Here were sciences which offered + knowledge to the mind that could be turned to account in this earthly + life, whereas those transcendental speculations were of no use at + all.... Toward the end of the seventeenth century this spirit of + indifference and scepticism toward theology, and sometimes even toward + religion in general and the future world, formed a most important + factor in the changing intellectual attitude of the times. [19] + +Physically exhausted, and recognizing at last the futility of fire and +sword as means for stamping out opposing religious convictions, but still +thoroughly convinced as to the correctness of their respective points of +view, both sides now settled down to another century and more of religious +hatred, suspicion, and intolerance, and to a close supervision of both +preaching and teaching as safeguards to orthodoxy. During the century +following the Peace of Westphalia greater reliance than ever before was +placed on the school as a means for protecting the faith, and the pulpit +and the school now took the place of the sword and the torch as converting +and holding agents. + +RELIGIOUS REFORM. The effect of the Protestant Revolts on the Church was +good. For the first time in history Catholic churchmen learned that they +could not rely on the general acceptance of any teachings they +promulgated, or any practices they saw fit to approve. The spirit of +inquiry which had been aroused by the methods of the humanists would in +the future force them to explain and to defend. If they were to make +headway against this great rebellion they must reform abuses, purify +church practices, and see that monks and clergy led upright Christian +lives. Unless the mass of the people could be made loyal to the Church by +reverence for it, further revolts and the ultimate break-up of the +institution were in prospect. The Council of Trent (1545-63) at last +undertook the reform which should have come at least a century before. +Better men were selected for the church offices, and bishops and clergy +were ordered to reside in their proper places and to preach regularly. New +religious orders arose, whose purpose was to prepare priests better for +the service of the Church and for ministry to the needs of the people. +Irritating practices were abandoned. The laws and doctrines of the Church +were restated, in new and better form. Moral reforms were instituted. In +most particulars the reforms forced by the work of Luther were thorough +and complete, and since the middle of the sixteenth century the Catholic +Church, in morals and government, has been a reformed Church. Above all, +attention was turned to education rather than force as a means of winning +and holding territory. A rigid quarantine was, however, established in +Catholic lands against the further spread of heretical text books and +literature. Especially was the reading of the Bible, which had been the +cause of all the trouble, for a time rigidly prohibited. [20] + +Such, in brief, are the historical facts connected with the various +revolts against authority which split the Roman Catholic Church in the +sixteenth century. These have been stated, as briefly and as impartially +as possible, because so much of future educational history arose out of +the conditions resulting from these revolts. The early educational history +of America is hardly understandable without some knowledge of the +religious forces awakened by the work of the Protestants. To the +educational significance and consequences of these revolts we next turn. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. How do you explain the difference in the effect, on the scholars of the +time, of the Revival of Learning in Italy and in northern lands? + +2. How do you explain the serious church opposition to the different +attempts of northern scholars to try to turn the Church back to the +simpler religious ideals and practices of early Christianity? + +3. Explain how opposition to the practices of the Church could be +organized into a political force. + +4. Explain the analogy of a heretic in the fifteenth century and an +anarchist of to-day. + +5. Assuming that the Church had encouraged progressive evolution as a +policy, and thus warded off revolution and disruption, in what ways might +history have been different? + +6. How can the bitter opposition to the reading and study of the Bible be +explained? + +7. Show the analogy between the freedom of thinking demanded by Luther, +and that obtained three centuries earlier by the scholars in the rising +universities. Why were the universities not opposed? + +8. Enumerate the changes which had taken place in western Europe between +the days of Wycliffe and Huss and the time of Luther, which enabled him to +succeed where they had failed. + +9. Explain in what ways the Protestant Revolt was essentially a revolution +in thinking, and that, once started, certain other consequences must +inevitably follow in time. + +10. Was it perfectly natural that the reformers should refuse to their +followers the same right to revolt, and separate off into smaller and +still different sects, which they had contended for for themselves? Why? + +11. On what basis could Catholic and Protestant wage war on one another to +try to enforce their own particular belief? + +12. Compare the individualism of the Greek Sophists with that of the +Protestant reformers. Did Greece attempt to deal with them in the same +way? + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 147. Wycliffe: On the Enemies of Christ. + 148. Wycliffites: Attack the Pope and the Practice of Indulgences. + 149. Council of Constance: List of Church Abuses demanding Reform. + 150. Geiler: A German Priest's View as to Coming Reform. + 151. Luther: Illustrations from his Ninety-Five Theses. + 152. Saint Thomas Aquinas: On the Treatment of Heresy. + 153. Henry VIII: The English Act of Supremacy. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Was Wycliffe's attack (147) as direct and fierce as Luther's (151)? + +2. Explain the difference in the results attained by the two attacks? + +3. Was the challenge of Wycliffe's followers on indulgences (148) any less +direct than that of Luther (151)? + +4. Does the list of items drawn up by the Church Council of Constance +(149) indicate a general recognition of the need for extensive Church +reform? + +5. Try to state the possible change in the progress of human history and +civilization, had the demands of the Council of Constance (149) been +carried out in good faith. + +6. Considering the nature of heresy at the time, does the extract from +Thomas Aquinas (152) indicate a narrow or a liberal attitude? + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + +* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. + Beard, Charles. _Martin Luther and the Reformation_. + Beard, Charles. _The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its + Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge_. (Hibbert Lectures, + 1883.) + Fisher, George P. _History of the Reformation_. + Gasquet, F. A. _Eve of the Reformation_. + Johnson, A. H. _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_. + Perry, George G. _History of the Reformation in England_. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS + + +I. AMONG LUTHERANS AND ANGLICANS + +ULTIMATE CONSEQUENCES OF THE BREAK WITH AUTHORITY. That the Protestant +Revolts in the different lands produced large immediate and permanent +changes in the character of the education provided in the revolting States +is no longer accepted as being the case. In every phase of educational +history growth has proceeded by evolution rather than by revolution, and +this applies to the Protestant Revolts as well as to other revolutions. +Many changes naturally resulted at once, some of which were good and some +of which were not, while others which were enthusiastically attempted +failed of results because they involved too great advances for the time. +Much, too, of the progress that was inaugurated was lost in the more than +a century of religious strife which followed, and the additional century +and more of suspicion, hatred, religious formalism, and strict religious +conformity which followed the period of religious strife. The educational +significance of the reformation movement, though, lies in the far-reaching +nature of its larger results and ultimate consequences rather than in its +immediate accomplishments, and because of this the importance of the +immediate changes effected have been overestimated by Protestants and +underestimated by Catholics. + +The dominant idea underlying Luther's break with authority, and for that +matter the revolts of Wycliffe, Huss, Zwingli, and Calvin as well, was +that of substituting the authority of the Bible in religious matters for +the authority of the Church; of substituting individual judgment in the +interpretation of the Scriptures and in formulating decisions as to +Christian duty for the collective judgment of the Church; and of +substituting individual responsibility for salvation, in Luther's +conception of justification through personal faith and prayer, for the +collective responsibility for salvation of the Church. [1] Whether one +believes that the Protestant position was sound or not depends almost +entirely upon one's religious training and beliefs, and need not concern +us here, as it makes no difference with the course of history. We can +believe either way, and the course that history took remains the same. The +educational consequences of the position taken by the Protestants, though, +are important. + +Under the older theory of collective judgment and collective +responsibility for salvation--that is, the judgment of the Church rather +than that of individuals--it was not important that more than a few be +educated. Under the new theory of individual judgment and individual +responsibility promulgated by the Protestants it became very important, in +theory at least, that every one should be able to read the word of God, +participate intelligently in the church services, and shape his life as he +understood was in accordance with the commandments of the Heavenly Father. +This undoubtedly called for the education of all. Still more, from +individual participation in the services of the Church, with freedom of +judgment and personal responsibility in religious matters, to individual +participation in and responsibility for the conduct of government was not +a long step, and the rise of democratic governments and the provision of +universal education were the natural and ultimate corollaries, though not +immediately attained of the Protestant position regarding the +interpretation of the Scriptures and the place and authority of the +Church. This was soon seen and acted upon. The great struggle of the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, in consequence, became one for +religious freedom and toleration; the great struggle of the eighteenth and +nineteenth centuries has been for political freedom and political rights; +to supply universal education has been left to the nineteenth and the +twentieth centuries. + +SCHOOLS AND LEARNING BEFORE THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. After the rise of the +universities, as we have seen, many Latin secondary schools were founded +in western Europe, and a more extensive development of the cathedral and +other larger church schools took place. Rashdall (R. 154) thinks that by +1400 the opportunity to attend a Latin grammar school was rather common, +an opinion in which Leach and Nohle concur. After the humanistic learning +had spread to northern lands these opportunities were increased and +improved. In England, for example, some two hundred and fifty Latin +grammar schools are known to have been in existence by 1500. In Germany, +as we have seen (chapter xi), many such schools were founded before the +time of Luther. These offered a form of advanced education, in the +language of the educated classes of the time, for those intending to go to +the universities to prepare for service in either Church or State, and for +teaching. The Church had also for long maintained or exercised control +over a number of types of more elementary schools--parish, song, chantry, +hospital (chapter VII)--the chief purpose of which was to prepare for +certain phases of the church service, or to enter the secondary schools. +These schools, too, were taught partly or wholly in Latin. In consequence, +while Latin schools came to be rather widely diffused, schools in the +vernacular hardly existed outside of a few of the larger commercial cities +of the north. Even the burgh and guild schools (p. 205), established in +the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, were essentially Latin schools. + +[Illustration: PLATE 6. EDUCATIONAL LEADERS IN PROTESTANT GERMANY +(From a painting dated 1543, by Lucas Cranach, a German contemporary of +both men, and now in the Uffizi Gallery, at Florence) + +MARTIN LUTHER (1483-1546) +Professor of Theology at Wittenberg + +PHILIPP MELANCHTHON (1497-1560) +Professor of Greek at Wittenberg] + +In the commercial cities of the North, however, though often only after +quite a struggle with the local church authorities, which throughout the +Middle Ages had maintained a monopoly of all instruction as a protection +to orthodoxy, different types of elementary vernacular schools had been +developed to meet local commercial needs, such as writing-schools to train +writers, [2] and reckoning-schools to train young men to handle accounts. +[3] Reading, manners, and religion were also taught in these schools. +Other city schools, largely Latin in type, but containing some vernacular +instruction to meet local business needs not met by the cathedral or +parish schools of the city, were also developed. Up to the time of the +Protestant Revolts, however, there was almost no instruction in the +vernacular outside of the commercial cities, nor was there any particular +demand for such instruction elsewhere. If one wished to be a scholar, a +statesman, a diplomat, a teacher, a churchman, or to join a religious +brotherhood, he needed to study the learned language of the time,--Latin. +With this he could be at home with people of his kind anywhere in western +Europe. The vernacular he could leave to tradesmen, craftsmen, soldiers, +laborers, and the servant classes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 92. TWO EARLY VERNACULAR SCHOOLS +GERMAN (From a woodcut, printed at Nuremberg, 1505) +FRENCH (After a drawing by Soquand, 1528)] + +These people, on the other hand, had practically no need for a written +language, aside from a very small amount for business needs. Even here the +sign of the cross would do. There were but few books written in the +vernacular tongues, and these had to be copied by hand and, in +consequence, were scarce and expensive. There were no newspapers (first +newspaper, Venice, 1563) or magazines. Spectacles for reading were not +known until the end of the thirteenth century, and were not common for two +centuries after that. There was little knowledge that could not pass from +mouth to mouth. Such little vernacular literature as did exist was +transmitted orally, and no great issue which appealed to the imagination +of the masses had as yet come to the front to create any strong desire for +the ability to read. As a result, the education of the masses was in hand +labor, the trades, and religion, and not in books, and the need for book +education was scarcely felt. + +A NEW DEMAND FOR VERNACULAR SCHOOLS. The invention of printing and the +Protestant Revolts were in a sense two revolutionary forces, which in +combination soon produced vast and far-reaching changes. The discovery of +the process of making paper and the invention of the printing press +changed the whole situation as to books. These could now be reproduced +rapidly and in large numbers, and could be sold at but a small fraction of +their former cost. The printing of the Bible in the common tongue did far +more to stimulate a desire to be able to read than did the Revival of +Learning (Rs. 155, 170). Then came the religious discussions of the +Reformation period, which stirred intellectually the masses of the people +in northern lands as nothing before in history had ever done. In an effort +to reach the people the reformers originated small and cheap pamphlets, +written in the vernacular, and these, sold for a penny or two, were +peddled in the market-places and from house to house. While there had been +imperfect translations of the Bible in German before Luther's, his +translation (New Testament, 1522) was direct from the original Greek and +so carefully done that it virtually fixed the character of the German +language. [4] Calvin's _Institutes of Christianity_ (French edition, 1541) +in a similar manner fixed the character of the French language, [5] and +Tyndale's translation of the New Testament (1526) was into such simple and +homely language [6] that it fixed the character of the English tongue, and +was made the basis for the later Authorized translation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 93. THE FIRST PAGE OF WYCLIFFE'S BIBLE +Translated between 1382 and 1384. Facsimile of the first verses of +Genesis] + +The leaders of the Protestant Revolts, too, in asserting that each person +should be able to read and study the Scriptures as a means to personal +salvation, created an entirely new demand, in Protestant lands, for +elementary schools in the vernacular. Heretofore the demand had been for +schools only for those who expected to become scholars or leaders in +Church or State, while the masses of the people had little or no interest +in learning. Now a new class became desirous of learning to read, not +Latin, but the language which they had already learned to speak. Wycliffe, +Huss, Zwingli, Luther, Calvin, and Knox alike insisted on the importance +of the study of the Bible as a primary necessity in the religious life. In +an effort to bring the Bible within reach of the people Wycliffe's +followers had attempted the laborious and impossible task of multiplying +by hand (p. 290) copies of his translation. Zwingli had written a pamphlet +on _The Manner of Instruction and Bringing up Boys in a Christian Way_ +(1524), in which he urged the importance of religious education. Luther, +besides translating the Bible, had prepared two general Catechisms, one +for adults and one for children, had written hymns [7] and issued numerous +letters and sermons in behalf of religious education. All these were +printed in the vernacular and scattered broadcast. Luther thought that +"every human being, by the time he has reached his tenth year, should be +familiar with the Holy Gospels, in which the very core and marrow of his +life is bound." In his sermons and addresses he urged a study of the Bible +and the duty of sending children to school. Calvin's Catechism similarly +was extensively used in Protestant lands. + + +1. _Lutheran School Organization_ + +EDUCATIONAL IDEAS OF LUTHER. Luther enunciated the most progressive ideas +on education of all the German Protestant reformers. In his _Letter to the +Mayors and Aldermen of all the Cities of Germany in behalf of Christian +Schools_ (1524) (R. 156), and in his _Sermon on the Duty of Sending +Children to School_ (1530), we find these set forth. That his ideas could +be but partially carried out is not surprising. There were but few among +his followers who could understand such progressive proposals, they were +entirely too advanced for the time, there was no body of vernacular +teachers [8] or means to prepare them, the importance of such training was +not understood, and the religious wars which followed made such +educational advantages impossible, for a long time to come. The sad +condition of the schools, which he said were "deteriorating throughout +Germany," awakened his deep regret, and he begged of those in authority +"not to think of the subject lightly, for the instruction of youth is a +matter in which Christ and all the world are concerned." All towns had to +spend money for roads, defense, bridges, and the like, and why not some +for schools? This they now could easily afford, "since Divine Grace has +released them from the exaction and robbery of the Roman Church." Parents +continually neglected their educational duty, yet there must be civil +government. "Were there neither soul, heaven, nor hell," he declared, "it +would still be necessary to have schools for the sake of affairs here +below.... The world has need of educated men and women to the end that men +may govern the country properly and women may properly bring up their +children, care for their domestics, and direct the affairs of their +households." "The welfare of the State depends upon the intelligence and +virtue of its citizens," he said, "and it is therefore the duty of mayors +and aldermen in all cities to see that Christian schools are founded and +maintained" (R. 156). + +[Illustration: FIG. 94. LUTHER GIVING INSTRUCTION +An ideal drawing, though representative of early Protestant popular +instruction] + +The parents of children he held responsible for their Christian and civic +education. This must be free, and equally open to all--boys and girls, +high and low, rich and poor. It was the inherent right of each child to be +educated, and the State must not only see that the means are provided, but +also require attendance at the schools (R. 158). At the basis of all +education lay Christian education. The importance of the services of the +teacher was beyond ordinary comprehension (R. 157). Teachers should be +trained for their work, and clergymen should have had experience as +teachers. A school system for German people should be a state system, +divided into: + + 1. _Vernacular Primary Schools._ Schools for the common people, + to be taught in the vernacular, to be open to both sexes, to include + reading, writing, physical training, singing, and religion, and to + give practical instruction in a trade or in household duties. Upon + this attendance should be compulsory. "It is my opinion," he said, + "that we should send boys to school for one or two hours a day, and + have them learn a trade at home the rest of the time. It is desirable + that these two occupations march side by side." + + 2. _Latin Secondary Schools._ Upon these he placed great emphasis + (R. 156) as preparatory schools by means of which a learned clergy was + to be perpetuated for the instruction of the people. In these he would + teach Latin, Greek, Hebrew, rhetoric, dialectic, history, science, + mathematics, music, and gymnastics. + + 3. _The Universities._ For training for the higher service in + Church and State. + +[Illustration: FIG. 95. JOHANNES BUGENHAGEN (1485-1558) +Father of the Lutheran _Volksschule_ in northern Germany] + +THE ORGANIZING WORK OF BUGENHAGEN. Luther assisted in reorganizing the +churches at Wittenberg (1523), Leipzig (1523), and Magdeburg (1524), in +connection with all of which he provided for Lutheran-type schools. [9] +Luther, though, was not essentially an organizer. The organizing genius of +the Reformation, in central and southern Germany, was Luther's colleague, +Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560), Professor of Greek at the University of +Wittenberg. In northern Germany it was Johannes Bugenhagen (1485-1558), +another of Luther's colleagues at Wittenberg. More than any other Germans +these two directed the necessary reorganization of religion and education +in those parts of Germany which changed from Roman Catholicism to German +Lutheranism. The churches, of course, had to be reorganized as Lutheran +churches, and the schools connected with them refounded as Lutheran +schools. For the reorganization of each of these a more or less detailed +_Ordnung_ had to be written out (Rs. 159, 160). In this change cathedral +and other large church schools became Latin secondary schools, while the +song, chantry, and other types of parish elementary schools were +transformed into Lutheran vernacular parish schools. + +Bugenhagen was sent to reorganize the churches of northern Germany. Being +in close sympathy with Luther's ideas, he made good provision for Lutheran +parish schools in connection with each of the churches he reorganized. At +Brunswick (1528), Hamburg (1529) (R. 159), Lübeck (1530), for his native +State of Pomerania (1534), for Schleswig-Holstein (1537), and elsewhere in +northern Germany, he drew up church and school plans (_Kirchen und Schule- +Ordnungen_) which formed models (Rs. 159, 160) for many northern German +cities and towns. Besides providing for a Latin school for the city, he +organized elementary vernacular schools in each parish, for both boys and +girls, in which instruction in reading, writing, and religion was to be +given in the German tongue. He has been called the father of the German +_Volksschule_, though probably much of what he did was merely the +redirection of existing schools. In 1537 he was called to Denmark, by the +Danish King, to reorganize the University of Copenhagen and the Danish +Church and schools as Lutheran institutions. + +Efforts were also made to create Protestant schools in the Scandinavian +countries. In Denmark writing-schools for both boys and girls were +organized, and the sexton of each parish was ordered to gather the +children together once a week for instruction in the Catechism. In Sweden +little was done before 1686, when Charles XI ordained that the sacristan +of each parish should instruct the children in reading, while the +religious instruction should be conducted by the clergy, and carried on by +means of sermons, the Catechism, and a yearly public examination. The +ability to read and a knowledge of the Catechism was made necessary for +communion. A Swedish law of this same time also ordered that, "No one +should enter the married state without knowing the lesser Catechism of +Luther by heart and having received the sacrament." This latter regulation +drove the peasants to request the erection of children's schools in the +parishes, to be supported by the State, though it was not for more than a +century that this was generally brought about. The general result of this +legislation was that the Scandinavian countries, then including Finland, +early became literate nations. + +THE REORGANIZING WORK OF MELANCHTHON. Melanchthon, unlike Bugenhagen, was +essentially a humanistic scholar, and his interest lay chiefly In the +Latin secondary schools. He prepared plans for schools in many cities and +smaller States of central and southern Germany, among which were Luther's +native town, Eisleben (1525), and for Nuremberg (1526), Herzeberg (1538), +Cologne (1543), and Wittenberg (1545) among cities; and Saxony (1528), +Mecklenberg (1552), and the Palatinate (1556) among States. The schools he +provided for Saxony may be described as typical of his work. + +In 1527 he was asked by the Elector of Saxony to head a commission of +three to travel over the kingdom and report on its needs as to schools. In +his _Report, or Book of Visitation_, which was probably the first school +survey report in history, he outlined in detail plans for school +organization for the State (R. 161), of which the following is an +abstract: + + Each school was to consist of three classes. In the first class there + was to be taught the beginnings of reading and writing, in both the + vernacular and in Latin, Latin grammar (Donatus), the Creed, the + Lord's prayer, and the prayers and hymns of the church service. In the + second class Latin became the language of instruction, and Latin + grammar was thoroughly learned. Latin authors were read, and religious + instruction was continued. In the third class more advanced work in + reading Latin (Livy, Sallust, Vergil, Horace, and Cicero) was given, + and rhetoric and dialectic were studied. + +These were essentially humanistic schools with but a little preparatory +work in the vernacular, and their purpose was to prepare those likely to +become the future leaders of the State for entrance to the universities. +How different was Melanchthon's conception as to the needs for education +from the conceptions of Luther and Bugenhagen may easily be seen. Yet, so +great were his services in organizing and advising, and so well did such +schools meet the great demand of the time for educational leaders that he +has, very properly, been called "the Preceptor of Germany." His work was +copied by other leaders, and the result was the organization of a large +number of humanistic _gymnasia_ throughout northern Germany, in which the +new learning and the Protestant faith were combined. Sturm's school at +Strassburg (p. 272) was one of the more important and better organized of +this type, many of which have had a continuous existence up to the +present. By 1540 the process was begun of endowing such schools from the +proceeds of old monasteries, confiscated by the State, and many German +_gymnasia_ of to-day trace their origin back to some old monastic +foundation, altered by state authority to meet modern needs and purposes. + +EARLY GERMAN STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS. Melanchthon's Saxony plan was put into +partial operation as a Lutheran Church school system, but the first German +State to organize a complete system of schools was Würtemberg (R. 162), in +southwestern Germany, in 1559. This marks the real beginning of the German +state school systems. Three classes of schools were provided for: + + (1) Elementary schools, for both sexes, in which were to be taught + reading, writing, reckoning, singing, and religion, all in the + vernacular. These were to be provided in every village in the Duchy. + + (2) Latin schools (_Particularschulen_), with five or six + classes, in which the ability to read, write, and speak Latin, + together with the elements of mathematics and Greek in the last year, + were to be taught. + + (3) The universities or colleges of the State, of which the University + of Tübingen (f. 1476) and the higher school at Stuttgart were declared + to be constituent parts. + +Acting through the church authorities, these schools were to be under the +supervision of the State. + +The example of Würtemberg was followed by a number of the smaller German +States. Ten years later Brunswick followed the same plan, and in 1580 +Saxony revised its school organization after the state-system plan thus +established. In 1619 the Duchy of Weimar added compulsory education in the +vernacular for all children from six to twelve years of age. In 1642, the +same date as the first Massachusetts school law (chapter XV), Duke Ernest +the Pious of little Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg established the first school +system of a modern type in German lands. An intelligent and ardent +Protestant, he attempted to elevate his miserable peasants, after the +ravages of the Thirty Years' War, by a wise economic administration and +universal education. With the help of a disciple of the greatest +educational thinker of the period, John Amos Comenius (chapter XVII), he +worked out a School Code (_Schulmethode_, 1642) which was the pedagogic +masterpiece of the seventeenth century (R. 163). In it he provided for +compulsory school attendance, and regulated the details of method, +grading, and courses of study. Teachers were paid salaries which for the +time were large, pensions for their widows and children were provided, and +textbooks were prepared and supplied free. So successful were his efforts +that Gotha became one of the most prosperous little spots in Europe, and +it was said that "Duke Ernest's peasants were better educated than +noblemen anywhere else." + +By the middle of the seventeenth century most of the German States had +followed the Würtemberg plan of organization. Even Duke Albrecht V of +Bavaria, which was a Catholic State, ordered the establishment of "German +schools" throughout his realm, with instruction in reading, writing, and +the Catholic creed, the schools to be responsible through the Church to +the State. + +PROTESTANT STATE SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. We see here in German lands a new, +and, for the future, a very important tendency. Throughout all the long +Middle Ages the Church had absolutely controlled all education. From the +suppression of the pagan schools, in 529 A.D., to the time of the +Reformation there had been no one to dispute with the Church its complete +monopoly of education. Even Charlemagne's attempt at the stimulation of +educational activity had been clearly within the lines of church control. +Until the beginnings of the modern States, following the Crusades, the +Church had been the State as well, and for long humbled any ruler who +dared dispute its power. In the later Middle Ages nobles and rising +parliaments had at times sided with the king against the Church--warnings +of a changing Europe that the Church should have heeded--but there had +been no serious trouble with the rising nationalities before the sixteenth +century. Now, in Protestant lands, all was changed. The authority of the +Church was overthrown. By the Peace of Augsburg (1555) each German prince +and town and knight were to be permitted to make choice between the +Catholic and Lutheran faith, and all subjects were to accept the faith of +their ruler or emigrate. + +This established freedom of conscience for the rulers, but for no one +else. It also gave them control of both religious and secular affairs, +thus uniting in the person of the ruler, large or small, control of both +Church and State. This was as much progress toward religious freedom as +the world was then ready for, as Church and State had been united for so +many centuries that a complete separation of the two was almost +inconceivable. It was left for the United States (1787) to completely +divorce Church and State, and to reduce the churches to the control of +purely spiritual affairs. + +The German rulers, however, were now free to develop schools as they saw +fit, and, through their headship of the Church in their principality or +duchy or city, to control education therein. We have here the beginnings +of the transfer of educational control from the Church to the State, the +ultimate fruition of which came first in German lands, and which was to be +the great work of the nineteenth century. It was through the kingly or +ducal headship of the Church, and through it of the educational system of +the kingdom or duchy, that the great educational development in +Würtemberg, Saxony, and Gotha was brought about by their rulers, and it +was through the ruling princes that the German Universities were reformed +[10] and the new Protestant universities established. [11] Even in +Catholic States, as Bavaria, the German state-control idea took root +early. Many of the important features of the modern German school systems +are to be seen in their beginnings in these Lutheran state-church schools. + +[Illustration: FIG. 96. EVOLUTION OF GERMAN STATE SCHOOL CONTROL] + + +2. _Anglican foundations_ + +THE REFORMATION AND EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. The Reformation in England took +a very different direction from what it did in Germany, and its +educational results in consequence were very different. In England the +reform movement was much more political in character than in German lands. +Henry VIII was no Protestant, in the sense that Luther or Calvin or +Zwingli or Knox was. He distrusted their teachings, and was always anxious +to explain objections to the old faith. The people of England as a body, +too, had been much less antagonized by the exactions of the Roman Church +and the immoral lives of the monks and Roman clergy; the new learning had +awakened there somewhat less of a spirit of moral and religious reform; +and the reformation movement of Luther, after a decade and a half, had +roused no general interest. The change from the Roman Catholic faith to an +independent English Church, when made, was in consequence much more +nominal than had been the case in German lands. As a result the severance +from Rome was largely carried out by the ruling classes, and the masses of +the people were in no way deeply interested in it. The English National +Church merely took over most of the functions formerly exercised by the +Roman Church, in general the same priests remained in charge of the parish +churches, and the church doctrines and church practices were not greatly +altered by the change in allegiance. The changing of the service from +Latin to English was perhaps the most important change. The English +Church, in spirit and service, has in consequence retained the greatest +resemblance to the Roman Catholic Church of any Protestant denomination. +In particular, the Lutheran idea of personal responsibility for salvation, +and hence the need of all being taught to read, made scarcely any +impression in England. + +By the time of Elizabeth (1558-1603) it had become a settled conviction +with the English as a people that the provision of education was a matter +for the Church, and was no business of the State, and this attitude +continued until well into the nineteenth century. The English Church +merely succeeded the Roman Church in the control of education, and now +licensed the teachers (R. 168), took their oath of allegiance (R. 167), +supervised prayers (R. 169) and the instruction, and became very strict as +to conformity to the new faith (Rs. 164-166), while the schools, aside +from the private tuition and endowed schools, continued to be maintained +chiefly from religious sources, charitable funds, and tuition fees. +Private tuition schools in time flourished, and the tutor in the home +became the rule with families of means. The poorer people largely did +without schooling, as they had done for centuries before. As a +consequence, the educational results of the change in the headship of the +Church relate almost entirely to grammar schools and to the universities, +and not to elementary education. The development of anything approaching a +system of elementary schools for England was consequently left for the +educational awakening of the latter half of the nineteenth century. When +this finally came the development was due to political and economic, and +not to religious causes. + +The English Act of Supremacy (R. 153), which severed England from Rome, +had been passed by parliament in 1534. In 1536 an English Bible was issued +to the churches, [12] the services were ordered conducted in English, and +in 1549 the English Prayer Book, Psalter, and Catechism were put into use. +In 1538 the English Bible was ordered chained in the churches, [13] that +the people might read it (R. 170), and the people were ordered instructed +in English in the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, and the Ten Commandments. The +change of the service to English was perhaps the largest educational gain +the masses of the people obtained as the result of the Reformation in +England. [14] + +[Illustration: FIG. 97. A CHAINED BIBLE +(Redrawn from an old print showing a chained Bible in a church in York, +England)] + +SUPPRESSION OF THE MONASTERIES AND THE FOUNDING OF GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. +Between 1536 and 1539 the most striking result of the Reformation in +England took place,--the dissolution of the monasteries. Their doubtful +reputation enabled Henry and Parliament to confiscate their property, and +"the dead hand of monasticism was removed from a third of the lands of +England." There were precedents for this in pre-Reformation times, the +church authorities themselves having converted several monastic +foundations into grammar schools. At one blow Parliament now suppressed +the monasteries of all England, some eight thousand monks and nuns were +driven out, many of the monasteries, nunneries, and abbey churches were +destroyed, and the monastic lands were forfeited to the Crown. It was a +ruthless proceeding, though in the long course of history beneficial to +the nation. Much of the land was given to influential followers of the +king in return for their support, and a large part of the proceeds from +sales was spent on coast defenses and a navy, though more than was +formerly thought to be the case was used in refounding grammar schools. A +number of the monasteries were converted into collegiate churches, with +schools attached. Some of the alms-houses and hospitals confiscated at the +same time were similarly used, and the cathedral churches in nine English +cities were taken from the monks (R. 171), who had driven out the regular +clergy during the tenth to the twelfth centuries, and were refounded as +cathedral church schools. The cathedral church school at Canterbury, which +Henry refounded in 1541 as a humanistic grammar school, with a song school +attached, and for the government of which he made detailed provisions (R. +172), is typical of a school which had fallen into bad repute (R. 171), +and was later refounded as a result of the confiscation of the monastic +property. The College of Christ Church at Oxford, and Trinity College at +Cambridge, were also richly endowed from the monastic proceeds. + +In 1546 another Act of Parliament vested the title of all chantry +foundations, some two hundred in number, in the Crown that they might be +"altered, changed, and amended to convert them to good and godly uses as +in the erecting of grammar schools," but so pressing became the royal need +for money that, after their sale, the intended endowments were never made. +As the song schools had been established originally to train a few boys +"to help a priest sing mass," and as the service was now to be read rather +than sung, the need for choristers largely disappeared. Being regarded as +nurseries of superstition, they were abandoned without regret. + +[Illustration: PLATE 7. THE FREE SCHOOL AT HARROW +One of the "Great Public" Grammar Schools of England. Founded in 1571, in +the reign of Elizabeth; building finished in 1593. The names of famous +"old boys" are seen lettered on the wall at the back. Pupils are seen +seated in "forms," reciting to the masters. (From a picture published by +Ackermann, in his illustrated _History of the Colleges of Winchester, +Eton, Westminster_, etc. London, 1816.)] + +RESULT OF THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND. The result of the change in +religious allegiance in England was a material decrease in the number of +places offering grammar-school advantages, though with a material +improvement in the quality of the instruction provided, and a consequent +decrease in the number of boys given free education in the refounded +grammar schools. As for elementary education, the abolition of the song, +chantry, and hospital schools took away most of the elementary schools +which had once existed. The clerk of the parish usually replaced them by +teaching a certain number of boys "to read English intelligently instead +of Latin unintelligently," many new parish elementary schools were +created, especially during the reign of Elizabeth, and in time the dame +school, the charity school, the writing school, and apprenticeship +training arose (chapter XVIII) and became regular English institutions. +These types of schooling constituted almost all the elementary-school +advantages provided in England until well into the eighteenth century. + +The post-Reformation educational energy of England was given to the +founding of grammar schools, and during the century and a half before the +outbreak of the struggle with James II (1688) to put an end in England for +all time to the late-mediaeval theory of the divine right of kings, a +total of 558 grammar schools were founded or refounded. [15] + +The grammar schools thus founded were, one and all, grammar schools of the +reformed humanistic type. What was to be taught in them was seldom +mentioned in the foundation articles, as it was assumed that every one +knew what a grammar school was, so well by this time had the humanistic +type become established. They were one and all modeled after the +instruction first provided in Saint Paul's School (p. 275) in London, and +such modifications as had been sanctioned with time, and this continued to +be the type of English secondary school instruction until well into the +nineteenth century. + +THE DOMINATING RELIGIOUS PURPOSE. The religious conflicts following the +reformation movement everywhere intensified religious prejudices and +stimulated religious bigotry. This was soon reflected in the schools of +all lands. In England, after the restoration under Catholic Mary (1553-58) +and the final reëstablishment of the English Church under Elizabeth +(1558), all school instruction became narrowly religious and English +Protestant in type. By the middle of the seventeenth century the grammar +schools had become nurseries of the faith, as well as very formal and +disciplinary in character. In England, perhaps more than in any other +Protestant country, Christianity came to be identified with a strict +conformity to the teachings and practices of the Established Church, and +to teach that particular faith became one of the particular missions of +all types of schools. Bishops were instructed to hunt out schoolmasters +who were unsound in the faith (R. 164 a), and teachers were deprived of +their positions for nonconformity (R. 164 b). More effectively to handle +the problem a series of laws were enacted, the result of which was to +institute such an inquisitorial policy that the position of schoolmaster +became almost intolerable. In 1580 a law (R. 165) imposed a fine of £10 on +any one employing a schoolmaster of unsound faith, with disability and +imprisonment for the schoolmaster so offending; in 1603 another law +required a license from the bishop on the part of all schoolmasters as a +condition precedent to teaching; in 1662 the obnoxious Act of Uniformity +(R. 166) required every schoolmaster in any type of school, and all +private tutors, to subscribe to a declaration that they would conform to +the liturgy of the Church, as established by law, with fine and +imprisonment for breaking the law; in 1665 the so-called "Five-Mile Act" +forbade Dissenters to teach in any school, under penalty of a fine of £40; +and in that same year bishops were instructed to see that + + the said schoolmasters, ushers, schoolmistresses, and instructors, or + teachers of youth, publicly or privately, do themselves frequent the + public prayers of the Church, and cause their scholars to do the same; + and whether they appear well affected to the Government of his + Majesty, and the doctrine and discipline of the Church of England. + +This attitude also extended upward to the universities as well, where +nonconformists were prohibited by law (1558) from receiving degrees, a +condition not remedied until 1871 (R. 305). The great purpose of +instruction came to be to support the authority and the rule of the +Established Church, and the almost complete purpose of elementary +instruction came to be to train pupils to read the Catechism, the Prayer +Book, and the Bible. This intense religious attitude in England was +reflected in early colonial America, as we shall see in a following +chapter. + +THE POOR-LAW LEGISLATION, AND ITS EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE. After the +thirteenth century, due in part to the rise of the wool industry in +Flanders, England began to change from a farming to a sheep-raising +country. Accompanying this decline in the importance of farming there had +been a slow but gradual growth of trade and manufacturing in the cities, +and to the cities the surplus of rural peasantry began to drift. The cost +of living also increased rapidly after the fifteenth century. As a result +there was a marked shifting of occupations, much unemployment, and a +constantly increasing number of persons in need of poor-relief. In the +time of Elizabeth (1558-1603) it has been estimated that one half the +population of England did not have an income sufficient for sustenance, +and great numbers of children were running about without proper food or +care, and growing up in idleness and vice. + +The situation, which had been growing worse for two centuries, culminated +at the time of the Reformation when the religious houses, which had +previously provided alms, were confiscated as a result of the reformation +activities. The groundwork of the old system of religious charity was thus +swept away, and the relation which had for so long existed between prayer +and penance and almsgiving and charity was altered. The nation was thus +forced to deal with the problem of poor-relief, and with the care of the +children of the poor. In the place of the old system the people were +forced, by circumstances, to develop a new conception of the State as a +community of peoples bound together by community interest, good feeling, +charity, and service. + +As this new conception dawned on the English people, a series of laws were +enacted which attempted to provide for the situation which had been +created. These were progressive in character, and ranged over much of the +sixteenth century. First the poor were restricted from begging, outside of +certain specified limits. Next church collections and parish support for +the poor were ordered (1553), and the people were to be urged to give. +Then workhouses for the poor and their children, and materials with which +to work, were ordered provided, and those persons of means who would not +give freely were to be cited before the bishop first (R. 173), and the +justices later, and if necessary forcibly assessed (1563). The next step +was to permit the local authorities to raise needed funds by strictly +local taxation (1572). In 1601 the last step was taken, when the +compulsory taxation of all persons of property was ordered to provide the +necessary poor-relief, and the excessive burdens of one parish were to be +shared by neighboring parishes. Thus, after a long period of slowly +evolving legislation (R. 173), the English Poor-Law of 1601 (R. 174) +finally gave expression to the following principles: + + 1. The compulsory care of the poor, as an obligation of the State. + + 2. The compulsory apprenticeship of the children of the poor, male and + female, to learn a useful trade. + + 3. The obligation of the master to train his apprentices in a trade. + + 4. The obligation of the overseers of the poor to supply, where + necessary, the opportunity and the materials for such training of + the children of the poor. + + 5. The compulsory taxation of all persons of property to provide the + necessary funds for such a purpose, and without reference to any + benefits derived from the taxation. + + 6. The excessive burdens of any one parish to be pooled throughout the + hundred or county. + +In this compulsory apprenticeship of the children of the poor, with the +obligation imposed that such children must be trained in a trade and in +proper living, with general taxation of those of property to provide +workhouses and materials for such a purpose, we have the germ, among +English-speaking peoples, of the idea of the general taxation of all +persons by the State to provide schools for the children of the State. The +apprenticing of the children of the poor to labor and the requirement that +they be taught the elements of religion soon became a fixed English +practice (R. 217), and in the seventeenth century this idea was carried to +the American colonies and firmly established there. It was on the +foundations of the English Poor-Law of 1601, above stated, that the first +Massachusetts law relating to the schooling of all children (1642) was +framed (R. 190), but with the significant Calvinistic addition that: + + 7. "In euery towne ye chosen men" shall see that parents and masters + not only train their children in learning and labor, but also "to + read & understand the principles of religion & the capitall lawes + of this country," with power to impose fines on such as refuse to + render accounts concerning their children. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Why is progress that is substantial nearly always a product of slow +rather than rapid evolution? + +2. Show why the evolution of many Protestant sects was a natural +consequence of the position assumed by Luther. What is the ultimate +outcome of the process? + +3. Why was it not important that more than a few be educated under the +older theory of salvation? + +4. Show how modern democratic government was a natural consequence of the +Protestant position. + +5. Why was universal education involved as a later but ultimate +consequence of the position taken by the Protestants? + +6. Explain why the local Church authorities, before 1520, tried so hard to +prevent the establishment of vernacular schools. + +7. Explain why the religious discussions of the Reformation should have so +strongly stimulated a desire to read. + +8. Explain the fixing in character of the German, French, and English +languages by a single book. What had fixed the Italian? + +9. Was Luther probably right when he wrote, in 1524, that the schools +"were deteriorating throughout Germany"? Why? + +10. Give reasons why Luther's appeals for schools were not more fruitful. + +11. What was the significance of the position of Luther for the future +education of girls? + +12. Was Luther's idea that a clergyman should have had some experience as +a teacher a good one, or not? Why? + +13. How do you explain Luther's ideas as to coupling up elementary and +trade education in his primary schools? + +14. Point out the similarity of Luther's scheme for a school system with +the German school system as finally evolved (Figure 96). + +15. Show how Melanchthon's Saxony Plan differed from Luther's ideas. For +the times was it a more practical plan? Why? + +16. Explain why the Lutheran idea of personal responsibility for salvation +made so little headway in England, and show that the natural educational +consequences of this resulted. + +17. Show what different conditions were likely to follow, in later +centuries, from the different stands taken as to the relation of the State +and Church to education by the German people by the middle of the +sixteenth century, and by the English at the time of Elizabeth. + +18. Compare the origin of the vernacular elementary-school teacher in +Germany and England. + +19. Leach estimates that, in 1546, there were approximately three hundred +grammar schools in England for a total population of approximately two and +one half millions. About what opportunities for grammar-school education +did this afford? + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are +reproduced: + + 154. Rashdall: Diffusion of Education in Mediaeval Times. + 155. Times: The Vernacular Style of the Translation of the Bible. + 156. Luther: To the Mayors and Magistrates of Germany. + 157. Luther: Dignity and Importance of the Teacher's Work. + 158. Luther: On the Duty of Compelling School Attendance. + 159. Hamburg: An Example of a Lutheran _Kirchenordnung_. + 160. Brieg: An Example of a Lutheran _Schuleordnung_. + 161. Melanchthon: The Saxony School Plan. + 162. Raumer: The School System Established in Würtemberg. + 163. Duke Ernest: The _Schulemethodus_ for Gotha. + 164. Strype: The Supervision of a Teacher's Acts and Religious Beliefs + in England. + (a) Letter of Queen's Council on. + (b) Dismissal of a Teacher for non-conformity. + 165. Elizabeth: Penalties on Non-conforming Schoolmasters. + 166. Statutes: English Act of Uniformity of 1662. + 167. Carlisle: Oath of a Grammar School Master. + 168. Strype: An English Elementary-School Teacher's License. + 169. Cowper: Grammar School Statutes regarding Prayers. + 170. Green: Effect of the Translation of the Bible into English. + 171. Old MS.: Ignorance of the Monks at Canterbury and Messenden. + 172. Parker: Refounding of the Cathedral School at Canterbury. + 173. Nicholls: Origin of the English Poor-Law of 1601. + 174. Statutes: The English Poor Law of 1601. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. From the selection from Rashdall (154), what do you infer as to the +effect of the Reformation on the schools? What kind of schools does +Rashdall describe as existing? + +2. Contrast the vernacular style of the Bible (155) with the Ciceronian. + +3. Characterize the three extracts (156-58) from Luther. + +4. How advanced was the ground taken by Luther (158)? Would we accept the +logic of his argument to-day? + +5. Just what do the Hamburg (159) and Brieg (160) _Ordnungen_ indicate? + +6. Compare Melanchthon's Saxony Plan (161) with Sturm's (137) and the +French Collège de Guyenne (136), and grade the three in order of +importance. + +7. Show the close similarity of the Würtemberg plan of 1559-65 (162) and a +modern German state school system. + +8. How advanced for the time was the work of Duke Ernest of Gotha (163)? + +9. What kind of a school attitude is indicated by the close supervision of +English teachers, as described in 164 and 165? + +10. What would be the natural effect on the teaching occupation of such +legislation as the Act of Uniformity (166)? + +11. Compare the form of license of an elementary teacher (168) with a +modern form. What have we added and omitted? + +12. What do the statutes regarding prayers (169) indicate as to the nature +of the grammar schools of the time? + +13. Characterize the educational importance of the translations of the +Bible into the native tongues (170). + +14. What are the marked features of the refounding act (172) for +Canterbury cathedral school? What improvements are indicated? + +15. State the steps in the development (173) of the English Poor-Law of +1601, just what the law provided for (174), and just what elements +necessary to the creation of a state school system were incorporated into +it. + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + +* Adams, G. B. _Civilization during the Middle Ages_ + Barnard, Henry. _German Teachers and Educators_. + Francke, Kuno. _Social Forces in German Literature_. +* Good, Harry E. "The Position of Luther upon Education," in _School and + Society_, vol. 6, pp. 511-18 (Nov. 3, 1917). +* Montmorency, J. E. G. de. _State Intervention in English + Education_. +* Montmorency, J. E. G. de. _The Progress of Education in England_. + Painter, F. V. N. _Luther on Education_. + Paulsen, Fr. _German Education_. + Richard, J. W. _Philipp Melanchthon, the Protestant Preceptor of + Germany_. + Woodward, W. H. _Education during the Renaissance_. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS + + +II. AMONG CALVINISTS AND CATHOLICS + + +3. _Educational work of the Calvinisms_ + +THE ORGANIZING WORK OF CALVIN. From the point of view of American +educational history the most important developments in connection with the +Reformation were those arising from Calvinism. While the Calvinistic faith +was rather grim and forbidding, viewed from the modern standpoint, the +Calvinists everywhere had a program for political, economic, and social +progress which has left a deep impress on the history of mankind. This +program demanded the education of all, and in the countries where +Calvinism became dominant the leaders included general education in their +scheme of religious, political, and social reform. [1] In the governmental +program which Calvin drew up (1537) for the religious republic at Geneva +(p. 298), he held that learning was "a public necessity to secure good +political administration, sustain the Church unharmed, and maintain +humanity among men." + +In his plan for the schools of Geneva, published in 1538, he outlined a +system of elementary education in the vernacular for all, which involved +instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, religion, careful grammatical +drill, and training for civil as well as for ecclesiastical leadership. In +his plan of 1541 he upholds the principle, as had Luther, that "the +liberal arts and good training are aids to a full knowledge of the Word." +This involved the organization of secondary schools, or _colleges_ as he +called them, following the French nomenclature, to prepare leaders for the +ministry and the civil government through "instruction in the languages +and humane science." In the colleges (secondary schools) which he +organized at Geneva and in neighboring places to give such training, and +which became models of their kind which were widely copied, the usual +humanistic curriculum was combined with intensive religious instruction. +These colleges became famous as institutions from which learned men came +forth. The course of study in the seven classes of one of the Geneva +colleges, which has been preserved for us, reveals the nature of the +instruction (R. 175). The lowest class began with the letters, reading was +taught from a French-Latin Catechism, and the usual Latin authors were +read. Greek was begun in the fourth class, and, in addition to the usual +Greek authors, the New Testament was read in Greek. In the higher classes, +as was common also in German _gymnasia_, logic and rhetoric were taught to +prepare pupils to analyze, argue, and defend the faith. Elocution was also +given much importance in the upper classes as preparation for the +ministry, two original orations being required each month. Psalms were +sung, prayers offered, sermons preached and questioned on, and the Bible +carefully studied. The men who went forth from the colleges of Geneva to +teach and to preach the Calvinistic gospel were numbered by the hundreds. +[2] + +Calvin's great educational work at Geneva has been well summarized by a +recent writer, [3] as follows: + + The strenuous moral training of the Genevese was an essential part of + Calvin's work as an educator. All were trained to respect and obey + laws, based upon Scripture, but enacted and enforced by + representatives of the people, and without respect of persons. How + fully the training of children, not merely in sound learning and + doctrine, but also in manners, "good morals," and common sense was + carried out is pictured in the delightful human _Colloquies_ of + Calvin's old teacher, Corderius (once a teacher at the College of + Guyenne, p. 269), whom he twice established at Geneva.... + + Calvin's memorials to the Genevan magistrates, his drafts for civil + law and municipal administration, his correspondence with reformers + and statesmen, his epoch-making defense of interest taking, his + growing tendency toward civil, religious, and economic liberty, his + development of primary and university education, his intimate + knowledge of the dialect and ways of thought of the common people of + Geneva, and his broad understanding of European princes, diplomats, + and politics mark him out as a great political, economic, and + educational as well as a religious reformer, a constructive social + genius capable of reorganizing and moulding the whole life of a + people. + +The world owes much to the constructive, statesman-like genius of Calvin +and those who followed him, and we in America probably most of all. Geneva +became a refuge for the persecuted Protestants from other lands, and +through such influences the ideas of Calvin spread to the Huguenots in +France, the Walloons of the Dutch and Belgian Netherlands, the Germans in +the Palatinate, the Presbyterians of Scotland, the Puritans in England, +and later to the American colonies. + +[Illustration: FIG. 98. A FRENCH SCHOOL OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY +(From an old woodcut by Abraham Bosse, 1611-78)] + +CALVINISM IN THE OTHER LANDS. The great educational work done by the +Calvinists in France, in the face of heavy persecution, deserves to be +ranked with that of the Lutherans in Germany in its importance. Had the +Calvinists had the same opportunity for free development the Lutherans +had, and especially their state support, there can be little doubt that +their work would have greatly exceeded the Lutherans in importance and +influence on the future history of mankind. Beginning with one church in +1538, they had 2150 churches by 1561, when the severe persecutions and +religious wars began. + +True to the Calvinistic teaching of putting principles into practice, they +organized an extensive system of schools, extending from elementary +education for all, through secondary schools or colleges, up to eight +Huguenot universities. As a people they were thrifty and capable of making +great sacrifices to carry out their educational ideals. The education they +provided was not only religious but civil; not only intellectual but +moral, social, and economic. Education was for all, rich and poor alike. +Their synods made liberal appropriations for the universities, while +municipalities provided for colleges and elementary education. They +emphasized, in the lower schools, the study of the vernacular and +arithmetic, and in the colleges Greek and the New Testament. The long list +of famous teachers found in their universities reveals the character of +their instruction. Foster has well summarized the distinguishing +characteristics of Huguenot education in France, before they were driven +from the land, as follows: [4] + + The significant characteristics of Huguenot education were: an + emphasis on the education of the laity; training for "the republic" + and "society" as well as for the Church; insistence upon virtue as + well as knowledge; the wide-spread demand for education, and a view of + it as essential to liberty of conscience; a comprehensive working + system of elementary, collegiate, and university training for all, + poor as well as rich; an astonishing familiarity with Scripture, even + among the lowest classes; utilization of representative church + organization for founding, supporting, and unifying education; + readiness to sacrifice for education, a spirit of carrying a thing + through at any cost; business-like supervision of money, and + systematic supervision of both professors and students; a notable + emphasis on vernacular, arithmetic, Greek, use of full texts, and + libraries; and finally a progressive spirit of inquiry and + investigation. + +In the Palatinate (see map, Figure 88) some progress in founding churches +and schools was made, especially about Strassburg, and the universities of +Heidelberg and Marburg became the centers of Huguenot teaching. In the +Dutch Netherlands, and in that part of the Belgian Netherlands inhabited +by the Walloons, Calvinist ideas as to education dominated. The +universities of Leyden (f. 1575), Groningen (f. 1614), Amsterdam (f. +1630), and Utrecht (f. 1636) were Calvinistic, and closely in touch with +the Calvinists and Huguenots of German lands and France. Popular education +was looked after among these people as it was in Calvinistic France and +Geneva. The Church Synod of The Hague (1586) ordered the establishment of +schools in the cities, and in 1618 the Great Synod held at Dort (R. 176) +ordered that: + +Schools in which the young shall be properly instructed in piety and +fundamentals of Christian doctrine shall be instituted not only in cities, +but also in towns and country places where heretofore none have existed. +The Christian magistracy shall be requested that honorable stipends be +provided for teachers, and that well-qualified persons may be employed and +enabled to devote themselves to that function; and especially that the +children of the poor may be gratuitously instructed by them and not be +excluded from the benefits of schools. + +[Illustration: FIG. 99. A DUTCH VILLAGE SCHOOL +(After a painting by Adrian Ostade, dated 1662, now in the Louvre, at +Paris)] + +Further provisions were made as to the certificating of schoolmasters, and +the pastors were made superintendents of the schools, to visit, examine, +encourage, advise, and report (R. 176). Provision for the free education +of the poor became common, and elementary education was made accessible to +all. The careful provision for education made by the province of Utrecht +(1590, 1612) (R. 178) was typical of Dutch activity. The province of +Drenthe ordered (1630) a school tax paid for all children over seven, +whether attending school or not. The province of Overyssel levied (1666) a +school tax for all children from eight to twelve years of age. The +province of Groningen constituted the pastors the attendance officers to +see that the children got to school. Amsterdam and many other Dutch cities +demanded an examination of all teachers before being licensed to teach. By +the middle of the seventeenth century a good system of schools seems to +have been provided generally [5] by the Dutch and the Belgian Walloons (R. +178). That the teaching of religion was the main function of the Dutch +elementary schools, as of all other vernacular schools of the time, is +seen from the official lists of the textbooks used (R. 178). + +John Knox, the leader of the Scottish Reformation (1560), who had spent +some time at Geneva and who was deeply impressed by the Calvinistic +religious-state found there, introduced the Calvinistic religious and +educational ideas into Scotland. His _Book of Discipline for the Scottish +Church_ (1560), framed closely on the Genevan model, contained a chapter +devoted to education in which he proposed: + + That everie severall churche have a school-maister appointed, such a + one as is able at least to teach Grammar and the Latin tung, yf the + Town be of any reputation. Yf it be upaland ... then must either the + Reider or the Minister take cayre over the children ... to instruct + them in their first rudementie and especially in the catechisme. + +[Illustration: FIG. 100. JOHN KNOX (1505?-72)] + +The educational plan proposed by Knox would have called for a large +expenditure of money, and this the thrifty Scotch were not ready for. Knox +and his followers then proposed to endow the new schools from the old +church and monastic foundations, but the Scottish nobles hoped to share in +these, as had the English nobility under Henry VIII, and Knox's plan was +not approved. This delayed the establishment of a real national system of +education for Scotland until the nineteenth century. The new Church, +however, took over the superintendence of education in Scotland, and when +parish schools were finally established by decree of the Privy Council, in +1616, and by the legislation of 1633 and 1646 (R. 179), the Church was +given an important share in their organization and management. These +schools, while not always sufficient in number to meet the educational +needs, were well taught, and have deeply influenced the national +character. + + +4. _The Counter-Reformation of the Catholics_ + +THE JESUIT ORDER. The Protestant Revolt made but little headway in Italy, +Spain, Portugal, much of France, or southern Belgium (see map, p. 296). +Italy was scarcely disturbed at all, while in France, where of all these +countries the reform ideas had made greatest progress, nine tenths of the +people remained loyal to Rome. In a general way it may be stated that +those parts of western Europe which had once formed an integral part of +the old Roman Empire remained loyal to the Roman Church, while those which +had been the homes of the Germanic tribes revolted. Now it naturally +happened that the countries which remained loyal to the old Church +experienced none of the feelings of the necessity for education as a means +to personal salvation which the Lutherans and Calvinists felt. There, too, +the church system of education which had developed during the long Middle +Ages remained undisturbed and largely unchanged. The Church as an +institution, though, learned from the Protestants the value of education +as a means to larger ends, and soon set about using it. [6] + +After the Church Council of Trent (1545-63), where definite church reform +measures were carried through (p. 303), the Catholics inaugurated what has +since been called a counter-reformation, in an effort to hold lands which +were still loyal and to win back lands which had been lost. Besides +reforming the practices and outward lives of the churchmen, and reforming +some church practices and methods, the Church inaugurated a campaign of +educational propaganda. In this last the chief reliance was upon a new and +a very useful organization officially known as the "Society of Jesus," but +more commonly called the "Jesuit Order." This had been founded, in 1534, +by a Spanish knight, pilgrim, man of large ideas, and scholar by the name +of Ignatius Loyola, and had been sanctioned as an Order of the Church by +Pope Paul III, in 1540. It was organized along strictly military lines, +all members being responsible to its General, and he in turn alone to the +Pope. The quiet life of the cloister was abandoned for a life of open +warfare under a military discipline. The Jesuit was to live in the world, +and all peculiarities of dress or rule which might prove an obstacle to +worldly success were suppressed. The purposes of the Order were to combat +heresy, to advance the interests of the Church, and to strengthen the +authority of the Papacy. Its motto was _Omnia ad Majorem Dei Gloriam_ +(that is, All for the greater glory of God), and the means to be employed +by it to accomplish these ends were the pulpit, the confessional, the +mission, and the school. Of these the school was given the place of first +importance. Realizing clearly that the real cause of the Reformation had +been the ignorance, neglect, and vicious lives of so many monks and +priests and the extortion and neglect practiced by the Church, and that +the chief difficulty was in the higher places of authority, it became the +prime principle of the Order to live upright and industrious lives +themselves, and to try to reach and train those likely to be the future +leaders in Church and State. With the education of the masses of the +people the Order was not concerned. [7] Our interest lies only with the +educational work of this Order, a work in which it was remarkably +successful and through which it exercised a very large influence. + +[Illustration: FIG. 101. IGNATIUS DE LOYOLA (1491-1556)] + +GREAT SUCCESS OF THE ORDER. The service of the Order to the Church in +combating Protestant heresies was very marked. Beginning in a small way, +the Order, by 1600, had established two hundred colleges (Latin secondary +schools), universities, and training seminaries; by 1640, 372; by 1706 +(150 years after the death of its founder), 769; and by 1756, 728. In +1773, when the Order was for a time abolished, [8] after it had been +driven out of a number of European countries because of the unscrupulous +methods it adopted and the continual application of its doctrine that the +end justifies the means, the Order had 22,589 members, about half of whom +were teachers. Its colleges (secondary schools) and universities were most +numerous and its work most energetically carried on in northern France, +Belgium, Holland, the German States, Austria, Poland, and Hungary. Here +was the great battle line, and here the Jesuits deeply entrenched +themselves. In these portions of Europe alone there were, in 1750, 217 +colleges, 55 seminaries, 24 houses for novitiates, and 160 missions. In +France alone there were 92 colleges. They did much, single-handed, to roll +back the tide of Protestantism which had advanced over half of western +Europe, and to hold other countries true to the ancient faith. + +The colleges were usually large and well-supported institutions, with +dormitories, classrooms, dining-halls; and play-grounds. The usual number +of scholars in each was about 300, though some had an attendance of 600 to +800, and a few as high as 2000. At their period of maximum influence the +colleges and universities of the Order probably enrolled a total of +200,000 students. Their graduates were prominent in every scholarly and +governmental activity of the time. As far as possible the pupils were a +selected class to whom the Order offered free instruction. The children of +the nobility and gentry, and the brightest and most promising youths of +the different lands were drawn into their schools. The children of many +Protestants, also, were attracted by the high quality of the instruction +offered. There they were given the best secondary-school education of the +time, and received, at an impressionable age, the peculiar Jesuit stamp. +[9] Bacon gave his opinion as to the success of their instruction in the +following sentence: "As for the pedagogical part, the shortest rule would +be, Consult the schools of the Jesuits; for nothing better has been put in +practice." (_De Augmentis_, VI, 4.) [10] + +SUCCESS OF THE JESUIT SCHOOLS. Displaying a genius for organization worthy +of Rome, Loyola and his followers absorbed the best educational ideas of +the time as to school organization and management and curriculum, and +incorporated these into their educational plan. Too practical to make many +changes, but with a keen eye for what was best, they accepted the best and +used it much as others had worked it out. From the municipal college of +Guyenne, the colleges of Calvin, and Sturm's organization at Strassburg, +they adopted the plan of class organization, with a teacher for each +class. From the Calvinists they obtained the idea of the careful +supervision of instruction, which was worked out in the Prefect of Studies +for their colleges. In their course of study they incorporated the +Ciceronian ideal of the humanistic learning, and as careful religious +instruction as was provided by any of the reformers. From the Italian +court schools they took the idea of physical training. The method of +instruction and classroom management which they worked out was detailed, +practical, and for their purposes excellent. The reasons for their +educational work gave them a clearly defined aim and purpose. The military +brotherhood type of organization, the lifetime of celibate service, and +the opportunity to sort the carefully selected members according to their +ability for service in the different lines of the Order gave them the +best-selected teaching force in Europe, and these men they trained for the +teaching service with a thoroughness unknown before and seldom equaled +since. Knowing why they were at work and what ends they should achieve, +intolerant of opposition, intensely practical in all their work, and +possessed of an indefatigable zeal in the accomplishment of their purpose, +they gave Europe in general and northern continental Europe in particular +a system of secondary schools and universities possessed of a high degree +of effectiveness, which, combined with religious warfare and persecution, +in time drove out or dwarfed all competing institutions in the countries +they were able to control. + +That their educational system, viewed from a modern liberal-education +standpoint, equaled in effectiveness for liberal-education ends such +institutions as the court schools of Vittorino da Feltre, Battista da +Guarino, or other Italian humanistic educators of the Renaissance (p. +267); the French and Swiss colleges of Calvin (p. 331); Colet's school at +Saint Paul's (p. 275), and the better English grammar schools; or the +schools of the Brethren of the Common Life in the Netherlands (p. 271); +would hardly be contended for to-day. Such, though, was not their purpose. +To proselyte for the Church rather than to liberalize--from their point of +view there had been too much liberalizing already--was their ultimate aim, +and their educational work was organized to suppress rather than to awaken +more Protestant heresy. The work of this Order was so successful, and for +two centuries so dominated secondary and higher education in Europe, that +it will pay us to examine a little more closely their educational +organization to see more fully the reasons for their large success. In so +doing we will examine three points--their school organization, their +methods of instruction, and the training of their teachers. + +JESUIT SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. Each college was presided over by a _Rector_, +who was in effect the president of the institution, and a _Prefect of +Studies_, who was the superintendent of instruction. Below these were the +_Professors_ or teachers, the _House Prefect_, the official disciplinarian +of the institution, known as the _Corrector_, the monitors, and the +students. There were two classes of students, interns and externs. Their +schools were divided into two courses. The _studia inferiora_, or lower +school, which covered the six years from ten to twelve years of age up to +sixteen to eighteen; and the _studia superiora_, which followed, and +included the higher college and university courses, with philosophy and +theology as the important subjects. For the whole, there was a very +carefully worked-out manual of instruction (R. 180) known as the _Ratio +Studiorum_. [11] + +The boy entering a Jesuit college was supposed to have previously learned +how to read Latin. The first three years were given to learning Latin +grammar and a little Greek. In the fourth year Latin and Greek authors +were begun, and in the fifth and sixth years a rhetorical study of the +Latin authors was made. Latin was the language of the classroom and the +playground as well, the mother tongue being used only by permission. Greek +was studied through the medium of the Latin. The retention of Latin as the +language of all scholarly and political intercourse, and the cultivation +of the style and speech of Cicero as the standard of purity and elegance, +were the ends aimed at. Careful attention was given to the health and +sports of the pupils, and special regard was paid to moral and religious +training. + +Following this lower school of six years came the so-called philosophical +course of three years (sometimes two). The study of the Latin classics and +rhetoric was continued, and dialectics (logic) and some metaphysics were +added. The nine years together covered about the same scope as Sturm's +school (R. 137) at Strassburg (p. 273), but was more formal in character +and partook more of the nature of the later formalized humanistic schools. +Slight variations were allowed in places, to meet particular local needs, +but this course of study remained practically unchanged until 1832, when +some history, geography, and elementary mathematics and science were added +to the lower schools, and advanced mathematics and science to the +philosophical course. In 1906 each Province of the Order was permitted to +change the _Ratio_ further, if necessary to adjust it better to local +needs. Above the philosophical course a course of four or six years in +philosophy and theology prepared for the higher work of the Order, the +four-year course for preaching and the six-year course for teaching. + +JESUIT SCHOOL METHODS. The characteristic method of the schools was oral, +with a consequent closeness of contact of teacher and pupils. This +closeness of contact and sympathy was further retained by the system +whereby all punishment was given by the official Corrector of the +institution. Their method, like that of the modern German _Volkschule_, +was distinctly a teaching and not a questioning method. The teacher +planned and gave the instruction; the pupils received it. In the upper +classes the teacher explained the general meaning of the entire passage; +then the construction of each part; then gave the historical, +geographical, and archaeological information needed further to explain the +passage; then called attention to the rhetorical and poetical forms and +rules; then compared the style with that of other writers; and finally +drew the moral lesson. The memory was drilled; but little training of the +judgment or understanding was given. Thoroughness, memory drills, and the +disciplinary value of studies were foundation stones in the Jesuit's +educational theory. Repetition, they said, was the mother of memory. Each +day the work of the previous day was reviewed, and there were further +reviews at the end of each week, month, and year. + +To retain the interest of the pupils amid such a load of memorizing +various school devices were resorted to, chief among which were prizes, +ranks, emulations, rivals, and public disputations. The system of rivals, +whereby each boy had an opponent constantly after him, as shown in Figure +102, was one of the peculiar features of their schools. While the schools +were said to have been made pleasant and attractive, the idea of the +absolute authority of the Church which they represented pervaded them and +repressed the development of that individuality which the court schools of +the Italian Renaissance, the schools of the northern humanists, and the +Calvinistic colleges had tried particularly to foster. This, however, is a +criticism made from a modern point of view. That the school represented +well the spirit of the times is indicated by their marked success as +teaching institutions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 102. PLAN OF A JESUIT SCHOOLROOM +The pupils were arranged in equal numbers in opposite rows, known as +_decuriae_, and designated by the numbers. Each boy in each row had a +"rival" in the similarly numbered opposite row (one pair is designated by +dots), who rose whenever he was called on to recite, and who tried to +correct him in some error. A monitor for each group sat at _C_, and the +regular teacher at _B. A, D, E, i, o_, and _x_ represent various student +officials.] + +TRAINING OF THE JESUIT TEACHER. The newest and the most distinguishing +feature of the Jesuit educational scheme, as well as the most important, +was the care with which they selected and the thoroughness with which they +trained their teachers. To begin with, every Jesuit was a picked man, and +of those who entered the Order only the best were selected for teaching. +Each entered the Order for life, was vowed to celibacy, poverty, chastity, +uprightness of life, and absolute obedience to the commands of the Order. +The six-year inferior course had to be completed, which required that the +boy be sixteen to eighteen years of age before he could take the +preliminary steps toward joining the Order. Then a two-year novitiate, +away from the world, followed. This was a trial of his real character, his +weak points were noted, and his will and determination tested. Many were +dismissed before the end of the novitiate. If retained and accepted, he +took the preliminary vows and entered the philosophical course of study. +On completing this he was from twenty-one to twenty-three years of age. He +was now assigned to teach boys in the inferior classes of some college, +and might remain there. If destined for higher work he taught in the +inferior classes for two or three years, and then entered the theological +course at some Jesuit university. This required four years for those +headed for the ministry, and six for those who were being trained for +professorships in the colleges. On completing this course the final vows +were taken, at an age of from twenty-nine to thirty-two. The training to- +day is still longer. To become a teacher in the inferior classes required +training until twenty-one at least, and for college (secondary) classes +training until at least twenty-nine. The training was in scholarship, +religion, theology, and an apprenticeship in teaching, and was superior to +that required for a teaching license in any Protestant country of Europe, +or in the Catholic Church itself outside of the Jesuit Order. + +With such carefully selected and well-educated teachers, themselves models +of upright life in an age when priests and monks had been careless, it is +not surprising that they wielded an influence wholly out of proportion to +their numbers, and supplied Europe with its best secondary schools during +the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. In the loyal Catholic +countries they were virtually the first secondary schools outside of the +monasteries and churches, and the real introduction of humanism into +Spain, Portugal, and parts of France came with the establishment of the +Jesuit humanistic colleges. For their schools they wrote new school books +--the Protestant books, the most celebrated of which were those of +Erasmus, Melanchthon, Sturm, and Lily, were not possible of use--and for +a time they put new life into the humanistic type of education. Before the +eighteenth century, however, their secondary schools had become as formal +as had those in Protestant lands (R. 146), and their universities far more +narrow and intolerant. + +The elements of strength and weakness in the Jesuit system of education +has been well summarized by Dabney, [12] in the following words: + + The order of the Jesuits was anti-democratic, and was founded to + uphold authority, and to antagonize the right of private judgment. + With masterly skill they ruled the Catholic world for about two + centuries; and, in the beginning of their activity, performed services + of great value to mankind. For, although they aimed, in their system + of education, to fit pupils merely for so-called practical avocations, + and to avoid all subjects likely to stimulate them to independent + thought, it was nevertheless the best system which had then appeared. + In dropping the old scholastic methods, and teaching new and fresher + subjects, although with the intention of perverting them to their own + ends, they sowed, in fact, the germs of their own decay. In spite of + their wonderful organization, and their indefatigable industry as + courtiers in royal palaces, as professors in the universities, as + teachers in the schools, as preachers, as confessors, and as + missionaries, they were utterly unable to crush the spirit of doubt + and inquiry. During the first half century of their existence they + were intellectually in advance of their age; but after that they + gradually dropped behind it, and, instead of diffusing knowledge, saw + that the only hope of retaining their dominion was to oppose it with + all their might. + +THE CHURCH AND ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. As was stated on a preceding page, +the countries which remained loyal to the Church experienced none of the +Protestant feeling as to the necessity for universal education for +individual salvation. In such lands the church system of education which +had grown up during the Middle Ages remained undisturbed, and was expanded +but slowly with the passage of time. The Church, never having made general +provision for education, was not prepared for such work. Teachers were +scarce, there was no theory of education except the religious theory, and +few knew what to do or how to do it. Many churchmen, too, did not see the +need for doing anything. Nevertheless the Church, spurred on by the new +demands of a world fast becoming modern, and by the exhortations of the +official representatives of the people, [13] now began to make extra +efforts, in the large cathedral cities, to remedy the deficiency of more +than a thousand years. In Paris, for example, which was typical of other +French cities, the Church organized a regular system of elementary +schools, with teachers licensed by the Precentor of the cathedral of Notre +Dame and nominally under his supervision, in which instruction was offered +to children of the artisan and laboring classes, of both sexes, "in +reading, writing, reckoning, the rudiments of Latin Grammar, Catechism, +and singing." By 1675 these "Little Schools" in Paris came to contain +"upwards of 5000 pupils, taught by some 330 masters and mistresses." All +such schools, of course, remained under the immediate control of the +Church, and modern state systems of education in the Catholic States are +late nineteenth-century productions. In Spain, Portugal, Poland, and the +Balkan States, general state systems of education have not even as yet +been evolved. + +The general effect of the Reformation, though, was to stimulate the Church +to greater activity in elementary, as well as in secondary and higher +education. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries we find a large +number of decrees by church councils and exhortations by bishops urging +the extension of the existing church system of education, so as to supply +at least religious training to all the children of the faithful. As a +result a number of teaching orders were organized, the aim of which was to +assist the Church in providing elementary and religious education for the +children of the laboring and artisan classes in the cities. + +TEACHING ORDERS ESTABLISHED. The teaching orders for elementary education, +founded before the eighteenth century, with the dates of their foundation, +were: + + * 1535-The Order of Ursulines. (U.S., 1729.) + 1592--The Congregation of Christian Doctrine. + * 1598--The Sisters of Notre Dame. (U.S., 1847.) + * 1610--The Visitation Nuns. (U.S., 1799.) + 1621--Patres piarum scholarum (Piarists). First school opened in 1597; + authorized by the Pope, 1662. + 1627--The Daughters of the Presentation. + * 1633--The Sisters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul. (U.S., 1809.) + 1637--The Port Royalists (Jansenists). (Suppressed in 1661.) + 1643--The Sisters of Providence. + * 1650--The Sisters of Saint Joseph. Rule based on Jesuits. (U.S., + 19th C.) + 1652--The Sisters of Mary of Saint Charles Borromeo. + 1684--The Sisters of the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin. + * 1684--The Brothers of the Christian Schools. (U.S., 1845.) + + * Have communities in the United States, the date being that of the + first one established. See _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. v, p. + 528. + +All of these, except the Ursulines and the Piarists, were founded in +France, many of them originating in Paris. The first has long been +prominent in Italy, and is now found in all lands. The second was founded +by Father César de Bus, at Cavaillon, Avignon, in southern France, and its +purpose was to teach the Catechism to the young. The catechetical schools +of this Order were prominent in southern France up to the time of the +French Revolution. The third was founded by the Blessed Peter Fourier +(1565-1640), in 1598, and played an important part in the education of +girls in France, particularly in Lorraine, where Calvinism had made much +headway. This noted Order offered free instruction to tradesmen's +daughters, not only in religion but in "that which concerns this present +life and its maintenance" as well. The girls were taught "reading, +writing, arithmetic, sewing, and divers manual arts, honorable and +peculiarly suitable for girls" of their station of life. At a time when +handwork had not been thought of for boys, the beginnings of such work +were here introduced for girls. In 1640 Fourier gave the sisterhood a +constitution and a rule, which were revised and perfected in 1694. In this +he laid down rules for the organization and management of schools, methods +of teaching the different branches, and provided for a rudimentary form of +class organization. The following extract from the Rule illustrates the +approach to class organization which he devised: + +[Illustration: FIG. 103. AN URSULINE +Order founded, 1535] + +The inspectress, or mistress of the class, shall endeavor, as far as it +possibly can be carried out, that all the pupils of the same mistress have +each the same book, in order to learn and read therein the same lesson; so +that, whilst one is reading hers in an audible and intelligible voice +before the mistress, all the others, following her and following this +lesson, in their books at the same time, may learn it sooner, more +readily, and more perfectly. [14] The Piarists were established in Italy, +the first school being opened in Rome, in 1597, by a Spanish priest who +had studied at Lerida, Valencia, and Alcalá. Being struck by the lack of +educational opportunities for the poor, he opened a free school for their +instruction. By 1606 he had 900 pupils in his schools, and by 1613 he had +1200. In 1621 Pope Gregory XV gave his work definite recognition by +establishing it a teaching Order for elementary (reading, writing, +counting, religion) education, modeled on that of the Jesuits. The Order +did some work in Italy and Spain, but its chief services were in border +Catholic lands. In 1631 it began work in Moravia, in 1640 in Bohemia, in +1642 in Poland, and after 1648 in Austria and Hungary. The members wore a +habit much like that of the Jesuits, had a scheme of studies similar to +their _Ratio_, and were organized by provinces and were under discipline +as were the members of the older Order. + +The Jansenists, founded by Saint Cyran, at Port Royal, conducted a very +interesting and progressive educational experiment, and their schools have +become known to history as the "Little Schools of Port Royal." The +congregation was a reaction against the work and methods of the Jesuits. +It included both elementary and secondary education, but never extended +itself, and probably never had more than sixty pupils and teachers. After +seventeen years of work it was suppressed through the opposition of the +Jesuits, and its members fled to the Netherlands. There they wrote those +books which have explained to succeeding generations what they attempted, +[15] and which have revealed what a modern type of educational experiment +they conducted. The progressive and modern nature of their teaching, in an +age of suspicion and intolerance, condemned them to extinction. Yet +despite the progressive nature of their instruction, the intense religious +atmosphere which they threw about all their work (R. 181) reveals the +dominant characteristic of most education for church ends at the time. + +THE BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS. The largest and most influential of +the teaching orders established for elementary education was the +"Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools," founded by Father La +Salle at Rouen, in 1684, and sanctioned by the King and Pope in 1724. As +early as 1679 La Salle had begun a school at Rheims, and in 1684 he +organized his disciples, prescribed a costume to be worn, and outlined the +work of the brotherhood (_R. 182_). The object was to provide free +elementary and religious instruction in the vernacular for the children of +the working classes, and to do for elementary education what the Jesuits +had done for secondary education La Salle's _Conduct of Schools_, first +published in 1720, was the _ratio studiorum_ of his order. His work marks +the real beginning of free primary instruction in the vernacular in +France. In addition to elementary schools, a few of what we should call +part-time continuation schools were organized for children engaged in +commerce and industry. Realizing better than the Jesuits the need for +well-trained rather than highly educated teachers for little children, and +unable to supply members to meet the outside calls for schools, La Salle +organized at Rheims, in 1685, what was probably the second normal school +for training teachers in the world. [16] Another was organized later at +Paris. In addition to a good education of the type of the time and +thorough grounding in religion, the student teachers learned to teach in +practice schools, under the direction of experienced teachers. + +The pupils in La Salle's schools were graded into classes, and the class +method of instruction was introduced. [17] The curriculum was unusually +rich for a time when teaching methods and textbooks were but poorly +developed, the needs for literary education small, and when children could +not as yet be spared from work longer than the age of nine or ten. +Children learned first to read, write, and spell French, and to do simple +composition work in the vernacular. Those who mastered this easily were +taught the Latin Psalter in addition. Much prominence was given to +writing, the instruction being applied to the writing of bills, notes, +receipts, and the like. Much free questioning was allowed in arithmetic +and the Catechism, to insure perfect understanding of what was taught. +Religious training was made the most prominent feature of the school, as +was natural. A half-hour daily was given to the Catechism, mass was said +daily, the crucifix was always on the wall, and two or three pupils were +always to be found kneeling, telling their beads. The discipline, in +contradistinction to the customary practice of the time, was mild, though +all punishments were carefully prescribed by rule. [18] The rule of +silence in the school was rigidly enjoined, all speech was to be in a low +tone of voice, and a code of signals replaced speech for many things. + +[Illustration: FIG. 104. A SCHOOL OF LA SALLE AT PARIS, 1688 +A visit of James II and the Archbishop of Paris to the School (From a bas- +relief on the statue of La Salle, at Rouen)] + +Though the Order met with much opposition from both church and civil +authorities, it made slow but steady headway. At the time of the death of +La Salle, in 1719, thirty-five years after its foundation, the Order had +one general normal school, four normal schools for training teachers, +three practice schools, thirty-three primary schools, and one continuation +school. The Order remained largely French, and at the time of its +suppression, in 1792, had schools in 121 communities in France and 6 +elsewhere, about 1000 brothers, and approximately 30,000 children in its +schools. This was approximately 1 child in every 175 of school age of the +population of France at that time. While relatively small in numbers, +their schools represented the best attempt to provide elementary education +in any Catholic country before well into the nineteenth century. The +distribution of their schools throughout France, by 1792, is shown on the +map above. In 1803 the Order was reëstablished, by 1838 it had schools in +282 communities, and in 1887, when La Salle was declared a Saint of the +Church, it had 1898 communities on four continents, 109 of which were in +the United States, and was teaching a total of approximately 300,000 +primary children. + +[Illustration: FIG. 105. THE BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN SCHOOLS BY 1792 +Map, showing the locations of their communities] + + +5. _General Results of the Reformation on Education_ + +DESTRUCTION AND CREATION OF SCHOOLS. Any such general overturning of the +established institutions and traditions of a thousand years as occurred at +the time of the Protestant Revolts, with the accompanying bitter hatreds +and religious strife, could not help but result in extensive destruction +of established institutions. Monasteries, churches, and schools alike +suffered, and it required time to replace them. Even though they had been +neglectful of their functions, inadequate in number, and unsuited to the +needs of a world fast becoming modern, they had nevertheless answered +partially the need of the times. In all the countries where revolts took +place these institutions suffered more or less, but in England probably +most of all. The old schools which were not destroyed were transformed +into Protestant schools, the grammar schools to train scholars and +leaders, and the parish schools into Protestant elementary schools to +teach reading and the Catechism, but the number of the latter, in all +Protestant lands, was very far short of the number needed to carry out the +Protestant religious theory. This, as we have seen, proposed to extend the +elements of an education to large and entirely new classes of people who +never before in the history of the world had had such advantages. Out of +the Protestant religious conception that all should be educated the +popular elementary school of modern times has been evolved. The evolution, +though, was slow, and long periods of time have been required for its +accomplishment. + +In place of the schools destroyed, or the teachers driven out if no +destruction took place, the reformers made an earnest effort to create new +schools and supply teachers. This, though, required time, especially as +there was as yet in the world no body of vernacular teachers, no +institutions in which such could be trained, no theory as to education +except the religious, no supply of educated men or women from which to +draw, no theory of state support and control, and no source of taxation +from which to derive a steady flow of funds. Throughout the long Middle +Ages the Church had supplied gratuitous or nearly gratuitous instruction. +This it could do, to the limited number whom it taught, from the proceeds +of its age-old endowments and educational foundations. In the process of +transformation from a Catholic to a Protestant State, and especially +during the more than a century of turmoil and religious strife which +followed the rupture of the old relations, many of the old endowments were +lost or were diverted from their original purposes. As the Protestant +reformers were supported generally by the ruling princes, many of these +tried to remedy the deficiency by ordering schools established. The landed +nobility though, unused to providing education for their villein tenants +and serfs, were averse to supplying the deficiency by any form of general +taxation. Nor were the rising merchant classes in the cities any more +anxious to pay taxes to provide for artisans and servants what had for +ages been a gratuity or not furnished at all. + +NO REAL DEMAND OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. The creation of a largely new type +of schools, and in sufficient numbers to meet the needs of large classes +of people who before had never shared in the advantages of education, in +consequence proved to be a work of centuries. The century of warfare which +followed the reformation movement more or less exhausted all Europe, while +the Thirty Years' War which formed its culmination left the German States, +where the largest early educational progress had been made, a ruin. In +consequence there was for long little money for school support, and +religious interest and church tithes had to be depended on almost entirely +for the establishment and support of schools. Out of the parish sextons or +clerks a supply of vernacular teachers had to be evolved, a system of +school organization and supervision worked out and added to the duties of +the minister, and the feeling of need for education awakened sufficiently +to make people willing to support schools. In consequence what Luther and +Calvin declared at the beginning of the sixteenth century to be a +necessity for the State and the common right of all, it took until well +into the nineteenth century actually to create and make a reality. + +The great demand of the time, too, was not so much for the education of +the masses, however desirable or even necessary this might be from the +standpoint of Protestant religious theory, but for the training of leaders +for the new religious and social order which the Revival of Learning, the +rise of modern nationalities, and the Reformation movements had brought +into being. For this secondary schools for boys, largely Latin in type, +were demanded rather than elementary vernacular schools for both sexes. We +accordingly find the great creations of the period were secondary schools. + +[Illustration: FIG. 106. TENDENCIES IN EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EUROPE, +1500 to 1700] + +LINES OF FUTURE DEVELOPMENT ESTABLISHED. Still more, certain lines of +future development now became clearly established. The drawing given here +will help to make this evident. It will be seen from this that not only +was the secondary school still the dominant type, though elementary +schools began for the first time to be considered as important also, but +that the secondary schools were wholly independent of the elementary +schools which now began to be created. The elementary schools were in the +vernacular and for the masses; the secondary schools were in the Latin +tongue and for the training of the scholarly leaders. Between these two +schools, so different in type and in clientèle, there was little in +common. This difference was further emphasized with time. The elementary +schools later on added subjects of use to the common people, while the +secondary schools added subjects of use for scholarly preparation or for +university entrance. The secondary schools also frequently provided +preparatory schools for their particular classes of children. As a result, +all through Europe two school systems--an elementary-school system for the +masses, and a secondary-school system for the classes--exist to-day side +by side. We in America did not develop such a class school system, though +we started that way. This was because the conception of education we +finally developed was a product of a new democratic spirit, as will be +explained later on. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Compare the attention to careful religious instruction in the secondary +schools provided by the Lutherans, Calvinists, and English. What analogous +instruction do we provide in the American high schools? Is it as thorough +or as well done? + +2. Compare the scope and ideals of the educational system provided by the +Calvinists with the same for the Lutherans and Anglicans. + +3. Compare the characteristics of Calvinistic (Huguenot) education, as +summarized by Foster, with present-day state educational purposes. + +4. Just what kind of a school system did Knox propose (1560) for Scotland? + +5. Show how the educational program of the Jesuits reveals Ignatius Loyola +as a man of vision. + +6. Viewed from the purposes the Order had in mind, was it warranted in +neglecting the education of the masses? + +7. Does the success of the Order show the importance to society of finding +and educating the future leader? Can all men be trained for leadership? + +8. What does the statement that the Jesuits were "too practical to make +many changes," but had "a keen eye for what was best" in the work of +others, indicate as to the nature of school administration and educational +progress? + +9. Indicate the advantages which the Jesuits had in their teachers and +teaching-aim over us of to-day. How could we develop an aim as clearly +defined and potent as theirs? Could we select teachers with such care? +How? + +10. Compare the religious and educational propaganda of the Jesuits with +the recent political propaganda of the Germans. + +11. What is meant by the statement that the Jesuit teaching method, like +that of the modern German _Volksschule_, was a teaching and not a +questioning method? + +12. Compare present American standards for teacher-training for elementary +and secondary teaching with those required by the Jesuits:--(_a_) as to +length of preparation; (_b_) as to nature and scope of preparation. + +13. How do you explain the introduction of sewing into the elementary +vernacular Catholic schools for girls, so long before handiwork for boys +was thought of? + +14. In schools so formally organized as those of La Salle, how do you +explain the great freedom allowed in questioning on arithmetic and the +Catechism? + +15. Why should La Salle's work have been so opposed by both Church and +civil authorities? Do you consider that his Order ever made what would be +called rapid progress? + +16. Why must the education of leaders always precede the education of the +masses? + +17. Explain how European countries came naturally to have two largely +independent school systems--a secondary school for leaders and an +elementary school for the masses--whereas we have only one continuous +system. + +18. Explain why modern state systems of education developed first in the +German States, and why England and the Catholic nations of Europe were so +long in developing state school systems. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 175. Woodward: Course of Study at the College of Geneva. + 176. Synod of Dort: Scheme of Christian Education adopted. + 177. Kilpatrick: Work of the Dutch in developing Schools. + 178. Kilpatrick: Character of the Dutch Schools of 1650. + 179. Statutes: The Scotch School Law of 1646. + 180. Pachtler: The _Ratio Studiorum_ of the Jesuits. + 181. Gérard: The Dominant Religious Purpose in the Education of French + Girls. + 182. La Salle: Rules for the "Brothers of the Christian Schools." + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Was the College at Geneva (175) a true humanistic-revival school? + +2. Just what did the Synod of Dort provide for (176) in the matter of +schools, school supervision, and ministerial duties? + +3. Compare the work of the Dutch (177) and the Lutherans (159-163) in +creating schools. + +4. Just what type of school is indicated by selection 178? + +5. Just what did the Scotch law of 1646 provide for (179)? + +6. Characterize the schools provided for by La Salle (182). + +7. Compare the religious care at Port Royal (181) with that suggested by +Saint Jerome (R. 45). + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + + Baird, C. W. _History of the Rise of the Huguenots of France_. + Baird, C. W. _Huguenot Emigration to America_. + Grant, Jas. _History of the Burgh Schools of Scotland_. + Hughes, Thos. _Loyola, and the Educational System of the Jesuits_. + Kilpatrick, Wm. H. _The Dutch Schools of New Netherlands and Colonial + New York_. + Laurie, S. S. _History of Educational Opinion since the + Renaissance_. + Ravelet, A. _Blessed J. B. de la Salle_. + Schwickerath, R. _Jesuit Education; its History and Principles in the + Light of Modern Educational Problems_. + Woodward, W. H. _Education during the Renaissance_. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS + + +III. THE REFORMATION AND AMERICAN EDUCATION + +THE PROTESTANT SETTLEMENT OF AMERICA. Columbus had discovered the new +world just twenty-five years before Luther nailed his theses to the church +door at Wittenberg, and by the time the northern continent had been +roughly explored and was ready for settlement, Europe was in the midst of +a century of warfare in a vain attempt to extirpate the Protestant heresy. +By the time that the futility of fire and sword as means for religious +conversion had finally dawned upon Christian Europe and found expression +in the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which closed the terrible Thirty Years' +War (p. 301), the first permanent settlements in a number of the American +colonies had been made. These settlements, and the beginnings of education +in America, are so closely tied up with the Protestant Revolts in Europe +that a chapter on the beginnings of American education belongs here as +still another phase of the educational results of the Protestant Revolts. + +Practically all the early settlers in America came from among the peoples +and from those lands which had embraced some form of the Protestant faith, +and many of them came to America to found new homes and establish their +churches in the wilderness, because here they could enjoy a religious +freedom impossible in their old home-lands. This was especially true of +the French Huguenots, many of whom, after the revocation of the Edict of +Nantes [1] (1685), fled to America and settled along the coast of the +Carolinas; the Calvinistic Dutch and Walloons, who settled in and about +New Amsterdam; the Scotch and Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, who settled in +New Jersey, and later extended along the Allegheny Mountain ridges into +all the southern colonies; the English Quakers about Philadelphia, who +came under the leadership of William Penn, and a few English Baptists and +Methodists in eastern Pennsylvania; the Swedish Lutherans, along the +Delaware; the German Lutherans, Moravians, Mennonites, Dunkers, and +Reformed-Church Germans, who settled in large numbers in the mountain +valleys of Pennsylvania; and the Calvinistic dissenters from the English +National Church, known as Puritans, who settled the New England colonies, +and who, more than any others, gave direction to the future development of +education in the American States. Very many of these early religious +groups came to America in little congregations, bringing their ministers +with them. Each set up, in the colony in which it settled, what were +virtually little religious republics, that through them they might the +better perpetuate the religious principles for which they had left the +land of their birth. Education of the young for membership in the Church, +and the perpetuation of a learned ministry for the congregations, from the +first elicited the serious attention of these pioneer settlers. + +Englishmen who were adherents of the English national faith (Anglicans) +also settled in Virginia and the other southern colonies, and later in New +York and New Jersey, while Maryland was founded as the only Catholic +colony, in what is now the United States, by a group of persecuted English +Catholics who obtained a charter from Charles I, in 1632. These +settlements are shown on the map on the following page. As a result of +these settlements there was laid, during the early colonial period of +American history, the foundation of those type attitudes toward education +which subsequently so materially shaped the educational development of the +different American States during the early part of our national history. + +THE PURITANS IN NEW ENGLAND. Of all those who came to America during this +early period, the Calvinistic Puritans who settled the New England +colonies contributed most that was valuable to the future educational +development of America, and because of this will be considered first. + +[Illustration: FIG. 107. MAP SHOWING THE RELIGIOUS SETTLEMENTS IN AMERICA] + +The original reformation in England, as was stated in chapters XII and +XIII, had been much more nominal than real. The English Bible and the +English Prayer-Book had been issued to the churches (R. 170), and the King +instead of the Pope had been declared by the Act of Supremacy (R. 153) to +be the head of the English National Church. The same priests, though, had +continued in the churches under the new régime, and the church service had +not greatly changed aside from its transformation from Latin into English. +Neither the Church as an organization nor its members experienced any +great religious reformation. Not all Englishmen, though, took the change +in allegiance so lightly (R. 183), and in consequence there came to be a +gradually increasing number who desired a more fundamental reform of the +English Church. By 1600 the demand for Church reform had become very +insistent, and the question of Church purification (whence the name +"Puritans") had become a burning question in England. + +[Illustration: FIG. 108. HOMES OF THE PILGRIMS, AND THEIR ROUTE TO +AMERICA] + +The English Puritans, moreover, were of two classes. One was a moderate +but influential "low-church" group within the "high" State Church, +possessed of no desire to separate Church and State, but earnestly +insistent on a simplification of the Church ceremonial, the elimination of +a number of the vestiges of the old Romish-Church ritual, and particularly +the introduction of more preaching into the service. The other class +constituted a much more radical group, and had become deeply imbued with +Calvinistic thinking. This group gradually came into open opposition to +any State Church, stood for the local independence of the different +churches or congregations, and desired the complete elimination of all +vestiges of the Romish faith from the church services. [2] They became +known as Independents, or Separatists, and formed the germs of the later +Congregational groups of early New England. Both Elizabeth (1558-1603) and +James I (1603-25) savagely persecuted this more radical group, and many of +their congregations were forced to flee from England to obtain personal +safety and to enjoy religious liberty (R. 184). One of these fugitive +congregations, from Scrooby, in north-central England, after living for +several years at Leyden, in Holland, finally set sail for America, landed +on Plymouth Rock, in 1620, and began the settlement of that "bleak and +stormy coast." Other congregations soon followed, it having been estimated +that twenty thousand English Puritans migrated [3] to the New England +wilderness before 1640. These represented a fairly well-to-do type of +middle-class Englishmen, practically all of whom had had good educational +advantages at home. + +Settling along the coast in little groups or congregations, they at once +set up a combined civil and religious form of government, modeled in a way +after Calvin's City-State at Geneva, and which became known as a New +England town. [4] In time the southern portion of the coast of New England +was dotted with little self-governing settlements of those who had come to +America to obtain for themselves that religious freedom which had been +denied them at home. These settlements were loosely bound together in a +colony federation, in which each town was represented in a General Court, +or legislature. The extent of these settlements by 1660 is shown on the +map on the opposite page. + +BEGINNINGS OF SCHOOLS IN NEW ENGLAND. Having come to America to secure +religious freedom, it was but natural that the perpetuation of their +particular faith by means of education should have been one of the first +matters to engage their attention, after the building of their homes and +the setting up of the civil government (R. 185). Being deeply imbued with +Calvinistic ideas as to government and religion, they desired to found +here a religious commonwealth, somewhat after the model of Geneva (p. +298), or Scotland (p. 335), or the Dutch provinces (p. 334), the corner- +stones of which should be religion and education. + +[Illustration: FIG. 109. NEW ENGLAND SETTLEMENTS, 1660] + +At first, English precedents were followed. Home instruction, which was +quite common in England among the Puritans, was naturally much employed to +teach the children to read the Bible and to train them to participate in +both the family and the congregational worship. After 1647, town +elementary schools under a master, and later the English "dame schools" +(chapter XVIII), were established to provide this rudimentary instruction. +The English apprentice system was also established (R. 201), and the +masters of apprentices gave similar instruction to boys entrusted to their +care. The town religious governments, under which all the little +congregations organized themselves, much as the little religious parishes +had been organized in old England, also began the voluntary establishment +of town grammar schools, as a few towns in England had done (R. 143) +before the Puritans migrated. The "Latin School" at Boston dates from +1635, and has had a continuous existence since that time. The grammar +school at Charlestown dates from 1636, that at Ipswich from the same year, +and the school at Salem from 1637. In 1639 Dorchester voted: + + that there shall be a rent of 20 lb a year for ever imposed upon + Tomsons Island ... toward the mayntenance of a schoole in Dorchester. + This rent of 20 lb yearly to bee payd to such a schoole-master as + shall vndertake to teach english, latine, and other tongues, and also + writing. The said schoole-master to bee chosen from tyme to tyme p'r + the freemen. + +Newbury, in 1639, voted "foure akers of upland" and "sixe akers of salt +marsh" to Anthony Somerby "for his encouragement to keepe schoole for one +yeare," and later levied a town rate of £24 for a "schoole to be kepte at +the meeting house." Cambridge also early established a Latin grammar +school "for the training up of Young Schollars, and fitting them [5] for +_Academicall Learning_" (R. 185). + +The support for the town schools thus founded was derived from various +sources, such as the levying of tuition fees, the income from town lands +or fisheries set aside for the purpose, [6] voluntary contributions from +the people of the town, [7] a town tax, or a combination of two or more of +these methods. The founding of the "free (grammar) school" at Roxburie, in +1645, is representative (R. 188) of the early methods. There was no +uniform plan as yet, in either old or New England. + +FOUNDING OF HARVARD COLLEGE. In addition to establishing Latin grammar +schools, a college was founded, in 1636, by the General Court +(legislature) of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, to perpetuate learning and +insure an educated ministry (R. 185) to the churches after "our present +ministers shall lie in the dust." This new college, located at Newtowne, +was modeled after Emmanuel College at Cambridge, an English Puritan +college in which many of the early New England colonists had studied, [8] +and in loving memory of which they rechristened Newtowne as Cambridge. In +1639 the college was christened Harvard College, after a graduate of +Emmanuel College, Cambridge, by the name of John Harvard, who died in +Charlestown, a year after his arrival in the colony, and who left the +college his library of two hundred and sixty volumes and half his +property, about £850. + +The instruction in the new college was a combination of the arts and +theological instruction given in a mediaeval university, though at Harvard +the President, Master Dunster (R. 185), did all the teaching. For the +first fifty years at Harvard this continued to be true, the attendance +during that time seldom exceeding twenty. The entrance requirements for +the college (R. 186 a) call for the completion of a typical English Latin +grammar-school education; the rules and precepts for the government of the +college (R. 186 b) reveal the deep religious motive; and the schedule of +studies (R. 186 c) and the requirements for degrees (R. 186 d) both show +that the instruction was true to the European type. In the charter for the +college, granted by the colonial legislature in 1650 (R. 187 a), we find +exemptions and conditions which remind one strongly of the older European +foundations. A century later Brown College, in Rhode Island, was granted +even more extensive exemptions (R. 187 b). + +THE FIRST COLONIAL LEGISLATION: THE LAW OF 1642. We thus see manifested +early in New England the deep Puritan-Calvinistic zeal for learning as a +bulwark of Church and State. We also see the establishment in the +wilderness of New England of a typical English educational system--that +is, private instruction in reading and religion by the parents in the home +and by the masters of apprentices, and later by a town schoolmaster; the +Latin grammar school in the larger towns, to prepare boys for the college +of the colony; and an English-type college to prepare them for the +ministry. As in England, too, all was clearly subordinate to the Church. +Still further, as in England also, the system was voluntary, the deep +religious interest which had brought the congregations to America being +depended upon to insure for all the necessary education and religious +training. + +It early became evident, though, that these voluntary efforts on the part +of the people and the towns would not be sufficient to insure that general +education which was required by the Puritan religious theory. Under the +hard pioneer conditions, and the suffering which ensued, many parents and +masters of apprentices evidently proved neglectful of their educational +duties. Accordingly the Church appealed to its servant, the State, as +represented in the colonial legislature (General Court) to assist it in +compelling parents and masters to observe their religious obligations. The +result was the famous Massachusetts Law of 1642 (R. 190), which directed +"the chosen men" (Selectmen; Councilmen) of each town to ascertain, from +time to time, if the parents and masters were attending to their +educational duties; if the children were being trained "in learning and +labor and other employments ... profitable to the Commonwealth"; and if +children were being taught "to read and understand the principles of +religion and the capital laws of the country," and empowered them to +impose fines on "those who refuse to render such accounts to them when +required." In 1645 the General Court further ordered that all youth +between ten and sixteen years of age should also receive instruction "in +ye exercise of arms, as small guns, halfe pikes, bowes & arrows, &c." + +[Illustration: PLATE 9. Two TABLETS ON THE WEST GATEWAY AT HARVARD +UNIVERSITY +Reproducing colonial records relating to the founding of Harvard College.] + +The Law of 1642 is remarkable in that, for the first time in the English- +speaking world, a legislative body representing the State ordered that all +children should be taught to read. The law shows clearly not only the +influence of the Reformation theory as to personal salvation and the +Calvinistic conception of the connection between learning and religion, +but also the influence of the English Poor-Law legislation which had +developed rapidly during the half-century immediately preceding the coming +of the Puritans to America (R. 173). On the foundations of the English +Poor Law of 1601 (R. 174) our New England settlers moulded the first +American law relating to education, adding to the principles there +established (p. 326) a distinct Calvinistic contribution to our new-world +life that, the authorities of the civil town should see that all children +were taught "to read and understand the principles of religion and the +capital laws of the country." This law the Selectmen, or the courts if +they failed to do so, were ordered to enforce, and the courts usually +looked after their duties in the matter (R. 192). + +_The Law of 1647._ The Law of 1642, while ordering "the chosen men" of +each town to see that the education and training of children was not +neglected, and providing for fines on parents and masters who failed to +render accounts when required, did not, however, establish schools, or +direct the employment of schoolmasters. The provision of education, after +the English fashion, was still left with the homes. After a trial of five +years, the results of which were not satisfactory, the General Court +enacted another law by means of which it has been asserted that "the +Puritan government of Massachusetts rendered probably its greatest service +to the future." + +After recounting in a preamble (R. 191) that it had in the past been "one +cheife proiect of y't ould deluder, Satan, to keepe men from the knowledge +of y'e Scriptures, ... by keeping y'm in an unknowne tongue," so now "by +pswading from y'e use of tongues," and "obscuring y'e true sence & meaning +of y'e originall" by "false glosses of saint-seeming deceivers," learning +was in danger of being "buried in y'e grave of o'r fath'rs in y'e church +and comonwealth"; the Court ordered: + + 1. That every town having fifty householders should at once appoint a + teacher of reading and writing, and provide for his wages in such + manner as the town might determine; and + + 2. That every town having one hundred householders must provide a + grammar school to fit youths for the university, under a penalty of + £5 (afterwards increased to £20) for failure to do so. + +This law represents a distinct step in advance over the Law of 1642, and +for this there are no English precedents. It was not until the latter part +of the nineteenth century that England took such a step. The precedents +for the compulsory establishment of schools lie rather in the practices of +the different German States (p. 318), the actions of the Dutch synods (R. +176) and provinces (p. 335), the Acts of the Scottish parliament of 1633 +and 1646 (p. 334; R. 179), and the general Calvinistic principle that +education was an important function of a religious State. + +PRINCIPLES ESTABLISHED. The State here, acting again as the servant of the +Church, enacted a law and fixed a tradition which prevailed and grew in +strength and effectiveness after State and Church had parted company. Not +only was a school system ordered established--elementary for all towns and +children, and secondary for youths in the larger towns--but, for the first +time among English-speaking people, there was an assertion of the right of +the State to require communities to establish and maintain schools, under +penalty if they refused to do so. It can be safely asserted, in the light +of later developments, that the two laws of 1642 and 1647 represent the +foundations upon which our American state public-school systems have been +built. Mr. Martin, the historian of the Massachusetts public-school +system, states the fundamental principles which underlay this legislation, +as follows: [9] + + 1. The universal education of youth is essential to the well-being of + the State. + + 2. The obligation to furnish this education rests primarily upon the + parent. + + 3. The State has a right to enforce this obligation. + + 4. The State may fix a standard which shall determine the kind of + education, and the minimum amount. + + 5. Public money, raised by general tax, may be used to provide such + education as the State requires. The tax may be general, though the + school attendance is not. + + 6. Education higher than the rudiments may be supplied by the State. + Opportunity must be provided, at public expense, for youths who + wish to be fitted for the university. + +"It is important to note here," adds Mr. Martin, "that the idea underlying +all this legislation is neither paternalistic nor socialistic. The child +is to be educated, not to advance his personal interests, but because the +State will suffer if he is not educated. The State does not provide +schools to relieve the parent, nor because it can educate better than the +parent can, but because it can thereby better enforce the obligation which +it imposes." To prevent a return to the former state of religious +ignorance it was important that education be provided. To assure this the +colonial legislature enacted a law requiring the maintenance and support +of schools by the towns. This law became the corner-stone of our American +state school systems. + +Influence on other New England colonies. Connecticut Colony, in its Law of +1650 establishing a school system, combined the spirit of the +Massachusetts Law of 1642, though stated in different words (R. 193), and +the Law of 1647, stated word for word. New Haven Colony, in 1655, ordered +that children and apprentices should be taught to read, as had been done +in Massachusetts, in 1642, but on the union of New Haven and Connecticut +Colonies, in 1665, the Connecticut Code became the law for the united +colonies. In 1702 a college was founded (Yale) and finally located at New +Haven, to offer preparation for the ministry in the Connecticut colony, as +had been done earlier in Massachusetts, and Latin grammar schools were +founded in the Connecticut towns to prepare for the new college, as also +had been done earlier in Massachusetts. The rules and regulations for the +grammar school at New Haven (R. 189) reveal the purpose and describe the +instruction provided in one of the earliest and best of these. + +[Illustration: FIG. 111. WHERE YALE COLLEGE WAS FOUNDED] + +Plymouth Colony, in 1658 and again in 1663, proposed to the towns that +they "sett vp" a schoolmaster "to traine vp children to reading and +writing" (R. 194 a). In 1672 the towns were asked to aid Harvard College +by gifts (R. 194 b). In 1673-74 the income from the Cape Cod fisheries was +set aside for the support of a (grammar) school (R. 194 c). Finally, in +1677, all towns having over fifty families and maintaining a grammar +school were ordered aided from the fishery proceeds (R. 194 d). + +The Massachusetts laws also applied to Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, +as these were then a part of Massachusetts Colony. After New Hampshire +separated, in 1680, the Massachusetts Law of 1647 was virtually readopted +in 1719-21. In Maine and Vermont there were so few settlers, until near +the beginning of our national life, that the influence of the +Massachusetts legislation on these States was negligible until a later +period. + +Only in Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, of all the New England +colonies, did the Massachusetts legislation fail to exert a deep +influence. Settled as these two had been by refugees from New England, and +organized on a basis of hospitality to all who suffered from religious +oppression elsewhere, the religious stimulus to the founding of schools +naturally was lacking. As the religious basis for education was as yet the +only basis, the first development of schools in Rhode Island awaited the +humanitarian and economic influences which did not become operative until +early in the nineteenth century. + +Outside of the New England colonies, the appeal to the State as the +servant of the Church was seldom made during the early colonial period, +the churches handling the educational problem in their own way. As a +result the beginnings of State oversight and control were left to New +England. In the central colonies a series of parochial-school systems came +to prevail, while in Episcopalian Virginia and the other colonies to the +south the no-business-of-the-State attitude assumed toward education by +the mother country was copied. + +THE CHURCH SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK. New Netherland, as New York Colony was +called before the English occupation, was settled by the Dutch West India +Company, and some dozen villages about New York and up the Hudson had been +founded by the time it passed to the control of the English, in 1664. In +these the Dutch established typical home-land public parochial schools, +under the control of the Reformed Dutch Church. The schoolmaster was +usually the reader and precentor in the church as well (R. 195), and often +acted, as in Holland, as sexton besides. Girls attended on equal terms +with boys, but sat apart and recited in separate classes. The instruction +consisted of reading and writing Dutch, sometimes a little arithmetic, the +Dutch Catechism, the reading of a few religious books, and certain +prayers. The rules (1661) for a schoolmaster in New Amsterdam (R. 196), +and the contract with a Dutch schoolmaster in Flatbush (R. 195), dating +from 1682, reveal the type of schools and school conditions provided. All +except the children of the poor paid fees to the schoolmaster. [10] He was +licensed by the Dutch church authorities. As the Dutch had not come to +America because of persecution, and were in no way out of sympathy with +religious conditions in the home-land, the schools they developed here +were typical of the Dutch European parochial schools of the time (R. 178). +A _trivial_ (Latin) school was also established in New York, in 1652. + +After the English occupation the English principle of private and church +control of education, with schooling on a tuition or a charitable basis, +came to prevail, and this continued up to the beginning of our national +period. [11] Of the English colonial schools of New York Draper has +written: [12] + + All the English schools in the province from 1700 down to the time of + the Declaration of Independence were maintained by a great religious + society organized under the auspices of the Church of England--and, of + course, with the favor of the government--called "The Society for the + Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts." The law governing this + Society provided that no teacher should be employed until he had + proved "his affection for the present government" and his "conformity + to the doctrine and discipline of the Church of England." Schools + maintained under such auspices were in no sense free schools. Indeed, + humiliating as it is, no student of history can fail to discern the + fact that the government of Great Britain, during its supremacy in + this territory, did nothing to facilitate the extension or promote the + efficiency of free elementary schools among the people. + +THE PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS OF PENNSYLVANIA. Pennsylvania was settled by +Quakers, Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, German Lutherans, Moravians, +Mennonites, and members of the German Reformed Church, all of whom came to +America to secure greater religious liberty and had been attracted to this +colony by the freedom of religious worship which Penn had provided for +there. All these were Protestant sects, all believed in the necessity of +learning to read the Bible as a means to personal salvation, and all made +efforts looking toward the establishment of schools as a part of their +church organization. Unlike New England, though, no sect was in a +majority; church control for each denomination was considered as most +satisfactory; and no appeal was made to the State to have it assist the +churches in the enforcement of their religious purposes. The clergymen +were usually the teachers in the parochial schools established, [13] while +private pay schools were opened in the villages and towns. These were +taught in English, German, or the Moravian tongue (Czech), according to +the original language of the different immigrants. The Quakers seem to +have taken particular interest in schools (R. 199), a Quaker school in +Philadelphia (R. 198) having been established the year the city was +founded. Girls were educated as well as boys, and the emphasis was placed +on reading, writing, counting, and religion, rather than upon any higher +form of training. + +[Illustration: FIG. 112. AN OLD QUAKER MEETING-HOUSE AND SCHOOL AT +LAMPETER, PENNSYLVANIA +(From an old drawing)] + +The result was the development in this colony of a policy of depending on +church and private effort, and the provision of education, aside from +certain rudimentary and religious instruction, was left largely for those +who could afford to pay for the privilege. Charitable education was +extended to but a few, for a short time, while, under the freedom allowed, +many communities made but indifferent provisions or suffered their schools +to lapse. Under the primitive conditions of the time the interest even in +religious education often declined almost to the vanishing point. So lax +in the matter of providing schooling had many communities become that the +second Provincial Assembly, sitting in Philadelphia, in 1683, passed an +ordinance requiring (R. 197) that all persons having children must cause +them to be taught to read and write, so that they might be able to read +the Scriptures by the time they were twelve years old, and also that all +children be taught some useful trade. A fine of £5 was to be assessed for +failure to comply with the law. So much in advance of English ideas as to +what was fitting and proper was this compulsory law that it was vetoed by +William and Mary, when submitted to their majesties for approval. Ten +years later it was reënacted by the Governor and Assembly of the colony, +but proved so difficult of enforcement that it was soon dropped, and the +chance of starting education in Pennsylvania somewhat after the New +England model was lost. The colony now settled down to a policy of non +state action, and this in time became so firmly established that the do- +as-you-please idea persisted in this State up to the establishment of the +first free state school system, in 1834. + +MIXED CONDITIONS IN NEW JERSEY. In New Jersey, situated as it was near the +center of the different colonies, the early development of education there +was the product of a number of different influences. The Dutch crossed +from New Amsterdam, the English came from Connecticut and later from New +York, Scotch and Scotch-Irish Presbyterians came from the mother country, +Swedish Lutherans settled along the Delaware, and Quakers and German +Lutherans came over from Pennsylvania. The educational practice of the +colony or land from which each group of settlers came was reproduced in +the colony. After the English succeeded the Dutch in New Amsterdam (1664), +English methods and practice in education gradually came into control +throughout most of New Jersey, and as a result here, as in New York, but +little was accomplished in providing schools for other than a select few +until well after the beginning of the nineteenth century. Neither New +Jersey, New York, nor Pennsylvania may be said to have developed any +colonial educational policy aside from that of allowing private and +parochial effort to provide such schools as seemed desirable. + +VIRGINIA AND THE SOUTHERN TYPE. Almost all the conditions attending the +settlement of Virginia were in contrast to those of the New England +colonies. The early settlers were from the same class of English yeomen +and country squires, but with the important difference that whereas the +New England settlers were Dissenters from the Church of England and had +come to America to obtain freedom in religious worship, the settlers in +Virginia were adherents of the National Church and had come to America for +gain. The marked differences in climate and possible crops led to the +large plantation type of settlement, instead of the compact little New +England town; the introduction of large numbers of "indentured white +servants," and later negro slaves, led to the development of classes in +society instead of to the New England type of democracy; and the lack of a +strong religious motive for education naturally led to the adoption of the +customary English practices instead of to the development of colonial +schools. The tutor in the home, education in small private pay schools, or +education in the mother country were the prevailing methods adopted among +the well-to-do planters, while the poorer classes were left with only such +advantages as apprenticeship training or charity schools might provide. +Throughout the entire colonial period Virginia remained most like the +mother country in spirit and practice, and stands among the colonies as +the clearest example of the English attitude toward school support and +control. As in the mother country, education was considered to be no +business of the State. Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and +the Carolinas followed the English attitude, much after the fashion of +Virginia. + +Practically all the Virginia colonial legislation relating to education +refers either to William and Mary College (founded in 1693), or to the +education of orphans and the children of the poor. Both these interests, +as we have previously seen, were typically English. All the seventeenth- +century legislation relating to education is based on the English Poor-Law +legislation, [14] previously described (p. 325), and included the +compulsory apprenticeship of the children of the poor, training in a +trade, the requirement that the public authorities must provide +opportunities for this type of education, and the use of both local and +colony funds for the purpose (R. 200 a), all, as the Statutes state, +"according to the aforesaid laudable custom in the Kingdom of England." It +was not until 1705 that Virginia reached the point, reached by +Massachusetts in 1642, of requiring that "the master of the [apprenticed] +orphan shall be obliged to teach him to read and write." In all the +Anglican colonies the apprenticing of the children of the poor (see R. 200 +b for some interesting North Carolina records) was a characteristic +feature. During the entire colonial period the indifference of the mother +country to general education was steadily reflected in Virginia and in the +colonies which were essentially Anglican in religion, and followed the +English example. + +TYPE PLANS REPRESENTED BY 1750. The seventeenth century thus witnessed the +transplanting of European ideas as to government, religion, and education +to the new American colonies, and by the eighteenth century we find three +clearly marked types of educational practice or conception as to +educational responsibility established on American soil. + +The first was the strong Calvinistic conception of a religious State, +supporting a system of common vernacular schools, higher Latin schools, +and a college, for both religious and civic ends. This type dominated New +England, and is best represented by Massachusetts. From New England this +attitude was carried westward by the migrations of New England people, and +deeply influenced the educational development of all States to which the +New Englander went in any large numbers. This was the educational +contribution of Calvinism to America. [15] Out of it our state school +systems of to-day, by the separation of Church and State, have been +evolved. + +The second was the parochial-school conception of the Dutch, Moravians, +Mennonites, German Lutherans, German Reformed Church, Quakers, +Presbyterians, Baptists, and Catholics. This type is best represented by +Protestant Pennsylvania and Catholic Maryland. It stood for church control +of all educational efforts, resented state interference, was dominated +only by church purposes, and in time came to be a serious obstacle in the +way of rational state school organization and control. + +The third type, into which the second type tended to fuse, conceived of +public education, aside from collegiate education, as intended chiefly for +orphans and the children of the poor, and as a charity which the State was +under little or no obligation to assist in supporting. All children of the +upper and middle classes in society attended private or church schools, or +were taught by tutors in their homes, and for such instruction paid a +proper tuition fee. Paupers and orphans, in limited numbers and for a +limited time, might be provided with some form of useful education at the +expense of either Church or State. This type is best represented by +Anglican Virginia, which typified well the _laissez-faire_ policy which +dominated England from the time of the Protestant Reformation until the +latter half of the nineteenth century. + +These three types of attitude toward the provision of education became +fixed American types, and each deeply influenced subsequent American +educational development, as we shall point out in a later chapter. + +DOMINANCE OF THE RELIGIOUS MOTIVE. The seventeenth century was essentially +a period of the transplanting, almost unchanged in form, of the +characteristic European institutions, manners, religious attitudes, and +forms of government to American shores. Each sect or nationality on +arriving set up in the new land the characteristic forms of church and +school and social observances known in the old home-land. Dutch, Germans, +English, Scotch, Calvinists, Lutherans, Anglicans, Presbyterians-- +reproduced in the American colonies the main type of schools existing at +the time of their migration in the mother land from which they came. They +were also dominated by the same deep religious purpose. + +The dominance of this religious purpose in all instruction is well +illustrated by the great beginning-school book of the time, _The New +England Primer_. A digest of the contents of this, with a few pages +reproduced, is given in R. 202. This book, from which all children learned +to read, was used by Dissenters and Lutherans alike in the American +colonies. This book Ford well characterizes in the following words: + +As one glances over what may truly be called "The Little Bible of New +England," and reads its stern lessons, the Puritan mood is caught with +absolute faithfulness. Here was no easy road to knowledge and salvation; +but with prose as bare of beauty as the whitewash of their churches, with +poetry as rough and stern as their storm-torn coast, with pictures as +crude and unfinished as their own glacial-smoothed boulders, between stiff +oak covers which symbolized the contents, the children were tutored, +until, from being unregenerate, and as Jonathan Edwards said, "young +vipers, and infinitely more hateful than vipers" to God, they attained +that happy state when, as expressed by Judge Sewell's child, they were +afraid that they "should goe to hell," and were "stirred up dreadfully to +seek God." God was made sterner and more cruel than any living judge, that +all might be brought to realize how slight a chance even the least erring +had of escaping eternal damnation. + +One learned to read chiefly that one might be able to read the Catechism +and the Bible, and to know the will of the Heavenly Father. There was +scarcely any other purpose in the maintenance of elementary schools. In +the grammar schools and the colleges students were "instructed to consider +well the main end of life and studies." These institutions existed mainly +to insure a supply of learned ministers for service in Church and State. +Such studies as history, geography, science, music, drawing, secular +literature, and organized play were unknown. Children were constantly +surrounded, week days and Sundays, by the somber Calvinistic religious +atmosphere in New England, [16] and by the careful religious oversight of +the pastors and elders in the colonies where the parochial-school system +was the ruling plan for education. Schoolmasters were required to +"catechise their scholars in the principles of the Christian religion," +and it was made "a chief part of the schoolmaster's religious care to +commend his scholars and his labors amongst them unto God by prayer +morning and evening, taking care that his scholars do reverently attend +during the same." Religious matter constituted the only reading matter, +outside the instruction in Latin in the grammar schools. The Catechism was +taught, and the Bible was read and expounded. Church attendance was +required, and grammar-school pupils were obliged to report each week on +the Sunday sermon. This insistence on the religious element was more +prominent in Calvinistic New England than in the colonies to the south, +but everywhere the religious purpose was dominant. The church parochial +and charity schools were essentially schools for instilling the church +practices and beliefs of the church maintaining them. This state of +affairs continued until well toward the beginning of the nineteenth +century. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Compare the conservative and radical groups in the English purification +movement with the conservative and radical groups, as typified by Erasmus +and Luther, at the time of the Reformation. + +2. Show how, for each group, the schools established were merely homeland +foreign-type religious schools, with nothing distinctively American about +them. + +3. Show why such copying of home-land types, even to the Latin grammar +school, was perfectly natural. + +4. The provision of the Law of 1642 requiring instruction in "the capital +laws of the country" was new. How do you explain this addition to mother- +land practices? + +5. Show why the Law of 1642 was Calvinistic rather than Anglican in its +origin. + +6. Explain the meaning of the preamble to the Law of 1647. + +7. Show how the Law of 1647 must go back for precedents to German, Dutch, +and Scotch sources. + +8. Apply the six principles stated by Mr. Martin, as embodied in the +legislation of 1647, to modern state school practice, and show how we have +adopted each in our laws. + +9. Show also that the Law of 1647, as well as modern state school laws, is +neither paternalistic nor socialistic in essential purpose. + +10. Show that, though the mixture of religious sects in Pennsylvania made +colonial legislation difficult, still it would have been possible to have +enforced the Massachusetts Law of 1642, or the Pennsylvania laws of 1683 +or 1693, in the colony. How do you explain the opposition and failure to +do so? + +11. Show how the charity schools for the poor, and church missionary- +society schools, were the natural outcome of the English attitude toward +elementary education. + +12. Which of the three type plans in the American colonies by 1750 most +influenced educational development in your State? + +13. State the important contribution of Calvinism to our new-world life. + +14. Explain the indifference of the Anglican Church to general education +during the whole of our colonial period. + +15. Explain what is meant by "The Puritan Church applied to its servant, +the State," etc. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 183. Nichols: The Puritan Attitude. + 184. Gov. Bradford: The Puritans leave England. + 185. First Fruits: The Founding of Harvard College. + 186. First Fruits: The First Rules for Harvard College. + (a) Entrance Requirements. + (b) Rules and Precepts. + (c) Time and Order of Studies. + (d) Requirements for Degrees. + 187. College Charters: Extracts from, showing Privileges. + (a) Harvard College, 1650. + (b) Brown College, 1764. + 188. Dillaway: Founding of the Free School at Roxburie. + 189. Baird: Rules and Regulations for Hopkins Grammar School. + 190. Statutes: The Massachusetts Law of 1642. + 191. Statutes: The Massachusetts Law of 1647. + 192. Court Records: Presentment of Topsfield for Violating the Law of + 1642. + 193. Statutes: The Connecticut Law of 1650. + 194. Statutes: Plymouth Colony Legislation. + 195. Flatbush: Contract with a Dutch Schoolmaster. + 196. New Amsterdam: Rules for a Schoolmaster in. + 197. Statutes: The Pennsylvania. Law of 1683. + 198. Minutes of Council: The First School in Philadelphia. + 199. Murray: Early Quaker Injunctions regarding Schools. + 200. Statutes: Apprenticeship Laws in the Southern Colonies. + (a) Virginia Statutes. + (b) North Carolina Court Records. + 201. Stiles: A New England Indenture of Apprenticeship. + 202. The New England Primer: Description and Digest. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. What does the selection on The Puritan Attitude (183) reveal as to the +extent and depth of the Reformation in England? + +2. Characterize the feelings and emotions and desires of the Puritans, as +expressed in the extract (184) from Governor Bradford's narrative. + +3. Characterize the spirit behind the founding of Harvard College, as +expressed in the extract from New England's First Fruits (185). + +4. What was the nature and purpose of the Harvard College instruction as +shown by the selection 186 a-d? + +5. Point out the similarity between the exemptions granted to Harvard +College by the Legislature of the colony (187 a) and those granted to +mediaeval universities (103-105). Compare the privileges granted Brown +(187 b) and those contained in 104. + +6. Compare the founding of the Free School at Roxbury (188) with the +founding of an English Grammar School (141-43). + +7. What does the distribution of scholars at Roxbury (188) show as to the +character of the school? + +8. State the essentials of the Massachusetts Law of 1642 (190). + +9. Compare the Massachusetts Law of 1642 and the English Poor-Law of 1601 +(190 with 174) as to fundamental principles involved in each. + +10. What does the court citation of Topsfield (192) show? + +11. What new principle is added (191) by the Law of 1647, and what does +this new law indicate as to needs in the colony for classical learning? + +12. Show how the Connecticut Law of 1650 (193) was based on the +Massachusetts Law (190) of 1642. + +13. What does the Plymouth Colony appeal for Harvard College (194 b) +indicate as to community of ideas in early New England? + +14. What type of school was it intended to endow from the Cape Cod +fisheries (194 c)? + +15. What is the difference between the Plymouth requirement as to grammar +schools (194 d) and the Massachusetts requirement (191)? + +16. Compare the rules for the New Haven Grammar School (189) with those +for Colet's London School (138 a-c). + +17. Characterize the early Dutch schools as shown by the rules for the +schoolmaster (196) and the Flatbush contract (195). + +18. Just what type of education did the Quakers mean to provide for, as +shown in the extract from their Rules of Discipline (199)? + +19. What kind of a school was the first one established in Philadelphia +(198)? + +20. Compare the proposed Pennsylvania Law of 1683 (197) and the +Massachusetts Law of 1642 (190). + +21. What conception of education is revealed by the Virginia +apprenticeship laws (200 a, 1-3) and the North Carolina court records (200 +b, 1-3)? + +22. Characterize the New England Indenture of Apprenticeship given in 201. + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + + Boone, R. G. _Education in the United States_. + Brown, S. W. _The Secularization of American Education_. + Cheyney, Edw. P. _European Background of American Education_. + Dexter, E.G. _A History of Education in the United States_. +* Eggleston, Edw. _The Transit of Civilization_. + Fisk, C. R. "The English Parish and Education at the Beginning of + American Civilization"; in _School Review_, vol. 23, pp. 433-49. + (September, 1915.) +* Ford, P. L. _The New England Primer_. +* Heatwole, C. J. _A History of Education in Virginia_. + Jackson, G. L. _The Development of School Support in Colonial + Massachusetts_. +* Kilpatrick, Wm. H. _The Dutch Schools of New Netherlands and Colonial + New York_. +* Knight, E. W. _Public School Education in North Carolina_. +* Martin, Geo. H. _Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School + System_. + Seybolt, R. F. _Apprenticeship and Apprentice Education in Colonial + New York and New England_. +* Small, W. H. "The New England Grammar School"; in _School Review_, + vol. 10, pp. 513-31. (September, 1902.) + Small, W. H. _Early New England Schools_. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +THE RISE OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY + + +NEW ATTITUDES AFTER THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. From the beginning of the +twelfth century onward, as we have already noted, there had been a slow +but gradual change in the character of human thinking, and a slow but +certain disintegration of the Mediaeval System, with its repressive +attitude toward all independent thinking. Many different influences and +movements had contributed to this change--the Moslem learning and +civilization in Spain, the recovery of the old legal and medical +knowledge, the revival of city life, the beginnings anew of commerce and +industry, the evolution of the universities, the rise of a small scholarly +class, the new consciousness of nationality, the evolution of the modern +languages, the beginnings of a small but important vernacular literature, +and the beginnings of travel and exploration following the Crusades--all +of which had tended to transform the mediaeval man and change his ways of +thinking. New objects of interest slowly came to the front, and new +standards of judgment gradually were applied. In consequence the mediaeval +man, with his feeling of personal insignificance and lack of self- +confidence, came to be replaced by a small but increasing number of men +who were conscious of their powers, possessed a new self-confidence, and +realized new possibilities of intellectual accomplishment. + +The Revival of Learning, first in Italy and then elsewhere in western +Europe, was the natural consequence of this awakening of the modern +spirit, and in the careful work done by the humanistic scholars of the +Italian Renaissance in collecting, comparing, questioning, inferring, +criticizing, and editing the texts, and in reconstructing the ancient life +and history, we see the beginnings of the modern scientific spirit. It was +this same critical, questioning spirit which, when applied later to +geographical knowledge, led to the discovery of America and the +circumnavigation of the globe; which, when applied to matters of Christian +faith, brought on the Protestant Revolts; which, when applied to the +problems of the universe, revealed the many wonderful fields of modern +science; and which, when applied to government, led to a questioning of +the divine right of kings and the rise of constitutional government. The +awakening of scientific inquiry and the scientific spirit, and the attempt +of a few thinkers to apply the new method to education, to which we now +turn, may be regarded as only another phase of the awakening of the modern +inquisitive spirit which found expression earlier in the rise of the +universities, the recovery and reconstruction of the ancient learning, the +awakening of geographical discovery and exploration, and the questioning +of the doctrines and practices of the Mediaeval Church. + +INSUFFICIENCY OF ANCIENT SCIENCE. From the point of view of scientific +inquiry, all ancient learning possessed certain marked fundamental +defects. The Greeks had--their time and age in world-civilization +considered--made many notable scientific observations and speculations, +and had prepared the way for future advances. Thales (636?-546? B.C.), +Xenophanes (628?-520? B.C.), Anaximenes (557-504 B.C.), Pythagoras (570- +500 B.C.), Heraclitus (c. 500 B.C.), Empedocles (460?-361? B.C.), and +Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) had all made interesting speculations as to the +nature of matter, [1] Aristotle finally settling the question by naming +the world-elements as earth, water, air, fire, and ether. Hippocrates +(460-367? B.C.), as we have seen (p. 197), had observed the sick and had +recorded and organized his observations in such a manner [2] as to form +the foundations upon which the science of medicine could be established. +The Greek physician, Galen (130-200 A.D.) added to these observations, and +their combined work formed the basis upon which modern medical science has +slowly been built up. + +On the other hand, some of what each wrote was mere speculation and error, +[3] and modern physicians were compelled to begin all over and along new +lines before any real progress in medicine could be made. Aristotle had +done a notable work in organizing and codifying Greek scientific +knowledge, as the list of his many scientific treatises in use in Europe +by 1300 (R. 87) will show, but his writings were the result of a mixture +of keen observation and brilliant speculation, contained many +inaccuracies, and in time, due to the reverence accorded him as an +authority by the mediaeval scholars and the church authorities, proved +serious obstacles to real scientific progress. + +At Alexandria the most notable Greek scientific work had been done. Euclid +(323-283 B.C.) in geometry; Aristarchus (third century B.C.), who +explained the motion of the earth; Eratosthenes (270-196 B.C.), who +measured the size of the earth; Archimedes (270?-212 B.C.), a pupil of +Euclid's, who applied science in many ways and laid the foundations of +dynamics; Hipparchus (160-125 B.C.), the father of astronomy, who studied +the heavens and catalogued the stars, were among the more famous Greeks +who studied and taught there in the days when Alexandria had succeeded +Athens as the intellectual capital of the Greek world. Some remarkable +advances also were made in the study of human anatomy and medicine by two +Greeks, Herophilus (335-280 B.C.) and Erasistratus (d. 280 B.C.), who +apparently did much dissecting. + +But even at Alexandria the promise of Greek science was unfulfilled. +Despite many notable speculations and scientific advances, the hopeful +beginnings did not come to any large fruitage, and the great contribution +made by the Greeks to world civilization was less along scientific lines +than along the lines of literature and philosophy. Their great strength +lay in the direction of philosophic speculation, and this tendency to +speculate, rather than to observe and test and measure and record, was the +fundamental weakness of all Greek science. The Greeks never advanced in +scientific work to the invention and perfection of instruments for the +standardization of their observations. As a result they passed on to the +mediaeval world an extensive "book science" and not a little keen +observation, of which the works of Aristotle and the Alexandrian +mathematicians and astronomers form the most conspicuous examples, but +little scientific knowledge of which the modern world has been able to +make much use. The "book science" of the Greeks, and especially that of +Aristotle, was highly prized for centuries, but in time, due to the many +inaccuracies, had to be discarded and done anew by modern scholars. + +The Romans, as we have seen (chapter III), were essentially a practical +people, good at getting the work of the world done, but not much given to +theoretical discussion or scientific speculation. They were organizers, +governors, engineers, executives, and literary workers rather than +scientists. They executed many important undertakings of a practical +character, such as the building of roads, bridges, aqueducts, and public +buildings; organized government and commerce on a large scale; and have +left us a literature and a legal system of importance, but they +contributed little to the realm of pure science. The three great names in +science in all their history are Strabo the geographer (63 B.C.-24 A.D.); +Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.), who did notable work as an observer in +natural history; and Galen (a Roman-Greek), in medicine. They, like the +Greeks, were pervaded by the same fear that their science might prove +useful, whereas they cultivated it largely as a mental exercise (R. 203). + +THE CHRISTIAN REACTION AGAINST INQUIRY. The Christian attitude toward +inquiry was from the first inhospitable, and in time became exceedingly +intolerant. The tendency of the Western Church, it will be remembered (p. +94), was from the first to reject all Hellenic learning, and to depend +upon emotional faith and the enforcement of a moral life. By the close of +the third century the hostility to pagan schools and Hellenic learning had +become so pronounced that the _Apostolic Constitutions_ (R. 41) ordered +Christians to abstain from all heathen books, which could contain nothing +of value and only served "to subvert the faith of the unstable." In 401 +A.D. the Council of Carthage forbade the clergy to read any heathen +author, and Greek learning now rapidly died out in the West. For a time it +was almost entirely lost. In consequence Greek science, then best +represented by Alexandrian learning, and which contained much that was of +great importance, was rejected along with other pagan learning. The, very +meager scientific knowledge that persisted into the Middle Ages in the +great mediaeval textbooks (p. 162), as we have seen in the study of the +Seven Liberal Arts (chapter VII), came to be regarded as useful only in +explaining passages of Scripture or in illustrating the ways of God toward +man. The one and only science worthy of study was Theology, to which all +other learning tended (see Figure 44, p. 154). + +The history of Christianity throughout all the Dark Ages is a history of +the distrust of inquiry and reason, and the emphasis of blind emotional +faith. Mysticism, good and evil spirits, and the interpretation of natural +phenomena as manifestations of the Divine will from the first received +large emphasis. The worship of saints and relics, and the great +development of the sensuous and symbolic, changed the earlier religion +into a crude polytheism. During the long period of the Middle Ages the +miraculous flourished. The most extreme superstition pervaded all ranks of +society. Magic and prayers were employed to heal the sick, restore the +crippled, foretell the future, and punish the wicked. Sacred pools, the +royal touch, wonder-working images, and miracles through prayer stood in +the way of the development of medicine (R. 204). Disease was attributed to +satanic influence, and a regular schedule of prayers for cures was in use. +Sanitation was unknown. Plagues and pestilences were manifestations of +Divine wrath, and hysteria and insanity were possession by the devil to be +cast out by whipping and torture. One's future was determined by the +position of the heavenly bodies at the time of birth. Eclipses, meteors, +and comets were fearful portents of Divine displeasure: + + Eight things there be a Comet brings, + When it on high doth horrid rage; + Wind, Famine, Plague, and Death to Kings, + War, Earthquakes, Floods, and Direful Change. [4] + +The literature on magic was extensive. The most miraculous happenings were +recorded and believed. Trial by ordeal, following careful religious +formulae, was common before 1200, though prohibited shortly afterward by +papal decrees (1215, 1222). The insistence of the Church on "the willful, +devilish character of heresy," and the extension of heresy to cover almost +any form of honest doubt or independent inquiry, caused an intellectual +stagnation along lines of scientific investigation which was not relieved +for more than a thousand years. The many notable advances in physics, +chemistry, astronomy, and medicine made by Moslem scholars (chapter VIII) +were lost on Christian Europe, and had to be worked out again centuries +later by the scholars of the western world. Out of the astronomy of the +Arabs the Christians got only astrology; out of their chemistry they got +only alchemy. Both in time stood seriously in the way of real scientific +thinking and discovery. + +GROWING TOLERANCE CHANGED BY THE PROTESTANT REVOLTS. After the rise of the +universities, the expansion of the minds of men which followed the +Crusades and the revival of trade and industry, the awakening which came +with the revival of the old learning and the rise of geographical +discovery, the church authorities assumed a broader and a more tolerant +attitude toward inquiry and reason than had been the case for hundreds of +years. It would have been surprising, with the large number of university- +trained men entering the service of the Church, had this not been the +case. By the middle of the fifteenth century it looked as though the +Renaissance spirit might extend into many new directions, and by 1500 the +world seemed on the eve of important progress in almost every line of +endeavor. As was pointed out earlier (p. 259), the Church was more +tolerant than it had been for centuries, and about the year 1500 was the +most stimulating time in the history of our civilization since the days of +Alexandria and ancient Rome. + +In 1517 Luther nailed his theses to the church door in Wittenberg. The +Church took alarm and attempted to crush him, and soon the greatest +contest since the conflict between paganism and Christianity was on. +Within half a century all northern lands had been lost to the ancient +Church (see map, p. 296); the first successful challenge of its authority +during its long history. + +The effect of these religious revolts on the attitude of the Church toward +intellectual liberty was natural and marked. The tolerance of inquiry +recently extended was withdrawn, and an era of steadily increasing +intolerance set in which was not broken for more than a century. In an +effort to stop the further spread of the heresy, the Church Council of +Trent (1545-63) adopted stringent regulations against heretical teachings +(p. 303), while the sword and torch and imprisonment were resorted to to +stamp out opposition and win back the revolting lands. A century of +merciless warfare ensued, and the hatreds engendered by the long and +bitter struggle over religious differences put both Catholic and +Protestant Europe in no tolerant frame of mind toward inquiry or new +ideas. The Inquisition, a sort of universal mediaeval grand jury for the +detection and punishment of heretics, was revived, and the Jesuits, +founded in 1534-40, were vigorous in defense of the Church and bitter in +their opposition to all forms of independent inquiry and Protestant +heresy. + +It was into this post-Reformation atmosphere of suspicion and distrust and +hatred that the new critical, inquiring, questioning spirit of science, as +applied to the forces of the universe, was born. A century earlier the +first scientists might have obtained a respectful hearing, and might have +been permitted to press their claims; after the Protestant Revolts had +torn Christian Europe asunder this could hardly be. As a result the early +scientists found themselves in no enviable position. Their theories were +bitterly assailed as savoring of heresy; their methods and purposes were +alike suspected; and any challenge of an old long-accepted idea was likely +to bring a punishment that was swift and sure. From the middle of the +sixteenth to the middle of the seventeenth century was not a time when new +ideas were at a premium anywhere in western Europe. It was essentially a +period of reaction, and periods of reaction are not favorable to +intellectual progress. It was into this century of reaction that modern +scientific inquiry and reasoning, itself another form of expression of the +intellectual attitudes awakened by the work of the humanistic scholars of +the Italian Renaissance, made its first claim for a hearing. + +THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN SCIENTIFIC METHOD. One of the great problems +which has always deeply interested thinking men in all lands is the nature +and constitution of the material universe, and to this problem people in +all stages of civilization have worked out for themselves some kind of an +answer. It was one of the great speculations of the Greeks, and it was at +Alexandria, in the period of its decadence, that the Egyptian geographer +Ptolemy (138 A.D.) had offered an explanation which was accepted by +Christian Europe and which dominated all thinking on the subject during +the Middle Ages. He had concluded that the earth was located at the center +of the visible universe, immovable, and that the heavenly bodies moved +around the earth, in circular motion, fixed in crystalline spheres. [5] +This explanation accorded perfectly with Christian ideas as to creation, +as well as with Christian conceptions as to the position and place of man +and his relation to the heavens above and to a hell beneath. This theory +was obviously simple and satisfactory, and became sanctified with time. As +we see it now the wonder is that such an explanation could have been +accepted for so long. Only among an uninquisitive people could so +imperfect a theory have endured for over fourteen centuries. + +[Illustration: FIG. 113. NICHOLAS KOPERNIK (Copernicus), (1473-1543)] + +In 1543 a Bohemian church canon and physician by the name of Nicholas +Copernicus published his _De Revolutionibus Orbium Celestium_, in which he +set forth the explanation of the universe which we now know. He piously +dedicated the work to Pope Paul III, and wisely refrained from publishing +it until the year of his death. [6] Anything so completely upsetting the +Christian conception as to the place and position of man in the universe +could hardly be expected to be accepted, particularly at the time of its +publication, without long and bitter opposition. + +In the dedicatory letter (R. 205), Copernicus explains how, after feeling +that the Ptolemaic explanation was wrong, he came to arrive at the +conclusions he did. The steps he set forth form an excellent example of a +method of thinking now common, but then almost unknown. They were: + + 1. Dissatisfaction with the old Ptolemaic explanation. + + 2. A study of all known literature, to see if any better explanation + had been offered. + + 3. Careful thought on the subject, until his thinking took form in a + definite theory. + + 4. Long observation and testing out, to see if the observed facts + would support his theory. + + 5. The theory held to be correct, because it reduced all known facts + to a systematic order and harmony. + +This is as clear a case of inductive reasoning as was L. Valla's exposure +of the forgery of the so-called "Donation of Constantine," an example of +deductive reasoning. Both used a new method--the method of modern +scholarship. In both cases the results were revolutionary. As Petrarch +stands forth in history as the first modern classical scholar, so +Copernicus stands forth as the first modern scientific thinker. The +beginnings of all modern scientific investigation date from 1543. Of his +work a recent writer (E. C. J. Morton) has said: + + Copernicus cannot be said to have flooded with light the dark places + of nature--in the way that one stupendous mind subsequently did-- + but still, as we look back through the long vista of the history of + science, the dim Titanic figure of the old monk seems to rear itself + out of the dull flats around it, pierces with its head the mists that + overshadow them, and catches the first gleam of the rising sun,... + + Like some iron peak, by the Creator + Fired with the red glow of the rushing morn. + +[Illustration: FIG. 114. TYCHO BRAHE (1546-1601)] + +THE NEW METHOD OF INQUIRY APPLIED BY OTHERS. At first Copernicus' work +attracted but little attention. An Italian Dominican by the name of +Giordano Bruno (1548-1600), deeply impressed by the new theory, set forth +in Latin and Italian the far-reaching and majestic implications of such a +theory of creation, and was burned at the stake at Rome for his pains. A +Dane, Tycho Brahe, after twenty-one years of careful observation of the +heavens, during which time he collected "a magnificent series of +observations, far transcending in accuracy [7] and extent anything that +had been accomplished by his predecessors," showed Aristotle to be wrong +in many particulars. His observations of the comet of 1577 led him to +conclude that the theory of crystalline spheres was impossible, and that +the common view of the time as to their nature [8] was absurd. In 1609 a +German by the name of Johann Kepler (1571-1630), using the records of +observations which Tycho Brahe had accumulated and applying them to the +planet Mars, proved the truth of the Copernican theory and framed his +famous three laws for planetary motion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 115. GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642)] + +Finally an Italian, Galileo Galilei, a professor at the University of +Pisa, developing a telescope that would magnify to eight diameters, +discovered Jupiter's satellites and Saturn's rings. The story of his +discovery of the satellites of Jupiter is another interesting illustration +of the careful scientific reasoning of these early workers (R. 206). +Galileo also made a number of discoveries in physics, through the use of +new scientific methods, which completely upset the teachings of the +Aristotelians, and made the most notable advances in mechanics since the +days of Archimedes. For his pronounced advocacy of the Copernican theory +he was called to Rome (1615) by the Cardinals of the Inquisition, the +Copernican theory was condemned as "absurd in philosophy" and as +"expressly contrary to Holy Scripture," and Galileo was compelled to +recant (1616) his error. [9] For daring later (1632) to assume that he +might, under a new Pope, defend the Copernican theory, even in an indirect +manner, he was again called before the inquisitorial body, compelled to +recant and abjure his errors (R. 207) to escape the stake, and was then +virtually made a prisoner of the Inquisition for the remainder of his +life. So strongly had the forces of medievalism reasserted themselves +after the Protestant Revolts! + +[Illustration: FIG. 116. SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727)] + +Finally the English scholar Newton (1642-1728), in his _Principia_ (1687), +settled permanently all discussions as to the Copernican theory by his +wonderful mathematical studies. He demonstrated mathematically the motions +of the planets and comets, proved Kepler's laws to be true, explained +gravitation and the tides, made clear the nature of light, and reduced +dynamics to a science. Of his work a recent writer, Karl Pearson, has +said: + +The Newtonian laws of motion form the starting point of most modern +treatises on dynamics, and it seems to me that physical science, thus +started, resembles the mighty genius of an Arabian tale emerging amid +metaphysical exhalations from the bottle in which for long centuries it +had been corked down. + +So far-reaching in its importance was the scientific work of Newton that +Pope's couplet seems exceedingly applicable: + + Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night; + God said, "Let Newton be," and all was light. + +THE NEW METHOD APPLIED IN OTHER FIELDS. The new method of study was soon +applied to other fields by scholars of the new type, here and there, and +always with fruitful results. The Englishman, William Gilbert (1540-1603) +published, in 1600, his _De Arte Magnetica_, and laid the foundations of +the modern study of electricity and magnetism. A German-Swiss by the name +of Hohenheim, but who Latinized his name to Paracelsus (1493-1541), and +who became a professor in the medical faculty at the University of Basle, +in 1526 broke with mediaeval traditions by being one of the first +university scholars to refuse to lecture in Latin. He ridiculed the +medical theories of Hippocrates (p. 197) and Galen (p. 198), and, +regarding the human body as a chemical compound, began to treat diseases +by the administration of chemicals. A Saxon by the name of Landmann, who +also Latinized his name to Agricola (1494-1555), applied chemistry to +mining and metallurgy, and a French potter named Bernard Palissy (c. 1500- +88) applied chemistry to pottery and the arts. To Paracelsus, Agricola, +and Palissy we are indebted for having laid, in the sixteenth century, the +foundations of the study of modern chemistry. + +[Illustration: FIG. 117. WILLIAM HARVEY (1578-1657)] + +A Belgian by the name of Vesalius (1514-64) was the first modern to +dissect the human body, and for so doing was sentenced by the Inquisition +to perform a penitential journey to Jerusalem. One of his disciples +discovered the valves in the veins and was the teacher of the Englishman, +William Harvey, who discovered the circulation of the blood and later +(1628) dared to publish the fact to the world. These men established the +modern studies of anatomy and physiology. Another early worker was a Swiss +by the name of Conrad Gessner (1516-65), who observed and wrote +extensively on plants and animals, and who stands as the first naturalist +of modern times. + +The sixteenth century thus marks the rise of modern scientific inquiry, +and the beginnings of the study of modern science. The number of scholars +engaged in the study was still painfully small, and the religious +prejudice against which they worked was strong and powerful, but in the +work of these few men we have not only the beginnings of the study of +modern astronomy, physics, chemistry, metallurgy, medicine, anatomy, +physiology, and natural history, but also the beginnings of a group of +men, destined in time to increase greatly in number, who could see +straight, and who sought facts regardless of where they might lead and +what preconceived ideas they might upset. How deeply the future of +civilization is indebted to such men, men who braved social ostracism and +often the wrath of the Church as well, for the, to them, precious +privilege of seeing things as they are, we are not likely to over- +estimate. In time their work was destined to reach the schools, and to +materially modify the character of all education. + +[Illustration: FIG. 118. FRANCIS BACON (1561-1626)] + +HUMAN REASON IN THE INVESTIGATION OF NATURE. To the English statesman and +philosopher, Francis Bacon, more than to any one else, are we indebted for +the proper formulation and statement of this new scientific method. Though +not a scientist himself, he has often been termed "the father of modern +science." Seeing clearly the importance of the new knowledge, he broke +entirely with the old scholastic deductive logic as expressed in the +_Organon_, of Aristotle, and formulated and expressed the methods of +inductive reasoning in his _Novum Organum_, published in 1620. In this he +showed the insufficiency of the method of argumentation; analyzed and +formulated the inductive method of reasoning, of which his study as to the +nature of heat [10] is a good example; and pointed out that knowledge is a +process, and not an end in itself; and indicated the immense and fruitful +field of science to which the method might be applied. By showing how to +learn from nature herself he turned the Renaissance energy into a new +direction, and made a revolutionary break with the disputations and +deductive logic of the Aristotelian scholastics which had for so long +dominated university instruction. + +In formulating the new method he first pointed out the defects of the +learning of his time, which he classified under the head of "distempers," +three in number, and as follows: + + 1. _Fantastic learning_: Alchemy, magic, miracles, old-wives, + tales, credulities, superstitions, pseudo-science, and impostures of + all sorts inherited from an ignorant past, and now conserved as + treasures of knowledge. + + 2. _Contentious learning_: The endless disputations of the + Scholastics about questions which had lost their significance, + deductive in character, not based on any observation, not aimed + primarily to arrive at truth, "fruitful of controversy, and barren of + effect." + + 3. _Delicate learning_: The new learning of the humanistic + Renaissance, verbal and not real, stylish and polished but not + socially important, and leading to nothing except a mastery of itself. + +As an escape from these three types of distempers, which well +characterized the three great stages in human progress from the sixth to +the fifteenth centuries, Bacon offered the inductive method, by means of +which men would be able to distinguish true from false, learn to see +straight, create useful knowledge, and fill in the great gaps in the +learning of the time by actually working out new knowledge from the +unknown. The collecting, organizing, comparing, questioning, and inferring +spirit of the humanistic revival he now turned in a new direction by +organizing and formulating for the work a new _Organum_ to take the place +of the old _Organon_ of Aristotle. In Book 1 he sets forth some of the +difficulties (R. 208) with which those who try new experiments or work out +new methods of study have to contend from partisans of old ideas. + +The _Novum Organum_ showed the means of escape from the errors of two +thousand years by means of a new method of thinking and work. Bacon did +not invent the new method--it had been used since man first began to +reason about phenomena, and was the method by means of which Wycliffe, +Luther, Magellan, Copernicus, Brahe, and Gilbert had worked--but he was +the first to formulate it clearly and to point out the vast field of new +and useful knowledge that might be opened up by applying human reason, +along inductive lines, to the investigation of the phenomena of nature. +His true service to science lay in the completeness of his analysis of the +inductive process, and his declaration that those who wish to arrive at +useful discoveries must travel by that road. As Macaulay well says, in his +essay on Bacon: + + He was not the maker of that road; he was not the discoverer of that + road; he was not the person who first surveyed and mapped that road. + But he was the person who first called the public attention to an + inexhaustible mine of wealth which had been utterly neglected, and + which was accessible by that road alone. + +To stimulate men to the discovery of useful truth, to turn the energies of +mankind--even slowly--from assumption and disputation to patient +experimentation, [11.] and to give an impress to human thinking which it +has retained for centuries, is, as Macaulay well says, "the rare +prerogative of a few imperial spirits." Macaulay's excellent summary of +the importance of Bacon's work (R. 209) is well worth reading at this +point. + +THE NEW METHOD IN THE HANDS OF SUBSEQUENT WORKERS. By the middle of the +seventeenth century many important advances had been made in many +different lines of scientific work. In the two centuries between 1450 and +1650, the foundations of modern mathematics and mechanics had been laid. +At the beginning of the period Arabic notation and the early books of +Euclid were about all that were taught; at its end the western world had +worked out decimals, symbolic algebra, much of plane and spherical +trigonometry, mechanics, logarithms (1614) and conic sections (1637), and +was soon to add the calculus (1667-87). Mercator had published the map of +the world (1569) which has ever since born his name, and the Gregorian +calendar had been introduced (1572). The barometer, thermometer, air-pump, +pendulum clock, and the telescope had come into use in the period. Alchemy +had passed over into modern chemistry; and the astrologer was finding less +and less to do as the astronomer took his place. The English Hippocrates, +Thomas Sydenham (1624-89), during this period laid the foundations of +modern medical study, and the microscope was applied to the study of +organic forms. Modern ideas as to light and optics and gases, and the +theory of gravitation, were about to be set forth. All these advances had +been made during the century following the epoch-making labors of +Copernicus, the first modern scientific man to make an impression on the +thinking of mankind. + +[Illustration: FIG. 119. THE LOSS AND RECOVERY OF THE SCIENCES Each short +horizontal line indicates the life-span of a very distinguished scholar in +the science. Mohammedan scientists have not been included. The relative +neglect or ignorance of a science has been indicated by the depth of the +shading. The great loss to civilization caused by the barbarian inroads +and the hostile attitude of the early Church is evident.] + +Accompanying this new scientific work there arose, among a few men in each +of the western European countries, an interest in scientific studies such +as the world had not witnessed since the days of the Alexandrian Greek. +This interest found expression in the organization of scientific +societies, wholly outside the universities of the time, for the reporting +of methods and results, and for the mingling together in sympathetic +companionship of these seekers after new truth. The most important dates +connected with the rise of these societies are: + + 1603. The Lyncean Society at Rome. + 1619. Jungius founded the Natural Science Association at Rostock. + 1645. The Royal Society of London began to meet; constituted in 1660; + chartered in 1662. + 1657. The Academia del Cimento at Florence. + 1662. The Imperial Academy of Germany. + 1666. The Academy of Sciences in France. + 1675. The National Observatory at Greenwich established. + +After 1650 the advance of science was rapid. The spirit of modern inquiry, +which in the sixteenth century had animated but a few minds, by the middle +of the seventeenth had extended to all the principal countries of Europe. +The striking results obtained during the seventeenth century revealed the +vast field waiting to be explored, and filled many independent modern-type +scholars with an enthusiasm for research in the new domain of science. By +the close of the eighteenth century the main outlines of most of the +modern sciences had been established. + +LEADING THINKERS OUTSIDE THE UNIVERSITIES. During the seventeenth century, +and largely during the eighteenth as well, the extreme conservatism of the +universities, their continued control by their theological faculties, and +their continued devotion to theological controversy and the teachings of +state orthodoxy rather than the advancement of knowledge, served to make +of them such inhospitable places for the new scientific method that +practically all the leading workers with it were found outside the +universities. This was less true of England than other lands, but was in +part true of English universities as well. As civil servants, court +attachés, pensioners of royalty, or as private citizens of means they +found, as independent scholars reporting to the recently formed scientific +societies, a freedom for investigation and a tolerance of ideas then +scarcely possible anywhere in the university world. + +[Illustration: FIG. 120. RENÉ DESCARTES (1596-1650)] + +Tycho Brahe and Kepler were pensioners of the Emperor at Prague. Lord +Bacon was a lawyer and political leader, and became a peer of England. +Descartes, the mathematician and founder of modern philosophy, to whom we +are indebted for conic sections; Napier, inventor of logarithms; and Ray +and Willoughby, who did the first important work in botany and zoology in +England, were all independent scholars. The air-pump was invented by the +Burgomaster of Madgeburg. Huygens, the astronomer and inventor of the +clock was a pensioner of the King of France. Cassini, who explained the +motion of Jupiter's satellites, was Astronomer Royal at Paris. Halley, who +demonstrated the motions of the moon and who first predicted the return of +a comet, held a similar position at Greenwich. Van Helmont and Boyle, who +together laid the foundations of our chemical knowledge, were both men of +noble lineage who preferred the study of the new sciences to a life of +ease at court. Harvey was a physician and demonstrator of anatomy in +London. Sydenham, the English Hippocrates, was a pensioner of Cromwell and +a physician in Westminster. The German mathematical scholar, Leibnitz, who +jointly with Newton discovered the calculus, scorned a university +professorship and remained an attaché of a German court. Newton, though +for a time a professor at Cambridge, during most of his mature life held +the royal office of Warden of the Mint. These are a few notable +illustrations of scientific scholars of the first rank who remained +outside the universities to obtain advantages and freedom not then to be +found within their walls. Much these same conditions continued throughout +most of the eighteenth century, during which many remarkable advances in +all lines of pure science were made. By the close of this century the +universities had been sufficiently modernized that scientific workers +began to find in them an atmosphere conducive to scientific teaching and +research; during the nineteenth century they became the homes of +scientific progress and instruction; to-day they are deeply interested in +the promotion of scientific research. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Show that the rise of scientific inquiry was but another manifestation +of the same inquiring spirit which had led to the recovery of the ancient +literatures and history. + +2. What do you understand to be meant by the failure of the Greeks to +standardize their observations by instruments? + +3. Show that it would be possible largely to determine the character of a +civilization, if one knew only the prevailing ideas and conceptions as to +scientific and religious matters. + +4. Show the two different types of reasoning involved in the deduction of +L. Valla (p. 246) and the induction of Copernicus. + +5. Of which type was the reasoning of Galileo as to Jupiter's satellites? + +6. Show that the three "distempers" described by Bacon characterize the +three great stages in human progress from the sixth to the fifteenth +centuries. + +7. How do you explain the long rejection of the new sciences by the +universities? + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 203. Macaulay: Attitude of the Ancients toward Scientific Inquiry. + 204. Franck: The Credulity of Mediaeval People. + 205. Copernicus: How he arrived at the theory he set forth. + 206. Brewster: Galileo's Discovery of the Satellites of Jupiter. + 207. Inquisition: The Abjuration of Galileo. + 208. Bacon: On Scientific Progress. + 209. Macaulay: The Importance of Bacon's Work. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. How do you explain the attitude of the ancients toward scientific +inquiry? + +2. State the ancient purpose in pursuing scientific studies. + +3. Contrast Bacon and Plato as to aims. + +4. Show that the thinking of Copernicus as to the motions of the heavenly +bodies was an excellent example of deductive thinking. + +5. Show that the discovery and reasoning of Galileo was an example of the +common method of reasoning of to-day. + +6. Were the difficulties that surrounded scientific inquiry and progress, +as described by Bacon, easily removed? + +7. Explain the readiness with which the clergy have so commonly opposed +scientific inquiry for fear that the results might upset preconceived +theological ideas. + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + + Ball, W. R. R. _History of Mathematics at Cambridge_. +* Libby, Walter. _An Introduction to the History of Science_. + Ornstein, Martha. _Role of the Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth + Century_. +* Routledge, Robert. _A Popular History of Science_. +* Sedgwick, W. T. and Tyler, H. W. _A Short History of Science_. +* White, A. D. _History of the Warfare of Science with Theology_, 2 + vols. Wordsworth Christopher. _Scholae Academicae; Studies at the + English Universities in the Eighteenth Century_. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +THE NEW SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND THE SCHOOLS + + +THE RISE OF REALISM IN EDUCATION. As will be remembered from our study of +the educational results of the Revival of Learning (chapter XI), the new +schools established in the reaction against medievalism, to teach pure +Latin and Greek, in time became formal and lifeless (p. 283), and their +aim came to be almost entirely that of imparting a mastery of the +Ciceronian style, both in writing and in speech. This idea, first clearly +inaugurated by Sturm at Strassburg (R. 137), had now become fixed, and in +its extreme is illustrated by the teachings of the Jesuit Campion at +Prague (R. 146). As a reaction against this extreme position of the +humanistic scholars there arose, during the sixteenth century, and as a +further expression of the new critical spirit awakened by the Revival of +Learning, a demand for a type of education which would make truth rather +than beauty, and the realities of the life of the time rather than the +beauties of a life of Roman days, the aim and purpose of education. This +new spirit became known as Realism, was contemporaneous with the rise of +scientific inquiry, and was an expression of a similar dissatisfaction +with the learning of the time. As applied to education this new spirit may +be said to have manifested itself in three different stages, as follows: + + 1. Humanistic realism. + 2. Social realism. + 3. Sense realism. + +We will explain each of these, briefly, in order. + + +1. HUMANISTIC REALISM + +A NEW AIM IN INSTRUCTION. Humanistic realism represents the beginning of +the reaction against form and style and in favor of ideas and content. The +humanistic realists were in agreement with the classical humanists that +the old classical literatures and the Bible contained all that was +important in the education of youth. The ancient literatures, they held, +presented "not only the widest product of human intelligence, but +practically all that was worthy of man's attention." The two groups +differed, however, in that the classical humanists conceived the aim of +education to be the mastery of the vocabulary and style of Cicero, and the +production of a new race of Roman youths for a revived Latin scholarly +world, while the new humanistic realists wanted to use the old literatures +as a means to a new end--that of teaching knowledge that would be useful +in the world in which they lived. Monroe has so well expressed the +humanistic-realist attitude that a passage from his History is worth +quoting here. He says: + + Not only did ancient philosophy contain the true philosophy of this + life, but languages were the key to the real understanding of the + Christian religion. Not only did mastery of these languages give power + of speech, and hence influence over one's fellows; but, if military + science was to be studied, it could in no place be better searched for + than in Caesar and in Xenophon; was agriculture to be practiced, no + better guide was to be found than Virgil or Columella; was + architecture to be mastered, no better way existed than through + Vitruvius; was geography to be considered, it must be through Mela or + Solinus; was medicine to be understood, no better means than Celsus + existed; was natural history to be appreciated, there was no more + adequate source of information than Pliny and Seneca. Aristotle + furnished the basis of all the sciences, Plato of all philosophy, + Cicero of all institutional life, and the Church Fathers and the + Scriptures of all religion. + +EXPONENTS OF HUMANISTIC REALISM. The Dutch international scholar Erasmus +(1467?-1536) (p. 274), the Frenchman Rabelais (1483-1553), and the English +poet Milton (1608-74) stand as the clearest representatives of this new +humanistic realism. + +Erasmus had clearly distinguished between the education of words and the +education of things, had pointed out the ease with which real truth is +learned and retained, and had urged the study of the content rather than +the form of the ancient authors. In his _System of Studies_ he said: + + From these very authors (Latin and Greek), whom we read for the sake + of improving our language, incidentally, in no small degree is a + knowledge of things gathered. + +In his _Ciceronian_ he had ridiculed those who mistook the form for the +spirit of the ancients. + +The French non-conforming monk, curé, physician, and university scholar, +François Rabelais, in his satirical _Life of Gargantua_ (1535) and _The +Heroic Deeds of Pantagruel_ (1533) had set forth, even more clearly, the +idea of obtaining from a study of the ancient authors (R. 210) knowledge +that would be useful. Writing largely in the character of a clown and a +fool, because such was a safer method, he protested against the formal, +shallow, and insincere life of his age. He made as vigorous a protest +against medievalism and formalism as he dared, for he lived in a time when +new ideas were dangerous commodities for one to carry about or to try to +express. He ridiculed the old scholastic learning, set forth the idea of +using the old classics for realistic as well as humanistic ends, and also +advocated physical, moral, social, and religious education in the spirit +of the best writers and teachers of the Italian Renaissance. His book was +extensively read and had some influence in shaping thinking, though +Rabelais's importance in the history of education lies rather in his +influence on later educational thinkers than on the life of his time. + +[Illustration: FIG. 121. FRANÇOIS RABELAIS (1483-1553)] + +Perhaps the clearest example of humanistic realism is found in the +writings of the English poet and humanitarian, John Milton. His _Tractate +on Education_ (1644) was extensively read, and was influential in shaping +educational practice in the non-conformist secondary academies which arose +a little later in England. Still later his ideas indirectly somewhat +influenced American development. + +Milton first gives us an excellent statement of the new religious-civic +aim of post-Reformation education (R. 211), and then points out the +defects of the existing education, whereby boys "spend seven or eight +years merely in scraping together so much miserable Latine and Greek, as +might be learnt otherwise easily and delightfully in one year." He then +presents his plan for "a compleat and generous Education" for "noble and +gentle youths," and tells "how all this may be done between twelve and one +and twenty, less time than is now bestowed in pure trifling at Grammar and +Sophistry." The course of study he outlines (R. 212) is enormous. The +first year, that is beginning at twelve, the boy is to learn Latin +grammar, arithmetic, and geometry, and to read simple Latin and Greek. +During the next three or four years the pupil is to master Greek, and to +study agriculture, geography, natural philosophy, physiology, mathematics, +fortification, engineering, architecture, and natural history, all by +reading the chief writings of the ancients, in prose and poetry, on these +subjects. During the remaining years to twenty-one the pupil, similarly, +is to obtain ethical instruction from the Greeks and the Bible; learn +Hebrew, Greek, Roman, and Saxon law; learn Italian and Hebrew; and study +economics, politics, history, logic, rhetoric, and poetry by reading +selected ancient authors. What Rabelais suggested in jest for his giant, +Milton adopted as a program for the school. In addition, in thoroughly +characteristic modern English fashion, he makes careful provision for +daily exercise and play. Aside, though, from its impossibility of +accomplishment except by a superior few, Milton's plan is thoroughly +representative of the new humanistic-realistic point of view-that is, that +education should impart useful information, though the information as +Milton conceived it was to be drawn almost entirely from the books of the +ancients. + +[Illustration: FIG. 122. JOHN MILTON (1608-74)] + +EDUCATIONAL RESULTS OF HUMANISTIC REALISM. The importance of humanistic +realism in the history of education lies largely in that it was the first +of a series of reactions that led later to sense-realism--that is, to the +study of science and the application of scientific method in the schools. + +In England it possesses still larger importance. Milton had called his +institution an "Academy." [1] After the restoration of the Stuarts +(Charles II, 1660), some two thousand non-conforming clergymen were +"dispossessed" by the Act of Conformity (1662; R. 166), and soon after +this the children of Non-Conformists were excluded from the grammar +schools and universities. Many of these clergymen now turned to teaching +as a means of earning a livelihood and serving their people, and the ideas +of the non-conformist Milton were influential in turning the schools thus +established even further toward the study of useful subjects. Many of the +new schools offered instruction in the modern languages, logic, rhetoric, +ethics, geography, astronomy, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, surveying, +navigation, history, oratory, economics, and natural and moral philosophy, +as well as the old classical subjects. All teaching, too, was done in +English, and the study of English language and literature was emphasized. +This made these non-conformist academies in many respects superior to the +older Latin grammar schools. After the enactment of the Toleration Act, in +1689, these schools were allowed to incorporate and were gradually +absorbed into the existing Latin grammar-school system of England, but +unfortunately without producing much change in the character of these +older institutions. + +The idea of offering instruction in these new studies was in time carried +to America, where better results were obtained. At first a few of the +subjects, such as the mathematical studies, surveying, navigation, and +English, were introduced into the existing Latin grammar or other schools +of secondary grade. Especially was this true in the colonies south of New +England. After 1751, and especially after about 1780, distinct Academies +arose in the United States (chapter XVIII), whose purpose was to offer +instruction in all these new subjects of study. From these our modern high +schools have been derived. + + +II. SOCIAL REALISM + +[Illustration: FIG. 123. MICHEL DE MONTAIGNE (1533-92)] + +MONTAIGNE AND LOCKE. Social realism represents a still further reaction +away from the humanistic schools. It was the natural reaction of practical +men of the new world against a type of education that tended to perpetuate +the pedantry of an earlier age, by devoting its energies to the production +of the scholar and professional man to the neglect of the man of affairs. +The social realists were small in number, but powerful because of their +important social connections and wealth, and they were very determined to +have an education suited to their needs, even if they had to create it +themselves (R. 213). The French nobleman, scholar, author, and civic +officer, M. de Montaigne (1533-92), and the English philosopher, John +Locke (1632-1704), were the clearest exponents of this new point of view, +though it found expression in the writings of many others. Each declared +for a practical, useful type of education for the young boy who was to +live the life of a gentleman in the world of affairs. + +Neither had any sympathy with the colleges and grammar schools of the time +(R. 214), and both rejected the school for the private tutor. This tutor +must be selected with great care, and first of all must be a well-bred +gentleman--a man, as Montaigne says, "who has rather a well-made than a +well-filled head" (R. 215). Locke cautions that "one fit to educate and +form the Mind of a young Gentleman is not every where to be found," and of +the common type of teacher he asks, "When such an one has empty'd out into +his Pupil all the Latin and Logick he has brought from the University, +will that Furniture make him a fine Gentleman?" (R. 216). + +Both condemn the school training of their time, and both urge that the +tutor train the judgment and the understanding rather than the memory. To +impart good manners rather than mere information, and to train for life in +the world rather than for the life of a scholar, seem to both of +fundamental importance in the education of a boy. "The great world," says +Montaigne, "is the mirror wherein we are to behold ourselves. In short, I +would have this to be the book my young gentleman should study with the +most attention." "Latin and Learning," says Locke, "make all the Noise; +and the main Stress is laid upon Proficiency in Things a great Part +whereof belong not to a Gentleman's Calling; which is to have the +Knowledge of a Man of Business, a Carriage suitable to his Rank, and to be +eminent and useful to his Country, according to his Station" (R. 216). +Both emphasized the importance of travel abroad as an important factor in +the education of a gentleman. + +THEIR PLACE IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. Both Montaigne and Locke were +concerned alone with the education of the sons of gentlemen, individuals +now coming rapidly into prominence to dispute place in the world of +affairs with the higher nobility on the one hand and the clergy on the +other. With the education of any other class Montaigne never concerned +himself. As for Locke, he was later appointed a King's Commissioner, with +certain oversight of the poor, and for the education of the children of +such he drew up a careful report which, in true English fashion, provided +for their training in workhouses and their apprenticeship to a trade (R. +217). He wrote nothing with regard to the education of the children of +middle-class workers and tradesmen. Both authors also deal entirely with +the work of a tutor, and not with the work of a teacher in a school. +Neither deals specifically with elementary education, but rather with +what, in Europe, would be called the secondary-school period in the +education of a boy. Locke was extensively read by the gentry of England, +as expressive of the best current practice of their class, and his ideas +as to education were also of some influence in shaping the instruction of +the non-conformist teachers in the academies there. His place in the +history of education is also of some importance, as we shall point out +later, for the disciplinary theory of education which he set forth. Still +more, Locke later exerted a deep influence on the writings of Rousseau +(chapter XXI), and hence helped materially to shape modern educational +theory. + +[Illustration: FIG. 124. JOHN LOCKE (1631-1704)] + +THE NEW SCHOOLS FOR THE SONS OF THE GENTRY. Both Montaigne and Locke, in +their emphasis on the importance of a practical education for the social +and political demands of a gentleman concerned with the affairs of the +modern world, represent a still further reaction against the humanistic +schools of the time than did the humanistic realists whom we have just +considered. Still more, both are expressive of the attitude of the +nobility and gentry of the time, who had almost deserted the schools as +pedantic institutions of little value. France was then the great country +of Europe, and French language, French political ideas, French manners, +and French tutors found their way into all neighboring lands. A new social +and political ideal was erected--that of the polished man of the world, +who could speak French, had traveled, knew history and politics, law and +geography, heraldry and genealogy, some mathematics and physics with their +applications, could use the sword and ride, was adept in games and +dancing, and was skilled in the practical affairs of life. + +[Illustration: FIG. 125. AN ACADEMIE DES ARMES +From an early eighteenth-century Parisian poster, advertising an Academy.] + +To give such training the French created numerous Academies in their +cities. A writer of 1649 states that there were twelve such institutions +at that time in Paris alone. Not infrequently some nobleman was at the +head. Boys were first educated at home by tutors, and then sent to the +Academy to be trained in riding, the military arts, fortification, +mathematics, the modern languages, and the many graces of a gentleman. The +Englishman, John Evelyn, who was in France in 1644, thus describes the +French Academies: + + At the Palais Cardinal in Paris I frequently went to see them ride and + exercise the Greate Horse, especially at the Academy of Monsieur du + Plessis, and de Veau, whose scholes of that art are frequented by the + Nobility; and here also young gentlemen are taught to fence, daunce, + play on musiq, and something in fortifications and mathematics. + + At Richelieu, near Tours, belongs an Academy where besides the + exercise of the horse, armes, dauncing, etc., all the sciences are + taught in the vulgar French by Professors stipendiated by the great + Cardinal. The Academy of Juilly included some study of physical + science, mathematics, geography, heraldry, French history, Italian, + and Spanish, besides the riding and gentlemanly arts. + +In England the tutor in the home became the type form for the education of +the sons of a gentleman, the boys frequently being sent abroad to complete +their education. In German lands, which in the seventeenth century were in +close sympathy with French life and thought, Heidelberg being a center for +the dissemination of French ideas, the French academy idea was copied, and +what were called _Ritterakademieen_ (knightly academies) were founded in +the numerous court cities [2] for the education, along such lines, of the +sons of the many grades of the German nobility. Between 1620 and 1780, +before the rise of the German nationalistic movement which sought to +replace French ideas by native German culture, was the great period of +these German court schools, and during this period they bestowed on the +sons of the German nobility the courtly and military education of the +French academies. The education of the nobility was in consequence +segregated from the intellectual life of other classes. "Gallants" and +"pedants" were the respective outputs of the two types of schools. + + +III. SENSE REALISM + +THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AIMS OF THIS GROUP. This represented a still further +and more important step in advance than either of the preceding. In a very +direct way sense realism in education was an outgrowth of the organizing +work of Francis Bacon. Its aim was: + + (1) To apply the same inductive method formulated by Bacon for the + sciences to the work of education, with a view to organizing a general + method which would greatly simplify the instructional process, reduce + educational work to an organized system, and in consequence effect a + great saving of time; and + + (2) To replace the instruction in Latin by instruction in the + vernacular, [3] and to substitute new scientific and social studies, + deemed of greater value for a modern world, for the excessive devotion + to linguistic studies. + +The sixteenth century had been essentially a period of criticism in +education, and the leading thinkers on education, as in other lines of +intellectual activity, were not in the schools. In the seventeenth century +we come to a new group of men who attempted to think out and work out in +practice the ideas advanced by the critics of the preceding period. In the +seventeenth century we have, in consequence, the first serious attempt to +formulate an educational method since the days of the Athenian Greeks and +the treatise of Quintilian. + +The possibility of formulating an educational method that would simplify +the educational process and save time in instruction, appealed to a number +of thinkers, in different lands. This group of thinkers, due to their new +methods of attack and thought, the German historian of education, Karl von +Raumer, has called _Innovators_. The chief pedagogical ideas of the +Innovators were: + + 1. That education should proceed from the simple to the complex, and + the concrete to the abstract. + + 2. That things should come before rules. + + 3. That students should be taught to analyze, rather than to + construct. + + 4. That each student should be taught to investigate for himself, + rather than to accept or depend upon authority. + + 5. That only that should be memorized which is clearly understood and + of real value. + + 6. That restraint and coercion should be replaced by interest in the + studies taught. + + 7. That the vernacular should be used as the medium for all + instruction. + + 8. That the study of real things should precede the study of words + about things. + + 9. That the order and course of Nature be discovered, and that a + method of teaching based on this then be worked out. + + 10. That physical education should be introduced for the sake of + health, and not merely to teach gentlemanly sports. + + 11. That all should be provided with the opportunity for an education + in the elements of knowledge. This to be in the vernacular. + + 12. That Latin and Greek be taught only to those likely to complete an + education, and then through the medium of the mother tongue. + + 13. That a uniform and scientific method of instruction could be worked + out, which would reduce education to a science and serve as a guide + for teachers everywhere. + +The Englishman, Francis Bacon, whom we have previously considered; the +German, Wolfgang Ratichius (or Ratke); and the Moravian bishop and +teacher, Johann Amos Comenius, stand as perhaps the clearest examples of +this organizing tendency in education. Ratke and Comenius will be +considered here as types. + +WOLFGANG RATKE. Bacon had believed that the new scientific knowledge +should be incorporated into the instruction of the schools, and had +suggested, in his _Advancement of Learning_ (1603-05), a broader course +of study for them, and better facilities for scientific investigation and +teaching. While Bacon was not a teacher and did not write specifically on +school instruction, his writings nevertheless deeply influenced many of +those who followed his thinking. + +The first writer to apply Bacon's ideas to education and to attempt to +evolve a new method and a new course of instruction was a German, by the +name of Wolfgang Ratke (1571-1635). While studying in England he had read +Bacon's _Advancement of Learning_, and from Bacon's suggestions Ratke +tried to work out a new method of instruction. This he offered, and with +much secrecy, unsuccessfully for sale at various German courts. Finally he +issued an "Address" to the princes of Germany, assembled at an Electoral +Diet at Frankfurt-am-Main, in 1612. In this he told them of his new +method, which followed Nature, and declared that it was "fraught with +momentous consequences" for mankind. He claimed that he could: + + 1. By using the German language in the earlier years: + (a) Bring about the use of one common language among the German + people, and thus lay the basis for unity in government and + religion; + (b) Impart to children a knowledge of the useful arts and sciences. + + 2. Teach Latin. Greek, and Hebrew better, and in far less time, than + had previously been required for one language only. + +This method he offered to sell to the princes, and he would impart it only +on the promise that it be not revealed to others. Two professors were +appointed to examine Ratke, and they reported very favorably on his plan. + +In 1617 Ratke published, in Leipzig, his _Methodus Nova_, which was the +pioneer work on school method, and is Ratke's chief claim to mention here. +In this he laid down the fundamental rules for teaching, as he had thought +them out. They were as follows: + + 1. The order of Nature was to be sought and followed. + + 2. One thing at a time, and that mastered thoroughly. + + 3. Much repetition to insure retention. + + 4. Use of the mother tongue for all instruction, and the languages to + be taught through it. + + 5. Everything to be taught without constraint. The teacher to teach, + and the scholars to keep order and discipline. + + 6. No learning by heart. Much questioning and understanding. + + 7. Uniformity in books and methods a necessity. + + 8. Knowledge of things to precede words about things. + + 9. Individual experience and contact and inquiry to replace authority. + +We see here the essentials of the Baconian ideas, as well as the +foreshadowings of many other subsequent reforms in teaching method. + +During the next half-dozen years Ratke was a much-interviewed person, as +the idea of a more general education of the people, advanced by the +Protestant reformers, had appealed strongly to the imagination of many of +the German princes. Finally the necessary money was raised to establish an +experimental school, [4] printing-presses were set up to print the +necessary books, the people of the village of Köthen, in Anhalt, were +ordered to send their children for instruction, and the school opened with +Ratke in charge and amid great expectations and enthusiasm. A year and a +half later the school had failed, through the bad management of Ratke and +his inability to realize the extravagant hopes he had aroused, and he +himself had been thrown into prison as an impostor by the princes. This +ended Ratke's work. He is important chiefly for his pioneer work as the +forerunner of the greatest educator of the seventeenth century. + +JOHANN AMOS COMENIUS. We now reach not only the greatest representative of +sense realism, both in theory and practice, before the latter part of the +eighteenth century, but also one of the commanding figures in the history +of education. Comenius was born at Nivnitz, in Moravia, in 1592. As a +member, pastor, and later bishop of the Moravian church, and as a follower +of John Huss, he suffered greatly in the Catholic-Protestant warfare which +raged over his native land during the period of the Thirty Years' War. His +home twice plundered, his books and manuscripts twice burned, his wife and +children murdered, and himself at times a fugitive and later an exile, +Comenius gave his long life to the advancement of the interests of mankind +through religion and learning. Driven from his home and country, he became +a scholar of the world. + +While a student at the University of Nassau, at the age of twenty, he read +and was deeply impressed by the "Address" of Ratke. Bacon's _Novum +Organum_, which appeared when he was twenty-eight, made a still deeper +impression upon him. He seems to have been familiar also with the writings +of the educational reformers of his time in all European lands. He +traveled extensively, and maintained a large correspondence with the +scholars of his time. He was master of a Latin school in Moravia from the +age of twenty-two to twenty-four, when he was ordained as a pastor of the +Moravian Church. Eight years later, in 1632, he was banished, with all +Protestant ministers, from his native land, and while an exile for a time +took charge of a school at Lissa, in Poland. Here he worked out, in +practice, the great work on method which he later published. In 1638 he +was invited to reform the schools of Sweden; in 1641 he visited England, +in connection with a plan for the organization of all knowledge; he spent +the next eight years working at school reform in Sweden; from 1650 to 1654 +he was in charge of a school at Saros-Patak, in Hungary, where he worked +out his famous textbooks for teaching language; he was consulted with +reference to the presidency of Harvard College, in 1654; the same year he +returned to Lissa, and once more lost his books and manuscripts and was +made a homeless exile; and finally he found a patron and asylum in +Amsterdam, where he died in 1671, at the age of seventy-nine. The verse +beneath his portrait seems an especially appropriate commentary on his +life. + +COMENIUS AND EDUCATIONAL METHOD. While teaching at Lissa, in Poland, +Comenius had formulated for himself the principles underlying school +instruction, as he saw it, in a lengthy book which he called _The Great +Didactic_. [5] The title page (R. 218) and the table of contents (R. 219) +will give an idea as to its scope. In this work Comenius formulated and +explained his two fundamental ideas, namely, that all instruction must be +carefully graded and arranged to follow the order of nature, and that, in +imparting knowledge to children, the teacher must make constant appeal +through sense-perception to the understanding of the child. We have here +the fundamental ideas of Bacon applied to the school, and Comenius stands +as the clearest exponent of sense realism in teaching up to his time, and +for more than a century afterward. + +Deeply religious by nature and training, Comenius held the Holy Scriptures +to contain the beginning and end of all learning; to know God aright he +held to be the highest aim; and with true Protestant fervor he contended +that the education of every human being was a necessity if mankind was to +enter into its religious inheritance, and piety, virtue, and learning were +to be brought to their fruition. Unlike those who were enthusiasts for +religious education only, Comenius saw further, and held an ideal of +service to the State and Church here below for which proper training was +needed. Still more, he believed in the education of human beings simply +because they were human beings, and not merely for salvation, as Luther +had held. + +Comenius was the first to formulate a practicable school method, working +along the new lines marked out by Bacon. He had no psychology to guide +him, and worked largely by analogies from nature. A great idea with him +was that we should study and follow nature, and this led him to the +conclusions that education should proceed from the easy to the difficult, +the near to the remote, the general to the special, and the known to the +unknown, and that the great business of the teacher was imparting and +guiding, and not storing the memory. These conclusions seem commonplaces +to us of to-day, but what is commonplace today was genius three hundred +years ago. To select the subject-matter of instruction carefully and on +the basis of utility, to eliminate needless materials, not to attempt too +much at a time, to use concrete examples, to have frequent repetitions to +fix ideas, to advance by carefully graded steps, to tie new knowledge to +old, to learn by observing and doing, and to learn by use rather than by +precept--were still other of the present-day commonplaces which Comenius +worked out and formulated in his _Didactica Magna_. [6] His plea for a +mild and gentle discipline in place of the brutality of his time, his +emphasis of the vernacular and the realities of life, his conception as to +the importance of early education, his careful gradation of the school, +and his ability to see the usefulness of Latin without over-emphasizing +its importance--all stamp him as a capable and practical schoolmaster who +saw deeply into the nature of the educational process. + +[Illustration: PLATE 10. JOHN AMOS COMENIUS (1592-1671) +The Moravian Bishop at the age of fifty. (After an engraving by Glover, +printed as a frontispiece to Hartlib's _A Reformation of Schooles_. +London, 1642.) + + Loe, here an Exile, who to serve his God, + Hath sharply tasted of proud Pashurs Rod + Whose learning, Piety, & true worth, being knowne + To all the world, makes all the world his owne. F.Q.] + +COMENIUS' IDEAS AS TO THE ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOLS. In his _Didactica +Magna_ Comenius divided the school life of a child into four great +divisions. The first concerned the period from infancy to the age of six, +which he called The Mother School. For this period he wrote _The School of +Infancy_ (1628), a book intended primarily for parents, and one of such +deep insight and fundamental importance that parents and teachers may +still read it with interest and profit. In it he anticipated many of the +ideas of the kindergarten of to-day. The next division was The Vernacular +School, which covered the period from the ages of six to twelve. For this +period six classes were to be provided, and the emphasis was to be on the +mother tongue. This school was to be for all, of both sexes, and in it the +basis of an education for life was to be given. It was to teach its pupils +to read and write the mother tongue; enough arithmetic for the ordinary +business of life, and the commonly used measures; to sing, and to know +certain songs by rote; to know about the real things of life; the +Catechism and the Bible; a general knowledge of history, and especially +the creation, fall, and redemption of man; the elements of geography and +astronomy; and a knowledge of the trades and occupations of life; all of +which, says Comenius, can be taught better through the mother tongue than +through the medium of the Latin and Greek. In scope this school +corresponds with the vernacular school of modern Europe. + +The next school was The Latin School, covering the years from twelve to +eighteen, and in this German, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew were to be taught, +by improved methods, and with physics and mathematics added. This school +he divided into six classes, named from the principal study in each, as +follows: (1) Grammar, (2) Physics, (3) Mathematics, (4) Ethics, (5) +Dialectics, (6) Rhetoric. He also later outlined a plan for a six-class +_Gymnasium_ for Saros-Patak (R. 220), culminating in a seventh year for +preparation for the ministry, which was an improvement on the Latin School +and very modern in character. Had such a school become common, secondary +education in Europe might have been a century in advance of where the +nineteenth century found it. The Latin school was to be attended only by +those of ability who were likely to enter the service of Church or State, +or who intended to pass on to the University. This last was to cover the +period from eighteen to twenty-four. Unlike all educational practice of +his time and later, Comenius here provides for an educational ladder of +the present-day American type, wholly unlike the European two-class school +system which (p. 353) later evolved. + +COMENIUS' WORK IN REFORMING LANGUAGE TEACHING. At the time Comenius lived +and wrote, the languages constituted almost the only subject of study, and +Latin grammar was the great introductory subject. The mediaeval grammars +(Donatus; Alexander de Villa Dei; pp. 156, 155) had been so poor that the +instruction was difficult and, in consequence, long drawn out. Lily's +Latin Grammar (p. 276), published in 1513, and Melanchthon's Latin +Grammar, published in 1525, had represented marked advances. Still the +subject remained difficult, even when taught from these new types of +grammars. Comenius early became convinced, as a result of his teaching and +studies in educational method, that the ancient classical authors were not +only too difficult for boys beginning the study of Latin, but that they +also did not contain the type of real knowledge he felt should be taught +in the schools. He accordingly set to work to construct a series of +introductory Latin readers which would form a graded introduction to the +study of Latin, and which would also introduce the pupil to the type of +world knowledge and scientific information he felt should be taught. + +His plan eventually embraced a graded series of five books, as follows: + + 1. The _Orbis Sensualium Pictus_, or the World of Sense Objects + Pictured. This was an illustrated primer and first reader, which + appeared in 1658, and was the first illustrated book ever written for + children (R. 221). + + 2. The _Vestibulum_ (Vestibule, or gate). An easy first reader, + consisting of but a few hundred of the most commonly used Latin words + and sentences, with a translation into the vernacular in parallel + columns. This book required about a half-year for its completion. + + 3. The _Janua Linguarum Reserata_, or Gate of Languages Unlocked. + This was the first of the series printed (1631), the _Vestibulum_ + being an easy introduction to it, and the _Orbis Pictus_ being + the _Janua_ simplified and illustrated. The _Janua_ + contained some eight thousand Latin words, arranged in simple + sentences, with the vernacular equivalent in parallel columns; + included information on a variety of subjects; [7] and was a regular + Noah's Ark for vocabulary purposes. It embraced sufficient reading + material and grammar for a year. + + 4. The _Atrium_. This was an expansion of the _Janua_, and + treated the same topics more in detail. It was intended to be an + advanced reader, based, as was the _Janua_, on studies about the + real things of life. The vocabulary now was Latin-Latin, instead of + Latin-vernacular. + + 5. The _Thesaurus_, which was never completed, but was planned to + be a collection of graded extracts from easy Latin authors--Cornelius + Nepos, Caesar, Cicero, Sallust, Vergil, Horace, Pliny--to furnish the + needed reading material for the three upper years of the Latin School. + +THE TEXTBOOKS ILLUSTRATED. Beginning in the _Janua_, and afterwards in the +_Vestibulum_ and _Orbis Pictus_ as well, Comenius not only simplified the +teaching of Latin by producing the best textbooks for instruction in the +subject the world had ever known, but he also shifted the whole emphasis +in instruction from words to things, and made the teaching of scientific +knowledge and useful world information the keynote of his work. The +hundred different chapters of the _Janua_, and the hundred and fifty-one +chapters of the _Orbis Pictus_, were devoted to imparting information as +to all kinds of useful subjects. The following selections from the chapter +titles of the _Orbis Pictus_ illustrate how large a place the new +scientific studies occupied in his conception of the school: + + The World Birds Weaving Philosophy + The Heavens Cattle Tailor Prudence + Fire Fish Barber Diligence + Wind Parts of Man Schoolmaster Temperance + Water Flesh and Bowels Shoemaker Fortitude + Clouds Chanels and Bones Carpenter Humanity + Earth Senses Potter Justice + Fruits Deformities Printing Consanguinity + Metals Husbandry Geometry A City + Trees Bees and Honey The Planets Merchandizing + Herbs Butchery Eclipses A Burial + Flowers Cookery Europe Religious Forms + +The accompanying illustrations (Figs. 126, 127) reveal the nature of the +text-books he prepared. (See also R. 221 for four additional pages of +illustrations from the _Orbis Pictus_.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 126. A SAMPLE PAGE FROM THE "ORBIS PICTUS" +The illustration and Latin text is from the first edition of 1658; the +English translation from the English edition of 1727.] + +The success of these textbooks was immediate and very great. Within a +short time after the publication of the _Janua_ it had been translated +into Flemish, Bohemian, English, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, +Italian, Latin, Polish, Spanish, and Swedish, as well as into Arabic, +Mongolian, Russian, and Turkish. The _Orbis Pictus_ was an even greater +success. [8] It went through many editions, in many languages; stood +without a competitor in Europe for a hundred and fifteen years; and was +used as an introductory textbook for nearly two hundred years. An American +edition was brought out in New York City, as late as 1810. + +[Illustration: FIG. 127. PART OF A PAGE FROM A LATIN-ENGLISH EDITION OF +THE "VESTIBULUM"] + +Thousands of parents, who knew nothing of Comenius and cared nothing for +his educational ideas, bought the book for their children because they +found that they liked the pictures and learned the language easily from +it. [9] + +PLACE AND INFLUENCE OF COMENIUS. Comenius stands in the history of +education in a position of commanding importance. He introduces the whole +modern conception of the educational process, and outlines many of the +modern movements for the improvement of educational procedure. What +Petrarch was to the revival of learning, what Wycliffe was to religious +thought, what Copernicus was to modern science, and what Bacon and +Descartes were to modern philosophy, Comenius was to educational practice +and thinking (R. 222). The germ of almost all eighteenth- and nineteenth- +century educational theory is to be found in his work, and he, more than +any one before him and for at least two centuries after him, made an +earnest effort to introduce the new science studies into the school. Far +more liberal than his Lutheran or Calvinistic or Anglican or Catholic +contemporaries, he planned his school for the education of youth in +religion and learning and to fit them for the needs of a modern world. +Unlike the textbooks of his time, and for more than a century afterward, +his were free from either sectarian bigotry or the intense and gloomy +atmosphere of the age. + +Yet Comenius lived at an unfortunate period in the history of human +progress. The early part of the seventeenth century was not a time when an +enthusiastic and aggressive and liberal-minded reformer could expect much +of a hearing anywhere in western Europe. The shock of the contest into +which western Christendom had been plunged by the challenge of Luther had +been felt in every corner of Europe, and the culmination of a century of +warfare was then raging, with all the bitterness and brutality that a +religious motive develops. Christian Europe was too filled with an +atmosphere of suspicion and distrust and hatred to be in any mood to +consider reforms for the improvement of the education of mankind. As a +result the far-reaching changes in method formulated by Comenius made but +slight impression on his contemporaries; his attempt to introduce +scientific studies awakened suspicion, rather than interest; and the new +method which he formulated in his _Great Didactic_ was ignored and the +book itself was forgotten for centuries. His great influence on +educational progress was through the reform his textbooks worked in the +teaching of Latin, and the slow infiltration into the schools of the +scientific ideas they contained. As a result, many of the fundamentally +sound reforms for which he stood had to be worked out anew in the +nineteenth century. It is sad to contemplate how far our western world +might have been advanced in its educational organization and scientific +progress, by the close of the eighteenth century, had it been in a mood to +receive and utilize the reforms in aims and methods, and to accept the new +scientific subject-matter, proposed and worked out by this far-sighted +Moravian teacher. Religious bigotry has, in all lands and ages, proved +itself one of the most serious of all obstacles in the path of human +progress. + + +IV. REALISM AND THE SCHOOLS + +THE VERNACULAR SCHOOLS. The ideas for which the realists just described +had stood were adopted in the people's schools but slowly, and came only +after long waiting. The final incorporation of science instruction into +elementary education did not come until the nineteenth century, and then +was an outgrowth of the reform work of Pestalozzi on the one hand, and the +new social, political, economic, and industrial forces of a modern world +on the other. + +The Peace of Westphalia (1648), which closed a century of bitter and +vindictive religious warfare, was followed by another century of hatred, +suspicion, and narrow religious intolerance and reaction. All parties now +adopted an extremely conservative attitude in matters of religion and +education, and the protection of orthodoxy became the chief purpose of the +school. Reading, religion, a little counting and writing, and, in Teutonic +lands, music, came to constitute the curriculum of such elementary +vernacular schools as had come to exist, and the religious Primer and the +Bible became the great school textbooks. The people were poor, much of +Europe was impoverished and depopulated as a result of long-continued +religious strife, the common people still occupied a very low social +position, there were as yet no qualified teachers, and no need for general +education aside from religion. Still more, during more than a thousand +years the Church had established the tradition of providing free +education, and when the governing authorities of the States which turned +to Protestantism had taken from the Church both the opportunity to +continue the schools and the wealth with which to maintain them, they were +seldom willing to tax themselves to set up institutions to continue the +work formerly done gratis by the Church. In consequence, regardless of +Protestant educational theory as to the need for general education, but +little progress in providing vernacular schools was made during the whole +of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. + +Here and there in Teutonic lands, however, the new studies found an +occasional patron. In 1619 schools were organized for the little Duchy of +Weimar (p. 317) by a pupil of Ratke, and sense realism was given a place +in them. The schoolmaster, Andreas Reyher, who in 1642 drew up the _Schule +Methodus_ "the actual title of that book was 'Schulmethodus" for Duke +Ernest of Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg, was familiar with the work of both +Ratke and Comenius, and made provision for instruction in "the natural and +useful sciences" (R. 163) for Duke Ernest's children. Here and there a few +other attempts to provide schools and add instruction in the new _Realien_ +were made. The number of such attempts was not large, but their work was +influential, and as a result vernacular schools and science instruction +finally became established among German-speaking peoples before they did +in any other land. + +THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The influence of Milton's _Tractate_ on the non- +conformist Academies of England has been traced, and the transfer of the +idea of instruction in the new mathematical, scientific, literary, +historical, and political subjects to the new American Academies has been +mentioned. That these new studies also entered into the education of a +gentleman in England and France, under the private-tutor and the courtly- +academy system, and were copied from the French and constituted a large +part of the instruction organized for the _Ritterakademieen_ of the +numerous court cities in German lands, has also been mentioned. In both +England and France such private instruction exerted but little influence +on the existing Latin grammar schools, and in consequence the schools of +both countries remained largely unchanged in direction and purpose until +the second half of the nineteenth century. In German lands the +_Ritterakademieen_ idea experienced a further development, which proved to +be of large importance for the future of German education. + +FRANCKE'S "INSTITUTIONS." With the introduction of French ideas and +training into the German courts, French skepticism in matters of religion +developed in the court circles. Under the influence of a pious Lutheran +clergyman, Philip Spener (1635-1705), who tried to emphasize religion as +an affair of the heart rather than the head; and especially as a result of +the work of his spiritual successor, Augustus Hermann Francke, a movement +arose in German lands, during the closing years of the seventeenth +century, which became known as _Pietism_. [10] Disgusted with the lifeless +and insincere religion of the time, these two strove to substitute a +religion of both head and heart. In 1695, moved by pity for the poor, +Francke established at Halle the first of his famous "Institutions,"--a +school for poor children. A pay school for the well-to-do was soon added, +and soon another school for the children of nobility. An orphan school +also was in time provided. The school for the poor developed into a +vernacular or _Burgher_ (_volks_; peoples) school; the school for the pay +pupils into a Latin School, or _Gymnasium_; and the school for nobles into +a higher scientific school, or _Pädagogium_ as it was called. At first +Francke encountered some theological opposition, but the "Institutions" +prospered, and at the time of his death contained over 2200 pupils, and +over 300 teachers, workers, and attendants. + +[Illustration: FIG. 128. AUGUSTUS HERMANN FRANCKE (1663-1727)] + +The interesting thing about Francke's work was the courses of instruction +he provided for his schools. [11] In the Burgher School he gave the +children instruction in history, geography, and animal life, in addition +to the reading, writing, counting, music, and religion of the usual German +vernacular school. Into the _Gymnasium_ he introduced instruction in +history, geography, music, science, and mathematics, in addition to the +usual Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. He also changed the purpose of the +language instruction. Greek was studied to be able to read the New +Testament in the original, and Hebrew better to understand the Old. The +_Pädagogium_ was provided with a botanical garden, a cabinet of natural +history, physical apparatus, a laboratory for the study of chemistry and +anatomy, and a workshop for turning and glass-cutting. Independent of the +work of Comenius, but as an outgrowth of the new movement for the study of +science now beginning to influence educational thought, we have here the +most important attempt at the introduction into the school of sense +realism, or _Realien_, as the Germans say, that the modern world had so +far witnessed. In 1697 Francke added a _Seminarium Praeceptorium_, to +train teachers in his new ideas. This was the first teachers' training- +school in German lands, and the teachers he trained served to scatter his +educational ideas over the German States. [12] + +THE FIRST REALSCHULE. Associated with Francke as a teacher was one +Christopher Semler (1669-1740), who became deeply interested in the new +studies of the secondary school. In 1706 Semler had submitted a plan to +the government of Magdeburg for the teaching of the practical studies. +This was referred to the Berlin Society of Sciences, which approved the +plan, and later elected Semler to membership in the Society. For years +Semler continued as a teacher at Halle, but without carrying the idea far +enough to create a new type of school. In 1739 Semler published a paper +"Upon the Mathematical, Mechanical, and Agricultural Real School in the +City of Halle," in which he described the instruction given there. This +was probably the first use of the term "real school" (Realschule). The +important subjects described as taught, aside from religion, were "the +useful and in daily life wholly indispensable sciences," such as +mathematics, drawing, geography, history, natural history, agriculture, +and economics, with much emphasis on observation by the pupils. + +The work at Halle soon stimulated complaints as to the existing Latin +schools, where children, destined for business or the service of the +State, were kept trying to learn Latin, "to the neglect of more practical +and more useful studies." The usefulness of the new real studies now began +to be more correctly estimated, and the conviction gradually grew that +those boys who were destined for trade--now a rapidly increasing number-- +should not be obliged to follow the same course as those destined to be +scholars. In 1720 Rector Gesner, of the gymnasium at Rotenburg, wrote, +rather sarcastically: + + The one class, who will not study, but will become tradesmen, + merchants, or soldiers, must be instructed in writing, arithmetic, + writing letters, geography, description of the world, and history. The + other class may be trained for studying. + +In 1742 the Rector at Dresden, Schöttgen, issued a "Humble proposal for +the special class in public city schools" to provide for those children +"who are to remain without (that is, cannot learn) Latin." Instead of +forcing them to attempt to learn Donatus, which he said was useless for +them, he urged that a special class (school) be organized to train them to +become useful merchants, artists, and mechanics. In 1751 Rector Henzky, of +Prenzlau, issued a treatise to show "That Real schools can and must become +common." In 1756 Gesner, professor at the new University of Göttingen, in +a pamphlet "On the organization of a gymnasium" (R. 223), urged that there +were three classes of youths for whom schools should be provided, one of +which needed the _Realschule_. + +In 1747 a clergyman by the name of Julius Hecker (1707-1768), who had been +a pupil in, and later had taught in Francke's "'Institutions," went to +Berlin and opened there the first distinct German _Realschule_. In this +school Hecker provided instruction in religion, ethics, German, French, +Latin, mathematics, drawing, history, geography, mechanics, architecture, +and a knowledge of nature and of the human body. Classes were organized in +architecture, agriculture, bookkeeping, manufacturing, and mining. The +school prospered from the first, and in time became the "Royal +_Realschule_" of Berlin. In answer to a growing demand for advanced +education for that constantly increasing number of youths destined for the +trades or a mercantile career, the _realschule_ idea was copied in a +number of the important cities of Germany. Thus early--a century in +advance of other nations, and a century and a quarter ahead of the United +States--did Prussia lay the foundations of that scientific and technical +education which, later on, did so much toward creating modern industrial +Germany. + +THE UNIVERSITIES AND THE NEW SCIENTIFIC LEARNING. Though the theological +persecution of scientific workers largely died out after about the middle +of the seventeenth century, and was never much of a factor in lands which +had embraced some form of Protestantism, the new sciences nevertheless +made but little headway in the universities until after the beginning of +the eighteenth century. Up to the close of the seventeenth century the +universities in all lands continued to be dominated by their theological +faculties, and instruction still remained largely encompassed by +mediaevalism. England represents perhaps the most notable exception to +this statement, scientific studies having been received with greater +tolerance by the universities there than in other lands. In both Catholic +and Protestant lands the need was felt for orthodox training, through fear +of further heresy, and many petty restrictions were thrown about study and +teaching which were stifling to free thinking and investigation. Each +little Kingdom or State now took over the supervision of some old +university within its borders, or established a new one, that it might +more completely control orthodoxy and prepare its own civil servants. Of +the seventeenth century, Paulsen [13] well says: + + It was essentially the period of the territorial-confessional + university, and is characterized by a preponderance of theological- + confessional interest.... Many new foundations, both Catholic and + Protestant, now appeared. The chief impetus leading to these numerous + foundations was the accentuation of the principle of territorial + sovereignty, from the ecclesiastical as well as the political point of + view. The consequence was that the universities began to be + _instrumentia denominationis_ of the government as professional + schools for its ecclesiastical and secular officials. Each individual + government endeavored to secure its own university in order--(1) to + make sure of wholesome instruction, which meant, of course, + instruction in harmony with the confessional standards of its + established church; (2) to retain training of its secular officials in + its own hands; and finally (3) render attendance at foreign + universities unnecessary on the part of its subjects, and thus keep + the money in the country. + +Large amounts of money were not needed to establish a new university. A +few thousand guilders or thalers sufficed for the salaries of ten or +fifteen professors, a couple of preachers and physicians would undertake +the theological and medical lectures, and some old monastery would supply +the needed buildings. + +After the Reformation the law faculty increased to the place of first +importance in Protestant lands, because the Reformation had created a new +demand for judges and higher court officials to replace the rule of the +clergy. The medical faculty continued to be, as in the mediaeval +universities, the smallest of all the faculties and amounted to little +before the nineteenth century. [14] The arts faculty, or philosophical as +it came to be termed in German lands, offered lectures in Latin, Greek, +and Hebrew, and a general course in philosophy, but the Aristotelian texts +and to some extent mediaeval methods in instruction continued to be used +until the beginning of the eighteenth century. + +Here and there some professor "read" on mathematics, and in Protestant +lands on the new astronomy, and the study of botany began as the study of +herbs in the medical faculty, [15] but during the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries few professors or students were interested in the +scientific subjects. By 1675 Bacon's _Novum Organum_ had begun to be +taught at both Oxford and Cambridge, and by 1700 the Newtonian physics had +begun to displace Aristotle at Oxford. By 1740 it was well established +there. At first instruction in the new subjects was offered as an extra +and for a fee by men not having professional rank (R. 224), and later the +instruction was given full recognition by the university. By 1700 +Cambridge had become a center for mathematical study (R. 225), and with +the growth in popularity of the Newtonian philosophy, mathematical studies +there took the place held by logic in the mediaeval university. Cambridge +has ever since remained a center for mathematical and, since the beginning +of the nineteenth century, for scientific studies as well. Between 1680 +and 1700 the University of Paris was reformed, and the mathematical and +philosophical studies of Descartes (p. 394) began to be taught there. The +universities of the Netherlands began to teach the new mathematical and +scientific studies even earlier. + +Aside from the above described _Realschule_ development, the new +scientific movement for a time largely passed over German lands, and in +consequence the German universities remained unreformed until the +eighteenth century. During the seventeenth century they sank to their +lowest intellectual level. In 1694, largely in protest against the +narrowness of the old universities, the new University of Halle was +founded. It received into its faculty certain forward-looking men who had +been driven from the old universities, [16] and is generally considered as +the first modern university. The new scientific and mathematical subjects +and a reformed philosophy were introduced; the instruction in Greek and +Latin was reformed; German was made the medium of classroom instruction; +and a scientific magazine in German was begun. In 1737 the University of +Göttingen became a second center of modern influence, and from these two +institutions the new scientific spirit gradually spread to all the +Protestant universities of German lands. A century later they were the +leading universities of the world. + +THE TRANSITION NOW PRACTICALLY COMPLETE. From the time Petrarch made his +first "find" at Liège (1333), in the form of two previously unknown +orations of Cicero (p. 244), to the publication of the _Principia_ (p. +388) of Newton (1687), is a period of approximately three and a half +centuries. During these three and a half centuries a complete +transformation of world-life had been effected, and the mediaeval man, +with his eyes on the past, had given place to the modern man with his eyes +on the future. During these three and a half centuries revolutionary +forces had been at work in the world of ideas, and the transition from +mediaeval to modern attitudes had been accomplished. From 1333 to 1433 was +the century of "literary finds," and during this period the monastic +treasures were brought to light and edited and the classical literature of +Rome restored. Greek also was restored to the western world, and a +reformed Latin, Greek, and Hebrew were given the place of first importance +in the new humanistic school. The invention of printing took place in +1423; 1456 witnessed the appearance of the first printed book, and the +perfection of the new means for the multiplication of books and the +dissemination of ideas. Before 1500 the great era of geographical +discovery had been inaugurated; a sea-route to India was found in 1487; +and a new continent in 1492. In 1519-22 Magellan's ships rounded the +world. + +In 1517 Luther issued the challenge, the shock of which was felt in every +corner of Christian Europe, and within a half-century much of northern and +western Europe had been lost to the original Roman Church. Soon +independence in thinking had been extended to the problem of the +organization of the universe, and in 1543 Copernicus issued the book that +clearly marks the beginning of modern scientific thinking and inquiry. +Bacon had done his organizing work by 1620, and Newton's _Principia_ +(1687) finally established modern scientific thought and work. Comenius +died in 1671, his great organizing work done, and his textbooks, with +their many new educational ideas, in use all over Europe. The mediaeval +attitude still continued in religion and government, but the world as a +whole had left mediaeval attitudes behind it, and was facing the future of +modern world organization and life. To the educational organization of +this modern world we now turn, though before doing so we shall try to +present a cross-section, as it were, of the development in educational +theory and practice which had been attained by about the middle of the +eighteenth century. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Explain why the scholars of the time were so intent on producing a new +race of Roman youths for a revived Latin scholarly world. + +2. Show that a reaction against humanism was certain to arise, and why. + +3. How do you explain the very small influence exerted on the Latin +grammar schools of England by the non-conformist Academies, after they had +been absorbed into the existing English non-state system of higher +schools? + +4. Compare Milton and Montaigne. + +5. What would be the most probable effect on education of the erection of +the polished-man-of-the-world ideal? + +6. Enumerate the forces favoring and opposing the change of the language +of instruction from Latin to the vernacular. + +7. How many of the thirteen principles of the Innovators do we still hold +to be valid? + +8. Just what was new in the nine fundamental rules laid down by Ratke, in +his _Methodus Nova_? + +9. What is your estimate of the vernacular schools as outlined by +Comenius? Of the plans for a gymnasium at Saros-Patak? + +10. Compare Comenius' Latin school with the College of Calvin. + +11. State the new ideas in instruction embodied in the textbooks of +Comenius. + +12. Show that Comenius dominates modern educational ideas, even though his +work was largely lost, in the same way that Petrarch or Wyclifle or +Copernicus do modern work in their fields. + +13. Explain the very slow development of vernacular schools after the +Protestant Revolts. + +14. Why would the introduction of real studies into them be especially +slow? + +15. What explanation can you offer for the much earlier beginnings in +scientific instruction in German lands than in England or America, when +much more of the important early scientific work was done by Englishmen +than by Germans? and the failure of science for a time to find a home in +the German universities? + +16. Explain the continued dominance of the theological faculty in the +universities of the seventeenth century. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following illustrative +selections are reproduced: + + 210. Rabelais: On the Nature of Education. + 211. Milton: The Aim and Purpose of Education. + 212. Milton: His Program for Study. + 213. Adamson: Discontent of the Nobility with the Schools. + 214. Montaigne: Ridicule of the Humanistic Pedants. + 215. Montaigne: His Conception of Education. + 216. Locke: Extracts from his Thoughts on Education. + 217. Locke: Plan for Working Schools for Poor Children. + 218. Comenius: Title-Page of the _Great Didactic_. + 219. Comenius: Contents of the _Great Didactic_. + 220. Comenius: Plan for the Gymnasium at Saros-Patak. + 221. Comenius: Sample pages from the _Orbis Pictus_. + (a) A page from a Latin-German edition of 1740. + (b) Two pages from a Latin-English edition of 1727. + (c) A page from the New York edition of 1810. + 222. Butler: Place of Comenius in the History of Education. + 223. Gesner: Need for _Realschulen_ for the New Classes to be + Educated. + 224. Handbill: How the Scientific Studies began at Cambridge. + 225. Green: Cambridge Scheme of Study of 1707. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Show that Rabelais was in close sympathy with the best of the new +humanists of his age. + +2. Would Milton's definition of the purpose of education be true, still? + +3. Show from Milton's program of studies that he represents a transition +type, and also that his program contains the nucleus of the more modern +studies of the secondary school. + +4. Explain the discontent of the nobility with the existing Church +schools. + +5. Assuming Montaigne's description of the education of his time to be +true, explain why this might naturally be the case. + +6. Just what kind of an education does Montaigne outline, and how great a +reaction was this from existing conditions? + +7. In how far would Locke's ideas still apply to the education of a boy of +the leisure class? + +8. Show that Locke's plan for work-house schools was in thorough accord +with English post-Reformation ideas as to the duty of the State in matters +of education, and also that it contained the beginnings of the pauper- +school idea of education which we later had to combat. + +9. From the title-page and the table of contents (219) of Comenius' _Great +Didactic_, point out the originality and novelty of his ideas. + +10. Compare Comenius' plan for the Saros-Patak _Gymnasium_ with such +schools as Sturm's, the college of Guyenne, the college of Calvin, and the +Jesuits. + +11. Compare Comenius' plan (220) with the instruction in an American high +school of seventy-five years ago. + +12. Compare the Alphabet page of Comenius' _Orbis Pictus_ with the same +page in the New England Primer. + +13. When so many educational reforms were inaugurated so early by +Comenius, explain their neglect, and our having to work them out anew in +the nineteenth century. + +14. What does the need for _Realschulen_ indicate as to the evolution of +German society and the recuperation from the ravages of war? + +15. Compare the beginnings of scientific study at Cambridge with +beginnings of new subjects to-day in our schools. + +16. Just what does the Cambridge Scheme of Study indicate as being taught +there? + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + +* Adamson, J. W. _Pioneers of Modern Education, 1600-1700_. + Barnard, Henry. _German Teachers and Educators_. +* Butler, N. M. "The Place of Comenius in the History of Education": in + _Proc. N. E. A._, 1892, pp. 723-28. + Browning, Oscar, Editor. _Milton's Tractate on Education_. +* Comenius, J. A. _Orbis Pictus_ (Bardeen; Syracuse). + Hanus, Paul H. "The Permanent Influence of Comenius"; in _Educational + Review_, vol. 3, pp. 226-36 (March, 1892). + Laurie, S. S. _History of Educational Opinion since the + Renaissance_. +* Laurie, S. S. _John Amos Comenius_. + Quick, R. H., Editor. _Locke's Thoughts on Education_. +* Quick, R. H. _Essays on Educational Reformers_. +* Vostrovsky, Clara. "A European School of the Time of Comenius (Prague, + 1609)"; in _Education_, vol. 17, pp. 356-60 (February, 1897.) + Wordsworth, Christopher. _Scholae Academicae; Studies at the English + Universities in the Eighteenth Century_. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +THEORY AND PRACTICE BY THE MIDDLE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY + + +We have now reached, in our history of the transition age which began with +the Revival of Learning--the great events of which were the recovery of +the ancient learning, the rediscovery of the historic past, the +reawakening of scholarship, and the rise of religious and scientific +inquiry--the end of the transition period, and we are now ready to pass to +a study of the development and progress of education in modern times. +Before doing so, however, we desire to gather up and state the progress in +both educational theory and practice which had been attained by the end of +this transition period, and to present, as it were, a cross-section of +education at about the middle of the eighteenth century. To do this, then, +before passing to a consideration of educational development in modern +times, will be the purpose of this chapter. We shall first review the +progress made in evolving a theory as to the educational purpose, and then +present a cross-section view of the schools of the time under +consideration. + + +I. PRE-EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL THEORIES + +THE STATE PURPOSE OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. As we saw, early in our study +of the rise and progress of the education of peoples, the City-States of +Greece were the first consciously to evolve a systematic plan of schooling +and a prolonged course of training for those who were to guide and direct +the State. In Sparta the training was almost wholly for military +efficiency and tribal safety, but in Athens we found a people using a +well-worked-out system of training to develop individual initiative, +advance civilization, and promote the welfare of the State. The education +provided was for but a class, to be sure, and a small ruling class at +that, but it was the first evidence of the new western, individualistic, +and democratic spirit expressing itself in the education of the young. +There also we found, for the first time, the thinkers of the State deeply +concerned with the education of the youth of the State, and viewing +education as a necessity to make life worth living and to secure the State +from dangers, both without and within. The training there given produced +wonderful results, and for two centuries the men educated by it ably +guided the destinies of Athens. + +The essentials of this Greek training were later embodied in the private- +adventure school system that arose in Rome, which was adapted to +conditions and needs there, and which was used for the training of a few +Roman youths of the wealthier families for a political career. Schooling +at Rome, though, never attained the importance or rendered the service +that characterized education at Athens, and never became an instrument of +the State used consciously for State ends. One Roman writer, Quintilian, +as we have seen (R. 25), worked out a careful statement of the whole +process of educating a youth for a public career, and this, the first +practical treatise on education, was for long highly prized as the best- +written statement of the educational art. + +THE FUTURE-LIFE CONCEPTION OF THE CHRISTIANS. With the decline of Roman +power and influence, and the victory of Christianity throughout the Roman +world, the State conception of education was entirely lost to western +Europe, and more than a thousand years elapsed before it again arose in +the western world. The Church now became the State, and the need for any +education for secular life almost entirely passed away. For centuries the +aim was almost entirely a preparation for life in the world to come. +Throughout all the early Middle Ages this attitude continued, supplemented +only by the meager education of a few to carry on the work of the Church +here below. + +After the tenth century we noted the rise of some more or less independent +study in some of the monastery and cathedral schools, and after the +twelfth century the rise of _studia generalia_ marked the congregation +into groups of the few interested in a studious life. These in turn gave +rise to the university foundations, and to the beginning of independent +and secular study once more in the western world. The Revival of Learning, +the recovery of the ancient manuscripts, the revival of the study of Greek +in the West, the founding of libraries, the invention of paper and +printing, and the revival of trade and commerce--all were new forces +tending to give a new direction to scholarly study, and as a result a new +race of scholars, more or less independent of the Church, now arose in +western Europe. They were, however, a class, and a very small class at +that, and though the result of their work was the creation of a new +humanistic secondary school, this still ministered to the needs of but a +few. This few was intended either for the service of the Church, for the +governmental service of the towns which had by this time attained their +independence, or for the governments of the rising principalities or +states. + +For the great mass of the people, whose purpose in life was to work and +believe and obey, agriculture, warfare, the rising trades with their +guilds (p. 209), and the services of the Church constituted almost all in +the way of education which they ever received. To be useful to his +overlord and master here and to be saved hereafter were the chief life- +purposes of the common man. The former he must himself undertake in order +to be able to live at all; the latter the Church undertook to supply to +those who followed her teachings. + +THE RISE OF THE VERNACULAR RELIGIOUS SCHOOL. For the first time in +history, if we except the schools of the early Christian period, the +Protestant Revolts created a demand for some form of an elementary +religious school for all. The Protestant theory as to personal _versus_ +collective salvation involved as a consequence the idea of the education +of all in the essentials of the Christian faith and doctrine. The aim was +the same as before--personal salvation--but the method was now changed +from that of the Church as intermediary to personal knowledge and faith +and effort. To be saved, one must know something of the Word of God, and +this necessitated instruction. To this end, in theory at least, schools +had to be established to educate the young for membership in the new type +of Church relationship. Reading the vernacular, a little counting and +writing, in Teutonic countries a little music, and careful instruction in +a religious Primer (R. 202), the Catechism, and the Bible, now came to +constitute the subject matter of a new vernacular school for the children +of Protestants, and to a certain extent in time for the children of +Catholics as well. As we pointed out earlier (p. 353), between this new +type of school for religious ends and the older Latin grammar school for +scholarly purposes there was almost no relationship, and the two developed +wholly independently of one another. In the Latin grammar schools one +studied to become a scholar and a leader in the political or +ecclesiastical world; in the vernacular religious school one learned to +read that he might be able to read the Catechism and the Bible, and to +know the will of the Heavenly Father. There was scarcely any other purpose +to the maintenance of the elementary vernacular schools. This condition +continued until well into the eighteenth century. + +[Illustration: FIG. 129. A FRENCH SCHOOL BEFORE THE REVOLUTION +(After an etching by Boisseau, 1730-1809)] + +EARLY UNSUCCESSFUL EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. Back in the seventeenth century, +as we have pointed out in the preceding chapter, a very earnest effort was +made by Ratke and Comenius to introduce a larger conception of the +educational process into the elementary vernacular school, to eliminate +the gloomy religious material from the textbooks, to substitute a human- +welfare purpose for the exclusively life-beyond view, and to transform the +school into an institution for imparting both learning and religion. +Comenius in particular hoped to make of the new elementary religious +school a potent instrument for human progress by introducing new subject- +matter, and by formulating laws and developing methods for its work which +would be in harmony with the new scientific procedure so well stated by +Francis Bacon. Comenius stands as the commanding figure in seventeenth- +century pedagogical thought. He reasoned out and introduced us to the +whole modern conception of the educational process and purpose, and gave +to the school of the people a solid theoretical and practical basis. +Living, though, at an unfortunate period in human history, he was able to +awaken little interest either in rational teaching-method or in reforms +looking to the advancement of the welfare of mankind. Instead he roused +suspicion and distrust by the innovations and progressive reforms he +proposed; his now-celebrated book on teaching method (Rs. 218, 219) was +not at the time understood and was for long forgotten, while the +fundamentally sound ideas and pedagogical reforms which he proposed and +introduced were lost amid the hatreds of his time, and had to be worked +out again and reëstablished in a later and a more tolerant age. + +Another unsuccessful reformer of some importance, and one whose work +antedated that of both Ratke and Comenius, was the London schoolmaster, +Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611), for twenty-five years headmaster of the +famous Merchant Taylors' School, and later Master of Saint Paul's School. +In 1581 he issued his _Positions_, a pedagogical work so far in advance of +his time, and written in such a heavy and affected style, that it passed +almost unnoticed in England, and did not become known at all in other +lands. Yet the things he stood for became the fundamental ideas of +nineteenth-century educational thought. These were: + + 1. That the end and aim of education is to develop the body and the + faculties of the mind, and to help nature to perfection. + + 2. That all teaching processes should be adapted to the pupil taught. + + 3. That the first stage in learning is of large importance, and + requires high skill on the part of the teacher. + + 4. That the thing to be learned is of less importance than the pupil + learning. + + 5. That proper brain development demands that pressure and one-sided + education alike be avoided. + + 6. That the mother tongue should be taught first and well, and should + be the language of the school from six to twelve. + + 7. That music and drawing should be taught. + + 8. That reading and writing at least should be the common right of + all, and that girls should be given equal opportunity with boys. + + 9. That training colleges for teachers should be established and + maintained. + +The modern nature of many of Mulcaster's proposals may be seen from the +table of contents of his volume (R. 226). Mulcaster, like Comenius, +thought far in advance of his age, and in consequence his book was soon +and for long forgotten. Yet what Quick [1] says of him is very true: + + It would have been a vast gain to all Europe if Mulcaster had been + followed instead of Sturm. He was one of the earliest advocates of the + use of the vernacular instead of Latin, and good reading and writing + in English were to be secured before Latin was begun. His elementary + course included five things: English reading, English writing, + drawing, singing, playing a musical instrument. If this were made to + occupy the school time up to twelve, Mulcaster held that more would be + done between twelve and sixteen than between seven and seventeen in + the ordinary (Latin grammar school) way. There would be a further gain + in that the children would not be set against learning. + +John Locke, and the disciplinary theory of education. Another commanding +figure in seventeenth-century pedagogical thought was the English scholar, +philosopher, teacher, physician, and political writer, John Locke (1632- +1704). In the preceding chapter we pointed out the place of Locke as a +writer on the education of the sons of the English gentry, and illustrated +by an extract from his _Thoughts_ (R. 216) the importance he placed on +such a practical type of education as would prepare a gentleman's son for +the social and political demands of a world fast becoming modern. Locke's +place in the history of education, though, is of much more importance than +was there (p. 402) indicated. Locke was essentially the founder of modern +psychology, based on the application of the methods of modern scientific +investigation to a study of the mind, [2] and he is also of importance in +the history of educational thought as having set forth, at some length and +with much detail, the disciplinary conception of the educational process. + +Locke had served as a tutor in an English nobleman's family, had worked +out his educational theories in practice and thought them through as mind +processes, and had become thoroughly convinced that it was the process of +learning that was important, rather than the thing learned. Education to +him was a process of disciplining the body, fixing good habits, training +the youth in moral situations, and training the mind through work with +studies selected because of their disciplinary value. This conception of +education he sets forth well in the following paragraph, taken from his +_Thoughts:_ + + The great Work of the Governor is to fashion the Carriage and form the + Mind; to settle in his Pupils good Habits and the Principles of Virtue + and Wisdom; to give him by little and little a View of Mankind, and + work him into a Love and Imitation of what is excellent and + praiseworthy; and in the Prosecution of it, to give him Vigor, + Activity, and Industry. The Studies which he sets him upon, are but as + it were the Exercise of his Faculties, and Employment of his Time, to + keep him from Sauntering and Idleness, to teach him Application, and + accustom him to take Pains, and to give him some little Taste of what + his own Industry must perfect (§94). + +In his _Thoughts_ Locke first sets forth at length the necessity for +disciplining the body by means of diet, exercise, and the hardening +process. "A sound mind in a sound body" he conceives to be "a short but +full description of a happy state in this world," and a fundamental basis +for morality and learning. The formation of good habits and manners +through proper training, and the proper adjustment of punishments and +rewards next occupies his attention, and he then explains his theory as to +making all punishments the natural consequences of acts. Similarly the +mind, as the body, must be disciplined to virtue by training the child to +deny, subordinate desires, and apply reason to acts. The formation of good +habits and the disciplining of the desires Locke regards as the +foundations of virtue. On this point he says: + + As the Strength of the Body lies chiefly in being able to endure + Hardship, so also does that of the Mind. And the great Principle and + Foundation of all Virtue and Worth is plac'd in this:--That a Man is + able to _deny himself_ his own Desires, cross his own + Inclinations, and purely follow what Reason directs as best, tho' the + Appetite lean the other Way (§ 33). + +Similarly, in intellectual education, good thinking and the employment of +reason is the aim, and these, too, must be attained through the proper +discipline of the mind. Good intellectual education does not consist +merely in studying and learning, he contends, as was the common practice +in the grammar schools of his time, but must be achieved by a proper +drilling of the powers of the mind through the use of selected studies. +The purpose of education, he holds, is above all else to make man a +reasoning creature. Nothing, in his judgment, trains to reason closely so +well as the study of mathematics, though Locke would have his boy "look +into all sorts of knowledge," and train his understanding with a wide +variety of exercises. In the education given in the grammar schools of his +time he found much that seemed to him wasteful of time and thoroughly bad +in principle, and he used much space to point out defects and describe +better methods of teaching and management, giving in some detail reasons +therefor. His ideas as to needed reforms in the teaching of Latin (R. 227) +are illustrative. + +LOCKE ON ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. For the beginnings of education, and for +elementary education in general, Locke sticks close to the prevailing +religious conception of his time. As for the education of the common +people, he writes: + + The knowledge of the Bible and the business of his own calling is + enough for the ordinary man; a Gentleman ought to go further. + +Continuing regarding the beginnings of education and the studies and +textbooks of his day, he says: + + The Lord's Prayer, the Creeds, and the Ten Commandments, 't is + necessary he should learn perfectly by heart.... What other Books + there are in _English_ of the Kind of those above-mentioned + (besides the Primer) fit to engage the Liking of Children, and tempt + them to _read_, I do not know;... and nothing that I know has + been considered of this Kind out of the ordinary Road of the Horn + Book, Primer, Psalter, Testament, and Bible (§ 157). + +Locke does, however, give some very sensible suggestions as to the reading +of the Bible (R. 228), the imparting of religious ideas to children, and +the desirability of transforming instruction so as to make it pleasant and +agreeable, with plenty of natural playful activity. [3] On this point he +writes: + + He that has found a Way how to keep up a Child's Spirit easy, active, + and free, and yet at the same time to restrain him from many Things he + has a Mind to, and to draw him to Things that are uneasy to him; he, I + say, that knows how to reconcile these seeming Contradictions, has, in + my Opinion, got the true Secret of Education (§ 46). + +INFLUENCE OF LOCKE'S _THOUGHTS_. The volume by Locke contains much that is +sensible in the matter of educating a boy. The emphasis on habit +formation, reasoning, physical activities and play, the individuality of +children, and a reformed method in teaching are its strong points. The +thoroughly modern character of the book, in most respects, is one of its +marked characteristics. The volume seems to have been much read by middle +and upper-class Englishmen, and copies of it have been found in so many +old colonial collections that it was probably well known among early +eighteenth-century American colonists. That the book had an important +influence on the attitude of the higher social classes of England toward +the education of their sons and, consciously or unconsciously, in time +helped to redirect the teaching in that most characteristic of English +educational institutions, the English Public (Latin Grammar) School, seems +to be fairly clear. On elementary religious and charity-school education +it had practically no influence. + +Locke's great influence on educational thought did not come, though, for +nearly three quarters of a century afterward, and it came then through the +popularization of his best ideas by Rousseau. Karl Schmidt [4] well says +of his work: + +Locke is a thorough Englishman, and the principle underlying his education +is the principle according to which the English people have developed. +Hence his theory of education has in the history of pedagogy the same +value that the English nation has in the history of the world. He stood in +strong opposition to the scholastic and formalized education current in +his time, a living protest against the prevailing pedantry; in the +universal development of pedagogy he gives impulse to the movement which +grounds education upon sound psychological principles, and lays stress +upon breeding and the formation of character. + +Restating and expanding the leading ideas of Locke in his _Emile_ (chapter +XXI), and putting them into far more attractive literary form, Rousseau +scattered Locke's ideas as to educational reform over Europe. In +particular Rousseau popularized Locke's ideas as to the replacement of +authority by reason and investigation, his emphasis on physical activity +and health, his contention that the education of children should be along +lines that were natural and normal for children, and above all Locke's +plea for education through the senses rather than the memory. In so +popularizing Locke's ideas, and at a time when all the political +tendencies of the period were in the direction of the rejection of +authority and the emphasis of the individual, those educational reformers +who were inspired by the writings of Rousseau created and applied, largely +on the foundations laid down by John Locke, a new theory as to educational +aims and procedure which dominated all early nineteenth-century +instruction. This we shall trace further in a subsequent chapter (chapter +XXI). + +It was at this point that the educational problem stood, in so far as a +theory as to educational aims and the educational process was concerned, +when Rousseau took it up (1762). Before passing to a consideration of his +work, though, and the work of those inspired by him and by the French +revolutionary writers and statesmen, let us close this third part of our +history by a brief survey of the development so far attained, the purpose, +character, aims, and nature of instruction in the schools, and their means +of support and control at about the middle of the century in which +Rousseau wrote, and before the philosophical and political revolutions of +the latter half of the eighteenth century had begun to influence +educational aims and procedure and control. + + +II. MID-EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS + +THE PURPOSE. The purpose of maintaining the elementary vernacular school, +in all European lands, remained at the middle of the eighteenth century +much as it was a century before, though in the German States and in the +American Colonies there was a noticeable shifting of emphasis from the +older exclusively religious purpose toward a newer conception of education +as preparation for life in the world here. Still, one learned to read +chiefly "to learn some orthodox Catechism," "to read fluently in the New +Testament," and to know the will of God, or, as stated in the law of the +Connecticut Colony (R. 193), "in some competent measure to understand the +main grounds and principles of Christian religion necessary to salvation." +The teacher was still carefully looked after as to his "soundness in the +faith" (R. 238 a); he was required "to catechise his scholars in the +principles of the Christian religion," and "to commend his labors amongst +them unto God by prayer morning and evening, [5] taking care that his +scholars do reverently attend during the same." The minister in +practically all lands examined the children as to their knowledge of the +Catechism and the Bible, and on his visits quizzed them as to the Sunday +sermon. In Boston (1710) the ministers were required, on their school +visits, to pray with the pupils, and "to entertain them with some +instructions of piety adapted to their age." In Church-of-England schools +"the End and Chief Design" of the schools established continued to be +instruction in "the Knowledge and Practice of the Christian Religion as +Professed and Taught in the Church of England" (R. 238 b). In German lands +the elementary vernacular school was still regarded as "the portico of the +Temple," "Christianity its principal work," and not as "mere +establishments preparatory to public life, but be pervaded by the +religious spirit." [6] The uniform system of public schools ordered +established for Prussia by Frederick the Great, in 1763, were after all +little more than religious schools (R. 274), conducted for purposes of +both Church and State. As Frederick expressed it, "we find it necessary +and wholesome to have a good foundation laid in the schools by a rational +and a Christian education of the young for the fear of God, and other +useful ends." In the schools of La Salle's organization, which was most +prominent in elementary vernacular education in Catholic France, the aim +continued to be (R. 182) "to teach them to live honestly and uprightly, by +instructing them in the principles of our holy religion and by teaching +them Christian precepts." + +WEAKENING OF THE OLD RELIGIOUS THEORY. By the middle of the eighteenth +century, however, there is a noticeable weakening of the hold of the old +religious theory on the schools in most Protestant lands. In England there +was a marked relaxation of the old religious intolerance in educational +matters as the century proceeded, and new textbooks, embodying but little +of the old gloomy religious material, appeared and began to be used. By a +series of decisions, between 1670 and 1701 (chapter XXIV), the English +courts broke the hold of the bishops in the matter of the licensing of +elementary schoolmasters, and by the Acts of 1713 and 1714 the Dissenters +were once more allowed to conduct schools of their own. Coincident with +this growth of religious tolerance among the English we find the Church of +England redoubling its efforts to hold the children of its adherents, by +the organization of parish schools and the creation of a vast system of +charitable religious schools. In German lands, too, a marked shifting of +emphasis away from solely religious ends and toward the needs of the +government began, toward the end of the eighteenth century, to be evident. +In Würtemberg, which was somewhat typical of late eighteenth-century +action by other German States, a Circular of the General Synod, of +November 1787, declares the German schools to be "those nurseries in which +should be taught the true and genuine idea of the duties of men--created +with a reasoning soul toward God, government, their fellow-men, and +themselves, and also at least the first rudiments of useful and +indispensable knowledge." + +It was in the American Colonies, though, that the waning of the old +religious interest was most notable. Due to rude frontier conditions, the +decline in force of the old religious-town governments, the diversity of +sects, the rise of new trade and civil interests, and the breakdown of +old-home connections, the hold on the people of the old religious +doctrines was weakened there earlier than in the old world. By 1750 the +change in religious thinking in America had become quite marked. As a +consequence many of the earlier parochial schools had died out, while in +the New England Colonies the colonial governments had been forced to +exercise an increasing state oversight of the elementary school to keep it +from dying out there as well. + +STUDIES AND TEXTBOOKS. The studies of the elementary vernacular school +remained, throughout the whole of the eighteenth century, much as before, +namely, reading, a little writing and ciphering, some spelling, religion, +and in Teutonic countries a little music. La Salle (R. 182) had +prescribed, for the Catholic vernacular schools of France, instruction in +French, some. Latin, "orthography, arithmetic, the matins and vespers, le +Pater, l'Ave Maria, le Credo et le Confiteor, the Commandments, responses, +Catechism, duties of a Christian, and maxims and precepts drawn from the +Testament." The Catechism was to be taught one half-hour daily. The +schoolbooks in England in Locke's day, as he tells us (p. 435), were "the +Horn Book, Primer, Psalter, Testament, and Bible." These indicate merely a +religious vernacular school. The purpose stated for the English Church +charity-schools (R. 238 b), schools that attained to large importance in +England and the American Colonies during the eighteenth century, shows +them to have been, similarly, religious vernacular schools. The _School +Regulations_ which Frederick the Great promulgated for Prussia (1763), +fixed the textbooks to be used (R. 274, § 20), and indicate that the +instruction in Prussia was still restricted to reading, writing, religion, +singing, and a little arithmetic. In colonial America, Noah Webster's +description (R. 230) of the schools he attended in Connecticut, about +1764-70, shows that the studies and textbooks were "chiefly or wholly +Dilworth's Spelling Books, the Psalter, Testament, and Bible," with a +little writing and ciphering. A few words of description of these older +books may prove useful here. + +[Illustration: FIG. 130. A HORN BOOK] + +THE HORN BOOK. The Horn Book goes back to the close of the fifteenth +century, [7] and by the end of the sixteenth century was in common use +throughout England. Somewhat similar alphabet boards, lacking the handle, +were also used in Holland, France, and in German lands. This, a thin oak +board on which was pasted a printed slip, covered by translucent horn, was +the book from which children learned their letters and began to read, the +mastery of which usually required some time. Cowper thus describes this +little book: + + Neatly secured from being soiled or torn + Beneath a pane of thin translucent horn, + A book (to please us at a tender age + 'T is called a book, though but a single page) + Presents the prayer the Savior designed to teach, + Which children use, and parsons--when they preach. + +The Horn Book was much used well into the eighteenth century, but its +reading matter was in time incorporated into the school Primer, now +evolved out of an earlier elementary religious manual. + +THE PRIMER. Originally the child next passed to the Catechism and the +Bible, but about the middle of the seventeenth century the Primer began to +be used. The Primer in its original form was a simple manual of devotion +for the laity, compiled without any thought of its use in the schools. It +contained the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and a few of +the more commonly used prayers and psalms. [8] The Catechism soon was +added, and with the prefixing of the alphabet and a few syllables and +words it was transformed, as schools arose, into the first reading book +for children. There was at first no attempt at grading, illustration, or +the introduction of easy reading material. About the close of the +seventeenth century the illustrated Primer, with some attempt at grading +and some additional subject-matter, made its appearance, both in England +and America, and at once leaped into great popularity. + +The idea possibly goes back to the _Orbis Pictus_ (1654) of Comenius (p. +413: R. 221), the first illustrated schoolbook ever written. The first +English Primer adapted to school use was _The Protestant Tutor_, a rather +rabid anti-Catholic work which appeared in London, about 1685. A later +edition of this contained the alphabet, some syllables and words, the +figures and letters, the list of the books of the Bible, an alphabet of +lessons, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Ten Commandments, and a poem, +long famous, on the death of the martyr, John Rogers. [9] It was an +abridgement of this book which the same publisher brought out in Boston, +about 1690, under the name of _The New England Primer_ (R. 202). This at +once leaped into great popularity, and became the accepted reading book in +all the schools of the American Colonies except those under the Church of +England. For the next century and a quarter it was the chief school and +reading book in use among the Dissenters and Lutherans in America. +Schoolmasters drilled the children on the reading matter and the Catechism +it contained, and the people recited from it yearly in the churches. It +was also used for such spelling as was given. It was the first great +American textbook success, and was still in use in the Boston dame schools +as late as 1806. It was reprinted in England, and enjoyed a great sale +among Dissenters there. Its sales in America alone have been estimated at +least three million copies. The sale in Europe was also large. It was +followed in England by other Primers and other introductory reading books, +of which _The History of Genesis_ (1708), a series of simple stories +retold from the first book of the Bible, and _The Child's Weeks-Work_ +(1712), containing proverbs, fables, conundrums, lessons on behavior, and +a short catechism, are types. Frederick the Great, in his list of required +textbooks for Prussian schools (R. 274, § 20), does not mention a Primer. + +[Illustration: THE WESTMINSTER CATECHISM. +(A page from _The New England Primer_, natural size)] + +THE CATECHISM. In all Protestant German lands the Shorter Catechism +prepared by Luther, or the later Heidelberg Catechism; in Calvinistic +lands the Catechism of Calvin; and in England and the American Colonies +the Westminster Catechism, [10] formed the backbone of the religious +instruction. Teachers drilled their pupils in these as thoroughly as on +any other subject, writing masters set as copies sentences from the book, +children were required to memorize the answers, and the doctrines +contained were emphasized by teacher and preacher so that the children +were saturated with the religious ideas set forth. No book except the +Bible did so much to form the character, and none so much to fix the +religious bias of the children. Almost equal importance was given to the +Catechism in Catholic lands (R. 182, §§ 21-22), though there supplemented +by more religious influences derived from the ceremonial of the Church. + +[Illustration: FIG. 132. THOMAS DILWORTH (?-1780) +The most celebrated English textbook writer of his day. +(From the Frontispiece of his _Schoolmaster's Assistant_, 1740)] + +SPELLERS. The next step forward, in the transition from the religious +Primer to secular reading matter for school children, came in the use of +the so-called Spellers. Probably the first of these was _The English +School-Master_ of Edmund Coote (R. 229), first issued in 1596. This gave +thirty-two pages to the alphabet and spelling; eighteen to a shorter +Catechism, prayers, and psalms; five to chronology; two to writing copies; +two to arithmetic; and twenty to a list of hard words, alphabetically +arranged and explained. As will be seen from this analysis of contents, +this was a schoolmaster's general manual and guide. After about 1740 such +books became very popular, due to the publication that year of Thomas +Dilworth's _A New Guide to the English Tongue_. This book contained, as +the title-page (R. 229) declared, selected lists of words with rules for +their pronunciation, a short treatise on grammar, a collection of fables +with illustrations for reading, some moral selections, and forms of prayer +for children. It became very popular in New as well as in old England, and +was followed by a long line of imitators, culminating in America in the +publication of Noah Webster's famous blue-backed _American Spelling Book_, +in 1783. This was after the plan of the English Dilworth, but was put in +better teaching form. It contained numerous graded lists of words, some +illustrations, a series of graded reading lessons, and was largely secular +in character. It at once superseded the expiring _New England Primer_ in +most of the American cities, and continued popular in the United States +for more than a hundred years. [11] It was the second great American +textbook success, and was followed by a long list of popular Spellers and +Readers, leading up to the excellent secular Readers of the present day. + +[Illustration: FIG. 133. FRONTISPIECE TO NOAH WEBSTER'S "AMERICAN SPELLING +BOOK" +This is from the 1827 edition, reduced one third in size.] + +ARITHMETIC AND WRITING. The first English Arithmetic, published about 1540 +to 1542, has been entirely lost, and was probably read by few. The first +to attain any popularity was _Cocker's Arithmetic_ (1677), this "Being a +Plain and Familiar Method suitable to the meanest Capacity, for the +understanding of that incomparable. Art." A still more popular book was +_Arithmetick: or that Necessary Art Made Most Easie_, by J. Hodder, +Writing Master, a reprint of which appeared in Boston, in 1719. The first +book written by an American author was Isaac Greenwood's _Arithmetick, +Vulgar and Decimal_, which appeared in Boston, in 1729. In 1743 appeared +Dilworth's _The Schoolmaster's Assistant_, a book which retained its +popularity in both England and America until after the beginning of the +nineteenth century. + +No text in Arithmetic is mentioned in the School Regulations of Frederick +the Great (R. 274, §20), or in scarcely any of the descriptions left us of +eighteenth-century schools. The study itself was common, but not +universal, and was one that many teachers were not competent to teach. To +possess a reputation as an "arithmeticker" was an important recommendation +for a teacher, while for a pupil to be able to do sums in arithmetic was +unusual, and a matter of much pride to parents. The subject was frequently +taught by the writing master, in a separate school, [12] while the reading +teacher confined himself to reading, spelling, and religion. Thus, for +example, following earlier English practice, the Town Meeting of Boston, +in 1789, ordered "three reading schools and three writing schools +established in the town" for the instruction of children between the ages +of seven and fourteen, the subjects to be taught in each being: + + The writing schools: Writing, Arithmetic + + The reading schools: Spelling, Accentuation, Reading of prose and + verse, English grammar and composition + +The teacher might or might not possess an arithmetic of his own, but the +instruction to the pupil was practically always dictated and copied +instruction. Each pupil made up his own book of rules and solved problems, +and few pupils ever saw a printed arithmetic. Many of the early +arithmetics were prepared after the catechism plan. There was almost no +attempt to use the subject for drill in reasoning or to give a concrete +type of instruction, before about the middle of the eighteenth century, +[13] and but little along such reform lines was accomplished until after +the beginning of the nineteenth century. + +[Illustration: FIG. 134. TITLE-PAGE OF HODDER'S ARITHMETIC +An early reprint of this famous book appeared in Boston in 1719.] + +Writing, similarly, was taught by dictation and practice, and the art of +the "scrivener," as the writing master was called, was one thought to be +difficult to learn. The lack of practical value of the art, the high cost +of paper, and the necessity usually for special lessons, all alike tended +to make writing a much less commonly known art than reading. Fees also +were frequently charged for instruction in writing and arithmetic; +reading, spelling, and religion being the only free subjects. The +scrivener and the arithmetic teacher also frequently moved about, as +business warranted, and was not fixed as was the teacher of the reading +school. + +THE TEACHERS. The development of the vernacular school was retarded not +only by the dominance of the religious purpose of the school, but by the +poor quality of teachers found everywhere in the schools. The evolution of +the elementary-school teacher of to-day out of the church sexton, bell- +ringer, or grave-digger, [14] or out of the artisan, cripple, or old dame +who added school teaching to other employment in order to live, forms one +of the interesting as well as one of the yet-to-be-written chapters in the +history of the evolution of the elementary school. + +Teachers in elementary schools everywhere in the eighteenth century were +few in number, poor in quality, and occupied but a lowly position in the +social scale. School dames in England (R. 235) and later in the American +Colonies, and on the continent of Europe teachers who were more sextons, +choristers, beadles, bell-ringers, grave-diggers, shoemakers, tailors, +barbers, pensioners, and invalids than teachers, too often formed the +teaching body for the elementary vernacular school (Rs. 231, 232, 233). In +Switzerland, the Netherlands, and some of the American Colonies, where +schools had become or were becoming local semi-civic affairs, the +standards which might be imposed for teaching also were low. The grant of +the tailoring monopoly to the elementary teachers of Prussia, [15] in +1738, and Krüsi's recollections of how he became a schoolmaster in +Switzerland, in 1793 (R. 234), were quite typical of the time. In Catholic +France, and in some German Catholic lands as well, teaching congregations +(p. 345), some of whose members had some rudimentary training for their +work, were in charge of the existing parish schools. These provided a +somewhat better type of teaching body than that frequently found in +Protestant lands, though by the latter part of the eighteenth century the +beginnings of teacher-training are to be seen in some of the German +States. The Church of England, too, had by this time organized strong +Societies [16] for the preparation of teachers for Church-of-England +schools, both at home and abroad. In Dutch, German, and Scandinavian +lands, and in colonies founded by these people in America, the parish +school, closely tied up with and dependent upon the parish church, was the +prevailing type of vernacular school, and in this the teacher was regarded +as essentially an assistant to the pastor (R. 236) and the school as a +dependency of the Church. + +[FIG. 135. A "CHRISTIAN BROTHERS" SCHOOL +La Salle teaching at Grenoble. Note the adult type of dress of the boys.] + +In England, in addition to regular parish schools and endowed elementary +schools, three peculiar institutions, known as the Dame School, the +religious charity-school, and the private-adventure or "hedge school" had +grown up, and the first two of these had reached a marked development by +the middle of the eighteenth century. Because these were so characteristic +of early English educational effort, and also played such an important +part in the American Colonies as well, they merit a few words of +description at this point. + +THE DAME SCHOOL. The Dame School arose in England after the Reformation. +By means of it the increasing desire for a rudimentary knowledge of the +art of reading could be satisfied, and at the same time certain women +could earn a pittance. This type of school was carried early to the +American Colonies, and out of it was in time evolved, in New England, the +American elementary school. The Dame School was a very elementary school, +kept in a kitchen or living-room by some woman who, in her youth, had +obtained the rudiments of an education, and who now desired to earn a +small stipend for herself by imparting to the children of her neighborhood +her small store of learning. For a few pennies a week the dame took the +children into her home and explained to them the mysteries connected with +learning the beginnings of reading and spelling. Occasionally a little +writing and counting also were taught, though not often in England. In the +American Colonies the practical situations of a new country forced the +employment as teachers of women who could teach all three subjects, thus +early creating the American school of the so-called "3 Rs"--"Reading, +Riting, Rithmetic." The Dame School appears so frequently in English +literature, both poetry and prose, that it must have played a very +important part in the beginnings of elementary education in England. Of +this school Shenstone (1714-63) writes (R. 235): + + In every village marked with little spire, + Embowered in trees, and hardly known to fame, + There dwells, in lowly shed and mean attire, + A matron old, whom we schoolmistress name, + Who boasts unruly brats with birch to tame. + +[Illustration: FIG. 136. AN ENGLISH DAME SCHOOL +(From a drawing of a school in the heart of London, after Barclay)] + +The Reverend George Crabbe (1754-1832), another poet of homely life, +writes (R. 235) of a deaf, poor, patient widow who sits + + And awes some thirty infants as she knits; + Infants of humble, busy wives who pay, + Some trifling price for freedom through the day. + +This school flourished greatly in America during the eighteenth century, +but with the coming of Infant Schools, early in the nineteenth, was merged +into these to form the American Primary School. + +[Illustration: FIG. 137. GRAVEL LANE CHARITY-SCHOOL, SOUTHWARK +Founded in 1687, and one of the earliest of the Non-Conformist English +charity-schools. Still carrying on its work in the original schoolroom at +the time this picture appeared, in _Londina Illustrata_ in 1819.] + +THE RELIGIOUS CHARITY-SCHOOL. Another thoroughly characteristic English +institution was the church charity-school. The first of these was founded +in Whitechapel, London, in 1680. In 1699, when the School of Saint Anne, +Soho (R. 237), was founded by "Five Earnest Laymen for the Poore Boys of +the Parish," it was the sixth of its kind in England. In 1699 the "Society +for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge" (S.P.C.K.) was founded for the +purpose, among other things, of establishing catechetical schools for the +education of the children of the poor in the principles of the Established +Church (R. 238 b). In 1701 the "Society for the Propagation of the Gospel +in Foreign Parts" (S.P.G.) was also founded to extend the work of the +Anglican Church abroad, supply schoolmasters and ministers, and establish +schools, to train children to read, write, know and understand the +Catechism, and fit into the teachings and worship of the Church. To +develop piety and help the poor to lead industrious, upright, self- +respecting lives, "to make them loyal Church members, and to fit them for +work in that station of life in which it had pleased their Heavenly Father +to place them," were the principal objects of the Society. + +All were taught reading, spelling, and the Catechism, and instruction in +writing and arithmetic might be added. The training might also be coupled +with that of the "schools of industry" (workhouse schools, as described by +Locke [R. 217]) to augment the economic efficiency of the boy. Girls seem +to have been provided for almost equally with boys, and, in addition to +being taught to read and spell, were taught "to knit their Stockings and +Gloves, to Mark, Sew, and make and mend their Cloathes." Both boys and +girls were usually provided with books and clothing, [17] a regular +uniform being worn by the boys and girls of each school. + +[Illustration: FIG. 138. A CHARITY-SCHOOL GIRL IN UNIFORM +Saint Anne's, Soho, England] + +The chief motive in the establishment of these schools, though, was to +decrease the "Prophaness and Debauchery ... owing to a gross Ignorance of +the Christian Religion" (R. 237) and to educate "Poor Children in the +Rules and Principles of the Christian Religion as professed and taught in +the Church of England." Writing, in 1742, Reverend Griffith Jones, an +organizer for the S.P.C.K. in Wales, said: + + It is but a cheap education that we would desire for them [the poor], + only the moral and religious branches of it, which indeed is the most + necessary and indispensable part. The sole design of this charity is + to inculcate upon such ... as can be prevailed upon to learn, the + knowledge and practice, the principles and duties of the Christian + religion; and to make them good people, useful members of society, + faithful servants of God, and men and heirs of eternal life. + +These schools multiplied rapidly and soon became regular institutions, as +the following table, showing the growth of the S.P.C.K. schools in London +alone, shows: + + Year Schools Boys Girls Total + 1699 0 0 0 0 + 1704 54 1386 745 2131 + 1709 88 2181 1221 3402 + 1714 117 3077 1741 4818 + +In England and Ireland combined the Society had, by 1714, a total of 1073 +schools, with 19,453 pupils enrolled, and by 1729 the number had increased +to 1658, with approximately 34,000 pupils. From England the charity-school +idea was early carried to the Anglican Colonies in America and became a +fixed institution in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and +somewhat in the Colonies farther south. In the Pennsylvania constitution +of 1790 we find the following directions for the establishment of a state +charity-school system to supplement the parish schools of the churches: + + Sec. I. The legislature shall, as soon as conveniently may be, + provide, by law, for the establishment of schools throughout the + State, in such manner that the poor may be taught _gratis_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 130. A CHARITY-SCHOOL BOY IN UNIFORM +Saint Anne's, Soho, England] + +The first Pennsylvania school law of 1802 carried this direction into +effect by providing for pauper schools in the counties, a condition that +was not done away with until 1834. In New Jersey the system lasted until +1838. + +THE PRIVATE-ADVENTURE, OR "HEDGE," SCHOOL. This was a school analogous to +the Dame School, but was kept by a man instead of a woman, and usually at +his home or shop. Plate 15, showing a shoe cobbler teaching, represents +one type of such schools. The term "hedge schools" arose in Ireland, where +teaching was forbidden the Catholics, and secret schools arose in which +priests and others taught what was possible. Of these McCarthy writes: +[18] + + On the highways and on the hillsides, in ditches and behind hedges, in + the precarious shelter of the ruined walls of some ancient abbey, or + under the roof of a peasant's cabin, the priests set up schools and + taught the children of their race. + +The term soon came to be applied to any kind of a poor school, taught in +an irregular manner or place. Similar irregular schools, under equivalent +names, also were found in German lands, [19] the Netherlands, and in +France, while in the American Colonies "indentured white servants" were +frequently let out as schoolmasters. The following advertisement of a +teacher for sale is typical of private-adventure elementary school-keeping +during the colonial period. + +[Illustration: FIG. 140. ADVERTISEMENT FOR A TEACHER TO LET +(From the _American Weekly Mercury_ of Philadephia, 1735)] + +These schools were taught by itinerant school-keepers, artisans, and +tutors of the poorer type, but offered the beginnings of elementary +education to many a child who otherwise would never have been able to +learn to read. In the early eighteenth century these schools attained a +remarkable development in England. + +A new influence of tremendous future importance--general reading--was now +coming in; the vernacular was fast supplanting Latin; newspapers were +being started; little books or pamphlets (tracts) containing general +information were being sold; books for children and beginners were being +written; the popular novel and story had appeared; [20] and all these +educative forces were creating a new and a somewhat general desire for a +knowledge of the art of reading. This in turn caused a new demand for +schools to teach the long-locked-up art, and this demand was capitalized +to the profit of many types of people. + +THE APPRENTICING OF ORPHANS AND CHILDREN OF THE POOR. The compulsory +apprenticing of the children of the poor, as we have seen (p. 326), was an +old English institution, and workhouse training, or the so-called "schools +of industry" became, by the eighteenth century, a prominent feature of the +English care of the poor. These represented the only form of education +supported by taxation, and the only form of education to which Parliament +gave any attention during the whole of the eighteenth century. This type +of institution also was carried to the Anglican Colonies in America, as we +have seen in the documents for Virginia (R. 200 a), and became an +established institution in America as well. + +The apprenticing of boys to a trade, a still older institution, was also +much used as a means for training youths for a life in the trades, not +only in England and the American Colonies, but throughout all European +lands as well. The conditions surrounding the apprenticing of a boy had by +the eighteenth century become quite fixed. The "Indenture of +Apprenticeship" was drawn up by a lawyer, and by it the master was +carefully bound to clothe and feed the boy, train him properly in his +trade, look after his morals, and start him in life at the end of his +apprenticeship. This is well shown in the many records which have been +preserved, both in England (R. 242) and the American Colonies (R. 201). +For many boys this type of education was the best possible at the time, +and worthily started the possessor in the work of his trade. + +In the eighteenth century different English church parishes began to set +up workhouse schools of various types, and to maintain these out of parish +"rates." The one established in Bishopsgate Street, London, in 1701, is +typical. This cared for about 375 children and in it, by 1720, there had +been educated and placed forth 1420 children, and in addition 123 had +died. Of this school it is recorded that poor children + + "being taken into the said Workhouse are there taught to Read and + Write, and kept to Work until they are qualified to be put out to be + Apprentices, and for the Sea Service, or otherwise disposed; ... The + Habit of the Children is all the same, being made of Russit Cloth, and + a round Badge worn upon their Breast, representing a poor Boy, and + a Sheep; the Motto: '_God's Providence is our Inheritance_.'" ... + In this workhouse children were "taught to spin Wool and Flax, to Sow + and Knit, to make their own Cloaths, Shoes, and Stockings, and the + like Employments; to inure them betimes to labour. They are also + taught to read, and such as are capable, to write and cast Accounts; + and also the Catechism, to ground them in Principles of Religion and + Honesty." [21] + +The school established by Saint John's parish, Southwark, London, in 1735, +and designed to train and "put out" girls for domestic service (R. 241), +and which cared for, clothed, and trained forty girls, is also typical of +these parish schools "for the children of the industrious poor." + +METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. Throughout the eighteenth century the method of +instruction commonly employed in the vernacular schools was what was known +as the individual method. This was wasteful of both time and effort, and +unpedagogical to a high degree (R. 244). Everywhere the teacher was +engaged chiefly in hearing recitations, testing memory, and keeping order. +The pupils came to the master's desk, one by one (see Figures 98, 99), and +recited what they had memorized. Aside from imposing discipline, teaching +was an easy task. The pupils learned the assigned lessons and recited what +they had learned. Such a thing as methodology--technique of instruction-- +was unknown. The dominance of the religious motive, too, precluded any +liberal attitude in school instruction, the individual method was time- +consuming, school buildings often were lacking, and in general there was +an almost complete lack of any teaching equipment, books, or supplies. +Viewed from any modern standpoint the schools of the eighteenth century +attained to but a low degree of efficiency (R. 244). The school hours were +long, the schoolmaster's residence or place of work or business was +commonly used as a schoolroom, and such regular schoolrooms as did exist +were dirty and noisy and but poorly suited to school purposes. Schools +everywhere, too, were ungraded, the school of one teacher being like that +of any other teacher of that class. + +So wasteful of time and effort was the individual method of instruction +that children might attend school for years and get only a mere start in +reading and writing. Paulsen, [22] writing of schools in German lands at +an even later date, says that even in the better type of vernacular +schools + + many children never achieved anything beyond a little reading and + knowing a few things by heart.... The instruction in reading was never + anything else but a torture, protracted through years, from saying the + alphabet and formation of syllables to the deciphering of complete + words, without any real success in the end, while writing was nothing + but a wearisome tracing of the letters, the net result of all the toil + being the gabbling of the Catechism and a few Bible texts and hymns, + learned over and over again. + +The imparting of information by the teacher to a class, or a class +discussion of a topic, were almost unknown. Hearing lessons, assigning new +tasks, setting copies, making quill pens, dictating sums, and imposing +order completely absorbed the time and the attention of the teacher. + +SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. The discipline everywhere was severe. "A boy has a +back; when you hit it he understands," was a favorite pedagogical maxim of +the time. Whipping-posts were sometimes set up in the schoolroom, and +practically all pictures of the schoolmasters of the time show a bundle of +switches near at hand. Boys in the Latin grammar schools were flogged for +petty offenses (R. 245). The ability to impose order on a poorly taught +and, in consequence, an unruly school was always an important requisite of +the schoolmaster. A Swabian schoolmaster, Häuberle by name, with +characteristic Teutonic attention to details, has left on record [23] +that, in the course of his fifty-one years and seven months as a teacher +he had, by a moderate computation, given 911,527 blows with a cane, +124,010 blows with a rod, 20,989 blows and raps with a ruler, 136,715 +blows with the hand, 10,235 blows over the mouth, 7,905 boxes on the ear, +1,115,800 raps on the head, and 22,763 _notabenes_ with the Bible, +Catechism, singing book, and grammar. He had 777 times made boys kneel on +peas, 613 times on a triangular piece of wood, had made 3001 wear the +jackass, and 1707 hold the rod up, not to mention various more unusual +punishments he had contrived on the spur of the occasion. Of the blows +with the cane, 800,000 were for Latin words; of the rod 76,000 were for +texts from the Bible or verses from the singing book. He also had about +3000 expressions to scold with, two thirds of which were native to the +German tongue and the remainder his invention. + +[Illustration: FIG. 141. A SCHOOL WHIPPING-POST +Drawn from a picture of a five-foot whipping-post which once stood in the +floor of a school-house at Sunderland, Massachusetts. Now in the Deerfield +Museum.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 142. AN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY GERMAN SCHOOL +Reproduction of an engraving by J. Mettenleiter, now in the +Kupferstichkabinet, Munich, and printed in Joh. Ferd. Schlez's. +_Dorfschulen zu Langenhausen_. Nuremberg, 1795.] + +Another illustration of German school discipline, of many that might be +cited, was the reform work of Johann Ernest Christian Haun, who was +appointed, in 1783, as inspector of schools in the once famous Gotha (p. +317). Due to warfare and neglect the schools there had fallen into +disrepute. Haun drove the incapable teachers from the work, and for a time +restored the schools to something of their earlier importance. Among other +reforms it is recorded that he forbade teachers to put irons around the +boys' necks, to cover them with mud, to make them kneel on peas, or to +brutally beat them. Diesterweg (R. 244) describes similar punishments as +characteristic of eighteenth-century German schools. The eighteenth- +century German schoolmaster shown in Fig. 142 was probably a good sample +of his class. + +Pedagogical writers of the time uniformly complain of the severe +discipline of the schools, and the literature of the period abounds in +allusions to the prevailing harshness of the school discipline. A few +writers condemn, but most approve heartily of the use of the rod. "Spare +the rod and spoil the child" had for long been a well-grounded pedagogical +doctrine. Among many literary extracts that might be cited illustrating +this belief, the following poem by the English poet Crabbe (1754-1832) is +interesting. He puts the following words into the mouth of his early +schoolmaster: + + Students like horses on the road, + Must be well lashed before they take the load; + They may be willing for a time to run, + But you must whip them ere the work be done; + To tell a boy, that if he will improve, + His friends will praise him, and his parents love, + Is doing nothing--he has not a doubt + But they will love him, nay, applaud without; + Let no fond sire a boy's ambition trust, + To make him study, let him learn he must. + +CONDITIONS SURROUNDING CHILDHOOD. It is difficult for us of today to re- +create in imagination the pitiful life-conditions which surrounded +children a century and a half ago. Often the lot of the children of the +poor, who then constituted the great bulk of all children, was little less +than slavery. Wretchedly poor, dirty, unkempt, hard-worked, beaten about, +knowing strong drink early, illiterate, often vicious--their lot was a sad +one. For the children of the poor there were few, if any, educational +opportunities. Writing on the subject David Salmon says: [24] + + The imagination of the twentieth century cannot fathom the poverty of + the eighteenth. The great development of mines and manufactures, which + has brought ease and independence within the reach of industrious + labour everywhere, had hardly begun; employment was so scarce and + intermittent, and wages were so low, that the working classes lived in + hovels, dressed in rags, and were familiar with the pangs of hunger; + while those who were forced to look to the rates for hovels, rags, and + food sufficient to maintain a miserable life numbered a sixth of the + whole population. + +In the towns children were apprenticed out early in life, and for long +hours of daily labor. Child welfare was almost entirely neglected, +children were cuffed about and beaten at their work, juvenile delinquency +was a common condition, child mortality was heavy, and ignorance was the +rule. Schools generally were pay institutions or a charity, and not a +birthright, and usually existed only for the middle and lower-middle +classes in the population who were attendants at the churches and could +afford to pay a little for the schooling given. Reading and religion were +usually the only free subjects. Only in the New England Colonies, where +the beginnings of town and colony school systems were evident, and in a +few of the German States where state control was beginning to be +exercised, was a better condition to be found. + +[Illustration: FIG. 143. CHILDREN AS MINIATURE ADULTS +Children leaving school, from an eighteenth-century drawing by Saint +Aubin.] + +Among the middle and upper social classes, particularly on the continent +of Europe, a stiff artificiality everywhere prevailed. Children were +dressed and treated as miniature adults, the normal activities of +childhood were suppressed, and the natural interests and emotions of +children found little opportunity for expression. Wearing powdered and +braided hair, long gold-braided coats, embroidered waistcoats, cockaded +hats, and swords, boys were treated more as adults than as children. +Girls, too, with their long dresses, hoops, powdered hair, rouged faces, +and demure manner, were trained in a, for children, most unnatural manner. +[25] + +The dancing master for their manners and graces, and the religious +instructor to develop in them the ability to read and to go through a +largely meaningless ceremonial, were the chief guides for the period of +their childhood. + +SCHOOL SUPPORT. No uniform plan, in any country, had as yet been evolved +for even the meager support which the schools of the time received. The +Latin grammar schools were in nearly all cases supported by the income +from old "foundations" and from students' fees, with here and there some +state aid. The new elementary vernacular schools, though, had had assigned +to them few old foundations upon which to draw for maintenance, and in +consequence support for elementary schools had to be built up from new +sources, and this required time. + +In England the Act of Conformity of 1662 (R. 166), it will be remembered +(p. 324), had laid a heavy hand on the schools by driving all Dissenters +from positions in them, and the Five Mile Act of 1665 had borne even more +severely on the teachers in the schools of the Dissenters. Fortunately for +elementary education in England, however, the English courts, in 1670, had +decided in a test case that the teacher in an elementary school could not +be deprived of his position by failure of the bishop to license him, if he +were a nominee of the founder or the lay patron of the school. The result +of this decision was that, between 1660 and 1730, 905 endowed elementary +schools were founded in England, and 72 others previously founded had +their endowments increased. The number continued to increase throughout +the eighteenth century, and by 1842 had reached a total of 2194. These new +foundations probably gave the best schooling of the time, and tended to +stir the Established Church to action. Accordingly we find that during the +eighteenth century the vestries of the different church parishes began the +creation of parish elementary schools for the children of the poor of the +parish, supporting a teacher for them out of the parish rates, and without +specific legal authorization to do so. These new parish schools also +contributed somewhat to the provision of elementary education, and mark +the beginning of the church "voluntary schools" which were such a +characteristic feature of nineteenth-century English education. We thus +have, in England, endowed elementary schools, parish schools, dame +schools, private-adventure schools of many types, and charity-schools, all +existing side by side, and drawing such support as they could from +endowment funds, parish rates, church tithes, subscriptions, and tuition +fees. The support of schools by subscription lists (R. 240) was a very +common proceeding. Education in England, more than in any other Protestant +land, early came to be regarded as a benevolence which the State was under +no obligation to support. Only workhouse schools were provided for by the +general taxation of all property. + +In the Netherlands and in German lands church funds, town funds, and +tuition fees were the chief means of support, though here and there some +prince had provided for something approaching state support for the +schools of his little principality. Frederick the Great had ordered +schools established generally (1763) and had decreed the compulsory +attendance of children (R. 274), but he had depended largely on church +funds and tuition fees (§7) for maintenance, with a proviso that the +tuition of poor and orphaned children should be paid from "any funds of +the church or town, that the schoolmaster may get his income" (§8). In +Scotland the church parish school was the prevailing type. In France the +religious societies (p. 345) provided nearly all the elementary vernacular +religious education that was obtainable. + +In the Dutch Provinces, in the New England Colonies, and in some of the +minor German States, we find the clearest examples of the beginnings of +state control and maintenance of elementary schools--something destined to +grow rapidly and in the nineteenth century take over the school from the +Church and maintain it as a function of the State. The Prussian kings +early made grants of land and money for endowment funds and support, and +state aid was ordered granted by Maria Theresa for Austria (R. 274 a), in +1774. In the New England Colonies the separation of the school from the +Church, and the beginnings of state support and control of education, +found perhaps their earliest and clearest exemplification. In the other +Colonies the lottery was much used (R. 246) to raise funds for schools, +while church tithes, subscription lists, and school societies after the +English pattern also helped in many places to start and support a school +or schools. + +Only by some such means was it possible in the eighteenth century that the +children of the poor could ever enjoy any opportunities for education. The +parents of the poor children, themselves uneducated, could hardly be +expected to provide what they had never come to appreciate themselves. On +the other hand, few of the well-to-do classes felt under any obligation to +provide education for children not their own. There was as yet no +realization that the diffusion of education contributed to the welfare of +the State, or that the ignorance of the masses might be in any way a +public peril. This attitude is well shown for England by the fact that not +a single law relating to the education of the people, aside from workhouse +schools, was enacted by Parliament during the whole of the eighteenth +century. The same was true of France until the coming of the Revolution. +It is to a few of the German States and to the American Colonies that we +must turn for the beginnings of legislation directing school support. This +we shall describe more in detail in later chapters. + +THE LATIN SECONDARY SCHOOL. The great progress made in education during +the eighteenth century, nevertheless, was in elementary education. +Concerning the secondary schools and the universities there is little to +add to what has previously been said. During this century the secondary +school, outside of German lands, remained largely stationary. Having +become formal and lifeless in its teaching (p. 283), and in England and +France crushed by religious-uniformity legislation, the Latin grammar +school of England and the surviving colleges in France practically ceased +to exert any influence on the national life. The Jesuit schools, which +once had afforded the best secondary education in Europe, had so declined +in usefulness everywhere that they were about to be driven from all lands. +The Act of Conformity of 1662 (R. 166) had dealt the grammar schools of +England a heavy blow, and the eighteenth century found them in a most +wretched condition, with few scholars, and their endowments shamefully +abused. The Law of 1662, says Montmorency, "involved such a peering into +the lives of schoolmasters, such a course of inquisitorial folly, that the +position became intolerable. Men would not become schoolmasters.... +Education had no meaning when none but political and religious hypocrites +were allowed to teach.... National education was destroyed." and the +grammar schools of England were "practically withdrawn during more than +two centuries (1662-1870) from the national life." [26] + +In German lands the old Latin schools continued largely unchanged until +near the middle of the eighteenth century, with Latin, taught as it had +been for a century or more, as the chief subject of study. Shortly after +the coming of Frederick the Great to the throne (1740) the Latin schools +of Prussia, and after them the Latin schools in other German States, were +reorganized and given a new life. The influence of Francke's school at +Halle (p. 418), and the new types of teaching developed there and by his +followers elsewhere, began to be felt. German, French, and mathematics +were given recognition, and some science work was here and there +introduced. Above all, though, Greek now attained to the place of first +importance in the reorganized Latin schools. + +It was not until after 1740 that the German people awakened to the +possibility of an independent national life. Then, under the new impulse +toward nationality, French influence and manners were thrown off, German +literature attained its Golden Age, the _Ritterakademieen_ (p. 405) were +discarded, and a number of the German Principalities and States revised +their school regulations and erected, out of the old Latin schools, a +series of humanistic _gymnasia_ in which the study of Greek life and +culture occupied the foremost place. New methods in classical study were +thought out and applied, and a new pedagogical purpose--culture and +discipline--was given to the regenerated Latin schools. A new Renaissance, +in a way, took place in German lands, [27] and a knowledge of Greek was +proclaimed by German university and gymnasial teachers as indispensable to +a liberal education with an earnestness of conviction not exceeded by +Battista Guarino (p. 268) four centuries before. To know Greek and to have +some familiarity with Greek literature and history now came to be regarded +as necessary to the highest culture, [28] and a pedagogical theory for +such study was erected, based on the discipline of the mind, [29] which +dominated the German classical school throughout the entire nineteenth +century. It was in the eighteenth century also that the German States +began the development of the scientific secondary school (_Realschule_), +see p. 420, as described in a preceding chapter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 144. A PENNSYLVANIA ACADEMY +York Academy, York, Pennsylvania, founded by the Protestant Episcopal +Church, in 1787.] + +RISE OF THE ACADEMY IN AMERICA. As we have seen (p. 361), the English +Latin grammar school was early (1635) carried to New England, and set up +there and elsewhere in the Colonies, but after the close of the +seventeenth century its continued maintenance was something of a struggle. +Particularly in the central and southern colonies, where commercial +demands early made themselves felt, the tendency was to teach more +practical subjects. This tendency led to the evolution, about the middle +of the eighteenth century, of the distinctively American Academy, with a +more practical curriculum, and by the close of the century it was rapidly +superseding the older Latin grammar school. Franklin's Academy at +Philadelphia, which began instruction in 1751, and which later evolved +into the University of Pennsylvania, was probably the first American +Academy. The first in Massachusetts was founded in 1761, and by 1800 there +were seventeen in Massachusetts alone. The great period of academy +development was the first half of the nineteenth century. The Phillips +Academy, at Andover, Massachusetts, founded in 1788, reveals clearly the +newer purpose of these American secondary schools. The foundation grant of +this school gives the purpose to be: + + to lay the foundation of a public free school or ACADEMY for the + purposes of instructing Youth, not only in English and Latin Grammar, + Writing, Arithmetic, and those Sciences wherein they are commonly + taught; but more especially to learn them the GREAT END AND REAL + BUSINESS OF LIVING ... it is again declared that the _first_ and + _principle_ object of this Institution is the promotion of TRUE + PIETY and VIRTUE; the _second_, instruction in the English, + Latin, and Greek Languages, together with Writing, Arithmetic, Music, + and the Art of Speaking; the _third_, practical Geometry, + Logic, and Geography; and the _fourth_, such other liberal Arts + and Sciences or Languages, as opportunity and ability may hereafter + admit, and as the TRUSTEES shall direct. + +Though still deeply religious, these new schools usually were free from +denominationalism. Though retaining the study of Latin, they made most of +new subjects of more practical value. A study of real things rather than +words about things, and a new emphasis on native English and on science +were prominent features of their work. They were also usually open to +girls, as well as boys,--an innovation in secondary education before +almost wholly unknown. Many were organized later for girls only. These +institutions were the precursors of the American public high school, +itself a type of the most democratic institution for secondary education +the world has ever known. + +THE UNIVERSITIES. The condition of the universities by the middle of the +eighteenth century we traced in the preceding chapter. They had lost their +earlier importance as institutions of learning, but in a few places the +sciences were slowly gaining a foothold, and in German lands we noted the +appearance of the first two modern universities--institutions destined +deeply to influence subsequent university development, as we shall point +out in a later chapter. + +END OF THE TRANSITION PERIOD. We have now reached, in our study of the +history of educational progress, the end of the transition period which +marked the change in thinking from mediaeval to modern attitudes. The +period was ushered in with the beginnings of the Revival of Learning in +Italy in the fourteenth century, and it may fittingly close about the +middle of the eighteenth. + +We now stand on the threshold of a new era in world history. The same +questioning spirit that animated the scholars of the Revival of Learning, +now full-grown and become bold and self-confident, is about to be applied +to affairs of politics and government, and we are soon to see absolutism +and mediaeval attitudes in both Church and State questioned and +overthrown. New political theories are to be advanced, and the divine +right of the people is to be asserted and established in England, the +American Colonies, and in France, and ultimately, early in the twentieth +century, we are to witness the final overthrow of the divine-right-of- +kings idea and a world-wide sweep of the democratic spirit. A new human +and political theory as to education is to be evolved; the school is to be +taken over from the Church, vastly expanded in scope, and made a +constructive instrument of the State; and the wonderful nineteenth century +is to witness a degree of human, scientific, political, and educational +progress not seen before in all the days from the time of the Crusades to +the opening of the nineteenth century. It is to this wonderful new era in +world history that we now turn. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Contrast a religious elementary school, with the Catechism as its chief +textbook, with a modern public elementary school. + +2. Contrast the elementary schools of Mulcaster and Comenius. + +3. To what extent did the religious teachings of the time support Locke's +ideas as to the disciplinary conception of education? + +4. Do we to-day place as much emphasis on habit formation as did Locke? On +character? On good breeding? + +5. State some of the reasons for the noticeable weakening of the hold of +the old religious theory as to education, in Protestant lands, by the +middle of the eighteenth century. + +6. How do you explain the slow evolution of the elementary teacher into a +position of some importance? Is the evolution still in process? +Illustrate. + +7. What were the motives behind the organization of the religious charity- +schools? + +8. Show how tax-supported workhouse schools represented, for England, the +first step in public-school maintenance. + +9. Show that teaching under the individual method of instruction was +school keeping, rather than school teaching. + +10. How do you explain the general prevalence of harsh discipline well +into the nineteenth century? + +11. Did any other country have, in the eighteenth century, so mixed a type +of elementary education as did England? Why was it so badly mixed there? + +12. Show how the English Act of Conformity, of 1662, stifled the English +Latin grammar schools. + +13. What reasons were there for the development of the more practical +Academy in America, rather than in England? + +14. Compare the American Academy with the German _Realschule_. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections, +illustrative of the contents of this chapter, are reproduced: + + 226. Mulcaster: Table of Contents of his _Positions_. + 227. Locke: On the Teaching of Latin. + 228. Locke: On the Bible as a Reading Book. + 229. Coote-Dilworth: Two early "Spelling Books." + 230. Webster: Description of Pre-Revolutionary Schools. + 231. Raumer: Teachers in Gotha in 1741. + 232. Raumer: An 18th Century Swedish People's School. + 233. Raumer: Schools of Frankfurt-am-Main during the Eighteenth Century. + 234. Krüsi: A Swiss Teacher's Examination in 1793. + 235. Crabbe; White; Shenstone: The English Dame School described. + 236. Newburgh: A Parochial-School Teacher's Agreement. + 237. Saint Anne: Beginnings of an English Charity School. + 238. Regulations: Charity-School Organization and Instruction. + (a) Qualifications for the Master. + (b) Purpose and Instruction. + 239. Allen and McClure: Textbooks used in English Charity-Schools. + 240. England: A Charity-School Subscription Form. + 241. Southwark: The Charity-School of Saint John's Parish. + 242. Gorsham: An Eighteenth-Century Indenture of Apprenticeship. + 243. Indenture: Learning the Trade of a Schoolmaster. + 244. Diesterweg: The Schools of Germany before Pestalozzi. + 245. England: Free School Rules, 1734. + 246. Murray: A New Jersey School Lottery. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. State the main points in Mulcaster's scheme (226) for education. + +2. Characterize Locke's criticism (227) on the teaching of Latin. + +3. State Locke's ideas as to the use of the Bible (228). + +4. Characterize the nature and contents of the so-called "Spellers" by +Coote and Dilworth (229). + +5. Compare the Connecticut common school, as described by Webster (230), +with an English charity-school (238 b), or a Swedish popular school (232) +of the time. + +6. Just what state of vernacular education in Teutonic lands is indicated +by the three selections (231, 232, 233)? + +7. Compare the proprietary right of the teachers at Frankfort (233) with +the right of control claimed over song schools by the Precentor of a +mediaeval cathedral (83). + +8. Do such conditions as Krüsi describes (234) exist anywhere to day? + +9. Characterize the Dame School of England, as to instruction and control, +from the descriptions given in the selections (235) reproduced. + +10. State the relationship of teacher and minister at Newburgh (236), and +indicate the nature and probable extent of his income. + +11. State the purpose of the founders of Saint Anne of Soho (237), and +characterize the type of school they created. + +12. What does the qualification for a charity-school teacher (238 a) +indicate as to the nature of the teacher's calling in such schools? +Outline the instruction (238 b) in such a school. + +13. What instruction did the textbooks as printed (239) provide for? + +14. Show the voluntary and benevolent character of the charity-school by +comparing the subscription form (240) with some voluntary subscription +form used to day. + +15. How did the school in Saint John's parish (241) differ from +apprenticeship training? + +16. What changes do you note between the mediaeval Indenture of +Apprenticeship (99) and the eighteenth-century English form (242)? + +17. Compare Readings 201 and 242 on apprenticeship. + +18. Compare conditions described in 244 with 231-233. + +19. What do the Free School Rules of 1734 (245) indicate as to duties and +discipline? + +20. What does the use of the lottery for school support (246) indicate as +to the conception and scope of education at the time? + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + + Allen, W. O. B., and McClure, E. _Two Hundred Years; History of the + S.P.C.K., 1698-1808_. + Barnard, Henry. _English Pedagogy_, Part II, The Teacher in English + Literature. +* Birchenough, C. _History of Elementary Education in England and + Wales_. + Brown, E. E. _The Making of our Middle Schools_. + Cardwell, J. F. _The Story of a Charity School_. + Davidson, Thos. _Rousseau_. +* Earle, Alice M. _Child Life in Colonial Days_. + Field, Mrs. E. M. _The Child and his Book_. + Ford, Paul L. _The New England Primer_. + Godfrey, Elizabeth. _English Children in the Olden Time_. +* Johnson, Clifton. _Old Time Schools and School Books_. +* Kemp, W. W. _The Support of Schools in Colonial New York by the + Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts_. + Kilpatrick, Wm. H. _Dutch Schools of New Netherlands and Colonial New + York_. + Locke, John. _Some Thoughts Concerning Education_ (1693). +* Montmorency, J. E. G. de. _Progress of Education in England_. + Montmorency, J. E. G. de. _State Intervention in English + Education_. + Mulcaster, Richard. _Positions_. (London, 1581.) +* Paulsen, Friedrich. _German Education, Past and Present_. +* Salmon, David. "The Education of the Poor in the Eighteenth Century"; + reprinted from the _Educational Record_. (London, 1908.) +* Scott, J. F. _Historic Essays on Apprenticeship and Vocational + Education_. (Ann Arbor, 1914.) + + + + +PART IV + +MODERN TIMES + +THE ABOLITION OF PRIVILEGE +THE RISE OF DEMOCRACY +A NEW THEORY FOR EDUCATION EVOLVED +THE STATE TAKES OVER THE SCHOOL + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +THE EIGHTEENTH A TRANSITION CENTURY + + +THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY A TURNING-POINT. The eighteenth century, in human +thinking and progress, marks for most western nations the end of +mediaevalism and the ushering-in of modern forms of intellectual liberty. +The indifference to the old religious problems, which was clearly manifest +in all countries at the beginning of the century, steadily grew and +culminated in a revolt against ecclesiastical control over human affairs. +This change in attitude toward the old problems permitted the rise of new +types of intellectual inquiry, a rapid development of scientific thinking +and discovery, the growth of a consciousness of national problems and +national welfare, and the bringing to the front of secular interests to a +degree practically unknown since the days of ancient Rome. In a sense the +general rise of these new interests in the eighteenth century was but a +culmination of a long series of movements looking toward greater +intellectual freedom and needed human progress which had been under way +since the days when _studia generalia_ and guilds first arose in western +Europe. The rise of the universities in the thirteenth and fourteenth +centuries, the Revival of Learning in the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries, the Protestant Revolts in the sixteenth, the rise of modern +scientific inquiry in the sixteenth and seventeenth, and Puritanism in +England and Pietism in Germany in the seventeenth, had all been in the +nature of protests against the mediaeval tendency to confine and limit and +enslave the intellect. In the eighteenth century the culmination of this +rising tide of protest came in a general and determined revolt against +despotism in either Church or State, which, at the close of the century, +swept away ancient privileges, abuses, and barriers, and prepared the way +for the marked intellectual and human and political progress which +characterized the nineteenth century. + +SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CHANGE IN ATTITUDE. The new spirit and interests and +attitudes which came to characterize the eighteenth century in the more +progressive western nations meant the ultimate overthrow of the tyranny of +mediaeval supernatural theology, the evolution of a new theory as to moral +action which should be independent of theology, the freeing of the new +scientific spirit from the fetters of church control, the substituting of +new philosophical and scientific and economic interests for the old +theological problems which had for so long dominated human thinking, the +substitution of natural political organization for the older +ecclesiastical foundations of the State, the destruction of what remained +of the old feudal political system, the freeing of the serf and the +evolution of the citizen, and the rise of a modern society interested in +problems of national welfare--government in the interest of the governed, +commerce, industry, science, economics, education, and social welfare. The +evolution of such modern-type governments inevitably meant the creation of +entirely new demands for the education of the people and for far-reaching +political and social reforms. + +This new eighteenth-century spirit, which so characterized the mid- +eighteenth century that it is often spoken of as the "Period of the +Enlightenment," [1] expressed itself in many new directions, a few of the +more important of which will be considered here as of fundamental concern +for the student of the history of educational progress. In a very real +sense the development of state educational systems, in both European and +American States, has been an outgrowth of the great liberalizing forces +which first made themselves felt in a really determined way during this +important transition century. In this chapter we shall consider briefly +five important phases of this new eighteenth-century liberalism, as +follows: + + 1. The work of the benevolent despots of continental Europe in trying + to shape their governments to harmonize them with the new spirit of + the century. + + 2. The unsatisfied demand for reform in France. + + 3. The rise of democratic government and liberalism in England. + + 4. The institution of constitutional government and religious freedom + in America. + + 5. The sweeping away of mediaeval abuses in the great Revolution in + France. + + +I. WORK OF THE BENEVOLENT DESPOTS OF CONTINENTAL EUROPE + +THE NEW NATIONALISM LEADS TO INTERESTED GOVERNMENT. In England, as we +shall trace a little further on, a democratic form of government had for +long been developing, but this democratic life had made but little headway +on the continent of Europe. There, instead, the democratic tendencies +which showed some slight signs of development during the sixteenth century +had been stamped out in the period of warfare and the ensuing hatreds of +the seventeenth, and in the eighteenth century we find autocratic +government at its height. National governments to succeed the earlier +government of the Church had developed and grown strong, the kingly power +had everywhere been consolidated, Church and State were in close working +alliance, and the new spirit of nationality--in government, foreign +policy, languages, literature, and culture--was being energetically +developed by those responsible for the welfare of the States. Everywhere, +almost, on the continent of Europe, the theory of the divine right of +kings to rule and the divine duty of subjects to obey seemed to have +become fixed, and this theory of government the Church now most +assiduously supported. Unlike in England and the American Colonies, the +people of the larger countries of continental Europe had not as yet +advanced far enough in personal liberty or political thinking to make any +demand of consequence for the right to govern themselves. The new spirit +of nationality abroad in Europe, though, as well as the new humanitarian +ideas beginning to stir thinking men, alike tended to awaken a new +interest on the part of many rulers in the welfare of the people they +governed. In consequence, during the eighteenth century, we find a number +of nations in which the rulers, putting themselves in harmony with the new +spirit of the time, made earnest attempts to improve the condition of +their peoples as a means of advancing the national welfare. We shall here +mention the four nations in which the most conspicuous reform work was +attempted. + +THE RULERS OF PRUSSIA. Three kings, to whom the nineteenth-century +greatness of Prussia was largely due, ruled the country during nearly the +whole of the eighteenth century. They were fully as despotic as the kings +of France, but, unlike the French kings, they were keenly alive to the +needs of the people, anxious to advance the welfare of the State, tolerant +in religion, and in sympathy with the new scientific studies. The first, +Frederick William I (1713-40), labored earnestly to develop the resources +of the country, trained a large army, ordered elementary education made +compulsory, and made the beginnings in the royal provinces of the +transformation of the schools from the control of the Church to the +control of the State. His son, known to history as Frederick the Great, +ruled from 1740 to 1786. During his long reign he labored continually to +curtail ancient privileges, abolish old abuses, and improve the condition +of his people. During the first week of his reign he abolished torture in +trials, made the administration of law more equitable, instituted a +limited freedom for the press, [2] and extended religious toleration. [3] +He also partially abolished serfdom on the royal domains, and tried to +uplift the peasantry and citizen classes, but in this he met with bitter +opposition from the nobles of his realm. He built roads, canals, and +bridges, encouraged skilled artisans to settle in his dominions, developed +agriculture and industry, encouraged scientific workers, extended an +asylum to thousands of Huguenots fleeing from religious persecution in +France, [4] and did more than any previous ruler to provide common schools +throughout his kingdom. By the general regulation of education in his +kingdom (chapter xxii) he laid the foundations upon which the nineteenth- +century Prussian school system was later built. + +[Illustration: Fig 145 FREDERICK THE GREAT] + +His rule, though, was thoroughly autocratic. "Every thing for the people, +but nothing by the people", was the keynote of his policies. He had no +confidence in the ability of the people to rule, and gave them no +opportunity to learn the art. He employed the strong army his father built +up to wage wars of conquest, seize territory that did not belong to him, +and in consequence made himself a great German hero. [5] He may be said to +have laid the foundations of modern militarized, socialized, obediently +educated, and subject Germany, and also to have begun the "grand-larceny" +and "scrap-of-paper" policy which has characterized Prussian international +relationships ever since. Frederick William II, who reigned from 1786 to +1797, continued in large measure the enlightened policies of his uncle, +reformed the tax system, lightened the burdens of his people, encouraged +trade, emphasized the German tongue, quickened the national spirit, +actively encouraged schools and universities, and began that +centralization of authority over the developing educational system which +resulted in the creation in Prussia of the first modern state school +system in Europe. The educational work of these three Prussian kings was +indeed important, and we shall study it more in detail in a later chapter +(Chapter XXII). + +THE AUSTRIAN REFORMERS. Two notably benevolent rulers occupied the +Austrian throne for half a century, and did much to improve the condition +of the Austrian people. A very remarkable woman, Maria Theresa, came to +the throne in 1740, and was followed by her son, Joseph II, in 1780. He +ruled until 1790. To Maria Theresa the Austria of the nineteenth century +owed most of its development and power. She worked with seemingly tireless +energy for the advancement of the welfare of her subjects, and toward the +close of her reign laid, as we shall see in a later chapter, the +beginnings of Austrian school reform. + +Joseph II carried still further his mother's benevolent work, and strove +to introduce "enlightenment and reason" into the administration of his +realm. A student of the writings of the eighteenth-century reform +philosophers, and deeply imbued with the reform spirit of his time, he +attempted to abolish ancient privileges, establish a uniform code of +justice, encourage education, free the serfs, abolish feudal tenure, grant +religious toleration, curb the power of the Pope and the Church, break the +power of the local Diets, centralize the State, and "introduce a uniform +level of democratic simplicity under his own absolute sway." He attempted +to alter the organization of the Church, abolished six hundred +monasteries, [6] and reduced the number of monastic persons in his +dominion from 63,000 to 27,000. Attempting too much, he brought down upon +his head the wrath of both priest and noble and died a disappointed man. +The abolition of feudal tenure and serfdom on the distinctively Austrian +lands, of all his attempted reforms, alone was permanent. His work stands +as an interesting commentary on the temporary character of the results +which follow attempts rapidly to improve the conditions surrounding the +lives of people, without at the same time educating the people to improve +themselves. + +THE SPANISH REFORMERS. A very similar result attended the reform efforts +of a succession of benevolent rulers thrust upon Spain, during the +eighteenth century, by the complications of foreign politics. Over a +period of nearly ninety years, extending from the accession of Philip V +(1700) to the death of Charles III (1788), remarkable political progress +was imposed by a succession of able ministers and with the consent of the +kings. [7] The power of the Church, always the crying evil of Spain, was +restricted in many ways; the Inquisition was curbed; the Jesuits were +driven from the kingdom; the burning of heretics was stopped; prosecution +for heresy was reduced and discouraged; the monastic orders were taught to +fear the law and curb their passions; evils in public administration were +removed; national grievances were redressed; the civil service was +improved; science and literature were encouraged, in place of barren +theological speculations; and an earnest effort was made to regenerate the +national life and improve the lot of the common people. + +All these reforms, though, were imposed from above, and no attempt was +made to introduce schools or to educate the people in the arts of self- +government. The result was that the reforms never went beneath the +surface, and the national life of the people remained largely untouched. +Within five years of the death of Charles III all had been lost. Under a +native Spanish king, thoroughly orthodox, devout, and lacking in any broad +national outlook, the Church easily restored itself to power, the priests +resumed their earlier importance, the nobles again began to exact their +full toll, free discussion was forbidden, scientific studies were +abandoned, the universities were ordered to discontinue the study of moral +philosophy, and the political and social reforms which had required three +generations to build up were lost in half a decade. Not meeting any well- +expressed need of the people, and with no schools provided to show to the +people the desirable nature of the reforms introduced, it was easy to +sweep them aside. In this relapse to mediaevalism, the chance for Spain-- +a country rich in possibilities and natural resources--to evolve early +into a progressive modern nation was lost. So Spain has remained ever +since, and only in the last quarter of a century has reform from within +begun to be evident in this until recently priest-ridden and benighted +land. + +THE INTELLIGENT DESPOTS OF RUSSIA. The greatest of these were Peter the +Great, who ruled from 1689 to 1725, and Catherine II, who ruled from 1762 +to 1796. Catching something of the new eighteenth-century western spirit, +these rulers tried to introduce some western enlightenment into their as +yet almost barbarous land. Each tried earnestly to lift their people to a +higher level of living, and to start them on the road toward civilization +and learning. By a series of edicts, despotically enforced, Peter tried to +introduce the civilization of the western world into his country. He +brought in numbers of skilled artisans, doctors, merchants, teachers, +printers, and soldiers; introduced many western skills and trades; and +made the beginnings of western secondary education for the governing +classes by the establishment in the cities of a number of German-type +_gymnasia_. [8] Later Catherine II had the French philosopher Diderot (p. +482) draw up a plan for her for the organization of a state system of +higher schools, but the plan was never put into effect. The beginnings of +Russian higher civilization really date from this eighteenth-century work. +The power of the formidable Greek or Eastern Church remained, however, +untouched, and this continued, until after the Russian revolution of 1917, +as one of the most serious obstacles to Russian intellectual and +educational progress. The serfs, too, remained serfs--tied to the land, +ignorant, superstitious, and obedient. + +By the close of the eighteenth century Russia, largely under Prussian +training, had become a very formidable military power, and by the close of +the nineteenth century was beginning to make some progress of importance +in the arts of peace. Just at present Russia is going through a stage of +national evolution quite comparable to that which took place in France a +century and a quarter ago, and the educational importance of this great +people, as we shall point out further on, lies in their future evolution +rather than in any contribution they have as yet made to western +development. + + +II. THE UNSATISFIED DEMAND FOR REFORM IN FRANCE + +THE SETTING OF EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY FRANCE. Eighteenth-century France, on +the contrary, developed no benevolent despot to mitigate abuses, reform +the laws, abolish privileges, temper the rule of the Church, [9] (R. 247), +curb the monastic orders, develop the natural resources, begin the +establishment of schools, and alleviate the hard lot of the serf and the +peasant. There, instead, absolute monarchy in Europe reached its most +complete triumph during the long reigns of Louis XIV (1643-1715) and Louis +XV (1715-74), and the splendor of the court life of France captivated all +Europe and served to hide the misery which made the splendor possible. +There the power of the nobles had been completely broken, and the power of +the parliaments completely destroyed. "I am the State," exclaimed Louis +XIV, and the almost unlimited despotism of the King and his ministers and +favorites fully supported the statement. Local liberties had been +suppressed, and the lot of the common people--ignorant, hard-working, +downtrodden, but intensely patriotic--was wretched in the extreme. +Approximately 140,000 nobles [10] and 130,000 monks, nuns, and clergy +owned two fifths of the landed property of France, and controlled the +destinies of a nation of approximately 25,000,000 people. Agriculture was +the great industry of the time, but this was so taxed by the agents of +King and Church that over one half of the net profits from farming were +taken for taxation. + +CHURCH AND STATE WERE IN CLOSE WORKING ALLIANCE. The higher offices of the +Church were commonly held by appointed noblemen, who drew large incomes +[11] led worldly lives, and neglected their priestly functions much as the +Italian appointees in German lands had done before the Reformation. +Between the nobles and upper clergy on the one hand and the peasant-born +lower clergy and the masses of the people on the other a great gulf +existed. The real brains of France were to be found among a small +bourgeois class of bankers, merchants, shopkeepers, minor officials, +lawyers, and skilled artisans, who lived in the cities and who, ambitious +and discontented, did much to stimulate the increasing unrest and demand +for reform which in time pervaded the whole nation. A king, constantly in +need of increasing sums of money; an idle, selfish, corrupt, and +discredited nobility and upper clergy, incapable of aiding the king, many +of whom, too, had been influenced by the new philosophic and scientific +thinking and were willing to help destroy their own orders; an aggressive, +discontented, and patriotic bourgeoisie, full of new political and social +ideas, and patriotically anxious to reform France; and a vast unorganized +peasantry and city rabble, suffering much and resisting little, but +capable of a terrible fury and senseless destruction, once they were +aroused and their suppressed rage let loose;--these were the main elements +in the setting of eighteenth-century France. + +THE FRENCH REFORM PHILOSOPHERS. During the middle decades of the +eighteenth century a small but very influential group of reform +philosophers in France attacked with their pens the ancient abuses in +Church and State, and did much to pave the way for genuine political and +religious reform. In a series of widely read articles and books, +characterized for the most part by clear reasoning and telling arguments, +these political philosophers attacked the power of the absolute monarchy +on the one hand, and the existing privileges of the nobles and clergy on +the other, as both unjust and inimical to the welfare of society (R. 248). +The leaders in the reform movement were Montesquieu (1689-1755), Turgot +(1727-81), Voltaire (1694-1778), Diderot (1713-84), and Rousseau (1712- +78). + +[Illustration: FIG. 147. MONTESQUIEU(1689-1755)] + +_Montesquieu_. In 1748 appeared Montesquieu's famous book, the _Spirit of +Laws_. In this he pointed out the many excellent features of the +constitutional government which the English had developed, and compared +English conditions with the many abuses to which the French people were +subject. He argued that laws should be expressive of the wishes and needs +of the people governed, and that the education of a people "ought to be +relative to the principles of good government." Montesquieu also stands, +with Turgot as the founder of the sciences of comparative politics [12] +and the philosophy of history--new studies which helped to shape the +political thinking of eighteenth-century France. + +_Turgot_. Two years after the publication of Montesquieu's book, Turgot +delivered (1750) a series of lectures at the Sorbonne, in Paris, in which +he virtually created the science of history. Looking at human history +comprehensively, seeing clearly that there had been a hitherto +unrecognized regularity of march amid the confusion of the past, and that +it was possible to grasp the history of the progress of man as a whole, he +saw and stated the possibility of society to improve itself through +intelligent government, and the need for wise laws and general education +to enable it to do so. [13] + +[Illustration: FIG. 148. TURGOT (1727-81)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 149. VOLTAIRE (1694-1778)] + +In 1774 Turgot was appointed Minister of Finance by the new King, Louis +XVI, and during the two years before he was removed from office he +attempted to carry out many needed political and social reforms. Duruy +[14] has summarized his suggested reforms as follows: + + 1. Gradual introduction of a complete system of local self-government. + + 2. Imposition of a land tax on nobility and clergy. + + 3. Suppression of the greater part of the monasteries. + + 4. Amelioration of the condition of the minor clergy. + + 5. Equalization of the burdens of taxation. + + 6. Liberty of conscience, and the recall of the Protestants to France. + + 7. A uniform system of weights and measures. + + 8. Freedom for commerce and industry. + + 9. A single and uniform code of laws. + + 10. A vast plan for the organization of a system of public instruction + throughout France. + +This list is indicative of the reform philosophy in the light of which he +worked. Arousing the natural hostility of the nobility and higher clergy, +he was soon dismissed, and the reforms he had proposed were abandoned by +the King. + +_Voltaire._ The keenest and most unsparing critic of the old order was +Voltaire. In clear and forceful French he exposed existing conditions in +society and government, and particularly the control of affairs exercised +by the most ancient and most powerful organization of his day--the Church. +For this he was execrated and hated by the clergy, and in return he made +it the chief task of his life to destroy the reign of the priest. Having +lived for a time in England, he appreciated the vast difference between +the English and French forms of government. With a keen and unsparing pen +he exposed the scholasticism, despotism, dogmatism, superstition, +hypocrisy, servility, and deep injustice of his age, and poured out the +vials of his scorn upon the grubbing pedantry of the Academicians who +doted upon the past because ignorant of the present. In particular he +stood for the abolition of that relic of feudalism--serfdom--which still +seriously oppressed the peasantry of France; for liberty in thought and +action for the individual; for curbing the powers and privileges of both +State and Church; for an equalization of the burdens of taxation between +the different classes in French society; and for the organization of a +system of public education throughout the nation. He died before the +outbreak of the Revolution he had done so much to bring about, but by the +time he died the "Ancient Régime" of privilege and corruption and +oppression was already tottering to its fall. His conception of the +relations that should exist between Church and State are well set forth in +a short article from his pen on the subject (R. 248) reprinted from the +_Encyclopaedia_ of Diderot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 150. DIDEROT (1713-84)] + +_Diderot._ Another able thinker and writer was Diderot. Besides other +works of importance, he gave twenty years of his life (1751-72) to the +editing (with D'Alembert) of an _Encyclopaedia_ of seventeen volumes of +text and eleven of plates. Many of the articles were written by himself, +and were expressive of his ideas as to reform. Many were frankly critical +of existing privileges, abuses, and pretensions. Many interpreted to the +French the science of Newton and the discoveries of the age, and awakened +a new interest in scientific study. Because of its reform ideas the +publication was suppressed, in 1759, after the publication of the seventh +volume, and had to be carried on surreptitiously thereafter. Viscount +Morley, writing recently on Diderot, summarizes the nature and influence +of the _Encyclopaedia_ in the following words: + + The ecclesiastical party detested the _Encyclopaedia_, in which + they saw a rising stronghold for their philosophical enemies. To any + one who turns over the pages of these redoubtable volumes now, it + seems surprising that their doctrine should have stirred such + portentous alarm. There is no atheism, no overt attack on any of the + cardinal mysteries of the faith, no direct denunciation even of the + notorious abuses of the Church. Yet we feel that the atmosphere of the + book may well have been displeasing to authorities who had not yet + learnt to encounter the modern spirit on equal terms. The + _Encyclopaedia_ takes for granted the justice of religious + toleration and speculative freedom. It asserts in distinct tones the + democratic doctrine that it is the common people in a nation whose lot + ought to be the chief concern of the nation's government. From + beginning to end it is one unbroken process of exaltation of + scientific knowledge on the one hand, and pacific industry on the + other. All these things were odious to the old governing classes of + France. [15] + +_Rousseau._ The fifth reform writer mentioned as exercising a large +influence was Rousseau. In 1749 the Academy at Dijon offered a prize for +the best essay on the subject: _Has the progress of the sciences and arts +contributed to corrupt or to purify morals?_ Rousseau took the negative +side and won the prize. His essay attracted widespread attention. In 1753 +he competed for a second prize on _The Origin of Inequality among Men_, in +which he took the same negative attitude. In 1762 appeared both his +_Social Contract_ and _Émile_. In the former he contended that early men +had given to selected leaders the right to conduct their government for +them, and that these had in time become autocratic and had virtually +enslaved the people (R. 249 a). He held that men were not bound to submit +to government against their wills, and to remedy existing abuses he +advocated the overthrow of the usurping government and the establishment +of a republic, with universal suffrage based on "liberty, fraternity, and +equality." The ideal State lay in a society controlled by the people, +where artificiality and aristocracy and the tyranny of society over man +did not exist. Nor could Rousseau distinguish between political and +ecclesiastical tyranny, holding that the former inevitably followed from +the latter (R. 249 b). + +Crude as were his theories, and impractical as were many of his ideas, to +an age tired of absurdities and pretensions and injustice, and suffering +deeply from the abuses of both Church and State, his attractively written +book seemed almost inspired. The _Social Contract_ virtually became the +Bible of the French Revolutionists. In the _Émile_, a book which will be +referred to more at length in chapter XXI, Rousseau held that we should +revert, in education, to a state of nature to secure the needed +educational reforms, and that education to prepare for life in the +existing society was both wrong and useless. + +A REVOLUTION IN FRENCH THINKING. These five men--Montesquieu, Turgot, +Voltaire, Diderot, and Rousseau--and many other less influential +followers, portrayed the abuses of the time in Church and State and +pointed out the lines of political and ecclesiastical reform. Those who +read their writings understood better why the existing privileges of the +nobility and clergy were no longer right, and the need for reform in +matters of taxation and government. Their writings added to the spirit of +unrest of the century, and were deeply influential, not only in France, +but in the American Colonies as well. Though the attack was at first +against the evils in Church and State, the new critical philosophy soon +led to intellectual developments of importance in many other directions. + +At the death of Louis XIV (1715) France was intellectually prostrate. +Great as was his long reign from the point of view of the splendor of his +court, and large as was the quantity of literature produced, his age was +nevertheless an age of misery, religious intolerance, political +oppression, and intellectual decline. It was a reign of centralized and +highly personal government. Men no longer dared to think for themselves, +or to discuss with any freedom questions either of politics or religion. +"There was no popular liberty; there were no great men; there was no +science; there was no literature; there were no arts. The largest +intellects lost their energy; the national spirit died away." Between the +death of Louis XIV and the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789) an +intellectual revolution took place in France, and for this revolution +English political progress and political and scientific thinking were +largely responsible. + +GREAT ENGLISH INFLUENCE ON FRANCE. In 1715 the English language was almost +unspoken in France, English science and political progress were unknown +there, and the English were looked down upon and hated. Half a century +later English was spoken everywhere by the scholars of the time; the +English were looked upon as the political and scientific leaders of +Europe; and the scholars of France visited England to study English +political, economic, and scientific progress. Locke, an uncompromising +advocate of political and religious liberty; Hobbes, the speculative moral +philosopher; and the great scientist Newton were the teachers of Voltaire. +More than any other single man, Voltaire moulded and redirected +eighteenth-century thought in France. [16] Numerous French writers of +importance--Helvetius, Diderot, Morellet, Voltaire, Rousseau, to mention +but a few--drew their inspiration from English writers. In the eighteenth +century England became the school for political liberty for France. [17] + +The effect of the work of Isaac Newton (p. 388), as popularized by the +writings of Voltaire, was revolutionary on a people who had been so +tyrannized over by the clergy as had the French during the reign of Louis +XIV. An interest in scientific studies before unknown in France now flamed +up, and a new generation of French scientists arose. Physics, chemistry, +zoölogy, and anatomy received a great new impetus, while botany, geology, +and mineralogy were raised to the rank of sciences. Popular scientific +lectures became very common. The classics were almost abandoned for the +new studies. + +Economic questions now also began to be discussed, such as questions of +money, food, finance, and government expenditure. In 1776 the Englishman, +Adam Smith, laid the foundations of the new science of political economy +by the publication of his _Wealth of Nations_, and this was at once +translated into French and eagerly read. In 1781 a French banker by the +name of Necker published his _Compte Rendu_, a statistical report on the +finances of France. So feverishly eager were men to study problems of +government that six thousand copies were sold the day it was published, +and eighty thousand had to be printed before the demand for it was +satisfied. A half-century earlier it would have been read scarcely at all. + +In the meantime taxes piled up, reforms were refused, the power and +arrogance of the clergy and nobility showed no signs of diminution, the +nation was burdened with debt, commerce and agriculture declined, the lot +of the common people became ever more hard to bear, and the masses grew +increasingly resentful and rebellious. As national affairs continued to +drift from bad to worse in France, a series of important happenings on the +American continent helped to bring matters more rapidly to a crisis. +Before describing these events, however, we wish to sketch briefly the +rise of government by the people and the extension of liberalism in +England--the first great democratic nation of the western world. + + +III. ENGLAND THE FIRST DEMOCRATIC NATION + +EARLY BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH LIBERTY. The first western nation created from +the wreck of the Roman Empire to achieve a measurement of self-government +was England. Better civilized than most of the other wandering tribes, at +the time of their coming to English shores, the invading Angles, Saxons, +and Jutes early accepted Christianity (p. 120) and settled down to an +agricultural life. On English shores they soon built up a for-the-time +substantial civilization. This was later largely destroyed by the +pillaging Danes, but with characteristic energy the English set to work to +assimilate the newcomers and build up civilization anew. The work of +Alfred (p. 146) in reëstablishing law and order, at a time when law and +order scarcely existed anywhere in western Europe, will long remain +famous. Later on, and at a time when German and Hun and Slav had only +recently accepted Christianity in name and had begun to settle down into +rude tribal governments, and when the Prussians in their original home +along the eastern Baltic were still offering human sacrifices to their +heathen gods (p. 120), the English barons were extorting _Magna Charta_ +from King John and laying the firm foundations of English constitutional +liberty. In the meadow at Runnymede, on that justly celebrated June day, +in 1215, government under law and based on the consent of the governed +began to shape itself once more in the western world. Of the sixty-three +articles of this Charter of Liberties, three possess imperishable value. +These provided: + + 1. That no free man shall be imprisoned or proceeded against except + by his peers, or the law of the land, which secured trial by jury. + + 2. That justice should neither be sold, denied, nor delayed. + + 3. That dues from the people to the king could be imposed only with + the consent of the National Council (after 1246 known as + Parliament). + +So important was this charter to such a liberty-loving people as the +English have always been, and so bitterly did kings resent its hampering +provisions, that within the next two centuries kings had been forced to +confirm it no less than thirty-seven times. + +By 1295 the first complete Parliament, representative of the three orders +of society--Lords, Clergy, and Commons--assembled, and in 1333 the Commons +gained the right to sit by itself. From that time to the present the +Commons, representing the people, has gradually broadened its powers, +working, as Tennyson has said, [18] "from precedent to precedent," until +to-day it rules the English nation. In 1376 the Commons gained the right +to impeach the King's ministers, and in 1407 the exclusive right to make +grants of money for any governmental purpose. Centuries ahead of other +nations, this insured an almost continual meeting of the national assembly +and a close scrutiny of the acts of both kings and ministers. + +In 1604 King James I, imitating continental European precedents, +proclaimed his theory as to the "divine right of kings" to rule, [19] and +a struggle at once set in which carried the English into Civil War (1642- +49); led to the beheading of Charles I (1649); the overthrow and +banishment of James II (1688); and the ultimate firm establishment, +instead, of the "divine right of the common people." [20] In an age when +the autocratic power and the divine right of kings to rule was almost +unquestioned elsewhere in Europe, the English people compelled their king +to recognize that he could rule over them only when he ruled in their +interests and as they wished him to do. Though there was a period of +struggle later on with the German Georges (I, II, and III), and especially +with the honest but stupid George III, England has, since 1688, been a +government of and by the people. [21] France did not rid itself of the +"divine-right" conception until the French Revolution (1789), and Germany, +Austria, and Russia not until 1918. + +GROWTH OF TOLERANCE AMONG THE ENGLISH. The results of the long struggle of +the English for liberty under law showed itself in many ways in the growth +of tolerance among the people of the English nation. At a time when other +nations were bound down in blind obedience to king and priest, and when +dissenting minorities were driven from the land, the English people had +become accustomed to the idea of individual liberty, regulated by law, and +to the toleration of opinions with which they did not agree. These +characteristically English conceptions of liberty under law and of the +toleration of minorities have found expression in many important ways in +the life and government of the people (R. 250), and have been elements of +great strength in England's colonial policy. One of the important ways in +which this growth of tolerance among the English showed itself was in the +extension of a larger freedom to those unable to subscribe to the state +religion. + +Though the Reformation movement had stirred up bitter hatreds in England, +as on the Continent, the English were among the first of European peoples +to show tolerance of opposition in religious matters. The high English +State Church, which had succeeded the Roman, had made but small appeal to +many Englishmen. The Puritans had early struggled to secure a +simplification of the church service and the introduction of more +preaching (p. 359), and in the seventeenth century the organization of +three additional dissenting sects, which became known as Unitarians, +Baptists, and Quakers, took place. These sects divided off rather quietly, +and their separation resulted only in the enactment of new laws regarding +conformity, prayers, and teaching. + +During the latter half of the seventeenth century, after the execution of +Charles I (1649), the Puritans had temporarily risen to power, and during +their control of affairs had imposed their strict Calvinistic standards as +to Sabbath observance and piety on the nation. This was very distasteful +to many, and from such strict observances the people in time rebelled. The +standards of the English in personal morality, temperance, amusements, and +manners at the beginning of the eighteenth century were not especially +high, and in the reaction from Puritan control and strict religious +observances the great mass of the people degenerated into positive +irreligion and gross immorality. Drunkenness, rowdyism, robbery, +blasphemy, brutality, lewdness, and prostitution became very common. This +moral decline of the people the Church of England seemed powerless to +arrest. + +[Illustration: FIG. 151. JOHN WESLEY (1707-82) +Founder of Methodism.] + +About 1730 a reform movement was begun under the able leadership of a +young Oxford student by the name of John Wesley, ably seconded by George +Whitefield (1714-70), with a view to reaching the classes so completely +untouched by the high State Church. By traveling over the country and +preaching a gospel of repentance, personal faith, and better living, these +two young men made a deep emotional appeal, and soon gained a strong hold +on the poorer and more ignorant classes of the people. Forbidden to preach +in Anglican churches, and at times threatened with personal violence, +these two men were in time forced into open rebellion against the +Established Church. Finally they founded a new Church, which became known +as the Methodist. [22] This new organization bore the same relation to the +Church of England that the Anglican Church two hundred years before had +borne to the Church of Rome. Thus was accomplished a second spiritual +reformation in England, and one destined in time to spread to the colonies +and deeply affect the lives of a large portion of the English people. [23] +That such a well-organized sect could arise, such a moral reformation be +preached, and the power of the Established Church be challenged so openly +and without serious persecution, speaks much for the growth of religious +tolerance among the English people since the days of the great Elizabeth. +In 1778 the Roman Catholic Relief Act was adopted, and in 1779 dissenting +ministers and schoolmasters were relieved from the disabilities under +which they had so long remained. These acts indicate a further marked +growth in religious tolerance on the part of the English nation. [24] + +NEW EMANCIPATING AND EDUCATIVE INFLUENCES. In 1662 the first regular +newspaper outside of Italy was established in England, and in 1702 the +first daily paper. Small in size, printed on but one side of the sheet, +and dealing wholly with local matters, these nevertheless marked the +beginnings of that daily expression of popular opinion with which we are +now so familiar. [25] After about 1705 the cheap political pamphlet made +its appearance, and after 1710, instead of merely communicating news, the +papers began the discussion of political questions. + +By 1735 a revolution had been effected in England, and papers and presses +began to be established in the chief cities and towns outside of London; +the freedom of the press was in a large way completed, and newspapers, for +the first time in the history of the world, were made the exponents of +public opinion. The press in England in consequence became an educative +force of great intellectual and political importance, and did much to +compensate for the lack of a general system of schools for the people. In +1772 the right to publish the debates in Parliament was finally won, over +the strenuous objections [26] of George III. In 1780 the first Sunday +newspaper appeared, "on the only day the lower orders had time to read a +paper at all," and, despite the efforts of religious bodies to suppress +it, the Sunday paper has continued to the present and has contributed its +quota to the education and enlightenment of mankind. In 1785 the famous +London _Times_ began to appear. In the middle of the eighteenth century +debating societies for the consideration of public questions arose, and in +1769 "the first public meeting ever assembled in England, in which it was +attempted to enlighten Englishmen respecting their political rights" was +held, and such meetings soon became of almost daily occurrence. All these +influences stimulated political thinking to a high degree, and contributed +not only to a desire for still larger political freedom but for the more +general diffusion of the ability to read as well (R. 250). + +Still other important new influences arose during the early part of the +eighteenth century, each of which tended to awaken new desires for schools +and learning. In 1678 the first modern printed story to appeal to the +masses, Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_, appeared from the press. Written, +as it had been, by a man of the people, its simple narrative form, its +passionate religious feeling, its picture of the journey of a pilgrim +through a world of sin and temptation and trial, and its Biblical language +with which the common people had now become familiar--all these elements +combined to make it a book that appealed strongly to all who read or heard +it read, and stimulated among the masses a desire to read comparable to +that awakened by the chaining of the English Bible in the churches a +century before (R. 170). In 1719 the first great English novel, Defoe's +_Robinson Crusoe_, and in 1726 _Gulliver's Travels_, added new stimulus to +the desires awakened by Bunyan's book. All three were books of the common +people, whereas the dramas, plays, essays, and scholarly works previously +produced had appealed only to a small educated class. In 1751 what was +probably the first circulating library of modern times was opened at +Birmingham, and soon thereafter similar institutions were established in +other English cities. + +SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING; THE NEW ERA. England, too, from the first, +showed an interest in and a tolerance toward the new scientific thinking +scarcely found in any other land. This in itself is indicative of the +great intellectual progress which the English people had by this time +made. [27] At a time when Galileo, in Italy, was fighting, almost alone, +for the right to think along the lines of the new scientific method and +being imprisoned for his pains, Englishmen were reading with deep interest +the epoch-making scientific writings of Lord Francis Bacon, Earlier than +in other lands, too, the Newtonian philosophy found a place in the +instruction of the national universities, and English scholars began to +employ the new scientific method in their search for new truths. The +British Royal (Scientific) Society [28] had begun to meet as early as +1645, and ever since has published in its proceedings the best of English +scientific thinking. By the reign of George I (1714-27) scientific work +began to be popularized, and the first little booklets on scientific +subjects began to appear. These popular presentations of what had been +worked out were sold at the book stalls and by peddlers and were eagerly +read; by the beginning of the reign of George III (1760) they had become +very common. In 1704-10 the first "Dictionary of Arts and Sciences" was +printed, and in 1768-71 the first edition (three volumes) of the now +famous _Encyclopedia Britannica_ appeared. In 1755 the famous British +Museum was founded. + +As early as 1698 a rude form of steam engine had been patented in England, +and by 1712 this had been perfected sufficiently to be used in pumping +water from the coal mines. In 1765 James Watt made the real beginning of +the application of steam to industry by patenting his steam engine; in +1760 Wedgwood established the pottery industry in England; in 1767 +Hargreaves devised the spinning-jenny, which banished the spindle and +distaff and the old spinning-wheel; in 1769 Arkwright evolved his +spinning-frame; and in 1785 Cartwright completed the process by inventing +the power loom for weaving. In 1784 a great improvement in the smelting of +iron ores (puddling) was worked out. These inventions, all English, were +revolutionary in their effect on manufacturing. They meant the +displacement of hand power by machine labor, the breakdown of home +industry through the concentration of labor in factories, the rise of +great manufacturing cities, [29] and the ultimate collapse of the age-old +apprenticeship system of training, where the master workman with a few +apprentices in his shop prepared goods for sale. They also meant the +ultimate transformation of England from an agricultural into a great +manufacturing and exporting nation, whose manufactured products would be +sold in every corner of the globe. + +By 1750 a change in attitude toward all the old intellectual problems had +become marked in England, and by 1775 attention before unknown was being +given there to social, political, economic, and educational questions. +Religious intolerance was dying out, the harsh laws of earlier days had +begun to be modified, new social and political interests [30] were +everywhere attracting attention, and the great commercial expansion of +England was rapidly taking shape. With England and France leading in the +new scientific studies; England in the van in the development of +manufacturing and the French to the fore in social influences and polite +literature; England and the new American Colonies setting new standards in +government by the people; the French theorists and economists giving the +world new ideas as to the function of the State; enlightened despots on +the thrones of Prussia, Austria, Spain, and Russia; and the hatreds of the +hundred years of religious warfare dying out; the world seemed to many, +about 1775, as on the verge of some great and far-reaching change in +methods of living and in government, and about ready to enter a new era +and make rapid advances in nearly all lines of human activity. The change +came, but not in quite the manner expected. + + +IV. INSTITUTION OF CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT AND RELIGIOUS FREEDOM IN +AMERICA + +[Illustration: FIG. 152. NATIONALITY OF THE WHITE POPULATION, AS SHOWN BY +THE FAMILY NAMES IN THE CENSUS OF 1790.] + +ENGLISHMEN IN AMERICA ESTABLISH A REPUBLIC. Though the early settlement of +America, as was pointed out in chapter xv, was made from among those +people and from those lands which had embraced some form of the Protestant +faith, and represented a number of nationalities and several religious +sects, the thirteen colonies, nevertheless, were essentially English in +origin, speech, habits, observances, and political and religious +conceptions. This is well shown for the white population by the results of +the first Federal census, taken in 1790, as given in the adjoining figure. +This shows that of all the people in the thirteen original States, 83.5 +per cent possessed names indicating pure English origin, and that 91.8 per +cent had names which pointed to their having come from the British Isles. +The largest non-British name nationality was the German, with 5.6 per cent +of the whole, and these were found chiefly in Pennsylvania where they +constituted 26.1 per cent of the State's population. Next were those +having Dutch names, who constituted but 2 per cent of the total +population, and but 16.1 per cent of the population of New York. No other +name-nationality constituted over one half of one per cent of the total. +The New England States were almost as English as England itself, 93 to 96 +per cent of the names being pure English, and 98.5 to 99.8 per cent being +from the British Isles. + +We thus see that it was from England, the nation which had done most in +the development of individual and religious liberty, that the great bulk +of the early settlers of America came, and in the New World the English +traditions as to constitutional government and liberty under law were +early and firmly established. The centuries of struggle for representative +government in England at once bore fruit here. Colony charters, charters +of rights and liberties, public discussion, legislative assemblies, and +liberty under law were from the first made the foundation stones upon +which self-government in America was built up. + +From an early date the American Colonies showed an independence to which +even Englishmen were scarcely accustomed, and when the home government +attempted to make the colonists pay some of the expenses of the Seven +Years' War, and a larger share of the expenses of colonial administration, +there was determined opposition. Having no representation in Parliament +and no voice in levying the tax, the colonists declared that taxation +without representation was tyranny, and refused to pay the taxes assessed. +Standing squarely on their rights as Englishmen, the colonists were +gradually forced into open rebellion. In 1765, and again in 1774, +Declarations of Rights were drawn up and adopted by representatives from +the Colonies, and were forwarded to the King. In 1774 the first +Continental Congress met and formed a union of the Colonies; in 1776 the +Colonies declared their independence. This was confirmed, in 1783, by the +Treaty of Paris; in 1787, the Constitution of the United States was +drafted; and in 1789, the American government began. In the preamble to +the twenty-seven charges of tyranny and oppression made against the King +in the Declaration of Independence, we find a statement of political +philosophy [31] which is a combination of the results of the long English +struggle for liberty and the French eighteenth-century reform philosophy +and revolutionary demands. [32] This preamble declared: + + We hold these truths to be self-evident--that all men are created + equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable + rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of + happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted + among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the + governed; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of + these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, + and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such + principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall + seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. + +AMERICAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO WORLD HISTORY. The American Revolution and its +results were fraught with great importance for the future political and +educational progress of mankind. Before the close of the eighteenth +century the new American government had made at least four important +contributions to world liberty and progress which were certain to be of +large political and educational value for the future. + +In the first place, the people of the Colonies had erected independent +governments and had shown the possibility of the self-government of +peoples on a large scale, and not merely in little city-states or +communities, as had previously been the case where self-government had +been tried. Democratic government was here worked out and applied to large +areas, and to peoples of diverse nationalities and embracing different +religious faiths. The possibility of States selecting their rulers and +successfully governing themselves was demonstrated. + +In the second place, the new American government which was formed did +something new in world history when it united thirteen independent and +autonomous States into a single federated Nation, and without destroying +the independence of the States. What was formed was not a league, or +confederacy, as had existed at different times among differing groups of +the Greek City-States, and from time to time in the case of later Swiss +and temporary European national groupings, but the union into a +substantial and permanent Federal State of a number of separate States +which still retained their independence, and with provision for the +expansion of this national Union by the addition of new States. This +federal principle in government is probably the greatest political +contribution of the American Union to world development. In the twentieth- +century conception of a League of Nations it has borne still further +fruit. + +In the third place, the different American States changed their old +Colonial Charters into definite written Constitutions, each of which +contained a Preamble or Bill of Rights which affirmed the fundamental +principles of democratic liberty (R. 251). These now became the +fundamental law for each of the separate States, and the same idea was +later worked out in the Constitution of the United States. These were the +first written constitutions of history, and have since served as a type +for the creation of constitutional government throughout the world. In +such documents to-day free peoples everywhere define the rights and duties +and obligations which they regard as necessary to their safety and +happiness and welfare. + +Finally, the Federal Constitution provided for the inestimable boon of +religious liberty, and in a way that was both revolutionary and wholesome. +At the beginning of the War for Independence the Anglican (Episcopal) +faith had been declared "the established religion" in seven of the +Colonies, and the Congregational was the established religion in three of +the New England Colonies, while but three Colonies had declared for +religious freedom and refused to give a preference to any special creed. +This religious problem had to be met by the Constitutional Convention, and +this body handled it in the only way it could have been intelligently +handled in a nation composed of so many different religious sects as was +ours. It simply incorporated into the Federal Constitution provisions +which guaranteed the free exercise of their religious faith to all, and +forbade the establishment by Congress of any state religion, or the +requirement of any religious test as a prerequisite to holding any office +under the control of the Federal Government. The American people thus took +a stand for religious liberty at a time when the hatreds of the +Reformation still burned fiercely, and when tolerance in religious matters +was as yet but little known. + +IMPORTANCE OF THE RELIGIOUS-LIBERTY CONTRIBUTION. The solution of the +religious question arrived at was only second in importance for us to the +establishment of the Federal Union, and the far-reaching significance to +our future national life of the sane and for-the-time extraordinary +provisions incorporated into our National Constitution can hardly be +overestimated. This action led to the early abandonment of state +religions, religious tests, and public taxation for religion in the old +States, and to the prohibition of these in the new. The importance of this +solution of the religious question for the future of popular education in +the United States was great, for it laid the foundations upon which our +systems of free, common, public, tax-supported, non-sectarian schools have +since been built up. How we could have erected a common public-school +system on a religious basis, with the many religious sects among us, it is +impossible to conceive. Instead, we should have had a series of feeble, +jealous, antagonistic, and utterly inefficient church-school systems, +chiefly confined to elementary education, and each largely intent on +teaching its peculiar church doctrines and struggling for an increasing +share of public funds. + +How much the American people owe to the Fathers of the Republic for this +most enlightened and intelligent provision, few who have not thought +carefully on the matter can appreciate. To it we must trace not only the +great blessing of religious liberty, which we have so long enjoyed, but +also the final establishment of our common, free, public-school systems. +The beginning of the new state motive for education, which was soon to +supersede the religious motive, dates from the establishment with us of +republican governments; and the beginning of the emancipation of education +from church domination goes back to this wise provision inserted in our +National Constitution. + +This national attitude was later copied in the state constitutions, and as +a preamble to practically all we find a Bill of Rights, which in almost +every case included a provision for freedom of religious worship (Rs. 251, +260). After the middle of the nineteenth century a further provision +prohibiting sectarian teaching or state aid to sectarian schools was +everywhere added. + + +V. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION SWEEPS AWAY ANCIENT ABUSES + +NEW DEMANDS FOR REFORM THAT COULD NOT BE RESISTED. More than in any other +continental European country France had, by 1783, become a united nation, +conscious of a modern national feeling. Yet in France mediaeval abuses in +both State and Church had survived, as we have seen, to as great an extent +almost as in any European nation. So determined were the clergy and +nobility to retain their old powers, not only in France but throughout the +continent of Europe as well, that progressive reform seemed well-nigh +impossible. The work of the benevolent despots had, after all, been +superficial. By the last quarter of the eighteenth, though, a progressive +change was under way which was certain to produce either evolution or +revolution. The influence of the American experiment in nation-building +now became pronounced. In 1779 Franklin took a copy of the new +Pennsylvania Constitution with him to Paris, and in 1780 John Adams did +the same with the Massachusetts Constitution. Frenchmen instantly +recognized here, in concrete form, the ideas with which their own heads +were filled. In 1783 Franklin published in France a French translation of +all the American Constitutions, and the National Constitution of 1787 was +as eagerly read and discussed in Paris as in New York or Philadelphia or +Boston. America appeared to the French of that stormy period as an ideal +land; where the dreams of Rousseau about the social contract had been +transformed into realities. Two years later the _cahiers_ of the Third +Estate demanded a written constitution for France. The French, too, had +aided the American Colonies in their struggle for liberty, and French +soldiers returning home carried back new political ideas drawn from the +remarkable political progress of the new American Nation. By 1788 the +demand for reform in France had become so insistent, and the condition of +the treasury of the State was so bad, that it was finally felt necessary +to summon a meeting of the States-General--a sort of national parliament +consisting of representatives of the three great Estates: clergy, +nobility, and commons--which had not met in France since 1614. + +[Illustration: FIG. 153. THE STATES-GENERAL IN SESSION AT VERSAILLES +(After a contemporary drawing by Monnet)] + +Besides electing its representatives, each locality and order was allowed +to draw up a series of instructions, or _cahiers_ (+R. 252+), for the +guidance of its delegates. These _cahiers_ are a mine of information as to +the demands and hopes and interests of the French people, [33] and it is +interesting to know that the _cahiers_ of nobility, clergy, and commons +alike included, among their demands, the organization of a comprehensive +plan of education for France. [34] + +FRANCE ESTABLISHES CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT. The States-General met May +5, 1789, and soon (June 20) resolved itself into the National or +Constituent Assembly. Terrified by the uprisings and burnings of châteaux +throughout France, on the night of August fourth, in a few hours, it +adopted a series of decrees which virtually abolished the _Ancien Régime_ +of privileges for France. The nobility gave up most of their old rights, +the serfs [35] were freed, and the special privileges of towns were +surrendered. Later the Assembly adopted a "Declaration of Rights of Man +and of the Citizen" (R. 253), much like the American Declaration of +Independence. This declared, among other things, that all men were born +free and have equal rights, that taxes should be proportional to wealth, +that all citizens were equal before the law and have a right to help make +the laws, and that the people of the nation were sovereign. These +principles struck at the very foundations of the old system. + +Soon a Constitution for France, the first ever promulgated in modern +Europe, was prepared and adopted (1791). This abolished the ancient +privileges and reorganized France as a self-governing nation, much after +the American plan. Local government was created, and the absolute monarchy +was changed to a limited constitutional one. Next the property of the +Church was taken over by the State, the monasteries were suppressed, and +the priests and bishops were made state officials and paid a fixed state +salary. The Jesuits had been expelled from France in 1764; and in 1792 the +Brothers of the Christian Schools were not allowed longer to teach. Among +other important matters, the Constitution of 1791 declared that: + + There shall be created and organized a system of public instruction + common to all citizens, and gratuitous, with respect to those branches + of instruction which are indispensable for all men. + +Up to this point the Revolution in France had proceeded relatively +peacefully, considering the nature of the long-standing abuses which were +to be remedied. In August, 1792, the King was imprisoned, and in January, +1793, he was executed and a Republic proclaimed. [36] Then followed a +reign of terror, which we do not need to follow, and which ended only when +Napoleon became master of France. + +BENEFICENT RESULTS OF THE REVOLUTION. The French Revolution was not an +accident or a product of chance, but rather the inevitable result of an +attempt to dam up the stream of human progress and prevent its orderly +onward flow. The Protestant Revolts were the first great revolutionary +wave, the Puritan revolution in England was another, the formation of the +American Republic and the institution of constitutional government and +religious freedom another, while the French Revolution brought the rising +movement to a head and swept away, in a deluge of blood, the very +foundations of the mediaeval system. Along with much that was disastrous, +the French Revolution accomplished after all much that was of greatest +importance for human progress. The world at times seems to be in need of +such a great catharsis. Progress was made in a decade that could hardly +have been made in a century by peaceful evolution. The old order of +privilege came to an end, mediaevalism was swept away, and the serf was +evolved into the free farmer and citizen. One fifth of the soil of France +was restored to the use of the people from the monasteries, and an +additional one third from the Church and nobility. The new principles of +citizenship--Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity--were for France +revolutionary in the extreme, while the assertion that the sovereignty of +a nation rests with the people rather than with the king, here +successfully promulgated, ended for all time the "divine-right-of-kings" +idea for France. After political theory had for a time run mad, the +organizing genius of Napoleon consolidated the gains, gave France a strong +government, a uniform code of laws, [37] and began that organization of +schools for the nation which ultimately meant the taking over of education +from the Church and its provision at the expense of and in the interests +of the nation. + +THE NATIONAL IDEA EXTENDS TO OTHER LANDS. The reform work in France, +together with the examples of English and American liberty, soon began to +have their influence in other lands as well. People everywhere began to +see that the old régime of privilege and misgovernment ought to be +replaced. Other countries abolished serfdom, introduced better laws, and +made reforms in the abuses of both Church and State. French armies and +rulers carried the best of French ideas to other lands, and, where the +French rule continued long enough, these ideas became fixed. In particular +was the _Code Napoléon_ copied in the Netherlands, the Italian States, and +the States of southern and western Germany. The national spirit of Italy +was awakened, and the Italian liberals began to look forward to the day +when the small Italian States might be reunited into an Italian Nation, +with Rome as its capital. This became the work of nineteenth-century +Italian statesmen. For the first time in Spanish history, too, the people +became conscious, under French occupation, of a feeling of national unity, +and similarly the national spirit of German lands was stirred by the +conquests of Napoleon. + +A constitution was obtained in Spain, in 1812, and between 1815 and 1821 +all of Spain's South American colonies--Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, +Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela--revolted, +became independent, and set up republics with constitutional governments, +some of the larger ones based on the federal principle, as in the United +States. Brazil similarly freed itself from Portugal and set up a +constitutional and federated monarchy, in 1822. The Kingdom of Naples +obtained constitutional government in 1820, and Sardinia in 1821. In 1823, +when Spain with Austria's aid prepared to reconquer the Spanish South +American Republics, President Monroe transmitted to the American Congress +his message in which he declared that any attempt on the part of European +nations to suppress republicanism on the American continent would be +considered by the United States as an unfriendly act. This has since been +known as the _Monroe Doctrine_. In 1829 Greece obtained her independence +from Turkey, and in 1843 a constitutional form of government was obtained. + +IMPORTANT CONSEQUENCES OF THE DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENT. Since the closing +decades of the eighteenth century, when democratic government and written +constitutions began, the sweep of democratic government has become almost +world wide. Nation after nation has changed to democratic and +constitutional forms of government, the latest additions being Portugal +(1911), China (1912), Russia (1917), and Germany (1918). New English +colonies, too, have carried English self-government into almost every +continent. The World War of 1914-18 gave a new emphasis to democracy, and +there is good reason to believe that government of and by and for the +people is ultimately destined to prevail among all the intelligent nations +and races of the earth. + +With the development of democratic government there has everywhere been a +softening of old laws, the growth of humanitarianism, the wider and wider +extension of the suffrage, important legislation as to labor, a previously +unknown attention to the poor and the dependents of society, a vast +extension of educational advantages, and the taking over of education from +the Church by the State and the erection of the school into an important +institution for the preservation and advancement of the national welfare. +These consequences of the onward sweep of new-world ideas we shall trace +more in detail in the chapters which follow. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Show the importance, for human progress, of each of the meanings of the +new eighteenth-century liberalism, as enumerated on pages 471-72. + +2. How do you explain the lack of any permanent influence on Spanish life +of the work of the benevolent despots in Spain? + +3. Show the liberalizing influence of the rise of scientific investigation +and economic studies, for a nation still oppressed by mediaevalism and bad +government. + +4. Enumerate the new sciences which arose in the eighteenth century. + +5. Indicate the importance of the freedom of the press in the development +of English political liberty. + +6. Explain how the religious-freedom attitude of the American national +constitution conferred an inestimable boon on the States in the matter of +public education. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following illustrative +selections are reproduced: + + 247. Dabney: Ecclesiastical Tyranny in France. + 248. Voltaire: On the Relation of Church and State. + 249. Rousseau: Extract from the Social Contract. + 250. Buckle: Changes in English Thinking in the Eighteenth Century, + 251. Pennsylvania Constitution: Bill of Rights in. + 252. Clergy of Blois: _Cahier_ of 1779. + 253. France: Declaration of the Rights of Man. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Explain why ecclesiastical tyranny should have awakened such a spirit +of rebellion in France (247), and not in Spain or in Italian lands. + +2. Just what attitude toward religion is shown in the extract from +Voltaire (248)? + +3. Bolshevists in Russia and in America talk to-day as did Rousseau in the +Social Contract (249). Compare the justification of each with the +eighteenth-century France of Rousseau. + +4. What do all the changes enumerated by Buckle (250) indicate as to the +spread of general education, irrespective of schools, among the English +people? + +5. Compare the Pennsylvania Bill of Rights of 1776 (251) with that of your +own present-day state constitution, + +6. Just what type of educational provisions, and what administrative +organization, did the recommendations of the Clergy of Blois (252) +contemplate? Indicate its shortcomings for eighteenth-century France. + +7. Compare the main ideas of 251 and 253. + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + + Dabney, R. H. _The Causes of the French Revolution_. + Taine, H. A. _The Ancient Regime_. + + + + +CHAPTER XX + +THE BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL EDUCATION + + +I. NEW CONCEPTIONS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE + +THE STATE AS SERVANT OF THE CHURCH. With the rise of the Protestant sects +we noted, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and for the first time +since Christianity became supreme in the western world, the beginnings of +a state connection with the education of the young. The Protestant +reformers, obtaining the support of the Protestant princes and kings, had +successfully used this support to assist them in the organization of +church schools as an aid to the reformed faith. Luther, it will be +recalled (p. 312), had made a strong appeal to the mayors and magistrates +of all German lands to establish schools as a part of their civic duties +(R. 156), and had contended that a solemn obligation rested upon them to +do so. The Dutch Provinces had worked closely with the Dutch Protestant +synods (p. 334) in ordering schools established and in providing for their +financing; Calvin had organized a religious City-State at Geneva (p. 330), +of which religion and learning had been the corner-stones; the Scottish +Parliament, by the laws of 1633 and 1646 (p. 335), had ordered schools for +Scottish children in connection with the churches; and in the Scandinavian +countries and in Finland the beginnings of a connection with the State had +also been made (p. 315). Finally, in the new Massachusetts Colony the laws +of 1642 and 1647 (p. 366) had, for the first time in the English-speaking +world, ordered that children be taught "to read and understand the +principles of religion and the capital laws of the country" (p. 364), and +that schools be established by the towns, under penalty if they refused to +do so. In all Protestant lands we saw that the reformers appealed, from +time to time, to what were then the servants of the churches--the rising +civil governments and principalities and States--to use their civil +authority to force the people to meet their new religious obligations in +the matter of schooling. + +The purpose of the schooling ordered established, however, was almost +wholly religious. Massachusetts, in ordering instruction in the "capital +laws of the country," as well as reading and religion, had formed a marked +exception. In nearly all lands the rising state governments merely helped +the Protestant churches to create the elementary vernacular religious +school, and to make of it an auxiliary for the protection of orthodoxy and +the advancement of the faith. Even in the new state school systems of the +German States--Saxony, Würtemberg (p. 317), Brunswick, Weimar, Gotha--the +elementary schools established were for religious rather than for state +ends. This condition continued until well toward the middle of the +eighteenth century. + +THE NEW STATE THEORY OF EDUCATION. After about the middle of the +eighteenth century a new theory as to the purpose of education, and one +destined to make rapid headway, began to be advanced. This theory had +already made marked progress, as we shall see, in the New England +Colonies, and had also found expression, as we shall also see in a later +chapter, in the organizing work of Frederick the Great in Prussia. It was +from the French political philosophers of the eighteenth century, though, +that its clearest definition came. They now advanced the idea that schools +were essentially civil affairs, the purpose of which should be to promote +the everyday interests of society and the welfare of the State, rather +than the welfare of the Church, and to prepare for a life here rather than +a life hereafter. + +After about 1750 a critical and reformatory pedagogy rapidly began to take +shape in France, and the second half of the eighteenth century became a +period of criticism and discontent and reconstruction in education, as +well as in politics and religion. + +This criticism and discontent in France was greatly stimulated by the +decline in character and influence of the Jesuit schools. Unwilling to +change their instruction to meet the needs of a changing society, their +schools had become formal in character (R. 146), and were now engaged +chiefly in stilling thinking rather than in promoting it. In consequence +the schools had fallen into disrepute throughout all France. The Society, +too, in the eighteenth century, came to be a powerful political +organization which strove to dominate the State. So bad had the situation +become by 1762, that the different parliaments in the provinces and in +Paris had formulated complaints against the Jesuits and their schools, [1] +and, in 1764, the king was induced to suppress the Order. [2] This decline +in influence and final suppression of the Society gave rise to some rather +remarkable pedagogical literature, which looked to the creation of a +system of state secondary schools in France to replace those of the +Jesuits. + +The outcome was the rise of a new national and individual conception of +the educational purpose. This was destined in time to spread to other +lands and to lead to the rise of complete state school systems, financed +and managed by the State and conducted for state ends, and to the ultimate +divorce of Church and State, in all progressive lands, in the matter of +the education of the young. Teachers trained and certificated by the State +were in time to supplant the nuns and brothers of the religious +congregations in Catholic lands, as well as teachers who served as +assistants to the pastors in Protestant lands and whose chief purpose was +to uphold the teachings and advance the interests of the sect; citizens +were to supplant the ecclesiastic in the supervision of instruction; and +the courses of instruction were to be changed in direction and vastly +broadened in scope to make them minister to the needs of the State rather +than the Church, and to prepare pupils for useful life here rather than +for life in another world. + + +II. THE NEW STATE THEORY IN FRANCE + +[Illustration: FIG. 154. ROUSSEAU (1712-78)] + +THE FRENCH POLITICAL THEORISTS. The leading French political theorists of +the two decades between 1760 and 1780 now began to discuss education as in +theory a civil affair, intimately connected with the promotion of the +welfare of the State. The more important of these, and their chief ideas +were: + +1. _Rousseau._ The first of the critical and reformatory pedagogical +writers to awaken any large interest and obtain a general hearing was +Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The same year (1762) that his _Social Contract_ +appeared and attacked the foundations of the old political system (p. +483), his _Émile_ also appeared and attacked with equal vigor the +religious and social theory as to education then prevailing throughout +western Europe. For the stiff and unnatural methods in education, under +which children were dressed and made to behave as adults, [3] the harsh +discipline of the time, and the excessive emphasis on religious +instruction and book education, he preached the substitution of life amid +nature, childish ways and sports, parental love, and an education that +considered the instincts and natural development of children. + +Gathering up the political and social ideas of his age as to +ecclesiastical and political despotism; the nature of the social contract; +that the "state of nature" was the ideal one, and the one in which men had +been intended to live; that human duty called for a return to the "state +of nature," whatever that might be; and that the artificiality and +hypocrisy of his age in manners, dress, religion, and education were all +wrong--Rousseau restated his political philosophy in terms of the +education of the boy, Émile. Despite its many exaggerations, much faulty +reasoning, and many imperfections, the book had a tremendous influence +upon Europe in laying bare the limitations and defects and abuses of the +formal and ecclesiastical education of the time. [4] He may be regarded as +the first important writer to sap the foundations of the old system of +religious education, and to lay a basis for a new type of child training +(R. 254). Though Rousseau's enthusiasm took the form of theory run mad, +and the educational plan he proposed was largely impossible, he +nevertheless popularized education, not only in France, but among the +reading public of the progressive European States as well. After he had +written, the old limited and narrow religious education was on the +defensive, and, though time was required, the transition to a more secular +type of education was inevitable as fast as nations and peoples could +shake off the dominance of the Church in state affairs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 155 LA CHALOTAIS (1701-83)] + +2. _La Chalotais._ The year following the publication of Rousseau's +_Émile_ appeared La Chalotais's _Essai d'éducation nationale_ (1763). René +de la Chalotais, a Solicitor-General for the Parliament of Bretagne, was +one of the notable French parliamentarians of the middle of the eighteenth +century. Unlike Rousseau's highly imaginary, exaggerated, sentimental, and +paradoxical volume, La Chalotais produced a practical and philosophical +discussion of the problem of the education of a people. Declaring firmly +that education was essentially a civil affair; that it was the function of +government to make citizens contented by educating them for their sphere +in society; that citizen and secular teachers should not be excluded for +celibates; [5] that the real purpose of education should be to prepare +citizens for France; that the poor were deserving of education; and that +"the most enlightened people will always have the advantage" in the +struggles of a modern world, La Chalotais produced a work which was warmly +approved by such political philosophers as Voltaire, Diderot, and Turgot, +and which was translated into several European languages (R. 255). Though +far less widely read than Rousseau's _Émile_, it was far more influential +in shaping subsequent political theory and action regarding the relations +of education to the State. Nearly every proposal for educational +legislation during the days of the Revolution went back in idea to this +philosophic discussion of the question by La Chalotais and to the +practical proposals of Rolland and Turgot. + +[Illustration: FIG. 156. ROLLAND (1734-93)] + +3. _Rolland._ In 1768 Rolland, president of the Parliament of Paris, +presented to his colleagues a report in which he outlined a national +system of education to replace both the schools of the Jesuits and those +of the Brothers of the Christian Schools. La Chalotais had proposed a more +modern system of state schools chiefly to replace those of the Jesuits, +but Rolland went further and proposed the extension of education to all, +and the supervision of all schools by a central council of the Government. +By means of a centralized control, a central university to which the other +universities of France were to be subordinate, a higher normal school to +train teachers for the colleges (secondary schools), and universal +education, [6] Rolland hoped to develop for France a national spirit, a +national character, and a national government and code of laws, and to +bring the youth of the provinces into harmony with the best of all French +ideas. + +4. _Turgot._ In 1774 Turgot was appointed Minister of Finance (p. 481), +and in 1775 he made a series of recommendations to the King in which he +set forth ideas analogous to those of Rolland, and presented an eloquent +plea for the formation of a national council of public instruction and the +establishment of a system of civil and national education for the whole of +France. In closing he wrote: + + Your kingdom, Sir, is of this world. Without opposing any obstacle + to the instructions whose object is higher, and which already have + their rules and their expounders, I think I can propose to you nothing + of more advantage to your people than to cause to be given to all your + subjects an instruction which shows them the obligations they owe to + society and to your power to protect them, and the interest they have + in fulfilling those duties for the public good and their own. This + moral and social instruction requires books expressly prepared, by + competition, and with great care, and a schoolmaster in each parish to + teach them to children, along with the art of writing, reading, + counting, measuring, and the principles of mechanics. The study of the + duty of citizenship ought to be the foundation of all the other + studies.... There are methods and establishments for training + geometricians, physicists, and painters, but there are none for + training citizens. + +5. _Diderot._ In 1776 Diderot, editor with D'Alembert of the +_Encyclopaedia_ (1751-72), prepared, at the request of Catherine II (p. +477), under the title of _Plan of a University_, a complete scheme for the +organization of a state system of public instruction for Russia. Though +the plan was never carried out, it was printed and much discussed in +France, and is important as coming from one of the most influential +Frenchmen of his time. He commends as an example to be followed the work +of the German States in the organization of popular instruction. For +Russia he outlines first a system of people's schools, which shall be free +and obligatory for all, and in which instruction in reading, writing, +arithmetic, morals, civics, and religion shall be taught. "From the Prime +Minister to the lowest peasant," he says, "it is good for every one to +know how to read, write, and count." For the series of secondary schools +to be established, he condemns the usual practice of devoting so much of +the instruction to the humanities and a mediaeval type of logic and +ethics, and urges instead the introduction of instruction in mathematics, +in the modern sciences, literature, and the work of governments. Classical +studies he would confine to the last years of the course. Science, +history, drawing, and music find a place in his scheme. + +All this instruction Diderot would place under the supervisory control of +an administrative bureau to be known as the _University of Russia_, at the +head of which should be a statesman, who should exercise control of all +the work of public instruction beneath. Though never carried out in +Russia, the University of France of 1808 is largely an embodiment of the +ideas he proposed in 1776. + +LEGISLATIVE PROPOSALS TO EMBODY THESE IDEAS. During the quarter of a +century between the publication of Rousseau's _Émile_ and the summoning of +the States-General to reform France (1762-88), the educational as well as +the political ideas of the French reformers had taken deep root with the +thinking classes of the nation. The _cahiers_ of 1789, of all Orders (p. +500), gave evidence of this in their somewhat general demand for the +creation of some form of an educational system for France (R. 252). From +the first days of the Revolution pedagogical literature became plentiful, +and the successive National Assemblies found time, amid the internal +reorganization of France, constitution-making, the troubles with and trial +of the King, and the darkening cloud of foreign intervention, to listen to +reports and addresses on education and to enact a bill for the +organization of a national school system. The more important of these +educational efforts were: + +1. _The Constituent Assembly_ (June 17, 1789, to September 30, 1791). In +the Constituent Assembly, into which the States-General resolved itself, +June 17, 1789, and which continued until after it had framed the +constitution of 1791, two notable addresses and one notable report on the +organization of education were made. The Count de Mirabeau, a nobleman +turned against his class and elected to the States-General as a +representative of the Third Estate, made addresses on the "Organization of +a Teaching Body" and on the "Organization of a National _Lycée_." In the +first he advocated the establishment of primary schools throughout France. +In the second he proposed the establishment of colleges of literature in +each department, with a National _Lycée_ at Paris for higher (university) +education, and to contain the essentials of a national normal school or +teachers' college as well. + +[Illustration: FIG. 157 COUNT DE MIRABEAU (1749-91)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 158. TALLEYRAND (1758-1838)] + +Mirabeau's proposals represent rather a transition in thinking from the +old to the new, but the Report of Talleyrand (1791), former Bishop of +Autun, now turned revolutionist, embodies the full culmination of +revolutionary educational thought. Public instruction he termed "a power +which embraces everything, from the games of infancy to the most imposing +fêtes of the Nation." He definitely proposed the organization of a +complete state system of public instruction for France, to consist of a +primary school in every canton (community, district), open to the children +of peasants and workmen--classes heretofore unprovided with education; a +secondary school in every department (county); a series of special schools +in the chief French cities, to prepare for the professions; and a National +Institute, or University, to be located at Paris. Inspired by +Montesquieu's principle that "the laws of education ought to be relative +to the principles of government," Talleyrand proposed a bill designed to +give effect to the provisions of the Constitution of 1791 relating to +education (p. 501), and to provide an education for the people of France +who were now to exercise, through elected representatives, the legislative +power for France. Instruction he held to be the necessary counterpoise of +liberty, and every citizen was to be taught to know, obey, love, and +protect the new constitution. Political, social, and personal morality +were to take the place of religion in the cantonal schools, which were to +be free and equally open to all. As the Constituent Assembly was succeeded +by the newly elected Legislative Assembly within three weeks after +Talleyrand submitted his Report, no action was taken on his bill. + +[Illustration: FIG. 159. CONDORCET (1743-94)] + +2. _The Legislative Assembly_ (October 1, 1791, to September 21, 1792). +This new legislative body was far more radical in character than its +predecessor, and far more radical than was the sentiment of France at the +time. Among other acts it abolished (1792) the old universities and +confiscated (1793) their property to the State. To it was submitted (April +20-21, 1792) by the mathematician, philosopher, and revolutionist, Marquis +de Condorcet, [7] on behalf of the Committee on Public Instruction and as +a measure of reconstruction, a Report and draft of a Law for the +organization of a complete democratic system of public instruction for +France (R. 256). It provided for the organizing of a primary school for +every four hundred inhabitants, in which each individual was "to be taught +to direct his own conduct and to enjoy the plenitude of his own rights," +and where principles would be taught, calculated to "insure the +perpetuation of liberty and equality." The bill also provided, for the +first time, for the organization of higher primary schools in the +principal towns; colleges (secondary schools) in the chief cities (one for +every four thousand inhabitants); a higher school for each "department"; +_Lycées_, or institutions of still higher learning, at nine places in +France; and a National Society of Sciences and Arts to crown the +educational system at Paris. The national system of education he proposed +was to be equally open to women, as well as men, and to be gratuitous +throughout. Teachers for each grade of school were to be prepared in the +school next above. Sunday lectures for workingmen and peasants were to be +given by teachers everywhere. Public morality, political intelligence, +human progress, and the preservation of liberty and equality were the aims +of the instruction. The necessity for education in a constitutional +government he saw clearly. "A free constitution," he writes, "which should +not be correspondent to the universal instruction of citizens, would come +to destruction after a few conflicts, and would degenerate into one of +those forms of government which cannot preserve the peace among an +ignorant and corrupt people." Anarchy or despotism he held to be the +future for peoples who become free without being enlightened. He held it +to be a fundamental principle that: + + The order of nature includes no distinctions in society beyond those + of education and wealth. To establish among citizens an equality in + fact, and to realize the equality confirmed by law, ought to be the + primary object of national instruction. + +The bill proposed by Condorcet, while too ambitious for the France of his +day, was thoroughly sound as a democratic theory of education, and an +accurate prediction of what the nineteenth century brought generally into +existence. Condorcet's Report was discussed, but not acted upon. + +[Illustration: FIG. 160. THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE +Founded by Article 298 of the Constitution of Year III (1793)] + +3. _The National Convention_ (September 21, 1792, to October 26, 1795). +The Convention was also a radical body, deeply interested in the creation +of a system of state schools for the people of France. To higher education +there was for a time marked opposition, though later in its history the +Convention erected a number of important higher technical institutions and +schools, among the most important of which was the Institute of France. +There was also in the Convention marked opposition to all forms of +clerical control of schools. The schools of the Brothers of the Christian +Schools were suppressed by it, in 1792, and all secular and endowed +schools and colleges were abolished and their property confiscated, in +1793. The complete supremacy of the State in all educational matters was +now asserted. Great enthusiasm was manifested for the organization of +state primary schools, which were ordered established in 1793 (R. 258 a), +and in these: + + Children of all classes were to receive that first education, + physical, moral, and intellectual, the best adapted to develop in them + republican manners, patriotism, and the love of labor, and to render + them worthy of liberty and equality. + + The course of instruction was to include: "to speak, read, and write + correctly the French language; the geography of France; the rights and + duties of men and citizens; [8] the first notions of natural and + familiar objects; the use of numbers, the compass, the level, the + system of weights and measures, the mechanical powers, and the + measurement of time. They are to be taken into the fields and the + workshops where they may see agricultural and mechanical operations + going on, and take part in the same so far as their age will allow." + +What a change from the course of instruction in the religious schools just +preceding this period! + +[Illustration: FIG. 161. LAKANAL (1762-1845)] + +A multiplicity of reports, bills, and decrees, often more or less +contradictory but still embodying ideas advanced by Condorcet and +Talleyrand, now appeared. Whereas the preceding legislative bodies had +considered the subject carefully, but without taking action, the +Convention now acted. The nation, though, was so engrossed by the internal +chaos and foreign aggression that there was neither time nor funds to +carry the decrees into effect. + +The most extreme proposal of the period was the bill of Lepelletier le +Saint-Fargeau to create a national system of education modeled closely +after that of ancient Sparta. The best of the proposals probably was the +Lakanal Law, of November 17, 1794, which ordered a school for every one +thousand inhabitants, with special divisions for boys and girls, and which +provided for instruction in: + + 1. Reading and writing the French language. + 2. The Declaration of the Rights of Man, and the Constitution. + 3. Lessons on republican morals. + 4. The rules of simple calculation and surveying. + 5. Lessons in geography and the phenomena of nature. + 6. Lessons on heroic actions, and songs of triumph. + +Lakanal also carefully prescribed the method of instruction, and advocated +the founding of a national normal school (Latin _norma_; a rule), which +idea the Convention adopted in 1794, the school opening [9] in January, +1795. Supplementing this was the law of February 25, 1795, ordering +central or higher schools established to replace the former colleges, [10] +one for every three hundred thousand of the population, which were to +offer instruction from twelve to eighteen. The course was to include: + + 12 to 14--Drawing, natural history, ancient and living languages. + 14 to 16--Mathematics, natural philosophy, experimental chemistry. + 16 to 18--Grammar, literature, history, legislation. + +Organized on a soviet principle, each professor declared the equal of +every other, and lacking any effective administration or discipline, these +institutions soon fell into disrepute and were displaced when Napoleon +reorganized secondary education in France. + +The law of October 25, 1795, closed the work of the Convention. This made +less important provisions for primary education (R. 258 b) than had +preceding bills, but was the only permanent contribution of this period to +the organization of primary schools. It placed greater emphasis than had +the legislative Assembly on the creation of secondary and higher +institutions (R. 258 a), of more value to the bourgeois class. This bill +of 1795 represents a reaction from the extreme republican ideas of a few +years earlier, and the triumph of the conservative middle-class elements +in the nation over the radical republican elements previously in control. + +The Convention also, in the latter part of its history, created a number +of higher technical institutions of importance, which were expressive +alike of the French interest in scientific subjects which arose during the +latter part of the eighteenth century, and of the new French military +needs. Many of these institutions have persisted to the present, so well +have they answered the scientific interests and needs of the nation. A +mere list of the institutions created is all that need be given. These +were: + + Museum or Conservatory of Arts (Jan. 16, 1794). + Conservatory of Arts and Trades (Oct. 10, 1794). + New medical schools (_Schools of Health_) ordered (Dec. 4, 1794). + Museum of Natural History (Dec. 11, 1794). + Central Schools to succeed the former Colleges (secondary schools) + (Feb. 25, 1795). + School of Living Oriental Languages (March 30, 1795). + Veterinary Schools (April 21, 1795). + Course in Archaeology, National Library (June 8, 1795). + Bureau of Longitude (June 29, 1795). + Conservatory of Music (Aug. 3, 1795). + The National Library (Oct. 17, 1795). + Museum of Archaeological Monuments (Oct. 20, 1795). + Polytechnic Schools (R. 257); + School of Civil Engineering; + School of Hydrographic Engineers; + and School of Mining (Oct. 22, 1795). + +The Convention also adopted the metric system of weights and measures; +enacted laws under which the peasants could acquire title to the lands +they had tilled for so long; and began the unification of the laws of the +different parts of the country into a single set, which later culminated +in the _Code Napoléon_. + +4. _The Directory_ (1795-99) _and the Consulate_ (1799-1804). The +Revolution had by this time largely spent itself, the Directory followed, +and in 1799 Napoleon became First Consul and for the next sixteen years +was master of France. The Law of 1795 for primary schools (R. 258 b) was +but feebly administered under the Directory, as foreign wars absorbed the +energies and resources of the Government. Napoleon's chief educational +interest, too, was in opening up opportunities for talent to rise, in +encouraging scientific work and higher specialized institutions, and in +developing schools of a type that would support the kind of government he +had imposed upon France. The secondary and higher schools he established +and promoted cost him money at a time when money was badly needed for +national defense, and primary education was accordingly neglected during +the time he directed the destinies of the nation. His educational +organizations and work we shall refer to again in a later chapter. + +The Revolutionary enthusiasts had stated clearly their theory of +republican education, but had failed to establish a permanent state school +system according to their plans. This now became the work of the +nineteenth century. In the meantime, in the new United States of America +the same ideas were taking shape and finding expression, and to the +developments there we next turn. + + +III. THE NEW STATE THEORY IN AMERICA + +WANING OF THE OLD RELIGIOUS INTEREST. As early as 1647 Rhode Island Colony +had enacted the first law providing for freedom of religious worship ever +enacted by an English-speaking people, and two years later Maryland +enacted a similar law. Though the Maryland law was later repealed, and a +rigid Church-of-England rule established there, these laws were indicative +of the new spirit arising in the New World. By the beginning of the +eighteenth century a change in attitude toward the old problem of personal +salvation had become evident. Frontier conditions; the gradual rise of a +civil as opposed to a religious form of town government; the rising +interests in trade and shipping; the beginnings of the breakdown of the +old aristocratic traditions and customs transplanted from Europe; the +rising individualism in both Europe and America--these all helped to +weaken the hold on the people of the old religious doctrines. + +By 1750 the change in religious thinking in the American Colonies had +become quite marked. [11] Especially was this change evidenced in the +dying-out of the old religious fervor and intolerance, and the breaking-up +of the old religious solidarity. While most of the Colonies continued to +maintain an "established Church," other sects had to be admitted to the +Colony and given freedom of worship. The Puritan monopoly in New England +was broken, as was also that of the Anglican faith in the central +Colonies. The day of the monopoly of any sect in a Colony was over. New +secular interests began to take the place of religion as the chief topic +of thought and conversation, and secular books began to dispute the +earlier predominance of the Bible. A few colonial newspapers had begun +(seven by 1750), and these became expressive of the new colony interests. + +CHANGING CHARACTER OF THE SCHOOLS. These changes in attitude toward the +old religious problems materially affected both the support and the +character of the education provided in the Colonies. The Law of 1647, +requiring the maintenance of the Latin grammar schools, had been found to +be increasingly difficult of enforcement, not only in Massachusetts, but +in all the other New England Colonies which had followed the Massachusetts +example. With the changing attitude of the people, which had become +clearly manifest by 1750, the demand for relief from the maintenance of +this school in favor of a more practical and less aristocratic type of +higher school, if higher school were needed at all, became marked. By the +close of the colonial period the new American Academy (p. 463), with its +more practical studies, had begun to supersede the old Latin grammar +school. + +The elementary school experienced something of the same difficulties. Many +of the parochial schools died out, while others declined in character and +importance. In Church-of-England Colonies all elementary education was +left to private initiative and philanthropic and religious effort (p. +373). In the southern Colonies the classes in society and the character of +the plantation life made common schools impossible, and the feeling of any +need for elementary schools almost entirely died out. In New England the +eighteenth century was a continual struggle on the one hand to prevent the +original religious town school from disappearing, and on the other to +establish in its place a series of scattered and inferior district +schools, while either church or town support and tuition fees became ever +harder to obtain. Among other changes of importance the reading school and +the writing school now became definitely united, in all the smaller places +and in the rural districts, as a measure of economy, to form the American +school of the "3 Rs." New textbooks, too, containing less of the gloomily +religious than the _New England Primer_, and secular rather than religious +in character (p. 443), appeared after 1750 and began to be used in the +schools. After 1750, too, it was increasingly evident that the old +religious enthusiasm for schools had largely died out; that European +traditions and ways and types of schools no longer completely satisfied; +and that the period of the transplanting of European educational ideas and +schools and types of instruction was coming to an end. Instead, the +evolution of a public or state school out of the original religious +school, and the beginnings of the evolution of distinctly American types +of schools, better adapted to American needs, became increasingly evident +in the Colonies as the eighteenth century progressed. + +RISE OF THE CIVIL OF STATE SCHOOL. As has been stated earlier, the school +everywhere in America arose as a child of the Church. In the Middle +Colonies, where the parochial-school conception of education was the +prevailing type, the school remained under church control until after the +foundation of our national government. In New England, though--and the New +England evolution in time became the prevailing American practice--the +school passed through a very interesting development during colonial +times. + +As we have seen (p. 360), each little New England town was originally +established as a little religious republic, with the Church in complete +control. The governing authorities for church and civil affairs were much +the same. When acting as church officers they were known as Elders and +Deacons; when acting as civil or town officers they were known as +Selectmen. The State, as represented in the colony legislature or the town +meeting, was clearly the servant of the Church, and existed in large part +for religious ends. It was the State acting as the servant of the Church +which enacted the Massachusetts laws of 1642 and 1647 (Rs. 190, 19l), +requiring the towns to maintain schools for religious ends. Now, so close +was the connection between the religious town, which controlled church +affairs, and the civil town, which looked after roads, fences, taxes, and +defense--the constituency of both being one and the same, and the meetings +of both being held at first in the meeting-house--that when the schools +were established the colony legislature placed them under the civil--as +involving taxes, and being a public service--rather than under the +religious town. The interests of one were the interests of both, and, +being the same in constituency and territorial boundaries, there seemed no +occasion for friction or fear. From this religious beginning the civil +school and the civil school-town and school-township, with all their +elaborate school administrative machinery, were later evolved. + +The erection of a town hall, separate from the meeting-house, was a first +step in the process. School affairs now were discussed at the town hall, +instead of in the church. The town authorities now appointed committees to +locate and build schoolhouses, select and certificate the teachers, and +visit and examine the school. Next a regular town school committee was +provided for. To this was given the management of the town school, and +town taxes, instead of church taxes, were voted for buildings and +maintenance. The minister continued to certificate the grammar-school +master until the close of the colonial period, but the power to +certificate the elementary-school teachers passed to the town authorities +early in the eighteenth century. By the close of the century all that the +minister--as the only surviving representative of church control--had left +to him was the right to accompany the town authorities in the visitation +of schools. Thus gradually but certainly did the earlier religious school +in America pass out from under the control of the Church and come under +the control of the State. When our national government and the different +state governments were established, the States were ready to accept, in +principle at least, the theory gradually worked out in New England that +schools are state institutions, and should be under the control of the +State. + +THE EARLY STATE CONSTITUTIONS AND LAWS. In framing the Federal +Constitution, in 1787, education, then being regarded largely as a local +matter, was left to the States to handle as they saw fit; so we turn to +the early state constitutions and laws to see how far the new American +States had, by the close of the eighteenth century, advanced toward the +conception of education as an affair of the State. + +During the period from the Declaration of Independence to the close of the +eighteenth century (1776-1800), all the States, except Rhode Island and +Connecticut, which considered their colonial charters as satisfactory, +formulated and adopted new state constitutions. Three new States--Vermont, +Kentucky, and Tennessee--were admitted to the Union before 1800, and these +framed constitutions also. Of the sixteen States forming the Union by +1800, seven had incorporated into their constitutions a clause setting +forth the State's duty in the matter of education (R. 259). As in the +earlier period of American education, it was Calvinistic New England which +incorporated into the constitutions the best provisions regarding +learning. In the parochial-school central Colonies the mention was much +less emphatic, while the old Anglican-Church Colonies and the new States +of Kentucky and Tennessee remained silent on the subject. Massachusetts, +Vermont, and New Hampshire, in particular, incorporated strong sections +directing the encouragement of learning and virtue, the protection and +fostering of school societies, and the establishment of schools. The +Massachusetts provision, afterwards copied by New Hampshire, is so +explicit in the matter of state duty that it is worth quoting in full. + + Chap. V, Sec. 2. Wisdom and knowledge, as well as virtue, diffused + generally among the body of the people, being necessary for the + preservation of their rights and liberties; and as these depend on + spreading the opportunities and advantages of education in the various + parts of the country, and among the different orders of the people, it + shall be the duty of the legislatures and magistrates, in all future + periods of this Commonwealth, to cherish the interests of literature + and the sciences, and all seminaries of them; especially the + university at Cambridge, public schools, and grammar schools in the + towns; to encourage private societies and public institutions, by + rewards and immunities, for the promotion of agriculture, arts, + sciences, commerce, trades, manufactures, and a natural history of the + country; to countenance and inculcate the principles of humanity and + general benevolence, public and private charity, industry and + frugality, honesty and punctuality in their dealings; sincerity, good + humor, and all social affections and generous sentiments among the + people. + +Though the Federal Constitution made no provision for education or aid to +schools, when the Congress of the Confederation, in 1787, adopted the +Ordinance for the organization and government of the Northwest Territory, +out of which the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and +Wisconsin were later carved, it prefixed to this Ordinance the following +significant provision: + + Art. 3. Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good + government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of + education shall forever be encouraged [in the States to be formed from + this Territory]. + +By the time the first State formed from this western territory was ready +to be admitted to the Union (Ohio, 1802), the theory that education is a +function of the State had come to be so thoroughly accepted, in principle +at least, by the new American people that Congress now began a policy, +ever since continued, of aiding each new State to establish and maintain a +state system of schools. To this end Congress gave the new State for this +purpose a generous endowment of national land, and in addition three +townships of land to endow a state university. We also find that the +constitutions of the first States created from this new Northwest +Territory (Ohio, 1802; Indiana, 1816 [12]) contain for the time good +provisions relating to public education. The Ohio provisions (R. 260) are +noteworthy for the strong stand for religious freedom and against any +discrimination in the schools between rich and poor, while the Indiana +provisions (R. 261) are marked for their broad and generous conception of +the scope and purpose of a state system of public instruction. + +Many of the older States enacted general state school laws early in their +history (R. 262). Connecticut continued the general school laws of 1700, +1712, and 1714 unchanged, and in 1795 added $1,200,000, derived from land +sales, to a permanent state school endowment fund, created as early as +1750. Vermont enacted a general school law in 1782. Massachusetts and New +Hampshire enacted new general school laws, in 1789, which restated and +legalized the school development of the preceding hundred and fifty years. +All these required the maintenance of schools by the towns for a definite +term each year, ordered taxation, and fixed the school studies required by +the State. New York, in 1784, created an administrative organization, +known as the University of the State of New York, to supervise secondary +and higher education throughout the State--an institution clearly modeled +after the centralizing ideas of Condorcet, Rolland, and Diderot (p. 477), +and very similar to the ideas proposed by Talleyrand and Condorcet and +later (1808) embodied in the University of France by Napoleon. In 1795 New +York also provided for a state system of elementary education. Georgia +created a state system of academies, as early as 1783. Delaware created a +state school fund, in 1796, and Virginia enacted an optional school law +the same year. North Carolina created a state university, as early as +1795. + +THE NEW POLITICAL MOTIVE FOR SCHOOLS. We thus see, in the new United +States, the theories of the French revolutionary thinkers and statesmen +actually being realized in practice. The constitutional provisions, and +even the legislation, often were in advance of what the States, +impoverished as they were by the War of Independence, could at once carry +out, but they mark the evolution in America of a clearly defined state +theory as to education, and the recognition of a need for general +education in a government whose actions were so largely influenced by the +force of public opinion. The Federal Constitution had extended the right +to vote for national officers to all, and the older States soon began to +remove their earlier property qualifications for voting and to extend +general manhood suffrage to all citizens. + +This new development in government by the people, which meant the passing +of the rule of a propertied and educated class and the establishment of a +real democracy, caused the leading American statesmen to turn early to +general education as a necessity for republican safety. In his Farewell +Address to the American people, written in 1796, Washington said: + + Promote, then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for + the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of + a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that + public opinion should be enlightened. + +Jefferson spent the years 1784 to 1789 in Paris, and became a great +propagandist in America for French political ideas. Writing to James +Madison from France, as early as 1787, he said: + + Above all things, I hope the education of the common people will be + attended to; convinced that on this good sense we may rely with the + most security for the preservation of a due sense of liberty. + +[Illustration: FIG. 162. THOMAS JEFFERSON (1743-1826)] + +In 1779, then, as a member of the Virginia legislature, Jefferson tried +unsuccessfully to secure the passage of a comprehensive bill, after the +plan of the French Revolutionary proposals, for the organization of a +complete system of public education for Virginia. The essential features +of the proposed bill (R. 263) were that every county should be laid off +into school districts, five to six miles square, to be known as +"hundreds," and in each of these an elementary school was to be +established to which any citizen could send his children free of charge +for three years, and as much longer as he was willing to pay tuition; that +the leading pupil in each school was to be selected annually and sent to +one of twenty grammar (secondary) schools to be established and maintained +at various points in the State; after two years the leaders in each of +these schools were to be selected and further educated free for six years, +the less promising being sent home; and at the completion of the grammar- +school course, the upper half of the pupils were to be given three years +more of free education at the State College of William and Mary, and the +other half were to be employed as teachers for the schools of the State. +[13] + +Though the scheme failed of approval, Jefferson never lost interest in the +education of the people for intelligent participation in the functions of +government. Writing from Monticello to Colonel Yancey, in 1816, after his +retirement from the presidency, he wrote: + + If a nation expects to be ignorant and free in a state of civilization + it expects what never was and never will be.... There is no safe + deposit (for the functions of government) but with the people + themselves; nor can they be safe with them without information. + +In 1819 the founding of the University of Virginia crowned Jefferson's +efforts for education by the State. This institution, the Declaration of +Independence, and the statute for religious freedom in Virginia stand to- +day as the three enduring monuments to his memory. [14] + +Other of the early American statesmen expressed similar views as to the +importance of general education by the State. John Jay, first Chief +Justice of the United States, in a letter to his friend, Dr. Benjamin +Rush, wrote: + + I consider knowledge to be the soul of a Republic, and as the weak and + the wicked are generally in alliance, as much care should be taken to + diminish the number of the former as of the latter. Education is the + way to do this, and nothing should be left undone to afford all ranks + of people the means of obtaining a proper degree of it at a cheap and + easy rate. + +James Madison, fourth President of the United States, wrote: + + A satisfactory plan for primary education is certainly a vital + desideratum in our republics. + + A popular government without popular information or the means of + acquiring it is but a prologue to a farce or a tragedy, or, perhaps, + both. Knowledge will forever govern ignorance; and a people who mean + to be their own governors must arm themselves with the power which + knowledge gives. + +John Adams, with true New England thoroughness, expressed the new motive +for education still more forcibly when he wrote: + + The instruction of the people in every kind of knowledge that can be + of use to them in the practice of their moral duties as men, citizens, + and Christians, and of their political and civil duties as members of + society and freemen, ought to be the care of the public, and of all + who have any share in the conduct of its affairs, in a manner that + never yet has been practiced in any age or nation. The education here + intended is not merely that of the children of the rich and noble, but + of every rank and class of people, down to the lowest and poorest. It + is not too much to say that schools for the education of all should be + placed at convenient distances and maintained at the public expense. + The revenues of the State would be applied infinitely better, more + charitably, wisely, usefully, and therefore politically in this way + than even in maintaining the poor. This would be the best way of + preventing the existence of the poor.... + + Laws for the liberal education of youth, especially of the lower + classes of people, are so extremely wise and useful that, to a humane + and generous mind, no expense for this purpose would be thought + extravagant. + +Having founded, as Lincoln so well said later at Gettysburg, "on this +continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the +proposition that all men are created equal," and having built a +constitutional form of government based on that equality, it in time +became evident to those who thought at all on the question that that +liberty and political equality could not be preserved without the general +education of all. A new motive for education was thus created and +gradually formulated in the United States, as well as in revolutionary +France, and the nature of the school instruction of the youth of the State +came in time to be colored through and through by this new political +motive. The necessary schools, though, did not come at once. On the +contrary, the struggle to establish these necessary schools it will be our +purpose to trace in subsequent chapters, but before doing so we wish first +to point out how the rise of a political theory for education led to the +development of a theory as to the nature of the educational process which +exercised a far-reaching influence on all subsequent evolution of schools +and teaching. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. What do the proposals of La Chalotais, Rolland, and Turgot indicate as +to the degree of unification of France attained by the time they wrote? + +2. What new subjects did Diderot add to the religious elementary school of +his time? + +3. Show how the decline in efficiency of the Jesuits was a stimulating +force for the evolution of a system of public instruction in France. + +4. Show the statesman-like character of the proposals made in the +legislative assemblies of France for the organization of national +education. + +5. Assuming that there had been enough funds to carry out the law (1793) +of the Convention for primary instruction, what other difficulties would +have been met that would have been hard to surmount? + +6. Compare the Lakanal school with an American elementary school of a +half-century ago. + +7. Show that many of the important educational reforms of Napoleon were +foreshadowed in the National Convention. + +8. Was Napoleon right in his attitude toward education and schools? + +9. Explain the lack of success of the revolutionary theorists in the +establishment of a state system of education. + +10. Explain why the breakdown of the old religious intolerance came +earlier in the American Colonies than in the Old World. + +11. Show the great value of the Laws of 1642 and 1647 in holding New +England true to the maintenance of schools during the period of decline. + +12. What might have been the result in America had the New England +Colonies established the school as a parish institution, as did the +central Colonies? + +13. Analyze the Massachusetts constitutional provision for education, and +show what it provided for. + +14. Show the similarity of the University of the State of New York to the +proposals for governmental control in France. + +15. Explain why the French revolutionary ideas as to education were +realized so easily in the new United States, whereas France did not +realize them until well into the nineteenth century. + +16. Compare Jefferson's proposed law with the proposals of Talleyrand for +France. + +17. Just what type of educational institutions did Washington have in mind +in the quotation from his Farewell Address? John Jay? John Adams? + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying Book of Readings the following selections are +reproduced: + + 254. Dabney: The Far-Reaching Influence of Rousseau's Writings. + 255. La Chalotais: Essay on National Education. + 256. Condorcet: Outline of a Plan for Organizing Public Instruction in + France. + 257. Report: Founding of the Polytechnic School at Paris. + 258. Barnard: Work of the National Convention in France. + (a) Various legislative proposals. + (b) The Law of 1795 organizing Primary Instruction. + 259. American States: Early Constitutional Provisions relating to + Education. + 260. Ohio: Educational Provisions of First Constitution. + 261. Indiana: Educational Provisions of First Constitution. + 262. American States: Early School Legislation in. + 263. Jefferson: Plan for Organizing Education in Virginia. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Explain the conditions of society under which the emotional writings of +a man of the type of Rousseau could have made such a deep impression (254) +on the nation. + +2. In how far do nations to-day accept the theories of La Chalotais (255)? + +3. What type of administrative organization was proposed by Condorcet +(256)? + +4. What does the founding of the Polytechnic School (257) indicate as to +the French interest in science? + +5. What real progress was made by the National Convention (258 a), and to +what degree did it fail? 6. Explain the type of school system proposed and +the conception of education lying behind the early constitutional +provisions (259) for education in each of the American States. + +7. In what respects were the educational provisions of the first Ohio +constitution (260) remarkable? + +8. In what respects were the educational provisions of the first Indiana +constitution (261) remarkable? + +9. Characterize the early school legislation reproduced (262). + +10. Just what type of educational system did Jefferson propose to organize +in Virginia (263)? + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + + Barnard, Henry. _American Journal of Education_, vol. 22, pp. + 651-64. + Compayré, G. _History of Pedagogy_, chapters 15, 16, 17. + Cubberley, E. P. _Public Education in the United States_, chapter + 3. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +A NEW THEORY AND SUBJECT-MATTER FOR THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL + + +In chapters XVII and XVIII we traced the development of educational theory +up to the point where John Locke left it after outlining his social and +disciplinary theory for the educational process, and in the chapter +preceding this one we traced the evolution of a new state theory as to the +purpose of education to replace the old religious theory. The new theory +as to state control, and the erection of a citizenship purpose for +education, made it both possible and desirable that the instruction in the +school, and particularly in the vernacular school, should be recast, both +in method and content, to bring the school into harmony with the new +secular purpose. In consequence, an important reorganization of the +vernacular school now took place, and to this transformation of the +elementary school we next turn. + + +I. THE NEW THEORY STATED + +ICONOCLASTIC NATURE OF THE WORK OF ROUSSEAU. The inspirer of the new +theory as to the purpose of education was none other than the French-Swiss +iconoclast and political writer, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose work as a +political theorist we have previously described. Happening to take up the +educational problem as a phase of his activity against the political and +social and ecclesiastical conditions of his age, drawing freely on Locke's +_Thoughts_ for ideas, and inspired by a feeling that so corrupt and +debased was his age that if he rejected everything accepted by it and +adopted the opposite he would reach the truth, Rousseau restated his +political theories as to the control of man by society and his ideas as to +a life according to "nature" in a book in which he described the +education, from birth to manhood, of an imaginary boy, Émile, and his +future wife, Sophie. In the first sentence of the book Rousseau sets forth +his fundamental thesis: + + All is good as it comes from the hand of the Creator; all degenerates + under the hands of man. He forces one country to produce the fruits of + another, one tree to bear that of another. He confounds climates, + elements, and seasons; he mutilates his dog, his horse, his slave; + turns everything topsy-turvy, disfigures everything. He will have + nothing as nature made it, not even man himself; he must be trained + like a managed horse, trimmed like a tree in a garden. + +His book, published in 1762, in no sense outlined a workable system of +education. Instead, in charming literary style, with much sophistry, many +paradoxes, numerous irrelevant digressions upon topics having no relation +to education, and in no systematic order, Rousseau presented his ideas as +to the nature and purpose of education. Emphasizing the importance of the +natural development of the child (R. 264 a), he contended that the three +great teachers of man were nature, man, and experience, and that the +second and third tended to destroy the value of the first (R. 264 b); that +the child should be handled in a new way, and that the most important item +in his training up to twelve years of age was to do nothing (R. 264 c, d) +so that nature might develop his character properly (R. 264 e); and that +from twelve to fifteen his education should be largely from things and +nature, and not from books (R. 264 f). As the outcome of such an education +Rousseau produced a boy who, from his point of view, would at eighteen +still be natural (R. 264 g) and unspoiled by the social life about him, +which, after all, he felt was soon to pass away (R. 264 i). The old +religious instruction he would completely supersede (R. 264 h). + +[Illustration: FIG. 163. THE ROUSSEAU MONUMENT AT GENEVA] + +So depraved was the age, and so wretched were the educational practices of +his time, that, in spite of the malevolent impulse which was his driving +force, what he wrote actually contained many excellent ideas, pointed the +way to better practices, and became an inspiration for others who, unlike +Rousseau, were deeply interested in problems of education and child +welfare. One cannot study Rousseau's writings as a whole, see him in his +eighteenth-century setting, know of his personal life, and not feel that +the far-reaching reforms produced by his _Émile_ are among the strangest +facts in history. + +THE VALUABLE ELEMENTS IN ROUSSEAU'S WORK. Amid his glittering generalities +and striking paradoxes Rousseau did, however, set forth certain important +ideas as to the proper education of children. Popularizing the best ideas +of the Englishman, Locke (p. 433), Rousseau may be said to have given +currency to certain conceptions as to the education of children which, in +the hands of others, brought about great educational changes. Briefly +stated, these were: + + 1. The replacement of authority by reason and investigation. + + 2. That education should be adapted to the gradually unfolding + capacities of the child. + + 3. That each age in the life of a child has activities which are + normal to that age, and that education should seek for and follow + these. + + 4. That physical activity and health are of first importance. + + 5. That education, and especially elementary education, should take + place through the senses, rather than through the memory. + + 6. That the emphasis placed on the memory in education is + fundamentally wrong, dwarfing the judgment and reason of the child. + + 7. That catechetical and Jesuitical types of education should be + abandoned. + + 8. That the study of theological subtleties is unsuited to child needs + or child capacity. + + 9. That the natural interests, curiosity, and activities of children + should be utilized in their education. + + 10. That the normal activities of children call for expression, and + that the best means of utilizing these activities are conversation, + writing, drawing, music, and play. + + 11. That education should no longer be exclusively literary and + linguistic, but should be based on sense perception, expression, + and reasoning. + + 12. That such education calls for instruction in the book of nature, + with home geography and the investigation of elementary problems in + science occupying a prominent place. + + 13. That the child be taught rather than the subject-matter; life here + rather than hereafter; and the development of reason rather than + the loading of the memory, were the proper objects of education. + + 14. That a many-sided education is necessary to reveal child + possibilities; to correct the narrowing effect of specialized class + education; and to prepare one for possible changes in fortune. + +A new educational ideal presented. Rousseau's _Émile_ presented a new +ideal in education. According to his conception it was debasing that man +should be educated to behave correctly in an artificial society, to follow +blindly the doctrines of a faith, or to be an obedient subject of a king. +Instead he conceived the function of education to be to evolve the natural +powers, cultivate the human side, unfold the inborn capacities of every +human being, and to develop a reasoning individual, capable of +intelligently directing his life under diverse conditions and in any form +of society. A book setting forth such ideas naturally was revolutionary +[1] in matters of education. It deeply influenced thinkers along these +lines during the remaining years of the eighteenth century, and became the +inspiring source of nineteenth-century reforms. As Rousseau's _Social +Contract_ became the political handbook of the French Revolutionists, so +his _Émile_ became the inspiration of a new theory as to the education of +children. + +Coming, as it did, at a time when political and ecclesiastical despotisms +were fast breaking down in France, when new forces were striving for +expression throughout Europe, and when new theories as to the functions of +government were being set forth in the American Colonies and in France, it +gave the needed inspiration for the evolution of a new theory of non- +religious, universal, and democratic education which would prepare +citizens for intelligent participation in the functions of a democratic +State, and for a reorganization of the subject-matter of education itself. +A new theory as to the educational purpose was soon to arise, and the +whole nature of the educational process, in the hands of others, was soon +to be transformed as a result of the fortunate conjunction of the +iconoclastic and impractical discussion of education by Rousseau and the +more practical work of English, French, and American political theorists +and statesmen. Out of the fusing of these, modern educational theory +arose. + + +II. GERMAN ATTEMPTS TO WORK OUT A NEW THEORY + +INFLUENCE OF THE _ÉMILE_ IN GERMAN LANDS. The _Émile_ was widely read, not +only in France, but throughout the continent of Europe as well. In German +lands its publication coincided with the rising tide of nationalism--the +"Period of Enlightenment"--and the book was warmly welcomed by such (then +young) men as Goethe, Schiller, Herder, Richter, Fichte, and Kant. It +presented a new ideal of education and a new ideal for humanity, and its +ideas harmonized well with those of the newly created aristocracy of worth +which the young German enthusiasts were busily engaged in proclaiming for +their native land. The ideal of the perfected individual, strong in the +consciousness of his powers, now found expression in the new "classics of +individualism" which marked the outburst of the best that German +literature has ever produced. As Paulsen [2] well says: + + Rousseau exercised an immense influence on his times, and Germany was + stirred perhaps even more deeply than France. In France Voltaire + continued to be regarded as the great man of his time, whereas, in + Germany, his place in the esteem of the younger generation had been + taken by the enthusiast of Geneva. Kant, Herder, Goethe, Schiller, + Fichte, all of them were roused by Rousseau to the inmost depths of + their natures. He gave utterance to the passionate longing of their + souls: to do away with the imitation of French courtly culture, by + which Nature was suppressed and perverted in every way, to do away + with the established political and social order, based on court + society and class distinctions, which was felt to be lowering to man + in his quality as a reasonable being, and to return to Nature, to + simple and unsophisticated habits of life, or rather to find a way + through Nature to a better civilisation, which would restore the + natural values of life to their rightful place and would be compatible + with truth and virtue, sincerity and probity of character. + +The great German philosopher, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), was so deeply +stirred by the _Émile_ that the regularity of his daily walks and the +clearness of his thinking were disturbed by it. Goethe called the book +"the teacher's Gospel." Schiller praised Rousseau as "a new Socrates, who +of Christians wished to make men." Herder acclaimed Rousseau as a German, +and his "divine work" as his guide. Jean-Paul Richter confessed himself +indebted to Rousseau for the best ideas in his _Levana_. Lavater declared +himself ready for a Reformation in education along the lines laid down by +Rousseau. + +[Illustration: FIG. 64. BASEDOW (1723-90)] + +BASEDOW AND HIS WORK. Perhaps the most important practical influence +exerted by the _Émile_ in German lands came in the work of Johann Bernard +Basedow and his followers. Basedow was a North German who had been +educated in the _Gymnasium_ at Hamburg, had studied in the theological +faculty at Leipzig, had been a tutor in a nobleman's family, and had been +a teacher in a _Ritterakademie_ in Denmark and the _Gymnasium_ at Altona. +Deeply imbued with the new scientific spirit, in thorough revolt against +the dominance of the Church in human lives, and incited to new efforts by +his reading of the _Émile_, Basedow thought out a plan for a reform school +which should put many of Rousseau's ideas into practice. In 1768 he issued +his _Address to Philanthropists and Men of Property on Schools and Studies +and their Influence on the Public Weal_, in which he appealed for funds to +enable him to open a school to try out his ideas, and to enable him to +prepare a new type of textbooks for the use of schools. He proposed in +this appeal to organize a school which should be non-sectarian, and also +advocated the creation of a National Council of Education to have charge +of all public instruction. These were essentially the ideas of the French +political reformers of the time. The appeal was widely scattered, awakened +much enthusiasm, and subscriptions to assist him poured in from many +sources. [3] + +In 1774 Basedow published two works of more than ordinary importance. The +first, a _Book of Method for Fathers and Mothers of Families and of +Nations_, was a book for adults, and outlined a plan of education for both +boys and girls. The keynotes were "following nature," "impartial religious +instruction," children to be dealt with as children, learning through the +senses, language instruction by a natural method, and much study of +natural objects. The ideas were a combination of those of Bacon, Comenius, +and Rousseau. The second book, in four volumes, and containing one hundred +copper-plate illustrations, was the famous _Elementary Work_ +(_Elementarwerk mit Kupfern_) (R. 266), the first illustrated school +textbook since the _Orbis Pictus_ (1654) of Comenius. This work of +Basedow's became, in German lands, the _Orbis Pictus_ of the eighteenth +century. By means of its "natural methods" (R. 265) children were to be +taught to read, both the vernacular and Latin, more easily and in less +time than had been done before, and in addition were to be given a +knowledge of morals, commerce, scientific subjects, and social usages by +"an incomparable method," founded on experience in teaching children. The +book enjoyed a wide circulation among the middle and upper classes in +German lands. + +BASEDOW'S _PHILANTHROPINUM_. In 1774 Prince Leopold, of Dessau, a town in +the duchy of Anhalt, in northern Germany, gave Basedow the use of two +buildings and a garden, and twelve thousand thalers in money, with which +to establish his long-heralded _Philanthropinum_, which was to be an +educational institution of a new type. Great expectations were aroused, +and a widespread interest in the new school awakened. Education according +to nature, with a reformed, time-saving, natural method for the teaching +of languages, were to be its central ideas. Children were to be treated as +children, and not as adults. Powdered hair, gilded coats, swords, rouge, +and hoops were to be discarded for short hair, clean faces, sailor +jackets, and caps, while the natural plays of children and directed +physical training were to be made a feature of the instruction. The +languages were to be taught by conversational methods. Each child was to +be taught a handicraft--turning, planing, and carpentering were provided-- +for both social and educational reasons. Instruction in real things-- +science, nature--was to take the place of instruction in words, and the +vernacular was to be the language of instruction. The institution was to +have the atmosphere of religion, but was not to be Catholic, Lutheran, +Reformed, or Jewish, and was to be free from "theologizing distinctions." +Latin, German, French, mathematics, a knowledge of nature (geography, +physics, natural history), music, dancing, drawing, and physical training +were the principal subjects of instruction. The children were divided into +four classes, and the instruction for each, with the textbooks to be used, +was outlined (R. 265). + +The school opened with Basedow and three assistants as teachers, and two +of Basedow's children and twelve others as pupils. Later the school came +to have many boarding pupils, drawn from as far-distant points as Riga and +Spain. In 1776 a public examination was held, to which many distinguished +men were invited, and the work which Basedow's methods could produce was +exhibited. These methods seem to have been successful, judging from the +rather full accounts which have been left us. [4] The school represented a +new type of educational effort, and was frankly experimental in purpose. +It was an attempt to apply, in practice, the main ideas of Rousseau's +_Émile_. Basedow tried the plan of education outlined by Rousseau with his +own daughter, whom he named Émilie. + +[ILLUSTRATION: FIG. 165 IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804)] + +As a promising experiment the school awakened widespread interest, and +Basedow was supported by such thinkers of the time as Goethe and Kant. The +year following the "Examination" Kant, then professor of philosophy at the +University of Königsberg, contributed an article to the _Königsberg +Gazette_ explaining the importance of the experiment Basedow was making. +Still later, in his university lectures _On Pedagogy_, he further stated +the importance of such a new experiment, in the following words: + + It was imagined that experiments in education were not necessary; and + that, whether any thing in it was good or bad, could be judged of by + the reason. But this was a great mistake; experience shows very often + that results are produced precisely the opposite to those which had + been expected. We also see from experiment that one generation cannot + work out a complete plan of education. The only experimental school + which has made a beginning toward breaking the path was the Dessau + institution. This praise must be given to it, in spite of the many + faults which may be charged against it; faults which belong to all + conclusions based upon such undertakings; and which make new + experiments always necessary. It was the only school in which the + teachers had the liberty to work after their own methods and plans, + and where they stood in connection, not only with each other, but with + men of learning throughout all Germany. + +BASEDOW'S INFLUENCE, AND FOLLOWERS. Basedow, though, was an impractical +theorist, boastful and quarrelsome, vulgar and coarse, given to +drunkenness and intemperate speech, and fond of making claims for his work +which the results did not justify. In a few years he had been displaced as +director, and in 1793 the _Philanthropinum_ closed its doors. The school, +nevertheless, was a very important educational experiment, and Basedow's +work for a time exerted a profound influence on German pedagogical +thought. He may be said to have raised instruction in the _Realien_ in +German lands to a place of distinct importance, and to have given a turn +to such instruction which it has ever since retained. [5] The methods of +instruction, too, worked out in arithmetic, geography, geometry, natural +history, physics, and history were in many ways as revolutionary as those +evolved by Pestalozzi later on in Switzerland. In his emphasis on +scientific subject-matter Basedow surpassed Pestalozzi, but Pestalozzi +possessed a clearer, intuitive insight into the nature and purpose of the +educational process. The work of the two men furnishes an interesting +basis for comparison (R. 271), and the work of each gave added importance +to that of the other. + +From Dessau an interest in pedagogical ideas and experiments spread over +Europe, and particularly over German lands. Other institutions, modeled +after the _Philanthropinum_, were founded in many places, and some of +Basedow's followers [6] did as important work along certain lines as did +Basedow himself. His followers were numerous, and of all degrees of worth. +They urged acceptance of the new ideas of Rousseau as worked out and +promulgated by Basedow; vigorously attacked the old schools, making +converts here and there; and in a way helped to prepare northern German +lands for the incoming, later, of the better-organized ideas of the +German-Swiss reformer Pestalozzi, to whose work we next turn. + + +III. THE WORK AND INFLUENCE OF PESTALOZZI + +THE INSPIRATION OF PESTALOZZI. Among those most deeply influenced by +Rousseau's _Émile_ was a young German-Swiss by the name of Johann Heinrich +Pestalozzi, who was born (1746) and brought up in the ancient city of +Zurich. Inspired by Rousseau's writings he spent the early part of his +life in trying to render service to the poor, and the latter part in +working out for himself a theory and a method of instruction based on the +natural development of the child. To Pestalozzi, more than to any one +else, we owe the foundations of the modern secular vernacular elementary +school, and in consequence his work is of commanding importance in the +history of the development of educational practice. + +Trying to educate his own child according to Rousseau's plan, he not only +discovered its impracticability but also that the only way to improve on +it was to study the children themselves. Accordingly he opened a school +and home on his farm at Neuhof, in 1774. Here he took in fifty abandoned +children, to whom he taught reading, writing, and arithmetic, gave them +moral discourses, and trained them in gardening, farming, and cheese- +making. It was an attempt to regenerate beggars by means of education, +which Pestalozzi firmly believed could be done. At the end of two years he +had spent all the money he and his wife possessed, and the school closed +in failure--a blessing in disguise--though with Pestalozzi's faith in the +power of education unshaken. Of this experiment he wrote: "For years I +have lived in the midst of fifty little beggars, sharing in my poverty my +bread with them, living like a beggar myself in order to teach beggars to +live like men." + +Turning next to writing, while continuing to farm, Pestalozzi now tried to +express his faith in education in printed form. His _Leonard and Gertrude_ +(1781) was a wonderfully beautiful story of Swiss peasant life, and of the +genius and sympathy and love of a woman amid degrading surroundings. From +a wretched place the village of Bonnal, under Pestalozzi's pen, was +transformed by the power of education. [7] The book was a great success +from the first, and for it Pestalozzi was made a "citizen" of the French +Republic, along with Washington, Madison, Kosciusko, Wilberforce, and Tom +Paine. He continued to farm and to think, though nearly starving, until +1798, when the opportunity for which he was really fitted came. + +PESTALOZZI'S EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENTS. In 1798 "The Helvetic Republic" was +proclaimed, an event which divided Pestalozzi's life into two parts. Up to +this time he had been interested wholly in the philanthropic aspect of +education, believing that the poor could be regenerated through education +and labor. From this time on he interested himself in the teaching aspect +of the problem, in the working-out and formulation of a teaching method +based on the natural development of the child, and in training others to +teach. Much to the disgust of the authorities of the new Swiss Government, +citizen Pestalozzi applied for service as a schoolteacher. The opportunity +to render such service soon came. + +That autumn the French troops invaded Switzerland, and, in putting down +the stubborn resistance of the three German cantons, shot down a large +number of the people. Orphans to the number of 169 were left in the little +town of Stanz, and citizen Pestalozzi was given charge of them. For six +months he was father, mother, teacher, and nurse. Then, worn out himself, +the orphanage was changed into a hospital. A little later he became a +schoolmaster in Burgdorf; was dismissed; became a teacher in another +school; and finally, in 1800, opened a school himself in an old castle +there. He now drew about him other teachers interested in improving +instruction, and in consequence could specialize the work. He provided +separate teachers for drawing and singing, geography and history, language +and arithmetic, and gymnastics. The year following the school was enlarged +into a teachers' training-school, the government extending him aid in +return for giving Swiss teachers one month of training as teachers in his +school. Here he wrote and published _How Gertrude teaches her Children_, +which explained his methods and forms his most important pedagogical work +(R. 267); a _Guide for teaching Spelling and Reading_; and a _Book for +Mothers_, devoted to a description of "object teaching." In 1803, the +castle being needed by the government, Pestalozzi moved first to +Munchenbuchsee, near Hofwyl, opening his Institute temporarily in an old +convent there. For a few months, in 1804, he was associated with Emanuel +von Fellenberg, at Hofwyl (p. 546), but in October, 1804, he moved to +Yverdon, where he reëstablished the Institute, and where the next twenty +years of his life were spent and his greatest success achieved. + +[Illustration: FIG. 166. THE SCENE OF PESTALOZZI'S LABORS] + +THE CONTRIBUTION OF PESTALOZZI. The great contribution of Pestalozzi lay +in that, following the lead of Rousseau, he rejected the religious aim and +the teaching of mere words and facts, which had characterized all +elementary education up to near the close of the eighteenth century, and +tried instead to reduce the educational process to a well-organized +routine, based on the natural and orderly development of the instincts, +capacities, and powers of the growing child. Taking Rousseau's idea of a +return to nature, he tried to apply it to the education of children. This +led to his rejection of what he called the "empty chattering of mere +words" and "outward show" in the instruction in reading and the catechism, +and the introduction in their place of real studies, based on observation, +experimentation, and reasoning. "Sense impression" became his watchword. +[8] As he expressed it, he "tried to organize and psychologize the +educational process" by harmonizing it with the natural development of the +child (R. 267). To this end he carefully studied children, and developed +his methods experimentally as a result of his observation. To this end, +both at Burgdorf and Yverdon, all results of preceding teachers and +writers on education were rejected, for fear that error might creep in. +Read nothing, discover everything, and prove all things, came to be the +working guides of himself and his teachers. + +The development of man he believed to be organic, and to proceed according +to law. It was the work of the teacher to discover these laws of +development and to assist nature in securing "a natural, symmetrical, and +harmonious development" of all the "faculties" of the child. Real +education must develop the child as a whole--mentally, physically, +morally--and called for the training of the head and the hand and the +heart. The only proper means for developing the powers of the child was +use, and hence education must guide and stimulate self-activity, be based +on intuition and exercise, and the sense impressions must be organized and +directed. Education, too, if it is to follow the organic development of +the child, must observe the proper progress of child development and be +graded, so that each step of the process shall grow out of the preceding +and grow into the following stage. To accomplish these ends the training +must be all-round and harmonious; much liberty must be allowed the child +in learning; education must proceed largely by doing instead of by words, +the method of learning must be largely analytical; real objects and ideas +must precede symbols and words; and, finally, the organization and +correlation of what is learned must be looked after by the teacher. + +[Illustration: PLATE II. JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI.] + +Still more, Pestalozzi possessed a deep and abiding faith, new at the +time, in the power of education as a means of regenerating society. He had +begun his work by trying to "teach beggars to live like men," and his +belief in the potency of education in working this transformation, so +touchingly expressed in his _Leonard and Gertrude_, never left him. He +believed that each human being could be raised through the influence of +education to the level of an intellectually free and morally independent +life, and that every human being was entitled to the right to attain such +freedom and independence. The way to this lay through the full use of his +developing powers, under the guidance of a teacher, and not through a +process of repeating words and learning by heart. Not only the +intellectual qualities of perception, judgment, and reasoning need +exercise, but the moral powers as well. To provide such exercise and +direction was the work of the school. + +Pestalozzi also resented the brutal discipline which for ages had +characterized all school instruction, believed it by its very nature +immoral, and tried to substitute for this a strict but loving discipline-- +a "thinking love," he calls it--and to make the school as nearly as +possible like a gentle and refined home. To a Swiss father, who on +visiting his school exclaimed, "Why, this is not a school, but a family," +Pestalozzi answered that such a statement was the greatest praise he could +have given him. + +THE CONSEQUENCES OF THESE IDEAS. The educational consequences of these new +ideas were very large. They in time gave aim and purpose to the elementary +school of the nineteenth century, transforming it from an instrument of +the Church for church ends, to an instrument of society to be used for its +own regeneration and the advancement of the welfare of all. [9] The +introduction of the study of natural objects in place of words, and much +talking about what was seen and studied instead of parrot-like +reproductions of the words of a book, revolutionized both the methods and +the subject-matter of instruction in the developing elementary school. +Observation and investigation tended to supersede mere memorizing; class +discussion and thinking to supersede the reciting of the words of the +book; thinking about what was being done to supersede routine learning; +and class instruction to supersede the wasteful individual teaching which +had for so long characterized all school work. It meant the reorganization +of the work of the vernacular school on a modern basis, with class +organization and group instruction, and a modern-world purpose (R. 269). + +The work of Pestalozzi also meant the introduction of new subject-matter +for instruction, the organization of new teaching subjects for the +elementary school, and the redirection of the elementary education of +children. Observation led to the development of elementary-science study, +and the study of home geography; talking about what was observed led to +the study of language usage, as distinct from the older study of grammar; +and counting and measuring led to the study of number, and hence to a new +type of primary arithmetic. The reading of the school also changed both in +character and purpose. In other words, in place of an elementary education +based on reading, a little writing and spelling, and the catechism, all of +a memoriter type and with religious ends in view, a new primary school, +essentially secular in character, was created by the work of Pestalozzi. +This new school was based on the study of real objects, learning through +sense impressions, the individual expression of ideas, child activity, and +the development of the child's powers in an orderly way. In fact, "the +development of the faculties" of the child became a by-word with +Pestalozzi and his followers. + +Pestalozzi's deep abiding faith in the power of education to regenerate +society was highly influential in Switzerland, throughout western Europe, +and later in America in showing how to deal with orphans, vagrants, and +those suffering from physical defects or in need of reformation, by +providing for such a combination of intellectual and industrial training. + +THE SPREAD AND INFLUENCE OF PESTALOZZI'S WORK. So famous did the work of +Pestalozzi become that his schools at Burgdorf and Yverdon came to be +"show places," even in a land filled with natural wonders. Observers and +students came from America (R. 268) and from all over Europe to see and to +teach in his school, and draw inspiration from seeing his work (R. 270) +and talking with him. [10] In particular the educators of Prussia were +attracted by his work, and, earlier than other nations, saw the far- +reaching significance of his discoveries. Herbart visited his school as +early as 1799, when but a young man of twenty-three, and wrote a very +sympathetic description of his new methods. Froebel spent the years 1808 +to 1810 as a teacher at Yverdon, when he was a young man of twenty-six to +eight. "It soon became evident to me," wrote Froebel, "that 'Pestalozzi' +was to be the watchword of my life." The philosopher Fichte, whose +Addresses (1807-08) on the condition of the German people (page 568), +after their humiliating defeat by Napoleon, did much to reveal to Prussia +the possibilities of national regeneration by means of education, had +taught in Zurich, knew Pestalozzi, and afterward exploited his work and +his ideas in Berlin. [11] As early as 1803 an envoy, sent by the Prussian +King, [12] reported favorably on Pestalozzi's work, and in 1804 +Pestalozzian methods were authorized for the primary schools of Prussia. +In 1808 seventeen teachers were sent to Switzerland, at the expense of the +Prussian Government, to spend three years in studying Pestalozzi's ideas +and methods. On their return, these and others spread Pestalozzian ideas +throughout Prussia. A pastor and teacher from Würtemberg, Karl August +Zeller (1774-1847), came to Burgdorf in 1803 to study. In 1806 he opened a +training-school for teachers in Zurich, and there worked out a plan of +studies based on the work of Pestalozzi. This was printed and attracted +much attention. In 1808 the King of Würtemberg listened to five lectures +on Pestalozzian methods by Zeller, and invited him to a position as school +inspector in his State. Before he had done but a few months' work he was +called to Prussia, to organize a normal school and begin the introduction +of Pestalozzian ideas there. From Prussia the ideas and methods of +Pestalozzi gradually spread to the other German States. + +Many Swiss teachers were trained by Pestalozzi, and these also helped to +extend his work and ideas over Switzerland. Particularly in German +Switzerland did his ideas take root and reorganize education. As a result +modern systems of education made an early start in these cantons. One of +Pestalozzi's earliest and most faithful teachers, Hermann Krüsi, became +principal of the Swiss normal school at Gais, and trained teachers there +in Pestalozzian methods. Zeller's pupils, too, did much to spread his +influence among the Swiss. Pestalozzi's ideas were also carried to +England, but in no such satisfactory manner as to the German States. Where +German lands received both the method and the spirit, the English obtained +largely the form. Later Pestalozzian ideas came to the United States, at +first largely through English sources, and, after about 1860, resulted in +a thoroughgoing reorganization of American elementary education. + +After Pestalozzi's institution had become celebrated, and visitors and +commissions from many countries had visited him and it, and after +governments had vied with one another in introducing Pestalozzian methods +and reforms, the vogue of the Pestalozzian ideas became very extended. +Many excellent private schools were founded on the Pestalozzian model, +while on the other hand self-styled Pestalozzian reformers sprang up on +all sides. All this imitation was both natural and helpful; the +foolishness and charlatanism in time disappeared, leaving a real advance +in the educational conception. + +THE MANUAL-LABOR SCHOOL OF FELLENBERG. Of the Swiss associates and +followers of Pestalozzi one of the most influential was Phillip Emanuel +von Fellenberg (1771-1844). The son of a Swiss official of high political +and social position, possessed of wealth, having traveled extensively, +Fellenberg, having become convinced that correct early education was the +only means whereby the State might be elevated and the lot of man made +better, resolved (1805) to devote his life and his fortune to the working- +out of his ideas. For a short time associated with Pestalozzi, he soon +withdrew and established, on his own estate, an Institution which later +(1829) came to comprise the following: + + 1. A farm of about six hundred acres. + + 2. Workshops for manufacturing clothing and tools. + + 3. A printing and lithographing establishment. + + 4. A literary institution for the education of the well-to-do. + + 5. A lower or _real_ school, which trained for handicrafts and + middle-class occupations. + + 6. An agricultural school for the education of the poor as farm + laborers, and as teachers for the rural schools. + +[Illustration: PLATE 12: FELLENBERG'S INSTITUTE AT HOFWYL. +The first Agricultural and Mechanical College. This school contained the +germ-idea of all our agricultural education.] + +By 1810 the Institution had begun to attract attention, and soon pupils +and visitors came from distant lands to study in and to examine the +schools. The agricultural school in particular aroused interest. More than +one hundred Reports (R. 272) were published, in Europe and America, on +this very successful experiment in a combined intellectual and manual- +labor type of education. Fellenberg died in 1844, and his family +discontinued the school in 1848. + +Fellenberg's work was a continuation of the social-regeneration conception +of education held by Pestalozzi, and contained the germ-idea of all our +agricultural and industrial education. His plan was widely copied in +Switzerland, Germany, England, and the United States. It was well suited +to the United States because of the very democratic conditions then +prevailing among an agricultural people possessed of but little wealth. +The plan of combining farming and schooling made for a time a strong +appeal to Americans, and such schools were founded in many parts of the +country. The idea at first was to unite training in agriculture with +schooling, but it was soon extended to the rapidly rising mechanical +pursuits as well. The plan, however, was rather short-lived in the United +States, due to the rise of manufacturing and the opening of rich and cheap +farms to the westward, and lasted with us scarcely two decades. A +generation later it reappeared in the Central West in the form of a new +demand for colleges to teach agricultural and mechanical arts, but with +the manual-labor idea omitted. This we shall refer to again, later on +(chapter xxix). + +[Illustration: FIG. 167. FELLENBERG (1771-1844)] + + +IV. REDIRECTION OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL + +SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS WORK. Though some form of parish school for the +elements of religious instruction had existed in many places during the +later Middle Ages, and foundations providing for some type of elementary +instruction had appeared here and there in almost all lands, the +elementary vernacular school, as we have previously pointed out, was +nevertheless clearly the outcome of the Protestant movement in the +sixteenth century, and in its origin was essentially a child of the +Church. A child of the Church, too, for more than two centuries the +elementary vernacular school remained. During these two centuries the +elementary school made slow but rather unsatisfactory progress, due +largely to there being no other motive for its maintenance or expansion +than the original religious purpose. Only in the New England Colonies in +North America, in some of the provinces of the Netherlands, and in a few +of the German States had any real progress been made in evolving any +different type of school out of this early religious creation, and even in +these places the change was in form of control rather than in subject- +matter or purpose. The school remained religious in purpose, even though +its control was beginning to pass from the Church to the State. + +Now, within half a century, beginning with the work of Rousseau (1762), +and by means of the labors of the political philosophers of France, the +Revolutionary leaders in the American Colonies, the legislative Assemblies +and Conventions in France, and the experimental work of Basedow and his +followers in German lands and of Pestalozzi and his disciples in +Switzerland, the whole purpose and nature of the elementary vernacular +school was changed. The American and French political revolutions and the +more peaceful changes in England had ushered in new conceptions as to the +nature and purpose and duties of government. As a consequence of these new +ideas, education had come to be regarded in a new light, and to assume a +new importance in the eyes of statesmen. In place of schools to serve +religious and sectarian ends, and maintained as an adjunct of the parishes +or of a State Church, the elementary vernacular school now came to be +conceived of as an instrument of the State, the chief purpose of which was +to serve state ends. Some time would, of course, be required to develop +the state support necessary to effect the complete transformation in +control, and the forces of reaction would naturally delay the process as +much as possible, but the theory of state purpose had at last been so +effectively proclaimed, and the forces of a modern world were pushing the +idea so steadily forward, that it was only a question of time until the +change would be effected. + +A NEW IMPETUS FOR CHANGE IN CONTROL. Basedow and Pestalozzi, too, had +given the movement for a transfer of control a new impetus by working out +new methods in instruction and in organizing new subject-matter for the +school, and methods and subject-matter which harmonized with the spirit +and principles of the new democracy that had been proclaimed. Pestalozzi +in particular had sought, guided by a clearer insight into the educational +problem than Basedow possessed (R. 271), to create a school in which +children might, under the wise guidance of the teacher, develop and +strengthen their own "faculties" and thus evolve into reasoning, self- +directing human beings, fitted for usefulness and service in a modern +world. To make intelligent and reasoning individuals of all citizens, to +develop moral and civic character, to train for life in organized society, +and to serve as an instrument by means of which an ignorant, drunken, +immoral, and shiftless working-class and peasantry might be elevated into +men and women of character, intelligence, and directive power, was in +Pestalozzi's conception the underlying meaning of the school. After +Pestalozzi, the earlier conception as to the religious purpose of the +elementary vernacular schools, by means of which children were to be +trained almost exclusively "in the principles of our holy religion" and to +become "loyal church members," and to "fit them for that station in life +in which it hath pleased their Heavenly Father to place them," was doomed. +In its stead there was certain to arise a newer conception of the school +as an instrument of that form of organized society known as the State, and +maintained by the State to train its future citizens for intelligent +participation in the duties and obligations of citizenship, and for +social, moral, and economic efficiency. + +THE WAY NOW BECOMING CLEAR. After two hundred and fifty years of confusion +and political failure, the way was now at last becoming clear for the +creation of national instead of church systems of elementary education, +and for the firm establishment of the elementary vernacular school as an +important obligation to its future citizens of every progressive modern +State and the common birthright of all. This became distinctively the work +of the nineteenth century. It also became the work of the nineteenth +century to gather up the old secondary-school and university foundations, +accumulated through the ages, and remould them to meet modern needs, fuse +them into the national school systems created, and connect them in some +manner with the people's schools. To see how this was done we next turn to +the beginnings of the organization of national school systems in the +German States, France, Italy, England, and the United States. These may be +taken as types. As Prussia was the first modern State to grasp the +significance of national education, and to organize state schools, we +shall begin our study by first tracing the steps by which this +transformation was effected there. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Compare the statement of the valuable elements in the theories of +Rousseau (p. 530) with the main ideas of Basedow (p. 535); Ratke (p. 607); +Comenius (p. 409). + +2. Do we accept all the fourteen points of Rousseau's theory to-day? + +3. Might a Rousseau have done work of similar importance in Russia, early +in the twentieth century? Why? + +4. Explain the educational significance of "self-activity," "sense +impressions," and "harmonious development." + +5. What were the strong points in the experimental work of Basedow? + +6. Explain the great enthusiasm which his rather visionary statements and +plans awakened. + +7. Show the importance of such work as that of Basedow in preparing the +way for better-organized reform work. + +8. How far was Pestalozzi right as to the power of education to give men +intellectual and moral freedom? + +9. What do you understand Pestalozzi to have meant by "the development of +the faculties"? + +10. State the importance of the work of Pestalozzi from the point of view +of showing the world how to deal with orphans and defectives. + +11. Show how the germs of agricultural and technical education lay in the +work of Fellenberg. + +12. Explain the greater popularity of the _Émile_ in German lands. + +13. State the change in subject-matter and aims from the vernacular church +school to the school as thought out by Pestalozzi. + +14. Show that it was a fortunate conjunction that brought the work of +Pestalozzi alongside of that of the political reformers of France. + +15. What differences might there have been had Comenius lived and done his +work in the time of Pestalozzi? + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections, +illustrative of the contents of this chapter, are reproduced: + + 264. Rousseau: Illustrative Selections from the _Émile_. + 265. Basedow: Instruction in the _Philanthropinum_. + 266. Basedow: A Page from the _Elementarwerk_. + 267. Pestalozzi: Explanation of his Work. + 268. Griscom: A Visit to Pestalozzi at Yverdon. + 269. Woodbridge: An Estimate of Pestalozzi's Work. + 270. Dr. Mayo: On Pestalozzi. + 271. Woodbridge: Work of Pestalozzi and Basedow compared. + 272. Griscom: Hofwyl as seen by an American. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Show the fallacy of Rousseau's reasoning (264 d) as to society being a +denominator which prevents man from realizing himself. + +2. What are the elements of truth and falsity in Rousseau's idling-to-the- +twelfth-year (264 d) idea? + +3. Would such a training up to twelve (264 e) be possible, or desirable? + +4. What type of education is presupposed in 264 f? + +5. Show the similarity in the conceptions of the _Orbis Pictus_ (221) and +the _Elementarwerk_ (266). + +6. What types of schools and conceptions of education were combined in the +Philanthropinum (265)? + +7. Just what did Pestalozzi attempt (267) to accomplish? + +8. Compare the accounts as to purpose and instruction given by Pestalozzi +(267) and Griscom (268). + +9. What do the tributes of Woodbridge (269) and Mayo (270) reveal as to +the character of Pestalozzi and his influence? + +10. Analyze the courses of instruction (272) at Hofwyl. + +11. State the points of similarity and difference between the work of +Basedow and Pestalozzi (271), and the points of superiority in the work of +Pestalozzi. + + +SELECTED REFERENCES + +* Anderson, L. F. "The Manual-Labor-School Movement"; in _Educational + Review_, vol. 46, pp. 369-88. (November, 1913.) + Barnard, Henry. _Pestalozzi and his Educational System_. +* Compayré, G. _Jean-Jacques Rousseau_. +* Compayré, G. _Pestalozzi and Elementary Education_. +* Guimps, Roger de. _Pestalozzi: his Aim and Work_. +* Krüsi, Hermann, Jr. _Life and Work of Pestalozzi_. +* Parker S. C. _History of Modern Education, chaps. 8, 9, 13-16_. +* Pestalozzi, J. H. _Leonard and Gertrude_. + Pestalozzi, J. H. _How Gertrude teaches her Children_. + Pinloche, A. _Pestalozzi and the Foundations of the Modern Elementary + School_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN PRUSSIA + + +I. THE BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL ORGANIZATION + +EARLY GERMAN PROGRESS IN SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. The first modern nation to +take over the school from the Church, and to make of it an instrument for +promoting the interests of the State was Prussia, and the example of +Prussia was soon followed by the other German States. The reasons for this +early action by the German States will be clear if we remember the marked +progress made in establishing state control of the churches (p. 318) which +followed the Protestant Revolts in German lands. Figure 96, page 319, +reëxamined now, will make the reason for the earlier evolution of state +education in Germany plain. Würtemberg, as early as 1559, had organized +the first German state-church school system, and had made attendance at +the religious instruction, compulsory on the parents of all children. The +example of Würtemberg was followed by Brunswick (1569), Saxony (1580), +Weimar (1619), and Gotha (1642). In Weimar and Gotha the compulsory- +attendance idea had even been adopted for elementary-school instruction to +all children up to the age of twelve. + +By the middle of the seventeenth century most of the German States, even +including Catholic Bavaria, had followed the example of Würtemberg, and +had created a state-church school system which involved at least +elementary and secondary schools and the beginnings of compulsory school +attendance. Notwithstanding the ravages of the Thirty Years' War (1618- +48), the state-church schools of German lands contained, more definitely +than had been worked out elsewhere, the germs of a separate state school +organization. Only in the American Colonies (p. 364) had an equal +development in state-church organization and control been made. As state- +church schools, with the religious purpose dominant, the German schools +remained until near the middle of the eighteenth century. Then a new +movement for state control began, and within fifty years thereafter they +had been transformed into institutions of the State, with the state +purpose their most essential characteristic. How this transformation was +effected in Prussia, the leader among the German States, and the forces +which brought about the transformation, it will be the purpose of this +chapter to relate. + +THE NEW UNIVERSITY OF HALLE. The turning-point in the history of German +educational progress was the founding of the University of Halle, in 1694. +This institution, due to its entirely new methods of work, has usually +been designated as the first modern university. A few forward-looking men, +men who had been expelled from Leipzig because of their critical attitude +and modern ways of thinking, were made professors here. Its creation was +due to the sympathy for these men felt by the Elector Friedrich III of +Brandenburg, later the first King of Prussia. The King clearly intended +that the new institution should be representative of modern tendencies in +education. To this end he installed as professors men who could and would +reform the instruction in theology, law, medicine, and philosophy. + +In consequence Aristotle was displaced for the new scientific philosophy +of Descartes and Bacon, and Latin in the classrooms for the German speech. +The sincere pietistic faith of Francke (p. 418) was substituted for the +Lutheran dogmatism which had supplanted the earlier Catholic. The +instruction in law was reformed to accord with the modern needs and theory +of the State. Medical instruction, based on observation, experimentation, +and deduction, superseded instruction based on the reading of Hippocrates +and Galen. The new sciences, especially mathematics and physics, found a +congenial home in the philosophical or arts faculty. Free scientific +investigation and research, without interference from the theological +faculty, were soon established as features of the institution, and in +place of the fixed scientific knowledge taught for so long from the texts +of Aristotle (Rs. 113-15) and other ancients, a new and changing science, +that must prove its laws and axioms, and which might at any time be +changed by the investigation of any teacher or student, here now found a +home. Under the leadership of Christian Wolff, who was Professor of +Philosophy from 1707 to 1723, when he was banished by a new King at the +instigation of the Pietists for his too great liberalism in religion, and +again from 1740 to 1754, after his recall by Frederick the Great, [1] +philosophy was "made to speak German" and the Aristotelian philosophy was +permanently displaced. "No thing without sufficient cause" was the ruling +principle of Wolff's teaching. + +CHANGES WROUGHT IN OLD ESTABLISHED PROCEDURE. The introduction of the new +scientific and mathematical and philosophical studies soon changed the +arts or philosophy faculty from a preparatory faculty for the faculties of +law, medicine, and theology, as it had been for centuries, to the equal of +these three professional faculties in importance, while the elementary +instruction in Latin and Greek was now relegated to the _Gymnasia_ below. +These were now in turn changed into preparatory schools for all four +faculties of the university. The university instruction in the ancient +languages was now placed on a much higher plane, and a new humanistic +renaissance took place (p. 462) which deeply influenced both university +and gymnasial training. New standards of taste and judgment were drawn +from the ancient literatures and applied to modern life, and students were +trained to read and enjoy the ancient classics. This reawakening of the +best spirit of the Italian Renaissance marked the first outburst of a +national feeling of a people as yet possessed of no national literature of +importance, but unwilling longer to depend on foreign (French) influences +for the cultural elements in their intellectual life. + +It was at Halle, too, that Gundling, in 1711, discussed "the office of a +university" and laid down the modern university theory of _Lehrfreiheit +und Lernfreiheit_--that is, freedom from outside interference in teaching +and studying, both teachers and students to be free to follow the truth +wherever the truth might lead, and without reference to what preconceived +theories might be upset thereby. This was a revolution in university +procedure, [2] and the importance of the establishment of this new +conception of university work can scarcely be overestimated. It was a +contribution to intellectual progress of large future value. It meant the +end of the old-type university, ruled by a narrow theological dogmatism +and maintained to give support to a particular religious faith, and the +ultimate transformation of the old university foundations into +institutions actuated by the methods and purposes of a modern world. + +In 1734 another new university was founded at Göttingen, and in this +Johann Matthias Gesner (1691-1761) raised the new humanistic learning to +the place of first importance. This new university became a nursery for +the new literary humanism, ably supplementing the work done at Halle. From +these two universities teachers of a new type went out, filled with the +spirit of "The Enlightenment," as this eighteenth-century German +renaissance was called, and they in time regenerated all the German +universities. Still more, they regenerated the secondary schools of German +lands as well, and gave Greek literature and life that place of first +importance in their instruction which was retained until the latter part +of the nineteenth century. Gesner at Göttingen, and later Ernesti at +Leipzig, did much to formulate the new pedagogical purpose [3] of +instruction in the ancient languages and literatures for the higher +schools of German lands. + +THE EARLIEST SCHOOL LAWS FOR PRUSSIA. In 1713 there came to the kingship +of Prussia an organizing genius in the person of Frederic William I (1713- +40). Under his direction Prussia was given, for the first time, a +centralized and uniform financial administration, and the beginnings of +state school organization were made. He freed the State from debt, +provided it with a good income, developed a strong army, and began a +vigorous colonization and commercial policy. Though he cared nothing and +did nothing for the universities, the religious reform movement of +Francke, as well as his educational undertakings (p. 419), found in the +new King a warm supporter. Largely in consequence of this the King became +deeply interested in attempts to improve and advance the education of the +masses of his people. + +The first year of his reign he issued a Regulatory Code for the Reformed +Evangelical and Latin schools of Prussia, and in 1717 he issued the so- +called "Advisory Order," relating to the people's schools. In this latter +parents were urged, under penalty of "vigorous punishment," to send their +children to school to learn religion, reading, writing, to calculate, and +"all that could serve to promote their happiness and welfare." The tuition +fees of poor children he ordered paid out of the community poor-box (R. +273). The following year he directed the authorities of Lithuania to +relieve the existing ignorance there, and sent commissioners to provide +the villages with schoolmasters. From time to time he renewed his +directions. To insure a better class of teachers for the towns and rural +schools, he, in 1722, directed that no one be admitted to the office of +sacristan-schoolmaster [4] except tailors, weavers, smiths, wheelwrights, +and carpenters, and in 1738 he further restricted the position of teacher +in the town and rural schools to tailors. + +[Illustration: FIG. 168. THE SCHOOL OF A HANDWORKER +Conducted in his home. A gentleman visiting the school. +After a drawing in the German School Museum in Berlin.] + +Becoming especially interested in providing schools for the previously +neglected province of East Prussia, he gave the sum of fifty thousand +thalers as an endowment fund, the interest to be used in assisting +communities to build schoolhouses and maintain schools, and he also set +aside large tracts of land for school uses. Within a few years over a +thousand elementary schools had been established, and some eighteen +hundred new schools in Prussia owed their origin to the interest of this +King. He also took a similar interest in the establishment of schools in +Pomerania (R. 273), a part of which had but recently been wrested from +Sweden. + +In 1737 the King issued his celebrated _Principia Regulative_, which +henceforth became the fundamental School Law for the province of East +Prussia. This prescribed conditions for the building of schoolhouses, the +support of the schoolmaster, tuition fees, and government aid. The +following digest of the section of the _Principia_ relating to these +matters gives a good idea as to the nature of the school regulations the +King sought to enforce: + + 1. The parishes forming school societies were obliged to build school- + houses and to keep them in repair. + + 2. The State was to furnish the necessary timber and firewood. + + 3. The expenses for doors, windows, and stoves to be obtained from + collections. + + 4. Every church to pay four thalers a year toward the support of the + schoolmaster. + + 5. Tuition fees for each child, from four to twelve years of age, to + be four groschen per year. + + 6. Government to pay the fee when a peasant sends more than one child + to school. + + 7. The peasants to furnish the teacher with certain provisions. + + 8. The teacher to have the right of free pasture for his small stock + and some fees from every child confirmed. + + 9. Government to give the teacher one acre of land, which villagers + were to till for him. + +In 1738 the King further regulated the private schools and teachers in and +about Berlin, in particular dealing with their qualifications and fees. +The King showed, for the time, an interest in and solicitude for the +education of his people heretofore almost unknown. That his decrees were +in advance of the possibilities of the people in the matter of school +support is not to be wondered at. Still, they rendered useful service in +preparing the way for further organizing work by his successors, and in +particular in accustoming the people to the ideas of state oversight and +local school support. Under his successor and son, Frederick the Great, +the preparatory work of the father bore important fruit. + +THE ORGANIZING WORK OF FREDERICK THE GREAT. In 1740 Frederick II, surnamed +the Great, succeeded his father, and in turn guided the destinies of +Prussia for forty-six years. His benevolently despotic rule has been +described on a preceding page (p. 474). Here we will consider only his +work for education. In 1740, 1741, and again in 1743 he issued +"regulations concerning the support of schools in the villages of +Prussia," in which he directed that new schools should be established, +teachers provided for them, and that "the existing school regulations and +the arrangements made in pursuance thereto should be permanent, and that +no change should be made under any pretext whatever." + +In 1750 he effected a centralization of all the provincial church +consistories, except that of Catholic Silesia, under the Berlin +Consistory. This was a centralizing measure of large future importance, as +it centralized the administration of the schools, as well as that of the +churches, and transformed the Berlin Consistory into an important +administrative agent of the central government. To this new centralized +administrative organization the King issued instructions to pay special +attention to schools, in order that they might be furnished with able +schoolmasters and the young be well educated. One of the results of this +centralization was the gradual evolution of the modern German _Gymnasien_, +with uniform standards and improved instruction, out of the old and +weakened Latin schools of various types within the kingdom. + +From 1756 to 1763 Frederick was engaged in a struggle for existence, known +as the Seven Years' War, but as soon as peace was at hand the King issued +new regulations "concerning the maintenance of schools," and began +employing competent schoolmasters for his royal estates. In April, 1763, +he issued instructions to have a series of general school regulations +prepared for all Prussia. These were drawn up by Julius Hecker, a former +pupil and teacher in Francke's Institution (p. 418) and now a pastor in +Berlin and counselor for the Berlin Consistory. After approval by the +King, these were issued, September 23, 1763, under the title of _General +Land-Schule Reglement_ (general school regulations for the rural and +village schools) of all Prussia (R. 274). These new regulations +constituted the first general School Code for the whole kingdom, and mark +the real foundation of the Prussian elementary-school system. Two years +later (1765) a similar but stronger set of regulations or Code was drawn +up and promulgated for the government of the Catholic elementary schools +in the province of Silesia (R. 275). This was a new province which +Frederick had wrested by force a few years previously (1748) from Maria +Theresa of Austria, and the addition of a large number of Catholics to +Prussia caused Frederick to issue specific regulations for schools among +them. + +[Illustration: FIG. 169. THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, 1740-86] + +These two School Codes did not so much bring already existing schools into +a state system, but rather set up standards and obligations for an +elementary-school system in part to be created in the future. The schools +were still left under the supervision and direction of the Church, but the +State now undertook to tell the Church what it must do. To enforce the +obligation the State Inspectors of Prussia were directed to make an annual +inspection (R. 274, § 26) of all schools, and to forward a report on their +inspection to the Berlin Consistory, and for Catholic Silesia the +following significant injunction was placed in the Code: + + § 51. In order to render as permanent as possible this reform of + schools, which lies near our heart, we cannot be satisfied with + committing the care of the schools to the clergy alone. We find it + necessary that our bureau of War and Domain, the bureau of the + Episcopal Vicariate, and the dioceses in our Silesian and Glatz + districts, as well as our special school inspectors, give all due + attention to this subject, so important to the State. + +THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOL CODES OF 1763 AND 1765. The regulations of 1763 were +issued, so the introduction reads (R. 274), because "the instruction of +youth" in the country had "come to be greatly neglected" and "the young +people were growing up in stupidity and ignorance." The King, therefore, +issued the new regulations "to the end that ignorance, so injurious and +unbecoming to Christianity, may be prevented and lessened, and the coming +time may train and educate in the schools more enlightened and virtuous +subjects." + +To this end the King ordered compulsory education for the children of all +subjects from the ages of five to thirteen or fourteen, all apprentices to +be taught, and leaving certificates to be issued on completion of the +course (R. 274, §§ 1-4). The school hours were fixed, Sunday and summer +instruction regulated, tuition fees standardized, and the fees of the +children of the poor were ordered paid (R. 274, §§ 5-8). A school census, +and fines on parents not sending their children to school were provided +for (R. 274, §§ 10-11). The requirements for a teacher, his habits, his +qualifications and examination, the license to teach, and the extent to +which he might ply his trade or business, were all laid down in some +detail (R. 274 §§ 12-17). The organization, instruction, textbooks, order +of exercises, and discipline for all schools were prescribed at some +length (R. 274, §§ 19-21). The Code closed with a series of regulations +covering the relations of the schoolmaster and clergyman, and the +supervision of the instruction by the clergyman and clerical +superintendents (R. 274, §§ 25-26). Incapable teachers were ordered +suspended or deposed. A a final injunction relative to school attendance +the Code closed with the following sentence: + + In general we here confirm and renew all wholesome laws, published in + former times, especially, that no clergyman shall admit to + confirmation and the sacrament, any children not of his parish, nor + those unable to read, or who are ignorant of the fundamental + principles of evangelical religion. + +The Code of 1765 for the Catholic schools of Silesia followed much the +same line as the Code of 1763, though in it the King placed special +emphasis on the training of schoolmasters, a subject in which he had +become much interested (R. 275 a); the regulation of the conditions under +which teachers lived and worked (R. 275 b); and the supervision of +instruction by the clergyman of the parish (R. 275 e). These directions +throw much light on the conditions surrounding teaching near the middle of +the eighteenth century. The nature of instruction in the Catholic schools, +and the compulsion to attend, were also definitely stated (R. 275 c-d). + +These new Codes met with resistance everywhere. The money for the +execution of such a comprehensive project was not as yet generally +available; parents and churches objected to taxation and to the loss of +their children from work; the wealthy landlords objected to the financial +burden; the standards for teachers later on (1779) had to be lowered, and +veterans from Frederick's wars installed; and the examinations of teachers +had to be made easy [5] to secure teachers at all for the schools. While +there continued for some decades to be a vast difference between the +actual conditions in the schools and the requirements of these Codes, and +while the real establishment of a state school system awaited the first +decade of the nineteenth century for its accomplishment, much valuable +progress in organization nevertheless was made. In principle, at least, +Frederick the Great, by the Codes of 1763 and 1765, effected for +elementary education a transition from the church school of the Protestant +Reformation, and for Catholic Silesia from the parish school of the +Church, to the state school of the nineteenth century. It remained only +for his successors to realize in practice what he had made substantial +beginnings of in law. Nowhere else in Europe that early had such progress +in educational organization been made. + +THE PRUSSIAN EXAMPLE FOLLOWED IN OTHER GERMAN STATES. The example of +Prussia was in time followed by the other larger German States. Würtemberg +issued a new School Code in 1792, which remained the ruling law for the +church schools throughout the eighteenth century. The Saxon King, Augustus +the Just, inspired by the example of Frederick, issued a mandate, in 1766, +reminding parents as to their duty to send children to school, and in 1773 +issued a new Regulation, filled with "generous enthusiasm for the cause." +A teachers' training-school was founded at Dresden, in 1788, and four +others before the close of the century. In 1805 a comprehensive Code was +issued. This required that every child must be able to read, write, count, +and know the truths of religion to receive the sacrament; clergymen were +ordered to supervise the schools; school attendance was required from six +to fourteen; the pay of teachers and the government appropriations for +schools were increased; and a series of fines were imposed for violations +of the Code. Bavaria issued new school Codes in 1770 and 1778, and +additional schoolhouses were built and new textbooks written. After the +suppression of the Jesuits (1773) a new progressive spirit animated the +Catholic States, and Austria in particular, under the leadership of Maria +Theresa and Joseph II (p. 475), made marked progress in school +organization and educational reform. + +In 1770 Maria Theresa appointed a School Commission to have charge of +education in Lower Austria; in 1771 established the first Austrian normal +school in Vienna; and in 1774 promulgated a General School Code (R. 276), +drawn up by the Abbot Felbiger, who had been most prominent in school +organization in Silesia. This Code provided for School Commissions in all +provinces [6] ordered the establishment of an elementary school in all +villages and parishes, a "principal" or higher elementary school in the +principal city of every canton, and a normal school in every province; +laid down the course of study for each; and gave details as to teachers, +instruction, compulsory attendance, support, and inspection similar to +Frederick's Silesian Code (R. 275). Continuation instruction up to twenty +years of age also was ordered. That such demands were much in advance of +what was possible is evident, and it is not surprising that, in the +reaction under Francis I, following the outburst of the French Revolution, +we find a decree (1805) that the elementary school shall be curtailed to +"absolutely necessary limits," and that the common people shall get in +elementary school only such ideas as will not trouble them in their work, +and which will not make them "discontented with their condition; their +intelligence shall be directed toward the fulfillment of their moral +duties, and prudent and diligent fulfillment of their domestic and +communal obligations." + +THE BEGINNINGS OF TEACHER-TRAINING. The beginning of teacher-training in +German lands was the _Seminarium Praceptorum_ of Francke, established at +Halle (p. 419), in 1697. In 1738 Johann Julius Hecker (1707-68), one of +Francke's former students and teachers, and the author of the Prussian +Code of 1763, established the first regular seminary for teachers in +Prussia, to train intending theological students for the temporary or +parallel occupation of teaching in the Latin schools. In 1747 he +established a private _Lehrerseminar_ in Berlin, in connection with his +celebrated Realschule (p. 420), and there demonstrated the possibilities +of teacher-training. Frederick the Great was so pleased with the result +that, in 1753, he gave the school a subsidy and changed it into a royal +institution, and on every fitting occasion recommended school authorities +to it for teachers. Similar institutions were opened in Hanover, in 1751; +Wolfenbüttel, in 1753; in the county of Glatz in Silesia, in 1764 (R. +275); in Breslau, in 1765 and 1767; and in Carlsruhe, in 1768. In the +Silesian Code of 1765 Frederick specified (R. 275 a, § 2) six institutions +which he had designated as teacher-training schools. + +These early Prussian institutions laid the foundations upon which the +normal-school system of the nineteenth century has been built. In Prussia +first, but soon thereafter in other German States (Austria, at Vienna, +1771; Saxe-Weimar, at Eisenach, in 1783; and Saxony, at Dresden, 1788) the +Teachers' Seminary was erected into an important institution of the State, +and the idea has since been copied by almost all modern nations. This +early development in Prussia was influential in both France and the United +States, as we shall point out further on. + +Despite these many important educational efforts, though, the type and the +work of teachers remained low throughout the whole of the eighteenth +century. In the rural and village schools the teachers continued to be +deficient in number and lacking in preparation. Often the pastors had +first to give to invalids, cripples, shoemakers, tailors, watchmen, and +herdsmen the rudimentary knowledge they in turn imparted to the children. +In the towns of fair size the conditions were not much better than in the +villages. The elementary school of the middle-sized towns generally had +but one class, common for boys and girls, and the magistrates did little +to improve the condition of the schools or the teachers. In the larger +cities, and even in Berlin, the number of elementary schools was +insufficient, the schools were crowded, and many children had no +opportunity to attend schools. [7] In Leipzig there was no public school +until 1792, in which year the city free school was established. Even +Sunday schools, supported by subscription, had been resorted to by Berlin, +after 1798, to provide journeymen and apprentices with some of the +rudiments of an education. The creation of a state school system out of +the insufficient and inefficient religious schools proved a task of large +dimensions, in Prussia as in other lands. Even as late as 1819 Dinter +found discouraging conditions (R. 279) among the teachers of East Prussia. + +[Illustration: FIG. 170. A GERMAN LATE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY SCHOOL +(After a picture in the German School Museum in Berlin)] + +FURTHER LATE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY PROGRESS. Frederick the Great died in +1786. In the reign of his successors his work bore fruit in a complete +transfer of all schools from church to state control, and in the +organization of the strongest system of state schools the world had ever +known. The year following the death of Frederick the Great (1787), and +largely as an outgrowth of the preceding centralizing work with reference +to elementary education, the Superior School (_Oberschulcollegium_) Board +was established to exercise a similar centralized control over the older +secondary and higher schools of Prussia. Secondary and higher education +were now severed from church control, in principle at least, as elementary +education had been by the "Regulations" of 1763 and 1765. The year +following (1788) "Leaving Examinations" (_Maturitätsprüfung_) were +instituted to determine the completion of the gymnasial course. These, for +a time, were largely ineffective, due to clerical opposition, but the +centralizing work of this Superior School Board for the supervision of +higher education, and the state examinations for testing the instruction +of the secondary schools, were from the first important contributing +influences. + +In 1794 came the culmination of all the preceding work in the publication +of the General Civil Code (_Allgemeine Landrecht_) for the State, in +which, in the section relating to schools, the following important +declaration was made: + + Schools and universities are state institutions, charged with the + instruction of youth in useful information and scientific knowledge. + Such institutions may be founded only with the knowledge and consent + of the State. All public schools and educational institutions are + under the supervision of the State, and are at all times subject to + its examination and inspection. + +The secular authority and the clergy were still to share jointly in the +control of the schools, but both according to rules laid down by the +State. In all cases of conflict or dispute, the secular authority was to +decide. This important document forms the _Magna Charta_ for secular +education in Prussia. + +During the decade which followed the promulgation of this declaration of +state control but little additional progress of importance was +accomplished, though the Minister of Justice, to whom (1798) the +administration of Lutheran church and school affairs had been given, +maintained a correspondence for some years with the King regarding +"provisions for a better education and instruction of the children of +citizens and peasants," and stated to the King that "the object of reform +is national education, and its field of operation, therefore, all +provinces of the monarchy." The King, though, a weak, deeply religious, +and unimaginative man (Frederick William III, 1797-1840), who lacked the +energy and foresight of his predecessors, did little or nothing. Under +Frederick William III the State lacked vigor and drifted; the Church +regained something of its former power; and the army and the civil service +became corrupt. In 1806 a blow fell which brought matters to an immediate +crisis and forced important action. + + +II. A STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM AT LAST CREATED + +THE HUMILIATION OF PRUSSIA. At the close of 1804 France, by vote, changed +from the Republic to an Empire, with Napoleon Bonaparte as first Emperor +of the French, and for some years he took pains that Frenchmen should +forget "Liberty and Equality" amid the surfeit of "Glory" he heaped upon +France. The great nations outside France, fearful of Napoleon's ambition +and power, did not take his accession to the throne of France so +complacently, and, in 1805, England, Sweden, Austria, and Russia formed +the "Third Coalition" against Napoleon in an effort to restore the balance +of power in Europe. Of the great powers of Europe only Prussia held aloof, +refused to take sides, and in consequence enjoyed a temporary prosperity +and freedom from invasion. For this, though, she was soon to pay a +terrible price. Having humiliated the Austrians and vanquished the +Russians, Napoleon now goaded the Prussians into attacking him, and then +utterly humiliated them in turn. At the battle of Jena (October 14, 1806) +the Prussian army was utterly routed, and forced back almost to the +Russian frontier. Officered by old generals and political favorites who +were no longer efficient, and backed by a state service honeycombed with +inefficiency and corruption, the Prussian army that had won such victories +under Frederick the Great was all but annihilated by the new and efficient +fighting machine created by the Corsican who now controlled the destinies +of France. By the Treaty of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) Prussia lost all her +lands west of the Elbe and nearly all her stealings from Poland--in all +about one half her territory and population--and was almost stricken from +the list of important powers in Europe. In all its history Prussia had +experienced no such humiliation as this. In a few months the constructive +work of a century had been undone. + +THE REGENERATION OF PRUSSIA. The new national German feeling, which had +been slowly rising for half a century, now burst forth and soon worked a +regeneration of the State. In the school of adversity the King and the +people learned much, and the task of national reorganization was entrusted +to a series of able ministers whom the King and his capable Queen, Louise, +now called into service. His chief minister, Stein, created a free people +by abolishing serfdom and feudal land tenure (1807); eliminated feudal +distinctions in business; granted local government to the cities; and +broke the hold of the clergy on the educational system. His successor, +Hardenburg, extended the rights of citizenship, and laid the foundations +of government by legislative assemblies. Another minister, Scharnhorst, +reorganized the Prussian army (1807-13) by dismissing nearly all the old +generals, and introducing the principle of compulsory military service. In +all branches of the government service there were reorganizations, the one +thought of the leaders being to so reorganize and revitalize the State as +to enable it in time to overthrow the rule of Napoleon and regain its +national independence. + +Though the abolition of serfdom, the reform of the civil service, and the +beginnings of local and representative government were important gains, +nothing was of secondary importance to the complete reorganization of +education which now took place. The education of the people was turned to +in earnest for the regeneration of the national spirit, and education was, +in a decade, made the great constructive agent of the State. Said the +King: + + Though we have lost many square miles of land, though the country + has been robbed of its external power and splendor, yet we shall and + will gain in intrinsic power and splendor, and therefore it is my + earnest wish that the greatest attention be paid to public + instruction.... The State must regain in mental force what it has lost + in physical force. + +His minister Stein said: + + We proceed from the fundamental principle, to elevate the moral, + religious, and patriotic spirit in the nation, to instil into it again + courage, self-reliance, and readiness to sacrifice everything for + national honor and for independence from the foreigner.... To attain + this end, we must mainly rely on the education and instruction of the + young. If by a method founded on the true nature of man, every faculty + of the mind can be developed, every noble principle of life be + animated and nourished, all one-sided education avoided, and those + tendencies on which the power and dignity of men rest, hitherto + neglected with the greatest indifference, carefully fostered--then we + may hope to see grow up a generation, physically and morally vigorous, + and the beginnings of a better time. + +FICHTE APPEALS TO THE LEADERS. Still more did the philosopher Fichte +(1762-1814), in a series of "Addresses to the German Nation," delivered in +Berlin during the winter [8] of 1807-08, appeal to the leaders to turn to +education to rescue the State from the miseries which had overwhelmed it. +Unable forcibly to resist, and with every phase of the government +determined by a foreign conqueror, only education had been overlooked, he +said, and to this the leaders should turn for national redemption (R. +277). He held that it rested with them to determine + + whether you will be the end and last of a race ... or the beginnings + and germ of a new time, glorious beyond all your imaginings, and those + from whom posterity will reckon the years of their welfare.... A + nation that is capable, if it were only in its highest representation + and leaders, of fixing its eyes firmly on the vision from the + spiritual world, Independence, and being possessed with a love of it, + will surely prevail over a nation that is only used as a tool of + foreign aggressiveness and for the subjugation of independent nations. + +With a fervor of emotion that was characteristic of a romantic age, +impelled by a conviction that the distinctive character of the German +people was indispensable to the world, and holding that what was necessary +also was possible, Fichte made the German leaders feel, with him, that + + to reshape reality by means of ideas is the business of man, his + proper earthly task; and nothing can be impossible to a will confident + of itself and of its aim. [9] + +[Illustration: PLATE 13. TWO LEADERS IN THE REGENERATION OF PRUSSIA + +JOHANN GOTTLEIB FICHTE (1762-1814) +Philosopher, university teacher + +WILHELM VON HUMBOLDT (1767-1835) +Philosopher, scholar, statesman] + +Fichte's Addresses stirred the thinkers among the German people as they +had not been stirred since the days of the Reformation, [10] and a +national reorganization of education, with national ends in view, now took +place. As Duke Ernest remade Gotha, after the ravages of the Thirty Years' +War, by means of education (p. 317), so the leaders of Prussia now created +a new national spirit by taking over the school from the Church and +forging it into one of the greatest constructive instruments of the State. +The result showed itself in the "Uprising of Prussia," in the winter of +1812-13; the "War of Liberation," of 1813-15; the utter defeat of Napoleon +at the battle of Leipzig by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, in 1813; and +again at the battle of Waterloo by England and Prussia, [11] in 1815. +Still more clearly was the result shown in the humiliating defeat of +France, in 1870, when it was commonly remarked that the schoolmaster of +Prussia had at last triumphed. The regeneration of Prussia in the early +part of the nineteenth century, as well as its more recent humiliation, +stand as eloquent testimonials to the tremendous influence of education on +national destiny, when rightly and when wrongly directed. + +THE REORGINATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. The first step in the process of +educational reorganization was the abolition (1807) of the +_Oberschulcollegium_ Board, established (p. 564) in 1787 to supervise +secondary and higher education, in order to get rid of clerical influence +and control. The next step was the creation instead (1808) of a Department +of Public Instruction, organized as a branch of the Interior Department of +the State. + +One of the first steps of the acting head of the new department was to +send seventeen Prussian teachers (1808) to Switzerland to spend three +years, at the expense of the Government, in studying Pestalozzi's ideas +and methods, and they were particularly enjoined that they were not sent +primarily to get the mechanical side of the method, but to + + "warm yourselves at the sacred fire which burns in the heart of this + man, so full of strength and love, whose work has remained so far + below what he originally desired, below the essential ideas of his + life, of which the method is only a feeble product. + + "You will have reached perfection when you have clearly seen that + education is an art, and the most sublime and holy of all, and in what + connection it is with the great art of the education of nations." + +In 1809 Carl August Zeller (1774-1847), a pupil of Pestalozzi, who had +established two Pestalozzian training-colleges in Switzerland and had just +begun to hold Pestalozzian institutes in Würtemberg (p. 545), was called +to Prussia to organize a Teachers' Seminary (normal school) to train +teachers in the Pestalozzian methods. The seventeen Prussian teachers, on +their return from study with Pestalozzi, were also made directors of +training institutions, or provincial superintendents of instruction. In +this way Pestalozzian ideas were soon in use in the elementary school +rooms of Prussia, and so effective was this work, and so readily did the +Prussian teachers catch the spirit of Pestalozzi's endeavors, that at the +Berlin celebration of the centennial of his birth, in 1846, the German +educator Diesterweg [12] said: + + By these men and these means, men trained in the Institution at + Yverdon under Pestalozzi, the study of his publications, and the + applications of his methods in the model and normal schools of + Prussia, after 1808, was the present Prussian, or rather Prussian- + Pestalozzian school system established, for he is entitled to at least + one half the fame of the German popular schools. + +[Illustration: FIG. 171. DINTER (1760-1831) +Director of Teachers' Seminaries in Saxony; Superintendent of Education in +East Prussia.] + +Similarly Gustavus Friedrich Dinter, who early distinguished himself as +principal of a Teachers' Seminary in Saxony, was called to Prussia and +made School Counselor (Superintendent) for the province of East Prussia. +Wherever Prussia could find men, in other States, who knew Pestalozzian +methods and possessed the new conception of education, they were called to +Prussia and put to work, and the statement of Dinter was characteristic of +the spirit which animated their work. He said: [13] + + I promised God, that I would look upon every Prussian peasant child as + a being who could complain of me before God, if I did not provide him + with the best education, as a man and a Christian, which it was + possible for me to provide. + +WORK OF THE TEACHERS SEMINARIES. Napoleon had imposed heavy financial +indemnities on Prussia, as well as loss of territory, and the material +means with which to establish schools were scanty indeed. With a keen +conception of the practical difficulties, the leaders saw that the key to +the problem lay in the creation of a new type of teaching force, and to +this end they began from the first to establish Teachers' Seminaries. +Those who desired to enter these institutions were carefully selected, and +out of them a steady stream of what Horace Mann described (R. 278) as a +"beneficent order of men" were sent to the schools, "moulding the +character of the people, and carrying them forward in a career of +civilization more rapidly than any other people in the world are now +advancing." Mann described, with marked approval, both the teacher and the +training he received. + +So successful were these institutions that within a decade, under the glow +of the new national spirit animating the people, the elementary schools +were largely transformed in spirit and purpose, and the position of the +elementary-school teacher was elevated from the rank of a trade (R. 279) +to that of a profession (R. 278). By 1840, when the earlier fervor had +died out and a reaction had clearly set in, there were in Prussia alone +thirty-eight Teachers' Seminaries for elementary teachers, approximately +thirty thousand elementary schools, and every sixth person in Prussia was +in school. In the other German States, and in Holland, Sweden, and France, +analogous but less extensive progress in providing normal schools and +elementary schools had been made; but in Austria, which did not for long +follow the Prussian example, the schools remained largely stationary for +more than half a century to come. + +[Illustration: FIG. 172. DIESTERWEG (1790-1866) +Director of Teachers' Seminaries at Maurs (1820-33) and Berlin (1833-49). +"Der deutsche Pestalozzi".] + +NATIONALIZING THE ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. That the system of elementary +vernacular or people's schools (the term _Volksschule_ now began to be +applied) now created should be permeated by a strong nationalistic tone +was, the times and circumstances considered, only natural. Though the +Pestalozzian theories as to the development of the mental faculties, +training through the senses, and the power of education to regenerate +society were accepted, along with the new Pestalozzian subject-matter and +methods in instruction (p. 543,) all that could be rendered useful to the +Prussian State in its extremity naturally was given special emphasis. Thus +all that related to the home country--geography, history, and the German +speech--was taught as much from the patriotic as from the pedagogical +point of view. Music was given special emphasis as preparatory for +participation in the patriotic singing-societies and festivals, which were +organized at the time of the "Uprising of Prussia" (1813). Drawing and +arithmetic were emphasized for their practical values. Physical exercises +were given an emphasis before unknown, because of their hygienic and +military values. Finally religion was given an importance beyond that of +Pestalozzi's school, but with the emphasis now placed on moral +earnestness, humility, self-sacrifice, and obedience to authority, rather +than the earlier stress on the Catechism and church doctrine. + +Clearly perceiving, decades ahead of other nations, the power of such +training to nationalize a people and thus strengthen the State, the +Prussian leaders, in the first two decades of the nineteenth century, laid +the foundations of that training of the masses, and of teachers for the +masses (R. 280), which, more than any other single item, paved the way for +the development of a national German spirit, the unification of German +lands into an Imperial German Empire, and that blind trust in and +obedience to authority which has recently led to a second national +humiliation. + +THE REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION. Alongside this elementary- +school system for the masses of the people, the older secondary and higher +school system for a directing class (p. 553) also was largely reorganized +and redirected. The first step in this direction was the appointment, in +1809, of Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835), "a philosopher, scholar, +philologist, and statesman" of the first rank, to the headship of the new +Prussian Department of Public Instruction. During the two and a half years +he remained in charge important work in the reorganization of secondary +and higher education was accomplished. In 1817 the Department of Public +Instruction was changed from a bureau to an independent Ministry for +Spiritual and Instructional Affairs. By 1825, when governing school boards +were ordered established in each province, and made responsible to the +Ministry for Education at Berlin, the organization of the state school +system was virtually complete. For the next half-century the changes made +were in the nature of the perfection of bureaucratic organization, rather +than any fundamental organizing change. During the early years +improvements of great future importance for secondary education were +effected in the creation of a well-educated, professional teaching body, +and in the standardization of courses and of work. + +In 1810 the examination of all secondary-school teachers, according to a +uniform state plan, was ordered. The examinations were to be conducted for +the State by the university authorities; to be based on university +training in the gymnasial subjects, with an opportunity to reveal special +preparation in any subject or subjects; and no one in the future could +even be nominated for a position as a gymnasial teacher who had not passed +this examination. This meant the erection of the work of teaching in the +secondary schools into a distinct profession; the elimination from the +schools of the theological student who taught for a time as a stepping- +stone to a church living; and the end of easy local examination and +approval by town authorities or the patrons of a school. To insure still +better preparation of candidates, Pedagogical Seminars were begun in the +universities [14] for imparting to future gymnasial teachers some +pedagogical knowledge and insight, while Philological Seminars also +appeared, about the same time, [15] to give additional training in +understanding the spirit of instruction in the chief subjects of the +gymnasial course--the classics. In 1826 a year of trial teaching before +appointment (_Probejahr_) was added for all candidates, and in 1831 new +and more stringent regulations for the examination of teachers were +ordered. [16] At least two generations ahead of other nations, Prussia +thus developed a body of professional teachers for its secondary schools. + +UNIFICATION OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS. In 1812 the Leaving Examinations +(_Maturitätsprüfung_), instituted in 1788, but ineffective through +clerical opposition, were revived and strictly enforced. In 1834 the +passing of such an examination was made necessary to entering nearly all +branches of the state civil service, thus securing an educated body of +minor public officials. This same year the universities gave up their +entrance examinations, and have since depended entirely on the Leaving +Examinations of the State. + +The immediate effect of the reinstitution of the Leaving Examinations was +to unify the work of all the different surviving types of classical +secondary schools--_Gymnasium, Lyceum, Pädagogium, Collegium, Lateinische +Schule, Akademie_--all standard nine-year schools henceforth taking the +name of _Gymnasien_. Those institutions which could not meet the standards +of a nine-year classical school were either permitted to do the first six +years of the work, being known as _Pro-Gymnasien_, or the modern languages +were substituted for the ancient, and they became middle-class +institutions under the name of _Bürgerschulen_. A few _Realschulen_ also +were in existence, and these were permitted to continue, as middle-class +institutions, but without any state recognition. Thus, without the +destruction of institutions, the accumulated foundations of the centuries +were transformed into a series of organized state schools to serve the +needs of the State. + +The next step was the promulgation of a uniform course of instruction for +all _Gymnasien_ and _Pro-Gymnasien_. This was done in 1816. The studies +were Latin, Greek, German, mathematics, history, geography, religion, and +science, the amount of time to be devoted to each ranging, in the order +listed, from a maximum for Latin to a minimum for science. Up to 1824 +Greek was not absolutely required; from 1824 to 1837 it was required, +unless the substitution of a modern language was permitted; but after +1837, when the type of German secondary school had become fairly well +fixed, and the devotion to humanistic studies had reached a climax, Greek +became a fixed and unvarying requirement. [17] + +FOUNDING OF THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN. One result of the Treaty of Tilsit +(p. 566) was that Prussia had lost all her universities, except three +along the Baltic coast. Both Halle and Göttingen were lost, and the loss +of Halle was a severe blow. In 1807 Fichte, who had been a professor at +Jena, drew up a plan and submitted it to the King for the organization of +a new university at Berlin. When Humboldt came to the head of the +Department of Public Instruction the idea at once won his enthusiastic +approval. In May, 1809, he reported favorably on the project to the King, +and three months later a Cabinet Order was issued creating the new +university, giving it an annual money grant, and assigning a royal palace +to it for a home. The spirit with which the new institution was founded +may be inferred from the following extract from a memorial, published by +Humboldt, in 1810. In this he said: + +The State should not treat the universities as if they were higher +classical schools or schools of special sciences. On the whole the State +should not look to them at all for anything that directly concerns its own +interests, but should rather cherish a conviction that, in fulfilling +their real destination, they will not only serve its own purposes, but +serve them on an infinitely higher plane, commanding a much wider field of +operation, and affording room to set in motion much more efficient springs +and forces than are at the disposal of the State itself. + +This university was indeed a new creation, and of far more significance +for the future of university work than even the founding of Halle had +been. To the selection of its first faculty Humboldt devoted almost all +his energies during the period he remained in office. From the first, high +attainment in some branch of knowledge, and the ability to advance that +knowledge, was placed ahead of mere teaching skill. The most eminent +scholars in all lines were invited to the new "chairs," and when it opened +(1810) its first faculty represented the highest attainment of scholarship +in German lands. From the first the instruction divested itself of almost +all that characterized the school. The lecture replaced the classroom +recitation, and the seminar, in which small groups of advanced students +investigate a problem under the direction of a professor, was given a +place of large importance in the institution. Original research and +contributions to knowledge marked the work of both students and +professors, the object being, not to train teachers for the schools, but +to produce scholars capable of advancing knowledge by personal research. +Even more than at Halle, the institution was a place where professors and +students worked to discover truth, uninfluenced by any preconceived +notions and unmindful of what older ideas might be upset in the process. +The value of such pioneer work for university scholars everywhere is not +likely to be overestimated. + +SPECIALIZATION IN UNIVERSITY INSTRUCTION EMPHASIZED. Specialization in +some field of knowledge soon came to be the ruling idea, and this proved +exceedingly fruitful in the years which followed. There Bopp developed the +study of comparative grammar on the basis of the Sanskrit. There Dietz +founded Romance philology. Ritschl turned his students to the study of +Latin inscriptions to reconstruct the past. Lepsius began the study of +Egyptology with a spade. Niebuhr's _Roman History_ (1811) was the +institution's first fruit, and his successor, Ranke, showed his students +how to study history from the sources. Hegel, Schopenhauer, and Lotze made +over philosophy. Fechner and Wundt began there the study of experimental +psychology. Stahl and von Savigny created new standards in the study of +law. Müller introduced the microscope into the study of pathological +anatomy. Schultze systematized zoölogy. Liebig, who had opened at Giessen +(1824) what was probably the first chemical laboratory in the world open +to students, was drawn to Berlin and created there a new chemistry. Still +later, Helmholtz created there a new physics. + +The effect of all this on the expansion of the work of the philosophical +faculty was marked. The new philological and historical sciences, the +biological sciences, and the mathematical sciences, were all greatly +expanded in scope, and the new philosophical faculty, evolved out of the +old arts faculty (p. 554), now attained to the place of first importance +in the university--a position it has ever since retained. Law and medicine +were also given a new direction and emphasis, and even the teaching of +theology was greatly improved under the specialization in instruction and +the freedom in teaching which now became the rule. + +The effect on the other German universities was marked. Some of the older +institutions (Erfurt, Wittenberg, Cologne, Mainz) died out, while new +foundations (Breslau, 1811; Bonn, 1818; Munich, 1826) after the new model, +took their place. Those that continued were changed in character, [18] and +a new unity was established throughout the German university world. By +1850 exact scientific research, in both libraries and laboratories, and a +sober search for truth, had become the watchword of all the German +universities. In consequence they naturally assumed a world leadership, +and were frequented by students from many lands. Especially has the United +States been influenced in its university development by the large number +of university teachers who received their specialized training in the +German universities [19] during the latter half of the nineteenth century. +The lecture, the seminar, laboratory investigation, research, the +doctorate, and academic freedom in study and teaching are distinctive +contributions to our university development drawn from German lands, and +superimposed on our earlier English-type college. The founding of Johns +Hopkins University, at Baltimore, in 1876, on the German model, marked the +erection of the first distinctively research university in America. + +A TWO-CLASS STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM CREATED. We thus see that Prussia by 1815, +clearly by 1825, had taken over education from the Church and made of it +an instrument of the State to serve State ends. For the masses there was +the _Volksschule_, superseding the old religious vernacular school and +clearly designed to create an intelligent but obedient and patriotic +citizenship for the Fatherland, and in this school the great majority of +the children of the State received their education for citizenship and for +life. This was for both sexes, and was entirely a German school. +Attendance upon this school was made compulsory, and beyond this some +continuation education early began to be provided (Rs. 274, Section 6; 275 +d; 276, Section 15). Within the past half-century continuation education, +especially along vocational lines, as we shall point out in a subsequent +chapter, has received in German lands a very remarkable development. To +insure that this school should serve the State in the way desired, +Teachers' Seminaries, for the training of _Volksschule_, teachers, were +from the first made a feature of the new state system. + +[Illustration: FIG. 173. THE PRUSSIAN STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM CREATED +Compare with Fig. 269 and note the difference between a European two-class +system and the American democratic educational ladder.] + +For those who were to form the official and directing class of Society--a +closely limited, almost entirely male, intellectual aristocracy--education +in separate classical schools, with university or professional training +superimposed, was provided, and this type of training offered a very +thorough preparation for a small and a carefully selected class. Out of +this class the leaders of Germany for a century have been drawn. [20] For +this classical school also the universities were early directed to prepare +a well-educated body of teachers. The Prussian plan was followed in all +its essentials in the other German States, so that the drawing given (Fig. +173) was true for Germany as a whole, as well as for Prussia, up at least +to 1914. + +NEW NINETEENTH-CENTURY TENDENCIES MANIFESTED. In this early evolution of +the Prussian state school systems we find two prominent nineteenth-century +ideas expressing themselves. The first is the new conception of the State +as not merely a government organized to secure national safety and +protection from invasion, but rather an organization of the people to +promote public welfare and realize a moral and political ideal. To this +end state control of the whole range of education, to enable the State to +promote intellectual and moral and social progress along lines useful to +the State, became a necessity, and some form of this education, in the +interests of the public welfare, must now be extended to all. Though +France and the new American nation gave earlier political expression to +this new conception of the State, it was in Prussia that the idea attained +its earliest concrete and for long its most complete realization. Seeing +further and more clearly than other nations the possibilities of +education, the practical workers of Prussia, and after them the other +German States, took over education as a function of the State for the +propagation of the national ideas and the promotion of the national +culture. Of this development Paulsen says: + + In the nineteenth century Germany took the lead in the educational + movement among the nations of Europe. The German universities have + become acknowledged centers of scientific research for the whole + world.... In the domain of primary and technical education Germany has + also become the universal teacher of Europe. + + But it must not be forgotten, in this connection, that the German + people had been the pupils of their neighbors during a greater length + of time and with greater assiduity than any other European nation. + Thus, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Germany imported the + culture of Humanism from Italy. During the seventeenth and eighteenth + centuries she introduced the modern courtly culture and language of + the French people, besides giving admission, since the middle of the + eighteenth century, to the philosophy, science, and literature of + English middle-class society. Lastly, since the end of the eighteenth + century, the Germans have yielded themselves to the influence of the + Hellenic spirit with greater fervor than any other nation. + +The second nineteenth-century idea which early found expression in the +Prussian State, and one which became a dominant factor during the latter +half of the century, was the idea of utilizing the schools, as state +institutions, to promote national ends--to unify and nationalize peoples. +National self-consciousness here first found concrete expression, and with +wonderful practical results. From a geographical expression, consisting of +nearly four hundred petty self-governing cities, principalities, and +states, and some fourteen hundred independent noblemen and prelates, +before the Napoleonic wars, their close found the German people free from +serfdom, united in spirit, and organized politically into thirty-eight +modern-type States. In 1870, largely as a result of the nationalizing +efforts of government and education, working hand in hand, an Imperial +Empire of twenty-two States and three Free Cities was formed. The struggle +for national realization, begun by Prussia after 1807, and with education +as the important constructive tool of the State, has since been copied by +nation after nation and has become the dominant force of modern history. +To awaken a national self-consciousness, to acquire national unity, and to +infuse into all a common culture has supplanted the humanistic +cosmopolitanism of the eighteenth century and become the dominant +characteristic of nineteenth-century political history. In this Prussia +led the way. + +THE PERIOD OF REACTION. Through the period preceding the Wars of +Liberation (1813-15), and afterward for a few years, an educational zeal +animated the Government. The schools during this period were free on the +one hand from politics and on the other from minute official regulation. +As one writer well stated: [21] + + It was difficult to decide whether the schools derived their + importance from the life which surged around them, or whether their + importance was due to their intrinsic power, very carefully fostered + by the state authorities.... There was spirit and life in Prussia; + there was much activity and liberty in contriving, with little outward + parade. Any foreigner, visiting Prussia, might observe that the + vitalizing breath of government, like the spirit of God, was acting + upon the whole people. + +Napoleon was finally vanquished at Waterloo (1815) and sent to Saint +Helena, and the Congress of Vienna (1815) remade the map of Europe. In +doing so it forgot that the people wanted constitutional government, +instead of a return to absolute rulers. It restored old thrones, rights, +and territories, and inaugurated a policy of political reaction which +increased in intensity with time and dominated the governments of +continental Europe until after the middle of the century. Under the lead +of the Austrian minister, Metternich, and by "third-degree" methods, the +so-called Holy Alliance [22] of continental Europe suppressed free speech, +democratic movements, political liberties, university freedom, and +liberalism in government and religion. The governments in this Alliance +redirected and restricted the people's schools, as much as could be done, +to make them conform in purpose to their reactionary ideas. In +consequence, the development of popular education in Germany, as well as +in France and other continental lands, was for a time checked. The great +start obtained by Prussia and the German States before 1820, though, was +such that what had been done there could not be wholly undone. In France, +Spain, the Italian Kingdoms, the Austrian States, and Russia, on the other +hand, what had not been developed to any extent could be prevented from +developing, and in these lands popular education was given back to the +Church to control and direct. In England, also, though for other reasons +there, the Church retained its control over elementary education for half +a century longer. + +CHANGE IN THE SPIRIT OF THE SCHOOLS. The King of Prussia, Frederick +William III (1797-1840), though he had given full adherence to the +movement for general education during the dark period of Prussian history, +was after all never fully in sympathy with the liberal aspect of the +movement. After Austria, by the settlement at Vienna, became the leader of +the German States, and Metternich the dominating political personality of +Europe, the King came more and more to favor a restriction of liberties +and the holding of education to certain rather limited lines, fearful that +too much education of the people might prove harmful to the Government. +Accordingly, under the influence of the King and against the desires of +the liberal leaders, Prussia now changed direction and embarked on a +policy of reaction which checked normal educational progress; led to the +unsuccessful revolution of 1848 and the subsequent almost fanatical +governmental opposition to reforms; and was in large part responsible for +the disaster of 1918. It is an interesting speculation as to how different +the future German and world history might have been had Prussia and the +German States held to the liberal ideas of the earlier period, and drawn +their political conceptions from England and the new American nation, +rather than from Austria and Russia. + +Accordingly, in November, 1817, the Department of Public Instruction was +replaced by a Ministry for Spiritual, Educational, and Medical Affairs, +and Karl, Baron von Altenstein, was made Minister. He continued in office +until his death, [23] in 1840, and his administration was marked by an +increasing state centralization and limitation of the earlier plans. In +1819 he codified all previous practices into a general school law for the +kingdom. While the King never really approved and issued it, it +nevertheless became a basis for future work and is the law so +enthusiastically described by Cousin, in 1830 (R. 280). Under his +administration the earlier creative enthusiasm and the energy for the +execution of great ideas disappeared, and the earlier "stimulating and +encouraging attitude on the part of the authorities was now replaced by +the timid policy of the drag and the brake." The earlier preparatory work +in the development of Teachers' Seminaries and the establishment of +elementary schools was allowed to continue; Pestalozzian ideas were for a +time not seriously restricted; compulsory attendance was more definitely +ordered enforced, in 1825; the abolition of tuition fees for _Volksschule_ +education was begun in 1833, but not completed until 1888; and a more +careful supervision of schools was instituted, in 1834. The great change +was rather in the spirit and direction of the instruction. The early +tendency to emphasize nationalism and religious instruction (p. 571) was +now stressed, and the liberal aspects of Pestalozzianism were increasingly +subordinated to the more formal instruction and to nationalistic ends. The +soldier and the priest joined hands in diverting the schools to the +creation of intelligent, devout, patriotic, and, above all else, obedient +Germans, while the universal military idea, brought in by the successful +work of Scharnhorst (p. 567), and retained after the War of Liberation as +a survival of the old dynastic and predatory conception of the State, was +more and more emphasized in the work of the schools and the life of the +citizen. When Horace Mann reported on his visit to the schools of the +German States, in 1843, he called attention to this element of weakness +(R. 281), as well as to their many elements of strength. + +FURTHER INTOLERANCE AND REACTION. The reactionary tendencies which set in +after the settlement of Vienna had, by 1840, produced stagnation in the +life of the Governments of Europe, and the revolutions of 1848, which +broke out in France, Italy, Switzerland, and the different German and +Austrian States, were revolts against the reactionary governmental rule +and an expression of disappointment at the failure to secure +constitutional government. The revolutions were both successful and +unsuccessful--successful in that the greater liberty they sought came +later on, but unsuccessful at the time. In consequence, immediately +following 1848, an even more reactionary educational policy was +instituted. University freedom was markedly restricted; the institutions +lost their earlier vigor; and the number of students suffered a marked +decline in consequence. The secondary schools also felt the new +influences. Latin and Greek were made compulsory; uniform programs for +work were insisted upon; and Latin in particular was reduced to a +grammatical drill that destroyed the spirit of the earlier instruction and +put gymnasial teaching back almost to the type made so popular by Sturm. +The few _Realschulen_, which had continued to exist and were tolerated +before, were now treated with positive dislike. In 1859 they were able to +force their first official recognition, but only when changed from +practical schools for the middle classes to secondary schools, on the same +basis as the _Gymnasien_, and for parallel ends. + +It was upon the elementary schools (_Volksschulen_) and the Teachers' +Seminaries that the most severe official displeasure now fell. A number of +_Volksschule_ teachers had been connected with the revolutions of 1848, +and "over-education" was regarded as responsible. The Teachers' Seminary +at Preslau, which had for long given a high grade of training, was closed, +and the head of the Seminary at Berlin, Diesterweg, was dismissed because +of his strong advocacy of Pestalozzian ideas. Anything savoring of +individualism was especially under the ban. Bitter reproaches were heaped +upon the elementary-school teachers, and the new King, Frederick William +IV (1840-61) considered their work as the very root of the political evils +of the State. To a conference of Seminary teachers, held in 1849 in +Berlin, he said: [24] + + You and you alone are to blame for all the misery which the last year + has brought upon Prussia! The irreligious pseudo-education of the + masses is to be blamed for it, which you have been spreading under the + name of true wisdom, and by which you have eradicated religious belief + and loyalty from the hearts of my subjects and alienated their + affections from my person. This sham education, strutting about like a + peacock, has always been odious to me. I hated it already from the + bottom of my soul before I came to the throne, and, since my + accession, I have done everything I could to suppress it. I mean to + proceed on this path, without taking heed of any one, and, indeed, no + power on earth shall divert me from it. + +Thus easily did an autocratic Hohenzollern cast upon the shoulders of +others the burden of his own failure to grasp the evolution in political +thinking [25] which had taken place in Europe, since 1789. Unfortunately +for the future of the German people he was able to force his will upon +them. + + PROGRESS OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION AS SHOWN + BY THE DECREASE IN ILLITERACY IN PRUSSIA, + BY PROVINCES + (From _Rep. U.S. Com. Educ._, 1890-1900, I, p. 781) + + _Provinces_ 1841 1864-65 1881 1894-95 + + _Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent._ + East Prussia \ / 7.05 .99 + 15.33 16.54 + West Prussia / \ 8.79 1.23 + Brandenburg 2.47 .96 .32 .06 + Pomerania 1.23 1.47 .43 .12 + Posen 41.00 16.90 9.97 .98 + Silesia 9.22 3.78 2.33 .43 + Saxony 1.19 .49 .28 .09 + Westphalia 2.14 1.03 .60 .02 + Rhenish Prussia 7.06 1.13 .23 .05 + Hohenzollern .00 .00 .00 .00 + ===== ===== ===== ===== + The State 9.30 5.52 2.38 .33 + +In 1854 new "Regulations" were issued which put the course of instruction +for elementary schools back to the days of Frederick the Great. The one- +class rural elementary school was made the standard. Everything beyond +reading, writing, a little arithmetic, and religious instruction in strict +accordance with the creeds of the Church, was considered as superfluous, +and was to be allowed only by special permit. The elimination of +illiteracy, the creation of obedient citizens, and the nationalizing of +new elements became the aim of the schools. + +The instruction in the Teachers' Seminaries was reduced to the merest +necessities, and they were given clearly to understand that they were to +train teachers, and not to prepare educated men. All theory of education, +all didactics, all psychology were eliminated. A return was made to the +subject-matter theory of education, and a limited subject-matter at that, +and it once more became the business of the teacher to see that this was +carefully learned. Religious instruction naturally once more came to hold +a place of first importance. Similar reactionary movements took place in +other German States, all being sensitive to the reactionary spirit of the +time and the leadership of Austria and Prussia. + +THE MODERN GERMAN EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE. After about 1860, largely in +response to modern scientific and industrial forces among a people turning +from agriculture toward industrialism, a slight relaxation of the +reactionary legislation began to be evident. This expressed itself chiefly +in a diminution of the time given to memoriter work in religion, and the +introduction in its place of work in German history and geography, with +some work in natural science. In the Teachers' Seminaries instruction in +German literature, formerly rigidly excluded, was now added. It was not, +however, until after the unification of Germany, following the Franco- +Prussian War, and the creation of Imperial Germany under the directive +guidance of Bismarck, that any real change took place. Then the changes +were due to new political, religious, social, industrial, and economic +forces which belong to the later period of German history. + +In 1872 a new law gave to the Prussian elementary schools a new course of +study; reasserted the authority of the State in education; extended the +control of the public authorities; and made the State instead of the +Church the authority even for their religious instruction. [26] The +schools were now to be used as of old to build up and strengthen the +nation, but particularly to support the new Prussian idea as to the work +and function of the State. _Realien_ were given a new prominence, because +of new industrial needs, and the instruction in religion was revamped. The +old memoriter work was greatly reduced, and in its place an emotional and +political emphasis was given to the religious instruction. To make the +school of the people an instrument for fighting the growth of social +democracy, and a support for the throne and government, instruction in +religion was "placed in the center of the teacher's work," and teachers +were given to understand that they were "members of an educational army +and expected loyally to follow the flag." The secondary schools also were +redirected. A new emphasis on scientific subjects and modern languages +replaced the earlier emphasis on Greek. The Emperor interfered (R. 368) to +force a revision of the gymnasial programs better to adapt them to modern +needs. In particular were the universities of all the States unified and +nationalized, and great technical universities created. Science, commerce, +technical work, modern languages, and government were stressed in the +instruction of the leaders. + +Deciding clearly where the nation was to go and the route it was to +follow, and that education for national ends was one of the important +means to be employed, the different parts of the educational systems in +the States--elementary schools, secondary schools, universities, normal +schools, professional schools, technical schools, continuation schools-- +were carefully integrated into a unified state system, thoroughly national +in spirit, and given a definite function to perform in the work which the +Nation set itself to carry through. Nowhere have teachers been so well +trained to play their part in a national plan, and nowhere have teachers +acquitted themselves more worthily, from the point of view of the +Government. As Alexander [27] has well said: + + During the nineteenth century the leaders of Germany decided that + Germany should assume leadership in the world in every line of + endeavor, particularly in commerce and world power. They set this as + the very definite goal of their national ambition. The next question + was how that aim could be accomplished. It was to be done through + education. Accordingly school systems were organized with this aim in + view. In a State such as the Germans proposed building there were + be leaders and followers. The followers were to be trained for a + docile, efficient German citizenship; that is, the lower classes were + to be made into God-fearing, patriotic, economically-independent + Germans. This was the task of the _Volksschule_, and it has been + wonderfully well accomplished. This type of German is created to do + the manual labor of the State. + + The leaders were to be trained in middle and higher schools and in the + universities. There were to be different grades of leaders; leaders in + the lower walks of life, leaders in the middle walks of life, and + leaders of the nation. The higher schools and the universities were + employed to produce these types of leaders.... The leaders think and + do; the followers merely do. The schools were organized for the + express purpose of producing just these types. + +So well was this system and plan working that, had the Imperial Government +not been so impatient of that slower but surer progress by peaceful means, +and staked all on a gambler's throw, in another half-century the German +nation might have held the world largely in fee. As it is, the results +which the Germans attained by reason of definite aims and definite methods +are both an encouragement and a warning to other nations. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Point out the extent of the educational reorganization which resulted +from the reform work begun at Halle. + +2. How do you explain the very early German interest in compulsory school +attendance, when such was unknown elsewhere in Europe? + +3. Compare the Prussian Regulations of 1737 with what was common at that +time in practice in the parishes of the American Colonies. + +4. Show the wisdom of the early Prussian kings in working at school reform +through the Church. Could they well have worked otherwise? Why? + +5. How do you explain such a slow development of a professional teaching +body in Prussia, when all the state influences had for so long been +favorable to educational development? + +6. Show that the Oberschulcollegium Board marked the beginnings of a State +Ministry for Education for Prussia. + +7. Show that the spirit of the Prussian leaders, after 1806, was a further +expansion of the German national feeling which arose in the Period of +Enlightenment. + +8. Show that the reorganization of elementary education, and the creation +of the University of Berlin, were almost equally important events for the +future of German lands. + +9. Show that the work of Prussia, in using the schools for national ends, +was: (a) in keeping with the work of the French Revolutionary leaders, +and (b) only a further extension of the organizing work done by +Frederick the Great. + +10. Show how the universities of Germany early took the lead of the +universities of the world, and the influence of this fact on national +progress. + +11. Enumerate the new nineteenth-century tendencies observable in the +early educational organization in Prussia. + +12. Explain the marked mid-nineteenth-century reaction to educational +development which set in. + +13. Explain the early and marked welcome accorded science-study in German +lands. + +14. Explain in what ways Prussia attained an educational leadership, ahead +of other nations. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections, +illustrative of the contents of this chapter, are reproduced: + + 273. Barnard: The Organizing Work of Frederick William I. + 274. Prussia: The School Code of 1763. + 275. Prussia: The Silesian School Code of 1765. + 276. Austria: The School Code of 1774. + 277. Fichte: Addresses to the German Nation. + 278. Mann: The Prussian Elementary Teacher and his Training. + 279. Dinter: Prussian Schools and Teachers as he found them. + 280. Cousin: Report on Education in Prussia. + 281. Mann: The Military Aspect of Prussian Education., + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Explain the interest of Frederick William I (273) in elementary +education. + +2. Characterize, from the Codes of 1763 (274) and 1765 (275), and cite +paragraph to show: (a) The type of instruction ordered provided; (b) the +type of teacher expected; (c) the character of the attendance required; +and (d) the character of the continuation training ordered. + +3. Show the similarity in their main lines of the Prussian (274) and +Austrian (276) Codes. + +4. Would the reasoning of Fichte (277) apply to any crushed nation? +Illustrate. + +5. Do we select teachers for training as carefully in the United States +today as they did in Prussia eighty years ago (278)? Could we? + +6. Did such conditions as Dinter describes (279) exist, even later, with +us? + +7. Was the Prussian school system, as described by Cousin (280), a +centralized or a decentralized system? + +8. Show that Mann's reasoning as to the strength of the Prussian school +system (281) was thoroughly sound. + + +SELECTED REFERENCES + +* Alexander, Thomas. _The Prussian Elementary Schools_. +* Barnard, Henry. "Public Instruction in Prussia"; in _American Journal + of Education_, vol. XX, pp. 333-434. + Barnard, Henry. _German Teachers and Educators_. +* Cassell, Henry. "Adolph Diesterweg"; in _Educational Review_, vol. + I, pp. 345-56. (April, 1891.) + Friedel, V. H. _The German School as a War Nursery_. + Lexis, W. _A General View of the History and Organization of Public + Education in the German Empire_. +* Nohle, E. "History of the German School System"; in _Report U.S. + Commissioner of Education_, 1897-98, vol. I, pp. 3-82. Translated + from Rein's _Encyclopädisches Handbuch der Pädagogik_. +* Paulsen, Fr. _German Education, Past and Present_. +* Paulsen, Fr. _The German Universities_. +* Russell, James. _German Higher Schools_. + Seeley, J. R. _Life and Times of Stein_, vol. I. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE AND ITALY + + +I. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN FRANCE + +LINES OF DEVELOPMENT MARKED OUT BY THE REVOLUTION. The Revolution proved +very disastrous to the old forms of education in France. The old +educational foundations, accumulated through the ages, were swept away, +and the teaching congregations, which had provided the people with +whatever education they had enjoyed, were driven from the soil. The ruin +of educational and religious institutions in Russia under the recent rule +of the Bolshevists is perhaps comparable to what happened in France. Many +plans were proposed by the Revolutionary philosophers and enthusiasts, as +we have seen (chapter xx), to replace what had once been and to provide +better than had once been done for the educational needs of the masses of +the people, but with results that were small in comparison with the +expectations of the legislative assemblies which considered or approved +them. Nevertheless, the directions of future progress in educational +organization were clearly marked out before Napoleon came to power, and +the work which he did was largely an extension, and a reduction to working +order, of what had been proposed or established by the enthusiasts of the +pre-revolutionary and revolutionary periods. At the time of the Revolution +the State definitely took over the control of education from the Church, +and the work of Napoleon and those who came after him was to organize +public instruction into a practical state-controlled system. + +In effecting this organization, the preceding discussions of education as +a function of the State and the desirable forms of organization to follow +all bore important fruit, and the forms finally adopted embodied not only +the ideas contained in the legislation of the revolutionary assemblies, +but the earlier theoretical discussion of the subject by Rolland (p. 510), +Diderot (p. 511), and Talleyrand (p. 513) as well. They embodied also the +peculiar administrative genius of France--that desire for uniformity in +organization and administration--and hence stand in contrast to the state +educational organizations worked out about the same time in German lands. +The German States, as we have seen, had for long been working toward state +control of education, but when this was finally attained they still +permitted a large degree of local initiative and control. The French, on +the contrary, made the transition in a few years, and the system of state +control which they established provided for uniformity, and for +centralized supervision and inspection in the hands of the State. The +forms for state control and education adopted in the two countries were +also expressive of age-long tendencies in each. For three centuries German +political organization, as we have seen, had been extremely decentralized +on the one hand, and had been slowly evolving a system of education under +the joint control of the small States and the Church on the other. In +France, on the contrary, centralization of authority and subordination to +a central government had been the tendency for an even longer period. When +the time arrived for the State to take over education from the Church, it +was but natural that France should tend toward a much more highly +centralized control than did the German States, and the differing +political situations of the two countries, at the opening of the +nineteenth century, gave added emphasis to these differing tendencies. + +[Illustration: FIG. 174. AN OLD FOUNDATION TRANSFORMED +This was an ancient château in France. In 1604 Henry IV gave it to the +Jesuits for a school. In 1791 it became national property, and was +transformed into a Military College.] + +In consequence, Prussia and the other German States early achieved a form +of state educational organization which emphasized local interest and the +spirit of the instruction, whereas France created an administrative +organization which emphasized central control and, for the time, the form +rather than the spirit of instruction. This was well pointed out by Victor +Cousin (R. 280), in contrasting conditions in Prussia with those existing +in France. + +NAPOLEON BEGINS THE ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION. In 1799 Napoleon became +First Consul and master of France, and in 1804 France, by vote, changed +from a Republic to an Empire, with Napoleon as first Emperor. Until his +banishment to Saint Helena (1815) he was master of France. A man of large +executive capacity and an organizing genius of great ability, whether he +turned to army organization, governmental organization, the codification +of the laws, or the organization of education, Napoleon's practical and +constructive mind quickly reduced parts to their proper places in a well- +regulated scheme. Shortly after he became Consul he took up, among other +things, the matter of educational organization. + +His first effort was in 1800, when he transformed the old humanistic +College Louis le Grand (founded 1567) and created four military colleges +from its endowment. One of these colleges he later, in characteristic +fashion, transformed into a School of Arts and Trades (R. 282). In 1802 he +signed the famous Concordat with the Pope. This restored the priests to +the churches, with state aid for their stipends, and virtually turned over +primary education again to the Church for care and control. The "Brothers +of the Christian Schools" (p. 515) were recalled the next year and +especially favored, and soon established themselves more firmly than +before the Revolution. + +[Illustration: FIG. 175. COUNT DE FOURCROY (1755-1809)] + +In 1802 Napoleon first turned his attention to a general organization of +public instruction by directing Count de Fourcroy, a distinguished chemist +who had been a teacher in the Polytechnic School, and whom he appointed +Director of Public Instruction, to draw up, according to his ideas, an +organizing law on the subject. This became the Law of 1802. It was divided +into nine chapters, as follows: + + I. Degrees of Instruction. + II. Primary Schools. + III. Secondary Schools. + IV. Lycées. + V. Special Schools. + VI. The Military School. + VII. The National Pupils. + VIII. The _nationales pensions_ + IX. General regulations. + +1. PRIMARY SCHOOLS. The chapter on primary schools virtually reënacted the +Law of 1795 (R. 258 b). Each commune [1] was required to furnish a +schoolhouse and a home for the teacher. The teacher was to be responsible +to local authorities, while the supervision of the school was placed under +the prefect of the Department. The instruction was to be limited to +reading, writing, and arithmetic, and the legal authorities were enjoined +"to watch that the teachers did not carry their instructions beyond these +limits." The teacher was to be paid entirely from tuition fees, though one +fifth of the pupils were to be provided with free schooling. The State +gave nothing toward the support of the primary schools. + +The interest of Napoleon was not in primary or general education, but +rather in training pupils for scientific and technical efficiency, and +youths of superior ability for the professions and for executive work in +the kind of government he had imposed upon France. To this end secondary +and special education were made particular functions of the State, while +primary education was left to the communes to provide as they saw fit. +They could provide schools and the parents could pay for the teacher, or +not, as they might decide. There was no compulsion to enforce the +requirement of a primary school, and no state aid to stimulate local +effort to create one. In consequence not many state primary schools were +established, and primary education remained, for another generation, in +the hands of private teachers and the Church. + +2. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Chapters III and IV of the Law of 1802 made full +provision for two types of secondary schools--the Communal Colleges and +the Lycées [2]--to replace the Central Higher Schools established in 1795 +(p. 518). These latter had lacked sadly in internal organization. They +were merely day schools, lacking the dormitory and boarding arrangements +which for over three centuries had characterized the French _collèges_. As +a result they had not prospered. The Law of 1802 now replaced them with +two types of residential secondary schools, in which the youth of the +country, under careful supervision and discipline, might prepare for +entrance to the higher special schools. These fixed the lines of future +French development in secondary schools. + +The standard secondary school now became known as the _Lycée_. These +institutions corresponded to the Colleges under the old régime, of which +the College of Guyenne (R. 136) was a type. The instruction was to include +the ancient languages, rhetoric, logic, ethics, belles-lettres, +mathematics, and physical science, with some provision for additional +instruction in modern languages and drawing. Each was to have at least +eight "professors," an administrative head, a supervisor of studies, and a +steward to manage the business affairs of the institution. The State +usually provided the building, often using some former church school which +had been suppressed, and the cities in which the Lycées were located were +required to provide them with furniture and teaching equipment. The funds +for maintenance came from tuition fees, boarding and rooming income, and +state scholarships, of which six thousand four hundred were provided. + +Besides the Lycées, every school established by a municipality, or kept by +an individual, which gave instruction in Latin, French, geography, +history, and mathematics was designated as a secondary school, or Communal +College. These institutions usually offered but a partial Lycée course, +and were tuition schools, being patronized by many parents whose tastes +forbade the sending of their children to the lower-class primary schools. +A license from the Government to operate was necessary before masters +could be employed. They were to be maintained by the municipality, without +any state encouragement beyond some grants for capable teachers and +scholarships in the Lycées for meritorious pupils. + +Within two years after the enactment of the Law of 1802 there had been +created in France 46 Lycées, 378 secondary schools of various degrees of +completeness, and 361 private schools of secondary grade had been opened. +A number of these disappeared later, in the reorganization of 1808. For +the supervision of all these institutions the Director General of Public +Instruction appointed three Superintendents of Secondary Studies; and for +the work of the schools he outlined the courses of instruction in detail, +laid down the rules of administration, prepared and selected the +textbooks, and appointed the "professors." + +SPECIAL OR HIGHER SCHOOLS. The chapter of the Law of 1802 on Special +Schools made provision for the creation of the following special +"faculties" or schools for higher education for France: + + 3 medical schools, to replace the _Schools of Health_ of 1794 (p. + 518). + 10 law schools; increased to 12 in 1804 (Date of _Code Napoléon_, + p. 518). + 4 schools of natural history, natural philosophy, and chemistry. + 2 schools of mechanical and chemical arts, + 1 mathematical school, + 1 school of geography, history, and political economy. + A fourth school of art and design. + Professors of astronomy for the observatories. + +In 1803 the School of Arts and Trades was added (R. 282), and in 1804, +after Napoleon had signed the Concordat with the Pope, thus restoring the +Catholic religion (abolished 1791), schools of theology were added to the +above list. + +We have here, clearly outlined, the main paths along which French state +educational organization had been tending and was in future to follow. The +State had definitely dispossessed the Church as the controlling agency in +education, and had definitely taken over the school as an instrument for +its own ends. Though primary education had been temporarily left to the +communes, and was soon to be turned over in large part to be handled by +the Church for a generation longer, the supervision was to remain with the +State. The middle-class elements were well provided for in the new +secondary schools, and these were now subject to complete supervision by +the State. For higher education groups of Special Schools, or Teaching +Faculties, replaced the older universities, which were not re-created +until after the coming of the Third Republic (1871). The dominant +characteristics of the state educational system thus created, aside from +its emphasis on secondary and higher education, were its uniformity and +centralized control. These characteristics were further stressed in the +reorganization of 1808, and have remained prominent in French educational +organization ever since. + +CREATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FRANCE. By 1806 Napoleon was ready for a +further and more complete organization of the public instruction of the +State, and to this end the following law was now enacted (May 10, 1806): + + Sec. 1. There will be formed, under the name of Imperial University, + a body exclusively commissioned with teaching and public education + throughout the Empire. + + Sec. 2. The members of this corporation can contract civil, special, + and temporary obligations. + + Sec. 3. The organization of this corps will be given in the form of a + law to the legislative body in the session of 1810. + +In 1808, without the formality of further legislation, Napoleon issued an +Imperial Decree creating the University of France. This was not only +Napoleon's most remarkable educational creation, but it was an +administrative and governing organization for education so in harmony with +French spirit and French governmental ideas that it has persisted ever +since, though changed somewhat in form with time. + +The Decree began by declaring that "public instruction, in the whole +Empire, is confined exclusively to the University," and that "no school, +nor establishment for instruction, can be formed independent of the +Imperial University, and without the authority of its chief." Unlike the +University of Berlin (p. 574), created a year later, this was not a +teaching university at all, but instead a governing, examining, and +disbursing corporation, [3] presided over by a Grand Master and a Council +of twenty-six members, all appointed by the Emperor. This Council decided +all matters of importance, and exercised supervision and control over +education of all kinds, from the lowest to the highest, throughout France. +[4] To assist the Council, general inspectors for medicine, law, theology, +letters, and science were provided for, to visit and "examine the +condition of instruction and discipline in the faculties, _lycées_, and +colleges; to inform themselves in regard to the fidelity and ability of +professors, regents, and ushers; to examine the students; and to make a +complete survey of those institutions, in their whole administration." +Beneath the Grand Master and Council the State was divided into twenty- +seven "Academies" (administrative districts), each of which had a Rector, +a Council of ten, and Inspectors, all appointed by the Grand Master. These +exercised jurisdiction over teachers and pupils in all schools, and +decided all local matters, subject to appeal to the Grand Master and +Council. + +Under this new administrative organization but little change was made in +the schools from that provided for in the law of 1802. Primary education +remained as before, private schools and Church schools supplying most of +the need. All were under the supervision of the University, and all were +instructed to make as a basis of their instruction: (1) the precepts of +the Catholic religion; (2) fidelity to the Emperor, to the imperial +monarchy, the depository of the happiness of the people, and to the +Napoleonic dynasty, the conservator of the unity of France, and of all the +ideas proclaimed by the Constitution. + +The _Lycées_ and Communal Colleges continued, much as before, [5] and +during the half-century which followed, experienced a steady and +substantial growth. + + DEVELOPMENT OF THE LYCÉES + + Year 1809 1811 1813 1829 1847 1866 + Lycées 35 36 36 36 54 74 + Pupils 9,068 10,926 14,492 15,087 23,207 34,442 + Free pupils 4,199 4,008 3,500 1,600 + + DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMMUNAL COLLEGES + + Year 1809 1815 1830 1849 1855 1866 + Colleges 273 323 332 306 244 251 + Pupils 18,507 19,320 27,308 31,706 32,500 33,038 + +The Special Higher Schools were also continued, and to the list given (p. +593) Napoleon added (1808) a Superior Normal School (R. 283) to train +graduates of the _Lycées_ for teaching. This opened in 1810, with thirty- +seven students and a two-year course of instruction, and in 1815 a third +year of method and practice work was added. With some varying fortunes, +this institution has continued to the present. + +THE NEW INTEREST IN PRIMARY EDUCATION. The period from 1815 to 1830 in +France is known as the Restoration. Louis XVIII was made King and ruled +until his death in 1824, and his brother Charles X who followed until +deposed by the Revolution of 1830. Though a representative of the old +régime was recalled on the abdication of Napoleon, the great social gains +of the Revolution were retained. There was no odious restoration of +privilege and absolute monarchy. Frenchmen continued to be equal before +the law; a form of constitutional government was provided; the right of +petition was recognized; and the system of public instruction as Napoleon +had organized it continued almost unchanged. For a decade at least there +was less political reaction in France than in other continental States. + +In matters of education, what had been provided was retained, and there +seems (R. 285) to have been an increasing demand for additions and +improvements, particularly in the matter of primary and middle-class +schools, and a willingness on the part of the communes to provide such +advantages. Some small progress had been made in meeting these demands, +before 1830. + +In 1816 a small treasury grant (50,000 francs) was made for school books, +model schools, and deserving teachers in the primary schools, and in 1829 +this sum was increased to 300,000 francs. In 1818 the "Brothers of the +Christian Schools" were permitted to be certificated for teaching on +merely presenting their Letter of Obedience from the head of their Order, +and in 1824 the cantonal school committees were remodeled so as to give +the bishops and clergy entire control of all Catholic primary schools. +Monitorial instruction was introduced from England by private teachers, in +an effort to supply the beginnings of education at small expense, and for +a time this had some vogue, but never proved very successful. In 1815 the +_Lycées_ were renamed Royal Colleges, but in 1848 the old name was +restored, and has since been retained. In 1817 there were thirty-six +_Lycées_, receiving an annual state subsidy of 812,000 francs; thirty +years later the fifty-four in existence were receiving 1,500,000 francs. +From 1822 to 1829 the Higher Normal School was suppressed, and twelve +elementary normal schools were created in its stead. + +EARLY WORK UNDER THE MONARCHY OF 1830. In July, 1830, Charles X attempted +to suppress constitutional liberty, and the people rose in revolt and +deposed him, and gave the crown to a new King, Louis-Philippe. He ruled +until deposed by the creation of the Second Republic, in 1848. The +"Monarchy of 1830" was supported by the leading thinkers of the time, +prominent among whom were Thiers and Guizot, and one of the first affairs +of State to which they turned their attention was the extension downward +of the system of public instruction. The first steps were an increase of +the state grant for primary schools (1830) to a million francs a year; the +overthrow of the control by the priests of the cantonal school committees +(1830): the abolition (1831) of the exemption of the religious orders from +the examinations for teaching certificates; and the creation (1830-31) of +thirty new normal schools. + +[Illustration: FIG. 176 VICTOR COUSIN (1792-1867)] + +The next step was to send (1831) M. Victor Cousin--Director of the +restored Higher Normal School of France--on a mission to the German +States, and in particular to Prussia, to study and report on the system of +elementary education, teacher training, and educational organization and +administration which had done so much for its regeneration. So convincing +was Cousin's _Report_ [6] that, despite bitter national antipathies, it +carried conviction throughout France. "It demonstrated to the government +and the people the immense superiority of all the German States, even the +most insignificant duchy, over any and every Department of France, in all +that concerned institutions of primary and secondary education." Cousin +pronounced the school law of Prussia (R. 280) "the most comprehensive and +perfect legislative measure regarding primary education" with which he was +acquainted, and declared his conviction that "in the present state of +things, a law concerning primary education is indispensable in France." +The chief question, he continued, was "how to procure a good one in a +country where there is a total absence of all precedents and experience in +so grave a matter." Cousin then pointed out the bases, derived from +Prussian experience and French historical development, on which a +satisfactory law could be framed (R. 284 a-c); the desirability of local +control and liberty in instruction (R. 284 f-g); and strongly recommended +the organization of higher primary schools (a new creation; first +recommended (1792) by Condorcet, p. 514) as well as primary schools (R. +284 e) to meet the educational needs of the middle classes of the +population of France. + +THE LAW OF 1833. On the basis of Cousin's _Report_ a bill, making the +maintenance of primary schools obligatory on every commune; providing for +higher primary schools in the towns and cities; additional normal schools +to train teachers for these schools; a corps of primary-school inspectors, +to represent the State; and normal training and state certification +required to teach in any primary school, was prepared. In an address to +the Chamber of Deputies, in introducing the bill (1832), M. Guizot [7], +the newly appointed Minister for Public Instruction, set forth the history +of primary instruction in France up to 1832 (R. 285 a); described the two +grades of primary instruction to be created (R. 285 b); and, emphasizing +Cousin's maxim that "the schoolmaster makes the school," dwelt on the +necessity for normal training and state certification for all primary +teachers (R. 285 c). In preparing the bill it was decided not to follow +the revolutionary ideas of free instruction, by lay and state teachers, or +to enforce compulsion to attend, and for these omissions M. Guizot, in his +_Mémoires_ (R. 286), gives some very interesting reasons. + +[Illustration: FIG. 177. OUTLINE OF THE MAIN FEATURES OF THE FRENCH STATE +SCHOOL SYSTEM] + +The bill became a law the following year, and is known officially as the +Law of 1833. This Law forms the foundations upon which the French system +of national elementary education has been developed, as the Napoleonic Law +of 1802 and the Decree of 1808 have formed the basis for secondary +education and French state administrative organization. A primary school +was to be established in every commune, which was to provide the building, +pay a fixed minimum salary to the teacher, and where able maintain the +school. The state reserved the right to fix the pay of the teacher, and +even to approve his appointment. A tuition fee was to be paid for +attendance, but those who could not pay were to be provided with free +places. The primary schools were to give instruction in reading, writing, +arithmetic, the weights and measures, the French language, and morals and +religion. The higher primary schools were to build on these subjects, and +to offer instruction in geometry and its applications, linear drawing, +surveying, physical science, natural history, history, geography, and +music, and were to emphasize instruction in "the history and geography of +France, and in the elements of science, as they apply it every day in the +office, the workshop, and the field." [8] These latter were the +_Bürgerschulen_, recommended by Cousin (R. 284 e) on the basis of his +study of Prussian education. [9] + +[Illustration: PLATE 14. FRANÇOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME GUIZOT (1787-1874) +Creator of the French primary school system] + +The primary schools were to follow a uniform plan, and as a guide a +_Manual of Primary Instruction_ was issued, giving detailed directions as +to what was to be done. In sending out a copy of the Law to the primary +teachers of France, M. Guizot enclosed a personal letter to each, +informing him as to what the government expected of him in the new work +(R. 287). During the four years that M. Guizot remained Minister of Public +Instruction he rendered a remarkable service, well described by Matthew +Arnold (R. 288), in awakening his countrymen to the new problem of popular +education then before them. + +The results under the Law of 1833 were large [10] and the subsequent +legislation under the monarchy of 1830 was important. For the first time +in French history an earnest effort was made to provide education suited +to the needs of the great mass of the people, and the marked development +of schools which ensued showed how eagerly they embraced the opportunities +offered their children, though the schooling was neither compulsory nor +gratuitous. In 1837 Infant Schools, for still younger children, were +authorized, and in 1840 state aid for these was begun. In 1836 classes for +adults, first begun in Paris in 1820, were authorized generally, but it +was not until 1867 that these were formally incorporated into the state +school system. In 1845 state aid for the Communal Colleges, as well as for +the _Lycées_, was begun. + + DEVELOPMENT OF INFANT SCHOOLS + + Year...... 1827 1837 1840 1843 1846 1850 1863 1886 1897 + Schools... 1 251 555 1489 1861 1735 3308 6696 5683 + +REACTION AFTER 1848. In France, as in Europe generally, the people were +steadily becoming more liberal, as they became better educated, while the +rulers were becoming more autocratic. The result was the series of +revolutions of 1848, which broke out first in France, and finally extended +to most of the countries of continental Europe. In France the King, Louis- +Philippe, was forced to abdicate; a Republic, based on universal manhood +suffrage, was proclaimed; and Louis Napoleon, a nephew of Napoleon I, was +elected President. In 1851 Napoleon established himself as Dictator; +prepared a new constitution providing for an Empire; and, in 1852, +dissolved the Second Republic and assumed the title of Emperor Napoleon +III. This Second Empire lasted until 1870, when France was humiliated by +the Prussians as the latter had been by Napoleon I in 1806. The Emperor +and his armies were taken prisoners (1870) and, in 1871, the Prussians +occupied Paris and crowned the new Emperor of united and Imperial Germany +in the palace of the French Kings at Versailles. A Third Republic now +succeeded, and this has lasted to the present time. + +The period from 1848 to 1870 in France was a period of middle-class rule, +and reaction in education as in government. In 1848 a Sub-Commission on +Primary Education reported in opposition to the state primary schools. The +troubles of 1848 had brought to view the political restlessness which had +taken possession of the teachers, as well as other classes in society. The +new schools were naturally suspected of being the source of the popular +discontent. Many teachers had sympathized with, and some had taken part in +the disturbances, and teachers generally were now placed under close +surveillance. Some of the leaders were forced into exile until after 1870. +Religious schools, regarded as more favorable to monarchical needs and +purposes, were now encouraged, and the number of religious schools +increased from 6464 in 1850, to 11,391 by 1864. Private schools, too, were +given full freedom to compete with the state schools, and the pay of the +primary teachers was reduced. The course in the normal schools was +condemned as too ambitious, and, in 1851, was cut down. The course of +instruction in the primary schools, on the other hand, was, unlike in +Prussia, broadened instead of restricted, and in particular emphasis was +placed, in keeping with nearly a century of French tradition, on +scientific and practical subjects. [11] The law of 1850 stated the +requirements for primary schools as follows: + + Art. 23. Primary instruction comprises moral and religious + instruction, reading, writing, the elements of the French language, + computation, and the legal system of weights and measures. It may + comprise, in addition, arithmetic applied to practical operations, the + elements of history (a required subject after 1867) and geography, + notions of the physical sciences and of natural history applicable to + the ordinary purposes of life, elementary instruction in agriculture, + trade, and hygiene; and surveying, leveling, linear drawing, singing, + and gymnastics. + +Religious instruction prospered under the Second Empire, and the state +primary schools lost in importance. The _Lycées_ continued largely as +classical institutions, though after 1865 the crowding of the rising +sciences began to dispute the supremacy of classical studies. There were, +however, many voices of discontent, particularly from exiled teachers (R. +289), and the way was rapidly being prepared for the creation of a +stronger and better state school system as soon as political conditions +were propitious. + +REVOLUTIONARY IDEALS AT LAST REALIZED. With the creation of the Third +Republic, in 1870, a change from the old conditions and old attitudes took +place. Up to about 1879 the new government was in control of those who +were at heart sympathetic with the old conditions, but were forced to +accept the new; from 1879 to 1890 was a transition period; and since 1890 +the Republic has grown steadily in strength and regained its position +among the great powers of the world. The first few years of the new +Republic were devoted to paying the Prussian indemnity and clearing the +soil of France of German armies, but, after about 1875, education became a +great national interest among leaders of France. [12] France saw, somewhat +as did Prussia after 1806, the necessity for creating a strong state +system of primary, secondary, and higher schools to train the youth of the +land in the principles of the Republic, strengthen the national spirit, +advance the welfare of the State, and protect it from dangers both within +and without. + + PROGRESS OF PRIMARY EDUCATION IN FRANCE, DURING THE NINETEENTH + CENTURY, AS SHOWN BY THE REDUCTION IN THE PERCENTAGE OF ILLITERACY + AMONG ARMY CONSCRIPTS, AND AMONG PERSONS SIGNING THE MARRIAGE RECORDS + + Years Army Marriage records + conscripts Men Women + 1790 53.0% 73.0% + 1827 58.0% + 1833 47.8 + 1840 42.8 + 1845 37.8 + 1850 35.7 + 1855 33.7 32.0 47.0 + 1860 30.0 30.4 44.8 + 1865 24.4 27.5 41.0 + 1870 19.7 26.8 39.4 + 1875 16.0 20.0 31.0 + 1880 14.7 16.1 24.5 + 1885 11.5 13.0 20.2 + 1890 7.8 8.7 12.8 + 1896 5.1 5.8 7.8 + 1901 4.4 4.4 6.3 + +Millions were put into the building of schoolhouses (1878-88); new normal +schools were established; a normal school for women was created in each of +the eighty-seven departments of France; the academic and superior councils +of public instruction were reorganized to eliminate clerical influences +(1881); religious instruction was replaced by moral and civic instruction +(R. 290); and clerical "Letters of Obedience" were no longer accepted, and +all teachers were required to be certificated by the State. The Law of +1881, eliminating instruction in religion from the elementary schools, was +followed, in 1886, by a law providing for the gradual replacement of +clerical by lay teachers. In 1904, the teaching congregations of France +were suppressed. All elementary education now became public, free, +compulsory, and secular, [13] and teachers were required to be neutral in +religious matters. [14] + +Since 1871, also, technical and scientific education has been emphasized; +the primary and superior-primary schools have been made free (1881) and +compulsory (1882); classes for adults have been begun generally; the state +aid for schools has been very greatly increased; _lycées_ and colleges for +women have been created (1880); the _lycées_ modernized in their +instruction [15] and the reorganization and reëstablishment of a series of +fifteen state universities of a modern type, begun in 1885, was completed +in 1896. The reorganization and expansion of education in France since +1875 is a wonderful example of republican interest and energy, and is +along entirely different lines from those followed, since the same date, +in German lands. + +After the lapse of nearly a century we now see the French Revolutionary +ideas of gratuity, obligation, and secularization finally put into effect, +and the state system of public instruction outlined by Condorcet (p. 514), +in 1792, at last an accomplished fact. + + +II. NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ITALY + +IMPORTANCE OF THE WORK OF NAPOLEON. So much has been written about the +deluge of blood that took place in Paris in the days of the Commune and +the time of the National Conventions, and of the military victories and +autocratic rule of Napoleon Bonaparte, that it is difficult to appraise +the importance of either, from the point of view of the progress of +civilization and of the organization of modern political institutions, at +its true worth. The faults of both are prominent and outstanding, but it +nevertheless was the merit of the Revolution that it enabled France, and +along with France a good portion of western Europe, to rid itself of the +worst survivals of the Middle Ages, while to Napoleon much of western +Europe is indebted for the foundation of its civil institutions, unified +legal procedure, beginnings of state educational organization, and modern +governmental forms. Writing on this subject, Matthew Arnold [16] well +said: + + With all his faults, his [Napoleon's] reason was so clear and strong + that he saw, in its general outlines at least, the just and rational + type of civil organization which modern society needs, and wherever + his armies went he instituted it. + +[Illustration: FIG. 178. EUROPE IN 1810 +Showing the control of France when Napoleon was at the height of his +power.] + +That the French Revolution's merit and service was a real one is shown by +all the world, as it improves, getting rid more and more of the Middle +Ages. That Napoleon's merit and service was a real one is shown by the bad +governments which succeeded him having always got rid, when they could, of +his work, and by the progress of improvement, when these governments +became intolerable, and are themselves got rid of, always bringing it +back. Where governments were not wholly bad, and did not get rid of +Napoleon's good work, this work turns out to have the future on its side, +and to be more likely to assimilate the institutions round it to its +pattern than to be itself assimilated by them. + +In the Italian States, the Netherlands, some of the French cantons of +Switzerland, the Rhine countries, and the Danish peninsula, in particular, +the rule of Napoleon, imposed by his armies, carried out by rulers of his +selection, and maintained for a long enough period that the legal +organization, civil order, unified government, and taste of educational +opportunities of a new type which his rule brought became attractive to +the people, in time proved deeply influential in their political +development. [17] All these nations still show traces of the French +influence in their state educational organization. We shall take the +Italian States as a type, and examine briefly the influence on the +development of state educational organization there which resulted from +contact with the forward-looking rule of "The Great Emperor." + +DECLINE IN IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION IN ITALY. In a preceding chapter (p. +503), we mentioned that the rule of Napoleon in northern Italy awakened +the national spirit from its long lethargy, and caused Italian liberals to +look forward, for the first time since the days of the Revival of +Learning, to the time when the Italian States might be united into one +Italian nation, with Rome as its capital. This became the work of the mid- +nineteenth century (see dates, Fig. 179), though not fully completed until +the World War of 1914-18. Italy stands to-day a great united nation, with +a large future ahead of it, but as such it is entirely a nineteenth- +century creation. From the time of its intellectual decline following the +Renaissance, to the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy remained "a +geographical expression" and split up into a number of little independent +States; up to the time of Napoleon it was a part of the German-ruled "Holy +Roman Empire." + +After the great patriotic effort of the period of the Revival of Learning +(p. 264) in Italy, and the rather feeble and unsuccessful attempts at a +reform of religion which followed, the intellectual development of Italy +was checked and turned aside for centuries by the triumph of an +unprogressive and anti-intellectual attitude on the part of the dominant +Church. The persecution of Galileo (p. 388) was but a phase of the +reaction in religion which had by that time set in. Education was turned +over to the religious orders, such as the Jesuits and the Barnabites, and +instruction was turned aside from liberal culture and the promotion of +learning to the support of a religion and the stamping out of heresy. +Though a number of educational foundations were made, and some important +undertakings begun after the days when her universities were crowded and +Florence and Venice vied with one another for the intellectual supremacy +of the western world, the spirit nevertheless was gone, and both education +and government settled down to a tenacious preservation of the existing +order. Scholars ceased to frequent the schools of Italy; the universities +changed from seats of learning to degree-conferring institutions; [18] the +intellectual capitals came to be found north of the Alps; and the history +of educational progress ceased to be traced in this ancient land. In the +early part of the eighteenth century the schools there reached perhaps +their lowest intellectual level. + +THE BEGINNINGS OF REFORM IN SAVOY. The first and almost the only attempt +to change this condition, before Napoleon's armies went crashing through +the valley of the Po, was made in the seventeenth century by two Dukes of +Savoy. By decrees of 1729 and 1772 they took the control of the secondary +(Latin) schools in their little duchy from the religious orders, and +established a Council of Public Instruction to reform the university +examinations, see that teachers were prepared for the Latin schools, and +take over in the name of the authorities of the duchy the control of +education. Though inspired by a political interest, the two dukes brought +into their little kingdom the much-needed ideas of honest work, effective +administration, and public spirit, and laid the foundations for the +control of education by the public authorities later on. The only other +attempt to improve conditions came in Lombardy, in 1774, which then was a +part of the Austrian dominions and felt the short-lived reforms of Maria +Theresa (p. 562; R. 276). Elsewhere in Italy conditions remained unchanged +until the time of Napoleon. + +NAPOLEON REVIVES THE NATIONAL SPIRIT. In 1796 Napoleon's armies invaded +Sardinia, Lombardy, and the valley of the Po, and he soon extended his +control to almost all the Italian peninsula. For nearly two decades +thereafter this collection of little States felt the unifying, +regenerating influence of the organizing French. Monasteries and convents +and religious schools were transformed into modern teaching institutions, +brigandage was put down, and efficient and honest government was +established. The ideas of the French Law of 1802 as to education were +applied. Every town was ordered to establish a school for boys, to teach +the reading and writing of Italian and the elements of French and Latin; +the secondary schools were modernized; and the universities were +completely reorganized. Some of the universities were reduced to _licei_ +(_lycées_; secondary schools), while others were strengthened and their +revenues turned to better purposes. The universities at Naples and Turin +in particular were transformed into strong institutions, with a decided +emphasis on scientific studies. A normal school was founded at Pisa, on +the model of the one at Paris. New standards in education were set up, the +study of the sciences was introduced into the secondary schools, and the +study of medicine and law was regenerated. + +With the fall of Napoleon his work was largely undone. The firm, just, and +intelligent government which he had given Italy--something the land had +not known for ages--came to an end. The little States were "handed back to +the reactionary dynasts whose rule was neither benevolent nor intelligent, +while the ever-ready Austrian army crushed out any local movement for +liberal institutions." The laws regarding education were repealed, and the +schools the French had established were closed as revolutionary and +dangerous. The normal school at Pisa ceased to exist; the university at +Naples was dismantled; the one at Turin was closed; and the Jesuits were +allowed to return and reorganize instruction. The result was that a common +discontent with ensuing conditions made Italians conscious of their racial +and historical unity, and this finally expressed itself in the revolutions +of 1848. These failed at the time, and the heel of the Austrian oppressor +came down harder than before. Liberty of the press practically ceased. The +national leaders went into exile for safety. The prisons were filled with +political offenders. The schools were closed or ceased to influence. The +Pope, fearing the end of his earthly kingship approaching, united firmly +with the Austrians to resist liberal movements. Finally, under the +leadership of the enlightened King of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel (1849-78) +and his Prime Minister, Count of Cavour, the Austrians were driven out +(1859-66) and all Italy was united (1870) under the rule of one king +interested in promoting the welfare of his people. + +[Illustration: FIG. 179. THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY, SINCE 1848] + +SARDINIA LEADS TO NATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND CONTROL. The movement to free +Italy was essentially a liberal movement. Many hoped to create a republic, +but chose a liberal constitutional monarchy under Victor Emmanuel as the +most feasible plan. Cavour understood the importance of public +instruction, and from the first began to build up schools [19] and put +them under state control. In 1844, a normal school was opened in Turin. In +1847, a Minister of Public Instruction was appointed and a Council of +Public Instruction created, after the plan of France, In 1848, a General +School Law was enacted, and the organization and improvement of schools +was begun with a will. In 1850, a commission was sent to study the school +systems of Europe, and in particular those of France and of the German +States. A Supreme Council of Public Instruction was now formed for +Sardinia, and the process of creating primary schools, higher-primary +schools, classical and technical secondary schools, colleges, and the +reorganization of the universities was begun. In 1859, when the growth of +Italian unity was rapidly extending the rule of Victor Emmanuel, [20] a +new law, providing a still better state organization of public +instruction, was enacted. A Minister of Public Instruction appointed by +the King, a Supreme Council of Public Instruction, and a Department of +Public Instruction as a branch of the government, were all provided for, +after the French plan. + +[Illustration: FIG. 180 COUNT OF CAVOUR (1810-61)] + +This Law of 1859 was later extended to cover all Italy, and has formed the +basis for all subsequent legislation. It clearly established a state +system of education, though the religious schools were allowed to remain. +It also established control after the French plan, with a high degree of +centralization and uniformity. The schools established, too, were much +after the French type, though much less extensive in scope. The primary +and superior primary at first were but two years each, though since +extended in all the larger communities to a six-year combined course. The +two-class school system was established, as in France and German lands. +The secondary-school system consisted of a five-year _ginnasio_, +established in many places (218 in Italy by 1865; 458 by 1916) with a +three-year _liceo_ following, but found in a smaller number of places. +Parallel with this a seven-year non-classical scientific and technical +secondary school was also created, and these institutions have made marked +headway (461 by 1916) in central and northern Italy. Pupils may pass to +either of these on the completion of the ordinary four-year primary +course, at the age of ten. Above the secondary schools are numerous +universities. The normal-school system created prepared for teaching in +the primary schools, while the university system followed the completion +of the _liceo_ course. [Illustration: FIG. 181. OUTLINE OF THE MAIN +FEATURES OF THE ITALIAN STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM] + +The influence of French ideas in Italian educational organization is +clearly evident. Before the French armies brought French governmental +ideas and organization to Italy almost nothing had been done. Then, during +the first six decades of the nineteenth century, the transition from the +church-school idea to the conception of education as an important function +of the State was made, and the resulting system is largely French in +organization and form. + +SUBSEQUENT PROGRESS. From this point on educational progress has been +chiefly a problem of increased finances and the slow but gradual extension +of educational opportunities to more and more of the children of the +people. The church schools have been allowed to continue side by side with +the state schools, and the problem of securing satisfactory working +relations has not always been easy of solution. + +In 1877 primary education was ordered made compulsory, [21] and religious +instruction was dropped from the state schools, but the slow progress of +the nation in extending literacy indicates that but little had been +accomplished in enforcing the compulsion previous to the new compulsory +law of 1904. This made more stringent provisions regarding schooling, and +provided for three thousand evening and Sunday schools for illiterate +adults. In 1906, an earnest effort was begun to extend educational +advantages in the southern provinces, where illiteracy has always been +highest. In 1911, the state aid for elementary education was materially +increased. In 1912, a new and more modern plan of studies for the +secondary schools was promulgated. Since 1912 many important advances have +been inaugurated, such as elementary schools of agriculture, vocational +schools, continuation schools, the middle-class industrial and commercial +schools. The World War directed new attention to the educational needs of +the nation. Italy, at last thoroughly awakened, seems destined to be a +great world power politically and commercially, and we may look forward to +seeing education used by the Italian State as a great constructive force +for the advancement of its national interests. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Show how the Revolution marked out the lines of future educational +evolution for France. + +2. Explain why France and Italy evolved a school system so much more +centralized than did other European nations. + +3. Explain Napoleon's lack of interest in primary education, in view of +the needs of France in his day. + +4. Show that Napoleon was right, time and circumstances considered, in +placing the state emphasis on the types of education he favored. + +5. Explain why middle-class education should have received such special +attention in Cousin's Report, and in the Law of 1833. + +6. Was the course of instruction provided for the primary schools in 1833, +times and needs considered, a liberal one, or otherwise? Why? + +7. Compare the 1833 and the 1850 courses. + +8. Explain why all forms of education in France should have experienced +such a marked expansion and development after 1875. + +9. Explain why great military disasters, for the past 150 years, have +nearly always resulted in national educational reorganization. + +10. Appraise the work and the permanent influence of Napoleon. + +11. Explain Napoleon's interest in establishing schools and universities, +when the Austrian and Church authorities were so interested in abolishing +what he had created. + +12. What did the dropping of religious instruction from the primary +schools of both France and Italy, both strong Catholic countries, indicate +as to national development? + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections are +reproduced: + + 282. Le Brun: Founding of the School of Arts and Trades. + 283. Jourdain: Refounding of the Superior Normal School. + 284. Cousin: Recommendations for Education in France. + 285. Guizot: Address on the Law of 1833. + 286. Guizot: Principles underlying the Law of 1833. + 287. Guizot: Letter to the Primary Teachers of France. + 288. Arnold: Guizot's Work as Minister of Public Instruction. + 289. Quinet: A Lay School for a Lay Society. + 290. Ferry: Moral and Civic Instruction replaces the Religious. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Just what attitude toward education did the action of Napoleon in +changing the character of the school at Compiègne (282) express? + +2. What type of school (283) was the re-created Superior Normal? + +3. Just what did Victor Cousin recommend (284) as to (_a_) schools to be +created; (_b_) control and administration; (_c_) compulsory attendance; +(_d_) schools for the middle classes; and (_e_) education and control of +teachers? + +4. Was Guizot's Law of 1833 (285) in harmony with the recommendations of +Cousin (284)? + +5. Why have public opinion and legislative action, in France and +elsewhere, so completely reversed the positions taken by Guizot and his +advisers (286) in framing the Law of 1833? 6. From Guizot's letter to the +teachers of France (287), and Arnold's description of his work (288), just +what do you infer to have been the nature of his interest in advancing +primary education in France? + +7. Contrast the reasoning of Guizot (286) and Quinet (289) on lay +instruction. Of the reasoning of the two men, which is now accepted in +France and the United States? + +8. Contrast the letters of Guizot (287) and Ferry (290) to the primary +teachers of France. + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + + Arnold, Matthew. _Popular Education in France_. +* Arnold, Matthew. _Schools and Universities on the Continent_. +* Barnard, Henry. _National Education in Europe_. + Barnard, Henry. _American Journal of Education_, vol. XX. + Compayré, G. _History of Pedagogy_, chapter XXI. +* Farrington, Fr. E. _The Public Primary School System of France_. +* Farrington, Fr. E. _French Secondary Schools_. + Guizot, F. P. G. _Mémoires_, Extracts from, covering work as + Minister of Public Instruction, 1832-37, in Barnard's _American + Journal of Education_, vol. XI, pp. 254-81, 357-99. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +THE STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL ORGANIZATION IN ENGLAND + + +I. THE CHARITABLE VOLUNTARY BEGINNINGS + +ENGLISH PROGRESS A SLOW BUT PEACEFUL EVOLUTION. The beginnings of national +educational organization in England were neither so simple nor so easy as +in the other lands we have described. So far this was in part due to the +long-established idea, on the part of the small ruling class, that +education was no business of the State; in part to the deeply ingrained +conception as to the religious purpose of all instruction; in part to the +fact that the controlling upper classes had for long been in possession of +an educational system which rendered satisfactory service in preparing +leaders for both Church and State; and in part--probably in large part--to +the fact that national evolution in England, since the time of the Civil +War (1642-49) has been a slow and peaceful growth, though accompanied by +much hard thinking and vigorous parliamentary fighting. Since the +Reformation (1534-39) and the Puritan uprising led by Cromwell (1642-49), +no civil strife has convulsed the land, destroyed old institutions, and +forced rapid changes in old established practices. Neither has the country +been in danger from foreign invasion since that memorable week in July, +1588, when Drake destroyed the Spanish Armada and made the future of +England as a world power secure. + +English educational evolution has in consequence been slow, and changes +and progress have come only in response to much pressure, and usually as a +reluctant concession to avoid more serious trouble. A strong English +characteristic has been the ability to argue rather than fight out +questions of national policy; to exhibit marked tolerance of the opinions +of others during the discussion; and finally to recognize enough of the +proponents' point of view to be willing to make concessions sufficient to +arrive at an agreement. This has resulted in a slow but a peaceful +evolution, and this slow and peaceful evolution has for long been the +dominant characteristic of the political, social, and educational progress +of the English people. The whole history of the two centuries of evolution +toward a national system of education is a splendid illustration of this +essentially English characteristic. + +EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS. England, it will be remembered +(chapter XIX, Section III), had early made marked progress in both +political and religious liberty. Ahead of any other people we find there +the beginnings of democratic liberty, popular enlightenment, freedom of +the press, religious toleration, [1] social reform, and scientific and +industrial progress. All these influences awakened in England, earlier +than in any other European nation, a rather general desire to be able to +read (R. 170), and by the opening of the eighteenth century we find the +beginnings of a charitable and philanthropic movement on the part of the +churches and the upper classes to extend a knowledge of the elements of +learning to the poorer classes of the population. + +As a result, as we have seen (chapter XVIII), the eighteenth century in +England, educationally, was characterized by a new attitude toward the +educational problem and a marked extension of educational opportunity. +Even before the beginning of the century the courts had taken a new +attitude toward church control of teaching, [2] and in 1700 had freed the +teacher of the elementary school from control by the bishops through +license. [3] In 1714 an Act of Parliament (13 Anne, c. 7) exempted +elementary schools from the penalties of conformity legislation, and they +were thereafter free to multiply and their teachers to teach. [4] The dame +school (R. 235) now became an established English institution (p. 447). +Private-adventure schools of a number of types arose (p. 451). The +churches here and there began to provide elementary parish-schools for the +children of their poorer members (p. 449), or training-schools for other +children who were to go out to service (R. 241). Workhouse schools and +"schools of industry" also were used to provide for orphans and the +children of paupers (p. 453). + +THE CHARITY-SCHOOL SYSTEM. Most important of all was the organization, by +groups of individuals (R. 237) and by Societies (S.P.C.K.; p. 449) formed +for the purpose, and maintained by subscription (R. 240), collections (R. +291), and foundation incomes, of an extensive and well-organized system of +Charity-Schools (p. 449). The "Society for the Promotion of Christian +Knowledge" dates from the year 1699, and the "Society for the Propagation +of the Gospel in Foreign Parts" from 1701. The first worked at home, and +the second in the overseas colonies. [5] Both did much to provide schools +for poor boys and girls, furnishing them with clothing and instruction (R. +292), and training them in reading, writing, spelling, counting, +cleanliness, proper behavior, sewing and knitting (girls), and in "the +Rules and Principles of the Christian Religion as professed and taught in +the Church of England" (R. 238 b). The Charity-School idea was in a sense +an application of the joint-stock-company principle to the organization +and maintenance of an extensive system of schools for the education of the +children of the poor, the stock being subscribed for by humanitarian- +minded people. The upper classes had for long been well provided, through +tutors in the home and grammar schools and colleges, with those means for +education which have for centuries produced an able succession of +gentlemen, statesmen, governors, and scholars for England, and many of the +commercial middle-class had, by the eighteenth century, become able to +purchase similar advantages for their sons. These now united to provide, +as part of a great organized charity and under carefully selected teachers +(R. 238 a), for the more promising children of their poorer neighbors, the +elements of that education which they themselves had enjoyed. + +The movement spread rapidly over England (p. 451), and soon developed into +a great national effort to raise the level of intelligence of the masses +of the English people. Thousands of persons gave their services as +directors, organizers, and teachers. Traveling superintendents were +employed. A rudimentary form of teacher-training was begun. The preaching +of a Charity Sermon each year [6] with a special collection, became a +general English practice. + +THE VOLUNTARY SYSTEM. The rise of the Methodist movement, [7] after 1730 +(p. 489); the earthquake shocks of 1750; the rise of the popular novel and +newspaper; the printing of political news, and cheap scientific pamphlets +(p. 492); and the growing tendency to debate questions and to apply reason +to their solution--all tended to give emphasis in England to these +eighteenth-century charitable means for extending education to the +children of those who could not afford to pay for it. Unlike the German +States, where the State and the Church and the school had all worked +together from the days of the Reformation on, the English had never known +such a conception. The efforts, though, of the educated few, in the +eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, to extend the elements of +learning, order, piety, cleanliness, and proper behavior to the children +of the masses, formed an important substitute for the action by the +Church-State which was so characteristic a feature of Teutonic lands. + +We see in these eighteenth-century efforts the origin of what became known +in England as "the voluntary system" and upon this voluntary support of +education--private, parochial, charitable--the English people for long +relied. Of action by the State there was none during the eighteenth +century, aside from an Act of 1767 (7 Geo. III, c. 39) relating to the +education of pauper children. This established the important principle-- +unfortunately not followed up--of providing that poor parish children of +London might be maintained and educated "at the cost of the rates." + +THE SUNDAY-SCHOOL MOVEMENT. One other voluntary eighteenth-century +movement of importance in the history of English educational development +should be mentioned here, as it formed the connecting link between the +parochial-charity-school movement of the eighteenth century and the +philanthropic period of the educational reformers of the early nineteenth. +This was the Sunday-School movement, first tried by John Wesley in +Savannah, in 1737, but not introduced into England until 1763. The idea +amounted to little, though, until practically worked out anew (1780) by +Robert Raikes, a printer of Gloucester, and described by him (1783) in his +_Gloucester Journal_ (R. 293), after he had experimented with it for three +years. [8] His printed description of the Sunday-School idea gave a +national impulse to the movement, and Sunday Schools were soon established +all over England to take children off the streets on Sunday and provide +them with some form of secular and religious instruction. [9] + +The movement coincided with new religious, social, and economic forces +which were at work, and which awakened an interest not only in the +education of the children of the poorer working-classes, but caused the +upper and middle classes in society to feel a new sense of responsibility +for social and educational reform. The cold and unemotional religion of +the English Church in the early eighteenth century had created an +indifference to the simple truths and duties of the Gospels. The great +religious revival under Wesley and Whitefield had challenged such an +attitude, and had done much to infuse a new spirit into religion and +awaken a new sense of responsibility for social welfare. The rapid growth +of population in the towns, following the beginnings of factory life (p. +493), had created new social and economic problems, and the neglect of +children in the manufacturing towns had shocked many thinking persons. The +way in which parents and children, freed from hard labor in the factories +on Sundays, abandoned themselves to vice, drunkenness, and profanity +caused many, among them Raikes himself (R. 293), to inquire if "something +could not be done" to turn into respectable men and women "the little +heathen of the neighborhood." The Sunday School was his answer, and the +answer of many all over England. [10] + +In 1785 "The Society for the Support and Encouragement of Sunday Schools +in the different Counties of England" was formed with a view to +establishing a Sunday School in every parish in the kingdom, and the Queen +headed a subscription list, following a general appeal for funds. By 1787 +it was estimated that 234,000 children in England and Wales were attending +a Sunday School, and by 1792 the number had increased to half a million. +The Parliamentary return for 1818 showed 5463 Sunday Schools in existence, +and 477,225 scholars; in 1835 the returns showed 1,548,890 scholars, half +of whom attended no other school, and approximately 160,000 voluntary +teachers. [11] In Manchester, then a city scourged with almost universal +child-labor, the schools (1834) were in session five and a half hours on +Sunday and two evenings a week. The moral and religious influence of these +schools was important, and the instruction in reading and writing, meager +as it was, filled a real need of the time. + +OTHER VOLUNTARY SCHOOLS; "RAGGED SCHOOLS." The Charity Schools and the +Sunday Schools were the two most conspicuous of the voluntary-organization +type of undertakings for providing the poor children of England with the +elements of secular and religious education. Many other organizations of +an educational and charitable nature, aided also by many individual +efforts, too numerous to mention, were formed with the same charitable and +humanitarian end in view. Others, similar in type, charged a small fee, +and hence were of the private-adventure type. Sunday Schools, day schools, +evening schools, children's churches, bands of hope, clothing clubs, +messenger brigades, shoeblack brigades, orphans' schools, reformatory +schools, industrial schools, ragged schools--these were some of the types +that arose. Only one of these--"Ragged Schools"--will be described. + +[Illustration: FIG. 182. A RAGGED SCHOOL PUPIL +(From a photograph of a boy on entering the school; later changed into a +respectable tradesman. From Guthrie)] + +[Illustration: PLATE 15. JOHN POUNDS'S RAGGED SCHOOL AT PORTSMOUTH] + +[Illustration: PLATE 16. AN ENGLISH VILLAGE VOLUNTARY SCHOOL +(Reproduced from an early nineteenth-century engraving, through the +courtesy of William G. Bruce)] + +The originator of the "Ragged Schools"--schools for the education of +destitute children, waifs and strays not reached by other agencies--was a +large-hearted cobbler of Portsmouth, by the name of John Pounds (1766- +1839), who divided his time between cobbling and rescue work among the +poorest and most degraded children of his neighborhood. His school is +shown in the picture facing this page. (Plate 15.) In his shoeshop he +taught such children, free of charge, to read, write, count, cook their +food, and mend their shoes. He was a schoolmaster, doctor, nurse, and +playfellow to them all in one. His workshop was a room of only six by +eighteen feet, yet in it he often had forty children under his +instruction. His work set an example, and "Ragged Schools," or "Schools +for the Destitute," began to be formed in many places by humanitarians. +These took the form of day schools, night schools, Sunday Schools, and the +so-called industrial schools (R. 294). The instruction in most of them was +entirely free, [12] but some charged a small fee, in a few cases as high +as a shilling a month. It was one of these schools that Crabbe described +when he wrote: [13] + + Poor Reuben Dixon has the noisiest school + Of ragged lads, who ever bowed to rule; + Low in his price--the men who heave our coals, + And clean our causeways, send him boys in shoals. + To see poor Reuben, with his fry beside- + Their half-check'd rudeness and his half-scorned pride- + Their room, the sty in which th' assembly meet, + In the close lane behind the Northgate street; + T' observe his vain attempts to keep the peace, + Till tolls the bell, and strife and trouble cease, + Calls for our praise; his labours praise deserves, + But not our pity; Reuben has no nerves. + 'Mid noise and dirt, and stench, and play, and prate, + He calmly cuts the pen or views the slate. + +In 1844 "The Ragged School Union" was formed in London, and maintained +there many of the types of schools mentioned above. The "Constitution and +Rules of the Association for the Establishment of Ragged Industrial +Schools for Destitute Children in Edinburgh" (R. 294) gives a good idea as +to the nature, support, and instruction in such schools. As late as 1870, +when national education was first begun in England, there were about two +hundred of these Ragged Schools in London alone, with about 23,000 +children in them. Upon many such forms of irregular schools England +depended before the days of national organization. + +OTHER EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY INFLUENCES. During the latter half of the +eighteenth century French Revolutionary thought [14] and American +political action began to exert some influence on public opinion in +England. The small upper ruling class, alarmed at the developments in +France, became confirmed in its opposition to any general popular +education aside from a little reading, writing, counting, and careful +religious training, while on the other hand men of more liberal outlook +felt that popular enlightenment was a necessity to prevent the masses from +becoming stirred by inflammatory writings and speeches. The increasing +distress in the agricultural regions, due to the rapid change of England +from an agricultural to a manufacturing nation; the crowding of great +numbers of working people into the manufacturing towns; and the social +misery and political unrest following the Napoleonic wars all alike +contributed to a feeling of need for any form of philanthropic effort that +gave promise of alleviating the ills of society. There now grew up a small +but influential body of thinkers who favored the maintenance of a system +of general and compulsory education by the State, and the separation of +the school from the Church. The most notable proponents of this new theory +were Adam Smith, the Reverend T. R. Malthus, and the Anglo-American Thomas +Paine. The first approached the question from an economic point of view, +the second from an economic and biologic, and the third from the +political. In 1776 Adam Smith's _Wealth of Nations_ appeared. This was +one of the great books of all time. Among other matters he dealt with the +question of education. He pointed out that English society was now +becoming highly organized; that the new manufacturing life had completely +changed the simple conditions of an earlier agricultural society; that in +the narrow round of manufacturing duties and town life people tended to +lose their inventiveness and to stagnate; and that the individual +degeneracy which set in in a more highly organized type of society became +a social danger of large magnitude. Hence, he argued (R. 295), it was a +matter of state interest that "the inferior ranks of the people" be +instructed to make them socially useful and to render them "less apt to be +misled into any wanton or unnecessary opposition to measures of +government." Accordingly, he held, the State had every right, not only to +take over elementary education as a state function and a public charge, +but also to make it free and compulsory. + +[Illustration: FIG. 183. ADAM SMITH (1723-90)] + +In 1798 the Reverend T. R. Malthus's _Essay on Population_ appeared. This +was a precursor of the work of Darwin, and another of the great books of +all time. He pointed out that population everywhere tended to outrun the +means of subsistence, and that it was only prevented from doing so by +preventive checks which involved much misery and vice and pauperism. To +prevent pauperism each individual must exercise moral restraint and +foresight, and to enable all to do this a widespread system of public +instruction was a necessity (R. 296). The money England had spent in poor- +relief he regarded as largely wasted, because it afforded no cure. In the +general education of a people the real solution lay. He said: + + We have lavished immense sums on the poor, which we have every reason + to think have constantly tended to aggravate their misery,... It is + surely a great national disgrace that the education of the lowest + classes in England should be left to a few Sunday Schools, supported + by a subscription from individuals, who can give to the course of + instruction in them any kind of bias which they may please. (R 296.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 184 REV. T. R. MALTHUS (1766-1834)] + +Agreeing thoroughly with Adam Smith that a general diffusion of knowledge +was a safeguard to society, he urged the teaching of the elements of +political economy in the common schools to enable people to live better in +the new type of competitive society. [15] + +In 1791-92 Thomas Paine published his widely read _Rights of Man_. He +expressed the French Revolutionary political theory, holding that +government, while capable of great good were its powers only properly +exercised, was, as organized, an evil. In a well-governed nation none +would be permitted to go uninstructed, he held, and he would cut off poor- +relief and make a state grant of £4 a year for every child under fourteen +for its education, and would compel parents to send all children to school +to learn reading, writing, and arithmetic. + +Each of these three books had a long and a slowly cumulative influence, +and a small number of young and powerful champions of the idea of popular +education as a public charge began, early in the nineteenth century, to +urge action and to influence public opinion. + + +II. THE PERIOD OF PHILANTHROPIC EFFORT (1800-33) + +CONDITIONS AT THE BEGINNING OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. This second period +in the history of the organization of English education begins with the +publication, in 1797, of Dr. Andrew Bell's _An Experiment in Education_, +describing his work in educating large numbers of children by means of the +so-called mutual system, at the Male Asylum at Madras, India. The period +properly ends with the first Parliamentary grant for education, in 1833. +In its main characteristics it belongs to the eighteenth rather than to +the nineteenth century, as the prominent educational movements of the +eighteenth (charity-schools, Sunday Schools, schools of industry) continue +strong throughout the period, and many new undertakings of a similar +charitable nature ("Ragged Schools"; associations for the improvement of +the condition of the poor, etc.) were begun. + +The period--during and after the Napoleonic wars--was one of marked social +and political unrest, and of corresponding emphasis on social and +philanthropic service. The masses were discontented with their lot, and +were beginning to be with their lack of political privileges. Numerous +plans to quiet the unrest and improve conditions were proposed, of which +schemes to increase employment (industrial schools; evening schools), to +encourage thrift (savings banks; children's brigades), and to spread an +elementary and religious education (mutual schools; infant schools) that +would train the poor in self-help were the most prominent. "The Society +for Bettering the Condition and Increasing the Comforts of the Poor." +founded in 1796, became a very important early-nineteenth-century +institution. Branches were established all over England. Soup-kitchens, +clothing-stations, savings banks, and schools were among the chief lines +of activity. In particular it extended and improved Sunday Schools, +encouraged the formation of charity-schools and schools of industry, and +later gave much aid in establishing the new monitorial schools. +Educational interest steadily strengthened during the period, though as +yet along lines that were deemed relatively harmless, were inexpensive, +and were largely religious in character. + +The eighteenth-century conception of education as a charity, designed +where given to train the poor to "an honest, upright, grateful, and +industrious poverty," still prevailed; there was as yet little thought of +education as designed to train the poor to think for and help themselves. +The eighteenth-century conception of the educational process, too, which +regarded education as something external and determined by adult standards +and needs, and to be imposed on the child from without, also continued. +The purpose of the school was to manufacture the standard man, and the +business of the teacher was to so organize and methodize instruction that +the necessary knowledge could be acquired as economically, from a +financial point of view, as possible. The Pestalozzian conception of +education as a development of the individual, according to the law of his +own nature, found but slow acceptance in England. Mental development, +scientific instruction, the habit of thinking, the exercise of judgment, +and free and enlightened opinion were ideas that found little favor there, +and hence had to be handled carefully by those who had caught the new +conception of the educational process. + +In the political reaction following the end of Napoleon's rule the upper +and ruling classes of England, in common with those of continental lands, +became exceedingly suspicious of much education for the masses. To secure +contributions for schools it became necessary "to avow and plead how +little it was that the schools pretended or presumed to teach." [16] +England now experienced a great development of manufacturing and commerce, +a great material prosperity ensued, and the growing demand for education +was met by a counter-demand that the education provided should be +systematized, economical, and should not teach too much. Such a system of +training was now discovered and applied, in the form of mutual or +monitorial instruction, and was hailed as "a new expedient, parallel and +rival to the modern inventions in the mechanical departments." + +[Illustration: FIG. 185. THE CREATORS OF THE MONITORIAL SYSTEM +REV. ANDREW BELL (1753-1832) +JOSEPH LANCASTER (1778-1838)] + +ORIGIN OF MUTUAL OR MONITORIAL INSTRUCTION. In 1797 Dr. Andrew Bell, a +clergyman in the Established Church, published the results of his +experiment in the use of monitors in India. [17] The idea attracted +attention, and the plan was successfully introduced into a number of +charity-schools. About the same time (1798) a young Quaker schoolmaster, +Joseph Lancaster by name, was led independently to a similar discovery of +the advantages of using monitors, by reason of his needing assistance in +his school and being too poor to pay for additional teachers. In 1803 he +published an account of his plan. [18] The two plans were quite similar, +attracted attention from the first, and schools formed after one or the +other of the plans were soon organized all over England. + +Increased attention was attracted to the new plans by a bitter church +quarrel which broke out as to who was the real originator of the idea, +[19] Bell being upheld by Church-of-England supporters, and Lancaster by +the Dissenters. In 1808 "The Royal Lancastrian Institution" was formed, +which in 1814 became "The British and Foreign School Society," to promote +Lancastrian schools. This society had the close support of King George +III, the Whigs, and the _Edinburgh Review_, while such liberals as +Brougham, Whitbread, and James Mill were on its board of directors. This +Society sent out Lancaster to expound his "truly British" system, and by +1810 as many as ninety-five Lancastrian schools had been established in +England. His model school in Borough Road, Southwark, which became a +training-school for teachers, is shown on the following page. Lancaster +was a poor manager; became involved in financial difficulties; and in 1818 +left for the United States, where he spent the remainder of his life in +organizing such schools and expounding his system. For a time this +attracted wide attention, as we shall point out in the following chapter. + +Lancaster's work stimulated the Church of England into activity, and in +1811 "The National Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the +Principles of the Established Church throughout England and Wales" was +formed by prominent S.P.C.K. (p. 449) members and Churchmen, with the +Archbishop of Canterbury as president. This Society was supported by the +Tories, the Established Church, and the _Quarterly Review_, and was formed +to promote the Bell system, [20] "which made religious instruction an +essential and necessary part of the plan." Within a month £15,000 had been +subscribed to establish schools. Among many other contributions were £500 +each from the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. A training-school for +teachers was organized; district societies were formed over England to +establish schools; and a system of organized aid was extended for both +buildings and maintenance. By 1831 there were 900,412 children receiving +instruction in the monitorial schools of the National Society alone. + +[Illustration: Fig. 186. THE LANCASTRIAN MODEL SCHOOL IN BOROUGH ROAD, +SOUTHWARK, LONDON +This shows 365 pupils, seated for writing. The room was 40 x 90 feet in +size and contained 20 desks, each 25 feet long. The boys of each row were +divided into two "drafts" of from eight to ten, each in charge of a +monitor. Around the wall were 31 "stations," indicated by the semicircles +on the floor.] + +The mutual-instruction idea spread to other lands--France, Belgium, +Holland, Denmark--and seems to have been tried even in German lands. In +France and Belgium it was experimented with for a time because of its +cheapness, but was soon discarded because of its defects. In Teutonic +lands, where the much better Pestalozzian ideas had become established, +the monitorial system made practically no headway. It was in the United +States, of all countries outside of England, that the idea met with most +ready acceptance. + +[Illustration: FIG. 187. MONITORS TEACHING READING AT "STATIONS" +Three "drafts" of ten each, with their toes to the semicircles painted on +the floor, are being taught by monitors from lessons suspended on the +wall.] + +THE SYSTEM OF MUTUAL OR MONITORIAL INSTRUCTION. The great merit, aside +from being cheap, of the mutual or monitorial system of instruction lay in +that it represented a marked advance in school organization over the older +individual method of instruction, with its accompanying waste of time and +schoolroom disorder. Under the individual method only a small number of +pupils could be placed under the control of one teacher, and the expense +for such instruction made general education almost prohibitive. +Pestalozzi, to be sure, had worked out in Switzerland the modern class- +system of instruction, and following developmental lines in teaching, but +of this the English were not only ignorant, but it called for a degree of +pedagogical skill which their teachers did not then possess. Bell and +Lancaster now evolved a plan whereby one teacher, assisted by a number of +the brighter pupils whom they designated as monitors, could teach from two +hundred to a thousand pupils in one school (R. 297). The picture of +Lancaster's London school (Figure 186) shows 365 pupils seated. [21] The +pupils were sorted into rows, and to each row was assigned a clever boy +(monitor) to act as an assistant teacher. A common number for each monitor +to look after was ten. The teacher first taught these monitors a lesson +from a printed card, and then each monitor took his row to a "station" +about the wall and proceeded to teach the other boys what he had just +learned. At first used only for teaching reading and the Catechism, the +plan was soon extended to the teaching of writing, arithmetic, and +spelling, and later on to instruction in higher branches. The system was +very popular from about 1810 to 1830, but by 1840 its popularity had +waned. + +[Illustration: FIG. 188. PROPER MONITORIAL-SCHOOL POSITIONS +(From an engraved plate of 30 positions, in a Manual of the British and +Foreign School Society, London, 1831)] + +Such schools were naturally highly organized, the organization being +largely mechanical (R. 298). Lancaster, in particular, was an organizing +genius. The _Manuals of Instruction_ gave complete directions for the +organization and management of monitorial schools, the details of +recitation work, use of apparatus, order, position of pupils at their +work, and classification being minutely laid down. By carefully studying +and following these directions any reasonably intelligent person could +soon learn to become a successful teacher in a monitorial school. + +The schools, mechanical as they now seem, marked a great improvement over +the individual method upon which schoolmasters for centuries had wasted so +much of their own and their pupils' time. In place of earlier idleness, +inattention, and disorder, Bell and Lancaster introduced activity, +emulation, order, and a kind of military discipline which was of much +value to the type of children attending these schools. Lancaster's +biographer, Salmon, has written of the system that so thoroughly was the +instruction worked out that the teacher had only to organize, oversee, +reward, punish, and inspire: + +When a child was admitted a monitor assigned him his class; while he +remained, a monitor taught him (with nine other pupils); when he was +absent, one monitor ascertained the fact, and another found out the +reason; a monitor examined him periodically, and, when he made progress, a +monitor promoted him; a monitor ruled the writing paper; a monitor had +charge of slates and books; and a monitor-general looked after all the +other monitors. Every monitor wore a leather ticket, gilded and lettered, +"Monitor of the First Class," "Reading Monitor of the Second Class," etc. + +VALUE OF THE SYSTEM IN AWAKENING INTEREST. The monitorial system of +instruction, coming at the time it did, exerted a very important influence +in awakening interest in and a sentiment for schools. It increased the +number of people who possessed the elements of an education; made schools +much more talked about; and aroused thought and provoked discussion on the +question of education. It did much toward making people see the advantages +of a certain amount of schooling, and be willing to contribute to its +support. Under the plans previously in use education had been a slow and +an expensive process, because it had to be carried on by the individual +method of instruction, and in quite small groups. Under this new plan it +was now possible for one teacher to instruct 300, 400, 500, or more pupils +in a single room, and to do it with much better results in both learning +and discipline than the old type of schoolmaster had achieved. + +All at once, comparatively, a new system had been introduced which not +only improved and popularized, but tremendously cheapened education. [22] +Lancaster, in his _Improvements in Education_, gave the annual cost of +schooling under his system as only seven shillings sixpence ($1.80) per +pupil, and this was later decreased to four shillings fivepence ($1.06) as +the school was increased to accommodate a thousand pupils. Under the Bell +system the yearly cost per pupil, in a school of five hundred, was only +four shillings twopence ($1.00), in 1814. In the United States, +Lancastrian schools cost from $1.22 per pupil in New York, in 1822, up to +$3.00 and $4.00 later on. At first begun as free schools, [23] the +expansion of effort was more rapid than the income from contributions, and +a small tuition fee was in time charged. Pupils were admitted at about the +age of seven, and might remain until thirteen or fourteen, though an +attendance of two years was considered "abundantly sufficient for any +boy." To prepare skilled masters and mistresses for the schools, girls +were provided for in many places--training or model schools were organized +by both the national societies, and these represent the beginnings of +normal-school training in England. + +INFANT SCHOOLS. Another type of school which became of much importance in +England, and spread to other lands, was the Infant School. This owed its +origin to Robert Owen, proprietor of the cotton mills at New Lanark, +Scotland. Being of a philanthropic turn of mind, and believing that man +was entirely the product of circumstance and environment, he held that it +was not possible to begin too early in implanting right habits and forming +character. Poverty and crime, he believed, were results of errors in the +various systems of education and government. So plastic was child nature, +that society would be able to mould itself "into the very image of +rational wishes and desires." That "the infants of any one class in the +world may be readily formed into men of any other class," was a +fundamental belief of his. + +[Illustration: FIG. 189 ROBERT OWEN (1771-1858)] + +When he took charge of the mills at New Lanark (1799) he found the usual +wretched social conditions of the time. Children of five, six, and seven +years were bound out to the factory as apprentices (R. 242) for a period +of nine years. They worked as apprentices and helpers in the factories +twelve to thirteen hours a day, and at early manhood were turned free to +join the ignorant mass of the population. Owen sought to remedy this +condition. He accordingly opened schools which children might enter at +three years of age, receiving them into the schools almost as soon as they +were able to walk, and caring for them while their parents were at work. +Children under ten he forbade to work in the mills, and for these he +provided schools. The instruction for the children younger than six was to +be "whatever might be supposed useful that they could understand," and +much was made of singing, dancing, and play. Moral instruction was made a +prominent feature. By 1814 his work and his schools had become famous. In +1817 he published a plan for the organization of such industrial +communities as he conducted. In 1818 he visited Switzerland, and saw +Pestalozzi and Fellenberg. + +In 1818 a number of Liberals--Brougham, James Mill, and others--combined +to establish an Infant School in London, importing a teacher from New +Lanark. The idea took root, was popularized, and the Infant School was +soon adopted as an integral part of their schools by both the British and +Foreign School Society (Lancastrians) and the National Society (Bell). In +1836 the "Home and Colonial Infant School Society" was formed to train +teachers for and to establish Infant Schools. One of the organizers of +this society was Charles Mayo who had worked with Pestalozzi at Yverdon +(R. 270), and through his influence much of the bookishness which had +crept in was removed and the better Pestalozzian procedure put in its +place. + +Unlike the monitorial schools, the Infant Schools were based on the idea +of small-group work, and were usually conducted in harmony with the new +psychological conceptions of instruction which had been worked out by +Pestalozzi, and had by that time begun to be introduced into England. The +Infant-School idea came at an opportune time, as the defects of the +mechanical Lancastrian instruction were becoming evident and its +popularity was waning. It gave a new and a somewhat deeper philosophical +interpretation of the educational process, created a stronger demand than +had before been known for trained teachers, established a preference for +women teachers for primary work, and tended to give a new dignity to +teaching and school work by revealing something of a psychological basis +for the instruction of little children. It also contributed its share +toward awakening a sentiment for national action. + +WORK OF THE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETIES. The work of the voluntary and +philanthropic educational societies in establishing schools and providing +teachers and instruction before the days of national schools was enormous. +[24] Though the State did nothing before 1833, and little before 1870, the +work of the educational societies was large and important. What was done +by the church societies alone may be seen from the following table: + + STATISTICS AS TO 10,595 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS FOUNDED BY THE RELIGIOUS + SOCIETIES (BRITISH CENSUS RETURNS, 1851) + + The National + Society, + or British + Church and For- Indepen- Other + Total num- of eign dents, or Wesleyan Roman rel- + ber of England Schools Congrega- Method-Cathol- Bapt- gious +Date schools schools Society tionalists ists ics ists bodies + +Before 1801 766 709 16 8 7 10 + 1801-1811 410 350 28 9 4 10 + 1811-1821 879 756 77 12 17 14 + 1821-1831 1,021 897 45 21 17 28 + 1831-1841 2,417 2,002 191 95 62 69 + 1841-1851 4,604 3,448 449 269 239 166 + Not stated 498 409 46 17 17 14 131 331 + Totals 10,595 8,571 852 431 363 311 131 331 + +After about 1820-25 the rising interest in elementary education expressed +itself in the formation of a number of additional societies, the more +important of which were: + + 1824. "London Infant School Society" founded by Brougham. + 1826. "Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge" founded by + Brougham. The _Journal of Education_ begun. + 1836. "Central Society of Education" founded. + 1836. "Home and Colonial Infant Society" founded. Beginning of a + Pestalozzian Training College. + 1837. "Educational Committee of the Wesleyan Conference" established. + 1843. "Congregational Board of Education" formed. + 1844. "Ragged School Union" founded. + 1845. "Catholic Institute." + 1847. The "Catholic Poor-School Committee." + 1847. "Lancashire Public School Association" formed. + 1850. The "National Public School Association." + 1867. "Birmingham Education Aid Society." + 1868. The Manchester Conference. + 1869. Formation of "The League." + +Some of these were formed to found and support schools, and some engaged +primarily in the work of propaganda in an effort to secure some national +action. + + +III. THE STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL EDUCATION + +THE PARLIAMENTARY STRUGGLE. During the whole of the eighteenth century +Parliament had enacted no legislation relating to elementary education, +aside from the one Act of 1767 for the education of pauper children in +London, and the freeing of elementary schools, Dissenters, and Catholics, +from inhibitions as to teaching. In the nineteenth century this attitude +was to be changed, though slowly, and after three quarters of a century of +struggle the beginnings of national education were finally to be made for +England, as they had by then for every other great nation. In 1870 the +"no-business-of-the-State" attitude toward the education of the people, +which had persisted from the days of the great Elizabeth, was finally and +permanently changed. The legislative battle began with the first Factory +Act [25] of 1802, Whitbread's Parochial Schools Bill [26] of 1807, and +Brougham's first Parliamentary Committee of Inquiry of 1816 (R. 291); it +finally culminated with the reform of the old endowed Grammar Schools by +the Act of 1869, the enactment of the Elementary Education Act of 1870 (R. +304), and the Act of 1871 freeing instruction in the universities from +religious restrictions (R. 305). The first of these enactments declared +clearly the right of the State to inquire into, reorganize, and redirect +the age-old educational foundations for secondary education; the second +made the definite though tardy beginnings of a national system of +elementary education for England; and the third opened up a university +career to the whole nation. The agitation and conflict of ideas was long +drawn out, and need not be traced in detail. The following tabulated +summary will give the main outlines of the struggle, and the selection on +"The Educational Traditions of England" (R. 306) gives a good brief +history of the long conflict. + + THE PARLIAMENTARY STRUGGLE FOR NATIONAL EDUCATION IN ENGLAND + + + Dates Proposals, Reports, etc., and Results + + 1802 First Factory Act for regulating employment of children. + Adopted. + 1807 Whitbread's Parochial Schools' Bill introduced. + Rejected by the House of Lords + 1816 Brougham secured a Parliamentary Committee to enquire into the + state of education of the lower classes in London, + Westminster, and Southwark. + Report--130,000 children without school accommodations + [1818]. (R. 291.) + 1818 Brougham secured a Committee of Inquiry on Educational + Charities. + No report until 1837. + 1820 Bill introduced proposing a tax for schools and the granting + of Government aid in building schoolhouses. + Opposed by Dissenters and Catholics. Withdrawn. Brougham's + first Educational Bill. + 1833 Government aid for building schoolhouses re-proposed. + £20,000 a year granted. (R. 299.) Distributed through the + two great Educational Societies + 1834 Committee of Inquiry appointed. + No result beyond statistics. + 1835 | Brougham introduced bills to organize a system of elementary + 1837 | education. Bills failed of passage. Educational Inquiry + Committee appointed [1837]. + 1838 Committee report: the deplorable conditions existing Bill of + 1839. Education Department created. + 1839 Bill to increase the government grant to £30,000 and to allow + all Societies to share. Inspectors to be appointed. + Committee of Privy Council on Education established. + Bitter opposition. Carried. Much discussion as to + "undenominational education." + 1841 Annual grant to establish schools of design in manufacturing + districts. + Voted. + 1843 Sir Jas. Graham's Factory Bill. + Opposed by the Dissenters and defeated. + 1843 Address to the Crown on condition of the working classes. + No parliamentary action. + 1846 Yearly grant extended to the maintenance of schools. + Gradual increase in the yearly grants. + 1846 Minute and Regulations on annual grants and pupil teachers. + Foundations of a system laid. + Pupil-teacher system definitely established. Certificates to + teach. Annual grant extended to maintenance. + 1847 Government proposals for nationalizing education. +Carried despite violent religious opposition. + 1850 Fox's Bill to make education free and compulsory. + Defeated. + 1853 The Government proposed a small local rate in aid of schools. + Bill dropped after the first reading. + 1853 Department of Science and Art created, and National Art + Training Schools established. + Promotion of elementary education in art and science, + particularly after 1859. + 1855 Three educational Bills introduced. Local rate proposed. + Failure to agree. All withdrawn. + 1856 Commons asked to declare in favor of rate aid and local + Boards. Two Educational Bills introduced. + First bill tabled. Second bill withdrawn. Education + Department formed. + 1858 A Royal Commission to inquire into the state of popular + education in England asked for. + The Duke of Newcastle's Commission created. Its Report + published in 1861. (R. 303.) + 1861 No acceptable scheme reported. Code of 1861 proposed. + No advance. "Payment by results" began [1862]. Code adopted. + 1864 Schools Inquiry Commission appointed on endowed schools. + Report of the Schools Inquiry Commission in 1867. + 1866 Report of a Select Committee of the House of Commons on + Education. + 1867 The Government introduced proposals as to education. + Voted down. + 1868 Government Bill proposing changes in distribution and larger + grants. + Parliament adjourned without action. + 1869 Endowed Schools' Act passed. + 1869 Two Educational Bills introduced. + Withdrawn at the request of the Government. + 1870 The Elementary Education Act of 1870 introduced. + Much amended and passed. (R. 304.) Beginning of a National + system of education. + 1871 Religious Tests at universities withdrawn (R. 305). + +THE LEADERS IN THE CONFLICT. The main leader in the parliamentary struggle +to establish national education, from the death of Whitbread, in 1815, to +about 1835, was Henry, afterwards Lord Brougham. He was aided by such men +as Blackstone, and Bentham and his followers, and, after about 1837, by +such men as Dickens, Carlyle, Macaulay, and John Stuart Mill. Dickens, by +his descriptions, helped materially to create a sentiment favorable to +education, as a right of the people rather than a charity. He stood +strongly for a compulsory and non-sectarian state system of education that +would transform the children of his day into generous, self-respecting, +and intelligent men and women. Carlyle saw in education a cure for social +evils, and held that one of the first functions of government was to +impart the gift of thinking to its future citizens. Writing, in 1840, he +said: + + Who would suppose that education were a thing which had to be + advocated on the ground of local expediency, or any ground? As if it + stood not on the basis of everlasting duty as a prime necessity of + man. + +Brougham was untiring in his efforts for popular education, and some idea +as to the interest he awakened may be inferred from the fact that his +_Observations on the Education of the People_, published in 1825, went +through twenty editions the first year. He introduced bills, secured +committees of inquiry, made addresses, [27] and used his pen in behalf of +the education of the people. His belief in the power of education to +improve a people was very large. Warning the "Lawgivers of England" to +take heed, he once said: + + Let the soldier be abroad, if he will; he can do nothing in this age. + There is another personage abroad, a person less imposing--in the eye + of some insignificant. The Schoolmaster is abroad, and I trust him, + armed with his primer, against the soldier in full uniform array. + + The conqueror stalks onward with the "pride, pomp, and circumstance of + war," banners flying, shouts rending the air, guns thundering, and + martial music pealing, to drown the shrieks of the wounded and the + lamentations for the slain. Not thus the schoolmaster in his peaceful + vocation. He meditates and prepares in secret the plans which are to + bless mankind; he slowly gathers around him those who are to further + their execution; he quietly, though firmly, advances in his humble + path laboring steadily, but calmly, till he has opened to the light + all the recesses of ignorance, and torn up by the roots the weeds of + vice. His is a progress not to be compared with anything like a march; + but it leads to a far more brilliant triumph, and to laurels more + imperishable than the destroyer of his species, the scourge of the + world, ever won. + +[Illustration: FIG. 190 LORD BROUGHAM (1778-1868)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 191. AN ENGLISH VILLAGE SCHOOL IN 1840 +(After a drawing by Hablôt K. Browne, and printed in Charles Dickens's +"Master Humphrey's Clock")] + +Parallel with the agitation for some state action for education was an +agitation for social and political reform. The basis for the election of +members to the House of Commons was still mediaeval. Boroughs no longer +inhabited still returned members, and sparsely settled regions returned +members out of all proportion to the newly created city populations. Few, +too, could vote. Only about 160,000 persons in a population of 10,000,000 +had, early in the century, the right of the franchise. The city +populations were practically disfranchised in favor of rural landlords, +the nobility, and the clergy. In 1828 Protestant Non-Conformists were +relieved of their political disability, and in 1829 a similar +enfranchisement was extended to Catholics. In 1832 came the first real +voting reform in the passage of the so-called _Third Reform Bill_ [28] +after a most bitter parliamentary struggle. This reapportioned the +membership of the House on a more equitable basis, and enfranchised those +who owned or leased lands or buildings of a value of £10 a year. The +result of this was to enfranchise the middle class of the population; +increase the number of voters (1836) from about 175,000 to about 839,500 +out of 6,023,000 adult males; and effectively break the power of the House +of Lords to elect the House of Commons. Progressive legislation now became +much easier to secure, and in 1833 a Bill making a grant of £20,000 a year +to aid in building schoolhouses for elementary schools--the first +government aid for elementary education ever voted in England--became a +law (R. 299). During the few years following the passage of the Reform +Bill many progressive measures were enacted, among which should be +mentioned the abolition of slavery in the colonies; the beginnings of +legislation looking to a scientific treatment of poverty and non- +employment; the Municipal Reform Act (1835); the institution of the penny +post (1839); and the abolition of the Corn Laws (1846); while after 1837 +education began to take a prominent place in the programs of the new +working-class movement. + +PROGRESS AFTER 1833. The Law of 1833, though, made but the merest +beginnings, and up to 1840 the money granted was given to the two great +national school societies, and without regulation. Beginning in 1840, and +continuing up to the beginnings of national education, in 1870, the grants +were state-controlled and distributed through the different educational +societies. The total of these grants, by years, and the proportional share +of the different educational societies are well shown in the chart (Fig. +192.) In 1846 the grants were extended to maintenance as well, and in 1847 +Catholic and Wesleyan societies were admitted to share in the grants. Soon +thereafter we note a sharp upward turn of the curve, though the Church-of- +England schools obtained the greater proportion of the increased funds. +Proposals to add local taxation, in 1853 and 1856, were dropped almost as +soon as made. The commercial and manufacturing interests, though, secured +separate aid for art and science instruction (1841, 1853), and the +creation of national art training-schools (1853). Training-schools for +teachers also were begun, and aided by grants. In 1845 the English "pupil- +teacher" system [29] also was begun in an effort to supply teachers of +some little training. A State Department of Education was created, in +1856, though without much power, and the various "Minutes" which were now +adopted were organized into a system and presented to Parliament as a +_School Code_, in 1861, and finally approved. + +New Educational Commissions were created to inquire into educational +conditions and needs in 1858 and 1864, and these reported in 1861 and +1867, but without important results. The most notable of these was the +Duke of Newcastle's Commission, appointed in 1858 to review conditions, +progress, and needs, and to make recommendations for the future. This +Commission reported in 1861. It stated that one in every eight of the +population was then in some kind of school; gave statistics as to +conditions (R. 303 a); and held that the plan of leaving popular education +to the voluntary initiative of communities had been justified by the +results. The report presented no plan for national organization, but +recommended a number of minor changes in conditions. In particular it +recommended the introduction of the system of "payment by results"--that +is, of making money grants to schools on the basis of the number of pupils +passing set examinations in reading, writing, and arithmetic (R. 303 b). +This plan was begun in 1862, and the consequent drop in money grants for a +few years thereafter is shown in the curves of the chart. The other +Commission, appointed, known as the Taunton Schools Inquiry Commission +(1864-67), dealt with the old endowed schools, and in particular called +attention to the lack of secondary-school facilities, especially in the +cities, and recommended an extension of secondary-school facilities and a +democratization of the whole system of secondary education. The important +legislation of this period was the freeing of the old universities from +Church-of-England control (R. 305) and making them national in spirit. + +[Illustration: FIG. 192. EXPENDITURE FROM THE EDUCATION GRANTS, 1839-70 +Between 1833 and 1839 no Government regulation of grants. The above +figures do not include administration expenses, or grants made to Scotland +(about the same in amount as the Br. & F. S. Soc.) or to the Parochial +Schools Union (very small). The drop in the curve between 1862 and 1867 +was due to the introduction of the "payment by results" plan.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 193 LORD MACAULAY (1800-59)] + +DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED. In the meantime liberal leaders, Schools Inquiry +Commissions, official reports, and educational propagandists continued to +pile up evidence as to the inadequacy of the old voluntary system. A few +examples, out of hundreds that might be cited, will be mentioned here. +Lord Macaulay, in an address made in Parliament, in 1847 (R. 300), +defending a "Minute" of the "Committee of Privy Council on Education" +(created in 1839) proposing the nationalization of education, held it to +be "the right and duty of the State to provide for the education of the +common people," as an exercise of self-protection, and warned the Commons +of dangers to come if the progressive tendencies of the time were not +listened to. The Census Returns of 1851, as well as the abundance of data +published by the Schools Inquiry Commissions, were effectively used to +reveal the inadequate provisions for the education of the masses. The +Reports of the school inspectors, too, revealed conditions in need of +being remedied in all phases of educational effort. The Report on the +Apprenticing of Pauper Children (R. 301) is selected as typical of many +similar reports. + + FACTS REVEALED BY THE CENSUS OF 1851 + + Items 1833 1851 + +(1) Population of England and Wales 14,400,000 17,927,609 +(2) Middle and upper classes population 2,000,000 2,489,945 +(3) Laboring class populations 12,400,000 15,437,664 +(4) Population 3-12 years of age of (2) 420,000 522,888 +(5) Population 3-12 years of age of (3) 2,604,000 3,241,919 +(6) Number of schools for children of (2) 14,807 16,324 +(7) Number of schools for children of (3) 24,074 29,718 +(8) Pupils of class (2) in schools 481,728 546,396 +(9) Pupils of class (3) in schools 705,219 1,597,982 +(10) Percentage of children of class (2) at school 114.6 104.4 +(11) Percentage of children of class (3) at school 30.5 49.2 + +So deeply ingrained, though, was the English conception of education as a +private and voluntary and religious affair and no business of the State; +so self-contained were the English as a people; and so little did they +know or heed the progress made in other lands, that the arguments for +national action encountered tremendous opposition from the Conservative +elements, and often were opposed even by Liberals. The reasoning of Sir +James Kay-Shuttleworth (R. 302), Secretary of the Committee of Council on +Education and one of the clearest heads in England in his day, who held +that a fee for instruction had a moral value and vindicated personal +freedom, and who resented the interference of the State in the matter of a +parent's relation to his child, was typical of thousands of others. Edward +Baines (1774-1848), proprietor of the _Leeds Mercury_, the chief Liberal +organ in northern England, bitterly opposed any action looking toward +nationalizing education. He expressed the feeling of many when he wrote: + + Civil government is no fit agency for the training of families or of + souls.... Throw the people on their own resources in education, as you + did in industry; and be assured, that, in a nation so full of + intelligence and spirit, Freedom and Competition will give the same + stimulus to improvement in our schools, as they have done in our + manufactures, our husbandry, our shipping, and our commerce. + +THE BEGINNINGS OF NATIONAL ORGANIZATION. By 1865 it had become evident to +a majority that the voluntary system, whatever its merits, would never +succeed in educating the nation, and from this time forth the demand for +some acceptable scheme for the organization of national education became a +part of a still more general movement for political and social reform. +Once more, as in 1832-33, an education law was enacted following the +passage of a bill for electoral reform and the extension of the suffrage. + +Though the Liberal Party was in power, it was well satisfied with the +Reform Act of 1832 because through it the middle classes of the +population, which the Liberal Party represented, had gained control of the +government. The country, though, was not--the working-classes in +particular demanding a share in the government. Finally the demand became +too strong to be resisted, and the Second Reform Act, of 1867, became a +law. This abolished a number of the remaining smaller boroughs, and +greatly extended the right to vote. In the country the amount of property +to be owned to vote was reduced from £10 to £5, and the leasehold value +from £50 to £12. In the cities and towns the vote was now given to all +householders, and to all lodgers who paid a yearly rental of £10. This +legislation gave the vote to a vastly increased number of people, +particularly city workers, [30] and was a political revolution for England +of great magnitude. + +From the passage of this new Reform Act to 1870, the organization of +national education only awaited the formulation of some acceptable scheme. +"We must educate our new masters," now became a common expression. The +main question was how to create schools to do what the voluntary schools +had shown themselves able to do for a part, but were unable to do for all, +without at the same time destroying the vast denominational system [31] +that, in spite of its defects, had "done the great service of rearing a +race of teachers, spreading schools, setting up a standard of education, +and generally making the introduction of a national system possible." The +way in which these "vested interests" were cared for was typically +English, and characteristic of the strong sense of obligation of the +English people. In 1870 a compromise law was proposed and carried. Mr. +Gladstone, then Prime Minister, stated the attitude of the Government in +framing the new law, when he said: [32] + + It was with us an absolute necessity--a necessity of honour and a + necessity of policy--to respect and to favour the educational + establishments and machinery we found existing in the country. It was + impossible for us to join in the language or to adopt the tone which + was conscientiously and consistently taken up by some members of the + House, who look upon these voluntary schools, having generally a + denominational character, as admirable passing expedients, fit, + indeed, to be tolerated for a time, deserving all credit on account of + the motives which led to their foundation, but wholly unsatisfactory + as to their main purpose, and therefore to be supplanted by something + they think better.... That has never been the theory of the + Government.... When we are approaching this great work, which we + desire to make complete, we ought to have a sentiment of thankfulness + that so much has been done for us. + +[Illustration: FIG. 194. WORK OF THE SCHOOL BOARDS IN PROVIDING SCHOOL +ACCOMMODATIONS +London taken as a type. Note the deficiency in school accommodation in +1838, that the voluntary schools made no appreciable gain on this +deficiency up to 1870, the attempt to cope with the situation between 1871 +and 1874, and the long pull of the new Board schools necessary to provide +sufficient schools and seats.] + +Accordingly the Elementary Education Bill of 1870 (R. 304) preserved the +existing Voluntary Schools; divided the country up into school districts; +gave the denominations a short period in which to provide schools, with +aid for buildings; [33] and thereafter, in any place where a deficiency in +school accommodations could be shown to exist; School Boards were to be +elected, and they should have power to levy taxes and maintain elementary +schools. Existing Voluntary Schools might be transferred to the School +Boards, whose schools were to be known as Board Schools. The schools were +not ordered made free, but the fees of necessitous children were to be +provided for by the School Boards, and they might compel the attendance of +all children between the ages of five and twelve. Inspection and grants +were limited to secular subjects, though religious teaching was not +forbidden. The central government was to be secular and neutral; the local +boards might decide as they saw fit. Such were the beginnings of national +education in England. That the new Board Schools met a real need, +especially in the cities, is shown by the chart on the preceding page, +giving the results in London. + + +IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM + +PROGRESS UNDER THE LAW OF 1870. Beginning in 1871 the Board Schools had, +by 1893, come to enroll 41 per cent of the pupils in elementary schools in +England, as against 44 per cent in Voluntary Schools, and by 1903 the +proportions were 49 per cent to 39 per cent. By 1902 the government grants +for maintenance had reached, for all schools, £8,000,000 a year, and the +Board Schools were rapidly outrunning the Voluntary Schools both in +numbers and in per-capita expenditures. The Board Schools had made their +greatest headway in the cities. In 1895 there were still some 11,000 small +parishes which had no Board Schools, and in consequence paid no direct +taxes for schools. Of these, 8000 had only Church-of-England Voluntary +Schools. + +In 1880 elementary education had been made fully compulsory, and in 1891 +largely free. In 1893 the age for exemption from attendance was fixed at +eleven, and in 1899 this was raised to twelve. In 1888 county and borough +councils had been created, better to enforce the Act and to extend +supervision. The _Annual Codes_, from 1870 to 1902, gradually extended +governmental control through more and more detailed instructions as to +inspection, the addition of new subjects, and better compulsion to attend. +In 1899 a Central Board of Education, under a President and a +Parliamentary Secretary, was created, to consolidate in one body the work +formerly done by: + + a. The Committee of Council on Education (established 1839), which + administered the grants for elementary education. + + b. The Department of Science and Art (established 1853), which + administered the grants for special and evening instruction in + science and art. + + c. The Charity Commissioners, to which had been given (1874) + supervision of the old educational trusts and endowments for + education. + + d. The educational functions of the Board of Agriculture. + +This new Board unified the administration of elementary and secondary +education for the first time in English history. + +By about 1895 the strain on the Voluntary Schools had become hard to bear. +The Church resented the encroachments of the State on its ancient +privilege of training the young, and the larger resources which the Board +Schools could command. In 1895 the Conservative party won the +parliamentary elections, and remained in power for some years. This was +the opportunity of the Voluntary Schools, and in 1897 a special national- +aid grant of five shillings per pupil in average daily attendance was made +to the Voluntary Schools. This simply increased the general +dissatisfaction, and there was soon a general demand for new legislation +that would reconcile the whole question of national education. The Law of +1902 was the ultimate result. + +THE ANNEXATION LAW OF 1902. The Balfour Education Act of 1902 marks the +beginning of a new period in English education. For the first time in +English history education of all grades--elementary, secondary, and +higher; voluntary and state--was brought under the control of one single +local authority, and Voluntary Schools were taken over and made a charge +on the "rates" equally with the Board Schools. New local Educational +Committees and Councils replaced the old School Boards, and all secular +instruction in state-aided schools of all types was now placed under their +control. Religious instruction could continue where desired. In addition, +one third of the property of England, which had heretofore escaped all +direct taxation for education, was now compelled to pay its proper share. +The foundation principle that "the wealth of the. State must educate the +children of the State" was now applied, for the first time. + +The State now abandoned the old policy of merely supervising and assisting +voluntary associations to maintain schools, in competition with state- +provided schools, and assumed the whole responsibility for the secular +instruction of the people. Though the law awakened intense opposition from +those who felt that it "riveted the hand of the cleric on the schools of +the land," it nevertheless equalized and unified educational provisions; +paved the way for much future progress; made the general provision of +secondary education possible; and represented an important new step in the +process of creating a national system of education for the people. Under +this Law much has been done by the new Central Board of Education, and +subsequent supplementary legislation, to increase materially the +efficiency of the education provided. + +Since 1902 the cost for education per pupil has been increased more than +one half. The local authorities, to whom were given large powers of +control, have levied taxes liberally, and the State has also increased its +grants. Since 1902 also there has been a continual agitation for a +resettlement of the educational question along broad national lines. Bills +have been introduced, and important committees have considered the matter, +but no affirmative action was taken. By the time of the opening of the +World War it may be said that English opinion had about agreed upon the +principle of public control of all schools, absolute religious freedom for +teachers, local option as to religious instruction, large local liberty in +management and control, well-trained and well-paid teachers, and the +fusing of all types of schools into a democratic and truly national school +system, strong in its unity and national elements, but free from +centralized bureaucratic control. It was left for the World War to give +emphasis to this national need and to permit the final creation of such an +educational organization. + +THE INCORPORATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION INTO THE NATIONAL SYSTEM. For +centuries the education of the small ruling class has been conducted by +the private tutor and the endowed secondary school, and had been completed +by a few years at Oxford or Cambridge. The Reform Bill of 1832 had raised +the middle commercial and industrial classes to power, and had created new +demands for secondary and higher education for the sons of this class. The +old endowed schools were now no longer sufficient in numbers, and the +result was the founding of many private and joint-stock-company secondary +schools to minister to the new educational needs. The Second Reform Bill +of 1867 enfranchised a very much greater number of citizens, and the +increasing wealth and the increasing demands for educational advantages +led to an insistence for a further extension along secondary and higher +lines. The result was seen in the investigation of the nine "Great Public +Schools" of England, [34] by the Lord Clarendon Commission (1861-64); and +the appointment of the British Schools Inquiry Commission of 1864-67, to +inquire into the 820 other endowed schools and the 122 proprietary or +joint-stock-company schools of the land. The Report of the first led to +the Public Schools Act of 1868, reforming abuses and regulating the use of +their old endowments. The second pointed out the great deficiency then +existing in secondary education, [35] and led to the enactment of the +Endowed Schools Act of 1869, placing all endowed schools under centralized +supervision. We see here the beginnings of state supervision and control +of the age-old endowments for Latin grammar schools and other types of +schools for secondary training. The repeal of the old Religious-Tests-for- +Degrees legislation, at the old universities (R. 305), in 1871, +transformed these from Church-of-England into national institutions, and +opened up the whole range of education to all who could meet the standards +and pay the fees. + +Under the Act of 1870 many local school boards, especially in the +manufacturing cities, began to satisfy the new needs by the organization +of Higher Grade Schools, or High Schools, to supplement the work of the +elementary schools and to extend upward, in a truly democratic fashion, +the educational ladder. In this movement the manufacturing cities of +Sheffield, Birmingham, and Manchester were the leaders. In these three +cities also, as well as in four others (Bristol, Leeds, Liverpool, and +London) [36] new modern-type universities were created. The Department of +Science and Art (created in 1853) also began, in 1872, to give large +grants to the cities for the establishment of a three-years' course in +science, for the encouragement of scientific training. These new +secondary-type schools, providing for the direct passage of children from +the elementary to the secondary schools, with many free places for capable +students, served to increase the friction between rate-aided schools on +the one hand, and voluntary and endowed and proprietary schools on the +other. Carrying out, as they did, Huxley's idea of a broad educational +ladder, [37] they also represented a very democratic innovation in English +educational procedure. + +In 1894 a Commission--a favorite English method for considering vexatious +questions--was appointed, under the chairmanship of Mr. James (afterwards +Lord) Bryce, "to consider the best methods of establishing a well- +organized system of secondary education in England." The Report was +important and influential. It recommended the creation of a general Board +of Education under a responsible government Minister, with a permanent +Secretary and a Consultative Educational Council (as was done in 1899); +the establishment of local county and borough boards to provide adequate +secondary-school accommodations, with aid from the "rates"; the inspection +of secondary schools by the Central Board of Education; the professional +training of secondary-school teachers; and a great extension of the free- +scholarship plan to children from the elementary schools. On this last +point the Report said: [38] + + We have to consider the means whereby the children of the less well- + to-do classes of our population may be enabled to obtain such + secondary education as may be suitable and needful for them. As we + have not recommended that secondary education shall be provided free + of cost to the whole community, we deem it all the more needful that + ample provision be made by every local authority for enabling selected + children of poorer parents to climb the educational ladder.... The + assistance we have contemplated should be given by means of a + carefully graduated system of scholarships, varying in value in the + age at which they are awarded and the class of school or institution + at which they are tenable. + +The Act of 1902 unified control of both elementary and secondary +education. Any private or endowed secondary school was left free to accept +or reject government aid and inspection, but, if the aid were accepted, +inspection and the following of government plans were required. Secondary +education must provide for scholars up to or beyond the age of sixteen. No +attempt was made to unify the work and character of the secondary schools, +it being clearly recognized that, in England at least, these must be +suited to the different requirements of the scholars, the means of the +parents, the age at which schooling will stop, and the probable place in +the social organism of England which the pupils will occupy. By 1910, out +of 841 secondary schools in England receiving grants of state aid, 325 +were supported by local authorities and were the creations of the +preceding four decades. Most of the others represented old Latin grammar- +school foundations, thus incorporated into the national system, and +without that violence and destruction of endowments which characterized +the transformations in France and Italy. + +[Illustration: FIG. 195. THE ENGLISH EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AS FINALLY EVOLVED +The years, for the divisions of English education, are only approximate, +as English education is more flexible than that found in most other +lands.] + +A NATIONAL SYSTEM AT LAST EVOLVED. It is a little more than two centuries +from the founding of the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge +(1699) to the very important Fisher Education Act [39] of August, 1918. +The first marked the beginnings of the voluntary system; the second "the +first real attempt in England to lay broad and deep the foundations of a +scheme of education which would be truly national." This Act, passed by +Parliament in the midst of a war which called upon the English people for +heavy sacrifices, completed the evolution of two centuries and organized +the educational resources--elementary, secondary, evening, adult, +technical, and higher--into one national system, animated by a national +purpose, and aimed at the accomplishment for the nation of twentieth- +century ends on the most democratic basis of any school system in Europe. +In so doing Huxley's educational ladder has not only been changed into a +broad highway, but the educational traditions of England (R. 306) have +been preserved and moulded anew. + +The central national supervisory authority has been still further +strengthened; the compulsion to attend greatly extended; and the voice of +the State has been uttered in a firmer tone than ever before in English +educational history. Taxes have been increased; the scope of the school +system extended; all elements of the system better integrated; laggard +local educational authorities subjected to firmer control; the training of +teachers looked after more carefully than ever before; and the foundations +for unlimited improvement and progress in education laid down. Still, in +doing all this, the deep English devotion to local liberties has been +clearly revealed. The dangers of a centralized French-type educational +bureaucracy have been avoided; necessary, and relatively high, minimum +standards have been set up, but without sacrificing that variety which has +always been one of the strong points of English educational effort; and +the legitimate claims of the State have been satisfied without destroying +local initiative and independence. In this story of two centuries and more +of struggle to create a really national system of education for the people +we see strongly revealed those prominent characteristics of English +national progress--careful consideration of new ideas, keen sensitiveness +to vested rights, strong sense of local liberties and responsibilities, +large dependence on local effort and good sense, progress by compromise, +and a slow grafting-on of the best elements of what is new without +sacrificing the best elements of what is old. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Show that the English method of slow progress and after long discussion +would naturally result in a plan bearing evidence of many compromises. + +2. What does the extensive Charity-School movement in eighteenth-century +England indicate as to the comparative general interest in learning in +England and the other lands we have previously studied? + +3. Show how the Sunday-School instruction, meager as it was, was very +important in England in paving the way for further educational progress. + +4. What do all the different late eighteenth-century voluntary educational +movements indicate as to comparative popular interest in education in +England and Prussia? England and France? + +5. Can you explain the much greater percentage of city poor in England in +the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries than in French or +German lands? + +6. Can you explain why periods of prolonged warfare are usually followed +by periods of social and political unrest? + +7. Can you explain why Pestalozzian ideas found such slow acceptance in +England? + +8. Explain, on the basis of the English adult manufacturing conception of +education, why monitorial instruction was hailed as "a new expedient, +parallel and rival to the modern inventions in the mechanical +departments." + +9. To what extent do we now accept Robert Owen's conception of the +influence of education on children? + +10. Show how the many philanthropic societies for the education of the +children of the poor came in as a natural transition from church to state +education. + +11. Show the importance of the School Societies in accustoming people to +the idea of free and general education. + +12. Show how the Lancastrian system formed a natural bridge between +private philanthropy in education and tax-supported state schools. + +13. Why were the highly mechanical features of the Lancastrian +organization so advantageous in its day, whereas we of to-day would regard +them as such a disadvantage? + +14. Explain how the Lancastrian schools dignified the work of the teacher +by revealing the need for teacher-training. + +15. Assuming that there may be some validity to the arguments of Kay- +Shuttleworth, what are the limitations to such reasoning? + +16. What theory as to education would naturally lie behind a "payment-by- +results" plan of distributing state aid? + +17. Show how English educational development during the nineteenth century +has been deeply modified by the progress of democracy. + +18. Show how the English have attained to minimum standards without +imposing uniform requirements that destroy individuality and initiative. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following illustrative +selections are reproduced: + + 291. Parliamentary Report: Charity-School Education described. + 292. S.P.C.K.: Cost and Support of Charity-Schools. + 293. Raikes: Description of the Gloucester Sunday Schools. + 294. Guthrie: Organization, Support, and Work of a Ragged School. + 295. Smith, A.: On the Education of the Common People. + 296. Malthus: On National Education. + 297. Smith, S.: The School of Lancaster described. + 298. Philanthropist: Automatic Character of the Monitorial Schools. + 299. Montmorency, de: The First Parliamentary Grant for Education. + 300. Macaulay: On the Duty of the State to Provide Education. + 301. Mosely: Evils of Apprenticing the Children of Paupers. + 302. Kay-Shuttleworth: Typical Reasoning in Opposition to Free Schools. + 303. Macnamera: The Duke of Newcastle Commission Report. + 304. Statute: Elementary Education Act of 1870. + 305. Statute: Abolition of Religious Tests at the Universities. + 306. Times: The Educational Traditions of England. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Characterize the type of education described by the witness (291). + +2. Considering equipment provided and comparative money values, then and +now, about how much of an effort did support (292) involve? + +3. What class of children did Raikes (293) make provision for? + +4. Characterize the type of education provided (294) in the Ragged +Schools. + +5. Would Adam Smith's reasoning (295) still hold true? + +6. Would that of Malthus (296)? + +7. Indicate the improvements Lancaster had made (297, 298) in organization +and teaching efficiency. + +8. Was the first English parliamentary grant (299) expressive of deep +national interest? + +9. Would Macaulay's reasoning (300) still be true? + +10. Is it probable that the apprenticing of paupers had always given such +(301) results? + +11. How sound was Kay-Shuttleworth's reasoning (302)? + +12. What merit was there to the "payment-by-results" recommendation of the +Duke of Newcastle Commission (303)? + +13. Just what kind of schools did the Act of 1870 (304) make provision +for? + +14. Have we ever had such religious requirements as those so long +maintained (305) at the English universities? + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + + Allen, W. O. B. and McClure, E. _Two Hundred Years; History of + S.P.C.K. 1698-1898_. + Adams, Francis. _History of the Elementary School Contest in + England_. +* Binns, H. B. _A Century of Education, 1808-1908, History of the + British and Foreign School Society_. +* Birchenough, C. _History of Elementary Education in England and Wales + since 1800_. + Escott, T. H. S. _Social Transformations of the Victorian Era_. + Harris, J. H. _Robert Raikes; the Man and his Work_. +* Holman, H. _English National Education_. +* Montmorency, J. E. G. de. _The Progress of Education in England_. +* Montmorency, J. E. G. de. _State Intervention in English Education to + 1833_. +* Salmon, David. _Joseph Lancaster_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +AWAKENING AN EDUCATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE UNITED STATES + + +I. EARLY NATIONAL ATTITUDES AND INTERESTS + +THE AMERICAN PROBLEM. The beginnings of state educational organization in +the United States present quite a different history from that traced for +Prussia, France, Italy, or England. While the parochial school existed in +the Central Colonies, and in time had to be subordinated to state ends; +and while the idea of education as a charity had been introduced into all +the Anglican Colonies, and later had to be stamped out; the problem of +educational organization in America was not, as in Europe, one of bringing +church schools and old educational foundations into harmonious working +relations with the new state school systems set up. Instead the old +educational foundations were easily transformed to adapt them to the new +conditions, while only in the Central Colonies did the religious-charity +conception of education give any particular trouble. The American +educational problem was essentially that of first awakening, in a new +land, a consciousness of need for general education; and second, that of +developing a willingness to pay for what it finally came to be deemed +desirable to provide. + +By the middle of the eighteenth century, as we have pointed out (p. 438), +the earlier religious interests in America had clearly begun to wane. In +the New England Colonies the school of the civil town had largely replaced +the earlier religious school. In the Middle Colonies many of the parochial +schools had died out. In the Southern Colonies, where the classes in +society and negro slavery made common schools impossible, and the lack of +city life and manufacturing made them seem largely unnecessary, the common +school had tended to disappear. Even in New England, where the Calvinistic +conception of the importance of education had most firmly established the +idea of school support, the eighteenth century witnessed a constant +struggle to prevent the dying-out of that which an earlier generation had +deemed it important to create. + +EFFECT OF THE WAR ON EDUCATION. The effect of the American War for +Independence, on all types of schools, was disastrous. The growing +troubles with the mother country had, for more than a decade previous to +the opening of hostilities, tended to concentrate attention on other +matters than schooling. Political discussion and agitation had largely +monopolized the thinking of the time. + +With the outbreak of the war education everywhere suffered seriously. Most +of the rural and parochial schools closed, or continued a more or less +intermittent existence. In New York City, then the second largest city in +the country, practically all schools closed with British occupancy and +remained closed until after the end of the war. The Latin grammar schools +and academies often closed from lack of pupils, while the colleges were +almost deserted. Harvard and Kings, in particular, suffered grievously, +and sacrificed much for the cause of liberty. The war engrossed the +energies and the resources of the peoples of the different Colonies, and +schools, never very securely placed in the affections of the people, +outside of New England, were allowed to fall into decay or entirely +disappear. The period of the Revolution and the period of reorganization +which followed, up to the beginning of the national government (1775-89), +were together a time of rapid decline in educational advantages and +increasing illiteracy among the people. Meager as had been the +opportunities for schooling before 1775, the opportunities by 1790, except +in a few cities and in the New England districts, had shrunk almost to the +vanishing point. For Boston (R. 307), Providence (Rs. 309, 310), and a +number of other places we have good pictures preserved of the schools +which actually did exist. + +The close of the war found the country both impoverished and exhausted. +All the Colonies had made heavy sacrifices, many had been overrun by +hostile armies, and the debt of the Union and of the States was so great +that many thought it could never be paid. The thirteen States, +individually and collectively, with only 3,380,000 people, had incurred an +indebtedness of $75,000,000 for the prosecution of the conflict. Commerce +was dead, the Government of the Confederation was impotent, petty +insurrections were common, the States were quarreling continually with one +another over all kinds of trivial matters, England still remained more or +less hostile, and foreign complications began to appear. That during such +a crucial period, and for some years following, but little or no attention +was anywhere given to the question of education was only natural. + +NO REAL EDUCATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS BEFORE ABOUT 1820. Regardless of the +national land grants for education made to the new States (p. 523), the +provisions of the different state constitutions (R. 259), the beginnings +made here and there in the few cities of the time, and the early state +laws (R. 262), it can hardly be said that the American people had +developed an educational consciousness, outside of New England and New +York, before about 1820, and in some of the States, especially in the +South, a state educational consciousness was not awakened until very much +later. Even in New England there was a steady decline in education during +the first fifty years of the national history. + +There were many reasons in the national life for this lack of interest in +education among the masses of the people. The simple agricultural life of +the time, the homogeneity of the people, the absence of cities, the +isolation and independence of the villages, the lack of full manhood +suffrage in a number of the States, the want of any economic demand for +education, and the fact that no important political question calling for +settlement at the polls had as yet arisen, made the need for schools and +learning seem a relatively minor one. The country, too, was still very +poor. The Revolutionary War debt still hung in part over the Nation, and +the demand for money and labor for all kinds of internal improvements was +very large. The country had few industries, and its foreign trade was +badly hampered by European nations. Ways and means of strengthening the +existing Government and holding the Union together, [1] rather than plans +which could bear fruit only in the future, occupied the attention of the +leaders of the time. + +When the people had finally settled their political and commercial future +by the War of 1812-14, and had built up a national consciousness on a +democratic basis in the years immediately following, and the Nation at +last possessed the energy, the money, and the interest for doing so, they +finally turned their energies toward the creation of a democratic system +of public schools. In the meantime, education, outside of New England, and +in part even there, was left largely to private individuals, churches, +incorporated school societies, and such state schools for the children of +the poor as might have been provided by private or state funds, or the two +combined. + +THE REAL INTEREST IN ADVANCED EDUCATION. In so far as the American people +may be said to have possessed a real interest in education during the +first half-century of the national existence, it was manifested in the +establishment and endowment of academies and colleges rather than in the +creation of schools for the people. The colonial Latin grammar school had +been almost entirely an English institution, and never well suited to +American needs. As democratic consciousness began to arise, the demand +came for a more practical institution, less exclusive and less +aristocratic in character, and better adapted in its instruction to the +needs of a frontier society. Arising about the middle of the eighteenth +century, a number of so-called Academies had been founded before the new +National Government took shape. While essentially private institutions, +arising from a church foundation, or more commonly a local subscription or +endowment, it became customary for towns, counties, and States to assist +in their maintenance, thus making them semi-public institutions. Their +management, though, usually remained in private hands, or under boards or +associations. [2] + +Beside offering a fair type of higher training [3] before the days of high +schools, the academies also became training-schools for teachers, and +before the rise of the normal schools were the chief source of supply for +the better grade of elementary teachers. These institutions rendered an +important service during the first half of the nineteenth century, but +were in time displaced by the publicly supported and publicly controlled +American high school, the first of which dates from 1821. This evolution +we shall describe more in detail a little later on. + +THE COLLEGES OF THE TIME. Some interest also was taken in college +education during this early national period. College attendance, however, +was small, as the country was still new and the people were poor. As late +as 1815, Harvard graduated a class of but 66; Yale of 69; Princeton of 40; +Williams of 40; Pennsylvania of 15; and the University of South Carolina +of 37. After the organization of the Union the nine old colonial colleges +were reorganized, and an attempt was made to bring them into closer +harmony with the ideas and needs of the people and the governments of the +States. Dartmouth, Kings (now rechristened Columbia), and Pennsylvania +were for a time changed into state institutions, and an unsuccessful +attempt was made to make a state university for Virginia out of William +and Mary. Fifteen additional colleges were organized by 1800, and fourteen +more by 1820. Between 1790 and 1825 there was much discussion as to the +desirability of founding a national university at the seat of government, +and Washington in his will (1799) left, for that time, a considerable sum +to the Nation to inaugurate the new undertaking. Nothing ever came of it, +however. Before 1825 six States--Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, +Georgia, Indiana, and Michigan--had laid the foundations of future state +universities. The National Government had also granted to each new Western +State two entire townships of land to help endow a university in each--a +stimulus which eventually led to the establishment of a state university +in every Western State. + +A HALF-CENTURY OF TRANSITION. The first half-century of the national life +may be regarded as a period of transition from the church-control idea of +education over to the idea of education under the control of and supported +by the State. Though many of the early States had provided for state +school systems in their constitutions (R. 259), the schools had not been +set up, or set up only here and there. It required time to make this +change in thinking. Up to the period of the beginnings of our national +development education had almost everywhere been regarded as an affair of +the Church, somewhat akin to baptism, marriage, the administration of the +sacraments, and the burial of the dead. Even in New England, which formed +an exception, the evolution of the civic school from the church school was +not yet complete. + +The church charity-school had become, as we have seen (p. 449), a familiar +institution before the Revolution. The English "Society for the +Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts" (p. 449), which maintained +schools in connection with the Anglican churches in the Anglican Colonies +and provided an excellent grade of charity-school master, withdrew at the +close of the Revolutionary War from work in this country. The different +churches after the war continued their efforts to maintain their church +charity-schools, though there was for a time a decrease in both their +numbers and their effectiveness. + +In the meantime the demand for education grew rather rapidly, and the task +soon became too big for the churches to handle. For long the churches made +an effort to keep up, as they were loath to relinquish in any way their +former hold on the training of the young. The churches, however, were not +interested in the problem except in the old way, and this was not what the +new democracy wanted. The result was that, with the coming of nationality +and the slow but gradual growth of a national consciousness, national +pride, national needs, and the gradual development of national resources +in the shape of taxable property--all alike combined to make secular +instead of religious schools seem both desirable and possible to a +constantly increasing number of citizens. + + +II. AWAKENING AN EDUCATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS + +Between about 1810 and 1830 a number of new forces--philanthropic, +political, social, economic--combined to change the earlier attitude by +producing conditions which made state rather than church control and +support of education seem both desirable and feasible. The change, too, +was markedly facilitated by the work of a number of semi-private +philanthropic agencies which now began the work of founding schools and +building up an interest in education, the most important of which were: +(1) the Sunday-School movement; (2) the City School Societies; (3) the +Lancastrian movement; and (4) the Infant-School Societies. These will be +described briefly, and their influence in awakening an educational +consciousness pointed out. + +THE SUNDAY-SCHOOL MOVEMENT. The Sunday School, as a means of providing the +merest rudiments of secular and religious learning, had been made, through +the initiative of Raikes of Gloucester (p. 617), a very important English +institution for providing the beginnings of instruction for the children +of the city poor. Raikes's idea was soon carried to the United States. In +1786 a Sunday School after the Raikes plan was organized in Hanover +County, Virginia. In 1787 a Sunday School for African children was +organized at Charleston, South Carolina. In 1791 "The First Day, or Sunday +School Society," was organized at Philadelphia, for the establishment of +Sunday Schools in that city. In 1793 Katy Ferguson's "School for the Poor" +was opened in New York, and this was followed by an organization of New +York women for the extension of secular instruction among the poor. In +1797 Samuel Slater's Factory School was opened at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. + +Though there had been some Sunday instruction earlier at a few places in +New England, the introduction of the Sunday School from England, in 1786, +marked the real beginning of the religious Sunday School in America. After +the churches had once caught the idea of a common religious school on +Sundays for the instruction of any one, a number of societies were formed +to carry on and extend the work. The most important of these were: + + 1808. The Evangelical Society of Philadelphia. + 1816. The Female Union for the Promotion of Sabbath Schools (New + York). + 1816. The New York Sunday School Union. + 1816. The Boston Society for the Moral and Religious Instruction of + the Poor. + 1817. The Philadelphia Sunday and Adult School Union. + 1824. The American Sunday School Union. + +These different types of American Sunday Schools, being open to all +instead of only to the poor and lowly, had a small but an increasing +influence in leveling class distinctions and in making a common day school +seem possible. The movement for secular instruction on Sundays, though, +soon met in America with the opposition of the churches, and before long +they took over the idea, superseded private initiative and control, and +changed the character of the instruction from a day of secular work to an +hour or so of religious teaching. The Sunday School, in consequence, never +exercised the influence in educational development in America that it did +in England. + +THE CITY SCHOOL SOCIETIES. These were patterned after the English charity- +school subscription societies, and were formed in a number of American +cities during the first quarter of the nineteenth century for the purpose +of providing the rudiments of an education to those too poor to pay for +schooling. These Societies were usually organized by philanthropic +citizens, willing to contribute something yearly to provide some little +education for a few of the many children in the city having no +opportunities for any instruction. A number of these Societies were able +to effect some financial connection with the city or the State. + +One of the first of these School Societies was "The Manumission Society," +organized in New York, in 1785, for the purpose of "mitigating the evils +of slavery, to defend the rights of the blacks, and especially to give +them the elements of an education." Alexander Hamilton and John Jay were +among its organizers. A free school for colored pupils was opened, in +1787. This grew and prospered and was aided from time to time by the city, +and in 1801 by the State. Finally, in 1834, all its schools were merged +with those of the "Public School Society" of the city. In 1801 the first +free school for poor white children "whose parents belong to no religious +society, and who, from some cause or other, cannot be admitted into any of +the charity schools of the city," was opened. This was provided by the +"Association of Women Friends for the Relief of the Poor," which engaged +"a widow woman of good education and morals as instructor" at £30 per +year. This Association also prospered, and received some city or state aid +up to 1824. By 1823 it was providing free elementary education for 750 +children. Its schools also were later merged with those of the "Public +School Society." + +"THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SOCIETY." Perhaps the most famous of all the early +subscription societies for the maintenance of schools for the poor was the +"New York Free School Society," which later changed its name to that of +"The Public School Society of New York." This was organized, in 1805, +under the leadership of De Witt Clinton, then mayor of the city, he +heading the subscription list with a promise of $200 a year for support. +On May 14, 1806, the following advertisement appeared in the daily papers: + + FREE SCHOOL + + The Trustees of the Society for establishing a Free School in the city + of New York, for the education of such poor children as do not belong + to, or are not provided for by any religious Society, having engaged a + Teacher, and procured a School House for the accommodation of a + School, have now the pleasure of announcing that it is proposed to + receive scholars of the descriptions alluded to without delay; + applications may be made to, &c. + +Four days later the officers of the Society issued a general appeal to the +public (R. 311), setting forth the purposes of the Society and soliciting +funds. + +[Illustration: FIG. 196. THE FIRST SCHOOLHOUSE BUILT BY THE FREE SCHOOL +SOCIETY IN NEW YORK CITY +Built in 1809, in Tryon Row. Cost, without site, $13,000.] + +This Society was chartered by the legislature "to provide schooling for +all children who are the proper objects of a gratuitous education." It +organized free public education in the city, secured funds, built +schoolhouses, provided and trained teachers, and ably supplemented the +work of the private and church schools. By its energy and its persistence +it secured for itself a large share of public confidence, and aroused a +constantly increasing interest in the cause of popular education. In 1853, +after it had educated over 600,000 children and trained over 1200 +teachers, this Society, its work done, surrendered its charter and turned +over its buildings and equipment to the public-school department of the +city, which had been created by the legislature in 1842. + +SCHOOL SOCIETIES ELSEWHERE. The "Benevolent Society of the City of +Baltimore for the Education of the Female Poor," founded in 1799, and the +"Male Free Society of Baltimore," organized a little later, were other of +these early school societies, though neither became so famous as the +Public School Society of New York. The schools of the city of Washington +were started by subscription, in 1804, and for some time were in part +supported by subscriptions from public-spirited citizens. [4] This society +did an important work in accustoming the people of the capital city to the +provision of some form of free education. + +In 1800 "The Philadelphia Society [5] for the Free Instruction of Indigent +Boys" was formed, which a little later changed to "The Philadelphia +Society for the Establishment and Support of Charity Schools." In 1814 +"The Society for the Promotion of a Rational System of Education" was +organized in Philadelphia, and four years later the public sentiment +awakened by a combination of the work of this Society and the coming of +the Lancastrian system of instruction enabled the city to secure a special +law permitting Philadelphia to organize a system of city schools for the +education of the children of its poor. Other societies which rendered +useful educational service include the "Mechanics and Manufacturers +Association," of Providence, Rhode Island, organized in 1789 (Rs. 308, +310); "The Albany Lancastrian School Society," organized in 1826, for the +education of the poor of the city in monitorial schools; and the school +societies organized in Savannah in 1818, and Augusta, in 1821, "to afford +education to the children of indigent parents." Both these Georgia +societies received some support from state funds. + +The formation of these school societies, the subscriptions made by the +leading men of the cities, the bequests for education, and the grants of +some city and state aid to these societies, all of which in time became +somewhat common, indicate a slowly rising interest in providing schools +for the education of all. This rising interest in education was greatly +stimulated by the introduction from England, about this time, of a new and +what for the time seemed a wonderful system for the organization of +education, the Lancastrian monitorial plan. + +THE LANCASTRIAN MONITORIAL SCHOOLS. Church-of-England ideas were not in +much favor in the United States for some time after the close of the +Revolutionary War, and in consequence it was the Lancastrian plan which +was brought over and popularized. In 1806 the first monitorial school was +opened in New York City, and, once introduced, the system quickly spread +from Massachusetts to Georgia, and as far west as Cincinnati, Louisville, +and Detroit. In 1826 Maryland instituted a state system of Lancastrian +schools, with a Superintendent of Public Instruction, but in 1828 +abandoned the idea and discontinued the office. A state Lancastrian system +for North Carolina was proposed in 1832, but failed of adoption by the +legislature. In 1829 Mexico organized higher Lancastrian schools for the +Mexican State of Texas. In 1818 Lancaster himself went to America, and was +received with much distinction. Most of the remaining twenty years of his +life were spent in organizing and directing schools in various parts of +the United States. + +In many of the rising cities of the eastern part of the country the first +free schools established were Lancastrian schools. The system provided +education at so low a cost (p. 629) that it made the education of all for +the first time seem possible. [6] The first free schools in Philadelphia +(1818) were an outgrowth of Lancastrian influence, as was also the case in +many other Pennsylvania cities. Baltimore began a Lancastrian school six +years before the organization of public schools was permitted by law. A +number of monitorial high schools were organized in different parts of the +United States, and it was even proposed that the plan should be adopted in +the colleges. A number of New England cities, that already had other type +schools, investigated the new monitorial plan and were impressed with its +many important points of superiority over methods then in use. The Report +of the Investigating Committee (1828) for Boston (R. 312), forms a good +example of such. As in England, the system was very popular from about +1810 to 1830, but by 1840 its popularity was over. + +THE INTEREST THE NEW PLAN AWAKENED. It is not strange that the new plan +aroused widespread enthusiasm in many discerning men, and for almost a +quarter of a century was advocated as the best system of education then +known. Two quotations will illustrate what leading men of the time thought +of it. De Witt Clinton, for twenty-one years president of the New York +"Free School Society," and later governor of the State, wrote, in 1809: + + When I perceive that many boys in our school have been taught to read + and write in two months, who did not before know the alphabet, and + that even one has accomplished it in three weeks--when I view all the + bearings and tendencies of this system--when I contemplate the habits + of order which it forms, the spirit of emulation which it excites, the + rapid improvement which it produces, the purity of morals which it + inculcates--when I behold the extraordinary union of celerity in + instruction and economy of expense--and when I perceive one great + assembly of a thousand children, under the eye of a single teacher, + marching with unexampled rapidity and with perfect discipline to the + goal of knowledge, I confess that I recognize in Lancaster the + benefactor of the human race. I consider his system as creating a new + era in education, as a blessing sent down from heaven to redeem the + poor and distressed of this world from the power and dominion of + ignorance. + +In a message to the legislature of Connecticut, a State then fairly well +supplied with schools of the Massachusetts district type, Governor Wolcott +said, in 1825: + + If funds can be obtained to defray the expenses of the necessary + preparations, I have no doubt that schools on the Lancastrian model + ought, as soon as possible, to be established in several parts of this + state. Wherever from 200 to 1000 children can be convened within a + suitable distance, this mode of instruction in every branch of + reading, speaking, penmanship, arithmetic, and bookkeeping, will be + found much more efficient, direct, and economical than the practices + now generally pursued in our primary schools. + +The Lancastrian schools materially hastened the adoption of the free +school system in all the Northern States by gradually accustoming people +to bearing the necessary taxation which free schools entail. They also +made the common school common and much talked of, and awakened thought and +provoked discussion on the question of public education. They likewise +dignified the work of the teacher by showing the necessity for teacher- +training. The Lancastrian Model Schools, first established in the United +States in 1818, were the precursors of the American normal schools. + +COMING OF THE INFANT SCHOOL. A curious early condition in America was +that, in some of the cities where public schools had been established, by +one agency or another, no provision had been made for beginners. These +were supposed to obtain the elements of reading at home, or in the Dame +Schools. In Boston, for example, where public schools were maintained by +the city, no children could be received into the schools who had not +learned to read and write (R. 314 a). This made the common age of +admission somewhere near eight years. The same was in part true of +Hartford, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and other cities. When the +monitorial schools were established they tended to restrict their +membership in a similar manner, though not always able to do so. + +In 1816 there came to America, also from England, a valuable supplement to +education as then known in the form of the so-called Infant Schools (p. +630). First introduced at Boston (R. 313), the Infant Schools proved +popular, and in 1818 the city appropriated $5000 for the purpose of +organizing such schools to supplement the public-school system. These were +to admit children at four years of age, were to be known as primary +schools, were to be taught by women, were to be open all the year round, +and were to prepare the children for admission to the city schools, which +by that time had come to be known as English grammar schools. Providence, +similarly, established primary (Infant) schools in 1828 for children +between the ages of four and eight, to supplement the work of the public +schools, there called writing schools. + +THE DAME SCHOOL ABSORBED. For New England the establishment of primary +schools virtually took over the Dame School instruction as a public +function, and added the primary grades to the previously existing school. +We have here the origin of the division, often still retained at least in +name in the Eastern States, of the "primary grades" and the "grammar +grades" of the elementary school. + +[Illustration: FIG. 197 "MODEL" SCHOOL BUILDING OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL +SOCIETY +Erected in 1843. Cost (with site), $17,000. A typical New York school +building, after 1830. The infant or primary school was on the first floor, +the second floor contains the girls' school, and the third floor the boys' +school. Each floor had one large room seating 252 children; the primary +schoolroom could be divided into two rooms by folding doors, so as to +segregate the infant class. This building was for long regarded as the +perfection of the builder's art, and its picture was printed for years on +the cover of the Society's Annual Reports.] + +An "Infant-School Society" was organized in New York, in 1827. The first +Infant School was established under the direction of the Public School +Society as the "Junior Department" of School No. 8, with a woman teacher +in charge, and using monitorial methods. A second school was established +the next year. In 1830 the name was changed from Infant School to Primary +Department, and where possible these departments were combined with the +existing schools. In 1832 it was decided to organize ten primary schools, +under women teachers, for children from four to ten years of age, and +after the Boston plan of instruction. This abandoned the monitorial plan +of instruction for the new Pestalozzian form, which was deemed better +suited to the needs of the smaller children. By 1844 fifty-six Primary +Departments had been organized in connection with the upper schools of the +city. + +In Philadelphia three Infant-School Societies were founded in 1827-28, and +such schools were at once established there. By 1830 the directors of the +school system had been permitted by the legislature of the State to expend +public money for such schools, and thirty such, under women teachers, were +in operation in the city by 1837. + +[Illustration: FIG. 198. EVOLUTION OF THE ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF THE +AMERICAN PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM] + +PRIMARY EDUCATION ORGANIZED. The Infant-School idea was soon somewhat +generally adopted by the Eastern cities, and changed somewhat to make of +it an American primary school. Where children had not been previously +admitted to the schools without knowing how to read, as in Boston, they +supplemented the work of the public schools by adding a new school +beneath. Where the reverse had been the case, as in New York City, the +organization of Infant Schools as Junior Departments enabled the existing +schools to advance their work. Everywhere it resulted, eventually, in the +organization of primary and grammar school departments, often with +intermediate departments in between, and, with the somewhat +contemporaneous evolution of the first high schools, the main outlines of +the American free public-school system were now complete. + +These four important educational movements--the secular Sunday School, the +semi-public city School Societies, the Lancastrian plan for instruction, +and the Infant-School idea--all arising in philanthropy, came as +successive educational ideas to America during the first half of the +nineteenth century, supplemented one another, and together accustomed a +new generation to the idea of a common school for all. + + +III. SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMIC INFLUENCES + +It is hardly probable, however, that these philanthropic efforts alone, +valuable as they were, could have resulted in the great American battle +for tax-supported schools, at as early a date as this took place, had they +not been supplemented by a number of other movements of a social, +political, and economic character which in themselves materially changed +the nature and direction of our national life. The more important of these +were: (1) The rise of cities and of manufacturing, (2) the extension of +the suffrage, and (3) the rise of new class-demands for schools. + +GROWTH OF CITY POPULATION AND MANUFACTURING. At the time of the +inauguration of the National Government nearly every one in America lived +on the farm or in some little village. The first forty years of the +national life were essentially an agricultural and a pioneer period. Even +as late as 1820 there were but thirteen cities of 8000 inhabitants or over +in the whole of the twenty-three States at that time comprising the Union, +and these thirteen cities contained but 4.9 per cent of the total +population of the Nation. + +After about 1825 these conditions began to change. By 1820 many little +villages were springing up, and these frequently proved the nuclei for +future cities. In New England many of these places were in the vicinity of +some waterfall, where cheap power made manufacturing on a large scale +possible. Lowell, Massachusetts, which in 1820 did not exist and in 1840 +had a population of over twenty thousand people, collected there largely +to work in the mills, is a good illustration. Other cities, such as +Cincinnati and Detroit, grew because of their advantageous situation as +exchange and wholesale centers. With the revival of trade and commerce +after the second war with Great Britain the cities grew rapidly both in +number and size. + +The rise of the new cities and the rapid growth of the older ones +materially changed the nature of the educational problem, by producing an +entirely new set of social and educational conditions for the people of +the Central and Northern States to solve. The South, with its plantation +life, negro slavery, and absence of manufacturing was largely unaffected +by these changed conditions until well after the close of the Civil War. +In consequence the educational awakening there did not come for nearly +half a century after it came in the North. In the cities in the coast +States north of Maryland, but particularly in those of New York and New +England, manufacturing developed very rapidly. Cotton-spinning in +particular became a New England industry, as did also the weaving of wool, +while Pennsylvania became the center of the iron manufacturing industries. +[7] + +The development of this new type of factory work meant the beginnings of +the breakdown of the old home and village industries, the eventual +abandonment of the age-old apprenticeship system (Rs. 200, 201), the start +of the cityward movement of the rural population, and the concentration of +manufacturing in large establishments, employing many hands to perform +continuously certain limited phases of the manufacturing process. This in +time was certain to mean a change in educational methods. It also called +for the concentration of both capital and labor. The rise of the factory +system, business on a large scale, and cheap and rapid transportation, all +combined to diminish the importance of agriculture and to change the city +from an unimportant to a very important position in our national life. The +13 cities of 1820 increased to 44 by 1840, and to 141 by 1860. There were +four times as many cities in the North, too, where manufacturing had found +a home, as in the South, which remained essentially agricultural. + +NEW SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN THE CITIES. The many changes in the nature of +industry and of village and home life, effected by the development of the +factory system and the concentration of manufacturing and population in +the cities, also contributed materially in changing the character of the +old educational problem. When the cities were as yet but little villages +in size and character, homogeneous in their populations, and the many +social and moral problems incident to the congestion of peoples of mixed +character had not as yet arisen, the church and charity and private school +solution of the educational problem was reasonably satisfactory. As the +cities now increased rapidly in size, became more city-like in character, +drew to them diverse elements previously largely unknown, and were +required by state laws to extend the right of suffrage to all their +citizens, the need for a new type of educational organization began slowly +but clearly to manifest itself to an increasing number of citizens. The +church, charity, and private school system completely broke down under the +new strain. School Societies and Educational Associations, organized for +propaganda, now arose in the cities; grants of city or state funds for the +partial support of both church and society schools were demanded and +obtained; and numbers of charity organizations began to be established in +the different cities to enable them to handle better the new problems of +pauperism, intemperance, and juvenile delinquency which arose. + +THE EXTENSION OF THE SUFFRAGE. The Constitution of the United States, +though framed by the ablest men of the time, was framed by men who +represented the old aristocratic conception of education and government. +The same was true of the conventions which framed practically all the +early state constitutions. The early period of the national life was thus +characterized by the rule of a class--a very well-educated and a very +capable class, to be sure--but a class elected by a ballot based on +property qualifications and belonging to the older type of political and +social thinking. + +Notwithstanding the statements of the Declaration of Independence, the +change came but slowly. Up to 1815 but four States had granted the right +to vote to all male citizens, regardless of property holdings or other +somewhat similar restrictions. After 1815 a democratic movement, which +sought to abolish all class rule and all political inequalities, arose and +rapidly gained strength. In this the new States to the westward, with +their absence of old estates or large fortunes, and where men were judged +more on their merits than in an older society, were the leaders. As will +be seen from the map, every new State admitted east of the Mississippi +River, except Ohio (admitted in 1802), where the New England element +predominated, and Louisiana (1812), provided for full manhood suffrage at +the time of its admission to statehood. Seven additional Eastern States +had extended the same full voting privileges to their citizens by 1845, +while the old requirements had been materially modified in most of the +other Northern States. This democratic movement for the leveling of all +class distinctions between white men became very marked, after 1820; came +to a head in the election of Andrew Jackson as President, in 1828; and the +final result was full manhood suffrage in all the States. This gave the +farmer in the West and the new manufacturing classes in the cities a +preponderating influence in the affairs of government. + +[Illustration: FIG. 199. DATES OF THE GRANTING OF FULL MANHOOD SUFFRAGE +Some of the older States granted almost full manhood suffrage at an +earlier date, retaining a few minor restrictions until the date given on +the map. States shaded granted full suffrage at the time of admission to +the Union.] + +EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE EXTENSION OF SUFFRAGE. The educational +significance of the extension of full manhood suffrage to all was enormous +and far-reaching. + +There now took place in the United States, after about 1825, what took +place in England after the passage of the Second Reform Act (p. 642) of +1867. With the extension of the suffrage to all classes of the population, +poor as well as rich, laborer, as well as employer, there came to thinking +men, often for the first time, a realization that general education had +become a fundamental necessity for the State, and that the general +education of all in the elements of knowledge and civic virtue must now +assume that importance in the minds of the leaders of the State that the +education of a few for the service of the Church and of the many for +simple church membership had once held in the minds of ecclesiastics. + +This new conception is well expressed in the preamble to the first +(optional) school law enacted in Illinois (1825), which declares: + + To enjoy our rights and liberties, we must understand them; their + security and protection ought to be the first object of a free people; + and it is a well-established fact that no nation has ever continued + long in the enjoyment of civil and political freedom, which was not + both virtuous and enlightened; and believing that the advancement of + literature always has been, and ever will be the means of developing + more fully the rights of man, that the mind of every citizen in a + republic is the common property of society, and constitutes the basis + of its strength and happiness; it is therefore considered the peculiar + duty of a free government, like ours, to encourage and extend the + improvement and cultivation of the intellectual energies of the whole. + +UTTERANCES OF PUBLIC MEN AND WORKINGMEN. Governors now began to recommend +to their legislatures the establishment of tax-supported schools, and +public men began to urge state action and state control. An utterance by +De Witt Clinton, for nine years governor of New York, may be taken as an +example of many. In a message to the legislature, in 1826, defending the +schools established, he said: + + The first duty of government, and the surest evidence of good + government, is the encouragement of education. A general diffusion of + knowledge is a precursor and protector of republican institutions, and + in it we must confide as the conservative power that will watch over + our liberties and guard them against fraud, intrigue, corruption, and + violence. I consider the system of our common schools as the palladium + of our freedom, for no reasonable apprehension can be entertained of + its subversion as long as the great body of the people are enlightened + by education. + +After about 1825 many labor unions were formed, and the representatives of +these new organizations joined in the demands for schools and education, +urging the free education of their children as a natural right. In 1829 +the workingmen of Philadelphia asked each candidate for the legislature +for a formal declaration of the attitude he would assume toward the +provision of "an equal and a general system of education" for the State. +In 1830 the Workingmen's Committee of Philadelphia submitted a detailed +report (R. 315), after five months spent in investigating educational +conditions in Pennsylvania, vigorously condemning the lack of provision +for education in the State, and the utterly inadequate provision where any +was made. Seth Luther, in an address on "The Education of Workingmen," +delivered in 1832, declared that "a large body of human beings are ruined +by a neglect of education, rendered miserable in the extreme, and +incapable of self-government." Stephen Simpson, in his _A Manual for +Workingmen_, published in 1831, declared that "it is to education, +therefore, that we must mainly look for redress of that perverted system +of society, which dooms the producer to ignorance, to toil, and to penury, +to moral degradation, physical want, and social barbarism." Many +resolutions were adopted by these organizations demanding free state- +supported schools. [8] + + +IV. ALIGNMENT OF INTERESTS, AND PROPAGANDA + +THE ALIGNMENT OF INTERESTS. The second quarter of the nineteenth century +may be said to have witnessed the battle for tax-supported, publicly +controlled and directed, and non-sectarian common schools. In 1825 such +schools were still the distant hope of statesmen and reformers; in 1850 +they had become an actuality in almost every Northern State. The twenty- +five years intervening marked a period of public agitation and educational +propaganda; of many hard legislative fights; of a struggle to secure +desired legislation, and then to hold what had been secured; of many +bitter contests with church and private-school interests, which felt that +their "vested rights" were being taken from them; and of occasional +referenda in which the people were asked, at the next election, to advise +the legislature as to what to do. Excepting the battle for the abolition +of slavery, perhaps no question has ever been before the American people +for settlement which caused so much feeling or aroused such bitter +antagonisms. The friends of free schools were at first commonly regarded +as fanatics, dangerous to the State, and the opponents of free schools +were considered by them as old-time conservatives or as selfish members of +society. + +Naturally such a bitter discussion of a public question forced an +alignment of the people for or against publicly supported and controlled +schools, and this alignment of interests may be roughly stated to have +been about as follows: + + _I. For Public Schools._ + Men considered as: + 1. "Citizens of the Republic." + 2. Philanthropists and humanitarians. + 3. Public men of large vision. + 4. City residents. + 5. The intelligent workingmen in the cities. + 6. Non-taxpayers. + 7. Calvinists. + 8. "New England men." + + _II. Lukewarm, or against Public Schools._ + Men considered as: + 1. Belonging to the old aristocratic class. + 2. The conservatives of society. + 3. Politicians of small vision. + 4. Residents of rural districts. + 5. The ignorant, narrow-minded, and penurious. + 6. Taxpayers. + 7. Lutherans, Reformed-Church, Mennonites, and Quakers. + 8. Southern men. + 9. Proprietors of private schools. + 10. The non-English-speaking classes. + +THE WORK OF PROPAGANDA. To meet the arguments of the objectors, to change +the opinions of a thinking few into the common opinion of the many, to +overcome prejudice, and to awaken the public conscience to the public need +for free and common schools in such a democratic society, was the work of +a generation. To convince the masses of the people that the scheme of +state schools was not only practicable, but also the best and most +economical means for giving their children the benefits of an education; +to convince propertied citizens that taxation for education was in the +interests of both public and private welfare; to convince legislators that +it was safe to vote for free-school bills; and to overcome the opposition +due to apathy, religious jealousies, and private interests, was the work +of years. In time, though, the desirability of common, free, tax- +supported, non-sectarian, state-controlled schools became evident to a +majority of the citizens in the different American States, and as it did +the American State School, free and equally open to all, was finally +evolved and took its place as the most important institution in the +national life working for the perpetuation of a free democracy and the +advancement of the public welfare. + +For this work of propaganda hundreds of School Societies and Educational +Associations were organized; many conventions were held, and many +resolutions favoring state schools were adopted; many "Letters" and +"Addresses to the Public" were written and published; public-spirited +citizens traveled over the country, making addresses to the people +explaining the advantages of free state schools; many public-spirited men +gave the best years of their lives to the state-school propaganda; and +many governors sent communications on the subject to legislatures not yet +convinced as to the desirability of state action. At each meeting of the +legislatures for years a deluge of resolutions, memorials, and petitions +for and against free schools met the members. + +The invention of the steam printing press came at about this time, and the +first modern newspapers at a cheap price now appeared. These usually +espoused progressive measures, and tremendously influenced public +sentiment. Those not closely connected with church or private-school +interests usually favored public tax-supported schools. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Explain why the development of a national consciousness was practically +necessary before an educational consciousness could be awakened. + +2. Show why it was natural, suffrage conditions considered, that the early +interest should have been in advanced education. + +3. Why did the Sunday-School movement prove of so much less usefulness in +America than in England? + +4. Show the analogy between the earlier school societies for educational +work and other forms of modern associative effort. + +5. Explain the great popularity of the Lancastrian schools over those +previously common in America. + +6. What were two of the important contributions of the Infant-School idea +to American education? + +7. Why are schools and education much more needed in a country +experiencing a city and manufacturing development than in a country +experiencing an agricultural development? + +8. Show how the development of cities caused the old forms of education to +break down, and made evident the need for a new type of education. + +9. Show how each extension of the suffrage necessitates an extension of +educational opportunities and advantages. + +10. Explain the alignment of each class, for or against tax-supported +schools, on historical and on economic grounds. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following illustrative +selections are reproduced: + + 307. Fowle: The Schools of Boston about 1790-1815. + 308. Rhode Island: Petition for Free Schools, 1799. + 309. Providence: Rules and Regulations for the Schools in 1820. + 310. Providence: A Memorial for Better Schools, 1837. + 311. Bourne: Beginnings of Public Education in New York City. + 312. Boston Report: Advantages of the Monitorial System. + 313. Wightman: Establishment of Primary Schools in Boston. + 314. Boston: The Elementary-School System in 1823. + 315. Philadelphia: Report of Workingmen's Committee on Schools. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Just what advantages for boys and for girls existed in Boston (307 a, +b) before the creation of the reading schools? + +2. What improvements and additions did the reading schools (307 c) +introduce? + +3. State the main features of the Rhode Island petition (308) of 1799. + +4. Just what kind of schools do the Providence regulations (309) of 1820 +provide for and describe? + +5. Despite the many advances made in public schools since the date of the +Providence Memorial (310), have relative public and private school +expenditures materially changed? + +6. Compare the New York Public School Society Address (311) with the +English charity-school organization (237, 238) as to purpose and +instruction. + +7. Show that a report on modern classroom organization would present +advantages over the monitorial plan, comparable with those outlined by the +Boston Report (312) comparing the monitorial and individual plans. + +8. Just what does the Boston Report on Primary Schools (313) reveal as to +the character of education then provided? + +9. Just what kind of elementary schools did Boston have (314) in 1823? + +10. Just what kind of schools existed in the cities of Pennsylvania in +1830, judging from the Report (315) of the Workingmen's Committee? Was the +Report correct with reference to "a monopoly of talent"? + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + + Binns, H. B. _A Century of Education, 1808-1908_. + Boese, Thos, _Public Education in the City of New York_. + Cubberley, E. P. _Public Education in the United States_. +* Fitzpatrick, E. A. _The Educational Views and Influences of De Witt + Clinton_. + McManis, J. T. "The Public School Society of New York City," in + _Educational Review_, vol. 29, pp. 303-11. (March, 1905.) +* Palmer, A. E. _The New York Public School System_. +* Reigart, J. F. _The Lancastrian System of Instruction in the Schools + of New York City_. +* Salmon, David. _Joseph Lancaster_. +* Simcoe, A. M. _Social Forces in American History_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +THE AMERICAN BATTLE FOR FREE STATE SCHOOLS + + +The problem which confronted those interested in establishing state- +controlled schools was not exactly the same in any two States, though the +battle in many States possessed common elements, and hence was somewhat +similar in character. Instead of tracing the struggle in detail in each of +the different States, it will be much more profitable for our purposes to +pick out the main strategic points in the contest, and then illustrate the +conflict for these by describing conditions in one or two States where the +controversy was most severe or most typical. The seven strategic points in +the struggle for free, tax-supported, non-sectarian, state-controlled +schools in the United States were: + + 1. The battle for tax support. + 2. The battle to eliminate the pauper-school idea. + 3. The battle to make the schools entirely free. + 4. The battle to establish state supervision. + 5. The battle to eliminate sectarianism. + 6. The battle to extend the system upward. + 7. Addition of the state university to crown the system. + +We shall consider each of these, briefly, in order. + + +I. THE BATTLE FOR TAX SUPPORT + +EARLY SUPPORT AND ENDOWMENT FUNDS. In New England, land endowments, local +taxes, direct local appropriations, license taxes, and rate-bills had long +been common. Land endowments began early in the New England Colonies, +while rate-bills date back to the earliest times and long remained a +favorite means of raising money for school support. These means were +adopted in the different States after the beginning of our national +period, and to them were added a variety of license taxes, while +occupational taxes, lotteries, and bank taxes also were employed to raise +money for schools. A few examples of these may be cited: + +Connecticut, in 1774, turned over all proceeds of liquor licenses to the +towns where collected, to be used for schools. New Orleans, in 1826, +licensed two theaters on condition that they each pay $3000 annually for +the support of schools in the city. New York, in 1799, authorized four +state lotteries to raise $100,000 for schools, a similar amount again in +1801, and numerous other lotteries before 1810. New Jersey (R. 246) and +most of the other States did the same. Congress passed fourteen joint +resolutions, between 1812 and 1836, authorizing lotteries to help support +the schools of the city of Washington. Bank taxes were a favorite source +of income for schools, between about 1825 and 1860, banks being chartered +on condition that they would pay over each year for schools a certain sum +or percentage of their earnings. These all represent what is known as +indirect taxation, and were valuable in accustoming the people to the idea +of public schools without appearing to tax them for their support. + +The National Land Grants, begun in the case of Ohio in 1802, soon +stimulated a new interest in schools. Each State admitted after Ohio also +received the sixteenth section for the support of common schools, and two +townships of land for the endowment of a state university. The new Western +States, following the lead of Ohio (R. 260) and Indiana (R. 261), +dedicated these section lands and funds to free common schools. The +sixteen older States, however, did not share in these grants, so most of +them now set about building up a permanent school fund of their own, +though at first without any very clear idea as to how the income from the +fund was to be used. [1] + +THE BEGINNINGS OF SCHOOL TAXATION. The early idea, which seems for a time +to have been generally entertained, that the income from land grants, +license fees, and these permanent endowment funds would in time entirely +support the necessary schools, was gradually abandoned as it was seen how +little in yearly income these funds and lands really produced, and how +rapidly the population of the States was increasing. By 1825 it may be +said to have been clearly recognized by thinking men that the only safe +reliance of a system of state schools lay in the general and direct +taxation of all property for their support. "The wealth of the State must +educate the children of the State" became a watchword, and the battle for +direct, local, county, and state taxation for education was clearly on by +1825 to 1830 in all the Northern States, except the four in New England +where the principle of taxation for education had for long been +established. [2] Even in these States the struggle to increase taxation +and provide better schools called for much argument and popular education +(R. 316), and occasional backward movements (Rs. 317, 318) were +encountered. + +[Illustration: FIG. 200. THE FIRST FREE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN DETROIT +A one-room school, opened in the Second Ward, in 1838. No action was taken +in any other ward until 1842.] + +The struggle to secure the first legislation, weak and ineffective as it +seems to us to-day, was often hard and long. "Campaigns of education" had +to be prepared for and carried through. Many thought that tax-supported +schools would be dangerous for the State, harmful to individual good, and +thoroughly undemocratic. Many did not see the need for schools at all. +Portions of a town or a city would provide a free school, while other +portions would not. Often those in favor of taxation were bitterly +assailed, and even at times threatened with personal violence. Often those +in favor of improving the school had to wait patiently for the opposition +slowly to wear itself out (R. 319) before any real progress could be made. + +STATE SUPPORT FIXED THE STATE SYSTEM. With the beginnings of state aid in +any substantial sums, either from the income from permanent endowment +funds, state appropriations, or direct state taxation, the State became, +for the first time, in a position to enforce quite definite requirements +in many matters. Communities which would not meet the State's requirements +would receive no state funds. + +One of the first requirements to be thus enforced was that communities or +districts receiving state aid must also levy a local tax for schools. +Commonly the requirement was a duplication of state aid. Generally +speaking, and recognizing exceptions in a few States, this represents the +beginnings of compulsory local taxation for education. As early as 1797 +Vermont had required the towns to support their schools on penalty of +forfeiting their share of state aid. New York in 1812, Delaware in 1829, +and New Jersey in 1846 required a duplication of all state aid received. +Wisconsin, in its first constitution of 1848, required a local tax for +schools equal to one half the state aid received. The next step in state +control was to add still other requirements, as a prerequisite to +receiving state aid. One of the first of such was that a certain length of +school term, commonly three months, must be provided in each school +district. Another was the provision of free heat, and later on free +schoolbooks and supplies. + +When the duplication-of-state-aid-received stage had been reached, +compulsory local taxation for education had been established, and the +great central battle for the creation of a state school system had been +won. The right to tax for support, and to compel local taxation, was the +key to the whole state system of education. From this point on the process +of evolving an adequate system of school support in any State has been +merely the further education of public opinion to see new educational +needs. + + +II. THE BATTLE TO ELIMINATE THE PAUPER-SCHOOL IDEA + +THE PAUPER-SCHOOL IDEA. The pauper-school idea was a direct inheritance +from England, and its home in America was in the old Central and Southern +Colonies, where the old Anglican Church had been in control. New Jersey, +Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and Georgia were the chief +representatives, though the idea had friends among certain classes of the +population in other of the older States. The new and democratic West would +not tolerate it. The pauper-school conception was a direct inheritance +from English rule, belonged to a society based on classes, and was wholly +out of place in a Republic founded on the doctrine that "all men are +created equal, and endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable +rights." Still more, it was a very dangerous conception of education for a +democratic form of government to tolerate or to foster. Its friends were +found among the old aristocratic or conservative classes, the heavy +taxpayers, the supporters of church schools, and the proprietors of +private schools. Citizens who had caught the spirit of the new Republic, +public men of large vision, intelligent workingmen, and men of the New +England type of thinking were opposed on principle to a plan which drew +such invidious distinctions between the future citizens of the State. To +educate part of the children in church or private pay schools, they said, +and to segregate those too poor to pay tuition and educate them at public +expense in pauper schools, often with the brand of pauper made very +evident to them, was certain to create classes in society which in time +would prove a serious danger to our democratic institutions. + +Large numbers of those for whom the pauper schools were intended would not +brand themselves as paupers by sending their children to the schools, and +others who accepted the advantages offered, for the sake of their +children, despised the system. [3] + +The battle for the elimination of the pauper-school idea was fought out in +the North in the States of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and the struggle +in these two States we shall now briefly describe. + +THE PENNSYLVANIA LEGISLATION. In Pennsylvania we find the pauper-school +idea fully developed. The constitution of 1790 (R. 259) had provided for a +state system of pauper schools, but nothing was done to carry even this +constitutional direction into effect until 1802. A pauper-school law was +then enacted, directing the overseers of the poor to notify such parents +as they deemed sufficiently indigent that, if they would declare +themselves to be paupers, their children might be sent to some specified +private or pay school and be given free education (R. 315). The expense +for this was assessed against the education poor-fund, which was levied +and collected in the same manner as were road taxes or taxes for poor +relief. No provision was made for the establishment of public schools, +even for the children of the poor, nor was any standard set for the +education to be provided in the schools to which they were sent. No other +general provision for elementary education was made in the State until +1834. + +With the growth of the cities, and the rise of their special problems, +something more than this very inadequate provision for schooling became +necessary. "The Philadelphia Society for the Establishment and Support of +Charity Schools" had long been urging a better system, and in 1814 "'The +Society for the Promotion of a Rational System of Education" was organized +in Philadelphia for the purpose of educational propaganda. Bills were +prepared and pushed, and in 1818 Philadelphia was permitted, by special +law, to organize as "the first school district" in the State of +Pennsylvania, and to provide, with its own funds, a system of Lancastrian +schools for the education of the children of its poor. [4] + +THE LAW OF 1834. In 1827 "The Pennsylvania Society for the Promotion of +Public Schools" began an educational propaganda which did much to bring +about the Free-School Act of 1834. In an "Address to the Public" it +declared its object to be the promotion of public education throughout the +State of Pennsylvania, and the "Address" closed with these words: + +This Society is at present composed of about 250 members, and a +correspondence has been commenced with 125 members, who reside in every +district in the State. It is intended to direct the continued attention of +the public to the importance of the subject; to collect and diffuse all +information which may be deemed valuable; and to persevere in their labors +until they shall be crowned with success. + +Memorials were presented to the legislature year after year, governors +were interested, "Addresses to the Public" were prepared, and a vigorous +propaganda was kept up until the Free-School Law of 1834 was the result. + +This law, though, was optional. It created every ward, township, and +borough in the State a school district, a total of 987 being created for +the State. Each school district was ordered to vote that autumn on the +acceptance or rejection of the law. Those accepting the law were to +organize under its provisions, while those rejecting the law were to +continue under the educational provisions of the old Pauper-School Act. + +[Illustration: FIG. 201. THE PENNSYLVANIA SCHOOL ELECTIONS OF 1835 +Showing the percentage of school districts in each county organizing under +and accepting the School Law of 1834. Percentage of districts accepting +indicated on the map for a few of the counties.] + +The results of the school elections of 1834 are shown, by counties, on the +below map. Of the total of 987 districts created, 502, in 46 of the then +52 counties (Philadelphia County not voting), or 52 per cent of the whole +number, voted to accept the new law and organize under it; 264 districts, +in 31 counties, or 27 per cent of the whole, voted definitely to reject +the law; and 221 districts, in 46 counties, or 21 per cent of the whole, +refused to take any action either way. In 3 counties, indicated on the +map, every district accepted the law, and in 5 counties, also indicated +every district rejected or refused to act on the law. It was the +predominantly German counties, located in the east-central portion of the +State, which were strongest in their opposition to the new law. One reason +for this was that the new law provided for English schools; another was +the objection of the thrifty Germans to taxation; and another was the fear +that the new state schools might injure their German parochial schools. + +The real fight for free _versus_ pauper schools, though, was yet to come. +Legislators who had voted for the law were bitterly assailed, and, though +it was but an optional law, the question of its repeal and the +reinstatement of the old Pauper-School Law became the burning issue of the +campaign in the autumn of 1834. Many legislators who had favored the law +were defeated for reelection. Others, seeing defeat, refused to run. +Petitions for the repeal of the law, [5] and remonstrances against its +repeal, flooded the legislature when it met. The Senate at once repealed +the law, but the House, largely under the leadership of a Vermonter by the +name of Thaddeus Stevens, [6] refused to reconsider, and finally forced +the Senate to accept an amended and a still stronger bill. This defeat +finally settled, in principle at least, the pauper-school question in +Pennsylvania, [7] though it was not until 1873 that the last district in +the State accepted the new system. + +ELIMINATING THE PAUPER-SCHOOL IDEA IN NEW JERSEY. No constitutional +mention of education was made in New Jersey until 1844, and no educational +legislation was passed until 1816. In that year a permanent state school +fund was begun, and in 1820 the first permission to levy taxes "for the +education of such poor children as are paupers" was granted. In 1828 an +extensive investigation showed that one third of the children of the State +were without educational opportunities, and as a result of this +investigation the first general school law for the State was enacted, in +1829. This provided for district schools, school trustees and visitation, +licensed teachers, local taxation, and made a state appropriation of +$20,000 a year to help establish the system. The next year, however, this +law was repealed and the old pauper-school plan reëstablished, largely due +to the pressure of church and private-school interests. In 1830 and 1831 +the state appropriation was made divisible among private and parochial +schools, as well as the public pauper schools, and the use of all public +money was limited "to the education of the children of the poor." + +Between 1828 and 1838 a number of conventions of friends of free public +schools were held in the State, and much work in the nature of propaganda +was done. At a convention in 1838 a committee was appointed to prepare an +"Address to the People of New Jersey" on the educational needs of the +State (R. 320), and speakers were sent over the State to talk to the +people on the subject. The campaign against the pauper school had just +been fought to a conclusion in Pennsylvania, and the result of the appeal +in New Jersey was such a popular manifestation in favor of free schools +that the legislature of 1838 instituted a partial state school system. The +pauper-school laws were repealed, and the best features of the short-lived +Law of 1829 were reënacted. In 1844 a new state constitution limited the +income of the permanent state school fund exclusively to the support of +public schools. + +With the pauper-school idea eliminated from Pennsylvania and New Jersey, +the North was through with it. The wisdom of its elimination soon became +evident, and we hear little more of it among Northern people. The +democratic West never tolerated it. It continued some time longer in +Maryland, Virginia, and Georgia, and at places for a time in other +Southern States, but finally disappeared in the South as well in the +educational reorganizations which took place following the close of the +Civil War. + + +III. THE BATTLE TO MAKE THE SCHOOLS ENTIRELY FREE + +THE SCHOOLS NOT YET FREE. The rate-bill, as we have previously stated, was +an old institution, also brought over from England, as the term "rate" +signifies. It was a charge levied upon the parent to supplement the school +revenues and prolong the school term, and was assessed in proportion to +the number of children sent by each parent to the school. In some States, +as for example Massachusetts and Connecticut, its use went back to +colonial times; in others it was added as the cost for education +increased, and it was seen that the income from permanent funds and +authorized taxation was not sufficient to maintain the school the +necessary length of time. The deficiency in revenue was charged against +the parents sending children to school, _pro rata_, and collected as +ordinary tax-bills (R. 321). The charge was small, but it was sufficient +to keep many poor children away from the schools. + +The rising cities, with their new social problems, could not and would not +tolerate the rate-bill system, and one by one they secured special laws +from legislatures which enabled them to organize a city school system, +separate from city-council control, and under a local "board of +education." One of the provisions of these special laws nearly always was +the right to levy a city tax for schools sufficient to provide free +education for the children of the city. + +[Illustration: FIG. 202. THE NEW YORK REFERENDUM OF 1850 +Total vote: For free schools, 17 counties and 209,346 voters; against free +schools, 42 counties and 184,308 voters.] + +THE FIGHT AGAINST THE RATE-BILL IN NEW YORK. The attempt to abolish the +rate-bill and make the schools wholly free was most vigorously contested +in New York State, and the contest there is most easily described. From +1828 to 1868, this tax on the parents produced an average annual sum of +$410,685.66, or about one half of the sum paid all the teachers of the +State for salary. While the wealthy districts were securing special +legislation and taxing themselves to provide free schools for their +children, the poorer and less populous districts were left to struggle to +maintain their schools the four months each year necessary to secure state +aid. Finally, after much agitation, and a number of appeals to the +legislature to assume the rate-bill charges in the form of general state +taxation, and thus make the schools entirely free, the legislature, in +1849, referred the matter back to the people to be voted on at the +elections that autumn. The legislature was to be thus advised by the +people as to what action it should take. The result was a state-wide +campaign for free, public, tax-supported schools, as against partially +free, rate-bill schools. + +The result of the 1849 election was a vote of 249,872 in favor of making +"the property of the State educate the children of the State," and 91,952 +against it. This only seemed to stir the opponents of free schools to +renewed action, and they induced the next legislature to resubmit the +question for another vote, in the autumn of 1850. + +The result of the referendum of 1850 is shown on the map on page 685. The +opponents of tax-supported schools now mustered their full strength, +doubling their vote in 1849, while the majority for free schools was +materially cut down. The interesting thing shown on this map was the clear +and unmistakable voice of the cities. They would not tolerate the rate- +bill, and, despite their larger property interests, they favored tax- +supported free schools. The rural districts, on the other hand, opposed +the idea. + +THE RATE-BILL IN OTHER STATES. These two referenda virtually settled the +question in New York, though for a time a compromise was adopted. The +state appropriation for schools was very materially increased, the rate- +bill was retained, and the organization of "union districts" to provide +free schools by local taxation where people desired them was authorized. +Many of these "union free districts" now arose in the more progressive +communities of the State, and finally, in 1867, after rural and other +forms of opposition had largely subsided, and after almost all the older +States had abandoned the plan, the New York legislature finally abolished +the rate-bill and made the schools of New York entirely free. + +The dates for the abolition of the rate-bill in the other older Northern +States were: + + 1834. Pennsylvania. 1867. New York. + 1852. Indiana. 1868. Connecticut. + 1853. Ohio. 1868. Rhode Island. + 1855. Illinois. 1869. Michigan. + 1864. Vermont. 1871. New Jersey. + +The New York fight of 1849 and 1850 was the pivotal fight; in the other +States it was abandoned by legislative act, and without a serious contest. +In the Southern States free education came with the educational +reorganizations following the close of the Civil War. + + +IV. THE BATTLE TO ESTABLISH SCHOOL SUPERVISION + +BEGINNINGS OF STATE CONTROL. The great battle for state schools was not +only for taxation to stimulate their development where none existed, but +was also indirectly a battle for some form of state control of the local +systems which had already grown up. The establishment of permanent state +school funds by the older States, to supplement any other aid which might +be granted, also tended toward the establishment of some form of state +supervision and control of the local school systems. The first step was +the establishment of some form of state aid; the next was the imposing of +conditions necessary to secure this state aid. + +State oversight and control, however, does not exercise itself, and it +soon became evident that the States must elect or appoint some officer to +represent the State and enforce the observance of its demands. It would be +primarily his duty to see that the laws relating to schools were carried +out, that statistics as to existing conditions were collected and printed, +and that communities were properly advised as to their duties and the +legislature as to the needs of the State. We find now the creation of a +series of school officers to represent the State, the enactment of new +laws extending control, and a struggle to integrate, subordinate, and +reduce to some semblance of a state school system the hundreds of little +community school systems which had grown up. + +THE FIRST STATE SCHOOL OFFICERS. The first American State to create a +state officer to exercise supervision over its schools was New York, in +1812. In enacting the new law [8] providing for state aid for schools the +first State Superintendent of Common Schools in the United States was +created. So far as is known this was a distinctively American creation, +uninfluenced by the practice in any other land. It was to be the duty of +this officer to look after the establishment and maintenance of the +schools throughout the State. [9] Maryland created the office in 1826, but +two years later abolished it and did not re-create it until 1864. Illinois +directed its Secretary of State to act, _ex officio_, as Superintendent of +Schools in 1825, as did also Vermont in 1827, Louisiana in 1833, +Pennsylvania in 1834, and Tennessee in 1835. Illinois did not create a +real State Superintendent of Schools, though, until 1854, Vermont until +1845, Louisiana until 1847, Pennsylvania until 1857, or Tennessee until +1867. The first States to create separate school officials who have been +continued to the present time were Michigan and Kentucky, both in 1837. +Often quite a legislative struggle took place to secure the establishment +of the office, and later on to prevent its abolition. + +[Illustration: FIG. 203. STATUS OF SCHOOL SUPERVISION IN THE UNITED STATES +BY 1861 +For a list of the 28 City Superintendencies established up to 1870, see +Cubberley's _Public School Administration_, p. 58. For the history of the +state educational office in each State see Cubberley and Elliott, _State +and County School Administration, Source Book_, pp. 283-87.] + +By 1850 there were _ex-officio_ state school officers in nine and regular +school officers in seven of the then thirty-one States, and by 1861 there +were _ex-officio_ officers in nine and regular officers in nineteen of the +then thirty-four States, as well as one of each in two of the organized +Territories. The above map shows the growth of supervisory oversight by +1861--forty-nine years from the time the first American state school +officer was created. The map also shows the ten of the thirty-four States +which had, by 1861, also created the office of County Superintendent of +Schools, as well as the twenty-five cities which had, by 1861, created the +office of City Superintendent of Schools. Only three more cities--Albany, +Washington, and Kansas City--were added before 1870, making a total of +twenty-eight, but since that date the number of city superintendents has +increased to something like fourteen hundred to-day. + +THE FIRST STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Another important form for state +control which was created a little later was the State Board of Education, +with an appointed Secretary, who exercised about the same functions as a +State Superintendent of Schools. This form of organization first arose in +Massachusetts, in 1837, in an effort to subordinate the district schools +and reduce them to a semblance of an organized system. In 1826 each town +(township) had been required to appoint a School Committee (School Board) +to exercise general supervision over its schools, in 1834 the state +permanent school fund was created, and in 1837 the reform movement reached +its culmination in the creation of the first real State Board of Education +in the United States. Instead of following the usual American practice of +the time, and providing for an elected State School Superintendent, +Massachusetts provided for a small appointed State Board of Education +which in turn was to select a Secretary, who was to act in the capacity of +a state school officer and report to the Board, and through it to the +legislature and the people. Neither the Board nor the Secretary were given +any powers of compulsion, their work being to investigate conditions, +report facts, expose defects, and make recommendations as to action to the +legislature. The permanence and influence of the Board thus depended very +largely on the character of the Secretary it selected. + +HORACE MANN THE FIRST SECRETARY. A prominent Brown University graduate and +lawyer in the State Senate, by the name of Horace Mann (1796-1859), who as +president of the Senate had been of much assistance in securing passage of +the bill creating the State Board of Education, was finally induced by the +Governor and the Board to accept the position of Secretary. Mr. Mann now +began a most memorable work of educating public opinion, and soon became +the acknowledged leader in school organization in the United States. State +after State called upon him for advice and counsel, while his twelve +annual Reports to the State Board of Education will always remain +memorable documents. Public men of all classes--lawyers, clergymen, +college professors, literary men, teachers--were laid under tribute and +sent forth over the State explaining to the people the need for a +reawakening of educational interest in Massachusetts. Every year Mr. Mann +organized a "campaign," to explain to the people the meaning and +importance of general education. So successful was he, and so ripe was the +time for such a movement, that he not only started a great common school +revival in Massachusetts which led to the regeneration of the schools +there, but one which was felt and which influenced development in every +Northern State. + +His twelve carefully written _Reports_ on the condition of education in +Massachusetts and elsewhere, with his intelligent discussion of the aims +and purposes of public education, occupy a commanding place in the history +of American education, while he will always be regarded as perhaps the +greatest of the "founders" of our American system of free public schools. +No one did more than he to establish in the minds of the American people +the conception that education should be universal, non-sectarian, and +free, and that its aim should be social efficiency, civic virtue, and +character, rather than mere learning or the advancement of sectarian ends. +Under his practical leadership an unorganized and heterogeneous series of +community school systems was reduced to organization and welded together +into a state school system, and the people of Massachusetts were +effectively recalled to their ancient belief in and duty toward the +education of the people. + +HENRY BARNARD IN CONNECTICUT AND RHODE ISLAND. Almost equally important, +though of a somewhat different character, was the work of Henry Barnard +(1811-1900) in Connecticut and Rhode Island. A graduate of Yale, and also +educated for the law, he turned aside to teach and became deeply +interested in education. The years 1835-37 he spent in Europe studying +schools, particularly the work of Pestalozzi's disciples. On his return to +America he was elected a member of the Connecticut legislature, and at +once formulated and secured passage of the Connecticut law (1839) +providing for a State Board of Commissioners for Common Schools, with a +Secretary, after the Massachusetts plan. Mr. Barnard was then elected as +its first Secretary, and reluctantly gave up the law and accepted the +position at the munificent salary of $3 a day and expenses. Until the +legislature abolished both the Board and the position, in 1842, he +rendered for Connecticut a service scarcely less important than the +better-known reforms which Horace Mann was at that time carrying on in +Massachusetts. + +[Illustration: PLATE 17. TWO LEADERS IN THE EDUCATIONAL AWAKENING IN THE +UNITED STATES. + +HORACE MANN (1796-1859) +(From the painting at the Westfield, Massachusetts, Normal School) + +HENRY BARNARD (1811-1900)] + +In 1843 he was called to Rhode Island to examine and report upon the +existing schools, and from 1845 to 1849 acted as State Commissioner of +Public Schools there, where he rendered a service similar to that +previously rendered in Connecticut. In addition he organized a series of +town libraries throughout the State. For his teachers' institutes he +devised a traveling model school, to give demonstration lessons in the art +of teaching. From 1851 to 1855 he was again in Connecticut, as principal +of the newly established state normal school and _ex-officio_ Secretary of +the Connecticut State Board of Education. He now rewrote the school laws, +increased taxation for schools, checked the power of the districts, there +known as "school societies," and laid the foundations of a state system of +schools. The work of Mann and Barnard had its influence throughout all the +Northern States, and encouraged the friends of education everywhere. +Almost contemporaneous with them were leaders in other States who helped +fight through the battles of state establishment and state organization +and control, and the period of their labors has since been termed the +period of the "great awakening." + + +V. THE BATTLE TO ELIMINATE SECTARIANISM + +THE SECULARIZATION OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. The Church, it will be +remembered, was from the earliest colonial times in possession of the +education of the young. Not only were the earliest schools controlled by +the Church and dominated by the religious motive, but the right of the +Church to dictate the teaching in the schools was clearly recognized by +the State. Still more, the State looked to the Church to provide the +necessary education, and assisted it in doing so by donations of land and +money. The minister, as a town official, naturally examined the teachers +and the instruction in the schools. After the establishment of the +National Government this relationship for a time continued. [10] New York +and the New England States specifically set aside lands to help both +church and school. After about 1800 these land endowments for religion +ceased, but grants of state aid for religious schools continued for nearly +a half-century longer. Then it became common for a town or city to build a +schoolhouse from city taxation, and let it out rent-free to any +responsible person who would conduct a tuition school in it, with a few +free places for selected poor children. Still later, with the rise of the +state schools, it became quite common to take over church and private +schools and aid them on the same basis as the new state schools. + +In colonial times, too, and for some decades into our national period, the +warmest advocates of the establishment of schools were those who had in +view the needs of the Church. Then gradually the emphasis shifted to the +needs of the State, and a new class of advocates of public education now +arose. Still later the emphasis has been shifted to industrial and civic +and national needs, and the religious aim has been almost completely +eliminated. This change is known as the secularization of American +education. It also required many a bitter struggle, and was accomplished +in the different States but slowly. The two great factors which served to +produce this change were: + + 1. The conviction that the life of the Republic demanded an educated + and intelligent citizenship, and hence the general education of all in + common schools controlled by the State; and + + 2. The great diversity of religious beliefs among the people, which + forced tolerance and religious freedom through a consideration of the + rights of minorities. + +The secularization of education must not be regarded either as a +deliberate or a wanton violation of the rights of the Church, but rather +as an unavoidable incident connected with the coming to self-consciousness +and self-government of a great people. + +THE FIGHT IN MASSACHUSETTS. The educational awakening in Massachusetts, +brought on largely by the work of Horace Mann, was to many a rude +awakening. Among other things, it revealed that the old school of the +Puritans had gradually been replaced by a new and purely American type of +school, with instruction adapted to democratic and national rather than +religious ends. Mr. Mann stood strongly for such a conception of public +education, and being a Unitarian, and the new State Board of Education +being almost entirely liberal in religion, an attack was launched against +them, and for the first time in our history the cry was raised that "The +public schools are Godless schools." Those who believed in the old system +of religious instruction, those who bore the Board or its Secretary +personal ill-will, and those who desired to break down the Board's +authority and stop the development of the public schools, united their +forces in this first big attack against secular education. Horace Mann was +the first prominent educator in America to meet and answer the religious +onslaught. + +A violent attack was opened in both the pulpit and the press. It was +claimed that the Board was trying to eliminate the Bible from the schools, +to abolish correction, and to "make the schools a counterpoise to +religious instruction at home and in Sabbath schools." The local right to +demand religious instruction was insisted upon. + +Mr. Mann felt that a great public issue had been raised which should be +answered carefully and fully. In three public statements he answered the +criticisms and pointed out the errors in the argument (R. 322). The Bible, +he said, was an invaluable book for forming the character of children, and +should be read without comment in the schools, but it was not necessary to +teach it there. He showed that most of the towns had given up the teaching +of the Catechism before the establishment of the Board of Education. He +contended that any attempt to decide what creed or doctrine should be +taught would mean the ruin of the schools. The attack culminated in the +attempts of the religious forces to abolish the State Board of Education, +in the legislatures of 1840 and 1841, which failed dismally. Most of the +orthodox people of the State took Mr. Mann's side, and Governor Briggs, in +one of his messages, commended his stand by inserting the following: + + Justice to a faithful public officer leads me to say that the + indefatigable and accomplished Secretary of the Board of Education has + performed services in the cause of common schools which will earn him + the lasting gratitude of the generation to which he belongs. + +THE ATTEMPT TO DIVIDE THE SCHOOL FUNDS. As was stated earlier, in the +beginning it was common to aid church schools on the same basis as the +state schools, and sometimes, in the beginnings of state aid, the money +was distributed among existing schools without at first establishing any +public schools. In many Eastern cities church schools at first shared in +the public funds. In Pennsylvania church and private schools were aided +from poor-law funds up to 1834. In New Jersey the first general school law +of 1829 had been repealed a year later through the united efforts of +church and private-school interests, who unitedly fought the development +of state schools, and in 1830 and 1831 new laws had permitted all private +and parochial schools to share in the small state appropriation for +education. + +After the beginning of the forties, when the Roman Catholic influence came +in strongly with the increase in Irish immigration to the United States, a +new factor was introduced and the problem, which had previously been a +Protestant problem, took on a somewhat different aspect in the form of a +demand for a division of the school funds. Between 1825 and 1842 the fight +was especially severe in New York City. In 1825 the City Council refused +to grant public money to any religious Society, [11] and in 1840 the +Catholics carried the matter to the State Legislature. + +The legislature deferred action until 1842, and then did the unexpected +thing. The heated discussion of the question in the city and in the +legislature had made it evident that, while it might not be desirable to +continue to give funds to a privately organized corporation, to divide +them among the quarreling and envious religious sects would be much worse. +The result was that the legislature created for the city a City Board of +Education, to establish real public schools, and stopped the debate on the +question of aid to religious schools by enacting that no portion of the +school funds was in the future to be given to any school in which "any +religious sectarian doctrine or tenet should be taught, inculcated, or +practiced." Thus the real public-school system of New York City was +evolved out of this attempt to divide the public funds among the churches. +The Public School Society continued for a time, but its work was now done, +and, in 1853, surrendered its buildings and property to the City Board of +Education and disbanded. + +THE CONTEST IN OTHER STATES. As early as 1830, Lowell, Massachusetts, had +granted aid to the Irish Catholic parochial schools in the city, and in +1835 had taken over two such schools and maintained them as public +schools. In 1853 the representatives of the Roman Catholic Church made a +demand on the state legislature for a division of the school fund of the +State. To settle the question once for all a constitutional amendment was +submitted by the legislature to the people, providing that all state and +town moneys raised or appropriated for education must be expended only on +regularly organized and conducted public schools, and that no religious +sect should ever share in such funds. This measure failed of adoption at +the election of 1853 by a vote of 65,111 for and 65,512 against, but was +re-proposed and adopted in 1855. This settled the question in +Massachusetts, as Mann had tried to settle it earlier, and as New +Hampshire had settled it in its constitution of 1792, Connecticut in its +constitution of 1818, and Rhode Island in its constitution of 1842. + +Other States now faced similar demands, but no demand for a share in or a +division of the public-school funds, after 1840, was successful. The +demand everywhere met with intense opposition, and with the coming of +enormous numbers of Irish Catholics after 1846, and German Lutherans after +1848, the question of the preservation of the schools just established as +unified state school systems now became a burning one. Petitions for a +division of the funds deluged the legislatures (R. 323), and these were +met by counter-petitions (R. 324). Mass meetings on both sides of the +question were held. Candidates for office were forced to declare +themselves. Anti-Catholic riots occurred in a number of cities. The +Native-American Party was formed, in 1841, "to prevent the union of Church +and State," and to "keep the Bible in the schools." In 1841 the Whig +Party, in New York, inserted a plank in its platform against sectarian +schools. In 1855 the national council of the Know-Nothing Party, meeting +in Philadelphia, in its platform favored public schools and the use of the +Bible therein, but opposed sectarian schools. This party carried the +elections that year in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode +Island, Maryland, and Kentucky. + +To settle the question in a final manner legislatures now began to propose +constitutional amendments to the people of their several States which +forbade a division or a diversion of the funds, and these were almost +uniformly adopted at the first election after being proposed. No State +admitted to the Union after 1858, except West Virginia, failed to insert +such a provision in its first state constitution. [12] + +VI. +THE BATTLE TO ESTABLISH THE AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL + +The elementary or common schools which had been established in the +different States, by 1850, supplied an elementary or common school +education to the children of the masses of the people, and the primary +schools which were added, after about 1820, carried this education +downward to the needs of the beginners. In the rural schools the American +school of the 3 Rs provided for all the children, from the little ones up, +so long as they could advantageously partake of its instruction. Education +in advance of this common school training was in semi-private +institutions--the academies and colleges--in which a tuition fee was +charged. The next struggle came in the attempt to extend the system upward +so as to provide to pupils, free of charge, a more complete education than +the common schools afforded. + +[Illustration: FIG. 204. A TYPICAL NEW ENGLAND ACADEMY +Pittsfield Academy, New Hampshire.] + +THE TRANSITION ACADEMY. About the middle of the eighteenth century a +tendency manifested itself, in Europe as well as in America, to establish +higher schools offering a more practical curriculum than the old Latin +schools had provided. In America it became particularly evident, after the +coming of nationality, that the old Latin grammar-school type of +instruction, with its limited curriculum and exclusively college- +preparatory ends, was wholly inadequate for the needs of the youth of the +land. The result was the gradual dying-out of the Latin school and the +evolution of the tuition Academy, previously referred to briefly on page +463. + +The academy movement spread rapidly during the first half of the +nineteenth century. By 1800 there were 17 academies in Massachusetts, 36 +by 1820, and 403 by 1850. By 1830 there were, according to Hinsdale, 950 +incorporated academies in the United States, and many unincorporated ones, +and by 1850, according to Inglis, there were, of all kinds, 1007 academies +in New England, 1636 in the Middle Atlantic States, 2640 in the Southern +States, 753 in the Upper Mississippi Valley States, and a total reported +for the entire United States of 6085, with 12,260 teachers employed and +263,096 pupils enrolled. [13] + +The greatest period of their development was from 1820 to 1830, though +they continued to dominate secondary education until 1850, and were very +prominent until after the Civil War. + +CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES. The most characteristic features of these +academies were their semi-public control (R. 325), their broadened +curriculum and religious purpose, and the extension of their instruction +to girls. The Latin Grammar School was essentially a town free school, +maintained by the towns for the higher education of certain of their male +children. It was aristocratic in type, and belonged to the early period of +class education. With the decline in zeal for education, after 1750, these +tax-supported higher schools largely died out, and in their place private +energy and benevolence came to be depended upon to supply the needed +higher education. + +One of the main purposes expressed in the endowment or creation of the +academies was the establishment of courses which should cover a number of +subjects having value aside from mere preparation for college, +particularly subjects of a modern nature, useful in preparing youths for +the changed conditions of society and government and business. The study +of real things rather than words about things, and useful things rather +than subjects merely preparatory to college, became prominent features of +the new courses of study. Among the most commonly found new subjects were +algebra, astronomy, botany, chemistry, general history, United States +history, English literature, surveying, intellectual philosophy, +declamation, and debating. [14] + +Not being bound up with the colleges, as the earlier Latin grammar schools +had largely been, the academies became primarily independent institutions, +taking pupils who had completed the English education of the common school +and giving them an advanced education in modern languages, the sciences, +mathematics, history, and the more useful subjects of the time, with a +view to "rounding out" their studies and preparing them for business life +and the rising professions. They thus built upon instead of running +parallel to the common school course, as the old Latin grammar school had +done (see Figure 198, p. 666) and hence clearly mark a transition from the +aristocratic and somewhat exclusive college-preparatory Latin grammar +school of colonial times to the more democratic high school of to-day. The +academies also served a very useful purpose in supplying to the lower +schools the best-educated teachers of the time. + +The old Latin grammar school, too, had been maintained exclusively for +boys. Girls had been excluded as "Improper & inconsistent w'th such a +Grammar Schoole as ye law injoines, and is ye Designe of this Settlem't." +The new academies soon reversed this situation. Almost from the first they +began to be established for girls as well as boys, and in time many became +co-educational. In New York State alone 32 academies were incorporated +between 1819 and 1853 with the prefix "Female" to their title. In this +respect, also, these institutions formed a transition to the modern co- +educational high school. The higher education of women in the United +States clearly dates from the establishment of the academies. Troy (New +York) Seminary, founded by Emma Willard, in 1821, and Mt. Holyoke +(Massachusetts) Seminary, founded by Mary Lyon, in 1836, though not the +first institutions for girls, were nevertheless important pioneers in the +higher education of women. + +THE DEMAND FOR HIGHER SCHOOLS. The different movements tending toward the +building-up of free public-school systems in the cities and States, which +we have described in this and the preceding chapter, and which became +clearly defined in the Northern States after 1825, came just at the time +when the Academy had reached its maximum development. The settlement of +the question of general taxation for education, the elimination of the +rate-bill by the cities and later by the States, the establishment of the +American common school as the result of a long native evolution, and the +complete establishment of public control over the entire elementary-school +system, all tended to bring the semi-private tuition academy into +question. Many asked why not extend the public-school system upward to +provide the necessary higher education for all in one common state- +supported school. [15] + +The demand for an upward extension of the public school, which would +provide academy instruction for the poor as well as the rich, and in one +common public higher school, now made itself felt. As the colonial Latin +grammar school had represented the educational needs of a society based on +classes, and the academies had represented a transition period and marked +the growth of a middle class, so the rising democracy of the second +quarter of the nineteenth century now demanded and obtained the democratic +high school, supported by the public and equally open to all, to meet the +educational needs of a new society built on the basis of a new and +aggressive democracy. Where, too, the academy had represented in a way a +missionary effort--that of a few providing something for the good of the +people (Rs. 319, 325)--the high school on the other hand represented a +coöperative effort on the part of the people to provide something for +themselves. + +[Illustration: FIG. 205. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE +UNITED STATES +The transitional character of the Academy is well shown in this diagram.] + +THE FIRST AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL. The first high school in the United States +was established in Boston, in 1821 (R. 326). For three years it was known +as the "English Classical School" (R. 327), but in 1824 the school +appears in the records as the "English High School." In 1826 Boston also +opened the first high school for girls, but abolished it in 1828, due to +its great popularity, and instead extended the course of study for girls +in the elementary schools. + +[Illustration: FIG. 206 THE FIRST HIGH SCHOOL IN THE UNITED STATES +Established at Boston in 1821.] + +THE MASSACHUSETTS LAW OF 1827. Though Portland, Maine, established a high +school in 1821, Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1824, and New Bedford, +Haverhill, and Salem, Massachusetts, in 1827, copying the Boston idea, the +real beginning of the American high school as a distinct institution dates +from the Massachusetts Law of 1827 (R. 328), enacted through the influence +of James G. Carter. This law formed the basis of all subsequent +legislation in Massachusetts, and deeply influenced development in other +States. The law is significant in that it required a high school in every +town having 500 families or over, in which should be taught United States +history, bookkeeping, algebra, geometry, and surveying, while in every +town having 4000 inhabitants or over, instruction in Greek, Latin, +history, rhetoric, and logic must be added. A heavy penalty was attached +for failure to comply with the law. In 1835 the law was amended so as to +permit any smaller town to form a high school as well. + +This Boston and Massachusetts legislation clearly initiated the public +high-school movement in the United States. It was there that the new type +of higher school was founded, there that its curriculum was outlined, +there that its standards were established, and there that it developed +earliest and best. + +THE STRUGGLE TO ESTABLISH AND MAINTAIN HIGH SCHOOLS. The development of +the American high school, even in its home, was slow. Up to 1840 not much +more than a dozen high schools had been established in Massachusetts, and +not more than an equal number in the other States. The Academy was the +dominant institution, the cost of maintenance was a factor, and the same +opposition to an extension of taxation to include high schools was +manifested as was earlier shown toward the establishment of common +schools. The early state legislation, as had been the case with the common +schools, was nearly always permissive and not mandatory. Massachusetts +forms a notable exception in this regard. The support for the schools had +to come practically entirely from increased local taxation, and this made +the struggle to establish and maintain high schools in any State for a +long time a series of local struggles. Years of propaganda and patient +effort were required, and, after the establishment of a high school in a +community, constant watchfulness was necessary to prevent its abandonment +(R. 329). + +[Illustration: FIG. 207. HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES BY 1860 +Based on the table given in the _Report of the United States Commissioner +of Education_, 1904, vol. II, pp. 1782-1989. This table is only +approximately correct, as exact information is difficult to obtain. This +table gives 321 high schools by 1860, and all but 35 of these were in the +States shown on the above map. There were two schools in California and +three in Texas, and the remainder not shown were in the Southern States. +Of the 321 high schools reported, over half (167) were in the three States +of Massachusetts (78), New York (41), and Ohio (48).] + +In many States, legislation providing for the establishment of high +schools was attacked in the courts. One of the clearest cases of this came +in Michigan, in a test case appealed from the city of Kalamazoo, and +commonly known as the Kalamazoo case. The opinion of the Supreme Court of +the State (R. 330) was so favorable and so positive that this decision +deeply influenced development in almost all of the Upper Mississippi +Valley States. The struggle to establish and maintain high schools in +Massachusetts and New York preceded the development in most other States, +because there the common school had been established earlier. In +consequence, the struggle to extend and complete the public-school system +came there earlier also. The development was likewise more peaceful there, +and came more rapidly. In Massachusetts this was in large part a result of +the educational awakening started by James G. Carter and Horace Mann. In +New York it was due to the early support of Governor De Witt Clinton, and +the later encouragement and state aid which came from the Regents of the +University of the State of New York. Maine, Vermont, and New Hampshire +were like Massachusetts in spirit, and followed closely its example. In +Rhode Island and New Jersey, due to old conditions, and in Connecticut, +due to the great decline in education there after 1800, the high school +developed much more slowly, and it was not until after 1865 that any +marked development took place in these States. The democratic West soon +adopted the idea, and established high schools as soon as cities developed +and the needs of the population warranted. In the South the main high- +school development dates from relatively recent times. + +Gradually the high school has been accepted as a part of the state common- +school system by all the American States, and the funds and taxation +originally provided for the common schools have been extended to cover the +high school as well. The new States of the West have based their +legislation largely on what the Eastern and Central States earlier fought +out. + + +VII. THE STATE UNIVERSITY CROWNS THE SYSTEM + +THE COLONIAL COLLEGES. The earlier colleges--Harvard, William and Mary, +Yale--had been created by the religious-state governments of the earlier +colonial period, and continued to retain some state connections for a time +after the coming of nationality. As it early became evident that a +democracy demands intelligence on the part of its citizens, that the +leaders of democracy are not likely to be too highly educated, and that +the character of collegiate instruction must ultimately influence national +development, efforts were accordingly made to change the old colleges or +create new ones, the final outcome of which was the creation of state +universities in all the new and in most of the older States. The evolution +of the state university, as the crowning head of the free public school +system of the State, represents the last phase which we shall trace of the +struggle of democracy to create a system of schools suited to its peculiar +needs. + +The close of the colonial period found the Colonies possessed of nine +colleges. These, with the dates of their foundation, the Colony founding +them, and the religious denomination they chiefly represented were: + + 1636. Harvard College Massachusetts Puritan + 1693. William and Mary Virginia Anglican + 1701. Yale College Connecticut Congregational + 1746. Princeton New Jersey Presbyterian + 1753-55 Academy and College Pennsylvania Non-denominational + 1754. King's College (Columbia) New York Anglican + 1764. Brown Rhode Island Baptist + 1765. Rutgers New Jersey Reformed Dutch + 1769. Dartmouth New Hampshire Congregational + +The religious purpose had been dominant in the founding of each +institution, though there was a gradual shading-off in strict +denominational control and insistence upon religious conformity in the +foundations after 1750. Still the prime purpose in the founding of each +was to train up a learned and godly body of ministers, the earlier +congregations at least "dreading to leave an illiterate ministry to the +churches when our present ministers shall lie in the dust." In a pamphlet, +published in 1754, President Clap of Yale declared that "Colleges are +_Societies of Ministers_, for training up Persons for the Work of the +_Ministry_" and that "The great design of founding this School (Yale), was +to Educate Ministers in our _own Way_." In the advertisement published in +the New York papers announcing the opening of King's College, in 1754, it +was stated that: + + IV. The chief Thing that is aimed at in this College, is, to teach and + engage the Children _to know God in Jesus Christ_, and to love + and serve him in all _Sobriety, Godliness_, and _Richness of + Life_, with a perfect Heart and a Willing Mind: and to train them + up in all Virtuous Habits, and all such useful Knowledge as may render + them creditable to their Families and Friends, Ornaments to their + Country, and useful to the Public Weal in their generation. + +These colonial institutions were all small. For the first fifty years of +Harvard's history the attendance at the college seldom exceeded twenty, +and the President did all the teaching. The first assistant teacher +(tutor) was not appointed until 1699, and the first professor not until +1721, when a professorship of divinity was endowed. By 1800 the +instruction was conducted by the President and three professors--divinity, +mathematics, and "Oriental languages"--assisted by a few tutors who +received only class fees, and the graduating classes seldom exceeded +forty. The course was four years in length, and all students studied the +same subjects. The first three years were given largely to the so-called +"Oriental languages" Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. In addition, Freshmen +studied arithmetic; Sophomores, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry; and +Juniors, natural (book) science; and all were given much training in +oratory, and some general history was added. The Senior year was given +mainly to ethics, philosophy, and Christian evidences. [16] The +instruction in the eight other older colleges, before 1800, was not +materially different. + +[Illustration: FIG. 208. COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES ESTABLISHED BY 1860 +Compiled from data given in the _Reports of the United States Commissioner +of Education_. Of the 246 colleges shown on the map, but 17 were state +institutions, and but two or three others had any state connections.] + +GROWTH OF COLLEGES BY 1860. Fifteen additional colleges were founded +before 1800, and it has been estimated that by that date the two dozen +American colleges then existing did not have all told over one hundred +professors and instructors, not less than one thousand nor more than two +thousand students, or property worth over one million dollars. Their +graduating classes were small. No one of the twenty-four admitted women +in any way to its privileges. After 1820, with the firmer establishment +of the Nation, the awakening of a new national consciousness, the +development of larger national wealth, and a court decision which +safeguarded the endowments, interest in the founding of new colleges +perceptibly quickened, as may be seen from the adjoining table, and +between 1820 and 1880 came the great period of denominational effort. The +map shows the colleges established by 1860, from which it will be seen how +large a part the denominational colleges played in the early history of +higher education in the United States. Up to about 1870 the provision of +higher education, as had been the case earlier with the provision of +secondary education by the academies, had been left largely to private +effort. There were, to be sure, a few state universities before 1870, +though usually these were not better than the denominational colleges +around them, and often they maintained a non-denominational character only +by preserving a proper balance between the different denominations in the +employment of their faculties. Speaking generally, higher education in the +United States before 1870 was provided very largely in the tuitional +colleges of the different religious denominations, rather than by the +State. Of the 246 colleges founded by the close of the year 1860, as shown +on the map, but 17 were state institutions, and but two or three others +had any state connections. + + COLLEGES FOUNDED UP TO 1900 + + Before 1780 10 + 1780-89 7 + 1790-99 7 + 1800-09 9 + 1810-19 5 + 1820-29 22 + 1830-39 38 + 1840-49 42 + 1850-59 92 + 1860-69 73 + 1870-79 61 + 1880-89 74 + 1890-99 54 + --- + Total 494 + + (After a table by Dexter corrected by U.S. Comr. Educ. data. Only + approximately correct.) + +THE NEW NATIONAL ATTITUDE TOWARD THE COLLEGES. After the coming of +nationality there gradually grew up a widespread dissatisfaction with the +colleges as then conducted, because they were aristocratic in tendency, +because they devoted themselves so exclusively to the needs of a class, +and because they failed to answer the needs of the States in the matter of +higher education. Due to their religious origin, and the common +requirement that the president and trustees must be members of some +particular denomination, they were naturally regarded as representing the +interests of some one sect or faction within the State rather than the +interests of the State itself. With the rise of the new democratic spirit +after about 1820 there came a demand, felt least in New England and most +in the South and the new States in the West, for institutions of higher +learning which should represent the State. It was argued that colleges +were important instrumentalities for moulding the future, that the kind of +education given in them must ultimately influence the welfare of the +State, and that higher education cannot be regarded as a private matter. +The type of education given in these higher institutions, it was argued, +"will appear on the bench, at the bar, in the pulpit, and in the senate, +and will unavoidably affect our civil and religious principles." For these +reasons, as well as to crown our state school system and to provide higher +educational advantages for its leaders, it was argued that the State +should exercise control over the colleges. + +This new national spirit manifested itself in a number of ways. In New +York we see it in the reorganization of King's College, the rechristening +of the institution as Columbia, and the placing of it under at least the +nominal supervision of the governing educational body of the State. In +Pennsylvania an attempt was made to bring the university into closer +connection with the State, but this failed. In New Hampshire the +legislature tried, in 1816, to transform Dartmouth College into a state +institution. This act was contested in the courts, and the case was +finally carried to the Supreme Court of the United States. There it was +decided, in 1819, that the charter of a college was a contract, the +obligation of which a legislature could not impair. + +EFFECT OF THE DARTMOUTH COLLEGE DECISION. The effect of this decision +manifested itself in two different ways. On the one hand it guaranteed the +perpetuity of endowments, and the great period of private and +denominational effort (see table) now followed. On the other hand, since +the States could not change charters and transform old establishments, +they began to turn to the creation of new state universities of their own. +Virginia created its state university the same year as the Dartmouth case +decision. The University of North Carolina, which had been established in +1789, and which began to give instruction in 1795, but which had never +been under direct state control, was taken over by the State in 1821. The +University of Vermont, originally chartered in 1791, was rechartered as a +state university in 1838. The University of Indiana was established in +1820. Alabama provided for a state university in its first constitution, +in 1819, and the institution opened for instruction in 1831. Michigan, in +framing its first constitution preparatory to entering the Union, in 1835, +made careful provisions for the safeguarding of the state university and +for establishing it as an integral part of its state school system, as +Indiana had done in 1816. Wisconsin provided for the creation of a state +university in 1836, and embodied the idea in its first constitution when +it entered the Union in 1848, and Missouri provided for a state university +in 1839, Mississippi in 1844, Iowa in 1847, and Florida in 1856. The state +university is today found in every "new" State and in some of the +"original" States, and practically every new Western and Southern State +followed the patterns set by Indiana, Michigan, and Wisconsin and made +careful provision for the establishment and maintenance of a state +university in its first state constitution. + +There was thus quietly added another new section to the American +educational ladder, and the free public-school system was extended farther +upward. Though the great period of state university foundation came after +1860, and the great period of state university expansion after 1885, the +beginnings were clearly marked early in our national history. Of the +sixteen States having state universities by 1860 (see Figure 208), all +except Florida had established them before 1850. For a long time small, +poorly supported by the States, much like the church colleges about them +in character and often inferior in quality, one by one the state +universities have freed themselves alike from denominational restrictions +on the one hand and political control on the other, and have set about +rendering the service to the State which a state university ought to +render. Michigan, the first of our state universities to free itself, take +its proper place, and set an example for others to follow, opened in 1841 +with two professors and six students. In 1844 it was a little institution +of three professors, one tutor, one assistant, and one visiting lecturer, +had but fifty-three students, and offered but a single course of study, +consisting chiefly of Greek, Latin, mathematics, and intellectual and +moral science (R. 331). As late as 1852 it had but seventy-two students, +but by 1860, when it had largely freed itself from the incubus of Baptist +Latin, Congregational Greek, Methodist intellectual philosophy, +Presbyterian astronomy, and Whig mathematics, and its remarkable growth as +a state university had begun, it enrolled five hundred and nineteen. + +THE AMERICAN FREE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM NOW ESTABLISHED. By the close of +the second quarter of the nineteenth century, certainly by 1860, we find +the American public-school system fully established, in principle at +least, in all our Northern States (R. 332). Much yet remained to be done +to carry into full effect what had been established in principle, but +everywhere democracy had won its fight, and the American public school, +supported by general taxation, freed from the pauper-school taint, free +and equally open to all, under the direction of representatives of the +people, free from sectarian control, and complete from the primary school +through the high school, and in the Western States through the university +as well, was established permanently in American public policy. It was a +real democratic educational ladder that had been created, and not the +typical two-class school system of continental European States. The +establishment of the free public high school and the state university +represent the crowning achievements of those who struggled to found a +state-supported educational system fitted to the needs of great democratic +States. Probably no other influences have done more to unify the American +People, reconcile diverse points of view, eliminate state jealousies, set +ideals for the people, and train leaders for the service of the States and +of the Nation than the academies, high schools, and colleges scattered +over the land. They have educated but a small percentage of the people, to +be sure, but they have trained most of the leaders who have guided the +American democracy since its birth. + +[Illustration: FIG. 209. THE AMERICAN EDUCATIONAL LADDER +Compare this with the figure on page 577, and the democratic nature of the +American school system will be apparent.] + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Explain the theory of "vested rights" as applied to private and +parochial schools. + +2. Does every great advance in provisions for human welfare require a +period of education and propaganda? Illustrate. + +3. Explain just what is meant by "the wealth of the State must educate the +children of the State." + +4. Show how the retention of the pauper-school idea would have been +dangerous to the life of the Republic. + +5. Why were the cities more anxious to escape from the operation of the +pauper-school law than were the towns and rural districts? + +6. Why were the pauper-school and the rate-bill so hard to eliminate? + +7. Explain why, in America, schools naturally developed from the community +outward. + +8. State your explanation for the older States beginning to establish +permanent school funds, often before they had established a state system +of schools. + +9. Show the gradual transition from church control of education, through +state aid of church schools, to secularized state schools. + +10. Show why secularized state schools were the only possible solution for +the United States. + +11. Show that secularization would naturally take place in the textbooks +and the instruction, before manifesting itself in the laws. + +12. Show how the American academy was a natural development in the +national life. + +13. Show how the American high school was a natural development after the +academy. + +14. Show why the high school could be opposed by men who had accepted tax- +supported elementary schools. Why has such reasoning been abandoned now? + +15. Explain the difference, and illustrate from the history of American +educational development, between establishing a thing in principle and +carrying it into full effect. + +16. Was the early argument as to the influence of higher education on the +State a true argument? Why? + +17. What would have been the probable results had the Dartmouth College +case been decided the other way? + +18. Show how the opening of collegiate instruction to women was a phase of +the new democratic movement. + +19. Show how college education has been a unifying force in the national +life. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following illustrative +selections are reproduced: + + 316. Mann: The Ground of the Free-School System. + 317. Governor Cleveland: Repeal of the Connecticut School Law. + 318. Mann: On the Repeal of the Connecticut School Law. + 319. Gulliver: The Struggle for Free Schools in Norwich. + 320. Address: The State and Education. + 321. Michigan: A Rate-Bill, and a Warrant for Collection. + 322. Mann: On Religious Instruction in the Schools. + 323. Michigan: Petition for a Division of the School Fund. + 324. Michigan: Counter-Petition against a Division. + 325. Connecticut: Act of Incorporation of Norwich Free Academy, + 326. Boston: Establishment of the First American High School. + 327. Boston: The Secondary-School System in 1823. + 328. Massachusetts: The High School Law of 1827. + 329. Gulliver: An Example of the Opposition to High Schools. + 330. Michigan: The Kalamazoo Decision. + 331. Michigan: Program of Studies at University, 1843. + 332. Tappan: The Michigan State System of Public Instruction. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Do Mann's three propositions (316) hold equally true to-day? + +2. Of what type of person is the reasoning of Governor Cleveland (317) +typical? + +3. Assuming Mann's description of Connecticut progress (318) to be +correct, how do you account for the legislature following Governor +Cleveland's recommendations so readily? + +4. Did the leaders in Norwich (319) use good diplomacy? + +5. Point out the essential soundness of the reasoning of the New Jersey +Report (320). + +6. Explain the willingness of people seventy-five years ago to conduct the +school business on such a small basis (321) as the rate-bill indicates. + +7. Show that, as Mr. Mann points out (322), sectarian schools and a State +Church are near together. + +8. Point out the weakness in the argument in the Michigan petition (323). + +9. State the purpose and nature of the first American high school (326), +and contrast it with the earlier academy. + +10. Contrast the English Classical School (High School) of Boston of 1823, +with the older Latin School (327), as to purpose and instruction. + +11. Just what did the Massachusetts Law of 1827 (328) require? + +12. Has such opposition as that described in 329 completely died out even +now? + +13. State the line of reasoning and the conclusions of the Court in the +Kalamazoo Case (330). Point out how this decision might influence +development elsewhere. + +14. Compare the University of Michigan of 1843 (331) with a present-day +high school. + +15. Show that Michigan (332) had perfected an American educational ladder. + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + +* Brown, E. E. _The Making of our Middle Schools_. +* Brown, S. W. _The Secularization of American Education_. + Cubberley, E. P. _Public Education in the United States_. + Dexter, E. G. _A History of Education in the United States_. +* Hinsdale, B. A. _Horace Mann, and the Common School Revival in the + United States_. +* Inglis, A. J. _The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts_. + Martin, George H. _The Evolution of the Massachusetts Public School + System_. +* Mead, A. R. _The Development of Free Schools in the United States, as + Illustrated by Connecticut and Michigan_. + Taylor, James M. _Before Vassar Opened_. +* Thwing, Charles F. _A History of Higher Education in America_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +EDUCATION BECOMES A NATIONAL TOOL + + +I. SPREAD OF THE STATE-CONTROL IDEA + +THE FIVE TYPE NATIONS. We have now traced, in some detail, the struggles +of forward-looking men to establish national systems of education in five +great world nations. In each we have described the steps by means of which +the State gradually superseded the Church in the control of education, and +the motives and impulses which finally led the State to take over the +school as a function of the State. The steps and impelling motives and +rate of transfer were not the same in any two nations, but in each of the +five the political necessities of the State in time made the transfer seem +desirable. Time everywhere was required to effect the change. The movement +began earliest and was concluded earliest in the German States, and was +concluded last in England. In the German States, France, and Italy the +change came rapidly and as a result of legislative acts or imperial +decrees. In England and the United States the transfer took place, as we +have seen, only in response to the slow development of public opinion. + +This change in control and extension of educational advantages was +essentially a nineteenth-century movement, and a resultant of the new +political philosophy and the democratic revolutions of the later +eighteenth century, combined with the industrial revolution of the +nineteenth century. A new political impulse now replaced the earlier +religious motive as the incentive for education, and education for +literacy and citizenship became, during the nineteenth century, a new +political ideal that has, in time, spread to progressive nations all over +the world. + +The five great nations whose educational evolution has been described in +the preceding chapters may be regarded as having formed types which have +since been copied, in more or less detail, by the more progressive nations +in different parts of the world. The continental European two-class school +system, the American educational ladder, and the English tendency to +combine the two and use the best parts of each, have been reproduced in +the different national educational systems which have been created by the +various political governments of the world. The continental European idea +of a centralized ministry for education, with an appointed head or a +cabinet minister in control, has also been widely copied. The Prussian +two-class plan has been most influential among the Teutonic and Slavic +peoples of Europe, and has also deeply influenced educational development +among the Japanese; English ideas have been extensively copied in the +English self-governing dominions; and the American plan has been clearly +influential in Canada, the Argentine, and in China. The French centralized +plan for organization and administration has been widely copied in the +state educational organizations of the Latin nations of Europe and South +America. In a general way it may be stated that the more democratic the +government of a nation has become the greater has been the tendency to +break away from the two-class school system, to introduce more of an +educational ladder, and to bring in more of the English conception of +granting to localities a reasonable amount of local liberty in educational +affairs. + +SPREAD OF THE STATE CONTROL IDEA AMONG NORTHERN NATIONS. The development +of schools under the control of the government, and the extension of state +supervision to the existing religious schools, took place in the different +cantons of Switzerland, and in Holland, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, +somewhat contemporaneously with the development described for the five +type nations. The work of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg, and of their +disciples and followers, had given an early impetus to the establishment +of schools and teacher-training in the Swiss cantons, most being done in +the German-speaking portions. + +In Holland, where the Reformation zeal for schools largely died out in the +eighteenth century, the organization of the "Society of Public Good," in +1784, by a Mennonite clergyman, did much to awaken a new interest in +schools for the people and to inaugurate a new movement for educational +organization. In 1795 a revolution took place in Holland, a republic was +established, and the extension of educational advantages followed. From +1806 to 1815 Holland was under the rule of Napoleon. A school law of 1806 +forms the basis of public education in Holland. This asserted the +supremacy of the State in education, and provided for state inspection of +schools. In 1812 the French scientist, M. Cuvier, reported to Napoleon +that there were 4451 schools in little Holland, and that one tenth of the +total population was in school. In 1816 a normal school was established at +Haarlem. Both the constitutions of 1815 and 1848 provided for state +control of education, which has been steadily extended since the beginning +of the revival in 1784. Today Holland provides a good system of public +instruction for its people. + +[Illustration: Fig. 210. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF DENMARK] + +In Denmark and Sweden the development of state schools has been worked +out, much as in England, in coöperation with the Church, and the Church +still assists the State in the administration and supervision of the +school systems which were eventually evolved. In each of these countries, +too, the continental two-class school system has been somewhat modified by +an upward movement of the transfer point between the two and the +development of people's high schools, so as to produce a more democratic +type of school and afford better educational opportunities to all classes +of the population. The annexed diagram, showing the organization of +education in Denmark, is typical of this modification and extension. + +Finland should also be classed with these northern nations in matters of +educational development. Lutheran ideas as to religion and the need for +education took deep hold there at an early date (p. 297). A knowledge of +reading and the Catechism was made necessary for confirmation as early as +1686, and democratic ideas also found an early home among this people. In +consequence the Finns have for long been a literate people. The law making +elementary education a function of the State, however, dates only from +1866, and secondary education was taken over from the ecclesiastical +authorities only in 1872. + +Similarly, Scotland, another northern nation, began schools as a phase of +its Reformation fervor. During the eighteenth century the parish schools, +created by the Acts of 1646 (R. 179; p. 335) and 1696, proved +insufficient, and voluntary schools were added to supplement them. +Together these insured for Scotland a much higher degree of literacy than +was the case in England. The final state organization of education in +Scotland dates from the Scottish Education Act of 1872. + +[Illustration: FIG. 211. THE PROGRESS OF LITERACY IN EUROPE BY THE CLOSE +OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY] + +The map reproduced here, showing the progress of general education by the +close of the nineteenth century, as measured by the spread of the ability +to read and write, reveals at a glance the high degree of literacy of the +northern Teutonic and mixed Teutonic nations. It was among these nations +that the Protestant Reformation ideas made the deepest impression; it was +in these northern States that the Protestant elementary vernacular school, +to teach reading and religion, attained its earliest start; it was there +that the school was taken over from the Church and erected into an +effective national instrument at an early date; and it was these nations +which had been most successful, by the close of the nineteenth century, in +extending the elements of education to all and thus producing literate +populations. + +THE STATE-CONTROL IDEA IN THE SOUTH AND EAST OF EUROPE. As we pass to the +south and east of Europe we pass not only to lands which remained loyal to +the Roman Church, or are adherents of the Greek Church, and hence did not +experience the Reformation fervor with its accompanying zeal for +education, but also to lands untouched by the French-Revolution movement +and where democratic ideas have only recently begun to make any progress. +Greece alone forms an exception to this statement, a constitutional +government having been established there in 1843. Removed from the main +stream of European civilization, these nations have been influenced less +by modern forces; the hold of the Church on the education of the young has +there been longest retained; and the taking-over of education by the State +has there been longest deferred. In consequence, the schools provided have +for long been inadequate both in number and scope, and the progress of +literacy and democratic ideas among the people has been slow. + +Despite the beginnings made by Maria Theresa (p. 475) in the late +eighteenth century, Austria dropped backward to a low place in matters of +education during the period of reaction following the Napoleonic wars, and +the real beginnings of state elementary-schools there date from the law of +1867. The beginnings in Hungary date from 1868. The beginnings of other +state elementary school systems are: Greece, 1823; Portugal, 1844; Spain, +1857; Roumania, 1859; Bulgaria, 1881; and Serbia, 1882. In many of these +States, despite early beginnings, but little real progress has even yet +been made in developing systems of national education that will provide +gratuitous elementary-school training for all and inculcate the national +spirit. In many of these States the illiteracy of the people is still +high, [1] the people are poor, the nations are economically backward, the +military and clerical classes still dominate, and intelligent and +interested governments have not as yet been evolved. + +In Russia, though Catherine II and her successors made earnest efforts to +begin a system of state education, the period following Napoleon was one +of extreme repressive reaction. The military class and the clergy of the +Greek Church joined hands in a government interested in keeping the people +submissive and devout. In consequence, at the time of the emancipation of +the serfs, in 1861, it was estimated that not one per cent of the total +population of Russia was then under instruction, and the ratio of +illiteracy by the close of the nineteenth century was the highest in +Europe outside of Spain, Portugal, and the Balkan States. + +THE STATE-CONTROL IDEA IN THE ENGLISH SELF-GOVERNING DOMINIONS. The +English and French settlers in Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritime Provinces +of Canada brought the English and French parochial-school ideas from their +home-lands with them, but these home conceptions were materially modified, +at an early date, by settlers from the northern States of the American +Union. These introduced the New England idea of state control and public +responsibility for education. In part copying precedents recently +established in the new American States, as an outcome of the struggles +there to establish free, tax-supported, and state-controlled schools, both +Ontario and Quebec early began the establishment of state systems of +education for their people. A superintendent of education was appointed in +Ontario in 1844, and the Common School Act of 1846 laid the foundation of +the state school system of the Province. In the law of 1871 a system of +uniform, free, compulsory, and state-inspected schools was definitely +provided for. Quebec, in 1845, made the ecclesiastical parish the unit for +school administration; in 1852 appointed government inspectors for the +church schools; and in 1859 provided for a Council of Public Instruction +to control all schools in the Province. The Dominion Act of 1867 left +education, as in the United States, to the several Provinces to control, +and state systems of education, though with large liberty in religious +instruction, or the incorporation of the religious schools into the state +school systems, have since been erected in all the Canadian Provinces. +Following American precedents, too, a thoroughly democratic educational +ladder has almost everywhere been created, substantially like that shown +in the Figure on page 708. + +In Australia and New Zealand education has similarly been left to the +different States to handle, but a state centralized control has been +provided there which is more akin to French practice than to English +ideas. In each State, primary education has been made free, compulsory, +secular, and state-supported. The laws making such provision in the +different States date from 1872, in Victoria; 1875, in Queensland; 1878, +in South Australia, West Australia, and New Zealand; and 1880, in New +South Wales. Secondary education has not as yet been made free, and many +excellent privately endowed or fee-supported secondary schools, after the +English plan, are found in the different States. + +In the new Union of South Africa all university education has been taken +over by the Union, while the existing school systems of the different +States are rapidly being taken over and expanded by the state governments, +and transformed into constructive instruments of the States. + +THE STATE-CONTROL IDEA IN THE SOUTH AMERICAN STATES. As we have seen in +Chapter XX, the spirit of nationality awakened by the French Revolution +spread to South America, and between 1815 and 1821 all of Spain's South +American colonies revolted, declared their independence from the mother +country, and set up constitutional republics. Brazil, in 1822, in a +similar manner severed its connections from Portugal. The United States, +through the Monroe Doctrine (1823), helped these new States to maintain +their independence. For approximately half a century these States, +isolated as they were and engaged in a long and difficult struggle to +evolve stable forms of government, left such education as was provided to +private individuals and societies and to the missionaries and teaching +orders of the Roman Church. After the middle of the nineteenth century, +the new forces stirring in the modern world began to be felt in South +America as well, and, after about 1870, a well-defined movement to +establish state school systems began to be in evidence. + +The Argentine constitution of 1853 had directed the establishment of +primary schools by the State, but nothing of importance was done until +after the election of Dr. Sarmiento as President, in 1868. Under his +influence an American-type normal school was established, teachers were +imported from the United States, and liberal appropriations for education +were begun. In 1873 a general system of national aid for primary education +was established, and in 1884 a new law laid the basis of the present state +school system. Though some earlier beginnings had been made in some of the +other South American nations, Argentine is regarded as the leader in +education among them. This is largely due to the democratic nature of the +government which, in connection with the deep interest in education of +President Sarmiento, [2] found educational expression in the creation of +an American-type educational ladder, as the accompanying diagram shows. +Large emphasis has been placed on scientific and practical studies in the +secondary _colegios_. The normal school has been given large importance, +and made a parallel and connecting link in the educational ladder between +the primary schools and the universities. The Argentine school system, +probably due to American influences acting through President Sarmiento, +forms an exception to the usual South American state school system, as +nearly all the other States have followed the French model and created a +European two-class school system. + +[Illustration: FIG. 212. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC] + +In Chili, the constitution of 1833 declared education to be of supreme +importance, and a normal school was established in Santiago, as early as +1840. The basic law for the organization of a state system of primary +instruction, however, dates from 1860, and the law organizing a state +system of secondary and higher education from 1872. + +In Peru, an educational reform movement was inaugurated in 1876, but the +war with Chili (1879-84) checked all progress. In 1896 an Educational +Commission was appointed to visit the United States and Europe, and the +law of 1901 marked the creation of a ministry for education and the real +beginnings of a state school system. + +The Brazilian constitution of 1824 left education to the several States +(twenty and one Federal District), and a permissive law of 1827 allowed +the different States to establish schools. It was not until 1854, however, +that public schools were organized in the Federal District, and these mark +the real beginning of state education in Brazil. Since then the +establishment of state schools has gradually extended to the coast States, +and inland with the building of railway lines and the opening-up of the +interior to outside influences. The basis for state-controlled education +has now been laid in all the States, but the attendance at the schools as +yet is small. [3] + +In some of the other South American States, such as Bolivia, Ecuador, and +Venezuela, but little progress in extending state-controlled schools has +as yet been made, and the training of the young is still left largely to +private effort, the Church, and the religious orders. The illiteracy in +all the South American States is still high, in part due to the large +native populations, and much remains to be done before education becomes +general there. The state-control idea, though, has been definitely +established in principle in these countries. With the establishment of +stable governments, the building of railroads and steamship lines, and the +development of an important international commerce--events which there +have characterized the first two decades of the twentieth century--early +and important progress in state educational organization and in the +extension of educational advantages may be expected. + +THE STATE-SCHOOL IDEA IN EASTERN ASIA. In 1854 Admiral Perry effected the +treaty of friendship with Japan which virtually opened that nation to the +influences of western civilization, and one of the most wonderful +transformations of a people recorded in history soon began. In 1867 a new +Mikado came to the throne, and in 1868 the small military class, which had +ruled the nation for some seven hundred years, gave up their power to the +new ruler. A new era in Japan, known as the _Meiji_, dates from this +event. In 1871 the centuries-old feudal system was abolished, and all +classes in the State were declared equal before the law. This same year +the first newspaper in Japan was begun. In 1872 the first educational code +for the nation was promulgated by the Mikado. This ordered the general +establishment of schools, the compulsory education of the people (R. 334 +a), and the equality of all classes in educational matters. Students were +now sent abroad, especially to Germany and the United States; foreign +teachers were imported; an American normal-school teacher was placed in +charge of the newly opened state normal school; the American class method +of instruction was introduced; schoolbooks and teaching apparatus were +prepared, after American models; middle schools were organized in the +towns; higher schools were opened in the cities; and the old Academy of +Foreign Languages was evolved (1877) into the University of Tokyo. In 1884 +the study of English was introduced into the courses of the public +schools. In 1889 a form of constitution was granted to the people, and a +parliament established. [4] + +[Illustration: FIG. 213. THE JAPANESE TWO-CLASS SCHOOL SYSTEM.] + +Adapting the continental European idea of a two-class school system to the +peculiar needs of the nation, the Japanese have worked out, during the +past half-century, a type of state-controlled school system which has been +well adapted to their national needs. [5] Instruction in national +morality, based on the ancestral virtues, brotherly affection, and loyalty +to the constitution and the ruling class (R. 334 b-c), has been well +worked out in their schools. Though the government has remained largely +autocratic in form, the Japanese have, however, retained throughout all +their educational development the fundamental democratic principle +enunciated in the Preamble to the Educational Code of 1872 (R. 334 a), +_viz_., that every one without distinction of class or sex shall receive +primary education at least, and that the opportunity for higher education +shall be open to all children. So completely has the education of the +people been conceived of as one of the most important functions of the +State that all education has been placed under a centralized state +control, with a Cabinet Minister in charge of all administrative matters +connected with the education of the nation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 214. THE CHINESE EDUCATIONAL LADDER] + +Since near the end of the nineteenth century what promises to be an even +more wonderful transformation of a people-political, social, scientific, +and industrial--has been taking place in China (R. 335). A much more +democratic type of national school system than that of the Japanese has +been worked out, and this the new (1912) Republic of China is rapidly +extending in the provinces, and making education a very important function +of the new democratic national life. [6] In the beginning, when displacing +the centuries-old Confucian educational system, [7] the Chinese adopted +Japanese ideas and organized their schools (1905) somewhat after the +Japanese model. Later on, responding to the influence of many American- +educated Chinese and to the more democratic impulses of the Chinese +people, the new government established by the Republic of 1912 changed the +school system at first established so as to make it in type more like the +American educational ladder. The new Chinese school system is shown in the +drawing on page 721. The university instruction is modern and excellent, +and the addition of the cultural and scientific knowledge worked out in +western Europe to the intellectual qualities of this capable people can +hardly fail to result, in time, in the production of a wonderful modern +nation, [8] probably in one of the greatest nations of the mid-twentieth +century. + +In 1891 the independent Kingdom of Siam, [9] awakened from its age-long +isolation by new world influences, sent a prince to Europe to study and +report on the state systems of education maintained there. As a result of +his report a department of public education was created, which later +evolved into a ministry of public instruction, and elementary schools were +opened by the State in the thirteen thousand old Buddhist temples. These +schools offered a two-year course in Siamese, followed by a five-year +course in English, given by imported English teachers. Schools for girls +were provided, as well as for boys. Since this beginning, higher schools +of law, medicine, agriculture, engineering, and military science have been +added, taught largely by imported English and American teachers. In +consequence of the new educational organization, and the new influences +brought in, the whole life of this little kingdom has been transformed +during the past three decades. + +GENERAL ACCEPTANCE OF THE STATE-FUNCTION CONCEPTION. The different +national school systems, the creation of which has so far been briefly +described, are typical and represent a great world movement which +characterized the latter half of the nineteenth century. This movement is +still under way, and increasing in strength. Other state school +organizations might be added to the list, but those so far given are +sufficient. Beginning with the nations which were earliest to the front of +the onward march of civilization, the movement for the state control of +education, itself an expression of new world forces and new national +needs, has in a century spread to every continent on the globe. To-day +progressive nations everywhere conceive of education for their people as +so closely associated with their social, political, and industrial +progress, and their national welfare and prosperity (R. 336), that the +control of education has come to be regarded as an indispensable function +of the State. State constitutions (R. 333) have accordingly required the +creation of comprehensive state school systems; legislators have turned to +education with a new interest; bulky state school codes have given force +to constitutional mandates; national literacy has become a goal; the +diffusion of political intelligence by means of the school has naturally +followed the extension of the suffrage; while the many new forces and +impulses of a modern world have served to make the old religious type of +education utterly inadequate, and to call for national action to a degree +never conceived of in the days when religious, private, and voluntary +educational effort sufficed to meet the needs of the few who felt the call +to learn. What a few of the more important of these new nineteenth-century +forces have been, which have so fundamentally modified the character and +direction of education, it may be worth while to set forth briefly, before +proceeding further. + + +II. NEW MODIFYING FORCES + +THE ADVANCE OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE. The first and most important of these +nineteenth-century forces, and the one which preceded and conditioned all +the others, was the great increase of accurate knowledge as to the forces +and laws of the physical world, arising from the application of scientific +method to the investigation of the phenomena of the material world (R. +337). During the nineteenth century the intellect of man was stimulated to +activity as it had not been before since the days when little Athens was +the intellectual center of the world. What the Revival of Learning was to +the classical scholars of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the +movement for scientific knowledge and its application to human affairs was +to the nineteenth. It changed the outlook of man on the problems of life, +vastly enlarged the intellectual horizon, and gave a new trend to +education and to scholarly effort. What the scholars of the seventeenth +and eighteenth centuries had been slowly gathering together as interesting +and classified phenomena, the scientific scholars of the nineteenth +century organized, interpreted, expanded, and applied. Since the day of +Copernicus (p. 386) and Newton (p. 388) a growing appreciation of the +permanence and scope of natural law in the universe had been slowly +developing, and this the scholars of the nineteenth century fixed as a +principle and applied in many new directions. A few of the more important +of these new directions may profitably be indicated here. + +[Illustration: FIG. 215. BARON JUSTUS VON LIEBIG (1803-73)] + +In the domain of the physical sciences very important advances +characterized the century. Chemistry, up to the end of the first quarter +of the nineteenth century largely a collection of unrelated facts, was +transformed by the labors of such men as Dalton (1766-1844), Faraday +(1791-1867), and Liebig into a wonderfully well-organized and vastly +important science. Liebig carried chemistry over into the study of the +processes of digestion and the functioning of the internal organs, and +reshaped much of the instruction in medicine. Liebig is also important as +having opened, at Giessen, in 1826, the first laboratory instruction in +chemistry for students provided in any university in the world. By many +subsequent workers chemistry has been so applied to the arts that it is +not too much to say that a knowledge of chemistry underlies the whole +manufacturing and industrial life of the present, and that the degree of +industrial preeminence held by a nation to-day is largely determined by +its mastery of chemical processes. + +Physics has experienced an equally important development. It, too, at the +beginning of the nineteenth century was in the preliminary state of +collecting, coördinating, and trying to interpret data. In a century +physics has, by experimentation and the application of mathematics to its +problems, been organized into a number of exceedingly important sciences. +In dynamics, heat, light, and particularly in electricity, discoveries and +extension of previous knowledge of the most far-reaching significance have +been made. What at the beginning of the nineteenth century was a small +textbook study of natural philosophy has since been subdivided into the +two great sciences of physics and chemistry, and these in turn into +numerous well-organized branches. Today these are taught, not from +textbooks, but in large and costly laboratories, while manufacturing +establishments and governments now find it both necessary and profitable +to maintain large scientific institutions for chemical and physical +research. + +The great triumph of physics, from the point of view of the reign of law +in the world of matter, was the experimental establishment (1849) of the +fundamental principle of the conservation of energy. This ranks in +importance in the world of the physical sciences with the theory of +evolution in the biological. The perfection of the spectroscope (1859) +revealed the rule of chemical law among the stars, and clinched the theory +of evolution as applied to the celestial universe. The atomic theory of +matter [10] was an extension of natural laws in another direction. In 1846 +occurred the most spectacular proof of the reign of natural law which the +nineteenth century witnessed. Two scientists, in different lands, [11] +working independently, calculated the orbit of a new planet, Neptune, and +when the telescope was turned to the point in the heavens indicated by +their calculations the planet was there. It was a tremendous triumph for +both mathematics and astronomy. Such work as this meant the firm +establishment of scientific accuracy, and the ultimate elimination of the +old theories of witchcraft, diabolic action, and superstition as +controlling forces in the world of human affairs. + +The publication by Charles Lyell (1797-1875) of his _Principles of +Geology_, in 1830, marked another important advance in the knowledge of +the operations of natural law in the physical world, and likewise a +revolution in thinking in regard to the age and past history of the earth. +Few books have ever more deeply influenced human thinking. The old +theological conception of earthly "catastrophes" [12] was overthrown, and +in its place was substituted the idea of a very long and a very orderly +evolution of the planet. Geology was created as a new science, and out of +this has come, by subsequent evolution, a number of other new sciences +[13] which have contributed much to human progress. + +[Illustration: FIG. 216. CHARLES DARWIN (1809-82)] + +Another of the great books of all time appeared in 1859, when Charles +Darwin (1809-1882) published the results of thirty years of careful +biological research in his _Origin of Species_. This swept away the old +theory of special and individual creation which had been cherished since +early antiquity; and substituted in its place the reign of law in the +field of biological life. This substitution of the principle of orderly +evolution for the old theory of special creation marked another forward +step in human thinking, [14] and gave an entirely new direction to the old +study of natural history. [15] In the hands of such workers as Wallace +(1823-1913), Asa Gray (1810-88), Huxley (1825-94), and Spencer (1820-1903) +it now proved a fruitful field. + +In 1856 the German Virchow (1821-1902) made his far-reaching contribution +of cellular pathology to medical science; between 1859 and 1865 the French +scientist Pasteur (1822-95) established the germ theory of fermentation, +putrefaction, and disease; about the same time the English surgeon Lister +(1827-1914) began to use antiseptics in surgery; and, in 1879, the +bacillus of typhoid fever was found. Out of this work the modern sciences +of pathology, aseptic surgery, bacteriology, and immunity were created, +and the cause and mode of transmission of the great diseases [16] which +once decimated armies and cities--plague, cholera, malaria, typhoid, +typhus, yellow fever, dysentery--as well as the scourges of tuberculosis, +diphtheria, and lockjaw, have been determined. The importance of these +discoveries for the future welfare and happiness of mankind can scarcely +be overestimated. Sanitary science arose as an application of these +discoveries, and since about 1875 a sanitary and hygienic revolution has +taken place. + +[Illustration: FIG. 217 LOUIS PASTEUR (1822-95)] + +The above represent but a few of the more important of the many great +scientific advances of the nineteenth century. What the thinkers of the +eighteenth century had sowed broadcast through a general interest in +science, their successors in the nineteenth reaped as an abundant harvest. +The three great master keys of science--the higher mathematics, the +principle of the conservation of energy, and the principle of orderly +evolution of life according to law--so long unknown to man, had at last +been discovered, and, with these in their possession, men have since +opened up many of the long-hidden secrets of cause and growth and form and +function, both in the heavens and on the earth, and have revealed to a +wondering world the prodigious and eternal forces of an orderly universe. +The fruitfulness of the Baconian method (p. 390) in the hands of his +successors has far surpassed his most sanguine expectations. + +THE APPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE AND THE RESULT. All this work, as has been +frequently pointed out (R. 338), had of necessity to precede the +applications of science to the arts and to the advancement of the comforts +and happiness of mankind. The new studies soon caught the attention of +younger scholars; special schools for their study began to be established +by the middle of the nineteenth century; [17] enthusiastic students of +science began forcefully to challenge the centuries-long supremacy of +classical studies; funds for scientific research began to be provided; the +printing-press disseminated the new ideas; and thousands of applications +of science to trade and industry and human welfare began to attract public +attention and create a new demand for schools and for a new extension of +learning. During the past century the applications of this new learning to +matters that intimately touch the life of man have been so numerous and so +far-reaching in their effects that they have produced a revolution in life +conditions unlike anything the world ever experienced before. In all the +days from the time of the Crusades to the end of the Napoleonic Wars the +changes in living effected were less, both in scope and importance, than +have taken place in the century since Napoleon was sent to Saint Helena. + +THIS TRANSFORMATION WE CALL THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. This, as we pointed +out earlier (p. 492), began in England in the late eighteenth century. +France did not experience its beginnings until after the Napoleonic Wars, +though after about 1820 the transformations there were rapid and far- +reaching. In the United States it began about 1810-15, and between 1820 +and 1860 the industrial methods of the people of the northeastern quarter +of the United States were revolutionized. Between 1860 and 1900 they were +revolutionized again. In the German States the transformation began about +1840, though it did not reach its great development until after the +establishment of the Empire, in 1871. Since the middle of the nineteenth +century, with the development of factories, the building of railroads, and +the extension of steamship lines, even the most remote countries have been +affected by the new forces. Nations long primitive and secluded have been +modernized and industrialized; century-old trades and skills have been +destroyed by machinery; the old home and village industries have been +replaced by the factory system; cities for manufacturing and trade have +everywhere experienced a rapid development; and even on the farm the +agricultural methods of bygone days have been replaced by the discoveries +of science and the products of invention. Almost nothing is done to-day as +it was a century ago, and only in remote places do people live as they +used to live. The nature and extent of the change which has been wrought, +and some estimate as to its effect upon educational procedure, may perhaps +be better comprehended if we first contrast living conditions before and +after this industrial transformation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 218. MAN POWER BEFORE THE DAYS OF STEAM +Foot power a century ago. (From a cut by Anderson, America's first +important engraver)] + +LIVING CONDITIONS A CENTURY AGO. A century ago people everywhere lived +comparatively simple lives. The steam engine, while beginning to be put to +use (p. 493), had not as yet been extensively applied and made the willing +and obedient slave of man. The lightning had not as yet been harnessed, +and the now omnipresent electric motor was then still unknown. Only in +England had manufacturing reached any large proportions, and even there +the methods were somewhat primitive. Thousands of processes which we now +perform simply and effectively by the use of steam or electric power, a +century ago were done slowly and painfully by human labor. The chief +sources of power were then man and horse power. The home was a center in +which most of the arts and trades were practiced, and in the long winter +evenings the old crafts and skills were turned to commercial account. What +every family used and wore was largely made in the home, the village, or +the neighborhood. + +Travel was slow and expensive and something only the well-to-do could +afford. To go fifty miles a day by stage-coach, or one hundred by sailing +packet on the water, was extraordinarily rapid. "One could not travel +faster by sea or by land," as Huxley remarked, "than at any previous time +in the world's history, and King George could send a message from London +to York no faster than King John might have done." The steam train was not +developed until about 1825, and through railway lines not for a quarter- +century longer. It took four days by coach from London to York (188 +miles); six weeks by sailing vessel from Southampton to Boston; and six +months from England to India. People moved about but little. A journey of +fifty miles was an event--for many something not experienced in a +lifetime. To travel to a foreign land made a man a marked individual. +Benjamin Franklin tells us that he was frequently pointed out on the +streets of Philadelphia, then the largest city in the United States, as a +man who had been to Europe. George Ticknor has left us an interesting +record (R. 339) of his difficulties, in finding anything in print in the +libraries of the time, about 1815, or any one who could tell him about the +work of the German universities, which he, as a result of reading Madame +de Staël's book on Germany, was desirous of attending. [18] + +Everywhere it was a time of hard work and simple living. Every youngster +had to become useful at an early age. The work of life, in town or on the +farm, required hard and continual labor from all. Farm machinery had not +been perfected, and hand labor performed all the operations of ploughing +and sowing, reaping and harvesting. With the introduction of the factory +system, men, women, and children were used to operate machinery, children +being apprenticed to the mills at about eight years of age and working ten +to twelve hours a day. This soon worked the life out of human beings, and +in consequence sickness, wretchedness, juvenile delinquency, ignorance, +drunkenness, pauperism, and crime increased greatly as cities grew and the +factory system drew thousands from the farms to the towns. When Queen +Victoria came to the throne (1837) one person in twelve in England was a +pauper, and the lot of the poor was wretched in the extreme. In cities +they lived in cellars and basements and hovels. There was practically no +sanitation or drainage. Streets and alleys were filthy. Graveyards were +commonly located in the heart of a town. A pure water-supply through +water-mains was unknown. Pumps and water-carriers supplied nearly all the +needs. There was in consequence much sickness, and such diseases as +typhoid and malaria ran rampant. + +[Illustration: FIG. 219. THRESHING WHEAT A CENTURY AGO +(After a woodcut by Jacque, in _L'Illustration_)] + +CHANGE IN LIVING CONDITIONS TO-DAY. In a century all has been changed. +Steam and electricity and sanitary science have transformed the world; the +railway, steamship, telegraph, cable, and printing-press have made the +world one. The output of the factory system has transformed living and +labor conditions, even to the remote corners of the world; sanitary +science and sanitary legislation have changed the primitive conditions of +the home and made of it a clean and comfortable modern abode; men and +women have been freed from an almost incalculable amount of drudgery and +toil, and the human effort and time saved may now be devoted to other +types of work or to enjoyment and learning. Thousands who once were needed +for menial toil on farm or in shop and home are now freed for employment +in satisfying new wants and new pleasures that mankind has come to know, +[19] or may devote their time and energies to forms of service that +advance the welfare of mankind or minister to the needs of the human +spirit. + +[Illustration: FIG. 220. A CITY WATER-SUPPLY ABOUT 1830 +(After a lithograph by Bellange)] + +Labor-saving devices and the applications of scientific work have touched +all phases of life and labor of men and women, and under modern methods of +transportation go everywhere. The American self-binding reaper is found in +the grain-fields of Russia and the Argentine; one may buy cans of kerosene +and tinned meats and vegetables almost anywhere in the world today; sewing +machines and phonographs add to the comfort and pleasure of the African +native and the dweller on the Yukon; "milady" in Siam uses cosmetics +manufactured for the devotees of fashion in Paris; the Sultan of Sulu +wears an elegant American wrist-watch; the Dahomeny tribesman has a safety +razor, and a mirror of French plate; the Persian dandy wears shoes and +haberdashery made in the United States; old Chinamen up the Yellow River +Valley read their Confucius by the light of an Edison Mazda; the steam +train wends its way up from Jaffa to Jerusalem; the gasoline power boat +chugs its course up the Nile the Pharaohs sailed; and modern surgical +methods and instruments are used in the hospitals of Manila and Singapore, +Cairo and Cape Town. A rupee spent for thread at Calcutta starts the +spindles going in Manchester; a new calico dress for a Mandalay belle +helps the cotton-print mills of Leeds; a new carving set for a Fiji +Islander means more labor for some cutlery works in Sheffield; a half- +dollar for a new undershirt in Panama means increased work for a cotton +mill in New England; a new blanket called for against the winter's cold of +Siberia moves the looms of some Rhode Island town; a dime spent for a box +of matches in Alaska means added labor and profit for a match factory in +California; a new bath tub in Paraguay spells increased output for a +factory at Milan or Turin; and the Christmas wishes of the children in +Brazil give work to the toy factories of Nüremberg. + +Trains and huge steamers move today along the great trade routes of the +modern world, exchanging both the people and their products. The holds of +the ships are filled with coal and grain and manufactured implements and +commodities of every description, while their steerage space is crowded +with modern Marco Polos and Magellans going forth to see the world. The +Hindoo walks the streets of Cape Town, London, Sydney, New York, San +Francisco, and Valparaiso; the Russian Jew is found in all the Old and New +World cities; the Englishman and the American travel everywhere; the +Japanese are fringing the Pacific with their laboring classes; toiling +Italians and Greeks are found all over the world; peasants from the +Balkans gather the prune and orange crops of California; the moujic from +the Russian Caucasus tills the wheat-fields of the Dakotas; while the +Irish, Scandinavians, and Teutons form the political, farming, and +commercial classes in many far-distant lands. In the recent World War +Serbs from Montana and Colorado fought side by side with Serbs from +Belgrade and Nisch; Greeks from New York and San Francisco helped their +brothers from Athens drive the Bulgars back up the Vardar Valley; Italians +from New Orleans and Rio de Janeiro helped their kinsmen from the valley +of the Po hold back the Hun from the Venetian plain; Chinese from the +valleys of the Tong-long and the Yang-tse-Kiang backed up the Allied +armies by tilling the fields of France; and Algerian and Senegalese +natives helped the French hold back the Teutonic hordes from the +ravishment of Paris. So completely has the old isolation been broken down! +So completely is the world in flux! So small has the world become! + +[Illustration: FIG. 221. THE GREAT TRADE ROUTES OF THE MODERN WORLD +Broken lines, on land, indicate gaps soon to be closed. Compare this with +the maps on pages 161 and 258, and note the progress in discovery and +intercommunication. Ships and trains are constantly passing over these +routes, bearing both freight and peoples.] + +It was almost a century from the time instruction in Greek was revived in +Florence (1396) until Linacre first lectured on Greek at Oxford (c. 1492); +six months after the X-ray was perfected in Germany it was in use in the +hospitals of San Francisco. In the Middle Ages thousands might have died +of starvation in Persia or Egypt, a famous city in Asia Minor might have +been destroyed by an earthquake and many people killed, or war might have +raged for years in the Orient without a citizen of western Europe knowing +of it all his life. Today any important event anywhere within the range of +the telegraph or the cable would be reported in tomorrow morning's paper, +and carefully described and illustrated in the magazines at an early date. +Man is no longer a citizen of a town or a state, but of a nation and of +the world. How intelligently he can use this larger citizenship depends +today largely upon the character and the extent of the education he has +received. + +[Illustration: FIG. 222. AN EXAMPLE OF THE SHIFTING OF OCCUPATIONS. +Sawing boards by hand, before the introduction of steam power.] + +EFFECT OF THESE CHANGES ON THE LABORING-CLASSES. At first the effect of +the introduction of factory-made goods and labor-saving devices was to +upset the old established institutions. Trades practiced by the guilds +since the Middle Ages were destroyed, because factories could turn out +goods faster and cheaper than guild workmen could make them. The age-old +apprenticeship system began to break down. Everywhere people were thrown +out of employment, and a vast shifting of occupations took place. There +was much discontent, and laborers began to unite, where allowed to do so, +[20] with a view to improving their economic and political condition by +concerted action. The political revolutions of 1848 throughout Europe were +in part a manifestation of this discontent, and the right to organize was +everywhere demanded and in time generally obtained. Among the planks in +their platform were equality of all before the law; the limitation of +child and woman labor; better working conditions and wages; the provision +of schools for their children at public expense; and the extension of the +right of suffrage. + +Despite certain unfortunate results following the change from age-old +working conditions, the century of transition has seen the laboring man +making gains unknown before in history, and the peasant has seen the +abolition of serfdom [21] and feudal dues. Homes have gained tremendously. +The drudgery and wasteful toil have been greatly mitigated. To-day there +is a standard of comfort and sanitation, even for those in the humblest +circumstances, beyond all previous conceptions. The poorest workman to-day +can enjoy in his home lighting undreamed of in the days of tallow candles; +warmth beyond the power of the old smoky soft-coal grate; food of a +variety and quality his ancestors never knew; kitchen conveniences and an +ease in kitchen work wholly unknown until recently; and sanitary +conveniences and conditions beyond the reach of the wealthiest half a +century ago. The caste system in industry has been broken down, and men +and their children may now choose their occupations freely, [22] and move +about at will. Wages have greatly increased, both actually and relatively +to the greatly improved standard of living. The work of women and children +is easier, and all work for shorter hours. Child labor is fast being +eliminated in all progressive nations. In consequence of all these changes +for the better, people to-day have a leisure for reading and thinking and +personal enjoyment entirely unknown before the middle of the nineteenth +century, and governments everywhere have found it both desirable and +necessary to provide means for the utilization of this leisure and the +gratification of the new desires. Along with these changes has gone the +development of the greatest single agent for spreading liberalizing ideas +--the modern newspaper--"the most inveterate enemy of absolutism and +reaction." Despite censorships, suppressions, and confiscations, the press +has by now established its freedom in all enlightened lands, and the +cylinder press, the telegraph, and the cable have become "indispensable +adjuncts to the development of that power which every absolutist has come +to dread, and with which every prime minister must daily reckon." + + +III. EFFECT OF THESE CHANGES ON EDUCATION + +GENERAL RESULT OF THESE CHANGES. The general result of the vast and far- +reaching changes which we have just described is that the intellectual and +political horizon of the working classes has been tremendously broadened; +the home has been completely altered; children now have much leisure and +do little labor; and the common man at last is rapidly coming into his +own. Still more, the common man seems destined to be the dominant force in +government in the future. To this end he and his children must be +educated, his wife and children cared for, his home protected, and +governments must do for him the things which satisfy his needs and advance +his welfare. The days of the rule of a small intellectual class and of +government in the interests of such a class have largely passed, and the +political equality which the Athenian Greeks first in the western world +gave to the "citizens" of little Athens, the Industrial Revolution has +forced modern and enlightened governments to give to all their people. In +consequence, real democracy in government, education, justice, and social +welfare is now in process of being attained generally, for the first time +in the history of the world. + +The effect of all these changes in the mode of living of peoples is +written large on the national life. The political and industrial +revolutions which have marked the ushering-in of the modern age have been +far-reaching in their consequences. The old home life and home industries +of an earlier period are passing, or have passed, never to return. Peoples +in all advanced nations are rapidly swinging into the stream of a new and +vastly more complex world civilization, which brings them into contact and +competition with the best brains of all mankind. At the same time a great +and ever-increasing specialization of human effort is taking place on all +sides, and with new and ever more difficult social, political, +educational, industrial, commercial, and human-life problems constantly +presenting themselves for solution. The world has become both larger and +smaller than it used to be, and even its remote parts are now being linked +up, to a degree that a century ago would not have been deemed possible, +with the future welfare of the nations which so long bore the brunt of the +struggle for the preservation and advancement of civilization. + +THESE CHANGES AND THE SCHOOL. It is these vast and far-reaching political, +industrial, and social changes which have been the great actuating forces +behind the evolution and expansion of the state school systems which we +have so far described. The American and French political revolutions, with +their new philosophy of political equality and state control of education, +clearly inaugurated the movement for taking over the school from the +Church and the making of it an important instrument of the State. The +extension of the suffrage to new classes gave a clear political motive for +the school, and to train young people to read and write and know the +constitutional bases of liberty became a political necessity. The +industrial revolution which followed, bringing in its train such extensive +changes in labor and in the conditions surrounding home and child life, +has since completely altered the face of the earlier educational problem. +What was simple once has since become complex, and the complexity has +increased with time. Once the ability to read and write and cipher +distinguished the educated man from the uneducated; to-day the man or +woman who knows only these simple arts is an uneducated person, hardly fit +to cope with the struggle for existence in a modern world, and certainly +not fitted to participate in the complex political and industrial life of +which, in all advanced nations, he or she [23] to-day forms a part. + +It is the attempt to remould the school and to make of it a more potent +instrument of the State for promoting national consciousness (R. 340) and +political, social, and industrial welfare that has been behind the many +changes and expansions and extensions of education which have marked the +past half-century in all the leading world nations, and which underlie the +most pressing problems in educational readjustment to-day. These changes +and expansions and problems we shall consider more in detail in the +chapters which follow. Suffice it here to say that from mere teaching +institutions, engaged in imparting a little religious instruction and some +knowledge of the tools of learning, the school, in all the leading +nations, has to-day been transformed into an institution for advancing +national welfare. The leading purpose now is to train for political and +social efficiency in the more democratic types of governments being +instituted among peoples, and to impart to the young those industrial and +social experiences once taught in the home, the trades, and on the farm, +but which the coming of the factory system and city life have deprived +them otherwise of knowing. + +NEW PROBLEMS TO BE MET BY EDUCATION. As participation in the political +life of nations has been extended to larger and larger groups of the +people, and as the problems of government have become more and more +complex, the schools have found it necessary to add instruction in +geography, history, government, and national ideals and culture to the +earlier instruction. In the less democratic nations which have evolved +national school systems, this new instruction has often been utilized to +give strength to the type of government and social conditions which the +ruling class desired to have perpetuated. This has been the evident +purpose in Japan (R. 334), though the government of Imperial Germany +formed perhaps the best illustration of such perversion. This was seen and +pointed out long ago by Horace Mann (R. 281). There the idea of +nationality through education (R. 342) was carried to such an extreme as +made the government oppressive to subject peoples and a menace to +neighboring States. [24] On the other hand, the French have used their +schools for national ends (R. 341) in a manner that has been highly +commendable. + +As the social life of nations has become broader and more complex, a +longer period of guidance has become necessary to prepare the future +citizens of the State for intelligent participation in it. As a result, +child life everywhere has and is still experiencing a new lengthening of +the period of dependence and training, and all national interests now +indicate that the period devoted to preparing for life's work will need to +be further lengthened. All recent thinking and legislation, as well as the +interests of organized labor and the public welfare, have in recent +decades set strongly against child labor. Economically unprofitable under +modern industrial conditions, and morally indefensible, it has at last +come to be accepted as a principle, by progressive nations, that it is +better for children and for society that they remain under some form of +instruction until they are at least sixteen years of age. To this end the +common primary school has been continued upward, part-time continuation +schools of various types have been organized for those who must go to +labor earlier, and people's high schools or middle schools have been added +(see Figure 210, p. 713) to give the equivalent of a high-school education +to the children of the classes not patronizing the exclusive and limited +tuition secondary school. + +As large numbers of immigrants from distant lands have entered some of the +leading nations, notably England and the United States, and particularly +immigrants from less advanced nations where general education is not as +yet common, and where far different political, social, judicial, and +hygienic conditions prevail, a new duty has been thrust upon the school of +giving to such incoming peoples, and their children, some conception of +the meaning and method and purpose of the national life of the people they +have come among. The national schools have accordingly been compelled to +give attention to the needs of these new elements in the population, and +to direct their attention less exclusively to satisfying the needs of the +well-to-do classes of society. Educational systems have in consequence +tended more and more to become democratic in character, and to serve in +part as instruments for the assimilation of the stranger within the +nation's gates and for the perpetuation and improvement of the national +life. + +EDUCATION A CONSTRUCTIVE NATIONAL TOOL. One result of the many political, +social, and industrial changes of a century has been to evolve education +into the great constructive tool of modern political society. For ages a +church and private affair, and of no great importance for more than a few, +it has to-day become the prime essential to good government and national +progress, and is so recognized by the leading nations of the world. As +people are freed from autocratic rule and take upon themselves the +functions of government, and as they break loose from their age-old +political, social, and industrial moorings and swing out into the current +of the stream of modern world-civilization, the need for the education of +the masses to enable them to steer safely their ship of state, and take +their places among the stable governments of a modern world, becomes +painfully evident. In the hands of an uneducated people a democratic form +of government is a dangerous instrument, while the proper development of +natural resources and the utilization of trade opportunities by backward +peoples, without being exploited, is almost impossible. In Russia, Mexico, +and the Central American "republics" we see the results of a democracy in +the hands of an uneducated people. There, too often, the revolver instead +of the ballot box is used to settle public issues, and instead of orderly +government under law we find injustice and anarchy. A general system of +education that will teach the fundamental principles of constitutional +liberty, and apply science to production in agriculture and manufacturing, +is almost the only solution for such conditions. By contrast with the +surrounding "republics" one finds in Guatemala [25] a country that has +used education intelligently as a tool to advance the interests of its +people. + +[Illustration: FIG. 223. THE PHILIPPINE SCHOOL SYSTEM +A teacher-training course is given as one of the vocational courses in the +Intermediate School, and the Normal School at Manila represents one of the +secondary school courses. The University, besides the combined five-year +college course, has eight professional courses of from three to five years +in length.] + +When the United States freed Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines from +Spanish rule, a general system of public education, modeled after the +American educational ladder, was created as a safeguard to the liberty +just brought to these islands, and to education the United States added +courts of justice and bureaus of sanitation as important auxiliary +agencies. As a result the peoples of these islands have made a degree of +progress in self-government and industry in three decades not made in +three centuries under Spanish rule. The good results of the work done in +these islands in establishing schools, building roads and bridges, +introducing police courts, establishing good sanitary conditions, building +hospitals and training nurses, applying science to agriculture, developing +tropical medicine, and training the people in the difficult art of self- +government, will for long be a monument to the political foresight and +intelligent conceptions of government held by the American people. In a +similar way the French have opened schools in Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, +Senegal, Madagascar, and French Indo-China, as have the English in Egypt, +India, Hong Kong, [26] the West Indies, and elsewhere. With the freeing of +Palestine from the rule of the Turk, the English at once began the +establishment of schools and a national university there, and doubtless +they will do the same in time in Persia and Mesopotamia. + +Germany, too, before the World War, but with less benevolent purposes than +the Americans, the French, or the English, was also busily engaged in +extending her influence through education. Her universities were thrown +open to students from the whole world, and excellent instruction did they +offer. The "Society for the Extension of Germanism in Foreign Countries" +rendered an important service. Professors were "exchanged"; the +introduction of instruction in the German language into the schools of +other nations was promoted; and German schools were founded and encouraged +abroad. Especially were _Realschulen_ promoted to teach the wonders of +German science, pure and applied. In southern Brazil and the Argentine, +and in Roumania, Bulgaria, and Turkey, particular efforts were made to +extend German influence and pave the way for German commercial and perhaps +political expansion. Primary schools, girls' schools, and _Real_-schools +in numbers were founded and aided abroad, and their progress reported to +the colonial minister at home. All through the Near East the German was +busily building, through trade and education, a new empire for himself. +Had he been content to follow the slower paths of peaceful commercial and +intellectual conquest, with his wonderful organization he would have been +irresistible. With one gambler's throw he dashed his future to the ground, +and unmasked himself before the world! + +EXPANSION OF THE EDUCATIONAL IDEA. In all lands to-day where there is an +intelligent government, the education of the people through a system of +state-controlled schools is regarded as of the first importance in +moulding and shaping the destinies of the nation and promoting the +country's welfare. Beginning with education to impart the ability to read +and write and cipher, and as an aid to the political side of government, +the education of the masses has been so expanded in scope during the +century that today it includes aims, classes, types of schools, and forms +of service scarcely dreamed of at the time the State began to take over +the school from the Church, with a view to extending elementary +educational advantages and promoting literacy and citizenship. What some +of the more important of these expansions have been we shall state in a +following chapter, but before doing so let us return to another phase of +the problem--that of the progress of educational theory--and see what have +been the main lines of this progress in the theory as to the educational +purpose since the time when Pestalozzi formulated a theory for the secular +school. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. What does the emphasis on the People's High Schools in Denmark indicate +as to the political status of the common people there? + +2. Explain the educational prominence of Finland, compared with its +neighbor Russia. + +3. Show the close relation between the character of the school system +developed in Japan and the character of its government. In China. + +4. Show why the state-function conception of education is destined to be +the ruling plan everywhere. + +5. Show the close connection between the Industrial Revolution and a +somewhat general diffusion of the fundamental principles revealed by the +study of science. + +6. Show how the Industrial Revolution has created entirely new problems in +education, and what some of these are. + +7. Show the connection between the Industrial Revolution and political +enfranchisement. + +8. Enumerate some of the educational problems we now face that we should +not have had to deal with had the Industrial Revolution not taken place. + +9. Why has the result of these changes been to extend the period of +dependence and tutelage of children? + +10. Outline an educational solution of the problem of Mexico. Of Russia. +Of Persia. + +11. Show how Germany found it profitable to establish _Realschulen_ in +such distant countries as Turkey, Mesopotamia, and the Argentine. + +12. Describe the expansion of the educational idea since the days when +Pestalozzi formulated the theory for the secular school. + +13. What is the social significance of the development of parallel +secondary schools and courses, in all lands? + +14. Contrast the American and the European secondary school in purpose. +Why should the American be a free school, while those in Europe are +tuition schools? + +15. Show why the essentially democratic school system maintained in the +United States would not be suited to an autocratic form of government. + +16. Show that the weight of a priesthood and the force of religious +instruction in the schools would be strong supports for monarchical forms +of government. + +17. Homogeneous monarchical nations look after the training of their +teachers much better than does such a cosmopolitan nation as the United +States. Why? + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following illustrative +selections are reproduced: + + 333. Switzerland: Constitutional Provisions as to Education and + Religious Freedom. + 334. Japan: The Basic Documents of Japanese Education. + (a) Preamble to the Education Code of 1872. + (b) Imperial Rescript on Moral Education. + (c) Instructions as to Lessons on Morals. + 335. Ping Wen Kuo: Transformation of China by Education. + 336. Mann: Education and National Prosperity. + 337. Huxley: The Recent Progress of Science. + 338. Anon.: Scientific Knowledge must precede Invention. + 339. Ticknor: Illustrating Early Lack of Communication. + 340. Monroe: The Struggle for National Realization. + 341. Buisson, F.: The French Teacher and the National Spirit. + 342. Fr. de Hovre: The German Emphasis on National Ends. + 343. Stuntz: Landing of the Pilgrims at Manila. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Compare the Swiss and American Federal organizations, and state just +what the Swiss Constitution (333) provides as to education. + +2. Suppose you knew nothing about the Japanese, what type of government +would you take theirs to be from reading the Imperial Rescript (334b)? + +3. In comparing the Chinese transformation and the Renaissance (335), does +Mr. Ping propose comparable events? + +4. Show that Mr. Mann's argument (336) is still sound. + +5. Does Huxley overdraw (337) our dependence on science? + +6. From 338, show why the Middle Ages were so poor in inventions and +discoveries. + +7. Are there universities anywhere to-day of which we know as little as +Ticknor was able to find out (339) a century ago? + +8. Show that Monroe's statements are true that the struggle for national +realization (340) has dominated modern history from the fifteenth century +on. + +9. Compare the conceptions as to the function of education in a State as +revealed in the selections as to French (341) and German (342) educational +purpose. + +10. Show the entirely new character of the event (343) described by +Stuntz. + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + +* Buisson, F. and Farrington, F. E. _French Educational Ideals of To- + day_. + Butler, N. M. "Status of Education at the Close of the Century"; in + _Proceedings National Education Association_, 1900, pp. 188-96. + Davidson, Thos. "Education as World Building"; in _Educational + Review_, vol. xx, pp. 325-45. (November, 1900.) + Doolittle, Wm. H. _Inventions of the Century_. + Foster, M. "A Century's Progress in Science"; in _Educational + Review_, vol. xviii, pp. 313-31. (November, 1899.) +* Friedel, V. H. _The German School as a War Nursery_. + Gibbons, H. de B. _Economic and Industrial Progress of the + Century_. + Hughes, J. L., and Klemm, L. R. _Progress of Education in the + Nineteenth Century_. +* Huxley, Thos. "The Progress of Science"; in his _Methods and + Results_. +* Kuo, Ping Wen. _The Chinese System of Public Education_. + Lewis, R. E. _The Educational Conquest of the Far East_. + Macknight, Thos. _Political Progress of the Century_. +* Ross, E. A. "The World Wide Advance of Democracy"; in his _Changing + America_. + Routledge, R. _A Popular History of Science_. + Sandiford, Peter, Editor. _Comparative Education_. +* Sedgwick, W. T., and Tyler, H. W. _A Short History of Science_. +* Thwing, C. F. _Education in the Far East_. + Webster, W. C. _General History of Commerce_. + White, A. D. _The-Warfare of Science and Theology_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +NEW CONCEPTIONS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS + + +I. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION OF ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION + +THE BEGINNINGS OF NORMAL-SCHOOL TRAINING. The training of would-be +teachers for the work of instruction is an entirely modern proceeding. The +first class definitely organized for imparting training to teachers, +concerning which we have any record, was a small local training group of +teachers of reading and the Catechism, conducted by Father Démia, at +Lyons, France, in 1672. The first normal school to be established anywhere +was that founded at Rheims, in northern France, in 1685, by Abbé de la +Salle (p. 347). He had founded the Order of "The Brothers of the Christian +Schools" the preceding year, to provide free religious instruction for +children of the working classes in France (R. 182), and he conceived the +new idea of creating a special school to train his prospective teachers +for the teaching work of his Order. Shortly afterward he established two +similar institutions in Paris. Each institution he called a "Seminary for +Schoolmasters." In addition to imparting a general education of the type +of the time, and a thorough grounding in religion, his student teachers +were trained to teach in practice schools, under the direction of +experienced teachers. This was an entirely new idea. + +The beginnings elsewhere, as we have previously pointed out were made in +German lands, Francke's _Seminarium Praeceptorum_, established at Halle +(p. 419), in 1697, coming next in point of time. In 1738 Johann Julius +Hecker (1707-68), one of Francke's teachers (p. 562), established the +first regular Seminary for Teachers in Prussia, and in 1748 he established +a private _Lehrerseminar_ in Berlin. In these two institutions he first +showed the German people the possibilities of special training for +teachers in the secondary school. In 1753 the Berlin institution was +adopted as a Royal Teachers' Seminary (p. 563) by Frederick the Great. +After this, and in part due to the enthusiastic support of the Berlin +institution by the King, the teacher-training idea for secondary teachers +began to find favor among the Germans. We accordingly find something like +a dozen Teachers' Seminaries had been founded in German lands before the +close of the eighteenth century. [1] A normal school was established in +Denmark, by royal decree, as early as 1789, and five additional schools +when the law organizing public instruction in Denmark was enacted, in +1814. In France the beginnings of state action came with the action of the +National Convention, which decreed the establishment of the "Superior +Normal School for France," in 1794 (p. 517). This institution, though, was +short lived, and the real beginnings of the French higher normal school +awaited the reorganizing work of Napoleon, in 1808 (p. 595; R. 283). + +The schools just mentioned represent the first institutions in the history +of the world organized for the purpose of training teachers to teach. The +teachers they trained, though, were intended primarily for the secondary +schools, and the training was largely academic in character. Only in +Silesia was any effort made, before the nineteenth century, to give +training in special institutions to teachers intended for the vernacular +schools. There Frederick the Great, in his "Regulations for the Catholic +Schools of Silesia" (R. 275, a § 2) designated six cathedral and monastery +schools as model schools, where teachers could "have the opportunity for +learning all that is needed by a good teacher." In another place he +defined this as "skill in singing and playing the organ sufficient to +perform the services of the Church," and "the art of instructing the young +in the German language" (R. 275, a § 1). So long as the instruction in the +vernacular school consisted chiefly of reading and the Catechism, and of +hearing pupils recite what they had memorized, there was of course but +little need for any special training for the teachers. It was not until +after Pestalozzi had done his work and made his contribution that there +was anything worth mentioning to train teachers for. + +PESTALOZZI'S CONTRIBUTION. The memorable work done by Pestalozzi in +Switzerland, during his quarter-century (1800-25) of effort at Burgdorf +and Yverdon, changed the whole face of the preparation of teachers +problem. His work was so fundamental that it completely redirected the +education of children. Taking the seed-thought of Rousseau that sense- +impression was "the only true foundation of human knowledge" (R. 267), he +enlarged this to the conception of the mental development of human beings +as being organic, and proceeding according to law. His extension of this +idea of Rousseau's led him to declare that education was an individual +development, a drawing-out and not a pouring-in; that the basis of all +education exists in the nature of man; and that the method of education is +to be sought and constructed. [2] These were his great contributions. +These ideas fitted in well with the rising tide of individualism which +marked the late eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries, and upon +these contributions the modern secular elementary school has been built. + +These ideas led Pestalozzi to emphasize sense perception and expression; +to formulate the rule that in teaching we must proceed from the concrete +to the abstract; and to construct a "faculty psychology" which conceived +of education as "a harmonious development" of the different "faculties" of +the mind. He also tried, unsuccessfully to be sure, to so organize the +teaching process that eventually it could be so "mechanized" that there +would be a regular A, B, C, for each type of instruction, which, once +learned, would give perfection to a teacher. In his Report of 1800 (R. +267), which forms a very clear statement of his aims, he had said: + + I know what I am undertaking; but neither the difficulties in the way, + nor my own limitations in skill and insight, shall hinder me from + giving my mite for a purpose which Europe needs so much... The most + essential point from which I start is this:--Sense-impression of + Nature is the only true foundation of human knowledge. All that + follows is the result of this sense-impression, and the process of + abstraction from it.... + + Then the problem I have to solve is this:--How to bring the elements + of every art into harmony with the very nature of mind, by following + the psychological mechanical laws by which mind rises from physical + sense-impressions to clear ideas. + +Largely out of these ideas and the new direction he gave to instruction +the modern normal school for training teachers for the elementary schools +arose. + +ORAL AND OBJECTIVE TEACHING DEVELOPED. Up to the time of Pestalozzi, and +for years after he had done his work, in many lands and places the +instruction of children continued to be of the memorization of textbook +matter and of the recitation type. The children learned what was down in +the book, and recited the answers to the teacher. Many of the early +textbooks were constructed on the plan of the older Catechism--that is, on +a question and answer plan (R. 351 a). There was nothing for children to +do but to memorize such textbook material, or for the teacher but to see +that the pupils knew the answers to the questions. It was school-keeping, +not teaching, that teachers were engaged in. + +The form of instruction worked out by Pestalozzi, based on sense- +perception, reasoning, and individual judgment, called for a complete +change in classroom procedure. What Pestalozzi tried most of all to do was +to get children to use their senses and their minds, to look carefully, to +count, to observe forms, to get, by means of their five important senses, +clear impressions and ideas as to objects and life in the world about +them, and then to think over what they had seen and be able to answer his +questions, because they had observed carefully and reasoned clearly. +Pestalozzi thus clearly subordinated the printed book to the use of the +child's senses, and the repetition of mere words to clear ideas about +things. Pestalozzi thus became one of the first real teachers. + +This was an entirely new process, and for the first time in history a real +"technique of instruction" was now called for. Dependence on the words of +the text could no longer be relied upon. The oral instruction of a class +group, using real objects, called for teaching skill. The class must be +kept naturally interested and under control; the essential elements to be +taught must be kept clearly in the mind of the teacher; the teacher must +raise the right kind of questions, in the right order, to carry the class +thinking along to the right conclusions; and, since so much of this type +of instruction was not down in books, it called for a much more extended +knowledge of the subject on the part of the teacher than the old type of +school-keeping had done. The teacher must now both know and be able to +organize and direct. Class lessons must be thought out in advance, and +teacher-preparation in itself meant a great change in teaching procedure. +Emancipated from dependence on the words of a text, and able to stand +before a class full of a subject and able to question freely, teachers +became conscious of a new strength and a professional skill unknown in the +days of textbook reciting. Out of such teaching came oral language +lessons, drill in speech usage, elementary science instruction, +observational geography, mental arithmetic, music, and drawing, to add to +the old instruction in the Catechism, reading, writing, and ciphering, and +all these new subjects, taught according to Pestalozzian ideas as to +purpose, called for an individual technique of instruction. + +[Illustration: FIG. 224. THE FIRST MODERN NORMAL SCHOOL +The old castle at Yverdon, where Pestalozzi's Institute was conducted and +his greatest success achieved.] + +THE NORMAL SCHOOL FINDS ITS PLACE. These new ideas of Pestalozzi proved so +important that during the first five or six decades of the nineteenth +century the elementary school was made over. The new conception of the +child as a slowly developing personality, demanding subject-matter and +method suited to his stage of development, and the new conception of +teaching as that of directing mental development instead of hearing +recitations and "keeping school," now replaced the earlier knowledge- +conception of school work. Where before the ability to organize and +discipline a school had constituted the chief art of instruction, now the +ability to teach scientifically took its place as the prime professional +requisite. A "science and art" of teaching now arose; methodology soon +became a great subject; the new subject of pedagogy began to take form and +secure recognition; and psychology became the guiding science of the +school. + +As these changes took place, the normal school began to come into favor in +the leading countries of Europe and in the United States, and in time has +established itself everywhere as an important educational institution. +Pestalozzi had himself conducted the first really modern teacher-training +school, and his work was soon copied in a number of the Swiss cantons. +Other cantons, on the contrary, for a time would have nothing to do with +the new idea. + +1. _The German States._ The first nation, though, to take up the teacher- +training idea and establish it as an important part of its state school +system was Prussia. Beginning in 1809 with the work of Zeller (p. 569), by +1840 there were thirty-eight Teachers' Seminaries, as the normal schools +in German lands have been called, in Prussia alone. The idea was also +quickly taken up by the other German States, and from the first decade of +the nineteenth century on no nation has done more with the normal school, +or used it, ends desired considered, to better advantage than have the +Germans. One of the features of the Prussian schools which most impressed +Professor Bache, when he visited the schools of the German States in 1838, +was the excellence of the Seminaries for Teachers (R. 344), and these he +described (R. 345) in some detail in his Report. Horace Mann, similarly, +on his visit to Europe, in 1843, was impressed with the thoroughness of +the training given prospective teachers in the Teachers' Seminaries of the +German States (R. 278). University pedagogical seminars were also +established early (c. 1810) [3] in the universities, for the training of +secondary teachers, and this training was continued with increasing +thoroughness up to 1914. Every teacher in the German States, elementary or +secondary, before that date, was a carefully-trained teacher. This was a +feature of the German state school systems of the pre-War period of which +no other nation could boast. + +2. _France._ After the German States, France probably comes next as the +nation in which the normal school has been most used for training +teachers. The Superior Normal School had been recreated in 1808 (R. 283), +and after the downfall of Napoleon the creation of normal schools for +elementary-school teachers was begun. Twelve had been established by 1830, +and between 1830 and 1833 thirty additional schools for training these +teachers were begun (R. 285). These rendered a service for France (R. 346) +quite similar to that rendered by the Teachers' Seminaries in German +lands. During the period of reaction, from 1848 to 1870, the normal school +did not prosper in France, but since 1870 a normal school to train +elementary teachers has been established for men and one for women in each +of the eighty-seven departments into which France, for administrative +purposes, has been divided. Satisfactory provision has also been made for +the training of teachers for the secondary schools. + +3. _The United States._ The United States has also been prominent, +especially since about 1870, in the development of normal schools for the +training of elementary teachers. The Lancastrian schools had trained +monitors for their work, but the first teacher-training school in the +United States to give training to individual teachers was opened +privately, [4] in 1823, and the second in a similar manner, [5] in 1827. +These were almost entirely academic institutions, being in the nature of +tuition high schools, with a little practice teaching and some lectures on +the "Art of Teaching" added in the last year of the course. In 1826 +Governor Clinton recommended to the legislature of New York the +establishment by the State of "a seminary for the education of teachers in +the monitorial system of instruction." Nothing coming of this, in 1827 he +recommended the creation of "a central school in each county for the +education of teachers" (R. 349). That year (1827) the New York legislature +appropriated money to aid the academies "to promote the education of +teachers"--the first state aid in the United States for teacher-training. + +The publication of an English edition of Cousin's _Report_ (p. 597; R. +284) in New York, in 1835; Calvin E. Stowe's _Report on Elementary +Education in Europe_, [6] in 1837; and Alexander D. Bache's _Report on +Education in Europe_ (Rs. 344, 345), in 1838, with their strong +commendations of the German teacher-training system, awakened new interest +in the United States, in the matter of teacher-training. Finally, in 1839, +the legislature of Massachusetts duplicated a gift of $10,000, and placed +the money in the hands of the newly created State Board of Education (p. +689) to be used "in qualifying teachers for the common schools of +Massachusetts" (R. 350 a). After careful consideration it was decided to +create special state institutions, after the German and French plans, in +which to give the desired training, and the French term of Normal School +was adopted and has since become general in the United States. + +[Illustration: TEACHER-TRAINING IN THE UNITED STATES BY 1860. +A few private training-schools also existed, though less than half a dozen +in all.] + +On July 3, 1839, the first state normal school in the United States opened +in the town hall at Lexington, Massachusetts, with one teacher and three +students. Later that same year a second state normal school was opened at +Barre, and early the next year a third at Bridgewater, both in +Massachusetts. For these the State Board of Education adopted a statement +as to entrance requirements and a course of instruction (R. 350 b) which +shows well the academic character of these early teaching institutions. +Their success was largely due to the enthusiastic support given the new +idea by Horace Mann. In an address at the dedication of the first building +erected in America for normal-school purposes, in 1846, he expressed his +deep belief as to the fundamental importance of such institutions (R. 350 +c). By 1860 eleven state normal schools had been established in eight of +the States of the American Union, and six private schools were also +rendering similar services. Closely related was the Teachers' Institute, +first definitely organized by Henry Barnard in Connecticut, in 1839, to +offer four- to six-weeks summer courses for teachers in service, and these +had been organized in fifteen of the American States by 1860. Since 1870 +the establishment of state normal schools has been rapid in the United +States, two hundred having been established by 1910, and many since. The +United States, though, is as yet far from having a trained body of +teachers for its elementary schools. For the high schools, it is only +since about 1890 that the professional training of teachers for such +service has really been begun. + +4. _England._ In England the beginnings of teacher-training came with the +introduction of monitorial instruction, both the Bell and the Lancaster +Societies (p. 625) finding it necessary to train pupils for positions as +monitors, and to designate certain schools as model and training schools. +In 1833, it will be remembered (p. 638), Parliament made its first grant +of money in aid of education. Up to 1840 this was distributed through the +two National Societies, and in 1839 a portion of this aid was definitely +set aside to enable these Societies to establish model schools (R. 347). +From this beginning, the model training-schools for the different +religious Societies were developed. In these model schools prospective +teachers were educated, being trained in religious instruction and in the +art of teaching. In 1836, with the founding of the "Home and Colonial +Infant Society," a Pestalozzian Training College was founded by it. + +In a further effort to secure trained teachers the government, in 1846, +adopted a plan then in use in Holland, and instituted what became known as +the "pupil-teacher system" (R. 348). This was an improvement on the waning +monitorial training system previously in use. Under this, a favorite old +English method, used somewhat for the same purpose a century earlier (R. +243), was adapted to meet the new need.' Under it promising pupils were +apprenticed to a head teacher for five years (usually from thirteen to +eighteen), he agreeing to give them instruction in both secondary-school +subjects and in the art of teaching in return for their help in the +schoolroom. Beginning in 1846, there were, by 1848, 200 pupil teachers; by +1861, 13,871; and by 1870, 14,612. This system formed the great dependence +of England before the days of national education. In 1874 the pupil- +teacher-center system was begun, and between 1878 and 1896 the age for +entering as a pupil-teacher was raised from thirteen to sixteen, and the +years of apprenticeship reduced from five to two. In most cases now the +academic preparation continues to seventeen or eighteen, and is followed +by one year of practice teaching in an elementary school, under +supervision. After that the teacher may, or may not, enter what is there +known as a Training-College. [7] So far the training of teachers has not +made such headway in England and Wales as has been the case in the German +States, France, the United States, or Scotland, but important progress may +be expected in the near future as an outcome of new educational impulses +arising as a result of the World War. + +SPREAD OF THE NORMAL-SCHOOL IDEA. The movement for the creation of normal +schools to train teachers for the elementary schools has in time spread to +many nations. As nation after nation has awakened to the desirability of +establishing a system of modern-type state schools, a normal school to +train leaders has often been among the first of the institutions created. +The normal school, in consequence, is found to-day in all the continental +European States; in all the English self-governing dominions; in nearly +all the South American States; and in China, [8] Japan, Siam, the +Philippines, Cuba, Algiers, India, and other less important nations. In +all these there is an attempt, often reaching as yet to but a small +percentage of the teachers, to extend to them some of that training in the +theory and art of instruction which has for long been so important a +feature of the education of the elementary teacher in the German States, +France, and the United States. Since about 1890 other nations have also +begun to provide, as the German States and France have done for so long, +some form of professional training for the teachers intended for their +secondary schools [9] as well. + +PSYCHOLOGY BECOMES THE MASTER SCIENCE. Everywhere the establishment of +normal schools has meant the acceptance of the newer conceptions as to +child development and the nature of the educational process. These are +that the child is a slowly developing personality, needing careful study, +and demanding subject-matter and method suited to his different stages of +development. The new conception of teaching as that of directing and +guiding the education of a child, instead of hearing recitations and +"keeping school," in time replaced the earlier knowledge-conception of +school work. Psychology accordingly became the guiding science of the +school, and the imparting to prospective teachers proper ideas as to +psychological procedure, and the proper methodology of instruction in each +of the different elementary-school subjects, became the great work of the +normal school. Teachers thus trained carried into the schools a new +conception as to the nature of childhood; a new and a minute methodology +of instruction; and a new enthusiasm for teaching;--all of which were +important additions to school work. + +A new methodology was soon worked out for all the subjects of instruction, +both old and new. The centuries-old alphabet method of teaching reading +was superseded by the word and sound methods; the new oral language +instruction was raised to a position of first importance in developing +pupil-thinking; spelling, word-analysis, and sentence-analysis were given +much emphasis in the work of the school; the Pestalozzian mental +arithmetic came as an important addition to the old ciphering of sums; the +old writing from copies was changed into a drill subject, requiring +careful teaching for its mastery; the "back to nature" ideas of Rousseau +and Pestalozzi proved specially fruitful in the new study of geography, +which called for observation out of doors, the study of type forms, and +the substitution of the physical and human aspects of geography for the +older political and statistical; object lessons on natural objects, and +later science and nature study, were used to introduce children to a +knowledge of nature and to train them in thinking and observation; while +the new subjects of music and drawing came in, each with an elaborate +technique of instruction. + +By 1875 the normal school in all lands was finding plenty to do, and +teaching, by the new methods and according to the new psychological +procedure, seemed to many one of the most wonderful and most important +occupations in the world. How great a change in the scope, as well as in +the nature of elementary-school instruction had been effected in a +century, the above diagram of American elementary-school development will +reveal. History and literature, it will be noticed, had also come in as +additional new subjects, but these were relatively unimportant in either +the elementary school or the normal school until after the coming of +Herbartian ideas, to which we shall refer a little further on. + +[Illustration: FIG. 226. EVOLUTION OF THE ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL CURRICULUM AND +OF METHODS OF TEACHING] + +Accompanying the organization of professional instruction for teachers, +another important change in the nature of the elementary school was +effected. + +THE GRADING OF SCHOOLROOM INSTRUCTION. For some time after elementary +schools began it was common to teach all the children of the different +ages together in one room, or at most in two rooms. In the latter case the +subjects of instruction were divided between the teachers, rather than the +children. [10] Many of the pictures of early elementary schools show such +mixed-type schools. In these the children were advanced individually and +by subjects as their progress warranted, [11] until they had progressed as +far as the instruction went or the teacher could teach (R. 352). From this +point on the division of the elementary school into classes and a graded +organization has proceeded by certain rather well-defined steps. + +The first step (Rs. 353, 354) was the division of the school into two +schools, one more advanced than the other, such as lower and higher, or +primary and grammar. Another division was introduced when the Infant +School was added, beneath. The next step was the division of each school +into classes. This began by the employment of assistant teachers, in +England and America known as "ushers," to help the "master," and the +provision of small recitation rooms, off the main large schoolroom, to +which the usher could take his class to hear recitations. The third and +final step came with the erection of a new type of school building, with +smaller and individual classrooms, or the subdivision of the larger +schoolrooms. It was then possible to assign a teacher to each classroom, +sort and grade the pupils by ages and advancement, outline the instruction +by years, and the modern graded elementary school was at hand. + +The transition to the graded elementary school came easily and naturally. +For half a century the course of instruction in the evolving elementary +state school had been in process of expansion. Pestalozzi paved the way +for its creation by changing the purpose and direction, and greatly +enlarging (p. 543) the field of instruction of the vernacular school. +After him other new subjects of study were added (see diagram, Figure +226), new and better and longer textbooks were prepared (R. 351), and the +school term was gradually lengthened. The way in time became clear, +earliest in the German lands and in a few American cities, but by about +1850 in most leading nations, for that simple reorganization of school +work which would divide the school into a number of classes, or forms, or +grades, and give one to each teacher to handle. When this point had been +reached, which came about 1850 to 1860 in most nations, but earlier in a +few, the modern type of town or city graded elementary school was at hand. +Teaching had by this time become an organized and a psychological process; +graded courses of study began to appear; professional school +superintendents began to be given the direction and supervision of +instruction; and the modern science of school organization and +administration began to take shape. From this point on the further +development of the graded elementary public school has come through the +addition of new materials of instruction, and by changing the direction of +the school to adapt it better to meeting the new needs of society brought +about by the scientific, industrial, social, and political revolutions +which we, in previous chapters, have described. A few of the more +important of these additions and changes in direction we shall now briefly +describe. + +[Illustration: FIG. 227. AN "USHER" AND HIS CLASS. +The usher, or assistant teacher, is here shown with a class in one of the +small recitation-rooms, off the large schoolroom.] + + +II. NEW IDEAS FROM HERBARTIAN SOURCES + +THE WORK OF HERBART. Taking up the problem as Pestalozzi left it, a German +by the name of Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) carried it forward by +organizing a truer psychology for the whole educational process, by +erecting a new social aim for instruction, by formulating new steps in +method, and by showing the place and the importance of properly organized +instruction in history and literature in the education of the child. +Though the two men were entirely different in type, and worked along +entirely different lines, the connection between Herbart and Pestalozzi +was, nevertheless, close. [12] + +The two men, however, approached the educational problem from entirely +different angles. Pestalozzi gave nearly all his long life to teaching and +human service, while Herbart taught only as a traveling private tutor for +three years, and later a class of twenty children in his university +practice school. Pestalozzi was a social reformer, a visionary, and an +impractical enthusiast, but was possessed of a remarkable intuitive +insight into child nature. Herbart, on the other hand, was a well-trained +scholarly thinker, who spent the most of his life in the peaceful +occupation of a professor of philosophy in a German university. [13] It +was while at Königsberg, between 1810 and 1832, and as an appendix to his +work as professor of philosophy, that he organized a small practice +school, conducted a Pedagogical Seminar, and worked out his educational +theory and method. His work was a careful, scholarly attempt at the +organization of education as a science, carried out amid the peace and +quiet which a university atmosphere almost alone affords. He addressed +himself chiefly to three things: (1) the aim, (2) the content, and (3) the +method of instruction. + +THE AIM AND THE CONTENT OF EDUCATION. Locke had set up as the aim of +education the ideal of a physically sound gentleman. Rousseau had declared +his aim to be to prepare his boy for life by developing naturally his +inborn capacities. Pestalozzi had sought to regenerate society by means of +education, and to prepare children for society by a "harmonious training" +of their "faculties." Herbart rejected alike the conventional-social +education of Locke, the natural and unsocial education of Rousseau, and +the "faculty-psychology" conception of education of Pestalozzi. Instead he +conceived of the mind as a unity, instead of being divided into +"faculties," and the aim of education as broadly social rather than +personal. The purpose of education, he said, was to prepare men to live +properly in organized society, and hence the chief aim in education was +not conventional fitness, natural development, mere knowledge, nor +personal mental power, but personal character and social morality. This +being the case, the educator should analyze the interests and occupations +and social responsibilities of men as they are grouped in organized +society, and, from such analyses, deduce the means and the method of +instruction. Man's interests, he said, come from two main sources--his +contact with the things in his environment (real things, sense- +impressions), and from his relations with human beings (social +intercourse). His social responsibilities and duties are determined by the +nature of the social organization of which he forms a part. + +Pestalozzi had provided fairly well for the first group of contacts, +through his instruction in objects, home geography, numbers, and geometric +form. For the second group of contacts Pestalozzi had developed only oral +language, and to this Herbart now added the two important studies of +literature and history, and history with the emphasis on the social rather +than the political side. Two new elementary-school subjects were thus +developed, each important in revealing to man his place in the social +whole. History in particular Herbart conceived to be a study of the first +importance for revealing proper human relationships, and leading men to +social and national "good-will." + +The chief purpose of education Herbart held to be to develop personal +character and to prepare for social usefulness (R. 355). These virtues, he +held, proceeded from enough of the right kind of knowledge, properly +interpreted to the pupil so that clear ideas as to relationships might be +formed. To impart this knowledge interest must be awakened, and to arouse +interest in the many kinds of knowledge needed, a "many-sided" development +must take place. From full knowledge, and with proper instruction by the +teacher, clear ideas or concepts might be formed, and clear ideas ought to +lead to right action, and right action to personal character--the aim of +all instruction. Herbart was the first writer on education to place the +great emphasis on proper instruction, and to exalt teaching and proper +teaching-procedure instead of mere knowledge or intellectual discipline. +He thus conceived of the educational process as a science in itself, +having a definite content and method, and worthy of special study by those +who desire to teach. + +HERBARTIAN METHOD. With these ideas as to the aim and content of +instruction, Herbart worked out a theory of the instructional process and +a method of instruction (R. 356). Interest he held to be of first +importance as a prerequisite to good instruction. If given spontaneously, +well and good; but, if necessary, forced interest must be resorted to. +Skill in instruction is in part to be determined by the ability of the +teacher to secure interest without resorting to force on the one hand or +sugar-coating of the subject on the other. Taking Pestalozzi's idea that +the purpose of the teacher was to give pupils new experiences through +contacts with real things, without assuming that the pupils already had +such, Herbart elaborated the process by which new knowledge is assimilated +in terms of what one already knows, and from his elaboration of this +principle the doctrine of apperception--that is, the apperceiving or +comprehending of new knowledge in terms of the old--has been fixed as an +important principle in educational psychology. Good instruction, then, +involves first putting the child into a proper frame of mind to apperceive +the new knowledge, and hence this becomes a corner-stone of all good +teaching method. + +Herbart did not always rely on such methods, holding that the "committing +to memory" of certain necessary facts often was necessary, but he held +that the mere memorizing of isolated facts, which had characterized school +instruction for ages, had little value for either educational or moral +ends. The teaching of mere facts often was very necessary, but such +instruction called for a methodical organization of the facts by the +teacher, so as to make their learning contribute to some definite purpose. +This called for a purpose in instruction; the organization of the facts +necessary to be taught so as to select the most useful ones; the +connection of these so as to establish the principle which was the purpose +of the instruction; and training in systematic thinking by applying the +principle to new problems of the type being studied. The carrying-out of +such ideas meant the careful organization of the teaching process and +teaching method, to secure certain predetermined ends in child +development, instead of mere miscellaneous memorizing and school-keeping. + +THE HERBARTIAN MOVEMENT IN GERMANY. Herbart died in 1841, without having +awakened any general interest in his ideas, and they remained virtually +unnoticed until 1865. In that year a professor at Leipzig, Tuiskon Ziller +(1817-1883), published a book setting forth Herbart's idea of instruction +as a moral force. This attracted much attention, and led to the formation +(1868) of a scientific society for the study of Herbart's ideas. Ziller +and his followers now elaborated Herbart's ideas, advanced the theory of +culture-epochs in child development, the theory of concentration in +studies, and elaborated the four steps in the process of instruction, as +described by Herbart, into the five formal steps of the modern Herbartian +school. + +In 1874 a pedagogical seminary and practice school was organized at the +University of Jena, and in 1885 this came under the direction of Professor +William Rein, a pupil of Ziller's, who developed the practice school +according to the ideas of Ziller. A detailed course of study for this +school, filling two large volumes, was worked out, and the practice +lessons given were thoroughly planned beforehand and the methods employed +were subjected to a searching analysis after the lesson had been given. + +HERBARTIAN IDEAS IN THE UNITED STATES. For a time, under the inspiration +of Ziller and Rein, Jena became an educational center to which students +went from many lands. From the work at Jena Herbartian ideas have spread +which have modified elementary educational procedure generally. In +particular did the work at Jena make a deep impression in the United +States. Between 1885 and 1890 a number of Americans studied at Jena and, +returning, brought back to the United States this Ziller-Rein-Jena brand +of Herbartian ideas and practices. [14] From the first the new ideas met +with enthusiastic approval. + +[Illustration: PLATE 18. TWO LEADERS IN THE REORGANIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL +THEORY + +JOHANN FRIEDRICH HERBART (1776-1841) +Organizer of the Psychology of Instruction + +FRIEDRICH WILHELM TROEBEL (1782-1852) +Founder of the Kindergarten] + +New methods of instruction in history and literature, and a new +psychology, were now added to the normal-school professional instruction. +Though this psychology has since been outgrown (R. 357), it has been very +useful in shaping pedagogical thought. New courses of study for the +training-schools were now worked out in which the elementary-school +subjects were divided into drill subjects, content subjects, and motor- +activity subjects. [15] + +Apperception, interest, correlation, social purpose, moral education, +citizenship training, and recitation methods became new terms to conjure +with. From the normal schools these ideas spread rapidly to the better +city school systems of the time, and soon found their way into courses of +study everywhere. Practice schools and the model lessons in dozens of +normal schools were remodeled after the pattern of those at Jena, and for +a decade Herbartian ideas and the new child study vied with one another +for the place of first importance in educational thinking. The Herbartian +wave of the nineties resembled the Pestalozzian enthusiasm of the sixties. +Each for a time furnished the new ideas in education, each introduced +elements of importance into the elementary-school instruction, each deeply +influenced the training of teachers in normal schools by giving a new turn +to the instruction there, and each gradually settled down into its proper +place in educational practice and history. + +THE HERBARTIAN CONTRIBUTION. To the Herbartians we are indebted in +particular for important new conceptions as to the teaching of history and +literature, which have modified all our subsequent procedure; for the +introduction of history teaching in some form into all the elementary- +school grades; for the emphasis on a new social point of view in the +teaching of history and geography; for the new emphasis on the moral aim +in instruction; for a new and a truer educational psychology; and for a +better organization of the technique of classroom instruction. In +particular Herbart gave emphasis to that part of educational development +which comes from without--environment acting upon the child--as contrasted +with the emphasis Pestalozzi had placed on mental development from within +and according to organic law. With the introduction of normal child +activities, which came from another source about this same time, the +elementary-school curriculum as we now have it was practically complete, +and the elementary school of 1850 was completely made over to form the +elementary school of the beginning of the twentieth century. + + +III. THE KINDERGARTEN, PLAY, AND MANUAL ACTIVITIES + +To another German, Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852), we are indebted, +directly or indirectly, for three other additions to elementary education +--the kindergarten, the play idea, and handwork activities. + +ORIGIN OF THE KINDERGARTEN. Of German parentage, the son of a rural +clergyman, early estranged from his parents, retiring and introspective by +nature, having led a most unhappy childhood, and apprenticed to a forester +without his wishes being consulted, at twenty-three Froebel decided to +become a schoolteacher and visited Pestalozzi in Switzerland. Two years +later he became the tutor of three boys, and then spent the years 1808-10 +as a student and teacher in Pestalozzi's Institute at Yverdon. During his +years there Froebel was deeply impressed with the great value of music and +play in the education of children, and of all that he carried away from +Pestalozzi's institution these ideas were most persistent. After serving +in a variety of occupations--student, soldier against Napoleon, and +curator in a museum of mineralogy--he finally opened a little private +school, in 1816, which he conducted for a decade along Pestalozzian lines. +In this the play idea, music, and the self-activity of the pupils were +uppermost. The school was a failure, financially, but while conducting it +Froebel thought out and published (1826) his most important pedagogical +work--_The Education of Man_. + +Gradually Froebel became convinced that the most needed reform in +education concerned the early years of childhood. His own youth had been +most unhappy, and to this phase of education he now addressed himself. +After a period as a teacher in Switzerland he returned to Germany and +opened a school for little children in which plays, games, songs, and +occupations involving self-activity were the dominating characteristics, +and in 1840 he hit upon the name _Kindergarten_ for it. In 1843 his +_Mutter- und Kose-Lieder_, a book of fifty songs and games, was published. +This has been translated into almost all languages. + +SPREAD OF THE KINDERGARTEN IDEA. After a series of unsuccessful efforts to +bring his new idea to the attention of educators, Froebel, himself rather +a feminine type, became discouraged and resolved to address himself +henceforth to women, as they seemed much more capable of understanding +him, and to the training of teachers in the new ideas. Froebel was +fortunate in securing as one of his most ardent disciples, just before his +death, the Baroness Bertha von Marenholtz Bulow-Wendhausen (1810-93), who +did more than any other person to make his work known. Meeting, in 1849, +the man mentioned to her as "an old fool," she understood him, and spent +the remainder of her life in bringing to the attention of the world the +work of this unworldly man who did not know how to make it known for +himself. In 1851 the Prussian Government, fearing some revolutionary +designs in the new idea, and acting in a manner thoroughly characteristic +of the political reaction which by that time had taken hold of all German +official life, forbade kindergartens in Prussia. The Baroness then went to +London and lectured there on Froebel's ideas, organizing kindergartens in +the English "ragged schools." Here, by contrast, she met with a cordial +reception. She later expounded Froebelian ideas in Paris, Italy, +Switzerland, Holland, Belgium, and (after 1860, when the prohibition was +removed) in Germany. In 1870 she founded a kindergarten training-college +in Dresden. Many of her writings have been translated into English, and +published in the United States. + +Considering the importance of this work, and the time which has since +elapsed, the kindergarten idea has made relatively small progress on the +continent of Europe. Its spirit does not harmonize with autocratic +government. In Germany and the old Austro-Hungary it had made but little +progress up to 1914. Its greatest progress in Europe, perhaps, has been in +democratic Switzerland. [16] In England and France, the two great leaders +in democratic government, the Infant-School development, which came +earlier, has prevented any marked growth of the kindergarten. In England, +though, the Infant School has recently been entirely transformed by the +introduction into it of the kindergarten spirit. [17] In France, infant +education has taken a somewhat different direction. [18] + +In the United States the kindergarten idea has met with a most cordial +reception. In no country in the world has the spirit of the kindergarten +been so caught and applied to school work, and probably nowhere has the +original kindergarten idea been so expanded and improved. [19] The first +kindergarten in the United States was a German kindergarten, established +at Watertown, Wisconsin, in 1855, by Mrs. Carl Schurz, a pupil of Froebel. +During the next fifteen years some ten other kindergartens were organized +in German-speaking communities. The first English-speaking kindergarten +was opened privately in Boston, in 1860, by Miss Elizabeth Peabody. In +1868 a private training-college for kindergartners was opened in Boston, +largely through Miss Peabody's influence, by Madame Matilde Kriege and her +daughter, who had recently arrived from Germany. In 1872 Miss Marie Boelte +opened a similar teacher-training school in New York City, and in 1873 her +pupil, Miss Susan Blow, accepted the invitation of Superintendent William +T. Harris, of St. Louis, to go there and open the first public-school +kindergarten in the United States. [20] + +To-day the kindergarten is found in some form in nearly all countries in +the world, having been carried to all continents by missionaries, +educational enthusiasts, and interested governments. [21] Japan early +adopted the idea, and China is now beginning to do so. + +THE KINDERGARTEN IDEA. The dominant idea in the kindergarten is natural +but directed self-activity, focused upon educational, social, and moral +ends. Froebel believed in the continuity of a child's life from infancy +onward, and that self-activity, determined by the child's interests and +desires and intelligently directed, was essential to the unfolding of the +child's inborn capacities. He saw, more clearly than any one before him +had done, the unutilized wealth of the child's world; that the child's +chief characteristic is self-activity; the desirability of the child +finding himself through play; and that the work of the school during these +early years was to supplement the family by drawing out the child and +awakening the ideal side of his nature. To these ends doing, self +activity, and expression became fundamental to the kindergarten, and +movement, gesture, directed play, song, color, the story, and human +activities a part of kindergarten technique. Nature study and school +gardening were given a prominent place, and motor-activity much called +into play. Advancing far beyond Pestalozzi's principle of sense- +impressions, Froebel insisted on motor-activity and learning by doing (R. +358). + +Froebel, as well as Herbart, also saw the social importance of education, +and that man must realize himself not independently amid nature, as +Rousseau had said, but as a social animal in coöperation with his +fellowmen. Hence he made his schoolroom a miniature of society, a place +where courtesy and helpfulness and social coöperation were prominent +features. This social and at times reverent atmosphere of the kindergarten +has always been a marked characteristic of its work. To bring out social +ideas many dramatic games, such as shoemaker, carpenter, smith, and +farmer, were devised and set to music. The "story" by the teacher was made +prominent, and this was retold in language, acted, sung, and often worked +out constructively in clay, blocks, or paper. Other games to develop skill +were worked out, and use was made of sand, clay, paper, cardboard, and +color. The "gifts" and "occupations" which Froebel devised were intended +to develop constructive and aesthetic power, and to provide for connection +and development they were arranged into an organized series of playthings. +Individual development as its aim, motor-expression as its method, and +social coöperation as its means were the characteristic ideas of this new +school for little children (R. 358). + +THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE KINDERGARTEN. Wholly aside from the specific +training given children during the year, year and a half, or two years +they spend in this type of school, the addition of the kindergarten to +elementary-school work has been a force of very large significance and +usefulness. The idea that the child is primarily an active and not a +learning animal has been given new emphasis, and that education comes +chiefly by doing has been given new force. The idea that a child's chief +business is play has been a new conception of large educational value. The +elimination of book education and harsh discipline in the kindergarten has +been an idea that has slowly but gradually been extended upward into the +lower grades of the elementary school. + +To-day, largely as a result of the spreading of the kindergarten spirit, +the world is coming to recognize play and games at something like their +real social, moral, and educational values, wholly aside from their +benefits as concern physical welfare, and in many places directed play is +being scheduled as a regular subject in school programs. Music, too, has +attained new emphasis since the coming of the kindergarten, and methods of +teaching music more in harmony with kindergarten ideas have been +introduced into the schools. + +INSTRUCTION IN THE MANUAL ACTIVITIES. Froebel not only introduced +constructive work--paper-folding, weaving, needlework, and work with sand +and clay and color--into the kindergarten, but he also proposed to extend +and develop such work for the upper years of schooling in a school for +hand training which he outlined, but did not establish. His proposed plan +included the elements of the so-called manual-training idea, developed +later, and he justified such instruction on the same educational grounds +that we advance to-day. It was not to teach a boy a trade, as Rousseau had +advocated, or to train children in sense-perception, as Pestalozzi had +employed all his manual activities, but as a form of educational +expression, and for the purpose of developing creative power within the +child. The idea was advocated by a number of thinkers, about 1850 to 1860, +but the movement took its rise in Finland, Sweden, and Russia. + +The first country to organize such work as a part of its school +instruction was Finland, where, as early as 1858, Uno Cygnaeus (1810-1888) +outlined a course for manual training involving bench and metal work, +wood-carving, and basket-weaving. In 1866 Finland made some form of manual +work compulsory for boys in all its rural schools, and in its training- +colleges for male teachers. In 1872 the government of Sweden decided to +introduce sloyd work into its schools, partly to counteract the bad +physical and moral effects of city congestion, and partly to revivify the +declining home industries of the people. A sloyd school was established at +Naas, in 1872, to train teachers, and in 1875 a second school, known as a +"Sloyd Seminarium," was begun. The summer courses of these two schools +were soon training teachers from many nations. In 1877 sloyd work was +added to the Folk School instruction of Sweden. At first the old native +sloyd occupations were followed, such as carpentering, turning, wood- +carving, brush-making, book-binding, and work in copper and iron, but +later the industrial element gave way to a well-organized course in +educational tool work for boys from twelve to fifteen years of age, after +the Finnish plan. + +SPREAD OF THE MANUAL-TRAINING IDEA. France was the first of the larger +European nations to adopt this new addition to elementary-school +instruction, a training-school being organized at Paris in 1873, and, in +1882, the instruction in manual activities was ordered introduced into all +the primary schools of France. It has required time, though, to provide +work rooms and to realize this idea, and it is still lacking in complete +accomplishment. In England the work was first introduced in London, about +1887. The government at once accepted the idea, encouraged its spread, and +began to aid in the training of teachers. By 1900 the work was found in +all the larger cities, and included cooking and sewing for girls, as well +as manual work for boys. The training for girls goes back still farther, +and was an outgrowth of the earlier "schools of industry" established to +train girls for domestic service (R. 241). By 1846 instruction in +needlework had been begun in earnest in England. In German lands +needlework was also an early school subject, while some domestic training +for girls had been provided in most of the cities, before 1914. Manual +training for boys, though, despite much propaganda work, had made but +little headway up to that time. As in the case of the kindergarten, the +initiative and self-expression aspects of the manual-training movement +made no appeal to those responsible for the work of the people's schools, +and, in consequence, the manual activities have in German lands been +reserved largely for the continuation and vocational schools for older +pupils. + +In the United States the manual-training and household-arts ideas have +found a very ready welcome. Curious as it may seem, the first introduction +to the United States of this new form of instruction came through the +exhibit made by the Russian government at the Centennial Exhibition of +1876, showing the work in wood and iron made by the pupils at the Imperial +Technical Institute at Moscow. This, however, was not the Swedish sloyd, +but a type of work especially adapted to secondary-school instruction. In +consequence the movement for instruction in the manual activities in the +United States, unlike in other nations, began as a highly organized +technical type of high-school instruction, [22] while the elementary- +school sloyd and the household arts for girls came in later. This type of +technical high school has since developed rapidly in this country, has +rendered an important educational service, and is a peculiarly American +creation. In Europe the manual-training idea has been confined to the +elementary school, and no institution exists there which parallels these +costly and well-equipped American technical secondary schools. + +The introduction of manual work into the elementary schools came a little +later, and a little more slowly. As early as 1880 the Workingmen's School, +founded by the Ethical Culture Society of New York, had provided a +kindergarten and had extended the kindergarten constructive-work idea +upward, in the form of simple woodworking, into its elementary school. In +the public schools, experimental classes in elementary-school woodworking +were tried in one school in Boston, as early as 1882, the expense being +borne privately. In 1888 the city took over these classes. In 1886 a +teacher was brought to Boston from Sweden to introduce Swedish sloyd, and +a teacher-training school which has been very influential was established +there, in 1889. In 1876 Massachusetts permitted cities to provide +instruction in sewing, and Springfield introduced such instruction in +1884, and elementary-school instruction in knifework in 1886. + +From these beginnings the movement spread, [23] though at first rather +slowly. By 1900 approximately forty cities, nearly all of them in the +North Atlantic group of States, had introduced work in manual training and +the household arts into their elementary schools, but since that time the +work has been extended to practically all cities, and to many towns and +rural communities as well. + +[Illustration: FIG. 228. REDIRECTED MANUAL TRAINING +A boy mending his shoe instead of making a mortice-joint ] + +CONTRIBUTION OF THE MANUAL-ACTIVITIES IDEA. These new forms of school work +were at first advocated on the grounds of formal discipline--that they +trained the reasoning, exercised the powers of observation, and +strengthened the will. The "exercises," true to such a conception, were +quite formal and uniform for all. With the breakdown of the "faculty +psychology," and the abandonment in large part of the doctrine of formal +discipline in the training of the mind, the whole manual-training and +household-arts work has had to be reshaped. As the writings of Pestalozzi, +Herbart, and Froebel were studied more closely, and with the new light on +child development gained from child-study and the newer psychology, these +new subjects came to be conceived of in their proper light as means of +individual expression, and to be extended to new forms, materials, colors, +and new practical and artistic ends. To-day the instruction in manual work +and the household arts in all their forms has been further changed to make +of them educational instruments for interpreting the fields of art and +industry and home-life in terms of their social significance and +usefulness. Through these two new forms of education, also, the pupils in +the elementary schools have been given training in expression and an +insight into the practical work of life impossible in the old textbook +type of elementary school. In the kindergarten, manual work, and the +household arts, Froebel's principle of education through directed self- +activity and self-expression has borne abundant fruit. + +In the hands of French, English, and American educators the original +manual-arts idea has been greatly expanded. In France some form of +expression has been worked out for all grades of the primary school, and +the work has been closely connected with art and industry on the one hand +and with the home-life of the people on the other. In England the project +system as applied to industry, and the household arts with reference to +home-life, have been emphasized. In the United States the work has been +individualized perhaps more than anywhere else, applied in many new +directions--clay, leather, cement, metal--and used as a very important +instrument for self-expression and the development of individual thinking. + + +IV. THE ADDITION OF SCIENCE STUDY + +THE GRADUAL EXTENSION OF THE INTEREST IN SCIENCE. A very prominent feature +of world educational development, since about the middle of the nineteenth +century, has been the general introduction into the schools of the study +of science. It is no exaggeration of the importance of this to say that no +addition of new subject-matter and no change in the direction and purpose +of education, since that time, has been of greater importance for the +welfare of mankind, or more significant of new world conditions, than has +been the emphasis recently placed, in all divisions of state school +systems, on instruction in the principles and the applications of science. + +From the days of Francis Bacon (p. 390) on, the study of science has been +making slow but steady progress. The early history of modern science we +traced in chapter XVII. During the seventeenth century English scholars +were most prominent in the further development, due largely to the greater +tolerance of new ideas there, and the University of Cambridge early +attained to some reputation (p. 423) as a place where instruction in the +new scientific studies might be found. After the middle of the eighteenth +century, in large part due to the illuminating work of Voltaire (p. 485), +a great interest in science arose among the French. In the Revolutionary +days we accordingly find the French creating important scientific +institutions (p. 518), and Napoleon gave frequent evidence of his deep +interest in scientific studies. [24] This interest the French have since +retained. + +From France this new interest in science passed quickly to the Germans. +The new mathematical and physical studies had early found a home at the +new University of Göttingen (p. 555), and largely under French influences +scientific studies were later introduced into all the German universities. +Early in the nineteenth century the German universities took the lead as +centers for the new scientific studies (p. 576)--a lead they retained +throughout the century. In England the universities had, by the nineteenth +century, lost much of their seventeenth-century prominence in science, and +had settled down into teaching colleges, instead of developing, as had the +German universities, into institutions for scientific research. Compared +with the reformed German universities, actuated by the new scientific +spirit, the English universities of the mid-nineteenth century presented a +very unfavorable [25] aspect (R. 359). In the United States, book +instruction in the sciences came in near the close of the eighteenth +century, but the first laboratory instruction in our colleges was not +begun until 1846, and our real interest in science teaching dates from an +even later period. Until the coming of German influences, after the middle +of the century, the American college [26] largely followed English models +and practices. + +Yet, as we pointed out earlier, the early nineteenth century witnessed a +vast expansion of scientific knowledge, and by 1860 the main keys of +modern science (p. 727) were in the hands of scholars everywhere. The +great early development of scientific study had been carried on in a few +universities or had been done by independent scholars, and had influenced +but little instruction in the colleges or the schools below. + +SCIENCE INSTRUCTION REACHES THE SCHOOLS BUT SLOWLY. The textbook +organization of this new scientific knowledge, for teaching purposes, and +its incorporation into the instruction of the schools, took place but +slowly. + +1. _The elementary schools._ The greatest and the earliest success was +made in German lands. There the pioneer work of Basedow (p. 534) and the +Philanthropinists had awakened a widespread interest in scientific +studies. In Switzerland, too, Pestalozzi had developed elementary science +study and home geography, and, when Pestalozzian methods were introduced +into the schools of Prussia, the study of elementary science (_Realien_) +soon became a feature of the _Volksschule_ instruction. From Prussia it +spread to all German lands. In England the Pestalozzian idea was +introduced into the Infant Schools, [27] though in a very formal fashion, +under the heading of object lessons. In this form elementary science study +reached the United States, about 1860, though a decade later well- +organized courses in elementary science instruction began to be introduced +into the American elementary schools. [28] + +After the political reaction following the Napoleonic wars had set in, on +the continent of Europe, all thought-provoking studies were greatly +curtailed in the people's schools. In England, for other reasons, object +lessons did not make any marked headway, and as late as 1865 practically +nothing relating to the great new world of scientific knowledge had as yet +been introduced into the private and religious elementary schools (R. 360) +which, up to that time, constituted England's chief dependence for the +elementary instruction of her people. + +2. _The secondary schools._ In the secondary schools the earliest work of +importance in introducing the new scientific subjects was done by the +Germans and the French. In German lands the _Realschule_ obtained an early +start (1747; p. 420), and the instruction in mathematics and science it +included [29] had begun to be adopted by the German secondary schools, +especially in the South German States, before the period of reaction set +in. During the reign of Napoleon the scientific course in the French +_Lycées_ was given special prominence. After about 1815, and continuing +until after 1848, practical and thought-provoking studies were under an +official ban in both countries, and classical studies were specially +favored. [30] Finally, in 1852 in France and in 1859 in Prussia, +responding to changed political conditions and new economic demands, both +the scientific course in the _Lycées_ and the _Realschulen_ were given +official recognition, and thereafter received increasing state favor and +support. The scientific idea also took deep root in Denmark. There the +secondary schools were modernized, in 1809, when the sciences were given +an important place, and again in 1850, when many of the Latin schools were +transformed into _Realskoler_. + +In the United States the academies and the early high schools both had +introduced quite an amount of mathematics and book-science, [31] and, +after about 1875, the development of laboratory instruction in science in +the growing high schools took place rather rapidly. Fellenberg's work in +Switzerland (p. 546) had also awakened much interest in the United States, +and by 1830 a number of Schools of Industry and Science had begun to +appear. [32] These made instruction in mathematics and science prominent +features of their work. After the Napoleonic wars, England attained to +the first place as an industrial and commercial nation. This led to a +continual agitation on the part of manufacturers for some science and art +instruction. In 1853, Parliament created a State Department of Science and +Art (p. 638), and the promotion of science and art education by government +grants was now begun. Though the nation had been the first to be +transformed by the industrial revolution, and its foreign trade by 1850 +reached all parts of the world, the secondary schools of England had +remained largely untouched by the change. They were still mainly the +Renaissance Latin grammar schools they had been ever since Dean Colet +(1510) marked out the lines for such instruction by founding his reformed +grammar school at St. Pauls (p. 275). Their courses of instruction +contained little that was modern, and in their aims and purposes they went +back to the days of the Revival of Learning for their inspiration (R. +361). + +THE CHALLENGE OF HERBERT SPENCER. By the middle of the nineteenth century +the scientific and industrial revolutions had produced important changes +in the conditions of living in all the then important world nations. +Particularly in the German States, France, England, and the United States +had the effects of the revolutions in manufacturing and living been felt. +In consequence there had been, for some time, a growing controversy +between the partisans of the older classical training and the newer +scientific studies as to their relative worth and importance, both for +intellectual discipline and as preparation for intelligent living, and by +the middle of the nineteenth century this had become quite sharp. The +"faculty psychology," upon which the theory of the discipline of the +powers of the mind by the classics was largely based, was attacked, and +the contention was advanced that the content of studies was of more +importance in education than was method and drill. The advocates of the +newer studies contended that a study of the classics no longer provided a +suitable preparation for intelligent living, and the question of the +relative worth of the older and newer studies elicited more and more +discussion as the century advanced. + +[Illustration: FIG. 229. HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903)] + +In 1859 one of England's greatest scholars, Herbert Spencer, brought the +whole question to a sharp issue by the publication of a remarkably +incisive essay on "What Knowledge is of Most Worth?" In this he declared +that the purpose of education was to "prepare us for complete living," and +that the only way to judge of the value of an educational course was first +to classify, in the order of their importance, [33] the leading activities +and needs of life, and then measure the course of study by how fully it +offers such a preparation. Doing so (R. 362), and applying such a test, he +concluded that of all subjects a knowledge of science (R. 363) "was always +most useful for preparation for life," and therefore the type of knowledge +of most worth. In three other essays [34] he recommended a complete change +from the classical type of training which had dominated English secondary +education since the days of the Renaissance. Still more, instead of a few +being educated by a "cultural discipline" for a life of learning and +leisure, he urged general instruction in science, that all might receive +training and help for the daily duties of life. + +These essays attracted wide attention, not only in England but in many +other lands as well. They were a statement, in clear and forceful English, +of the best ideas of the educational reformers for three centuries. In his +statement of the principles upon which sound intellectual education should +be based he merely enunciated theses for which educational reformers had +stood since the days of Ratke and Comenius. In his treatment of moral and +physical education he voiced the best ideas of John Locke. Spencer's great +service was in giving forceful expression to ideas which, by 1860, had +become current, and in so doing he pushed to the front anew the question +of educational values. The scientific and industrial revolutions had +prepared the way for a redirection of national education, and the time was +ripe in England, France, German lands, and the United States for such a +discussion. As a result, though the questions he raised are still in part +unsettled, a great change in assigned values has since been effected not +only in these nations, but in most other nations and lands which have +drawn the inspiration for their educational systems from them. Though his +work was not specially original, we must nevertheless class Herbert +Spencer as one of the great writers on educational aims and purposes, and +his book as one of the great influences in reshaping educational practice. +He gave a new emphasis to the work of all who had preceded him, and out of +the discussion which ensued came a new and a greatly enlarged estimate as +to the importance of science study in all divisions of the school. + +[Illustration: FIG. 230. THOMAS H. HUXLEY (1825-95)] + +THE NEW EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE. It is perhaps not too much to say that out of +Spencer's gathering-up and forceful statement of the best ideas of his +time, and the discussion which followed, a new conception of the +educational purpose as adjustment to the life one is to live--physical, +economic, social, moral, political--was clearly formulated, and a new +definition of a liberal education was framed. The former found expression +in a rather rapid introduction of science-study into the elementary +school, the secondary school, and the college, after about 1865, in the +school systems of all progressive nations, and the subsequent extension of +the scientific method to such new fields as history, politics, government, +and social welfare. The latter--the new definition of a liberal education +--was wonderfully well stated in an address (1868) by the English +scientist, Thomas Huxley, when he said: [35] + + That man, I think, has had a liberal education who has been so trained + in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with + ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is capable of; + whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its parts of + equal strength, and in smooth working order; ready, like a steam + engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gossamers as + well as forge the anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with a + knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of Nature and of the + laws of her operations; one who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life + and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous + will, the servant of a tender conscience; who has learned to love all + beauty, whether of Nature or of art, to hate all vileness, and to + respect others as himself. + + Such an one and no other, I conceive, has had a liberal education; for + he is, as completely as a man can be, in harmony with Nature. He will + make the best of her, and she of him. They will get on together + rarely: she as his ever-beneficent mother; he as her mouthpiece, her + conscious self, her minister and interpreter. + +The inter-relation between the movement for the study of the sciences and +the other movements for the improvement of instruction which we have so +far described in this chapter, was close. Pestalozzi had emphasized +instruction in geography and the study of nature; Froebel had given a +prominent place to nature study and school gardening; the manual-arts work +tended to exhibit industrial processes and relationships; and the +scientific emphasis on content rather than drill was in harmony with the +theories of all the modern reformers. Still more, the scientific movement +was in close harmony with the new individualistic tendency of the early +part of the nineteenth century, and with the movements for the improvement +of individual and national welfare which have been so prominent a +characteristic of the latter half of the century. + + +V. SOCIAL MEANING OF THESE CHANGES + +A CENTURY OF PROGRESS. Pestalozzi, true to the individualistic spirit of +the age in which he lived and worked, had seen education as an individual +development, and the ends of education as individual ends. The spirit of +the French Revolutionary period was the spirit of individualism. With the +progress of the Industrial Revolution and the consequent rise of new +social problems, the emphasis was gradually shifted from the individual to +society--from the single man to the man in the mass. The first educational +thinker of importance to see and clearly state this new conception in +terms of the school was Herbart. Seeing the educational purpose in far +clearer perspective than had those who had gone before him, he showed that +education must have for its function the preparation of man to live in +organized society, and that character and social morality, rather than +individual development, must in consequence be the larger aims. Froebel, +possessed of something of the same insight, and seeing clearly the +educational importance of activity and expression, had opened up for +children a wealth of new contacts with the world about them in the new +type of educational institution which he created. His principles, he said, +when thoroughly worked out and applied to education "would revolutionize +the world." He did not complete the full educational organization he had +planned, but in the hands of the Swedes and Finns similar ideas were +worked out in practical form and made a part of school work. Applying +Froebel's idea to instruction in the old trades and industries, declining +in importance in the face of the rise of the factory system, they evolved +the manual-training activities, and these have since been made important +tools for giving to young people some intelligent ideas as to the +industrial relationships and economic problems of our complex modern life. + +Since this early pioneer work changes in school work have been numerous +and of far-reaching importance. The methods and purpose of instruction in +the older subjects have been revised; new studies, which would serve to +interpret to the young the industrial and social revolutions of the +nineteenth century, have been introduced; the expression-subjects--the +domestic arts, music, drawing, clay-modeling, color work, the manual arts, +nature study, gardening--have given a new direction to school work; and +the study of science and the vocations has attained to a place of +importance previously unknown. During the past half-century the school has +been transformed, in the principal world nations, from a disciplinary +institution where drill in mastering the rudiments of knowledge was given, +into an instrument of democracy calculated to train young people for +living, for useful service in the office and shop and home, and to prepare +them for intelligent participation in the increasingly complex social and +political and industrial life of a modern world. This transformation of +the school has not always been easy (R. 365), but the vastly changed +conditions of modern life have demanded such a transformation in all +progressive nations. + +THE CONTRIBUTION OF JOHN DEWEY. The foremost American interpreter, in +terms of the school, of the vast social and industrial changes which have +marked the nineteenth century, is John Dewey [36] (1859- ). Better perhaps +than anyone else he has thought out and stated a new educational +philosophy, suited to the changed and changing conditions of human living. +His work, both experimental and theoretical, has tended both to re- +psychologize (R. 364) and socialize education; to give to it a practical +content, along scientific and industrial lines; and to interpret to the +child the new social and industrial conditions of modern society by +connecting the activities of the school closely with those of real life. + +[Illustration: FIG. 231. A REORGANIZED KINDERGARTEN +Drawn from a photograph showing the reconstruction of the kindergarten +activities, as worked out by Dewey at Chicago.] + +Starting with the premises that "the school cannot be a preparation for +social life except as it reproduces the typical conditions of social +life"; that "industrial activities are the most influential factors in +determining the thought, the ideals, and the social organization of a +people"; and that "the school should be life, not a preparation for +living"; Dewey for a time conducted an experimental school, for children +from four to thirteen years of age, to give concrete expression to his +educational ideas. These, first consciously set forth by Froebel, were: +[37] + + 1. That the primary business of the school is to train in coöperative + and mutually helpful living.... + + 2. That the primary root of all educational activity is in the + instinctive, impulsive attitudes and activities of the child, and not + in the presentation and application of external material. + + 3. That these individual tendencies and activities are organized and + directed through the uses made of them in keeping up the coöperative + living ... taking advantage of them to reproduce, on the child's + plane, the typical doings and occupations of the larger, maturer + society into which he is finally to go forth; and that it is through + production and creative use that valuable knowledge is clinched. + +The work of this school [38] was of fundamental importance in directing +the reorganization of the work of the kindergarten along different and +larger lines, and also has been of significance in redirecting the +instruction in both the social subjects--history (R. 366), literature, +etc.--and the manual, domestic, and artistic activities of the school. In +his subsequent writings he may be said to have stated an important new +philosophy for the school in terms of modern social, political, and +industrial needs. + +THE DEWEY EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY. Believing that the public school is the +chief remedy for the ills of organized society, Professor Dewey has tried +to show how to change the work of the school so as to make it a miniature +of society itself. Social efficiency, and not mere knowledge, he has +conceived to be the end, and this social efficiency is to be produced +through participation in the activities of an institution of society, the +school. The different parts of the school system thus become a unified +institution, in which children are taught how to live amid the constantly +increasing complexities of modern social and industrial life. + +Education, therefore, in Dewey's conception, involves not merely learning, +but play, construction, use of tools, contact with nature, expression, and +activity; and the school should be a place where children are working +rather than listening, learning life by living life, and becoming +acquainted with social institutions and industrial processes by studying +them. The work of the school is in large part to reduce the complexity of +modern life to such terms as children can understand, and to introduce the +child to modern life through simplified experiences. Its primary business +may be said to be to train children in coöperative and mutually helpful +living. The virtues of a school, as Dewey points out, are learning by +doing; the use of muscles, sight and feeling, as well as hearing; and the +employment of energy, originality, and initiative. The virtues of the +school in the past were the colorless, negative virtues of obedience, +docility, and submission. Mere obedience and the careful performance of +imposed tasks he holds to be not only a poor preparation for social and +industrial efficiency, but a poor preparation for democratic society and +government as well. Responsibility for good government, under any +democratic form of organization, rests with all, and the school should +prepare for the political life of to-morrow by training its pupils to meet +responsibilities, developing initiative, awakening social insight, and +causing each to shoulder a fair share of the work of government in the +school. + +We have now before us the great contributions to a philosophy for the +educational process made since the beginning of the nineteenth century. +Many other workers in different lands, but more particularly in German +lands, France, Italy, England, and the United States, have added their +labors to the expansion and redirection of the school. They are too +numerous to mention and, though often nationally important, need not be +included here. Still more, the contributions of Pestalozzi, Herbart, +Froebel, Spencer, Dewey, and their followers and disciples are so +interwoven in the educational theory and practice of to-day that it is in +most cases impossible to separate them from one another. [39] + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. How do you explain the long-continued objection to teacher-training? + +2. Contrast "oral and objective teaching" with the former "individual +instruction." + +3. Show how complete a change in classroom procedure this involved. + +4. Show how Pestalozzian ideas necessitated a "technique of instruction." + +5. Why is it that Pestalozzian ideas as to language and arithmetic +instruction have so slowly influenced the teaching of grammar, language, +and arithmetic? + +6. How do you explain the decline in importance of the once-popular mental +arithmetic? + +7. Show how child study was a natural development from the Pestalozzian +psychology and methodology. + +8. Explain what is meant by the statements that Herbart rejected: + (a) The conventional-social ideal of Locke. + (b) The unsocial ideal of Rousseau. + (c) The "faculty-psychology" conception of Pestalozzi. + +9. Explain what is meant by saying that Herbart conceived of education as +broadly social, rather than personal. + +10. Show in what ways and to what extent Herbart: + (a) Enlarged our conception of the educational process. + (b) Improved the instruction content and process. + +11. Explain why Herbartian ideas took so much more quickly in the United +States than did Pestalozzianism. + +12. State the essentials of the kindergarten idea, and the psychology +behind it. + +13. State the contribution of the kindergarten idea to education. + +14. Show the connection between the sense impression ideas of Pestalozzi, +the self-activity of Froebel, and the manual activities of the modern +elementary school. + +15. Explain why scientific studies came into the schools so slowly, up to +about 1860, and so very rapidly after about that time. + +16. Explain the particularly long resistance to the introduction of +scientific studies by industrial England. + +17. State the comparative importance of content and drill in education. + +18. Does the reasoning of Herbert Spencer appeal to you as sound? If not, +why not? + +19. Show how the argument of Spencer for the study of science was also an +argument for a more general diffusion of educational advantages. + +20. Would schools have advanced in importance as they have done had the +industrial revolution not taken place? Why? + +21. Why is more extended education called for as "industrial life becomes +more diversified, its parts narrower, and its processes more concealed"? + +22. Point out the social significance of the educational work of John +Dewey. + +23. Point out the value, in the new order of society, of each group of +school subjects listed in footnote 1 on page 763. + +24. Contrast the virtues of a school before Pestalozzi's time and those of +a modern school. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections +illustrative of the contents of this chapter are reproduced: + + 344. Bache: The German Seminaries for Teachers. + 345. Bache: A German Teachers' Seminary Described. + 346. Bache: A French Normal School Described. + 347. Barnard: Beginnings of Teacher-Training in England. + 348. Barnard: The Pupil-Teacher System Described. + 349. Clinton: Recommendation for Teacher-Training Schools. + 350. Massachusetts: Organizing the First Normal Schools. + (a) The Organizing Law. + (b) Admission and Instruction in. + (c) Mann: Importance of the Normal School. + 351. Early Textbooks: Examples of Instruction from + (a) Davenport: History of the United States. + (b) Morse: Elements of Geography--Map. + (c) Morse Elements of Geography. + 352. Murray: A Typical Teacher's Contract. + 353. Bache: The Elementary Schools of Berlin in 1838. + 354. Providence: Grading the Schools of. + 355. Felkin: Herbart's Educational Ideas. + 356. Felkin: Herbart's Educational Ideas Applied. + 357. Titchener: Herbart and Modern Psychology. + 358. Marenholtz-Bülow: Froebel's Educational Views. + 359. Huxley: English and German Universities Contrasted. + 360. Huxley: Mid-nineteenth-Century Elementary Education in England. + 361. Huxley: Mid-nineteenth-Century Secondary Education in England. + 362. Spencer: What Knowledge is of Most Worth? + 363. Spencer: Conclusions as to the Importance of Science. + 364. Dewey: The Old and New Psychology Contrasted. + 365. Ping: Difficulties in Transforming the School. + (a) Relating Education to Life. + (b) The Old Teacher and the New System. + 366. Dewey: Socialization of School Work illustrated by History. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Contrast the instruction in a German Teachers' Seminary (345) or a +French normal school (346) of 1838, as described by Bache, with that of an +American normal school of to-day. + +2. What do the beginnings of teacher training in England (347, 348) +indicate as to conceptions then existing as to the educational process? + +3. Show, by comparison, that the beginnings of the American normal school +were German, rather than English in origin. + +4. Just what educational conditions does Governor Clinton (349) indicate +as existing in New York State, in 1827? + +5. Contrast the instruction in the early Massachusetts normal schools +(350) with that in the German (345) and French (346) of about the same +time. + +6. What do the three professional courses reproduced (345, 346, 350 b) +indicate as to the development of pedagogical work by about 1840? + +7. Compare the textbook types, given in 351, with modern textbooks in +equivalent subjects. + +8. Just what light on school teaching, in 1841, does the teacher's +contract given (352) throw? + +9. State the steps in the evolution of a graded system of schools (353, +354). + +10. State the essentials of Herbart's educational ideas (355,356), and the +nature of the advances made over his predecessors. + +11. State the essentials of Froebel's educational ideas, as explained by +the Baroness von Marenholtz-Bülow (358). + +12. Explain the difference between the universities of the two nations +(359). + +13. Contrast elementary education in England (360) with that in the United +States at the same period. + +14. Would you add anything else to Spencer's requirements to prepare for +complete living? What? Why? + +15. How do you explain science being "written against in our theologies +and frowned upon from our pulpits" (363) when it is of such importance as +Spencer concludes? + +16. Contrast the old and the new psychology (357, 364). + +17. Have the difficulties experienced in the transformation of instruction +in China (365) been essentially different than with us? How? + +18. Apply Dewey's idea as to the socialization of history (366) to +instruction in geography. + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + + Barnard, Henry. _National Education in Europe_. +* Bowen, H. C. _Froebel and Education through Self-Activity_. + Compayré, G. _Herbart and Education by Instruction_. +* De Garmo, Chas. _Herbart and the Herbartians_. + Dewey, John. _The School and Social Progress_. (Nine numbers.) +* Dewey, John. _The School and Society_. + Gordy, J. P. _Rise and Growth of the Normal School Idea in the United + States_. Circular of Information, United States Bureau of + Education, No. 8, 1891. + Hollis, A. P. _The Oswego Movement_. +* Jordan, D. S. "Spencer's Essay on Education"; in _Cosmopolitan + Magazine_, vol. xxix, pp. 135-49. (Sept. 1902.) + Judd, C. H. _The Training of Teachers in England, Scotland, and + Germany_. (Bulletin 35, 1914, United States Bureau of Education.) + Monroe, Will S. _History of the Pestalozzian Movement in the United + States_. +* Parker, S. C. _History of Modern Elementary Education_. + Ping Wen Kuo. _The Chinese System of Public Education_. + Spencer, Herbert. _Education: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical_. + Vanderwalker, N. C. _The Kindergarten in American Education_. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +NEW TENDENCIES AND EXPANSIONS + + +I. POLITICAL + +THE ENLARGED CONCEPTION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. The new ideas as to the +purpose and functions of the State promulgated by English and French +eighteenth-century thinkers, and given concrete expression in the American +and French revolutions near the close of the century, imparted, as we have +seen, a new meaning to the school and a new purpose to the education of a +people. In the theoretical discussion of education by Rousseau and the +empirical work of Pestalozzi a new individualistic theory for a secular +school was created, and this Prussia, for long moving in that direction, +first adopted as a basis for the state school system it early organized to +serve national ends. The new American States, also long moving toward +state organization and control, early created state schools to replace the +earlier religious schools; while the French Revolution enthusiasts +abolished the religious school and ordered the substitution of a general +system of state schools to serve their national ends. + +From these beginnings, as we have seen, the state-school idea has in +course of time spread to all continents, and nations everywhere to-day +have come to feel that the maintenance of a more or less comprehensive +system of state schools is so closely connected with national welfare and +progress as to be a necessity for the State (R. 367). In consequence, +state ministries for education have been created in all the important +world nations; state and local school officials have been provided +generally to see that the state purpose in creating schools is carried +out; state normal schools for the preparation of teachers have been +established; comprehensive state school codes have been enacted or +educational decrees formulated; and constantly increasing expenditures for +education are to-day derived by taxing the wealth of the State to educate +the children of the State. + +CHANGE FROM THE ORIGINAL PURPOSE. The original purpose in the +establishment of schools by the State was everywhere to promote literacy +and citizenship. Under all democratic forms of government it was also to +insure to the people the elements of learning that they might be prepared +for participation in the functions of government. [1] This is well +expressed in the quotations given (p. 525) from early American statesmen +as to the need for the education of public opinion and the diffusion of +knowledge among the people. The same ideas were expressed by French +writers and statesmen of the time, and by the English after the passage of +the Reform Bills of 1832 and 1867 (p. 642). With the gradual extension of +the franchise to larger and larger numbers of the people, the extension of +educational advantages naturally had to follow. The education of new +citizens for "their political and civil duties as members of society and +freemen" became a necessity, and closely followed each extension of the +right to vote. In all democratic governments the growing complexity of +modern political society has since greatly enlarged these early duties of +the school. To-day, in modern nations where general manhood suffrage has +come to be the rule, and still more so in nations which have added female +suffrage as well, the continually increasing complexity of the political, +economic, and social problems upon which the voters are expected to pass +judgment is such that a more prolonged period of citizenship education is +necessary if voters are to exercise, in any intelligent manner, their +functions of citizenship. In nations where the initiative, referendum, and +recall have been added, the need for special education along political, +economic, and social lines has been still further emphasized. + +At first instruction in the common-school branches, with instruction in +morals or religion added, was regarded as sufficient. In States, such as +the German, where religious instruction was retained in the schools, this +has been made a powerful instrument in moulding the citizenship and +upholding the established order. The history of the different nations has +also been used by each as a means for instilling desired conceptions of +citizenship, and some work in more or less formal civil government has +usually been added. To-day all these means have been proven inadequate for +democratic peoples. In consequence, the work in civil government is being +changed and broadened into institutional and community civics; the work of +the elementary school is being socialized, along the lines advocated by +Dewey; and instruction in economic principles and in the functions of +government is being introduced into the secondary schools. Instead of +being made mere teaching institutions, engaged in promoting literacy and +diffusing the rudiments of learning among the electorate, schools are to- +day being called upon to grasp the significance of their political and +social relationships, and to transform themselves into institutions for +improving and advancing the welfare of the State (R. 368). + +THE PROMOTION OF NATIONALITY. In Prussia the promotion of national +solidarity was early made an important aim of the school. This has in time +become a common national purpose, as there has dawned upon statesmen +generally the idea that a national spirit or culture is "an artificial +product which transcends social, religious, and economic distinctions," +and that it "could be manufactured by education" (R. 340). In consequence +of this discovery the school has been raised to a new position of +importance in the national life, and has become the chief means for +developing in the citizenship that national unity and national strength so +desirable under present-day world conditions. In the German States, where +this function of the school has in recent times been perverted to carry +forward imperialistic national ends (R. 342); in France, where it has been +intelligently used to promote a rational type of national strength (R. +341); in Italy, where divergent racial types are being fused into a new +national unity; in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines (R. 343) where +the United States has used education to bring backward peoples up to a new +level of culture, and to develop in them firm foundations of national +solidarity; in China (R. 335) where an ancient people, speaking numerous +dialects, is making the difficult transition from an old culture to the +newer western civilization; and in Algiers and Morocco, where the spirit +of French nationality is being fused into dark-skinned tribesmen-- +everywhere to-day, where public education has really taken hold on the +national life, we find the school being used for the promotion of national +solidarity and the inculcation of national ideals and national culture. To +such an extent has this become true that practically all the pressing +problems of the school to-day, in any land, find their ultimate +explanation in terms of the new nineteenth-century conceptions of +political nationality. + +Since the development of world trade routes following long rail and +steamship lines, along which people as well as raw materials and +manufactured articles pass to and fro, the entrance of new and diverse +peoples into distant national groups has created a new problem of +nationalization that before the early nineteenth century was largely +unknown. Previous to the nineteenth century the problem was confined +almost entirely to peoples conquered and annexed by the fortunes of war. +To-day it is a voluntary migration of peoples, and a migration of such +proportions and from such distant and unlike civilizations that the +problem of assimilating the foreigner has become, particularly in the +English-speaking nations and colonies, to which distant and unrelated +peoples have turned in largest numbers, [2] a serious national problem. +The migration of 32,102,671 persons to the United States, between 1820 and +1914, from all parts of the world, has been a movement of peoples compared +with which the migrations of the Germanic tribes--Angles, Saxons, Jutes, +Goths, Visigoths, Vandals, Suevi, Danes, Burgundians, Huns--into the old +Roman Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries pale into insignificance. +No such great movement of peoples was ever known before in history, and +the assimilative power of the American nation has not been equal to the +task. The World War revealed the extent of the failure to nationalize the +foreigner who has been permitted to come, and brought the question of +"Americanization" to the front as one of the most pressing problems +connected with American national education. With the world in flux +racially as it now is, the problem of the assimilation of non-native +peoples is one which the schools of every nation which offers political +and economic opportunity to other peoples must face. This has called for +the organization of special classes in the schools, evening and adult +instruction, community-center work, nationalization programs, compulsory +attendance of children, state oversight of private and religious schools, +and other forms of educational undertakings undreamed of in the days when +the State first took over the schools from the Church the better to +promote literacy and citizenship. + +EFFECTS OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. The effects of the great industrial +and social changes which we have previously described are written large +across the work of the school. As the civilization in the leading world +nations has increased in complexity, and the ramifications of the social +and industrial life have widened, the school has been called upon to +broaden its work, and develop new types of instruction to increase its +effectiveness. An education which was entirely satisfactory for the +simpler form of social and industrial life of two generations ago has been +seen to be utterly inadequate for the needs of the present and the future. +It is the far-reaching change in social and industrial and home-life, +brought about by the Industrial Revolution, which underlies most of the +pressing problems in educational readjustment to-day. As the industrial +life of nations has become more diversified, its parts narrower, and its +processes more concealed, new and more extended training has been called +for to prepare young people for the work of life; to reveal to them +something of the intricacy and interdependence of modern political and +industrial and social groups; and to point out to them the importance of +each one's part in the national political and industrial organization. +With the ever-increasing subdivision and specialization of labor, the +danger from class subdivision has constantly increased, and more and more +the school has been called upon to instill into all a political and social +consciousness that will lead to unity amid increasing diversity, and to +concerted action for the preservation and improvement of the national +life. + +More education than formerly has also been demanded to enable future +citizens to meet intelligently national and personal problems, and with +the widening of the suffrage and the spread of democratic ideas there has +come a necessary widening of the educational ladder, so that more of the +masses of the people may climb. Even in nations having the continental- +European two-class school system, larger educational opportunities for the +masses have had to be provided. This has come through the provision of +middle schools, continuation schools, higher primary schools, and people's +high schools, [3] as in Germany, France (see diagram, p. 598), the +Scandinavian countries (p. 713; R. 370), and Japan (p. 720). In nations +having an American-type educational ladder, it has led to the +multiplication of secondary schools and secondary-school courses, that a +larger and larger percentage of the people may be prepared better to meet +the increasingly complex and increasingly difficult conditions of modern +political, social, and industrial life. In the more advanced and more +democratic nations we also note the establishment of systems of evening +schools, adult instruction, university extension, science and art +instruction in special centers, the multiplication of libraries, and the +increasing use of the lecture, the stereopticon, and the public press, for +the purpose of keeping the people informed. No nation has done more to +extend the advantages of secondary education to its people than has the +United States; France has been especially prominent in adult instruction; +England has done noteworthy work with university extension and science and +art instruction; while the United States has carried the library movement +farther than any other land. All these, again, are extensions of +educational opportunity to the masses of the people in a manner undreamed +of a century ago. + +UNIVERSITY EXPANSION. The modern university first attained its development +in Prussia (pp. 553-55), while in England and in the nations which drew +their inspiration from her, the teaching college, with its narrow range of +studies and disciplinary instruction (R. 331), continued to dominate +higher education until past the middle of the nineteenth century (R. 359). +The old universities of France, aside from Paris, were virtually destroyed +in the days of the Revolution, and their re-creation as effective teaching +and research institutions has been a relatively recent (1896) event. The +universities of Italy and Spain ceased to be effective teaching +institutions centuries ago, and only recently have begun to give evidences +of new life. + +Within the past three quarters of a century, and in many nations within a +much shorter period of time, the university has very generally experienced +a new manifestation of popular favor, and is to-day looked upon as perhaps +the most important part, viewed from the standpoint of the future welfare +of the State, of the entire system of public instruction maintained by the +State. In it the leaders for the State are trained; in it the thinking +which is to dominate government a quarter-century later is largely done; +out of it come the creative geniuses whose work, in dozens of fields of +human endeavor, will mould the political, social, and scientific future of +the nation (R. 369). Every government depending upon a two-class school +system must of necessity draw its leaders in the professions, in +government, in pure and applied science, and in many other lines from the +small but carefully selected classes its universities train. In a +democracy, depending entirely upon drawing its future leaders from among +the mass, the university becomes an indispensable institution for the +training of leaders and for the promotion of the national welfare. In a +democratic government one of the highest functions of a university is to +educate leaders and to create the standards for democracy. + +The university has, accordingly, in all lands, recently experienced a +great expansion. The German universities have been prominent modern +institutions for a century and a half. Realizing, as no other people have +done, their value in developing skilled leaders for the State, promoting +the national welfare, integrating the Empire, and as centers for building +up among students of other nationalities a good-will toward Germany, large +sums have been spent on their further development since 1871. Within the +past quarter-century new and strong French universities have been created, +[4] and old universities in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Greece have been +awakened to a new life. The English universities have been made over, +since 1870, and new municipal universities in Sheffield, Bristol, Leeds, +Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool, and London have set new standards in +English higher education. The universities of Scotland, Holland, +Switzerland, and the Scandinavian countries have also recently attained to +world prominence. In Australia, New Zealand, Japan, China, the +Philippines, India, Egypt, Palestine, Algiers, and South Africa, new +universities have been created to advance the national welfare. The South +American nations have also established a number of promising new +foundations, and given new life to older ones. Often nations swinging out +into the current of western civilization have developed their universities +before popular education really got under way. + +In no country has the development of university instruction been more +rapid than in the United States and Canada. New and important state +universities are to-day found in most of the American States and Canadian +Provinces, some States maintaining two. These have been relatively recent +creations to serve democracy's needs, and upon the support of these state +universities large and increasing sums of money are spent annually. [5] In +no nation of the world, too, has private benevolence created and endowed +so many private universities of high rank as in the United States, [6] and +these have fallen into their proper places as auxiliary agents for the +promotion of the national welfare in government, science, art, and the +learned professions. + +From small collegiate institutions with a very limited curriculum, a +century ago, stimulated in part by the German example and in part +responding to new national needs, universities to-day, in all the leading +world nations, have developed into groups of well-organized professional +schools, ministering to the great number of special needs of modern life +and government. The university development since the middle of the +nineteenth century has been greater than at any period before in world +history, and with the spread of democracy, dependent as democracy is upon +mass education to obtain its leaders, the university has become "the soul +of the State" (R. 369). The university development of the next half- +century, the world as a whole considered, may possibly surpass anything +that we have recently witnessed. + +THE STATE SCHOOL SYSTEMS AS ORGANIZED. We now find state school systems +organized in all the leading world nations. In many the system of public +instruction maintained is broad and extensive, beginning often with infant +schools or kindergartens, continuing up through elementary schools, middle +schools, continuation schools, secondary schools, and normal schools, and +culminating in one or more state universities. In addition there are to- +day, in many nations, state systems of scientific and technical schools +and institutions, and vocational schools and schools for special classes, +to which we shall refer more in detail a little further on. The support of +all these systems of public instruction to-day comes largely from the +direct or indirect taxation of the wealth of the State. Being now +conceived of as essential to the welfare and progress of the State, the +State yearly confiscates a portion of every man's property and uses it to +maintain a service deemed vital to its purposes. + +The sums spent to-day on education by modern States seem enormous, +compared with the sums spent for education under conditions existing a +century ago. In England, for example, where the first national aid was +granted, in 1833, in the form of a parliamentary grant of £20,000 +(approximately $100,000), the parliamentary grants for elementary schools +had reached approximately £12,000,000 by 1910, with an additional national +aid for universities of over £1,100,000. The year following the World War +the grants were £32,853,111. In France a treasury grant of 50,000 francs +(approximately $10,000) was first made for primary schools, in 1816. This +was doubled in 1829, and in 1831 was raised to a million francs. By 1850, +the state aid for primary education had reached 3,000,000 francs; by 1870, +10,000,000 francs; by 1880, 30,000,000; and by 1914, approximately +220,000,000 francs. In addition the State was paying out 25,000,000 francs +for secondary schools, and 10,000,000 francs for universities. In the +United States the total expenditures for maintenance only of public +elementary and secondary schools was $69,107,612, in 1870-71; had reached +$214,964,618 by the end of the nineteenth century; and was $640,717,053 in +1915-16, with an additional $101,752,542 for universities. By 1920 the +total expenditures for the maintenance of public elementary, secondary, +and higher education in the United States will probably total a billion +dollars. These rapidly increasing expenditures merely record the changing +political conception as to the national importance of enlarging the +educational opportunities and advantages of those who are to constitute +and direct the future State. + + +II. SCIENTIFIC + +In no phase of the remarkable educational development made by nations, +since the middle of the nineteenth century, has there been a more +important expansion of the educational service than in the creation of +schools dealing with the applications of science to the affairs of the +national life. Still more, no extension of instruction into new fields has +ever yielded material benefits, increased productivity, alleviated +suffering, or multiplied comforts and conveniences as has this new +development in applied scientific education during the past three quarters +of a century. + +SCIENCE INSTRUCTION IN THE SCHOOLS. At first this new work came in, as we +have seen (p. 774), but slowly, and its introduction into the secondary +schools of France, Germany, England, the United States, and other nations +for a time met with bitter opposition from the partisans of the older type +of intellectual training. In Germany it was not until after Emperor +William II came to the throne (1888) that the _Realschulen_ really found a +warm partisan, he demanding (1890), in the name of the national welfare, +that the secondary schools "depart entirely from the basis that has +existed for centuries--the old monastic education of the Middle Ages"--and +that "young Germans and not young Greeks and Romans" be trained in the +schools (R. 368). During his reign the _Realschulen_ (six-year course) and +_Oberrealschulen_ (nine-year course) were especially favored, while +permission to found additional _Gymnasien_ became hard to obtain. The +scientific course in the French _Lycées_ similarly did not prosper until +after the coming of the Third Republic (1871) and the rise of modern +scientific and industrial demands. In England it was not until after 1870 +that the endowed secondary schools began to include science instruction, +and laboratory instruction in the sciences began to be introduced into the +secondary schools of the United States at about the same time. In the +United States, too, the first manual-training high school was not +established until 1880, but by 1890 the creation of such schools was +clearly under way. Other nations--Switzerland, Holland, the Scandinavian +countries--also began to include laboratory science instruction in the +work of their secondary schools at about the same time. The decade of the +seventies witnessed a rising interest in instruction in science which +carried such work into the secondary schools of all progressive nations. +To-day, in nearly all lands, we find secondary-school courses in science, +or special secondary schools for scientific instruction, occupying a +position of at least equal importance with the older classical courses or +schools. As science instruction has become organized, and a knowledge of +the principles of science has become diffused, object lessons, _Realien_, +nature study, or elementary science instruction has very generally been +put into the elementary or people's schools for the younger pupils. As a +result, young people finishing the elementary schools to-day know more +relating to the laws of the universe, and the applications of these laws +to human life and industry, than did distinguished scholars two centuries +ago. + +All this work in the elementary schools, middle schools, people's high +schools, secondary schools, or special technical schools of middle or +secondary grade has been of much value in diffusing scientific knowledge +and scientific methods of thinking and working among large numbers of +people, as well as in revealing to many the possibilities of a scientific +career. The great and important development of scientific instruction, +however, since about 1860, has been in the fields of advanced applied +science or technical education, and has taken place chiefly in new and +higher specialized schools and research foundations. The fields in which +the greatest scientific advances have been made, and to which we shall +here briefly refer, have been engineering, agriculture, and medicine. + +THE BEGINNINGS OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION. The beginnings of technical +education were made earliest in France, Germany, and the United States, +and in the order named. France and German lands, but particularly France, +inherited through the monasteries what survived of the old Roman skills +and technical arts. In the building of bridges, roads, fortifications, +aqueducts, and imposing public buildings, the Romans had shown the +possession of engineering ability of a high order. Some of this knowledge +was retained by the monks of the early Middle Ages, as is evidenced by the +monasteries they erected and the churches they built. Later it passed to +others, and is evidenced in the great cathedrals and town halls of Europe, +and particularly of northern France. In military and civil engineering +the French were also the true successors of the Romans. As early as 1747 a +special engineering school for bridges and highways (_École des Ponts et +Chaussées_) had been created, and a little later a special school to train +mining engineers (_École des Mines_) was added. These were the first of +the world's higher technical schools. After the Revolution, the new need +for military and medical knowledge, as well as the general French interest +in applied science, led to the creation of a large number of important +higher technical institutions (list, p. 518), most of which have persisted +to the present and been enlarged and extended with time. Napoleon also +created a School of Arts and Trades (R. 282), and a number of military +schools (p. 590). + +In German lands there was early founded a series of trade schools, [7] +which have in time been developed into important technical universities. +After the creation of the Imperial German Empire, in 1871, these schools +were especially favored by the government, and their work was raised to a +rank equal to that of the older universities. To the excellent training +given in these institutions the German leadership in applied science and +industry, before 1914, was largely due. [8] It has been the particular +function of these technical universities to apply scientific knowledge to +the industries and the arts, and to show the technical schools beneath and +the directors of German industries how further to apply it (R. 371). Of +their work a recent _Report_ [9] well says: + + While in other countries the development of science has been academic, + in Germany every new principle elaborated by science has + revolutionized some industry, modified some manufacturing process, or + opened up an entirely new field of commercial exploitation. In the + chemical industries of Germany ... there is one trained university + chemist for every forty working-people. It is important to realize + that the development of Germany's manufactures and commerce has + depended not upon the establishment of any monopoly in the domain of + science, not upon any special advancement of science within her own + boundaries, but primarily upon the practical utilization of the + results of scientific research in Germany and other countries. + +The creation of the United States Military Academy, at West Point, in +1802, marks the American beginnings in technical education. In 1824 the +Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute was begun, largely as a manual-labor +school after the Fellenberg plan, to give instruction "in the applications +of science to the common purposes of life," and about 1850 this developed +into one of the earliest of our four-year engineering colleges. In 1846 +the United States organized a college for naval engineering, at Annapolis, +to do for the Navy what West Point had done for the Army. In 1861 the +Massachusetts Institute of Technology was founded, opening its doors in +1865. This was the first of a number of important new engineering +colleges, and eight others had been established, by private funds, before +1880. + +The development in England came a little later. Good engineering schools +have since been developed in connection with the new municipal +universities, while good engineering colleges have also been created at +Oxford and Cambridge, as well as at the Scottish and Irish universities. + +THE NEW IMPULSES TO DEVELOPMENT. During the first six decades of the +nineteenth century, France, the German States, and the United States were +slowly moving toward the creation of special schools for technical +education. After about 1860 the movement increased with great rapidity. A +number of events contributed to this change in rate of development, the +most important of which were: + + 1. The development attained by pure science, by about 1860. (See + chapter XXVII, part II, p. 723.) + + 2. The Industrial Revolution (p. 728), which changed nations from an + agricultural to an industrial status, opened up the possibilities of + vast world trade, and created enormous demands for technically trained + men to supervise and develop the rapidly growing industries of + nations. + + 3. The London Exhibition of 1851, which displayed to the world the + applications of science to trade, manufacturing, and the arts, made in + particular by England. This opened the eyes of Europe and America to + the possibilities of technical education, and led to the creation, in + 1853, of a national Department of Science and Art (p. 638) for + England. This began the stimulation, by money grants, of technical + education and instruction in drawing, and exerted from the first an + important influence on English education. + + 4. The passage by the Congress of the United States of the Morrill + Land-Grant-College Act, in 1862, which provided for the creation of + colleges of engineering, military science, and agriculture, in each of + the American States. + + 5. The militarily successful wars of Prussia against Denmark, in 1864; + Austria, 1866; and France, 1870-71. These revealed to other nations + the importance of sound military and engineering education for a + nation, and so tremendously stimulated German technical education that + the new nation soon arose, in many lines, to a position of world + industrial leadership (369). + + 6. The Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia, in 1876, which repeated + the work of the London Exhibition of 1851, and gave a new meaning to + the scientific and engineering education then developing in the new + American Land-Grant Colleges. + + 7. The work of Virchow in Germany (1856) in developing pathology; of + Pasteur in France, after 1859, in establishing the germ theory of + disease; the English surgeon Lister, about the same time, in + developing antiseptic surgery; and the new work of physiologists and + chemists. Combined these have remade medical science, and have opened + up immense possibilities for benefiting mankind. + +Following these important stimuli to activity, the important nations of +the world began the earnest development of technical education, and later +medical education, with the result that this new development has affected +educational practice all over the world. The new ideas have spread to all +continents, and to-day the call for technical education comes not only +from the older nations and such new countries as Canada, Australia, South +Africa, and the South American States, but from such ancient and backward +civilizations as Japan, China, Siam, the Philippines, the East Indies, +Egypt, Persia, and Turkey. + +In consequence to-day numerous and expensive engineering colleges and +research institutions are maintained by the important world nations. To- +day the trained engineer goes to work his wonders in all corners of the +globe, and his task has become primarily that of organizing and directing +men in the work of controlling the forces and materials of nature so that +they may be made to benefit the human race. So rapid has been the +development that, out of the earlier comprehensive type of engineering, +to-day dozens of specialized types of engineering education and +specialization have been evolved, covering such related fields as civil, +mechanical, mining, metallurgical, electrical, architectural, chemical, +electro-chemical, marine, naval, sanitary, biological, and public-health +engineering. No longer can a nation hope to develop its resources, care +properly for the modern needs of its people, or be counted among the +important industrial or agricultural nations if it neglects the +development of technical education. + +SCIENCE APPLIED TO AGRICULTURE. France also was the direct inheritor, +through the monks, of the old Roman agricultural knowledge and skills, +though up to the nineteenth century no attempt to organize agricultural +instruction took place anywhere in Europe. The earliest effort in that +direction was a proposal made in 1775 by Abbé Rosier, in France, to +Turgot, then Minister of Finance, on "A Plan for a National School of +Agriculture." Nothing coming of the proposal, the Abbé submitted the +proposal to the National Assembly, in 1789, and the same idea was later +presented to Napoleon, but without results. The first person to give +practical form to the idea was Fellenberg (p. 546), who conducted his +manual-labor agricultural institute at Hofwyl, from 1806 to 1844, and +inaugurated a plan of educational procedure which was soon afterwards +copied in Switzerland, France, the South German States, England, and the +United States. One of the earliest institutions to be established outside +of Switzerland was the Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, founded by +the Agricultural Society of Würtemberg, in 1817, at Hohenheim, near +Stuttgart. + +The earliest schools to teach agriculture in France were the Royal +Agronomic Institution at Grignon (1827); the Institute at Coetbo (1830), +and the Agricultural School at San Juan (1833). By 1847 twenty-five +agricultural schools were in operation in France, to several of which +orphan asylums and penal colonies were attached. In 1848 the French +Government reorganized the instruction in agriculture and gave it a +national basis. It ordered the creation of a farm school in each +department of France; a number of higher schools for agricultural +instruction at central places; and a National Agronomic Institute for more +advanced instruction. A treasury grant of 2,500,000 francs to establish +the system was voted. In 1873 elementary instruction in agriculture was +ordered given in all village and rural elementary schools. + +In the United States a number of agricultural societies were formed early +in the century, and a private school of agriculture was opened in Maine, +in 1821, and another in Connecticut, in 1824. With the opening-up of the +new West to farming and the change of the East to manufacturing, after +about 1825, the agitation for agricultural education for a time died out, +reappearing in Michigan, in 1850. In that year a new constitution was +adopted which required the legislature to create a State School of +Agriculture, and in 1857 the Michigan Agricultural College opened its +doors. Two years later a "Farmers' High School," which later became the +Pennsylvania State College, was opened in central Pennsylvania. In 1862, +in the midst of the greatest civil war in history, the American Congress +passed the very important Morrill Act, which provided for the creation of +a college to teach agriculture, mechanic arts, and military science in +each of the American States. It was a decade before many of these +institutions opened, and for a time they amounted to but little. They had +but few students, little money, and the instruction was very elementary +and but poorly organized. Cornell University, in New York State, was one +of the first (1868) of the new institutions to get under way and find its +work. The Centennial Exposition (1876) gave the needed emphasis to the +engineering courses, and by 1880 these were well established. The +agricultural courses did not flourish for two decades longer, and the +military science not until the World War, Despite feeble beginnings, the +result of the aid given by the national government has in time proved very +valuable, and to-day very large sums of money are being appropriated by +the American States and Territories for instruction in engineering, +agriculture, home economics, and related sciences, and large numbers of +students are now enrolled for this technical training. + +THE RECENT NEW INTEREST IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. Since the latter part +of the nineteenth century agricultural education has awakened new interest +in many lands. The German States have created many schools for instruction +in agriculture and forestry. Denmark has regenerated the rural life of the +nation (R. 370) by its "People's High Schools" and its special schools for +instruction in agriculture. Italy has recently made special efforts to +extend agricultural instruction to its people. Canada, Australia, and New +Zealand have established agricultural schools. In Algiers, Morocco, Japan, +China, the Philippines, and India, good beginnings in agricultural +education have been made. + +As agricultural knowledge has been worked out and classified, and +agricultural instruction has become organized, it has become possible to +relegate some of the more elementary instruction to the school below. This +was done in European nations before it took place in the United States. In +1888 the first American agricultural high school was established in +Minnesota. By 1898 there were ten such schools in the United States, but +since 1900 the development has been very rapid. By 1920 probably a +thousand high schools were offering instruction in agriculture, while +elementary instruction in agriculture had been introduced into the rural +and village schools of practically every American agricultural State. + +The agricultural schools, colleges, and experimental stations established +by the national, state, and local educational authorities of different +nations have added another new division to the work of public education, +and one which is both very costly and very remunerative. Out of the work +of these schools has come a vast quantity of useful knowledge, and +hundreds of important applications of science to farm and home life. Old +breeds in stock and grains have been improved, new breeds have been +derived, and productivity has been greatly increased. Through the +teachings of home economics the farmer's home is being transformed, while +the applications of science made in these schools are modifying almost +every phase of agricultural life and rural living. + +MEDICINE AND SANITARY SCIENCE. Closely related to sanitary, biological, +and public-health engineering has been the enormous recent development of +medicine and surgery. Within half a century instruction in these subjects +has been entirely transformed, and large and costly laboratories and +hospitals are now required for the work. There has also been much +specialization in medical training, within recent years, and especially +has preventive medicine been developed. Extending the newly found +biological and medical knowledge to the animal and vegetable worlds has +resulted in a similar development of veterinary medicine [10] and plant +pathology. A combination of medical knowledge with engineering and +chemistry has produced the sanitary engineer, while medical knowledge and +applied biology has produced the public-health expert. [11] + +So important, too, has the control of all kinds of disease become, now +that people, animals, insects, plants, and goods move so freely along the +great trade routes of the world, that nations everywhere feel the +necessity, now that scientific research has revealed to questioning man +the methods of transmission of the diseases which once decimated armies +and cities, destroyed stocks, and ruined harvests, of developing ample +quarantine service and medical staffs to cope with diseases--human, +animal, and plant--from without, and to control those which arise within. +Nations too poor as yet to provide such service for themselves are today +having such provision made for them by other nations, or by great national +foundations, [12] so that other lands may be protected from the ravages of +their diseases and the economic wealth of all may be increased. The +element of Christian charity has also entered into the service, the labors +of Dr. Grenfell in Labrador, and the work of the Rockefeller medical and +surgical boat traveling among the Philippine Islands and its hookworm work +on every continent, being good examples of such Christian effort. + +[Illustration: FIG. 232. THE PEKING UNION MEDICAL COLLEGE +A well-equipped center for instruction in western medicine, endowed by the +Rockefeller Foundation. A similar school is being created at Shanghai, in +central China. Existing medical schools at two other points, and nineteen +hospitals scattered over the Republic, have also been aided by this +American foundation. In addition, many medical missionaries, Chinese +physicians, and nurses have been sent to the United States for study. To +improve health standards and living conditions throughout the world is the +purpose of the work of the Foundation, which now has work under way on +every continent.] + +APPLIED SCIENCE THE NATION'S PROTECTOR. To-day applied science stands +everywhere as the nation's protector. Applied in sanitation and preventive +medicine it has reduced the death rate, prolonged life, and protects homes +from many hidden dangers. In the engineering fields it has transformed the +face of the earth and all our ways of living and doing business. Applied +to industry it builds factories and railways, and works out new processes +to eliminate wastes, improve production, and utilize by-products. +Thousands of labor-saving inventions owe their origin to a new truth +worked out in some laboratory, and applied in another. Applied chemistry +has wrought wonders in advancing industry, protecting the public welfare, +eliminating unnecessary labor, and making life richer for all. + +To-day the engineer with his railway and irrigating dam and power plant in +the desert has replaced the monk as the vanguard of the forces of +civilization. The scientist in his laboratory in part replaces armies and +navies as the protector of the nation's safety. The scientifically trained +Red Cross nurse is fast replacing the unskilled devotion of the older +Sister of Charity. The doctor and the surgeon at the medical mission are +carrying a very practical type of Christian civilization into far-away +lands. The laboratory expert in the quarantine station has succeeded the +priest with bell and book in keeping pestilence away from the land. The +public-health officer in the little town, and the sanitary engineer in the +city, protect the health and happiness of millions of homes. The plant +pathologist and veterinarian guard the crops and herds from which food and +clothing are derived. The scientific experts in plant and animal +industries work steadily to improve breeds and increase yields. When one +compares present-day scientific knowledge with that represented in the +thirteenth-century Encyclopaedia of Bartholomew Anglicus (R. 77); our +modern knowledge of diseases with the theories as to disease advanced by +Hippocrates (p. 197), and taught for so many centuries in Christian +Europe; our modern knowledge of bacterial transmission with the mediaeval +theories of Divine wrath and diabolic action; our modern ability to +annihilate time and space compared with early nineteenth-century +conditions; or modern applied science with the very limited technical +knowledge possessed by the guilds of the later Middle Ages--the stories of +Aladdin and his wonderful lamp seem to have been even more than realized +in our practical everyday life. + +Engineering, agriculture, and modern medicine stand as three of the great +applications of modern science to human affairs, and as three of the most +important and costly additions to state educational effort made since the +time when nations began to accept the political philosophy of the +eighteenth-century reformers and to take over the school from the Church, +because by so doing the interests of the State could better be advanced +thereby. + + +III. VOCATIONAL + +WHAT IS VOCATIONAL EDUCATION? In a certain sense, all education is +vocational, in that it aims to prepare one for some vocation in life. In +Greece and Rome education was vocational, in that it prepared one to be a +citizen in the State. During the Middle Ages education was to prepare for +a vocation in the Church. Later the vocation of a scholar appeared, and +still later that of a gentleman. In modern times a large range of state +services have been opened up as vocations. Since the beginning of the +nineteenth century, with the extension of educational advantages to +increasing numbers of the people, preparation for more intelligent living +and citizenship have come to be new motives in education. To-day we no +longer use the term vocational education in this rather general sense, but +restrict its use to the specific training of individuals for some useful +employment. Training for law, medicine, the ministry, teaching, +engineering, scientific agriculture, nursing, and commerce are examples of +vocational education in its higher ranges. The development of education +along these lines has previously been described. In this division of this +chapter we shall use the term in a still more common and still more +restricted sense, as meaning the training of the younger people of a State +to do well certain specific things, by teaching them processes and the +practical applications of knowledge, chiefly science and art, to the work +of the vocation they expect to follow to earn their living. The Report of +the American Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education (1914) +defined vocational education (p. 16) as follows: + + Wherever the term "vocational education" is used in this + _Report_, it will mean, unless otherwise explained, that form of + education whose controlling purpose is to give training of a secondary + grade to persons over fourteen years of age, for increased efficiency + in useful employment in the trades and industries, in agriculture, in + commerce and commercial pursuits, and in callings based upon a + knowledge of home economics. The occupations included under these are + almost endless in number and variety. + +THE NEED FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. Used in this sense vocational education +is an application of technical knowledge, worked out in the higher +schools, to the ordinary vocations of a modern industrial world. As such +it is a product of the Industrial Revolution and the breakdown of the age- +old system of apprenticeship training, [13] and represents another of the +important recent extensions of educational advantages to the masses of the +people who labor with their hands to earn their daily bread. + +Besides further democratizing education by extending its advantages to +those who work in the shop and the office and on the farm, vocational +education tends to correct many of the evils of modern industrial life. It +puts the worker in possession of a great body of scientific knowledge +relating to his work which shops and offices cannot give, and it keeps +him, for several years after he becomes a wage earner and at a very +impressionable period of his life, under the directing care of the school. +It thus tends "to counteract the specialization and routine of the +workshop, which wears out his body before nature has completed its +development in form and power, blunts the intelligence which the school +had tried to awaken, shrivels up his heart and imagination, and destroys +his spirit of work." + +VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES. For almost half a +century the leading nations of western Europe, in an effort to readjust +their age-old apprenticeship system of training to modern conditions of +manufacture, and to develop new national prestige and strength, have given +careful attention to the education of such of their children as were +destined for the vocations of the industrial world. Germany, Austria, +Switzerland, and France have been leaders, with Germany most prominent of +all. [14] No small part of the great progress made by that country in +securing world-wide trade, [15] before the World War, was due to the +extensive and thorough system of vocational education worked out for +German youths (R. 371). In commercial education, too, the Germans, up to +1914, led the world. Even more, they were the only great national group +which had done much to develop commercial training. Next to Germany +probably came the United States. The marked economic progress of +Switzerland during the past quarter-century has likewise been due in large +part to that type of education which would enable her, by skillful +artisanship, to make the most of her very limited resources France has +profited greatly, during the past half-century also, from vocational +education along the lines of agriculture and industrial art. In Denmark, +agricultural education has remade the nation (R. 370), since the days of +its humiliation and spoliation at the hands of Prussia. England, though +keenly sensitive to German trade competition, made only very moderate +efforts in the direction of vocational education until Germany plunged the +world in war in an effort more quickly to dominate commercially. Now, in +the Fisher Education Act of 1918 (p. 649), England has $t last laid +foundations for a great national system of vocational education. Japan, +also, recently laid large plans for a national system of vocational +training. + +[Illustration: FIG. 233. THE DESTRUCTION OF THE TRADES IN MODERN INDUSTRY +Under the old conditions of apprenticeship a boy learned all the processes +and became a tailor. To-day, in a thoroughly organized clothing factory, +thirty-nine different persons perform different specialized operations in +the manufacture of a coat.] + +In the United States but little attention was given to educating young +people for the vocations of life until about 1905-10, though modern +manufacturing conditions had before this largely destroyed the old +apprenticeship type of training. Endowed with enormous natural resources; +not being pressed for the means of subsistence by a rapidly expanding +population on a limited land area; able to draw on Europe for both cheap +manual labor and technically educated workers; largely isolated and self- +sufficient as a nation; lacking a merchant marine; not being thrown into +severe competition for international trade; and able to sell its products +[16] to nations anxious to buy them and willing to come for them in their +own ships; the people of the United States did not, up to recently, feel +any particular need for anything other than a good common-school education +or a general high-school education for their workers. The commercial +course in the high school, the manual-training schools and courses, and +some instruction in drawing and creative art were felt to be about all +that it was necessary to provide. + +THE NATIONAL COMMISSION ON VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. Largely since 1910, due +in part to expanding world commerce and increasing competition in world +trade; in part to a national realization that the battles of the future +are to be largely commercial battles; and in part to the dawning upon the +American people of the conception, first thought out and put into practice +by Imperial Germany (R. 371), that that nation will triumph in foreign +trade, with all that such triumph means to-day in terms of the happiness +and welfare of its citizenship (R. 372), which puts the greatest amount of +skill and brains into what it produces and sells. + +After a number of sporadic efforts in different parts of the country, [17] +and the introduction of a number of bills into Congress which failed to +secure passage, the favorite English plan was followed and a Presidential +Commission was appointed (1913) to inquire into the matter, and to report +on the desirability and feasibility of some form of national aid to +stimulate the development of vocational education. The Commission made its +report in 1914, and submitted a plan for gradually increasing national aid +to the States to assist them in developing and maintaining what will +virtually become a national system of agricultural, trade, commercial, and +home-economics education. + +THE COMMISSION'S FINDINGS. The Commission found that there were, in 1910, +in round numbers, 12,500,000 persons engaged in agriculture in the United +States, of whom not over one per cent had had any adequate preparation for +farming; and that there were 14,250,000 persons engaged in manufacturing +and mechanical pursuits, not one per cent of whom had had any opportunity +for adequate training. [18] In the whole United States there were fewer +trade schools, of all kinds, than existed in the little German kingdom of +Bavaria, a State about the size of South Carolina; while the one Bavarian +city of Munich, a city about the size of Pittsburgh, had more trade +schools than were to be found in all the larger cities of the United +States, put together. The Commission further found that there were +25,000,000 persons in the nation, eighteen years of age or over, engaged +in farming, mining, manufacturing, and mechanical pursuits, and in trade +and transportation, and of these the _Report_ said: + + If we assume that a system of vocational education, pursued through + the years of the past, would have increased the wage-earning capacity + of each of these persons to the extent of only ten cents a day, this + would have made an increase of wages for the group of $2,500,000 a + day, or $750,000,000 a year, with all that this would mean to the + wealth and life of the nation. + + This is a very moderate estimate, and the facts would probably show a + difference between the earning power of the vocationally trained and + the vocationally untrained of at least twenty-five cents a day. This + would indicate a waste of wages, through lack of training, amounting + to $6,250,000 every day, or $1,875,000,000 for the year. + +[Illustration: FIG. 234. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE OF AMERICAN CHILDREN, FOURTEEN +TO TWENTY YEARS or AGE +Based on an estimate made by the United States Bureau of Education in 1907 +(Bulletin No. 1, p. 29), and based on conditions then existing, but +probably still approximately true. In evening schools all classes were +counted--public, private, Y.M.C.A., Y.W.C.A., etc. Public and private day +schools, both elementary and secondary, also were counted.] + +The Commission estimated that a million new young people were required +annually by our industries, and that it would need three years of +vocational education, beyond the elementary-school age, to prepare them +for efficient service. This would require that three million young people +of elementary-school age be continually enrolled in schools offering some +form of vocational training. This was approximately three times the number +of young people then enrolled in all public and private high schools in +the United States, and following any kind of a course of study. In +addition, the untrained adult workers then in farming and industry also +needed some form of adult or extension education to enable them to do more +effective work. The Commission further pointed out that there were in the +United States, in 1910, 7,220,298 young people between the ages of +fourteen and eighteen years, only 1,032,461 of whom were enrolled in a +high school of any type, public or private, day or evening (Fig. 234), and +few of those enrolled were pursuing studies of a technical type. + +AMERICAN BEGINNINGS; MEANING OF THE WORK. In 1917 the American Congress +made the beginnings of what is destined to develop rapidly into a truly +national system of vocational education for the boys and girls of +secondary-school age in the United States. This new addition to the +systems of public instruction now provided is one which in time will bring +returns out of all proportion to its costs. Without it the national +prosperity and happiness would be at stake, and the position the United +States has attained in the markets of the world could not possibly be +maintained (R. 372). + +This new American legislation is based on the best continental European +experience, and is somewhat typical of recent national legislation for +similar objects elsewhere. It is to include vocational training for +agriculture, the trades and industries, commerce, and home economics. [19] +A certain portion of the money appropriated annually by the national +government is to be used for making or coöperating in studies and +investigations as to needs and courses in agriculture, home economics, +trades, industries, and commerce. The courses must be given in the public +schools; must be for those over fourteen years of age and of less than +college grade; and must be primarily intended for those who are preparing +to enter or who have entered (part-time classes) a trade or a useful +industrial pursuit. + +As nation after nation becomes industrialized, as all except the smallest +and poorest nations are bound to become in time, vocational education for +its workers in the field, shop, and office will be found to be another +state necessity. Only the State can adequately provide this, for only the +State can finance or properly organize and integrate the work of so large +and so important an undertaking. Though costly, this new extension of +state educational effort will be found to be a wise business investment +for every industrial and commercial nation. Considered nationally, the +workers of any nation not provided with vocational education will find +themselves unable to compete with the workers of other nations which do +provide such specialized training. + + +IV. SOCIOLOGICAL + +A NEW ESTIMATE AS TO THE VALUE OF CHILD LIFE. As we saw in chapter XVIII, +which described the opportunities for and the kind of schooling developed +up to the middle of the eighteenth century, but little of what may be +called formal education had been provided up to then for the great mass of +children, even in the most progressive nations. We also noted the extreme +brutality of the school. Such was the history of childhood, so far as it +may be said to have had a history at all, up to the rise of the great +humanitarian movement early in the nineteenth century. [20] Neglect, +abuse, mutilation, excessive labor, heavy punishments, and often virtual +slavery awaited children everywhere up to recent times. The sufferings of +childhood at home were added to by others in the school (p. 455) for such +as frequented these institutions. + +After the coming of mills and manufacturing the lot of children became, +for a time, worse than before. The demand for cheap labor led to the +apprenticing of children to the factories to tend machines, instead of to +a master to learn a trade, and there they became virtual slaves and their +treatment was most inhuman. [21] Conditions were worse in England than +elsewhere, not because the English were more brutal than the French or the +Germans, but because the Industrial Revolution began earlier in England +and before the rise of humanitarian influences. England was a +manufacturing nation decades before France, and longer still before +Germany. By the time Germany had changed from an agricultural to a +manufacturing nation (after 1871), the new humanitarianism and new +economic conditions had placed a new value on child life and child +welfare. + +Since about 1850 an entirely new estimate has come to be placed on the +importance of national attention to child welfare, though the beginnings +of the change date back much earlier. As we have seen (p. 325), England +early began to care for the children of its poor. In the Poor-Relief and +Apprenticeship Law of 1601 (R. 174) England organized into law the growing +practice of a century (p. 326) and laid the basis for much future work of +importance. In this legislation, as we have seen, the foundations of the +Massachusetts school law of 1642 were laid. In the Virginia laws of 1643 +and 1646 (R. 200 a) and the Massachusetts law of 1660, providing for the +apprenticeship of orphans and homeless children, the beginnings of child- +welfare work in the American Colonies were made. + +Many of the Catholic religious orders in Europe had for long cared for and +brought up poor and neglected children, and in 1729 the first private +orphanage in the new world was established by the Ursulines (p. 346) in +New Orleans. The first public orphanage in America was established in +Charleston, South Carolina, in 1790; the first in England at Birmingham, +in 1817, and in 1824 the New York House of Refuge was founded. The latter +was the forerunner of the juvenile reformatory institutions established +later by practically all of the American States. These have developed +chiefly since 1850. To-day most of the American States and governments in +many other lands also provide state homes for orphan and neglected +children, where they are clothed, fed, cared for, educated, and trained +for some useful employment. + +CHILD-LABOR LEGISLATION. One of the best evidences of the new nineteenth- +century humanitarianism is to be found in the large amount of child-labor +legislation which arose, largely after 1850, and which has been +particularly prominent since 1900. + +Under the earlier agricultural conditions and the restricted demand for +education for ordinary life needs, child labor was not especially harmful, +as most of it was out of doors and under reasonably good health +conditions. With the coming of the factory system, the rise of cities and +the city congestion of population, and other evils connected with the +Industrial Revolution, the whole situation was changed. Humanitarians now +began to demand legislation to restrict the evils that had arisen. This +demand arose earliest in England, and resulted in the earliest legislation +there. + +The year 1802 is important in the history of child-welfare work for the +enactment, by the English Parliament, of the first law to regulate the +employment of children in factories. This was known as the Health and +Morals of Apprentices Act (R. 373). This Act, though largely ineffectual +at the time, ordered important reforms which aroused public opinion and +which later bore important fruit. By it the employment of work-house +orphans was limited; it forbade the labor of children under twelve, for +more than twelve hours a day; provided that night labor of children should +be discontinued, after 1804; ordered that the children so employed must be +taught reading and writing and ciphering, be instructed in religion one +hour a week, be taken to church every Sunday, and be given one new suit of +clothes a year; ordered separate sleeping apartments for the two sexes, +and not over two children to a bed; and provided for the registration and +inspection of factories. This law represents the beginnings of modern +child-labor legislation. It was 1843 before any further child-labor +legislation of importance was enacted, and 1878 before a comprehensive +child-labor bill was finally passed. In the United States the first laws +regulating the employment of children and providing for their school +attendance were enacted by Rhode Island in 1840, and Massachusetts in +1842. Factory legislation in other countries has been a product of more +recent forces and times. + +To-day important child-labor legislation has been enacted by all +progressive nations, and the leading world nations have taken advanced +ground on the question. All recent thinking is opposed to children +engaging in productive labor. With the rise of organized labor, and the +extension of the suffrage to the laboring man, he has joined the +humanitarians in opposition to his children being permitted to labor. From +an economic point of view also, all recent studies have shown the +unprofitableness of child labor and the large money-value, under present +industrial conditions, of a good education. As a result of much agitation +and the spread of popular education, it has at last come to be a generally +accepted principle (R. 374) that it is better for children and better for +society that they should remain in school until they are at least fourteen +years of age, and be specially trained for some useful type of work. Shown +to be economically unprofitable, and for long morally indefensible, child +labor is now rapidly being superseded by suitable education and the +vocational training and guidance of youth in all progressive nations. + +COMPULSORY SCHOOL-ATTENDANCE LEGISLATION. The natural corollary of the +taxation of the wealth of the State to educate the children of the State, +and the prohibition of children to labor, is the compulsion of children to +attend school that they may receive the instruction and training which the +State has deemed it wise to tax its citizens to provide. + +Except in the German States, compulsory education is a relatively recent +idea, though in its origins it is a child of the Protestant Reformation +theory as to education for salvation. Luther and his followers had stood +for the education of all, supported by (R. 156) and enforced by (R. 158) +the State. This idea of the education of all to read the Bible took deep +root, as we have seen, with both Lutherans and Calvinists. In 1619 the +little Duchy of Weimar made the school attendance of all children, six to +twelve years of age, compulsory, and the same idea was instituted in Gotha +by Duke Ernest (p. 317), in 1642; the same year that the Massachusetts +General Court ordered the Selectmen of the towns to ascertain if parents +and the masters of apprentices (R. 190) were training their children "in +learning and labor" and "to read and understand the principles of religion +and the capital laws of the country." This latter law is remarkable in +that, for the first time in the English-speaking world, a legislative body +representing the State ordered that all children should be taught to read. +Five years later (1647) the Massachusetts Court ordered the establishment +of schools (R. 191) better to enforce the compulsion, and thus laid the +foundations upon which the American public-school systems have since been +built. In Holland, the Synod of Dort (1618) had tried to institute the +idea of compulsory education (R. 176), and in 1646 the Scotch Parliament +had ordered the compulsory establishment of schools (R. 179). + +In German lands the compulsory-attendance idea took deep root, and in +consequence the Germans were the first important modern nation to enforce, +thoroughly, the education of all. In 1717 King Frederick William I issued +(p. 555) the first compulsory-education law for Prussia, ordering that +"hereafter wherever there are schools in the place the parents shall be +obliged, under severe penalties, to send their children to school,... +daily in winter, but in summer at least twice a week." He further ordered +that the fees for the poor were to be paid "from the community's funds." +Finally Frederick the Great organized the earlier procedure into +comprehensive codes, and made (1763, R. 274, Section 10; 1765, R. 275 d) +detailed provisions relating to the compulsion to attend the schools. In +the Code of 1794 (p. 565) the final legislative step was taken when it was +ordered that "the instruction in school must be continued until the child +is found to possess the knowledge necessary to every rational being." By +the middle of the eighteenth century the basis was clearly laid in Prussia +for that enforcement of the compulsion to attend schools which, by the +middle of the nineteenth century, had become such a notable characteristic +of all German education. The same compulsory idea early took deep root +among the Scandinavian peoples. In consequence the lowest illiteracy in +Europe, at the beginning of the nineteenth century, was to be found (see +map, p. 714) among the Finns, Swedes, Norwegians, Danes, and Germans. + +The compulsory-attendance idea died out in America, in the Netherlands, +and in part in Scotland. In England and in the Anglican Colonies in +America it never took root. In France the idea awaited the work of the +National Convention, which (1792) ordered three years of education +compulsory for all. War and the lack of interest of Napoleon in primary +education caused the requirement, however, to become a dead letter. The +Law of 1833 provided for but did not enforce it, and real compulsory +education in France did not come until 1882. In England the compulsory +idea received but little attention until after 1870, met with much +opposition, and only recently have comprehensive reforms been provided. In +the United States the new beginnings of compulsory-attendance legislation +date from the Rhode Island child-labor law of 1840, and the first modern +compulsory-attendance law enacted by Massachusetts, in 1852. By 1885, +fourteen American States and six Territories had enacted some form of +compulsory-attendance law. Since 1900 there has been a general revision of +American state legislation on the subject, with a view to increasing and +the better enforcement of the compulsory-attendance requirements, and with +a general demand that the National Congress should enact a national child- +labor law. + +As a result of this legislation the labor of young children has been +greatly restricted; work in many industries has been prohibited entirely, +because of the danger to life and health; compulsory education has been +extended in a majority of the American States to cover the full school +year; poverty, or dependent parents, in many States no longer serves as an +excuse for non-attendance; often those having physical or mental defects +also are included in the compulsion to attend, if their wants can be +provided for; the school census has been changed so as to aid in the +location of children of compulsory school-attendance age; and special +officers have been authorized or ordered appointed to assist school +authorities in enforcing the compulsory-attendance and child-labor laws. +Having taxed their citizens to provide schools, the different States now +require children to attend and partake of the advantages provided. The +schools, too, have made a close study of retarded pupils, because of the +close connection found to exist between retardation in school and truancy +and juvenile delinquency. + +ONE RESULT OF THIS LEGISLATION. One of the results of all this legislation +has been to throw, during the past quarter of a century, an entirely new +burden on schools everywhere. Such legislation has brought into the +schools not only the truant and the incorrigible, who under former +conditions either left early or were expelled, but also many children who +have no aptitude for book learning, and many of inferior mental qualities +who do not profit by ordinary classroom procedure. Still more, they have +brought into the school the crippled, tubercular, deaf, epileptic, and +blind, as well as the sick, needy, and physically unfit. By steadily +raising the age at which children may leave school, from ten or twelve up +to fourteen and sixteen, schools everywhere have come to contain many +children who, having no natural aptitude for study, would at once, unless +specially handled, become a nuisance in the school and tend to demoralize +schoolroom procedure. These laws have thrown upon the school a new burden +in the form of public expectancy for results, whereas a compulsory- +education law cannot create capacity to profit from education. Under the +earlier educational conditions the school, unable to handle or educate +such children, dealt with them much as the Church of the time dealt with +religious delinquents. It simply expelled them or let them drop from +school, and no longer concerned itself about them. To-day the public +expects the school to retain and get results with them. Consequently, +within the past twenty-five years the whole attitude of the school toward +such children has undergone a change; many different kinds of classes and +courses, that might serve better to handle them, have been introduced; and +an attempt has been made to salvage them and turn back to society as many +of them as possible, trained for some form of social and personal +usefulness. + +THE EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES. Another nineteenth-century expansion of state +education has come in the provision now generally made for the education +of defectives. To-day the state school systems of Christian nations +generally make some provision for state institutional care, and often for +local classes as well, for the training of children who belong to the +seriously defective classes of society. This work is almost entirely a +product of the new humanitarianism of modern times. Excepting the +education of the deaf, seriously begun a little earlier, all effective +work dates from the first half of the nineteenth century. At first the +feasibility of all such instruction was doubted, and the work generally +was commenced privately. Out of successes thus achieved, public +institutions have been built up to carry on, on a large scale, what was +begun privately on a small scale. It is now felt to be better for the +State, as well as for the unfortunates themselves, that they be cared for +and educated, as suitably and well as possible, for self-respect, self- +support, and some form of social and vocational usefulness. In +consequence, the compulsory-attendance laws of the leading world States +to-day require that defectives, between certain ages at least, be sent to +a state institution or be enrolled in a public-school class specialized +for their training. + +[Illustration: FIG. 235. ABBÉ DE L'ÉPÉE (1712-89)] + +BEGINNINGS OF THE WORK. Up to the middle of the eighteenth century a +number of private efforts at the education of the deaf are on record, all +dating however from the pioneer work of a Spanish Benedictine, in 1578. In +1760 a new era in the education of the deaf was begun when Abbé de l'Épée +opened a school at Paris for the oral instruction of poor deaf mutes, and +Thomas Braidwood (1715-1806) began similar work at Edinburgh. A few years +later (1778) a third school was opened at Leipzig. This last was +established under the patronage of the Elector of Saxony, and was the +first school of its kind in the world to receive government recognition. +The Paris school was taken over as a state institution by the Constituent +Assembly, in 1791. In England the instruction of the deaf remained a +private and a family monopoly until 1819. In 1817 the first school in +America was opened, at Hartford, Connecticut, by the Reverend Thomas H. +Gallaudet, and Massachusetts, in 1819, sent the first pupils paid for at +state expense to this institution. In 1823 Kentucky created the first +state school for the training of the deaf established in the new world, +and Ohio the second, in 1827. + +[Illustration: FIG. 236. REV. THOMAS H. GALLAUDET TEACHING THE DEAF AND +DUMB +From a bas-relief on the monument of Gallaudet, erected by the deaf and +dumb of the United States, in the grounds of the American Asylum, at +Hartford, Connecticut.] + +The education of the blind began in France, in 1784; England, in 1791; +Austria, in 1804; Prussia, in 1806; Holland, in 1808; Sweden, in 1810; +Denmark, in 1811; Scotland, in 1812; in Boston and New York, in 1832; and +in Philadelphia, in 1833. All were private institutions, and general +interest in the education of the blind was awakened later by exhibiting +the pupils trained. The first book for the blind was printed in Paris, in +1786. The first kindergarten for the blind was established in Germany, in +1861; the first school for the colored blind, by North Carolina, in 1869. + +[Illustration: FIG. 237. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS MAINTAINED BY THE STATE +As state institutions, other than public schools.] + +Before the nineteenth century the feeble-minded and idiotic were the +laughing-stock of society, and no one thought of being able to do anything +for them. In 1811 Napoleon ordered a census of such individuals, and in +1816 the first school for their training was opened at Salzburg, Austria. +The school was unsuccessful, and closed in 1835. The real beginning of the +training of the feeble-minded was made in France, by Edouard Séguin, "The +Apostle of the Idiot," in 1837, when he began a life-long study of such +defectives. By 1845 three or four institutions had been opened in +Switzerland and Great Britain for their study and training, and for a time +an attempt was made to effect cures. Gallaudet had tried to educate such +children at Hartford, about 1820, and a class for idiots was established +at the Blind Asylum in Boston, in 1848. The interest thus aroused led to +the creation of the Massachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded +Youth, in 1851, the first institution of its kind in the United States. In +1867 the first city school class to train children of low-grade +intelligence was organized in Germany, and all the larger cities of +Germany later organized such special classes. Norway followed with a +similar city organization, in 1874; and England, Switzerland, and Austria, +about 1892. The first American city to organize such classes was +Providence, Rhode Island, in 1893. Since that time special classes for +children of low-grade mentality have become a common feature of the large +city school systems in most American cities. + +In 1832 the first attempt to educate crippled children, as such, was made +in Munich. The model school in Europe for the education of cripples was +established in Copenhagen, in 1872. The work was begun privately in New +York City, in 1861, and first publicly in Chicago, in 1899. The London +School Board first began such classes in England, in 1898. + +Dependents, orphans, children of soldiers and sailors, and incorrigibles +of various classes represent others for whom modern States have now +provided special state institutions. To-day a modern State finds it +necessary to provide a number of such specialized institutions, or to make +arrangements with neighboring States for the care of its dependents, if it +is to meet what have come to be recognized as its humanitarian educational +duties. The more important of these special state institutions are shown +in the diagram given in Fig. 237. + +Public playgrounds and play directors, vacation schools, juvenile courts, +disciplinary classes, parental schools, classes for mothers, visiting +home-teachers and nurses, and child-welfare societies and officers, are +other means for caring for child life and child welfare which have all +been begun within the past half-century. The significance of these +additions lies chiefly in that the history of the attitude of nations +toward their child life is the history of the rise of humanitarianism, +altruism, justice, order, morality, and civilization itself. + +THE EDUCATION OF SUPERIOR CHILDREN. All the work described above and +relating to the work of defectives, delinquents, and children for some +reason in need of special attention and care has been for those who +represent the less capable and on the whole less useful members of +society--the ones from whom society may expect the least. They are at the +same time the most costly wards of the State. + +Wholly within the second decade of the present century, and largely as a +result of the work of the French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857-1911) we +are now able to sort out, for special attention, a new class of what are +known as superior, or gifted children, and to the education of these +special attention is to-day here and there beginning to be directed. +Educationally, it is an attempt to do for democratic forms of national +organization what a two-class school system does for monarchical forms, +but to select intellectual capacity from the whole mass of the people, +rather than from a selected class or caste. We know now that the number of +children of superior ability is approximately as large as the number of +the feeble in mind, and also that the future of democratic governments +hinges largely upon the proper education and utilization of these superior +children. One child of superior intellectual capacity, educated so as to +utilize his talents, may confer greater benefits upon mankind, and be +educationally far more important, than a thousand of the feeble-minded +children upon whom we have recently come to put so much educational effort +and expense. Questions relating to the training of leaders for democracy's +service attain new significance in terms of the recent ability to measure +and grade intelligence, as also do questions relating to grading, +classification in school, choice of studies, rate of advancement, and the +vocational guidance of children in school. + + _Net Average Worth of a Person_ + _Age_ _Worth_ + 0 $90 + 5 950 + 10 2000 + 20 4000 + 30 4100 + 40 3650 + 50 2900 + 60 1650 + 70 15 + 80 -700 + (Calculations by Dr. William Farr, formerly Registrar of Vital + Statistics for Great Britain. Based on pre-war values.) + +THE NEW INTEREST IN HEALTH. Another new expansion of the educational +service which has come in since the middle of the nineteenth century, and +which has recently grown to be one of large significance, is work in the +medical inspection of schools, the supervision of the health of pupils, +and the new instruction in preventive hygiene. This is a product of the +scientific and social and industrial revolutions which the nineteenth +century brought, rather than of humanitarian influences, and represents an +application of newly discovered scientific knowledge to health work among +children. Its basis is economic, though its results are largely physical +and educational and social (R. 375). + +The discovery and isolation of bacteria; the vast amount of new knowledge +which has come to us as to the transmission and possibilities for the +elimination of many diseases; the spread of information as to sanitary +science and preventive medicine; the change in emphasis in medical +practice, from curative to preventive and remedial; the closer crowding +together of all classes of people in cities; the change of habits for many +from life in the open to life in the factory, shop, and apartment; and the +growing realization of the economic value to the nation of its manhood and +womanhood; have all alike combined with modern humanitarianism and applied +Christianity to make progressive nations take a new interest in child +health and proper child development. European nations have so far done +much more in school health work than has the United States, though a very +commendable beginning has been made here. + +MEDICAL INSPECTION AND HEALTH SUPERVISION. Medical inspection of schools +began in France, in 1837, though genuine medical inspection, in a modern +sense, was not begun in France until 1879. The pioneer country for real +work was Sweden, where health officers were assigned to each large school +as early as 1868. Norway made such appointments optional in 1885, and +obligatory in 1891. Belgium began the work in 1874. Tests of eyesight were +begun in Dresden in 1867. Frankfort-on-Main appointed the first German +school physician in 1888. England first employed school nurses in 1887; +and, in 1907, following the revelations as to low physical vitality +growing out of the Boer War, adopted a mandatory medical-inspection and +health-development act applying to England and Wales, and the year +following Scotland did the same. Argentine and Chili both instituted such +service in 1888, and Japan made medical inspection compulsory and +universal in 1898. + +In the United States the work was begun voluntarily in Boston, in 1894, +following a series of epidemics. Chicago organized medical inspection in +1895, New York City in 1897, and Philadelphia in 1898. From these larger +cities the idea spread to the smaller ones, at first slowly, and then very +rapidly. The first school nurse in the United States was employed in New +York City, in 1902, and the idea at once proved to be of great value. In +1906 Massachusetts adopted the first state medical inspection law. In 1912 +Minnesota organized the first "State Division of Health Supervision of +Schools" in the United States, and this plan has since been followed by +other States. + +From mere medical inspection to detect contagious diseases, in which the +movement everywhere began, it was next extended to tests for eyesight and +hearing, to be made by teachers or physicians, and has since been enlarged +to include physical examinations to detect hidden diseases and a +constructive health-program for the schools. The work has now come to +include eye, ear, nose, throat, and teeth, as well as general physical +examinations; the supervision of the teaching of hygiene in the schools, +and to a certain extent the physical training and playground activities; +and a constructive program for the development of the health and physical +welfare of all children. All this represents a further extension of the +public-education idea. + + +V. THE SCIENTIFIC ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION + +An important recent development in the field of public education, and in a +sense an outgrowth of all the preceding recent development which we have +described, has been the organization of collegiate and university +instruction in the history, theory, practice, and administration of +education. Still more recent has been the organization of Teachers' +Colleges and Schools of Education to give advanced training in educational +research and in the solution of the practical problems of school +organization and administration. So important has this recent development +become that no history of educational progress would be complete without +at least a brief mention of this recent attempt to give scientific +organization to the educational process. + +EARLY BEGINNERS. Though the teachers' seminaries had been organized in +Germany and other northern lands toward the close of the eighteenth +century, the normal school in France early in the nineteenth, and the +training-college in England and the normal school in the United States by +the close of the first third of that century, the work in these remained +for a long time almost entirely academic in nature and elementary in +character. This was also true of the superior normal school for training +teachers for the _lycées_ of France. + +The reason for this is easy to find. The writings of the earlier +educational reformers were little known; the contributions of Herbart and +Froebel had not as yet been popularized; there was no organized psychology +of the educational process, and no psychology better than that of John +Locke; the detailed Pestalozzian procedure had not as yet been worked out +in the form of teaching technique; the history of the development of +educational theory or of educational practice had not been written; and +almost no philosophy of the educational purpose had been formulated which +could be used in the training-schools. In consequence the training of +teachers, both for elementary and secondary instruction, [22] was almost +entirely in academic subjects, with some talks on school-keeping and class +organization and management added, and at times a little philosophy as to +educational work, such as habit-formation, morality, thinking, and the +training of the will. Educational journalism did not begin in either +Europe or America until near the close of the first quarter of the +nineteenth century, and it was 1850 before it attained any significance, +and 1840 to 1850 before any important pedagogical literature arose. [23] + +[Illustration: FIG. 238. KARL GEORG VON RAUMER (1783-1865)] + +NEW INFLUENCE. In 1843 there appeared, in Germany, the first two volumes +of a very celebrated and influential History of Education, by a professor +of mineralogy in the University of Erlangen, by the name of Karl Gcorg von +Raumer. As a young man in Paris (1808-09), studying the great mineral +collections found there, he read and was deeply stirred by Fichte's +"Address to the German Nation" (p. 567). As a result he went to Yverdon, +in 1809, and spent some months in studying the work in Pestalozzi's +Institute. This interest in education he never lost, and thereafter, as +professor of mineralogy at Halle and Erlangen, he also gave lectures on +pedagogy (_Uber Pädagogik_). The outgrowth of these lectures was his four- +volume _History of Pedagogy from the Revival of Classical Studies to our +own Time_. [24] The work was done with characteristic German thoroughness, +and for long served as a standard organization and text on the history of +the development of educational theory and practice since the days of the +Revival of Learning. The work of von Raumer stimulated many to a study of +the writings of the earlier educational reformers, and numerous books and +papers on educational history and theory soon began to appear. Most +important, for American students, was Henry Barnard's monumental _American +Journal of Education_, begun in 1855, and continued for thirty-one years. +This is a great treasure-house of pedagogical literature for American +educators. + +After 1850 the organization of a technique of instruction for the +elementary-school subjects took place rapidly, in the normal schools of +all lands, as it had earlier in the German teachers' seminaries. By 1868 +the study of the new Herbartian psychology and educational theory was well +under way in Germany, and by 1890 in the United States. By 1875 the +kindergarten, with its new theory of child life, was also beginning to +make itself felt in both Europe and America. Between 1850 and 1875 Weber, +Lotze, Fechner, and Wundt laid the foundations for a new psychology (R. +357), and in 1878 Wundt opened the first laboratory for the experimental +study of psychology at the University of Leipzig. In 1890 William James +published his two-volume work on _Principles of Psychology_, a book so +original and lucid in treatment that it at once gave a new teaching +organization to modern psychology. After about 1880, the extension of +education upward and outward in the United States, and the rapid +development of state school systems which had by that time begun, began to +make new demands for better scientific and legal and administrative +organization, and this gave rise to a new type of educational literature. + +After von Raumer's work, probably the greatest single stimulative +influence of the mid-nineteenth century was that exerted by the marked +successes of the Prussian armies in a series of short but very decisive +wars. Against Denmark (1864) and Austria (1866), but in particular in the +Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, the Prussian armies proved irresistible. +These military operations attracted new attention to education, and "the +Prussian schoolmaster has triumphed" became a common world saying. This, +coupled with the remarkable national development of United Germany which +almost immediately set in, caused progressive nations to turn to the study +of education with increased interest. The English and Scottish +universities now began to establish lectureships in the theory and history +of education, [25] and the first university chairs in education in the +United States were founded. + +THE UNIVERSITY STUDY OF EDUCATION. In no country in the world have the +universities, within the past three decades, given the attention to the +study of Education--a term that in English-speaking lands has replaced the +earlier and more limited "Pedagogy"--that has been given in the United +States. [26] After the United States the newer universities of England +probably come next. Up to 1890 less than a dozen chairs of education had +been established in all the colleges of the United States, and their work +was still largely limited to historical and philosophical studies of +education, and to a type of classroom methodology and school management, +since almost entirely passed over to the normal schools. By 1920 there +were some four hundred colleges in the United States giving serious +courses on educational history and procedure and administration, many of +them maintaining large and important professional Schools of Education for +the more scientific study of the subject, and for the training of leaders +for the service of the nation's schools. + +In the great advances which have taken place in the organization of +education, during these three decades, no institution in the world has +exerted a more important influence than has "Teachers College," Columbia +University, in the City of New York, which was organized in 1887 as "The +New York College for the Training of Teachers," but since 1890 has been +affiliated with Columbia University, under its present name. This +institution has been a model copied by many others over the world; has +trained a large percentage of the leaders in education in the United +States; and has been particularly influential with students from England, +the English self-governing dominions, China, and South America. + +To-day, in all the state universities and in many non-state institutions +in the United States, we find well-organized Teachers' Colleges engaged in +a work which two decades ago was being attempted by but a few institutions +anywhere, In the municipal universities of England, in Canada, in Japan +and China, and in other democratic lands, we find the beginnings of a +similar development of the scientific study of education. In these Schools +or Colleges for the scientific study of education the best thinking on the +problems of the reorganization and administration of education, and the +most new and creative work, has been and is being done. [27] + +THE PROBLEMS OF THE PRESENT. Pestalozzi dreamed that he might be able to +psychologize instruction and reduce all to an orderly procedure, which, +once learned, would make one a master teacher. What he was not able to +accomplish he died thinking others after him would do. The problem of +education has had, with time, no such simple and easy solution. Instead, +with the development of state school systems, the extension of education +in many new directions to meet new needs, and the application to the study +of education of the same scientific methods which have produced such +results in other fields of human knowledge, we have come to-day to have +hundreds of problems, many of which are complex and difficult and which +influence deeply the welfare of society and the State. That these +problems, even with time, will receive any such simple solution as that of +which Pestalozzi dreamed, may well be doubted. In the days of church +control, memoriter instruction, and a school for religious ends, education +was a simple matter; to-day it partakes of the difficulty and complexity +which characterize most of the problems of modern world States. In +consequence of this important change in the character of education a great +number of important problems in educational organization, practice, and +procedure now face us for solution. + +Space can here be taken to mention only the more prominent of these +present-day educational problems. On the administrative side is a whole +group of problems relating to forms of organization: the proper +educational relationships between the State and its subordinate units; the +development of a state educational policy: the types of instruction the +State must provide, and compel attendance upon; questions of taxation and +support, compulsory attendance, and child labor; the training and +oversight of teachers for the service of the State; problems of child +health and welfare; the provision of adequate and professional +supervision; the provision of continuation schools, and of industrial and +vocational training; the supervision of school buildings for health and +sanitary control; and the relation of the State to private and parochial +education. The problem of how to produce as effective and as thorough +education for leadership with a one-class school system as with a two- +class; the opening-up of opportunity for youth of brains in any social +class to rise and be trained for service; the selection and proper +training of those of superior intelligence; the elimination of barriers to +the advancement of children of large intellectual endowment; and what best +to do with those of small intellectual capacity, form another important +group of present-day educational problems. Vocational training and +technical education, and the relation and the proper solution of these +questions to national happiness and prosperity and human welfare, form +still another important group. The many questions which hinge upon +instruction; the elimination of useless subject-matter; the best +organization of instruction; proper aims and ends; moral and civic +training; the most economical organization of school work; the saving of +time; and what are desirable educational reorganizations, all these form a +group of instructional problems of large significance for the future of +public education. Still more in detail, but of large importance, are the +questions relating to the scientific measurement of the results of +instruction; the erection of attainable goals in teaching; and the +introduction of scientific accuracy into educational work. Still another +important group of problems relates to the readjustment of inherited +school organization and practices, the better to meet the changed and +changing conditions of national life--social, industrial, political, +religious, economic, scientific--brought about by the industrial and +social and scientific and political revolutions which have taken place. + +These represent some of the more important new problems in education which +have come to challenge us since the school was taken over from the Church +and transformed into the great constructive tool of the State. Their +solution will call for careful investigation, experimentation, and much +clear thinking, and before they are solved other new problems will arise. +So probably it will ever be under a democratic form of government; only in +autocratic or strongly monarchical forms of government, where the study of +problems of educational organization and adjustment are not looked upon +with favor, can a school system to-day remain for long fixed in type or +uniform in character. Education to-day has become intricate and difficult, +requiring careful professional training on the part of those who would +exercise intelligent control, and so intimately connected with national +strength and national welfare that it may be truthfully said to have +become, in many respects, the most important constructive undertaking of a +modern State. + + +QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION + +1. Show that education must be extended and increased in efficiency in +proportion as the suffrage is extended, and additional political functions +given to the electorate. Illustrate. + +2. Trace the changes in the character of the instruction given in the +schools, paralleling such changes. + +3. Explain the difference in use of the schools for nationality ends in +Germany and France. + +4. Of what is the recent development of evening, adult, and extension +education an index? + +5. Show why university education is more important in national life to-day +than ever before in history. + +6. Compare the rate of development of universities during the nineteenth +century, and all time before the nineteenth. Of what is the difference in +rate an index? + +7. Explain why Americans have been less successful in introducing science +instruction into their schools than have the Germans. Agriculture than the +French. + +8. Explain the breakdown of the old apprenticeship education. + +9. Explain the American recent rapid acceptance of the agricultural high +school, whereas the agricultural colleges for a long time faced opposition +and lack of interest and support. + +10. Explain the continued emphasis of high-school studies leading to the +professions rather than the vocations, though so small a percentage of +people are needed for professional work. + +11. In Germany this was largely regulated by the Government; show how it +would be much easier there than in the United States. + +12. Show why European nations would naturally take up vocational training +ahead of the United States, Canada, Australia, or South America. + +13. Explain the reasons for the new conceptions as to the value of child +life which have come within the past hundred years, in all advanced +nations. Why not in the less advanced nations? + +14. Show the relation between the breakdown of the apprentice system, the +Industrial Revolution, and the rise of compulsory school attendance. + +15. Show that compulsory school attendance is a natural corollary to +general taxation for education. + +16. How do you account for the relatively recent interest in the education +of defectives and delinquents? Of what is this interest an expression? + +17. Does the obligation assumed to educate involve any greater exercise of +state authority or recognition of duty than the advancement of the health +of the people and the sanitary welfare of the State? + +18. What additional unsolved problems would you add to the list given on +the preceding page? + + +SELECTED READINGS + +In the accompanying _Book of Readings_ the following selections +illustrative of the contents of this chapter are reproduced: + + 367. McKechnie, W. S.: The Environmental Influence of the State. + 368. Emperor William II.: German Secondary Schools and National Ends. + 369. Van Hise, Chas. R.: The University and the State. + 370. Friend: What the Folk High Schools have done for Denmark. + 371. U.S. Commission: The German System of Vocational Education. + 372. U.S. Commission: Vocational Education and National Prosperity. + 373. de Montmorency: English Conditions before the First Factory-Labor + Act. + 374. Giddings, F. R.: The New Problem of Child Labor. + 375. Hoag, E. B., and Terman, L. M.: Health Work in the Schools. + + +QUESTIONS ON THE READINGS + +1. Explain why it is now so important that the State properly environ +(367) its youth. + +2. What were the actuating motives behind the German Emperor's speech +(368)? Was he right in his position as to the relation of the schools and +national needs and welfare? + +3. Explain Van Hise's conception (369) that the university is "The Soul of +the State." + +4. Does Denmark form any exception as to what might be done (370) in any +country, such as Russia? Mexico? + +5. Show that the results justified the German emphasis (371) on vocational +training. How do you explain this German far-sightedness? + +6. What will be the result when many nations (372) become highly skilled? + +7. Show the growth of humanitarian influences by contrasting conditions in +England in 1802 (373), and conditions to-day. + +8. Would the English 1802 conditions be found in any Christian land today? +Why? + +9. Show that the child-labor problem (374) is a product of the Industrial +Revolution. + +10. Viewed in the light of history, what would we say of the present +opposition to health work (375) in the schools? + + +SUPPLEMENTARY REFERENCES + +* Allen, E. A. "Education of Defectives"; in Butler, N. M., _Education + in the United States_, pp. 771-820. + Barnard, Henry. _National Education in Europe_. +* _Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education, Report_, vol. + I. (Document 1004, H. R., 63d Congress, 2d session, Washington, 1914.) + Cook, W. A. "A Brief Survey of the Development of Compulsory Education + in the United States"; in _Elementary School Teacher_, vol. 12, + PP. 33l-35 (March, 1912.) +* Dean, A. D. _The Worker and the State_. + Eliot, C. W. _Education for Efficiency_. + Farrington, F. E. _Commercial Education in Germany_. + Foght, H. W. _Rural Denmark and its Schools_. + Friend, L. L. _The Folk High Schools of Denmark_. (Bulletin No. 3, + 1914, United States Bureau of Education.) +* Hoag, E. B., and Terman, L. M. _Health Work in the Schools_. + Kandel, I. L, "The Junior High School in European Systems"; in + _Educational Review_, vol. 58, pp. 305-29. (Nov. 1919.) +* Munroe, J. P. _New Demands in Education_. +* Payne, G. H. _The Child in Human Progress_. + Smith, A. T., and Jesien, W. S. _Higher Technical Education in Foreign + Countries_. (Bulletin No. n, 1917, United States Bureau of + Education.) + Snedden, D. S. _Vocational Education_. +* Terman, L. M. _The Intelligence of School Children_. + Waddle, C. W. _Introduction to Child Psychology_, chap. I. + Ware, Fabian. _Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry_. + + + + +CONCLUSION; THE FUTURE + + +We have now reached the end of the story of the rise and progress of man's +conscious effort to improve himself and advance the welfare of his group +by means of education. To one who has followed the narrative thus far it +must be evident how fully this conscious effort has paralleled the history +of the rise and progress of western civilization itself. Beginning first +among the Greeks--the first people in history to be "smitten with the +passion for truth." the first possessing sufficient courage to put faith +in reason, and the first to attempt to reconcile the claims, of the State +and the individual and to work out a plan of "ordered liberty"--a new +spirit was born and in time passed on to the western world. As Butcher +well says (R. 11), "the Greek genius is the European genius in its first +and brightest bloom, and from a vivifying contact with the Greek spirit +Europe derived that new and mighty impulse which we call Progress." +Hellenizing first the Eastern Mediterranean, and then taking captive her +rude conqueror, the Hellenization of the Roman and early Christian world +was the result. + +Then followed the reaction under early Christian rule, and the fearful +deluge of barbarism which for centuries well-nigh extinguished both the +ancient learning and the new spirit. Finally, after the long mediaeval +night, came "time's burst of dawn," first and for a long time confined to +Italy, but later extending to all northern lands, and in the century of +revival and rediscovery and reconstruction the Greek passion for truth and +the Greek courage to trust reason were reawakened, and once more made the +heritage of the western world. Once again the Greek spirit, the spirit of +freedom and progress and trust in the power of truth, became the impulse +that was to guide and dominate the future. To follow reason without fear +of consequences, to substitute scientific for empirical knowledge, to +equip men for intelligent participation in civic life, to discover a +rational basis for conduct, to unfold and expand every inborn faculty and +energy, and to fill man with a restless striving after an ideal--these +essentially Greek characteristics in time came to be accepted by an +increasing number of modern men, as they had been by the thoughtful men of +the ancient Greek world, as the law and goal of human endeavor. From this +point on the intellectual progress of the western world was certain, +though at times the rate seems painfully slow. + +The great events which stand before, modern history--milestones, as it +were, along the road to the intellectual progress of mankind in the +recovery of the Greek spirit--were the revival of the ancient learning, +the Protestant appeal to reason, the recovery and vast extension of the +old scientific knowledge, the assertion of the rights of the individual as +opposed to the rights of the State, and the growth of a new +humanitarianism, induced by the teachings of Christianity, which has +softened old laws and awakened a new conception of the value of child and +human life. Out of these great historic movements have come modern +scholarship, the inestimable boon of religious liberty, the firm +establishment of the idea of the reign of law in an orderly universe, the +conception of government as in the interests of the governed, the +substitution of democracy and political equality for the rule of a class +or an autocratic power, and the assertion of the right to an education at +public expense as a birthright of every child. The common school, the +education of all, equality of rights and opportunity, full and equal +suffrage, the responsibility of all for the advancement of the common +welfare, and liberty under law have been the natural consequences and the +outcome of these great struggles to set free and quicken the human spirit. + +The Peace of Westphalia (1648), which marked the close of a century of +effort to crush human reason and religious liberty with violence and +oppression, marked a turning-point in the history of the world. Though +religious intolerance and bigotry might still persist in places for +centuries to come, this Peace acknowledged the futility of persecution to +stamp out human inquiry, and marked the downfall of intellectual +medievalism. The work of the political philosophers of the eighteenth +century, the establishment of a new political ideal by the leaders of the +American Revolution, and the drastic sweeping-away of ancient abuses in +Church and State in the Revolution in France, applied a new spirit to +government, ushered in the rule of the common man, and began the +establishment of democracy as the ruling form of government for mankind. +The recent World War in Europe was in a sense a sequel to what had gone +before. One result of its outcome, despite certain reactionary but +temporary old-type governments that the near future may see set up in +places, has been the elimination of the mediaeval theory of the "divine +right of kings" from the continent of Europe, and the establishment of the +democratic type of government as the ruling type of the future. Some of +the nations for a time will be in a sense experimental, as shown on the +above map, and even well-governed Germany must learn new forms and ways, +but in time government of and by and for the people is practically certain +to become established everywhere on the continent of Europe. + +[Illustration: FIG. 239. THE ESTABLISHED AND EXPERIMENTAL NATIONS OF +EUROPE +The established nations are in white; the experimental nations shaded. +After a time Germany should become white also.] + +Still more, the outcome of the World War would seem to indicate that +democratic forms of government are destined in time to extend to peoples +everywhere who have the capacity for using them. The great problem of the +coming century, then, and perhaps even of succeeding centuries, will be to +make democracy a safe form of government for the world. This can be done +only by a far more general extension of educational opportunities and +advantages than the world has as yet witnessed. In the hands of an +uneducated proletariat democracy is a dangerous instrument. In Russia, +Mexico, and in certain of the Central American Republics we see what a +democracy results in in the hands of an uneducated people. There, too +often, the revolver instead of the ballot box is used to settle public +issues, and instead of orderly government under law we have a reign of +injustice and anarchy. Only by the slow but sure means of general +education of the masses in character and in the fundamental bases of +liberty under law can governments that are safe and intelligent be +created. In a far larger sense than anything we have as yet witnessed, +education must become the constructive tool for national progress. + +The great needs of the modern world call for the general diffusion among +the masses of mankind of the intellectual and spiritual and political +gains of the centuries, which are as yet, despite the great recent +progress made in extending general education, the possession of but a +relatively small number of the world's population. Among the more +important of these are the religious spirit, coupled with full religious +liberty and tolerance; a clear recognition of the rights of minorities, so +long as they do not impair the advancement of the general welfare; the +general diffusion of a knowledge of the more common truths and +applications of science, particularly as these relate to personal hygiene, +sanitation, agriculture, and modern industrial processes; the general +education of all, not only in the tools of knowledge, but in those +fundamental principles of self-government which lie at the basis of +democratic life; training in character, self-control, and in the ability +to assume and carry responsibility; the instilling into a constantly +widening circle of mankind the importance of fidelity to duty, truth, +honor, and virtue; the emphasis of the many duties and responsibilities +which encompass all in the complex modern world, rather than the +eighteenth-century individualistic conception of political and personal +rights; the clear distinction between liberty and license; and the +conception of liberty guided by law. In addition each man and woman should +be educated for personal efficiency in some vocation or form of service in +which each can best realize his personal possibilities, and at the same +time render the largest service to that society of which he forms a part. + +The great needs of the modern world also call for that form of education +and training which will not merely impart literacy and prepare for +economic competence and national citizenship, but which will give to +national groups a new conception of national character and international +morality and create new standards of value for human effort. National +character and international morality are always the outgrowth of the +personality of a people, and this in turn calls for the inculcation of +humane ideals, the proper discipline of the instincts, the training of a +will to do right, good physical vigor, and, to a large degree, the +development of individual efficiency and economic competence. Moral and +religious instruction, as it has been given, will not suffice, because it +does not reach the heart of the problem. No nation has shown more +completely the utter futility of religious instruction to produce morality +than has Germany, where the instruction of all in the principles of +religion has been required for centuries. + +The problem of the twentieth century, then, and probably of other +centuries to come, is how the constructive forces in modern society, of +which the schools of nations should stand first, can best direct their +efforts to influence and direct the deeper sources of the life of a +people, so that the national characteristics it is desired to display to +the world will be developed because the schools have instilled into every +child these national ideals. Many forces must coöperate in such a task, +but unless the schools of nations become clearly conscious of national +needs and of international purposes, become inspired by an ideal of +service for the welfare of mankind, substitute among national groups +competition in the things of the spirit--art, architecture, music, sports, +education, letters, sanitation, housing, public works, and such +applications of science as minister to health and happiness--for +competition in the creation of material wealth, the piling-up of +armaments, the extension of national boundaries, and the present +overemphasis of a narrow nationalism, and direct the energies of coming +generations to the carrying-out of this new and larger human service, +nations must inevitably fail to reach the world position they might +otherwise have occupied, destructive international competition and warfare +will continue, and the advancement of world civilization and international +well-being will be greatly retarded thereby. + +In this work of advancing world civilization, the nations which have long +been in the forefront of progress must expect to assume important roles. +It is their peculiar mission--for long clearly recognized by Great Britain +and France in their political relations with inferior and backward +peoples; by the United States in its excellent work in Cuba, Porto Rico, +and the Philippines; and clearly formulated in the system of "mandatories" +under the League of Nations--to help backward peoples to advance, and to +assist them in lifting themselves to a higher plane of world civilization. +In doing this a very practical type of education must naturally play the +leading part, and time, probably much time, will be required to achieve +any large results. Disregarding the large need for such service among the +leading world nations, the map reproduced on the opposite page reveals how +much of such work still remains to be done in the world as a whole. "The +White Man's Burden" truly is large, and the larger world tasks of the +twentieth century for the more advanced nations will be to help other +peoples, in distant and more backward lands, slowly to educate themselves +in the difficult art of self-government, gradually establish stable and +democratic governments of their own, and in time to take their places +among the enlightened and responsible peoples of the earth. + +[Illustration: FIG. 240. THE EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS OF THE FUTURE +Transition peoples are shaded; dependant and backward peoples black. The +"mandatories" of the "League of Nations" will be in the black areas, and +will have to be carried by the nations which have made the most progress +in civilization and shown in the highest sense of responsibility for the +welfare of peoples that have come under their care. The black areas reveal +"The White Man's Burden" of the future.] + +At the bottom of all this work and service lie the new human-liberty +conceptions first worked out and formulated for the world by little +Greece, In time the ideas to which they gave expression have become the +heritage of what we know as our western civilization, and the warp and +woof of the intellectual and political life of the modern world. As a +result of the Industrial Revolution, and of the new political and +commercial and social forces of our time, this western civilization, using +education as its great constructive tool, is now spreading to every +continent on the globe. The task of succeeding centuries will be to carry +forward and extend what has been so well begun; to level up the peoples of +the earth, as far as inherent differences in capacity will permit; and to +extend, through educative influences, the principles and practices of a +Christian civilization to all. In establishing intelligent and interested +government, and in moulding and shaping the destinies of peoples, general +education has become the great constructive tool of modern civilization. A +hundred and fifty years ago education was of but little importance, being +primarily an instrument of the Church and used for church ends. To-day +general education is an instrument of government, and is rightfully +regarded as a prime essential to good government and national progress. +With the spread of the democratic type the importance of the school is +enhanced, its control by the State becomes essential, its continued +expansion to include new types of schools and new forms of educational +opportunities and service a necessity, the study of its organization and +administration and problems becomes a necessary function of government, +while the training it can give is dignified and made the birthright of +every boy and girl. + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + +PREFACE + +[1] _Syllabus of Lectures on the History of Education, with +Bibliographies_, 1st ed., 302 pp., illustrated, New York, 1902; 2d ed., +with classified bibliographies, 358 pp., illustrated. New York, 1905. + + +PART I + +CHAPTER I + +[1] The average size of an Illinois county is 550 square miles, or an area +22 x 25 miles square. The State of West Virginia contains 24,022 square +miles, and Rhode Island 1067 square miles. Rhode Island would be +approximately 30 x 36 miles square, which would make Attica approximately +20 x 36 miles square in area. + +[2] The nearest analogy we have to the Greek City-States exists in the +local town governments of the New England States, particularly +Massachusetts, and the local county-unit governmental organizations of a +number of the Southern States, though in each of these cases we have a +state and a federal government above to unify and direct and control these +small local governments, which did not exist, except temporarily, in +Greece. + +If an area the size of West Virginia were divided into some twenty +independent counties, which could arrange treaties, make alliances, and +declare war, and which sometimes united into leagues for defense or +offense, but which were never able to unite to form a single State, we +should have a condition analogous to that of mainland Greece. [3] A sea- +faring people, the Greeks became to the ancient Mediterranean world what +the English have been to the modern world. Southern Italy became so +thickly set with small Greek cities that it was known as _Magna Graecia_. +On the island of Sicily the city of Syracuse was founded (734 B.C.), and +became a center of power and a home of noted Greeks. The city of +Marseilles, in southern France, dates from an Ionic settlement about 600 +B.C. The presence of another seafaring people, the Phoenicians, along the +northern coast of Africa and southern and eastern Spain, probably checked +the further spread of Greek colonies to the westward. The city of Cyrene, +in northern Africa, dates from about 630 B.C. Greek colonists also went +north and east, through the Dardanelles and on into the Black Sea. (See +map, Figure 2.) Salonica and Constantinople date back to Greek +colonization. Many of the colonies reflected great honor and credit on the +motherland, and served to spread Greek manners, language, and religion +over a wide area. + +[4] It is the great mixed races that have counted for most in history. The +strength of England is in part due to its wonderful mixture of peoples-- +Britons, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Danes, Northmen, to mention only the more +important earlier peoples which have been welded together to form the +English people. + +[5] Athens, however, permitted the children of foreigners to attend its +schools, particularly in the later period of Athenian education. + +[6] "When I compare the customs of the Greeks with these (the Romans), I +can find no reason to extol either those of the Spartans, or the Thebans, +or even of the Athenians, who value themselves the most for their wisdom; +all who, jealous of their nobility and communicating to none or to very +few the privileges of their cities ... were so far from receiving any +advantage from this haughtiness that they became the greatest sufferers by +it." (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, in his _Roman Antiquities_ book II, +chap. XVII.) + +[7] In Sparta the number of citizens was still less. At the time of the +formulation of the Spartan constitution by Lycurgus (about 850 B.C.) there +were but 9000 Spartan families in the midst of 250,000 subject people. +This disproportion increased rather than diminished in later centuries. + +[8] The Austrian-Magyar combination, which held together and dominated the +many tribes of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire, is an analogous modern +situation, though on a much larger scale. + +[9] Two Greek poems illustrate the Spartan mother, who was said to +admonish her sons to come back with their shields, or upon them. The first +is: + + "Eight sons Daementa at Sparta's call + Sent forth to fight: one tomb received them all. + No tears she shed, but shouted, 'Victory! + Sparta, I bore them but to die for thee.'" + +The second: + + "A Spartan, his companion slain, + Alone from battle fled: + His mother, kindling with disdain + That she had borne him, struck him dead; + For courage and not birth alone. + In Sparta testifies a son." + + "Go, tell at Sparta, thou that passest by, + That here, obedient to her laws, we lie." + (Epitaph on the three hundred who fell at Thermopylae.) + +[10] An Athenian saying, of a man who was missing, was: "Either he is dead +or has become a schoolmaster." To call a man a schoolmaster was to abuse +him, according to Epicurus. Demosthenes, in his attack on Aeschines, +ridicules him for the fact that his father was a schoolmaster in the +lowest type of reading and writing school. "As a boy," he says, "you were +reared in abject poverty, waiting with your father on the school, grinding +the ink, sponging the benches, sweeping the room, and doing the duty of a +menial rather than of a freeman's son." Lucian represents kings as being +forced to maintain themselves in hell by teaching reading and writing. + +[11] Women were not supposed to possess any of the privileges of +citizenship, belonging rather to the alien class. They lived secluded +lives, were not supposed to take any part in public affairs, and, if their +husbands brought company to the house, they were expected to retire from +view. In their attitude toward women the Greeks were an oriental rather +than a modern or western people. + +[12] "We learn first the names of the elements of speech, which are called +_grammata_; then their shape and functions; then the syllables and their +affections; lastly, the parts of speech, and the particular mutations +connected with each, as inflection, number, contraction, accents, position +in the sentence; then we begin to read and write, at first in syllables +and slowly, but when we have attained the necessary certainty, easily and +quickly." (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, _De Compos. Verb_, cap 25.) + +[13] Fragments of a tile found in Attica have stamped upon them the +syllables _ar, bar, gar; er, ber, ger_; etc. A bottle-shaped vase has also +been found which, in addition to the alphabet, contains pronouncing +exercises as follows: + + bi-ba-bu-be zi-za-zu-ze pi-pa-pu-pe + gi-ga-gu-ge mi-ma-mu-me etc. + +[14] "Learning to read must have been a difficult business in Hellas, for +books were written only in capitals at this time. There were no spaces +between the words, and no stops were inserted. Thus the reader had to +exercise his ingenuity before he could arrive at the meaning of a +sentence." (Freeman, K. J., _Schools of Hellas_, p. 87.) + +[15] The Greeks had no numbers, but only words for numbers, and used the +letters of the Greek alphabet with accents over them to indicate the words +they knew as numbers. Counting and bookkeeping would of course be very +difficult with such a system. + +[16] "These poems, especially Homer, Hesiod, and Theognis, served at the +same time for drill in language and for recitation, whereby on the one +hand the memory was developed and the imagination strengthened, and on the +other the heroic forms of antiquity and healthy primitive utterances +regarding morality, and full of homely common sense, were deeply engraved +on the young mind. Homer was regarded not merely as a poet, but as an +inspired moral teacher, and great portions of his poems were learned by +heart. The Iliad and the Odyssey were in truth the Bible of the Greeks." +(Laurie, S. S., _Pre-Christian Education_, p. 258.) + +[17] Davidson, Thos., _Aristotle_, pp. 73-75. + +[18] Plutarch later expressed well the Greek conception of musical +education in these words: "Whoever be he that shall give his mind to the +study of music in his youth, if he meet with a musical education proper +for the forming and regulating his inclinations, he will be sure to +applaud and embrace that which is noble and generous, and to rebuke and +blame the contrary, as well in other things as in what belongs to music. +And by that means he will become clear from all reproachful actions, for +now having reaped the noblest fruit of music, he may be of great use, not +only to himself, but to the commonwealth; while music teaches him to +abstain from everything that is indecent, both in word and deed, and to +observe decorum, temperance, and regularity." (Monroe, Paul, _History of +Education_, p. 92.) + +[19] A flat circle of polished bronze, or other metal, eight or nine +inches in diameter. + +[20] "There were no home influences in Hellas. The men-folk lived out of +doors. The young Athenian from his sixth year onward spent his whole day +away from home, in the company of his contemporaries, at school or +palaestra, or in the streets. When he came home there was no home life. +His mother was a nonentity, living in the woman's apartments; he probably +saw little of her. His real home was the palaestra, his companions his +contemporaries and his _paidagogos_. He learned to disassociate himself +from his family and associate himself with his fellow citizens. No doubt +he lost much by this system, but the solidarity of the State gained." +(Freeman, K. J., _Schools of Hellas_, p. 282.) + +[21] "No doubt the Athenian public was by no means so learned as we +moderns are; they were ignorant of many sciences, of much history,--in +short of a thousand results of civilization which have since accrued. But +in civilization itself, in mental power, in quickness of comprehension, in +correctness of taste, in accuracy of judgment, no modern nation, however +well instructed, has been able to equal by labored acquirements the inborn +genius of the Greeks." (Mahaffy, J. P., _Old Greek Education_.) + +[22] The great institutions of the Greek City-State were in themselves +highly educative. The chief of these were: + + 1. The Assembly, where the laws were proposed, debated, and made. + 2. The Juries, on which citizens sat and where the laws were applied. + 3. The Theater, where the great masterpieces of Greek literature were + performed. + 4. The Olympian and other Games, which were great religious ceremonies + of a literary as well as an athletic and artistic character, and to + which Greeks from all over Hellas came. + 5. The city life itself, among an inquisitive, imaginative, and + disputatious people. + + +CHAPTER II + +[1] The culmination came in what is known as the Age of Pericles, who was +the master mind at Athens from 459 to 431 B.C. During the fifth century +B.C. such names as Themistocles and Pericles in government, Phidias and +Myron in art, Herodotus and Thucydides in historical narrative, Aeschylus, +Sophocles, and Euripides in tragic drama, and Aristophanes in comedy, +graced Athens. + +[2] With the Greeks, morality and the future life never had any +connection. + +[3] The early Greek philosophers tried to explain the physical world about +them by trying to discover what they called the "first principle," from +which all else had been derived. Thales (c. 624-548 B.C.), the father of +Greek science, had concluded that water was the original source of all +matter; Anaximenes (c. 588-524 B.C.), that air was the first principle; +Heraclites (c. 525-475 B.C.), fire; and Pythagoras (c. 580-500 B.C.), +number. + +[4] "There was now demanded ability to discuss all sorts of social, +political, economic, and scientific or metaphysical questions; to argue in +public in the marketplace or in the law courts; to declaim in a formal +manner on almost any topic; to amuse or even instruct the populace upon +topics of interest or questions of the day; to take part in the many +diplomatic embassies and political missions of the times--the ability, in +fact, to shine in a democratic society much like our own and to control +the votes and command the approval of an intelligent populace where the +function of printing-press, telegraph, railroad, and all modern means of +communication were performed through public speech and private discourse, +and where the legal, ecclesiastical, and other professional classes of +teachers did not exist." (Monroe, Paul, _History of Education_, pp. 109- +10.) + +[5] The importance of a political career in the new Athens will be better +understood if we remember that the influence on public opinion to-day +exerted by the pulpit, bar, public platform, press, and scholar was then +concentrated in the public speaker, and that the careers now open to +promising youths in science, industry, commerce, politics, and government +were then concentrated in the political career. It must also be remembered +that the Greeks had always been a nation of speakers, both the content and +the form of the address being important. + +[6] Each of these philosophers proposed an ideal educational system +designed to remedy the evils of the State. Xenophon (c.410-362 B.C.), in +his _Cyropaedia_, purporting to describe the education of Cyrus of Persia, +proposed a Spartan modification of the old Athenian system. Plato (429-348 +B.C.), in his _Republic_, proposed an aristocratic socialism as a means of +securing individual virtue and state justice. He first presents the super- +civic man, an ideal destined for great usefulness among the Christians +later on. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), in his _Ethics_, and in his +_Politics_, outlined an ideal state and a system of education for it. + +[7] "It is beyond all conception what that man espied, saw, beheld, +remarked, observed." (Goethe.) + +"One of the richest and most comprehensive geniuses that has ever +appeared--a man beside whom no age has an equal to place." (Hegel.) + +"Aristotle, Nature's private secretary, dipping his pen in intellect." +(Eusebius.) + +[8] "As Alexander passed conquering through Asia, he restored to the East, +as garnered grain, that Greek civilization whose seeds had long ago been +received from the East. Each conqueror in turn, the Macedonian and the +Roman bowed before conquered Greece and learnt lessons at her feet." +(Butcher, S. H., _Some Aspects of the Greek Genius_, p. 43.) + +[9] Webster, D. H., _Ancient History_, p. 302. + +[10] Previous to this, paper had been made from the papyrus plant, but +Egypt, having forbidden its export, necessity again became the mother of +invention. + +[11] With this exception, never before the Italian Renaissance was there +such interest in collecting books. Almost every book written in antiquity +was gathered here, and the library at Alexandria became the British Museum +or the Bibliothèque Nationale of the ancient world. Every book entering +Egypt was required to be brought to this library. + +[12] He founded the science of geography. Before his time Greek students +had concluded that the world was round, instead of flat, as stated in the +Homeric poems. By careful measurements he determined its size, within a +few thousand miles of its actual circumference, and predicted that one +might sail from Spain to the Indies along the same parallel of latitude. + +[13] From the tradition that seventy scholars labored on it. + +[14] Henry Sumner Maine. + + +CHAPTER III + +[1] This struggle of the common people (_plebeians_) for an equal place +with the ruling class (_patricians_) before the law, in religious matters, +and in politics, covered two and a half centuries, the old restrictions +being broken down but gradually. The most important steps in the process +were: + + 509 B.C. Magistrates forbidden to scourge or execute a Roman citizen + without giving him a chance to appeal to the people in their + popular assembly. This "right of appeal" was regarded as the Magna + Charta of Roman liberty. + + 494 B.C. Plebeian soldiers granted officers of their own + (_Tribunes_) to protect them against patrician cruelty and + injustice. + + 451-449 B.C. Laws must be written--Code commission appointed. Result, + the _Laws of the Twelve Tables_ (R. 12); these mark the + beginning of the great Roman legal system. + + 445 B.C. Intermarriage between the two orders legalized. + + 367 B.C. Right to hold office granted, and one of the Consuls elected + each year to be a plebeian. + + 250 B.C. By this date the distinctions between the two orders had + disappeared; patricians and plebeians intermarried and formed one + compact body of citizens in the Roman State. + +[2] "The scholar who compares carefully the Greek constitutions with the +Roman will undoubtedly consider the former to be finer and more finished +specimens of political work. The imperfect and incomplete character which +the Roman constitution presents, at almost any point of its history, the +number of institutions it exhibits which appear to be temporary expedients +merely, are necessary results of its method of growth to meet demands as +they rose from time to time; they are evidence, indeed, of its highly +practical character." (Adams, G. B., _Civilization during the Middle +Ages_, 2d ed., p. 20.) + +[3] The same opportunity came to Athens after the Persian Wars and to +Sparta after the Peloponnesian War, but neither possessed the creative +power along political and governmental lines, or the tolerance for the +ideas and feelings of subject peoples, to accomplish anything permanent. +Rome succeeded where previous States had failed because of her larger +insight, tolerance, patience, and constructive to create a great world +empire. + +[4] Caesar extended Roman citizenship to certain communities in Gaul and +in Sicily, and began the further extension of the process of assimilation +by taking the conquered provincial into citizenship in the Empire. This +was carried on and extended by succeeding Emperors until finally, in 212 +A.D., Roman citizenship was extended to all free-born inhabitants in all +the provinces. + +[5] For example, Balbus, a Spaniard, was Consul in Rome forty years before +the Christian era, and another Spaniard, Nerva, had become Emperor before +the close of the first century A.D. Many commanders in the army and +governors in the provinces were provincials by birth. + +[6] Roman citizenship was much more than a mere name. A Roman citizen +could not be maltreated or punished without a legal trial before a Roman +court. If accused in a capital case he could always protect himself from +what he considered an unjust decision by an "appeal to Caesar"; that is, +to the Emperor at Rome. The protection of law was always extended to his +property and himself, wherever in the Roman Empire he might live or +travel. + +[7] Both literature and inscriptions testify abundantly to the +affectionate regard in which Roman rule was held. The rule may have been +far from perfect, judged from a modern point of view, but it was so much +better and so much more orderly than anything that had gone before that it +was accepted in all quarters. + +[8] Every house was protected from the evil spirits of the outside world +by Janus, and had its sacred fire presided over by Vesta. Every house had +its protecting Lares. The cupboard where the food was stored was blest by +and under the charge of the Penates. The daily worship of these household +deities took place at the family meal, the father offering a little food +and a little wine at the sacred hearth. Every house father, too, had his +guardian Genius, whose festival was celebrated on the master's birthday. +In a similar fashion the State had its temples, its sacred fire and votive +offerings, and various divinities ruled the elements and sent or withheld +success. + +Almost every activity in life was presided over by some deity, whom it was +necessary to propitiate before engaging in it. Davidson says, with +reference to the practical nature of their religion, that "While the +Athenians rejoiced before their gods, the Romans kept a debtor and +creditor account with theirs, and were very anxious that the balance +should be on the right side." + +[9] "Among our ancestors," says Pliny, "one learned not only through the +ears, but through the eyes. The young, in observing the elders, learned +what they would soon have to do themselves, and what they would one day +teach to their successor." + +[10] Such careful physical training as was given in a Greek _palaestra_ +and _gymnasium_ would have been regarded by the Romans as most effeminate. +Unlike the Greeks, who strove for a harmonious bodily development, the +Romans exercised for usefulness in war. Cicero exclaims, with reference to +Greek gymnasial training: "What an absurd system of training youth is +exhibited in their _gymnasia_! What a frivolous preparation for the labors +and hazards of war!" + +[11] Macaulay, in his _Horatius_, describes the results of the education +of this early period as follows: + + "Then none were for the party, + But all were for the State; + And the rich man loved the poor, + And the poor man loved the great. + Then lands were fairly portioned + And spoils were fairly sold; + For the Romans were like brothers + In the brave days of old." + +[12] "The Romans," says the historian Wilhelm Ihne, "were distinguished +from all other nations, not only by the extreme earnestness and precision +with which they conceived their law and worked out the consequences of its +fundamental principles, but by the good sense which made them submit to +the law, once established, as an absolute necessity of political health +and strength. It was this severity in thinking and acting which, more than +any other cause, made Rome great and powerful." + +[13] The lot of a captive in war, everywhere throughout the ancient world, +was to be taken and sold as a slave by his captors. Many educated Greeks +were thus taken in the capture of Greek cities in southern Italy and sold +as slaves in Rome. These were let out by their masters as teachers of the +new learning. Even the thrifty Cato, who vigorously opposed the new +learning on principle, was not averse to permitting his educated Greek +slaves to conduct schools and thus add to his private fortune. + +[14] These men had little choice otherwise. Grain from Spain and Africa +became so cheap that a farmer could not raise enough on his small farm to +pay his taxes and support his family, so he was obliged to sell his land +to men who turned it into large cattle and sheep ranches. He would not +emigrate to the provinces, as Englishmen have done to Canada and +Australia, but instead went to the cities, where he led a hand-to-mouth +existence in a type of tenement house. It was from such sources that the +Roman mob, demanding free grain and entertainment in return for its votes, +was made up. + +[15] Arithmetic was not easy for the Romans, partly because they had no +figure or other sign for zero, partly because they used a decimal system +for counting and a duodecimal for their money, and partly because the +Roman system of notation (I, V, X, L, C, D, M) did not adapt itself to +quick calculation. Try, for example, these simple sums: + + Add: CCLVII Subtract: LXVIII + CIX XXXIV + ------ ------ + + Multiply: CXXV Divide: XII |CXXXII + XII ------ + ---- + +[16] Finger reckoning (whence _digits_) with the Romans attained a +prominence probably never reached with any other people. Bills and +accounts were reckoned up on the fingers, in the presence of the patron. +Eighteen positions of the fingers of the left hand stood for the nine +units and the nine tens, and eighteen positions of the fingers of the +right hand stood for the nine hundreds and the nine thousands. For larger +sums, such as ten thousand and more, various parts of the body were +touched. Any one who betrayed, according to Quintilian, "by an uncertain +or awkward movement of his fingers, a want of confidence in his +calculations," was thought to be but imperfectly trained in arithmetic. + +[17] There was much complaint that parents were slow with their fees, and +at times forgot them entirely if the boy did not turn out well. Finally, +in the reign of Diocletian (284-305 A.D.), in an effort to relieve the +distress of schoolmasters, prices were legally fixed at approximately the +equivalent of $1.20 per month per pupil for teaching reading and $1.80 for +arithmetic, measured in money values of a decade ago. These were regarded +as "hard times prices." + +[18] "Reading aloud, with careful attention to pronunciation, accent, +quantity, and expression, formed an important part of the training in +literature of a Latin youth. Correct reading of Latin was a much more +difficult art, as practiced, than is the reading of English, as all of us +well know who learned properly to intone our + + "Arma virumque cano, Trojae qui primus ab oris + Italiam, fato profugus, Lavinaque venit." + +The lack of use of small letters and spacing between the words (R. 21), as +well as poor punctuation, also added to the difficulty. + +[19] A nonsensical minuteness was followed here, and many trivialities +were emphasized. Juvenal tells us, in his Seventh Satire, written about +130 A.D., that "a teacher was expected to read all histories and know all +authors as well as his finger ends. That, if questioned, he should be able +to tell the name of Anchises' nurse, and the name and native land of the +stepmother of Anchemotus--tell how many years Acestes lived--how many +flagons of wine the Sicilian king gave to the Phrygians." This reminds us +of some of the dissected study of English and Latin until recently given +in our colleges and high schools. + +[20] Quintilian well states the aim of this higher education when he says +that "the man who can duly sustain his character as a citizen, who is +qualified for the management of public and private affairs, and who can +govern communities by his counsels, settle them by means of laws, and +improve them by judicial enactments, can certainly be nothing else but an +orator." + +[21] In his _Lives of Eminent Grammarians and Rhetoricians_, chap. I. +Suetonius lived from 75 to 160 A.D., and was an advocate at Rome and +private secretary to the Emperor Hadrian. + +[22] There was a general dread of Greek higher learning on the part of the +older Romans, and this found expression in many ways. Among these was an +edict of the Senate, in 161 B.C., directing the Praetor to see that "no +philosophers or rhetoricians be suffered at Rome" (R. 20), a decree which +could not be enforced, and the edict of the Censors, in 92 B.C. (R. 20), +expressing their disapproval of the Latin schools of rhetoric. + +[23] These seven studies became the famous studies of the church schools +of the Middle Ages, with Grammar as the greatest and most important study +(see chap. VII; R. 74). The curriculum of the Middle Ages was a direct +inheritance from Rome. + +[24] See Quintilian, _Institutes of Oratory_, book I, chap. X, 22, 37, and +46. This chapter is devoted largely to a description of the use of these +studies. + +[25] Sample questions which were debated to bring out the fine +distinctions in Roman Law and Ethics were: + + (a) Was a slave about whose neck a master had hung the leather or + golden token (worn by free youths only), in order to smuggle him + past the boundary, freed when he reached Roman soil wearing this + insignia of freedom? + + (b) If a stranger buys a prospective draught of fishes and the + fisherman draws up a casket of jewels, does the stranger own the + jewels? + +[26] In the later centuries of the Empire, people went to hear a man who +could orate or declaim, as people now do to hear a great political orator, +a revivalist preacher, or a popular actor or singer. A form of amusement +for distinguished travelers passing through a city was to have some one +orate before them. "This power of using words for mere pleasurable +effect," says Professor Dill, in his _Roman Society in the Last Century of +the Western Empire_, "on the most trivial or the most extravagantly absurd +themes, was for many ages, in both West and East, esteemed the highest +proof of talent and cultivation." + +[27] Each Greek rhetorician in Rome was given one hundred _sestertia_ +(about $4000) yearly from the Imperial Treasury, Quintilian probably being +one of the first to receive a state salary. + +[28] "He [Claudius] was also attentive to provide a liberal education for +the sons of their chieftains;... and his attempts were attended with such +success that they, who lately disdained to make use of the Roman language, +were now ambitious of becoming eloquent. Hence the Roman habit began to be +held in honor, and the toga was frequently worn." Tacitus's Account of +Britain, _Agricola_, chap. 21. + +[29] England offers us the nearest modern analogy. This was one of the +last of the great European nations to establish popular education, but for +centuries previous thereto the great private, tuition, grammar schools of +England--Eton, Harrow, Rugby, Winchester, and others--together with the +Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, prepared a succession of leaders for +the State--men who have steered England's destinies at home and abroad and +made her a great world power. + +[30] This grew up, as all law grows, by enacted laws and decisions of the +courts, and in time came to be an enormous body of law. Lacking the +printed law books and indices of to-day, to obtain a knowledge of Roman +law became a formidable task. Finally the practical Roman mind codified +it, and reduced it to system and order. The Theodosian Code, of 438 A.D., +and the Justinian Code, of 528 and 534 A.D., were the final results. These +codes were compact, capable of duplication with relative ease, and later +became the standard textbooks throughout the Middle Ages. The great +importance of these codifications may be appreciated when we know that +almost all the original laws and decisions from which they were compiled +have been lost. + +[31] The Romanic countries--France, Spain, Italy--have drawn their law +most completely from the Justinian Code. Due to Spanish and French +occupation of parts of America, Roman legal ideas also entered here, the +Louisiana Code of 1824 being Roman in law and technical expressions and +spirit, though English in language. Spanish and Portuguese settlement of +the South American continent has carried Roman law there. + +[32] The Roman alphabet is the alphabet of all North and South America, +Australia, Africa, and all of Europe except Russia, Greece, Germany, +Austria-Hungary, and a few minor Slavic and Teutonic peoples. Even in +Germany and Austria, Roman letters were rapidly superseding the more +difficult German letters in the printing of papers and books for the +better-educated classes before the Great War. In India, Siam, China, and +Japan, Roman letters are also being increasingly used. + + +CHAPTER IV + +[1] The Farmer's Calendar, given in the accompanying _Book of Readings_ +(R. 14), illustrates very well the gods and sacrifices for one phase of +Roman life. Petronius, in his Satires, says, "Our country is so full of +divinities that it is much easier to find a god than a man." + +[2] "The chief objects of pagan religion were to foretell the future, to +explain the universe, to avert calamity, and to obtain the assistance of +the gods. They contained no instruments of moral teaching analogous to our +institution of preaching, or to the moral preparation for the reception of +the sacrament, or to confession, or to the reading of the Bible, or to +religious education, or to united prayer for spiritual benefits. To make +men virtuous was no more the function of the priest than of the +physician." (Lecky, W. E. H., _History of European Morals_, chap, iv.) + +[3] Seneca (4-65 A.D.), the tutor of the Emperor Nero, and the Greek +freedman Epictetus (d. 100 A.D.) both expounded Stoicism at Rome during +the first Christian century, and the _Thoughts_ of the Emperor Marcus +Aurelius (161-180 A.D.) represents one of the finest expositions of the +application of this philosophy to the problems of human life. + +[4] See Proverbs, xxxi, for a good statement of the ancient Hebrew ideal +of womanhood. + +[5] This collective term is applied to the first five books of the Old +Testament, and includes Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and +Deuteronomy. These five books form a wonderful collection of the +historical and legal material relating to the wanderings and experiences +and practices of the people. + +[6] Chapter 1 of the Gospel according to Saint Matthew gives, in detail +(1-16), the genealogy of Jesus, concluding with the following verse: + + "17. So all the generations from Abraham to David are fourteen + generations; and from David until the carrying away into Babylon are + fourteen generations; and from the carrying away into Babylon unto + Christ are fourteen generations." + +[7] To many of these churches he wrote a series of epistles. These +constitute a little more than one fourth of the New Testament. See +accompanying _Book of Readings_ (or Romans, I, 1-17) for the introductory +part of Paul's Epistle to the Romans. + +[8] "Its missionaries were Jews, a turbulent race, not to be assimilated, +and as much despised and hated by pagan Rome as by the mediaeval +Christians. Wherever it attracted any notice, therefore, it seems to have +been regarded as some rebel faction of the Jews, gone mad upon some +obscure point of the national superstition--an outcast sect of an outcast +race." (Adams, G. B., _Civilization during the Middle Ages_, p. 39.) + +[9] "Starting from an insignificant province, from a despised race, +proclaimed by a mere handful of ignorant workmen, demanding self-control +and renunciation before unheard of, certain to arouse in time powerful +enemies in the highly cultivated and critical society which it attacked, +the odds against it were tremendous." (Ibid., p. 41.) + +[10] "It is not easy to imagine how, in the face of an Asia Minor, a +Greece, an Italy the Roman split up into a hundred small republics; of a +Gaul, a Spain, an Africa, an Egypt, in possession of their old national +institutions, the apostles could have succeeded, or even how their project +could have been started. The unity of the Empire was a condition precedent +of all religious proselytism on a grand scale if it was to place itself +above the nationalities." (Renan, E., _Hibbert Lectures, 1880; Influence +of Rome on the Christian Church_.) + +[11] In Acts xxv, 1-12, it is recorded that the Apostle Paul, accused by +the Jews and virtually on trial for his life before the provincial +governor Festus, fell back on his Roman citizenship and successfully +"appealed to Caesar." (See footnote 3, page 57.) + +[12] "The miracle of miracles, greater than dried-up seas and cloven +rocks, greater than the dead rising again to life, was when the Augustus +on his throne, Pontiff of the gods of Rome, himself a god to the subjects +of Rome, bent himself to become the worshiper of a crucified provincial +of his Empire." (Freeman, E. A., _Periods of European History_, p. 67.) + +[13] In 319 and 326 the clergy were exempted from all public burdens, and +only the poor were to be admitted to the clergy. In 343 the clergy were +exempted "from public burdens and from every disquietude of civil office." +In 377 all clergy were exempted from personal taxes. (See R. 38.) + +[14] From the Roman world the idea has spread, through the Greek Catholic +Church, to Greece, parts of the Balkans, and Russia; through the Roman +Catholic Church to all western Europe and the two Americas; and through +the Protestant churches which sprang from the Roman Catholic by secession, +and the Mohammedan faith, to include almost all the world. Only among +uncivilized tribes and in Asia do we find any great number of +fundamentally different religious conceptions. + +[15] Paul to the Romans (x, 9) stated the fundamentals of belief as +follows: "If thou shalt confess with thy mouth the Lord Jesus, and shalt +believe in thine heart that God hath raised him from the dead, thou shalt +be saved." + +[16] M. Boissier. _La Fin du Paganisme_, vol. 1, p. 200. + +[17] _Justin Martyr_ (105?-167), a former Greek teacher and philosopher, +continued to follow his profession, wear his Greek philosopher's garb, and +held that the teachings of Christianity were already contained in Greek +philosophy, and that Plato and Socrates were Christians before the coming +of the Christian faith. + +_Clement_ (c. 160-c. 215), the successor of Pantaeus as head of the +catechetical school at Alexandria, held to the harmony of the Gospels with +philosophy, and that "Plato was Moses Atticized." + +_Origen_ (c. 185-c. 254), a pupil and successor of Clement, and the most +learned of all the early Christian Fathers, labored to harmonize the +Christian faith with Greek learning and philosophy, and did much to +formulate the dogmas of the early Church. + +_Saint Basil_ (331-379) tried to allay the rising prejudice against pagan +learning, and to show the helpfulness to the Christian life of the Greek +literature and philosophy. + +_Gregory of Nazianzus_ (c. 330-c. 390) was filled with indignation and +protested loudly at the closing of the pagan schools to Christians by the +edict of the Emperor Julian, in 362. + +[18] _Tertullian_ (c. 150-230) had been well educated in Greek literature +and philosophy, and had attained distinction as a lawyer. + +_Saint Jerome_ (c. 340-420) was saturated with pagan learning, but later +advised against it. + +_Saint Augustine_ (354-430), the master mind among the Latin Fathers, was +for years a teacher of oratory and rhetoric in Roman schools, and had +written part of an encyclopaedia on the liberal arts before his +conversion. Many others who became prominent in the Western Church had in +their earlier life been teachers in the Roman higher schools. + +[19] Dreaming that he had died and gone to Heaven, he was asked, "Who art +thou?" On replying, "A Christian," he heard the awful judgment, "It is +false: thou art no Christian; thou art a Ciceronian; where the treasure +is, there the heart is also." + +[20] The knowledge of Greek remained alive longer in Ireland than anywhere +else in the western world, being known there as late as the seventh +century. Greek was also preserved in parts of Spain for two centuries +after it had died out in Italy. + +[21] In the West there was no other great city than Rome. At the period of +its maximum greatness, in the first century B.C., it was a city of +approximately 450,000 people. + +[22] After many struggles and conflicts between the Bishops of +Constantinople, Alexandria, and Rome, the Bishop of Rome was finally +recognized by the second great Church Council, held at Constantinople in +381, as the head of the entire Church (Canon 3), corresponding to the +Emperor on the political side of the dying Empire. The separation of the +eastern and western churches was rapid after this time. (See Map, p. 103.) + +[23] The word _pagan_ as applied to unbeliever illustrates this progress +of the Church, being derived from the Latin _paganus_, meaning countryman, +villager, rustic. + +[24] See the accompanying _Book of Readings_ for a drawing and detailed +explanation of the monastery of Saint Gall, in Switzerland (R. 69). This +was one of the most important monasteries of the Middle Ages. + + +PART II + +CHAPTER V + +[1] The period from the reign of Augustus Caesar through that of Marcus +Aurelius (31 B.C.-192 A.D.) was known as "the good Roman peace." No other +large section of the western world has ever known such unbroken peace and +prosperity for so long a time. Piracy ceased upon the seas, and trade and +commerce flourished. The cities and the great middle class in the +population were prosperous. Travel was safe and common, and men traveled +both for business and pleasure. The Christian State within a State had not +yet taken form. Literature and learning flourished. The law became milder. +The rights of the accused became better recognized. A certain broad +humanity pervaded the administration of both law and government. There was +much private charity. Hospitals were established. Women were given greater +freedom, larger intellectual advantages, and a better position in the home +than they were to know again until the nineteenth century. It was the +Golden Age of the Empire. Toward the close of the period the Christian +Father, Tertullian, wrote: "Every day the world becomes more beautiful, +more wealthy, more splendid. No corner remains inaccessible.... Recent +deserts bloom.... Forests give way to tilled acres.... Everywhere are +houses, people, cities. Everywhere there is life." + +[2] Slavery in Rome came to be much more demoralizing than ever was the +case in the United States. Instead of an ignorant people of an inferior +race, the Roman slave was often the superior of his master--the +unfortunate captive in an unsuccessful war against an oppressor. The +holding of such educated and intelligent people in slavery was far more +degrading to a ruling people than would have been the case had their +slaves been ignorant and of inferior racial stock. + +[3] The Roman State had come to be essentially a collection of cities. +Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Corinth, Carthage, Ephesus, and Lyons were +great cities, judged even by present-day standards, throbbing with varied +industries and a strong intellectual life. In addition there were hundreds +of other cities scattered all over the Empire, each with its own municipal +life, while on the frontier were stockaded villages serving as centers of +trade with the barbarian tribes beyond. + +[4] Chief among the new ideals that sapped the old Roman strength must be +mentioned the new Christian religion, with its doctrine of other- +worldliness and its system of government not responsible to the Empire. +Another influence was the rise of a super-civic philosophy, derived +chiefly from the writings of Plato (see footnote 1, page 42), which held +that certain men could be above the State and yet by their wisdom in part +direct it. The two influences combined to undermine the resisting strength +of the State. + +[5] Not only was the future of western European civilization settled +there, but that of North and South America as well. Had Saracenic +civilization come to dominate Europe, the Koran might have been taught to- +day in the theological schools of Boston, New York, Chicago, San +Francisco, Buenos Aires, and Valparaiso, and the Christian religion been +the possession only of the Greek and Russian churches, while our +literature and philosophy and civilization would have been tinctured, +through and through, with oriental ideas and Mohammedan conceptions. + +[6] It is hard for us to imagine what happened, for the Indians we know +to-day represent a much higher grade of civilization than did the German +invaders. If we could imagine the United States overrun by the Indians of +a hundred and fifty years ago, as the German tribes overran the Roman +Empire, and becoming the rulers of a people superior to them in numbers +and intellect, we should have something analogous to the Roman situation. + +[7] As allies, citizens, soldiers, colonists, and slaves the Germans had +long been filtering into the Roman world, and the Roman world was in part +Germanized before the barriers were broken. These German-Romans helped to +assimilate the Germans who came later, much as Italian-Americans in the +United States help to receive and assimilate new Italians when they come. + +[8] "The historical importance of the mere fact that it was an organic +unity which Rome established, and not simply a collection of fragments +artificially held together by military force, that the civilized world was +made, as it were, one nation, cannot be overstated.... It was a union, not +in externals merely, but in every department of thought and action; and it +was so thorough, and the Gaul became so completely a Roman, that when the +Roman government disappeared he had no idea of being anything else than a +Roman.... It was because of this that, despite the fall of Rome, Roman +institutions were perpetual." (Adams, G. B., _Civilization during the +Middle Ages_, 2d ed., p. 30.) + +[9] A Germanic king, when he feared no Roman general or emperor, could +usually be made to stand in awe when a Christian priest or bishop appealed +to Heaven and the saints, and threatened him with eternal hell-fire if he +did not do his bidding. + +[10] The Church, it must be remembered, maintained its separate system of +government and kept up the old forms of the Roman law. It had also its +courts and its exemptions for the clergy, and these it forced the +barbarians to respect. During half a dozen centuries it was the chief +force that made life tolerable for myriads of men and women, and almost +the only force upholding any semblance of humane ideals. + +[11] Clotilda, wife of the heathen Clovis, was a Burgundian princess and a +devout Christian, who had long tried to persuade her husband to accept her +faith. In 496, during a battle with the Alemanni, near the present city of +Strassburg, Clovis vowed that if the God of Clotilda would give him +victory, he would do as she desired. The Alemanni were crushed, and he and +three thousand of his chiefs were at once baptized. + +[12] Draper, John W., _Intellectual Development of Europe_, vol. II, pp. +145-46. + +[13] The extent of the Benedictine order alone may be seen from the +Benedictine statement that "Pope John XXII, who died in 1334, after an +exact inquiry, found that, since the first rise of the order, there had +been of it 24 popes, near 200 cardinals, 7000 archbishops, 15,000 bishops, +15,000 abbots of renown, above 4000 saints, and upwards of 37,000 +monasteries. There had been likewise, of this order, 20 emperors, 10 +empresses, 47 kings and above 50 queens, 20 sons of emperors and 48 sons +of kings, about 100 princesses and daughters of kings and emperors, +besides dukes, marquises, earls, countesses, etc., innumerable." From this +it may be inferred how fully the Church was the State during the long +period of the Middle Ages. + +[14] Draper, John W., _Intellectual Development of Europe_, vol. I, p. +437. + + +CHAPTER VI + +[1] From the sixth to the twelfth centuries. + +[2] The story which has come down to us of the German warrior who, on +being shown into an anteroom, saw some ducks swimming in the floor and +dashed his battle-axe at them to see if they were real, thus ruining the +beautiful mosaic, is typical of the time. + +[3] During the period of Rome's greatness the publishing business became +an important one. Manuscripts were copied in numbers by trained writers, +and books were officially published. Both public and private libraries +became common, men of wealth often having large libraries. These were +found in the provincial towns as well as in the large Italian cities, and +in country villas as well as in town houses. + +By the beginning of the eighth century books had become so scarce that +monasteries guarded their treasures with great care (R. 65), and books +were borrowed from long distances that copies might be made. + +[4] Charlemagne (King of Frankland, 768-814), for example, found it +necessary to order that priests and monks must show themselves capable of +changing the wording of the masses for the living and the dead, as +circumstances required, from singular to plural, or from masculine to +feminine. + +[5] Longfellow's poem _Monte Cassino_ is interesting reading here. Of +Benedict he says: + + "He founded here his Convent and his Rule + Of prayer and work, and counted work as prayer; + The pen became a clarion, and his school + Flamed like a beacon in the midnight air." + +[6] Sometimes as early as eleven to twelve years of age. The novitiate +course was two years, but as the vows could not be taken before eighteen, +the course of instruction often covered six to eight years. + +[7] To teach a novice to copy accurately a manuscript book was quite a +different thing from the teaching of writing to-day, It was more nearly +comparable to present-day instruction in lettering in a college +engineering course, as it called for a degree of workmanship and accuracy +not required in ordinary writing. + +[8] The Vulgate, a Latin translation of the Bible made by Saint Jerome, at +the close of the fourth century. The Old Testament he translated mostly +from the Hebrew and Chaldaic, and the New Testament he revised from the +older Latin versions. This is the only version of the Scriptures which the +Roman Catholic Church admits as authentic. + +[9] Letters from one monastery to another, and from one country to +another, begging the loan of some ancient book, have been preserved in +numbers. Lupus, Abbot of Ferrières in France, for example, wrote to Rome +in 855, and addressing himself to the Pope in person, requested a complete +copy of Cicero's _De Oratore_, which he desired. + +[10] The Missal is a book containing the service of the mass for the +entire year. The Psalter the book of Psalms. + +[11] From _manu scriptum_, meaning written by hand. + +[12] So expensive of time and effort was the production of books by this +method that many of the manuscripts now extant were written crosswise on +sheets from which the previous writing had been largely erased by chemical +or mechanical means. How many valuable ancient manuscripts were lost in +this manner no one knows. Fortunately the practice was not common until +after the thirteenth century, when the rise of the universities and the +spread of learning made new demands for skins for writing purposes. + +[13] That the printing was not always carefully done is shown by the +constant need, throughout the Middle Ages, of correct copies for +comparison. The following injunction of the Abbot Alcuin to the monks at +Tours, given at the beginning of the ninth century, is illustrative of the +need for care in copying: + + "Here let the scribes sit who copy out the words of the Divine Law, + and likewise the hallowed sayings of Holy Fathers. Let them beware of + interspersing their own frivolities in the words they copy, nor let a + trifler's hand make mistakes through haste. Let them earnestly seek + out for themselves correctly written books to transcribe, that the + flying pen may speed along the right path. Let them distinguish the + proper sense by colons and commas, and set the points, each one in its + due place, and let not him who reads the words to them either read + falsely or pause suddenly. It is a noble work to write out holy books, + nor shall the scribe fail of his due reward. Writing books is better + than planting vines, for he who plants a vine serves his belly, but he + who writes a book serves his soul." + +[14] West, A. F., _Alcuin_, pp. 72-73. + +[15] The largest monastic library on the Continent was Fulda, which +specialized in the copying of manuscripts. In 1561 it had 774 volumes. In +England the largest collections were at Canterbury, which in the +fourteenth century possessed 698 volumes, and at Peterborough, which had +344 volumes at about the same time. The library of Croyland, also in +England, burned in 1091, at that time contained approximately 700 volumes. +These represented the largest collections in Europe. + +[16] The _Hortus Delicarum_ of the Abbess Herrard, of the convent of +Hohenburg, in Alsace, was a famous illustration of artistic workmanship. +This was an attempt to embody, in encyclopaedic form, the knowledge of her +time. The manuscript was embellished with hundreds of beautiful pictures, +and was long preserved as a wonderful exhibition of mediaeval skill. It +was lost to civilization, along with many other treasures, when the +Prussians bombarded Strassburg, in 1870. + +[17] He there "enjoyed advantages which could not perhaps have been found +anywhere else in Europe at the time--perfect access to all the existing +sources of learning in the West. Nowhere else could he acquire at once the +Irish, the Roman, the Gallician, and the Canterbury learning; the +accumulated stores of books which Benedict (founder and abbot) had bought +at Rome and at Vienne; or the disciplinary instruction drawn from the +monasteries on the Continent, as well as from Irish missionaries." (Bishop +Stubbs, _Dictionary of Christian Biography_, article on Bede.) + +[18] West, A. F., _Alcuin_, pp. 45-47. + +[19] _Annals of Xanten_, 846 A.D. + +[20] _Ibid._, 851 A.D. + +[21] _Annals of Saint Vaast_, 884 A.D. + +[22] It is related that ignorant court officials, fearing the king's +displeasure, sought to learn from their children. + +[23] Through Alfred's efforts, the compilation of the _Anglo-Saxon +Chronicle_ was begun, that the people of England might be able to read the +history of their country in their own language. + + +CHAPTER VII + +[1] Anderson tells of a monastic student's notebook on conduct which has +been preserved, and which "prescribes that the young man is to kneel when +answering the Abbot, not to take a seat unasked, not to loll against the +wall, nor fidget with things within reach. He is not to scratch himself, +nor cross his legs like a tailor. He is to wash his hands before meals, +keep his knife sharp and clean, not to seize upon vegetables, and not to +use his spoon in the common dish." + +[2] This expression came into common use in the fifth century, when the +Christian writers summarized the ancient learning under these seven +headings or studies, following earlier Greek and Roman classifications. +(See p. 70). + +[3] The _Doctrinale_, by Alexander de Villa Die. This was in rhyme, and +became immensely popular. It was the favorite text until the fifteenth +century. + +[4] Donatus begins as follows: + + "How many parts of speech are there?" "Eight." + + "What are they?" "Noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, participle, + conjunction, preposition, and interjection." + + "What is a noun?" "A part of speech with case, signifying a + body or thing particularly or commonly." + + "How many attributes have nouns?" "Six." + + "What are they?" "Quality, comparison, gender, number, figure, + case." + + Etc., etc. + +[5] The following from Priscian, reproduced by Graves, illustrates the +method of instruction as applied to the first book of the Aeneid of +Vergil. + + "What part of speech is _arma_?" "A noun." + "Of what sort?" "Common." + "Of what class?" "Abstract." + "Of what gender?" "Neuter." + "Why neuter?" "Because all nouns whose plurals + end in _a_ are neuter." + "Why is not the singular used?" "Because this noun expresses many + different things." + Etc., etc. + +This form of textbook writing was common, not only during the Middle Ages, +but well into modern times. The famous _New England Primer_ was in part in +this form, and many early American textbooks in history and geography were +written after this plan. + +[6] Vergil, due to his beautiful poetic form and to his love of nature and +life, was especially guarded against during the early Middle Ages as the +most seductive of the ancient Latin writers. It is not at all +inappropriate that, in Dante's _Inferno_, Vergil should have been the +person to guide Dante through hell and purgatory, but should not have been +allowed to accompany him into paradise. + +[7] Textbooks on the art of letter-writing began to appear by the eleventh +century, explaining in detail how to prepare the five divisions of a +letter: (1) the salutation (_salutatio_), (2) the art of introducing the +subject properly and making a good impression (_captatio benevolentiae_), +(3) the body of the letter (_narratio_), (4) how to make the request +(_petitio_), and (5) a fitting conclusion (_conclusio_). + +[8] Anderson reproduces a portion of a chapter by Capella on the number +four, which is illustrative of the mediaeval study of the properties of +number: + + "What shall I call four? in which is a certain perfection of + solidarity; for it is composed of length and depth, and a full decade + is made up from those four numbers added together in order, that is, + from one, two, three, four. Similarly a hundred is made up of the four + decades, that is, ten, twenty, thirty, forty, which are a hundred; and + again four numbers from a hundred on amount to a thousand, that is, + 100, 200, 300, 400. So ten thousand is made up of another series. What + is to be said of the fact that there are four seasons of the year, + four quarters of the heavens, and four principles of the elements? + There are also four ages of man, four vices, and four virtues." + +[9] Anderson reproduces a paragraph from Maurus, showing how number was +applied to Holy Writ. It reads: + + "A real thinker," says Maurus, "will not pass on indifferently when he + reads that Moses, Elijah, and our Lord fasted forty days. Without + strict observance and investigation the matter cannot be explained. + The number 40 contains the number 10 four times, by which all is + signified which concerns the temporal. For, according to the number 4, + the days and the seasons run their course. The day consists of + morning, midday, evening, and night, the year of spring, summer, + autumn, winter. Further, we have the number 10 to recognize God and + the creature. The three (trinity) indicated the Creator; the seven, + the creature which consists of body and spirit. In the latter is the + three: for we must love God with our whole heart and soul and mind. In + the body, on the other hand, the four elements of which it consists + reveal themselves clearly. So if we are moved through that which is + signified by the number 10 to live in time--for 10 is taken four + times--chaste, withholding ourselves from worldly lusts, that means to + fast forty days. So the Holy Scriptures contain suggestively in many + different numbers all sorts of secrets which must remain hidden to + those who do not understand the meaning of numbers." + +[10] Gerbert (953-1003) was one of the most learned monks of his day, +having studied in the Saracen schools of Spain. He afterwards became Pope +Sylvester II (999-1003). Because of his scientific knowledge in an age of +superstition he was accused of transactions with the devil. + +[11] For example, the _Stabat Mater_ and the _Dies Irae_, two thirteenth- +century hymns. The former has been called the most pathetic and the latter +the most sublime of all mediaeval poems. + +[12] Cassiodorus was an educated later Roman, who had been chief minister +to Theodoric, the Ostrogothic king, and had done much to carry over Latin +learning and civilization into the new régime. He later founded the +monastery of Viviers, in southern Italy, and spent the latter part of his +life there in writing and contemplation. He urged the monks to study, and +those who had no head for learning he advised to read Cato and Columella +on agriculture, and then to devote themselves to it. + +[13] "Wisdom hath builded her house; she hath hewn out her seven pillars." +(Proverbs, IX, 1.) + +[14] Abelson, in his monograph on _The Seven Liberal Arts_, reduces each +of these textbooks to their equivalent in a modern 16mo printed page, with +the following results: + + Cassi- + Capella Boethius odorus Isidore Alcuin Maurus + Subject (c. 425) (c. 520) (c. 575) (c. 630) (c. 800) (c. 844) + /Grammar...... 11 -- 25 50 54 55 + |Rhetoric..... 14 -- 5-1/2 14 26 -- + \Dialectic.... 11 -- 18 14 25 -- + /Arithmetic... 11 40 2 2 -- -- + |Geometry..... 15 30 2 1 -- -- + |Astronomy.... 9 -- 15 3 23 60 + \Music........ 11 67 2 12 -- -- + --- --- --- --- --- --- + Totals in pages 82 137 69-1/2 96 128 115 + +[15] The mediaeval serf was the successor of the Roman slave, and was a +step upward in the process of the evolution of the free man. The serf was +tied to the soil and by obligations of personal service to the lord. +Gradually, due to economic causes, the personal service was changed from +general to definite service, and finally to a fixed rental sum. When a +fixed money payment took the place of personal service the free man had +been evolved. This took place rapidly with the rise of cities and industry +toward the latter part of the Middle Ages. + +[16] The German private duel and the American fist fight are the modern +survivals of the time when personal insults, easily taken, and private +grievances were settled in the "noble way" by sword and battle-axe and +torch. + +[17] In the earlier days of noblemen's education reading and writing were +regarded as effeminate, but in the later times the nobles became +increasingly literate. By the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries many began +to pride themselves on their patronage of learning. + +[18] Rhyming in the vernacular language came to be an important part of +the training, and many old love songs and songs expressing the joy of life +date from this period. Chaucer's knight is described as: + + "Syngynge he was or floytynge [playing], al the day; + He was as fressh as is the monthe of May. + Short was his gowne, with sleves longe and wyde. + Wel cowde he sitte on hors and faire ryde; + He cowde songes make and wel endite, + Juste and eek daunce, and wel purtreye and write. + So hote he loved, that by nighterdale [night time] + He slept no more than doth the nightingale." + +[19] From the life of the Frankish Abbot, John of Gorze, Abbot at Gorze in +the tenth century. + +[20] Leach, A. F., _Educational Charters_, p. 143. + +[21] _Ibid._, p. 147. + +[22] Anselm (1033-1109), Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109, +formulated the early mediaeval view when he said: + + "I do not seek to know in order that I may believe, but I believe in + order that I may know." + + "The Christian ought to advance to knowledge through faith, not to + come to faith through knowledge." + + "The proper order demands that we believe the deep things of Christian + faith before we presume to reason about them." + +[23] Monroe, Paul, _Text-Book in the History of Education_, p. 258. + + +CHAPTER VIII + +[1] "In the school of Nisibis the Church possessed an institution, which +for centuries secured her a system of higher education, and therewith an +important social and political position. To the older literature, +consisting of translations, there was added, from the middle of the fifth +century onward, a large number of philosophical, scientific, and medical +treatises belonging to Greek antiquity, and especially the works of +Aristotle. Through these Greek wisdom and learning, clothed in Syrian +attire, found a home on these borders of Christendom." (Müller, D. K., +_Kirchengeschichte_, vol. I, p. 278.) + +[2] "By the year 600 A.D. the triumph of the oriental element in +Christendom had well-nigh banished learning and education from the domain +of the Church, giving place to a gloomy, unquestioning faith which sank +ever deeper and deeper in the mire of superstition. What enlightenment +survived had found a home beyond the limits of the Roman Empire,--in +Ireland, in the extreme West; in Syria, in the far East." (Davidson, +Thomas, _History of Education_, p. 133.) + +[3] This was determined as being 56-1/3 miles, which would make the +circumference of the earth 20,280 miles. The correct distance is 69 miles. + +[4] The fanaticism of the eastern Arabs now reasserted itself, and higher +education In the Mohammedan countries of the East drew permanently to a +close. A harsh, rigid orthodoxy, fatal to educational progress, now +triumphed. The coming of the Turks only made matters worse, and with their +advent education throughout Arabia and Asia Minor became a thing of the +past. Some day it will be the task of western Europe to hand back schools +and learning to the Mohammedan East. This may be one of the by-products of +the great World War. + +[5] The Alhambra, built between 1238 and 1354, at Granada, is an exquisite +example of their art. (See plate in vol. 1, p. 658, of the _Encyclopaedia +Britannica_, 11th ed., for an illustration of their architecture and art.) + +[6] It was an age of superstition and miracles, diabolic influences, +witchcraft and magic, private warfare, trials by ordeal, robber bands, +little dirty towns, no roads, unsanitary conditions, and miserable homes. +Even the nobility had few comforts and conveniences, and personal +cleanliness was not common. Disease was punishment for sin and to be cured +by prayer, while the insane were scourged to cast out the devils within +them. + +[7] Frederic II was Emperor of the mediaeval Holy Roman Empire, ruling +from 1227 to 1250. Though a German by birth, he had lived long in Sicily, +and spent most of his time in Italy after becoming Emperor. He greatly +admired the Saracens for their learning, and tried to transfer some of +their knowledge to Christian Europe. He lived, however, at a time when the +Papacy was cementing its temporal power and the Pope was becoming the +Emperor of Europe. This encroachment Frederick resisted and tried to +break, but without success. At his death the mediaeval German dream of +world empire perished; Germany was left a collection of feudal States; and +the temporal power of the Pope was henceforth for centuries to come +undisputed. + +[8] Christianity had not as yet been introduced among the mixed Slavic and +Germanic tribes along the eastern Baltic. In Prussia and Lithuania, where +missionary efforts had been made from 900 on, success did not come until +more than three centuries later. (See art. "Missions," _Ency. Brit._, 11th +ed., vol. 18.) + +[9] The more important questions arising concerned the Trinity, the +Eucharist, and Transubstantiation. + +[10] This discussion was over what was known as nominalism vs. realism. +Anselm of Canterbury (1034-1109), basing his argument largely on some +parts of Plato, had declared that ideas constituted our real existence. +Roscellinus of Compiègne (1050-1105), basing his argument on parts of the +_Organon_ of Aristotle, had held that ideas or concepts are only names for +real, concrete things. Anselm, as a realist, contended that the human +senses are deceptive, and that revealed truth alone is reliable. +Roscellinus, as a nominalist, held that truth can be reached only through +investigation and the use of reason. The church accepted the realism of +Anselm as correct, and Roscellinus was compelled to recant. The stifling +effect of such an attitude toward honest doubt can be imagined. + +[11] McCabe, Joseph, _Peter Abelard_, p. 7. + +[12] By the beginning of the eleventh century this cathedral school had +become the most important in France, a position which it retained for +centuries. It was the great center for theological study, and drew to it a +succession of eminent teachers--William of Champeaux, Abelard, Peter the +Lombard--and, in time, thousands of students. + +[13] The term _scholasticism_ comes from _scholasticus_, because it was +chiefly in the cathedral schools that scholasticism arose. It means, +literally, the method of thinking worked out by the teachers in the +cathedral schools. + +[14] The English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) once said that when he +considered the inertness of the Middle Ages he was led to think that God +had been content to make man a two-legged animal, leaving to Aristotle the +task of making him a thinking being. The worship of Aristotle is easily +explained by the great amount of information his works contained, his +logical method and skillful classification of knowledge, and the way his +ideas as to causes fitted into Christian reasoning. + +[15] The Dominicans, or Black Friars, were a new teaching and preaching +monastic order, founded in 1216. It was a revival of monasticism, directed +toward more modern ends. The Dominicans established themselves in +connection with the new universities, and sought to control education and +to defend orthodoxy. Another new order of this same period was that of the +Franciscans, or Gray Friars, founded by Saint Francis in 1212. Their work +was directed still more to preaching, missions, and public service. They +were a less intellectual but a more democratic brotherhood. It was the +Franciscans who followed the armies of Spain to Mexico, and later built +and conducted the missions of the central and southern California coast. + +[16] Special translations of Aristotle's _Rhetoric_ and _Politics_, from +the original Greek texts, obtained at Constantinople by the Crusaders, +were made for Thomas Aquinas at his special request, about 1260, by +William of Moerbeke, who knew enough Greek to perform the task. This gave +him better translations from which to lecture and write. + +[17] In 529 the Eastern Emperor, Justinian (see p. 76), directed that an +orderly compilation be prepared of the many and confused laws and +decisions which had been made in the Roman Empire, with a view to +producing a standard body of Roman law in place of the unwieldy mass of +contradictory material then existing. The result was the _Corpus Juris +Civilis_, worked out by a staff of eminent lawyers between 529 and 533 (R. +93). This consisted of + + I. The _Code_, in twelve books, containing the Statutes of the + Emperors; + + II. The _Digest_, in fifty books, containing pertinent extracts + from the opinions of celebrated Roman lawyers; + + III. The _Institutes_, in four books, being an elementary + textbook on the law for the use of students; + + IV. The _Novellae_, or new Statutes, the final edition of which + was issued in 565, and included the laws from 533 on. This was + preserved and used in the East, but came too late to be of much + service to the Western Empire. + +[18] The subdivisions were as follows: I. Contained 106 "distinctions," +relating to ecclesiastical persons and affairs. II. Contained 36 +"distinctions," relating to problems arising in the administration of +canon law. III. Contained 5 "distinctions," relating to the ritual and +sacraments of the Church. + +[19] The additions were: + + I. The _Decretals_ of Pope Gregory IX, issued in 1234, in five + books. + II. A Supplement to the above by Pope Boniface VIII (_Liber + Sextus_), issued in 1298. + III. The _Constitutions_ of Clementine, issued in 1317. + IV. Several additions of Papal Laws, not included in any of the + above. + +[20] He held that the body contained four humors--blood, phlegm, yellow +bile, and black bile. Disease was caused by an undue accumulation of some +one of the four. Hence the office of the physician was to reduce this +accumulation by some means such as blood-letting, purging, blisters, +diaphoretics, etc. In the monastery of Saint Gall (see Diagram, R. 69) a +blood-letting room was a part of the establishment, and this practice was +continued until well into the nineteenth century. + +[21] Galen was born at Pergamon, in the reign of the Emperor Hadrian. He +studied medicine at Pergamon, Smyrna, and Alexandria, and for a time lived +in Rome. Returning to Pergamon he was appointed physician to the athletes +in the gymnasium there. He later went back to Rome and became physician to +the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. He is credited with five hundred works on +literature, philosophy, and medicine, one hundred and eighteen of which +have survived. In medicine he wrote on anatomy, physiology, diagnosis, +pathology, therapeutics, materia medica, surgery, hygiene, and dietetics. +He was the first to use the pulse as a means of detecting physical +condition. + +[22] Saint Augustine, _The City of God_, book xxii, chap. 24. + +[23] Often spoken of as Constantius Africanus. It is recorded that he +studied the arts in Babylon, visited Egypt and India, and returned to his +home in Carthage one of the most learned men of his age. Suspected of +dealings with the Devil he fled to Salernum (c. 1065), taught there for +many years, published many medical works of his own, and finally retired +to the monastery of Monte Cassino, dying there in 1087. + +[24] In 1064 a company of seven thousand is said to have started for the +Holy Land. + +[25] Adams, G. B., _Civilization during the Middle Ages_, 2d ed., p. 261. + +[26] "From Clermont the enthusiasm spread over France like wildfire. +Stirring preachers, whereof the most notable was Peter the Hermit, set all +France, peasant and noble, to arming. It was the old gospel of Mohammed +recast in Christian guise:--pardon for sin and the spoils of the infidel +if victorious!--a swift road to heaven if slain in the battle! Pressed +with this hope and enthusiasm, armies to be reckoned by the hundreds of +thousands were launched upon the East." (Davis, W. S., _Mediaeval and +Modern Europe_, p. 95). + +[27] Of the thousands of petty lords and knights who went to the hot East, +clad in the heavy armor of northern Europe, large numbers left their bones +along the way or in the Syrian sands, and the landholdings at home +reverted to the Crown. This was a crushing blow to the old feudal regime, +advanced the cause of civilization, and helped in the rise of the modern +nations. Especially was this true in France and England, whose knights +went in large numbers to the East. In Germany the knights and nobles, as a +class, refused to have anything to do with the Crusades, and hence they +were not killed off or impoverished, but remained to rule and multiply and +be troublesome. This is one reason for the much earlier rise and greater +strength of French than German nationality, and one reason why Germany has +been so much slower than France and England in developing a democratic +type of civilization. + +[28] "As presented to the eye, a typical mediaeval city would be a +remarkable sight. Its extent would be small, both because of the limited +population, and the need of making the circuit of the walls to be defended +as short as possible; but within these walls the huge, many-storied houses +would be wedged closely together. The narrow streets would be dirty and +ill-paved--often beset by pigs in lieu of scavengers; but everywhere there +would be bustling human life with every citizen elbowing close to +everybody else. Out of the foul streets here and there would rise parish +churches of marvelous architecture, and in the center of the town extended +the great square--market-place--where the open-air markets would be held, +and close by it, dwarfing the lesser churches, the tall gray cathedral-- +the pride of the community; close by, also, the City Hall, an elegant +secular edifice, where the council met, where the great public feasts +could take place, and above which rose the mighty belfry, whence clanged +the great alarm-bell to call the citizens together in mass meeting, or to +don armor and man the walls." (Davis, W. S., _Mediaeval and Modern +Europe_, p. 146.) + +[29] In Italy, in particular, the cities became strong and powerful, and +eventually overthrew the rule of the bishops and defeated the German +Emperor, Frederick I, in a long battle to preserve their independence. In +Flanders such cities as Ypres, Bruges, and Ghent, came to dominate there. +In 1302 their burghers defeated the French army; and in the sixteenth +century they helped to break the autocratic power of Spain in a great +struggle for human and civic freedom. By the thirteenth century Hamburg, +Lübeck, Bremen, Augsburg, and Nuremburg were important commercial cities +in Germany. + +[30] They came there because, due to their plundering and murdering +proclivities, Venice forbade her merchants to go to them. + +[31] So poor were the mediaeval bridges that the old prayer-books +contained formulas for "commending one's soul to God ere starting to cross +a bridge." + +[32] The peasants were of two classes: (1) serfs, who were not free and +who were attached to the soil, but unlike slaves had plots of land of +their own and could not be sold off the land; and (2) villeins, who were +personally free, but still were bound to their lord for much menial +service and for many payments in produce and money. + +[33] The Church originally held many serfs and villeins, as did the +nobles. It began the process of setting them free, encouraging others to +do likewise. In time it became common, as it did in our Southern States +before the Civil War, for nobles in dying to set free a certain number of +their serfs and villeins. These went as free men to the rising cities. + +[34] The mediaeval guild was an important institution, and the guild idea +was applied to many forms of mediaeval associations. Thus we read of +guilds of notaries in Florence, pleaders' and attorneys' guilds in London, +medical guilds and barber-surgeons' guilds in various cities, and of the +book-writers-and-sellers' guild in Paris. In a religious pageant given at +York, England, on Corpus Christi Day, 1415, fifty-one different local +guilds presented each a scene. (See Cheyney, E. P., _English Towns and +Gilds._, Pa. Sources, vol. II, no. I.) + +[35] "The ready money of the merchant was as effective a weapon as the +sword of the noble, or the spiritual arms of the Church. Very speedily, +also, the men of the cities began to seize upon one of the weapons which +up to that time had been the exclusive possession of the Church, and one +of the main sources of its power,--knowledge and intellectual training. +With these two weapons in its hands, wealth and knowledge, the Third +Estate forced its way into influence, and compelled the other two +(Estates) to recognize it as a partner with themselves in the management +of public concerns." (Adams, G. B., _Civilization during the Middle Ages_, +2d ed. p. 299.) + +[36] In Hamburg, for example, the city council established four writing +schools in 1402, to which the church authorities objected. The council +refused to give them up, and for this was laid under the ban of the +Church, compelled to recede, admit that it had no right to establish such +schools, and pay the costs involved in the contest. + +[37] For example, the three most widely read books of the thirteenth +century were _Reynard the Fox_, a profoundly humorous animal epic; _The +Golden Legend_, which so deeply impressed Longfellow; and the _Romance of +the Rose_, for three centuries the most read book in Europe. + +[38] Despite all the criticisms one may offer against business, commerce +has always been a great civilizing force. While not anxious to pay heavy +taxes, the merchant has always been willing to pay what has been necessary +to support a public power capable of maintaining order and security for +property. Feudal turmoil, private warfare, and plundering are deadly foes +of commerce, and these have come to an end where commerce and industry +have gained the ascendant. + +[39] As a rule a master craftsman might teach his trade to all his sons, +but could have only one other apprentice who received board, lodging, +clothing, and training, as one of the family. The guild still supervised +the apprentice, protecting him from bad usage or defective training by the +master. + +[40] This required the production of a "masterpiece." This piece of work +had to be produced to prove high competency. For example, in the +shoemakers' guild of Paris, a pair of boots, three pairs of shoes, and a +pair of slippers, all done in the best possible manner, were required. + +[41] Of thirty-three guilds investigated by Leach, all maintained song +schools, and twenty-eight maintained a grammar school as well. In London, +Merchant Taylors' School, Stationers' School, and the Mercers' School are +present-day survivals of these ancient guild foundations. + + +CHAPTER IX + +[1] By the twelfth century the cathedral schools had passed the monastic +schools in importance, and had obtained a lead which they were ever after +to retain (R. 71). + +[2] As contrasted with the monasteries, which were under a "Rule." The +opportunities offered by such open institutions in the Middle Ages can +hardly be overestimated. + +[3] Frederick I, of the mediaeval Holy Roman Empire of Germany and Italy. + +[4] "No individual during the Middle Ages was secure in his rights, even +of life or property, certainly not in the enjoyment of ordinary freedom, +unless protected by specific guarantees secured from some organization. +Politically, one must owe allegiance to some feudal lord from whom +protection was received; economically, one must secure his rights through +merchant or craft guild; intellectual interests and educational activities +were secured and controlled by the Church." (Monroe, P., _Text Book in the +History of Education_, p. 317.) + +[5] At first the older institutions organized themselves without charter, +securing this later, while the institutions founded after 1300 usually +began with a charter from pope or king, and sometimes from both (R. 100). + +[6] The degree of master was originally the license to practice the +teaching trade, and analogous to a master shoemaker, goldsmith, or other +master craftsmen. + +[7] "The universities, then, at their origins, were merely academic +associations, analogous, as societies of mutual guaranty, to the +corporations of working men, the commercial leagues, the trade-guilds +which were playing so great a part at the same epoch; analogous also, by +the privileges granted to them, to the municipal associations and +political communities that date from the same time." (Compayré, G., +_Abelard and the Rise of the Universities_, p. 33.) + +[8] "M. Bimbenet, in his _History of the University of Orleans_ (Paris, +1853) reproduces several articles from the statutes of the guilds, the +provisions of which are identical with those contained in the statutes of +the universities." (_Ibid._, p. 35.) + +[9] Bologna and Paris were the great "master" universities of the +thirteenth century, while those founded on a model of either were more in +the nature of "journeymen" institutions. + +[10] Between 1600 and 1700, although most of the cities capable of +supporting universities were provided with them, twenty-one more were +created, chiefly in Germany and Holland. The first American university +(Harvard) was established in 1636, and the second (Yale) in 1702. In the +eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, without counting the United States or +any western-hemisphere country, forty more were created. Among the +important nineteenth-century creations were Berlin, 1810; Christiana, +1811; St. Petersburg, 1819; Brussels, 1834; London, 1836; and Athens, +1836. + +[11] See Compayré, G., _Abelard_, pp. 87-90 for list of these "strikes." + +[12] "It is impossible to fix the period at which the system of degrees +began to be organized. Things were done slowly. At the outset, and until +towards the end of the twelfth century, there existed nothing resembling a +real conferring of degrees in the rising universities. In order to teach +it was necessary to have a respondent, a master authorized by age and +knowledge.... + +"The 'license to teach,' nevertheless, became by slow degrees, as master +and pupils multiplied, a preliminary condition of teaching, a sort of +diploma more and more requisite, and of which the bishops (or their +representatives, the chancellors) were the dispensers. Up to the +fourteenth century there was hardly any other clearly-defined university +title." (Compayré, G., _Abelard_, pp. 142-43.) + +[13] "It is manifest that the universities borrowed from the industrial +corporations their 'companionships,' their 'masterships,' and even their +banquets; a great repast being the ordinary sequel of the reception of the +baccalaureate or doctorate." (Compayré, G., _Abelard_, p. 141.) + +[14] The term professor has become general in its significance, and is +used in all countries. In England the term master was retained for the +higher degree, while in Germany the term doctor was retained, and the +doctorate made their one degree. America followed the English plan in the +establishment of the early colleges, and the degree of A.B. and A.M. were +provided for. Later, when the German university influence became prominent +in the United States, the doctor's degree was superimposed on the English +plan. + +[15] At Paris, for example, there were four nations--France, Picardy, +Normandy, and England. These were again divided into tribes, as for +example, there were five tribes of the French--Paris, Sens, Rheims, Tours, +and Bourges. Orleans had ten nations--France, Germany, Lorraine, Burgundy, +Champagne, Picardy, Normandy, Touraine, Guyenne, and Scotland. In those +days these represented separate nationalities, who little understood one +another, and carried their constant quarrels up to the very lecture +benches of the professors. + +[16] A contemporary writer, Jacobus de Vitriaco, has left us an account of +student life at Paris, in which he says: + + "The students at Paris wrangled and disputed not merely about the + various sects or about some discussions; but the differences between + the countries also caused dissensions, hatreds and virulent + animosities among them, and they impudently uttered all kinds of + affronts and insults against one another. + + "They affirmed that the English were drunkards and had tails; the sons + of France proud, effeminate and carefully adorned like women. They + said that the Germans were furious and obscene at their feasts; the + Normans vain and boastful; the Poitevins traitors and always + adventurers. The Burgundians they considered vulgar and stupid. The + Bretons were reputed to be fickle and changeable, and were often + reproached for the death of Arthur. The Lombards were called + avaricious, vicious and cowardly; the Romans, seditious, turbulent and + slanderous; the Sicilians, tyrannical and cruel; the inhabitants of + Brabant, men of blood, incendiaries, brigands and ravishers; the + Flemish, fickle, prodigal, gluttonous, yielding as butter, and + slothful. After such insults from words they often came to blows." + (Pa. Trans. and Repts. from _Sources_, vol. II, no. 3, pp. 19-20.) + +[17] In an American university the term _college_ or _school_ has largely +replaced the term _faculty_; in Europe the term _faculty_ is still used. +Thus we say College of Liberal Arts, or School of Law, instead of Faculty +of Arts, etc. + +[18] For example, one of our modern state universities is organized into +the following faculties, schools, and colleges: + + (1) college of liberal arts; + (2) school of medicine; + (3) school of law; + (4) school of fine arts; + (5) school of pure science; + (6) college of engineering; + (7) college of agriculture; + (8) school of history, economics, and social sciences; + (9) school of business administration; + (10) college of education; + (11) school of household arts; + (12) school of pharmacy; + (13) school of veterinary medicine; + (14) school of library science; + (15) school of forestry; + (16) school of sanitary engineering; + (17) the graduate school; and + (18) the university-extension division. + +[19] "He was called 'The Philosopher'; and so fully were scholars +convinced that it had pleased God to permit Aristotle to say the last word +upon each and every branch of knowledge that they humbly accepted him, +along with the Bible, the church fathers, and the canon and Roman law, as +one of the unquestioned authorities which together formed a complete guide +for humanity in conduct and in every branch of science." (Robinson, J. H., +_History of Western Europe_, p. 272.) + +[20] This tendency increased with time, due both to the development of +secondary schools which could give part of the preparation, and to the +increasing number of students who came to the university for cultural or +professional ends and without intending to pass the tests for the +mastership and the license to teach. Finally the arts course was reduced +to three or four years (the usual college course), and the master's degree +to one, and for the latter even residence was waived during the middle of +the nineteenth century. The A.M. degree has recently been rehabilitated +and now usually signifies a year of hard study in English and American +universities, though a few eastern American institutions still play with +it or even grant it as an honorary degree. In Germany the arts course +disappeared, being given to the secondary schools entirely in the late +eighteenth century, and the universities now confer only the degree of +doctor. + +[21] For a list of the books used in the faculty of medicine at +Montpellier, in 1340, see Rashdall, H., _Universities of Europe in the +Middle Ages_, vol. II, pt. I, p. 123; pt. II, p. 780. + +[22] After the latter part of the thirteenth century the book-writing and +selling trade was organized as a guild industry, and the copying of texts +for sale became common. Then arose the practice of erasing as much of the +writing from old books as could be done, and writing the new book +crosswise of the page. In this way the expense for parchment was reduced, +and in the process many valueless and a few valuable books were destroyed. +Still, the cost for books during the days of parchment must have been +high. Walsh estimates that "an ordinary folio volume probably cost from +400 to 500 francs in our [1914] values, that is, between $80 and $100." + +[23] In Germany the old mediaeval expression has been retained, and the +announcements of instruction there still state that the professor will +"read" on such and such subjects, instead of "offer courses," as we say in +the United States. + +[24] Norton, in his _Readings in the History of Education; Mediaeval +Universities_, pp. 59-75, gives an extract from a text (Gratian) and +"gloss" by various writers, on the question--"Shall Priests be Acquainted +with Profane Literature, or No?" which see for a good example of mediaeval +university instruction and the manner in which a small amount of knowledge +was spun out by means of a gloss. + +[25] Not many early library catalogues have been preserved, but those +which have all show small libraries before the days of printing. At +Oxford, where the university was broken up into colleges, each of which +had its own library, the following college libraries are known to have +existed: Peterhouse College (1418), 304 volumes; Kings College (1453), 174 +volumes; Queens College (1472), 199 volumes; University Library (1473), +330 volumes. The last two were just before the introduction of printing. +The Peterhouse library (1418) was classified as follows: + + Subject Chained Loanable + Theology............ 61 63 + Natural Philosophy.. 26 | + Moral Philosophy.... 5 | 19 + Metaphysics......... 3 | + Logic............... 5 15 + Grammar............. 6 | + Poetry.............. 4 | 13 + Medicine............ 15 3 + Civil Law........... 9 20 + Canon Law........... 18 19 + Totals.............. 152 152 +(Clarke. J. W., _The Care of Books_, pp. 145, 147.) + +[26] Survivals of these old privileges still exist in the German +universities which exercise police jurisdiction over their students and +have a university jail, and in the American college student's feeling of +having the right to create a disturbance in the town and break minor +police regulations without being arrested and fined. + +[27] See Compayré, G., _Abelard_, p. 201, for illustrations. + + +PART III + +CHAPTER X + +[1] One of the best known of the Troubadours was Arnaul de Marveil. The +following specimen of his art reveals both the new love of nature and the +reaction which had clearly set in against the "other-worldliness" of the +preceding centuries: + + "Oh! how sweet the breeze of April, + Breathing soft as May draws near, + While, through nights of tranquil beauty, + Songs of gladness meet the ear: + Every bird his well-known language + Uttering in the morning's pride. + Reveling in joy and gladness + By his happy partner's side. + + "When around me all is smiling, + When to life the young birds spring, + Thoughts of love I cannot hinder + Come, my heart inspiriting- + Nature, habit, both incline me + In such joy to bear my part: + With such sounds of bliss around me + Could I wear a sadden'd heart?" + +[2] "In the Middle Ages man as an individual had been held of very little +account. He was only part of a great machine. He acted only through some +corporation--the commune, guild, the order. He had but little self- +confidence, and very little consciousness of his ability single-handed to +do great things or overcome great difficulties. Life was so hard and +narrow that he had no sense of the joy of living, and no feeling for the +beauty of the world around him, and, as if this world were not dark +enough, the terrors of another world beyond were very near and real." +(Adams, G. B., _Civilization during the Middle Ages_, 2d ed., p. 363.) + +[3] Adams, G. B., _Civilization during the Middle Ages_, 2d. ed., p. 364. + +[4] Petrarch refused to have the works of the Scholastics in his library. +Though a university man, he was out of sympathy with the university +methods of his time. + +[5] "Florence was essentially the city of intelligence in early modern +times. Other nations have surpassed the Italians in their genius ... but +nowhere else except at Athens has the whole population of a city been so +permeated with ideas, so highly intellectual by nature, so keen in +perception, so witty and so subtle, as at Florence." (Symonds, J. A., _The +Renaissance in Italy_.) + +[6] Sandys, J. E., in his _Harvard Lectures on the Revival of Learning_, +pp. 35-41, gives a list of the more important later finds, which see. + +[7] Of the Florentine scholars one of the most famous was Niccolò Niccoli +(1363-1436), of whom Sandys says: "Famous for his beautiful penmanship, he +was much more than a copyist. He collected manuscripts, compared and +collated their various readings, struck out the more obvious corruptions, +restored the true text, broke it up into convenient paragraphs, added +suitable summaries at the head of each, and did much toward laying the +foundation of textual criticism." (Sandys, J. E., _Harvard Lectures on the +Revival of Learning_, p. 39.) + +[8] For example, Laurentius Valla (1407-57) of Pavia, exceeded Niccoli in +ability in textual criticism. He extended this method to the New Testament +and, at the request of King Alphonso, of Naples, subjected the so-called +"Donation of Constantine," a document upon which the Papacy based in part +its claims to temporal power, to the tests of textual criticism and showed +its historical impossibility. This, indeed, was a new and daring spirit in +the mediaeval world, but it represented the spirit and method of the +modern scholar. + +[9] For example, Ciriaco, of Ancona (1391-1450), has been called "the +Schliemann of his time." He spent his life in travel and in copying and +editing inscriptions. After exploring Italy, he visited the Greek isles, +Constantinople, Ephesos, Crete, and Damascus. One of his contemporaries, +Flavio Blondo, of Forli (1388-1463), published a four-volume work on the +antiquities and history of Rome and Italy. These two men helped to found +the new science of classical archaeology. + +[10] Classical scholars assert that Greek became extinct in the Italy of +the Roman Church in 690 A.D. Greek was taught at Canterbury in the days of +the learned Theodore, of Tarsus (R. 59 a), who died in 690. Irish monks, +who carried Greek from Gaul to Ireland in the fifth century, brought it +back in the seventh century to Saint Gall, founded by them in 614. "John +the Scot," an Irish monk who was master of the Palace School under Charles +the Bald (c. 845-55), is said to have been able to read Greek. Roger +Bacon, the Oxford monk (1214-94), also knew a little Greek. William of +Moerbeke, in 1260, was able to translate the _Rhetoric_ and _Politics_ of +Aristotle for Thomas Aquinas. Greek monks were still found in the extreme +south of Italy at the time of the Renaissance, and Greek has remained a +living language in a few villages there up to the present time. + +[11] Gian Antonio Campano; trans. by J. A. Symonds, _The Renaissance in +Italy_, vol. II, p. 249. + +[12] For long it was thought that the revival of the study of Greek in the +West dated from the fall of Constantinople, in 1453, but this idea has +been exploded by classical scholars. The events we have enumerated in this +chapter show this, and at least five of the important Greek scholars who +taught in Italy came before that date. As the Turks closed in on this +wonderful eastern city, for so long the home of Greek learning and +culture, many other Greek scholars fled westward. The principal Greek +authors had, however, been translated into Latin before then. + +[13] Some of the Italian universities participated but little in the new +movement. Bologna and Pavia, in particular, held to their primacy in law +and were but little affected by the revival. + +[14] Bessarion (c. 1403-72), at one time Archbishop of Nicaea and +afterwards a cardinal at Rome, is said to have been surrounded by a crowd +of Greek and Latin scholars whenever he went out, and who escorted him +every morning from his palace to the Vatican. He was a great patron of +learned Greeks who fled to Italy. On his death he gave his entire library +of Greek manuscripts to Venice, and this collection formed the foundation +of the celebrated library of Saint Mark's. + +[15] Symonds, J. A., _The Renaissance in Italy_, vol. II, p. 139. + +[16] In 1436, Niccolò de Niccoli, a copyist of Florence, died, leaving his +collection of eight hundred manuscripts to the Medicean Library for the +use of the public, meaning thereby any scholar. This is said to have been +the first public-library collection in western Europe. + +[17] Nicholas as a monk had had his enthusiasm for the new movement +awakened, and had gone deeply into debt for manuscripts. He was helped by +Cosimo de' Medici. When he became Pope (1447-55) he collected scholars +about him, built up the university at Rome, laid the foundations of the +great Vatican Library, and made Rome a great literary center. After the +death of Lorenzo the Magnificent at Florence, in 1492, the glory that had +been Florence passed to Rome, and it in turn became the cultural center of +Christendom. + +[18] Much earlier, another Oxford man had returned from study under +Guarino at Ferrara--William Gray (1449)--but he seems to have made no +impression. A few other scholars went before Linacre and Grocyn and Colet, +but these men were the first to attract attention on their return. + +[19] Agricola's real name was Roelof Huysman, meaning "Roelof the +husbandman." In keeping with a common practice of the time he Latinized +his name, taking the equivalent Roman word. + +[20] This was bound in two volumes, and in 1911 a copy of it was sold at a +sale of old books, in New York City, for $50,000. + +[21] A second edition of this Psalter was printed two years later, and +contains at the end, in Latin, a statement which Robinson translates as +follows: "The present volume of the Psalms, which is adorned with handsome +capitals and is clearly divided by means of rubrics, was produced not by +writing with a pen, but by an ingenious invention of printed characters: +and was completed to the glory of God and the honor of Saint James by John +Fust, a citizen of Mayence, and Peter Schoifher of Gernsheim, in the year +of our Lord 1459, on the 29th of August." + +[22] The usual early edition was three hundred copies. + +[23] At Florence about three hundred editions are said to have been +printed before 1500; at Bologna, 298; at Milan, 625; and at Rome, 925. + +[24] The following numbers of different editions are said to have been +printed at the northern cities before 1500: Paris, 751; Cologne, 530; +Strassburg, 526; Nuremberg, 382; Leipzig, 351; Basel, 320; Augsburg, 256; +Louvain, 116; Mayence, 134; Deventer, 169; London, 130; Oxford, 7; Saint +Albans, 4. + +[25] By 1500 it is said that a book could be purchased for the equivalent +of fifty cents which a half century before would have cost fifty dollars. + + +CHAPTER XI + +[1] Much as universities have contributed to intellectual progress, +hostility to new types of thinking and to new subjects of study has been, +through all time, a characteristic of many of their members, and often it +has required much pressure from progressive forces on the outside to +overcome their opposition to new lines of scholarship and public service. + +[2] For a list of these treatises, see Monroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_, +vol. v, p. 154. + +[3] The distinguished author, Montaigne, was mayor in 1580. + +[4] This order had begun as an institution for the instruction of the +poor, emphasizing the use of the Bible and the vernacular, but when the +new learning came in from Italy, classical learning was added and the +instruction of the brotherhood became largely humanistic. + +[5] The influence of the old Greek classical terms in this connection is +interesting, and is another evidence of the permanence of Greek ideas. +Sturm here adopted the Italian nomenclature, Vittorino da Feltre having +called his school a _Gymnasium Palatinum_, or Palace School. Guarino wrote +of _gymnasia Italorum_. Both derived the term from the _Gymnasia_ of +ancient Greece, just as the academies of the Italian cities took their +name from the _Academy_ of Plato at Athens (p. 44). Another famous Greek +school was the _Lyceum_, founded by Aristotle (p. 44). All these names +came in during the Revival of Learning in Italy, and were applied to the +new classical schools at a time when every term, and even the names of +men, were given classical form. As a result the Italian secondary schools +of to-day are known as _ginnasio_, and the German classical secondary +schools as _gymnasia_. The French took their term from the _Lyceum_, hence +the French _lycées_. The English named their classical schools after the +chief subject of study, hence the English _grammar schools_. In 1638 +Milton visited Italy, and was much entertained in Florence by members of +the academy and university there. In 1644 he published his _Tractate on +Education_, in which he outlined his plan for a series of classical +_academies_ for England. Milton was a church reformer, as were the +Puritans, and the Puritans, in settling America, brought over first the +term _grammar school_, and later the term _academy_ to England. + +[6] Melanchthon, in his famous Saxony plan of 1528, had provided for but +three classes (R. 161). The class-for-each-year idea was new in German +lands. + +[7] This became a fixed practice, Latin being the one language of the +school. A century later, when it was attempted by the Jansenists, in +France, to teach Greek directly through the vernacular, the practice was +loudly condemned by the Jesuits as impious, because it broke the +connection between France and Rome. + +[8] His phrase book, _De Copia Verborum et Rerum_, went through sixty +editions in his lifetime, and was popular for a century after his death. +His book of proverbs, the _Adagia_, was in both Latin and Greek, and was +widely used. His Book of Sayings from the Ancients (_Apophthegmata_) was a +collection of little stories, much like some of our best modern books for +elementary-school use. His _Colloquies_, or Latin dialogues, were widely +used for two centuries in Protestant countries. These four were written +between 1511 and 1519, and largely for use in Saint Paul's School. His +Latin edition of Theodorus Gaza's Greek Grammar (1516) gave English +schools for the first time a standard text. + +[9] They were _On the First Liberal Education of Children_ (1529), and _On +the Order of Study_ (1511). + +[10] His _Praise of Folly_ (1509), and his _Ciceronian_ (1528). + +[11] The introduction of the new learning into the English universities +was easier than elsewhere, because the English universities had broken up +into groups of residence halls, known as _colleges_. If the old colleges +could not be reformed new ones could be created, and this took place. +Trinity College, at Cambridge, founded in 1540, was from the first a +center of humanistic studies. That same year the King founded royal +professorships of Civil Law, Hebrew, and Greek at Cambridge. + +[12] Elizabeth had had for her tutor Roger Ascham, author of _The +Scholemaster_, and a teacher of Greek at Cambridge (R. 139). + +[13] For generations this famous grammar was to England what Donatus was +to mediaeval Europe. It was also used in the grammar schools of New +England. Lily visited Jerusalem and studied under the best Latin teachers +in Rome, so that he ranks with Linacre, Grocyn, and Colet as an introducer +of classical culture into England. + +[14] Winchester was the first of the so-called "great public schools" of +England, of which Eton, Saint Paul's, Westminster, Harrow, Charterhouse, +Rugby, Shrewsbury, and Merchant Taylors' are the other eight. The +foundation statutes of Winchester made elaborate provision for "a Warden, +a Head Master, ten Fellows, three Chaplains, an Usher, seventy scholars, +three Chapel Clerks, sixteen Choristers, and a large staff of servants," +as did Henry VIII later on for Canterbury (R. l72 a). The Warden and +Fellows were the trustees. In addition to the seventy scholars +(Foundationers) other non-foundationers (Commoners) were to be admitted to +instruction. The admission requirements were to be "reading, plain song, +and Old Donatus," and the school was to teach Grammar, the first of the +Liberal Arts. Except for the change in the nature of the instruction when +the new learning came in, this and the other "public schools" remained +almost unchanged until the second half of the nineteenth century. + +[15] Statutes for this school had provided the following entrance +regulations: "But first see that they can the Catechisme in English or +Latyn, that every one of the said two hundred & fifty schollers can read +perfectly & write competently, or els lett them not be admitted in no +wise." + +[16] His _The Positions_ (1581), and _The Elementarie_ (1582). See Chapter +XVIII. + +[17] Solomon Lowe, in his Grammar, published in 1726, gives a bibliography +of 128 _Phrase Books_ which had appeared by that time. The following +selection from the _Colloquies_ of Corderius (R. 136) illustrates their +nature: + + Col. 7. Clericus Col. 7. Clericus, + The Master. Magister. + C. Master, may not I and my uncle's Licetne, Magister, ut ego & + son go home? patruélis eámus domom? + M. To what end? Quid eó? + C. To my sister's daughter's wedding. Ad nuptias consobrinae. + M. When is she to be married? Quando est nuptura? + C. To-morrow. Crástino die. + M. Why will you go so quickly? Cur tam citò vultis ire? + C. To CHANGE OUR CLOATHS. _Ut mutémus vestimenta_. + +[18] Sturm, Trotzendorf, and Neander insisted on the use of Latin in all +conversation in the school, and the Jesuits later on subjected boys to a +whipping if reported as having used the vernacular. + +[19] Leach, A. F., _English Schools at the Reformation_, p. 105. + + +CHAPTER XII + +[1] Up to this time the only Latin Bible had been the _Vulgate_ (p. 131), +translated by Jerome in the fourth century. Erasmus went back to and +edited the original Greek manuscripts, and then prepared a new parallel +Latin translation, the two being printed side by side. He also added many +explanations of his own which mercilessly exposed the mistakes of the +theologians and the Church, and pointed out the errors in translation +which were embodied in the _Vulgate_. This work passed through numerous +editions and sold in thousands of copies all over Europe. + +So dangerous was this comparative method that "Greek was judged a +heretical tongue. No one should lecture on the New Testament, it was +declared, without a previous theological examination. It was held to be +heresy to say that the Greek or Hebrew text read thus, or that a knowledge +of the original language is necessary to interpret the Scriptures +correctly." + +[2] This was accomplished between 1382 and 1384. Wycliffe translated only +a part of the Old Testament, and the Gospels of Saint Matthew and Saint +Mark of the New. The remainder was done under his direction by others. The +translation was from the Latin _Vulgate_, and was crude and imperfect. The +large number of copies of parts of this translation which have survived, +in manuscript form, to the present time show that it must have awakened +much interest, and been widely copied and recopied during the century +before the invention of printing. + +[3] The heretic, it should be remembered, was the anarchist of the Middle +Ages. The Church regarded heresy as a crime, worthy of the most severe +punishments. The Church and the civil governments proceeded against the +heretic as against an enemy of society and order. Heretics could not give +evidence in a civil court, were prohibited from marrying or from giving a +son or daughter in marriage, and even to speak with a heretic was an +offense. Even torture and death were regarded as justified to stamp out +heresy. + +[4] "What would have been the result had the Council of Constance +succeeded where it failed? It seems certain that one result would have +been the formation of a government for the Church like that which was +taking shape at the same time in England--a limited monarchy with a +legislature gradually gaining more and more the real control of affairs. +It seems almost equally certain that with this the churches of each +nationality would have gained a large degree of local independence, and +the general government of the Church have assumed by degrees the character +of a great federal and constitutional State. If this had been the case, it +is hard to see why all the results which were accomplished by the +reformation of Luther might not have been attained as completely without +the violent disruption of the Church." (Adams, G. B., _Civilisation during +the Middle Ages_, p. 403.) + +[5] In 1302 the first "Estates-General" of France supported the King, and +denied the right of the Pope to any supremacy over the State in France. In +England, about the same time, the right of the Pope to levy taxation on +the English was disputed by King and Parliament. In 1446 William III of +Saxony limited the powers of ecclesiastical courts, and forbade appeals +from Saxon decisions to any foreign court. + +[6] The London _Academy_, 1893, p. 197, published evidence to show that +there was a widespread demand among the bishops of Spain for church +reformation, during the fifteenth century, and along the same lines that +Luther advocated later. + +[7] "But all these attempts at reformation in the Church, large and small, +had failed, as had those of the early fifteenth century to reform its +government, leaving the Church as thoroughly mediaeval in doctrine and in +practical religion as it was in polity. It was the one power, therefore, +belonging to the Middle Ages which still stood unaffected by the new +forces and opposed to them. In other directions the changes had been many; +here nothing had been changed. And its resisting power was very great. +Endowed with large wealth, strong in numbers in every State, with no lack +of able and thoroughly trained minds, its interests, as it regarded them, +in maintaining the old were enormous, and its power of defending itself +seemed scarcely to be broken.... + +"The Church had remained unaffected by the new forces which had +transformed everything else. It was still thoroughly mediaeval. In +government, in doctrine, and in life it still placed the greatest emphasis +upon those additions which the peculiar conditions of the Middle Ages had +built upon the foundations of the primitive Christianity, and it was +determined to remain unchanged." (Adams, G. B., _Civilization during the +Middle Ages_, pp. 406, 412.) + +[8] Every reform movement produces two kinds of reformers, each seeking +the same ultimate goal, but differing materially as to methods of work. In +the religious conflict these two types are well represented by Erasmus and +Luther. Erasmus was as deeply interested in religious reform as Luther and +devoted the energies of a lifetime to trying to secure reform, but he +believed that reformation should come from within, and that the way to +obtain it was to remain within the old organization and work to reform it. +Luther represented the other type, the type which feels that things are +too bad for mere reform to be effective, and that what is wanted is +rebellion against the old. The two types seldom agree as to means, and +usually part company. One is content to be known as a conservative or a +conformer; the other delights in being classed as a progressive or even as +a radical. + +[9] "The early Protestant theory was that an individual's Christian +religious life, convictions, and salvation were to be worked out through a +direct study of the Scriptures, acceptance of the obvious teachings of +Christ as there presented, and direct appeal to God through prayer for +help in leading a Christian life. The Catholic position, on the other +hand, came to be that the individual's religious life was to be achieved +through the intervention of the Church, which claimed on historical +grounds to have been founded by Christ, and to be his official +representative and mediator in the world. It was through the teachings of +this Church that the individual was to receive his ideas of the Christian +religion, to be stimulated to believe these, to be kept in the path of +righteousness, and to obtain salvation." (Parker, S. C., _History of +Modern Elementary Education_, p. 35.) + +[10] Adams, G. B., _Civilization during the Middle Ages_, p. 413. + +[11] A good illustration of the way parts of Germany and German +Switzerland were divided by religious differences is to be found in the +Canton of Appenzell, in northeastern Switzerland. As each small +governmental division had to follow the religion of the ruling prince in +Germany, so in Switzerland the cantons divided on religious lines. To +compromise matters in Appenzell the canton was divided into two half +cantons, following the religious wars of 1597--Inner Rhoden, of sixty- +three square miles, exclusively Roman Catholic, and Outer Rhoden, of +ninety-six square miles, entirely under the Swiss Reformed Church. + +[12] Calvinism is also a product of the northern humanism, Calvin's +difficulties with the Church arising out of his study of the Greek texts. +Calvin had received an excellent theological and legal education, and used +the knowledge and training derived from both to help him formulate a +comprehensive system of belief. + +[13] Like the famous _Sentences_ of Peter Lombard (p. 171), it formed a +splendid textbook of the new faith. Calvin based his work on the +infallibility of the Bible, as against that of the Church and Pope, and +presented, in a remarkably clear and logical manner, the principles of +Calvinistic doctrine. Before 1630, as many as seventy-four full editions +and fourteen partial editions of the _Institutes_ had been printed, and in +nine different languages. + +[14] This went through seventy-seven editions (fourteen in English) before +1630, and in nearly all the languages of Europe, and was one of four +Catechisms, one of which was required of all Oxford undergraduates in +1578. It was adopted by the Scotch, Huguenot, French-Swiss, and Walloon +(Dutch) churches, and was widely used in Holland, England, and America. +(See "Calvin and Calvinism," in Monroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. +I.) + +[15] By 1560 the Calvinists had two thousand houses for religious worship +in France, and demanded religious freedom. In 1562 the persecutions began +in earnest, and for the next thirty-six years religious warfare ruled in +France. In 1598 the Edict of Nantes established religious freedom, though +this was revoked in 1685. + +[16] Even the celebrated Peace of Augsburg (1555) which left to each +German prince and each town and knight the liberty to choose between the +beliefs of the Roman Church and the Lutheran, provided only for religious +freedom for the rulers, and only one alternative. Calvinists, for example, +hated equally by Catholic and Lutheran, were not included. So deeply was +the idea of Church and State as inseparable embedded in the minds of men +that no provision was made for the religious freedom of subjects. This was +a much later evolution, coming first in America. + +[17] In the proposals for the League of Nations Covenant, made at the +conclusion of the World War, in 1919, religious freedom for all persons in +any State in the League was finally decided to be a necessary principle +for any world league. + +[18] Paulsen, Fr., _German Education, Past and Present_, pp. 96-97. + +[19] The terms _atheist_ and _atheism_ now arose, as the modern +substitutes for excommunication and imprisonment, and during the next two +centuries these were applied, by the churchmen of the time, to almost +every prominent philosopher and scientist and independent thinker. + +[20] Very severe measures were enacted to prevent the spread of the +contagion of heresy. All Protestant literature was forbidden circulation +in Catholic lands. The printing-press, as a disseminator of heresy, was +placed under strict license. Certain books were ordered burned. Perhaps +the most extreme and ruthless measure was the prohibition, under penalty +of death, of the reading of the Bible. That this harsh act was carried out +the record of martyrs shows. As one example may be mentioned the sister of +the Flemish artist Matsys and her husband, he being decapitated and she +buried alive in the square fronting the cathedral at Louvain, in 1543, for +having been caught reading the sacred Book. + + +CHAPTER XIII + +[1] Dr. Philip Schaff, the Church historian, says: "Schleiermacher reduced +the whole difference between Romanism and Protestantism to the formula, +'Romanism makes the relation of the individual to Christ depend on his +relation to the Church: Protestantism, _vice versa_, makes the relation of +the individual to the Church depend on his relation to Christ.'" (Quoted +by G. B. Adams, from a pamphlet, _Luther Symposiac_, Union Seminary, +1883.) + +[2] The importance of writing before the days of printing can readily be +appreciated. Just as the monk was carefully trained to copy manuscript, so +the clerk for a city or a business house needed to be carefully trained to +read and write. Writing formed a distinct profession, there being the +"city writer" (city clerk, we say), Latin and vernacular secretaries, +traveling writers, writing teachers, etc. Writing masters sometimes taught +reading also, but usually not. In some French cities the guild of writing +masters was granted an official monopoly of the privilege of teaching +writing in the city. + +[3] Reckoning schools were to meet direct commercial needs in the cities, +and were seldom found outside of commercial towns. The arithmetic taught +in the Latin schools as a part of the Seven Liberal Arts was largely +theoretical; the arithmetic in the reckoning schools was practical. The +work of the professional reckoner in time developed similarly to that of +the professional writer, and often the two were combined in one person. +When employed by a city he was known as the city clerk. In 1482 the first +reckoning book to be published in Germany appeared, filled with merchant's +rules and applied problems in denominate numbers and exchange. See an +interesting monograph by Jackson, L. L., _Sixteenth Century Arithmetic_ +(Trs. College Pubs., No. 8, 1906). + +[4] Luther tried to make a translation so simple that even the unlearned +might profit by listening to its reading. To insure that his translation +should be in a language that would be perfectly clear and natural to the +common people, he went about asking questions of laborers, children, and +mothers to secure good colloquial expressions. It sometimes took him weeks +to secure the right word, but so satisfactory was the result that it fixed +the standard for modern German, and still stands as the most conspicuous +landmark in the history of the German language. + +[5] The French version of this great original work represents the first +use of French as a language for an argumentative treatise, and, as +Calvin's work was more widely discussed than any other Protestant +theological treatise, it did much to fix the character of this national +language. + +[6] "Tyndale's translation is not only the first which goes back to the +original tongues, but it is so noble a translation in its mingled +tenderness and majesty, its Saxon simplicity, and its smooth, beautiful +diction that it has been but little improved on since. Every succeeding +version is little more than a revision of Tyndale's." (J. Paterson Smyth, +_How We Got Our Bible_.) + +The following extract from Matthew is illustrative: "O oure father which +art in heven, halewed be thy name. Let thy kingdom come. Thy wyll be +fulfilled, as well in erth, as hit ys in heven. Geve vs this daye oure +dayly breade. And forgeve vs oure treaspases, even as we forgeve them +whych treaspas vs. Lede vs nott in to temptacion, but delyvre vs from +yvell. Amen." + +[7] The most famous of Luther's German hymns, and one expressive of the +Protestant spirit, is the one beginning: + + "Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott, "A mighty fortress is our God, + Ein gute Wehr und Waffen." A bulwark never failing." + +This hymn has often been called "The Marseillaise of the Reformation." + +[8] The evolution, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, of the +German vernacular school-teacher out of the parish sexton is one of the +interesting bits of our educational history. + +[9] Magdeburg is typical, where the Lutherans united all the parish +schools under the supervision of one pastor. + +[10] Wittenberg, founded in 1502 as a new-learning university, and in +which Luther, Melanchthon, and Bugenhagen were professors, was the first +of the universities to become Protestant. Gradually the other universities +in Protestant Germany threw off their allegiance to the Pope, and took on +that of the ruling prince. + +[11] The first Protestant university to be founded was Marburg, in Hesse, +in 1527. When this later went over to Calvinism, a new university was +founded at Giessen, in 1607, by a migration of the Lutheran professors. +Other Protestant universities founded were Königsberg (1544) Jena (1555), +Helmstadt (1576), and the free-city universities of Altdorf (1573), +Strassburg (1621), Rinteln (1621), Duisberg (1655) and Kiel (1665). The +support of these came, to a considerable extent, from old monastic or +ecclesiastical foundations which had been dissolved after the Reformation. + +[12] This was in response to a petition to the King, nearly two years +before. The King finally granted the request, "though maintaining that he +was not compelled by God's Word to set forth the Scriptures in English, +yet 'of his own liberality and goodness was and is pleased that his said +loving subjects should have and read the same in convenient places and +times.'" (Procter and Frere, _History of the Book of Common Prayer_, p. +30.) + +[13] "The injunctions directed that 'a Bible of the largest volume in +English' be set up in some convenient place in every church, where it +might be read, only without noise, or disturbance of any public service, +and without any disputation, or exposition." (_Ibid._, p. 30.) + +[14] The right to read the Bible was later revoked, during the closing +years of Henry VIII's reign (d. 1547), by an act of Parliament, in 1543, +which provided that "no woman (unless she be a noble or gentle woman), no +artificers, apprentices, journeymen, servingmen, under the degree of +yeomen ... husbandmen, or laborers" should read or use any part of the +Bible under pain of fines and imprisonment. + +[15] These were, distributed by reigns, as follows: + + Henry VIII (1509-1547) 63 schools + Edward VI (1547-1553) 50 " + Mary (1553-1558) 19 " + Elizabeth (1558-1603) 138 " + James I (1603-1625) + Charles I (1625-1649) 142 " + Protectorate (1649-1660) + Charles II (1660-1685) + James II (1685-1688) 146 " + + +CHAPTER XIV + +[1] "These Calvinists had a common program of broad scope--not merely +doctrinal, but also political, economic, and social. Their common program +and their social ideals demanded education of all as instruments of +Providence for church and commonwealth. Their industrious habits and +productive economic life provided funds for education. Their +representative institutions in both church and commonwealth not only +necessitated general diffusion of knowledge, but furnished the +organization necessary for founding, supervising, and maintaining, in +wholesome touch with the common man, both elementary and higher +institutions of learning. Their disciplined and responsive conscience, +their consequent intensity of moral conviction and spirit of self- +sacrifice for the common weal, compelled them to realize, in concrete and +permanent form, their ideals of college and common school." (Foster, H. +D., In Monroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. i, p. 499.) + +[2] In 1625 a list of the famous men of the city of Louvain, in Belgium, +was printed. More than one fourth of those listed had studied in the +colleges of Geneva. + +[3] Foster, H. D., Monroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. I, p. 491. + +[4] In Monroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. I, p. 498. + +[5] "That public schools abounded throughout the Netherlands is evident. +Every study of the archives of town or province discloses their presence. +The minutes of every religious body bear overwhelming testimony not only +to the existence of schools, but also a zealous interest in their +maintenance." (Kilpatrick, W. H., _Dutch Schools of New Netherlands_, p. +37.) + +[6] For long the Church had had the Inquisition, but, while it had +rendered loyal and iniquitous service, the results had been in no way +commensurate with the bitter hatred which its work awakened. +Excommunication, persecution, imprisonment, the stake, and the sword had +been tried extensively, but with only partial success. In education the +reformers had shown the Church a new method, which was positive and +effective and did not awaken opposition, and from the reformer's zeal for +Latin grammar schools to provide an intelligent ministry the Church took +its cue of establishing schools to train its future leaders. It was a +long-headed and far-sighted plan, and its success was proportionately +large. + +[7] This is not true of their missions in foreign lands, where the mission +priests usually gave elementary instruction. Elementary schools were +maintained in the Jesuit missions of North and South America. Thus a +mission school was established at Quebec as early as 1635, and one at +Newtown, in Catholic Maryland, in 1640. After 1740 elementary parish +schools were opened by the Jesuits among the German Catholics in +Pennsylvania. From these beginnings Catholic parish schools have been +developed in the United States. + +[8] The Order was reëstablished in 1814 and it has since been allowed to +reëstablish itself in most countries, though not in France or Germany. +There are 41 Jesuit colleges in America, in 21 states. (For list see +Monroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. III, p. 540.) In the revision of +its course of instruction, in 1832, modern studies were added, but the +Society has never played any such conspicuous part in education since its +reëstablishment as it did during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. + +[9] It is an interesting speculation as to whether the fact that the +Jesuits made such headway in German lands, and so deeply impressed their +training on the children of the nobility there, has had any connection +with the attitude of German and Austrian political leaders in their +governmental and political policies since that time. + +[10] By the middle of the eighteenth century the Jesuits had lost much of +their former vigor, and their colleges their former large influence. They +had become powerful and arrogant, mixed deeply in political intrigues, +quarreled with any one who crossed their path, and refused to change their +instruction to meet new intellectual needs. They were finally driven from +France, Spain, Portugal, and German lands, and were ultimately abolished +as an Order. + +[11] The care with which the _Ratio Studiorum_ was worked out is typical +of the thoroughness of the Order. A preliminary outline of work was +followed for many years, the whole being experimental. Reports on it were +made, and finally a preliminary Ratio was issued, in 1586. This was again +revised and cast into final form, in 1599. In this form it remained until +1832, when some modern studies were added. + +[12] Dabney, R. H., _The Causes of the French Revolution_, p. 203. + +[13] For example, the "States-General" of France met four times during the +seventeenth century, with weighty problems of religion and state for +consideration, yet in three of the four meetings resolutions were passed +urging the clergy to establish schoolmasters in all the towns and +villages, and a general system of compulsory education for all. + +[14] _Les vrais Constitutions des Religieuses de la Congrégation de Nostre +Dame_, chap. xi, sec. 6, 2d ed., Toul, 1694. + +[15] See especially Felix Cadet, _Port-Royal Education_ (Scribners, New +York, 1898), for translations of many of the brief pedagogical writings of +members of the Order. + +[16] Father Demia, at Lyons, had organized what was probably the first +training-school for masters, in 1672. La Salle's training-school dates +from 1684. Francke's German _Seminarium Praeceptorum_, at Halle, the first +in German lands, dates from 1696. + +[17] The numerous pictures of schools and educational literature well into +the nineteenth century show the general prevalence of the individual +method of instruction. It was the method in American schools until well +toward the middle of the nineteenth century. To have graded the children +and introduced class instruction in 1684 was an important advance which +the world has been slow in learning. + +[18] Everything was according to rule, even the ferule, which must be made +of two strips of leather, ten to twelve inches long, sewed together. All +offenses, and the number and location of the blows for each, were +specified. Later the corporal punishment was replaced by penances. + + +CHAPTER XV + +[1] Representing not over one tenth of the population, the Protestants in +France had from the first been subjected to much persecution. In the +Massacre of Saint Bartholomew (1572) over one thousand had been massacred +in Paris and ten thousand more in the provinces. After some warfare, a +treaty was made, in 1598, under which the so-called "Edict of Nantes" +guaranteed religious toleration for the Protestants. In 1685 this was +revoked, and their ministers were given fifteen days to leave France. The +members were, however, forbidden to leave. Many, though, got away, +escaping to the Low Countries, England, and to America. + +[2] The culmination of this dissatisfaction came in 1649, when Charles I +was beheaded and "The Commonwealth" was established under Cromwell. During +the troubled times which followed (1649-60) much damage was done to the +churches of England by way of eliminating vestiges of "popery." + +[3] Some of these went back to England--many after the establishment of +the Protestant Commonwealth under Cromwell (1649). It has been estimated, +for three of the early colonies, that the population by decades was +approximately as follows: + + 1630 1640 1650 1660 + New Netherlands.............. 500 1000 3000 6000 + Massachusetts................ 1300 14000 18000 25000 + Virginia...................... 3000 8000 17000 33000 + +[4] The name and the form came alike from old England, where an irregular +area known as a "town" or a "township," constituted the unit of +representation in the shiremoats and the membership of the church parish. +Almost every town and parish officer known in England was created by the +new towns in New England, with practically the same functions as in the +old home. + +[5] "The settlers were in the first freshness of their Utopian enthusiasm, +and their church establishment was the very heart of their enterprise. It +became therefore a matter of primary importance to educate preachers. For +ages preparation for the ministry had consisted mainly in acquiring a +knowledge of Latin, the sacred tongue of western Christendom. Though the +Latin service was no longer used by Protestants, and the Vulgate Bible had +been dethroned by the original text, and though the main stream of English +theology was by this time flowing in the channel of the mother tongue, the +notion that all ministers should know Latin had still some centuries of +tough life in it." (Eggleston, E., _The Transit of Civilization_, p. 225.) + +[6] For example, the town of Boston, in 1641, devoted the income from +Deere Island to the support of schools, and Plymouth, in 1670, +appropriated the income from the Cape Cod fishing industry to the support +of grammar schools (R. 194 c). + +These are among the earliest of the permanent endowments for education in +America. + +[7] See _The Development of School Support in Colonial Massachusetts_, by +George L. Jackson, for a careful study of the different early methods of +school support. + +[8] The Puritan emigrants to New England represented a sturdy and well- +educated class of English country squires and yeomen. They came of thrifty +and well-to-do stock, the shiftless and incompetent not being represented. +All had had good educational advantages, and many were graduates of +Cambridge University. It has been asserted that probably never since has +the proportion of college men in the community been so large. + +[9] Martin, Geo. H., _The Evolution of the Massachusetts Public-School +System_, pp. 14-16. + +[10] The charging of a tuition fee to those who could afford to pay was a +common European practice of the time, nevertheless the public authorities +--at that time a mixture of civil and church officials--provided the +school, employed and licensed the teacher, determined the textbooks to be +used, and laid down the conditions under which the school should be +conducted. The schoolmaster assisted the church by participating in the +Sunday services. The elementary school of the Dutch, which was copied in +the New Netherland, was thus a combination of a public and parochial, and +a free and pay school. + +[11] This was, of course, much more true of New York City and Island than +of the outlying Dutch villages. In these latter a public school was for +long maintained. + +[12] Draper, A. S., _Origin and Development of the New York Common School +System_. + +[13] Among the German Lutherans, who constituted nearly one fourth of the +total population of the colony, a school is claimed to have been +established alongside the church by each of the congregations "at the +earliest possible period after its formation." The close connection +between these Lutheran congregations and their schools may be seen from +the following contract, dated at Lancaster, in 1774: + + "I, the undersigned, John Hoffman, parochial teacher of the church at + Lancaster, have promised in the presence of the congregation, to serve + as choirister, and, as long as we have no pastor, to read sermons on + Sunday. In summer I promise to hold cathechetical instruction with the + young, as becomes a faithful teacher, and also to lead them in the + singing and attend to the clock." + +[14] The seventeenth-century Virginia legislation relating to education +is as follows: + + 1643. Orphans to be educated "according to the competence of their + estate." + 1646. "If the estate be so meane and inconsiderate that it will not + reach to a free education, then that orphan [shall] be bound to + some manuall trade ... except some friends or relatives be willing + to keep them." + 1660-61. "To avoid sloth and idleness ... as also for the relief of + parents whose poverty extends not to giving [their children] + breeding, the justices of the peace should ... bind out children + to tradesmen or husbandmen to be brought up in some good and + lawful calling." + +[15] "Perhaps the most remarkable, because the most widespread and complex +illustration of the educational genius of Calvinism is to be found in the +American colonies, where the various European streams of Calvinism so +converged that the seventeenth-century colonists were predominantly +Calvinists--not merely the Puritans of New England, but the Dutch, +Walloons, Huguenots, Scotch, and Scotch-Irish, with a considerable Puritan +admixture in Anglican Virginia and Catholic Maryland." (Foster, H. D., in +Monroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_, vol. I, p. 498.) + +[16] "To illustrate how omnipresent this religious atmosphere was, I +cannot do better than to cite the occasion when Judge Sewell found that +the spout which conducted the rain water from his roof did not perform its +office. After patient searching, a ball belonging to the small childeren +was found lodged in the spout. Thereupon the father sent for the minister +and had a season of prayer with his boys that their mischief or +carelessness might be set in its proper aspect and that the event might be +sanctified to their spiritual good. Powers of darkness and of light were +struggling for the possession of every soul, and it was the duty of +parents, ministers, and teachers to lose no opportunity to pluck the +children as brands from the burning." (Johnson Clifton, _Old-Time Schools +and Schoolbooks_, p. 12.) + + +CHAPTER XVI + +[1] Thales had guessed that water was the primal element from which all +had been derived; Anaximenes guessed air; Heraclitus fire; Pythagoras held +that number was the essence of all things; Empedocles thought that fire +and heat, accompanied by "indestructible forces," formed the basis; +Xenophanes had guessed air, fire, water, and earth, and had worked out a +complete scheme of creation. For an interesting discussion of these early +attempts to explain creation, see J. W. Draper, _History of the +Intellectual Development of Europe_, vol. 1, chap. iv. + +[2] Among the treatises by him accepted as genuine are _On Airs, Waters, +and Places_; _On Epidemics_; _On Regimen in Acute Diseases_; _On +Fractures_; and _On Injuries of the Head_. + +[3] For example, Hippocrates had held that the human body contains four +"humors"--blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile--and that disease was +caused by the undue accumulation of some one of these humors in some +organ, which it was the business of the physician to get rid of by blood- +letting, blistering, purging, or other means. + +[4] From a collection of doggerel rhymes put out by two pastors and +doctors of theology at Basle, in 1618, by the names of Grassner and Gross, +to interpret the orthodox theory of comets to peasants and school +children. + +[5] "The earth is a sphere, situated in the center of the heavens; if it +were not, one side of the heavens would appear nearer to us than the +other, and the stars would be larger there. The earth is but a point in +comparison to the heavens, because the stars appear of the same magnitude +and at the same distance _inter se_, no matter where the observer goes on +the earth. It has no motion of translation.... If there were a motion, it +would be proportionate to the great mass of the earth and would leave +behind animals and objects thrown into the air. This also disproves the +suggestion made by some, that the earth, while immovable in space, turns +round on its own axis." (Ptolemy, Digest of argument of Book 1 of the +_Almagest_.) + +[6] In the dedicatory letter Copernicus states that he had had the +completed manuscript in his study for thirty-six years, and published it +now only on the urging of friends. + +[7] To secure the greatest possible accuracy he constructed a wooden +outdoor quadrant some ten feet in radius, with a brass scale, thus +permitting readings to a fraction of an inch. + +[8] "The current view was that comets were formed by the ascending of +human sins from the earth, that they were changed into a kind of gas, and +ignited by the anger of God. This poisoned stuff then fell down on +people's heads, causing all kinds of mischief, such as pestilence, sudden +death, storms, etc." (Dryer, J. L. E., _Tycho Brahe_.) + +[9] "For over fifty years he was the knight militant of science, and +almost alone did successful battle with the hosts of Churchmen and +Aristotelians who attacked him on all sides--one man against a world of +bigotry and ignorance. If then... when face to face with the terrors of +the Inquisition he, like Peter, denied his Master, no honest man, knowing +all the circumstances, will be in a hurry to blame him." (Fahie, J. J., +_Galileo, His Life and Work_.) + +[10] See Routledge, R., _A Popular History of Science_, pp. 135-36, for a +good digest of Bacon's inductive investigation, as a result of which he +arrived at the conclusion that "Heat is an expansive bridled motion, +struggling in the small particles of bodies." + +[11] Bacon himself died a victim of one of his inductive experiments. +Wishing to try out his theory that cold would prevent or retard +putrefaction, he killed a chicken, cleaned it, and packed it in snow. In +so doing he contracted a cold which caused his death. + + +CHAPTER XVII + +[1] See footnote 1, p. 272, on the origin of the term. Six years before +the publication of the _Tractate_, Milton had visited Italy, and had been +much entertained in Florence by members of the Academy and University +there. In the _Tractate_ he outlined a plan for a series of classical +Academies for England, many of which were established. From England the +term was carried to America, and became the name for a great development +of semi-private secondary schools which flourished during the late +eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. + +[2] Unlike England and France, the German lands long remained feudal and +not united. As late as the beginning of the nineteenth century Germany was +made up of more than three hundred little principalities, of which sixty +were free cities. Each little principality was self-governing and +maintained its little court. + +[3] Richard Mulcaster (1531-1611), for forty-eight years a famous London +Latin grammar-school master, often classed as a precursor of the sense +realists, in two books, published in 1581 and 1582, had urged the great +importance of a study of the English tongue, and of using it as a medium +for instruction. In his _Elementarie_ (1582) he had said: "Our own +language bears the joyful title of our liberty and freedom, the Latin +remembers us of our thralldom and bondage. I love Rome, but London better; +I favor Italy, but England more. I honor the Latin, but I worship the +English." (R. 226.) + +[4] The school was opened with 433 boys and girls enrolled. It was divided +into six classes. In the first three German only was used. In the first +two classes the children were taught to read and write German, Genesis +being the reading book of the second class. In the third class German +grammar was studied. Music, religion, and the elements of arithmetic were +also taught in these classes. In the fourth class Latin was begun, +studying Terence, and Latin grammar was worked out from the constructions. +In the sixth and highest class Greek was taught. A good education was to +be given in six years, through the saving of time. + +[5] This was written out in his native Czech tongue, but was not published +at the time. A quarter of a century later it appeared in Latin, with his +collected works, as published by his patron at Amsterdam (1657). It was +then forgotten for two centuries. In 1841 the manuscript was found at +Lissa, and published in the original at Prague, in 1848. The first English +edition appeared in 1896. + +[6] See the English edition edited by M. W. Keatinge, A. and C. Black, +London, 1896. + +[7] The following is illustrative: "Sec. 518 (Geometria). Ex concursu +linearum fit angulus qui est vel rectus, quern linea incidens +perpendicularis efficit, ut est (in subjecto schemate) angulus A C B; vel +acutus, minor recto, A ut B C D; vel obtusus, major recto, ut A C D." + +[Illustration: + B D + | / + |/ A------------- + C ] + +[8] A very good reprint of the 1727 English edition, with pictures from +the first edition of 1658, was brought out by C. W. Bardeen, of Syracuse, +New York, in 1887. This ought to be in all libraries where the history of +education is taught. + +[9] Basedow's _Elementarwerk mit Kupfern_ (Elementary Reading Book, with +copperplate pictures), published in 1773 (see p. 535), was the first +attempt, and not a particularly successful one either, to improve on the +_Orbis Pictus_. + +[10] This term was at first applied in derision, just as Methodism was +applied to the English religious reformers in the eighteenth century, but +the term was soon made reputable by the earnestness and ability of those +who accepted it. + +[11] Francke's father had been counselor to Duke Ernest of Gotha, who had +created for his little duchy the most modern-type school system of the +seventeenth century. How much Francke's progressive ideas in educational +matters go back to the work of Duke Ernest forms an interesting +speculation. + +[12] "Francke had the rare ability to see clearly what needed doing, and +then to do it regardless of obstacles or consequences. The magnitude of +his work in Halle is simply marvelous, and yet what he actually +accomplished is insignificant in comparison with what he inspired others +to do. He showed how practical Christianity could be incorporated in the +work of the common schools; his plan was immediately adopted by Frederick +William I and made well-nigh universal in Prussia. He showed how the +Realien could be profitably employed in a Latin school, and even made a +constituent part of a university preparatory course; as a result of his +methods, and especially of his suggestion that schools should be founded +for the exclusive purpose of fitting the youth of the citizen class for +practical life, there has since grown up in Germany a class of Real- +schools." (Russell, J. E., _German Higher Schools_, p. 64.) + +[13] Paulsen, Fr., _The German Universities_, p. 36. + +[14] As late as 1805, according to Paulsen, of the whole number of +students in the universities of Prussia, there were but 144 in the +combined medical faculties, as against 555 in theology, and 1036 in law. + +[15] Francke relates that, as a student at Erfurt (c. 1675), he was able +to study physics and botany, along with his theological studies. Oxford +records show the publication of a list of plants in the "Physick Garden" +there as early as 1648. The garden was endowed about that time by the Earl +of Danby, and in 1764 lectures on botany were begun there. Lord Bacon, in +his _Advancement of Learning_ (1605), had written: "We see likewise that +some places instituted for physic (medicinae) have annexed the commodity +of gardens for simples of all sorts, and do likewise command the use of +dead bodies for anatomies." + +[16] Thomasius was made professor of theology, and Francke professor of +Greek and Oriental languages. Both had been expelled from the University +of Leipzig. Christian Wolff, who had been banished by Frederick William I, +was recalled and made professor of philosophy. It was he who "made +philosophy talk German." + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +[1] Quick, R. H., _Essays on Educational Reformers_, 26. ed., p. 97. + +[2] Locke was the first to lay the basis for modern scientific psychology +to supersede the philosophic psychology of Plato and Aristotle. In his +_Essay on the Conduct of the Human Understanding_ (1690) upon which he +spent many years of labor, he first applied the methods of scientific +observation to the mind, analyzed experiences, and employed introspection +and comparative mental study. He thus built up a psychology based on the +analysis of experiences, and came to the conclusion that our knowledge is +derived by reflection on experience coming through sensation. He is +consequently called the founder of empirical psychology, and the +forerunner of modern experimental psychology and child study. His +philosophy, and his theory of education as well, thus came to be a +philosophy of experience--a rejection of mere authority, and a constant +appeal to reason as a guide. + +[3] "Freedom and self-reliance, these are the watchwords of these two +marvelously modern men (Montaigne and Locke). Expansion, real education, +drawing out, widening out, that is the burden of their preaching; and +voices in the wilderness theirs were! Narrowness, bigotry, flippancy, +inertia, these were the rule until Rousseau's time, and even his voice was +to fall upon deaf ears in England." (Monroe, Jas. P., _Evolution of the +Educational Ideal_, p. 122.) + +[4] Schmidt, Karl, _Geschichte der Pädagogik_, translated in Barnard's +_American Journal of Education_. + +[5] Rules for the schools of Dorchester, Massachusetts. + +[6] Duke Eberhard Louis's _Renewed Organization of the German School_, +1729; republished 1782. + +[7] One of the earliest horn books known appears in the illuminated +manuscript shown in Figure 44, which dates from 1503. The first definitely +known horn book in England dates from 1587, while most, of the specimens +found in museums date from about the middle of the eighteenth century. As +improvements or variations of the horn book, cardboard sheets and wooden +squares, known as battledores, appeared after 1770. On these the +illustrated alphabet was printed. (See Tuer, A. W., _History of the Horn +Book_, 2 vols., illustrated, London, 1886, for detailed descriptions.) + +[8] The diversity of religious primers which had grown up by 1565 led +Henry VIII to cause to be issued a unified and official Primer, containing +the Pater Noster, Ave Maria, Credo, and the Ten Commandments. + +[9] The title-page of an edition of 1715 declares that edition to be: +"_The Protestant Tutor_, instructing Youth and Others, in the compleat +method of _Spelling, Reading, and Writing True English_: Also discovering +to them the Notorious _Errors_, Damnable _Doctrines_, and cruel +_Massacres_ of the bloody _Papists_ which _England_ may expect from a +_Popish_ Successor." + +[10] This was compiled by the Westminster Assembly of Divines, called +together by Parliament, in 1643, composed of 121 clergymen, 30 of the +laity, and 5 special commissioners from Scotland. It held 1163 sessions, +extending over six years, and framed the series of 107 questions and +answers which appeared in the Primer as "The Shorter Catechism." + +[11] So great was the sale of this book that the author was able to +support his family during the twenty years (1807-27) he was at work on his +_Dictionary of the English Language_, entirely from the royalties from the +_Speller_ though the copyright returns were less than one cent a copy. At +the time of his death (1843), the sales were still approximately a million +copies a year, and the book is still on sale. + +[12] In Nuremberg, as an example of German practice, the guild of writing +and arithmetic masters continued, throughout all of the eighteenth +century, and even into the nineteenth, as an organization separate from +that of other types of teachers. + +[13] Francke, in his Institutions at Halle (p. 418), had tried to develop +a number-concept, and apply the teaching. In the Braunschweig-Lüneburg +school decree of 1737 appeared directions for beginning number work by +counting the fingers, apples, etc., and basing the multiplication table on +addition. A few German writers during the eighteenth century suggested +better instruction, Basedow (chapter XXII) tried to institute reform in +the teaching of the subject, but it was left for Pestalozzi (chapter XXI) +to give the first real impetus to the rational teaching of the subject. + +[14] Such offices were not considered in any sense as degrading, and the +attaching of the new duty of instructing the young of the parish in +reading and religion dignified still more the other church office. As +schools grew in importance there was a gradual shifting of emphasis, and +finally a dropping of the earlier duties. Many early school contracts in +America (Rs. 105; 236) called for such church duties on the part of the +parish teacher. See also footnote, p. 370. + +[15] In 1722 country schoolmasters in Prussia were ordered selected from +tailors, weavers, blacksmiths, wheelwrights, and carpenters, and in 1738 +they were granted the tailoring monopoly in their villages, to help them +to live. Later Frederick the Great ordered that his crippled and +superannuated soldiers should be given teaching positions in the +elementary vernacular schools of Prussia. + +[16] The "Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge," organized in +1609 to aid the Church and provide schools at home, and the "Society for +the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts," organized in 1702 to +supply ministers and teachers for churches and schools in the English +colonies. + +[17] In 1704 the ordinary charge in London for a "School of 50 Boys +Cloathed comes to about £75 per Annum, for which a School-Room, Books, and +Firing are provided, a Master paid, and to each Boy is given yearly, 3 +Bands, 1 Cap, 1 Coat, 1 Pair of Stockings, and one Pair of Shooes." A +girls' school of the same size cost £60 per annum, which paid for the +room, books, mistress, fixing and providing each girl with "2 Coyfs, 2 +Bands, 1 Gown and Petticoat, 1 Pair of knit Gloves, 1 Pair of Stockings, +and 2 Pair of Shooes." + +[18] McCarthy, Justin H., _Ireland since the Union_, p. 13. + +[19] Frederick the Great, in the General School Regulations issued in 1763 +(R. 274, § 15), strictly prohibited the keeping of "hedge schools" in the +towns and rural districts of Prussia. + +[20] Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_ (1678,) Defoe's _Robinson Crusoe_ +(1719), and _Gulliver's Travels_ (1726), The publication of these +tremendously stimulated the desire to read. + +[21] Strype, John, _Stowe's Survey of London_, 1720; bk. 1, pp. 199, 201- +02. + +[22] Paulsen, Friedrich, _German Education_, p. 141. + +[23] Barnard, Henry. Translated from Karl von Raumer; in his _American +Journal of Education_, vol. v., p. 509. + +[24] Salmon, David, "The Education of the Poor in the Eighteenth Century"; +in _Educational Record_, London, 1908. + +[25] "If you would comprehend the success of Rousseau's _Émile_, call to +mind the children we have described, the embroidered, gilded, dressed-up, +powdered little gentlemen, decked with sword and sash,... alongside of +these, little ladies of six years, still more artificial,--so many +veritable dolls to which rouge is applied, and with which a mother amuses +herself for an hour and then consigns them to her maids for the rest of +the day. This mother reads _Émile_. It is not surprising that she +immediately strips the poor little thing (of its social harness of +whalebone, iron, and hair) and determines to nurse her next child +herself." (Taine, H. A., _The Ancient Régime_, vol. II, p. 273.) + +[26] Montmorency, J. E. G. de., _The Progress of Education in England_, +pp. 46, 50. + +[27] A change now took place in the intellectual life of Germany: "The +nation began to make itself independent of French influence. In literature +Klopstock and Lessing broke the fetters of French classicism. An ardent +desire for a deeper culture peculiar to the German people asserted itself. +But the soil of the national life was too poor in genus for a purely +German culture, hence scholars looked for new models and found them in +classical antiquity. The ancient authors became again the masters of +culture and taste; with this difference, though, that it was not desired +to learn how to express their thoughts as well as the learner's thoughts +in Latin, but to become familiar with their manner of thinking and +feeling, for the purpose of enlarging and ennobling German thought and +speech. From this standpoint Greek, on account of its more valuable +literature, assumed a higher importance, and, by degrees, a superiority +over Latin." (Nohle, E., _History of the German School System_, pp. 48- +49.) + +[28] "If any one be destined for a studious career, let him not shirk his +Greek lessons, inasmuch as he would thereby suffer irretrievable loss.... +He who reads the classic writers, studying mathematical reasoning at the +same time, trains his mind to distinguish what is true or false, beautiful +or unsightly, fills his memory with manifold fine thoughts, attains skill +in grasping the ideas of others as well as in fluently expressing his own, +acquires a number of excellent maxims for the improvement of the +understanding and the will, and thus learns by practice nearly all that a +good compendium of philosophy could teach him in systematic order and +dogmatic form." (School Regulations for Braunschweig-Lüneburg, of 1737.) + +[29] "Be assured that if you forget your Greek, yes, even your Latin too, +you still have the advantage of having given your mind a training and +discipline that will go with you into your future occupation." (Friedrich +Gedike, 1755-1803.) + + +PART IV + +CHAPTER XIX + +[1] "The Period of the Enlightenment" had two main aims: (1) the +perfection of the individual, which gave a new emphasis to education, and +(2) the mastery of man over his environment, which expressed itself +through the new scientific studies. In German lands elementary education, +a regenerated classical education, and the _Realschule_ were the fruits of +this period. + +[2] Frederick used to say that his subjects might think as they pleased so +long as they behaved as he ordered. + +[3] Though Prussia was primarily Lutheran, Catholics, Mennonites, Jews, +and Huguenots early found a home in the kingdom. Frederick used to say +that "all religions must be tolerated, for in this country every man must +go to heaven in his own way." + +[4] After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (p. 301; 1685), over +20,000 French Huguenots--merchants, manufacturers, skilled workmen--found +an asylum in Prussia alone. Settling in the Rhine countries, they +contributed much to the future development of this region. + +[5] "For the first time since Luther, the German people could call a great +hero their own, whether they were the subjects of Frederick or not. Joyous +pride in this prince, whose achievements in times of peace were no less +than those in time of war, brought national consciousness to life again +and this national feeling found expression in literature. It was the +restoration of confidence in themselves that gave the Germans the courage +to break with French rules and French models, and to seek independently +after ideals of beauty. And this self-confidence they owed to Frederick +the Great." (Priest, G. M., _History of German Literature_, p. 116.) + +[6] Though Joseph II claimed to be a good Catholic, he felt that +monasticism had outlived its usefulness as an institution, and that its +continuance was inimical to the interests of organized society and the +State. This view has since been taken by the rulers of every progressive +modern nation. + +[7] The Cortes, or National Parliament, met but three times during the +century, and when it did meet possessed but few powers and exercised but +little influence. + +[8] The first Russian university was established at Kiev, in 1588; the +second at Dorpat, in 1632; the third at Moscow, in 1755; and the fourth at +Kasan, in 1804. The University of Petrograd dates from 1819. + +[9] The great difference between a church and true religion must always be +kept in mind. Religion is a thing of the spirit, and its principle +represents the loftiest thoughts of the race; a church is a human +governing institution, and clearly subject to its own ambitions and the +human frailties of its age. + +[10] That is, 25,000 to 30,000 families. There were also, in even numbers, +83,000 monks in 2500 monasteries (one for every ninety square miles in +France), 37,000 nuns in 1500 convents, and 60,000 priests. Of the soil of +France, the King and towns owned one fifth, the clergy and the monks one +fifth, the nobility one fifth, the bourgeoisie one fifth, and the +peasantry one fifth. + +[11] In 1788 the 131 bishops and archbishops of France had an average +income of 100,000 francs, and 33 abbots and 27 abbesses had incomes +ranging from 80,000 to 500,000 francs. The Cardinal de Rohan, Archbishop +of Strasbourg, had an income of more than 1,000,000 francs, and the 300 +Benedictine monks at Cluny had an income of more than 1,800,000 francs. + +[12] "The real importance of _Esprit des lois_ is not that of a formal +treatise on law, or even on polity. It is that of an assemblage of the +most fertile, original, and inspiriting views on legal and political +subjects, put in language of singular suggestiveness and vigour, +illustrated by examples which are always apt and luminous, permeated by +the spirit of temperate and tolerant desire for human improvement and +happiness, and almost unique in its entire freedom at once from +doctrinairism, visionary enthusiasm, egotism, and an undue spirit of +system. The genius of the author for generalization is so great, his +instinct in political science so sure, that even the falsity of his +premises frequently fails to vitiate his conclusions." (Saintsbury, +George, in _Encyclopedia Britannica_, vol. XVIII, p. 777.) + +[13] "By the captivating prospects which he held out of future progress, +and by the picture which he drew of the capacity of society to improve +itself, Turgot increased the impatience which his countrymen were +beginning to feel against the despotic government, in whose presence +amelioration seemed to be hopeless. These, and similar speculations of the +time, stimulated the activity of the intellectual classes, cheered them +under the persecutions to which they were exposed, and emboldened them to +attack the institutions of their native land." (Buckle, H. T., _History of +Civilisation in England_, vol. I, p. 597.) + +[14] Duruy, V., _History of France_, p. 523. + +[15] _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 11th ed., vol. viii, p. 204. + +[16] "The real king of the eighteenth century was Voltaire; but Voltaire, +in his turn, was a pupil of the English. Before Voltaire became acquainted +with England, through his travels and his friendships, he was not +Voltaire, and the eighteenth century was still undeveloped." (Cousin, +_History of Philosophy_.) + +[17] "The first Frenchmen who in the eighteenth century turned their +attention to England were amazed at the boldness with which, in that +country, political and religious questions of the deepest moment were +discussed--questions which no Frenchman in the preceding age had dared to +broach. With wonder they discovered in England a comparative freedom of +the public press, and saw with astonishment how in Parliament itself the +government of the Crown was attacked with impunity, and the management of +its revenues actually kept under control. To see the civilization and +prosperity of England increasing, while the power of the upper classes and +the King diminished, was to them a revelation.... England, said Helvetius, +is a country where the people are respected, a country where each citizen +has a part in the management of affairs, where men of genius are allowed +to enlighten the public upon its true interests." (Dabney, R. H., _Causes +of the French Revolution_, p. 141.) + +[18] Tennyson, in his "You ask me why," well describes the growth of +constitutional liberty in England when he says that England is: + + "A land of settled government, + A land of just and old renown, + Where freedom broadens slowly down, + From precedent to precedent." + +[19] James I, in 1604, had declared: "As it is atheism to dispute what God +can do, so it is presumption and a high contempt in a subject to dispute +what a king can do." For this attitude the Commons continually contested +his authority, his son lost his crown and his head, and his grandson was +driven from the throne and from England. By contrast, and as showing the +different attitude toward self-government of the two peoples, the German +Emperor William II, three centuries later, so continually boasted of his +rule by divine right that "Me and God" became an international joke, and +to his assumption the German people took little or no exception. + +[20] The passage of the Bill of Rights (1689) ended the divine-right-of- +kings idea in England for all time. This prohibited the King from keeping +a standing army in times of peace, gave every subject the right to +petition for a redress of grievances, gave Parliament the right of free +debate, prohibited the King from interfering in any way with the proper +execution of the laws, declared that members ought to be elected to +Parliament without interference, and gave the Commons control of all forms +of taxation. + +[21] Though the English first developed regulated or constitutional +government, they themselves have no single written constitution. Instead, +the foundations of English constitutional government rest on _Magna +Charta_ (1215), the Petition of Rights (1628), and the Bill of Rights +(1689), these three constituting "the Bible of English Liberty." + +[22] At first used as a term of ridicule, from the very methodical manner +in which the Wesleyans organized their campaigns. + +[23] "If we except the great Puritan movement of the seventeenth century, +no such appeal had been heard since the days when Augustine and his band +of monks landed in Kent and set forth on their mission among the barbarous +Saxons. The results answered fully to the zeal that awakened them. Better +than the growing prosperity of extending commerce, better than all the +conquests of the East or the West, was the new religious spirit which +stirred the people of both England and America, and provoked the National +Church to emulation in good works--which planted schools, checked +intemperance, and brought into vigorous activity all that was best and +bravest in a race that when true to itself is excelled by none." +(Montgomery, D. H., _English History_, p. 322.) + +[24] The contrast between eighteenth-century England and France, in the +matter of religious liberty, is interesting. In France the Church took +care, during the whole of the eighteenth century, that the persecution +process should go on. "In 1717 an assembly of seventy-four Protestants +having been surprised at Andure, the men were sent to the galleys and the +women to prison. An edict of 1724 declared that all who took part in a +Protestant meeting, or who had any direct or indirect communication with a +Protestant preacher, should have their heads shaved and be imprisoned for +life, and the men condemned to perpetual servitude in the galleys. In 1745 +and 1746, in the province of Dauphine, 277 Protestants were condemned to +the galleys and a number of women flogged. From 1744 to 1752 six hundred +Protestants in the east and south of France were condemned to various +punishments. In 1774 the children of a Calvinist of Rennes were taken from +him. Up to the very eve of the Revolution Protestant ministers were hanged +in Languedoc, and dragoons were sent against their congregations." +(Dabney, R. H., _Causes of the French Revolution_, p. 42.) + +[25] Back as early as 1695 the Commons had refused to renew the press- +licensing act, enacted in 1637, to control heresy. This had confined +printing to London, Oxford, and Cambridge, and to twenty master printers +and four letter founders for the realm. This refusal marks the beginning +of the freedom of the press in England. In 1709 the copyright law was +enacted, and in 1776 the redress against publishers of libelous articles +was confined to the ordinary courts of law. A century ahead of France, and +more than two centuries ahead of Teutonic and Romanic lands, England +provided for a free press and open discussion. + +[26] George III, always consistently wrong, opposed this extension of +popular rights. In 1771 he wrote the Prime Minister, Lord North: "It is +highly necessary that this strange and lawless method of publishing +debates in the papers should be put a stop to. But is not the House of +Lords the best court to bring such miscreants before; as it can fine, as +well as imprison, and has broader shoulders to support the odium of so +salutary a measure." + +[27] "It is evident that a nation perfectly ignorant of physical laws will +refer to supernatural causes all the phenomena by which it is surrounded. +But as soon as natural science begins to do its work there are introduced +the elements of a great change. Each successive discovery, by ascertaining +the law that governs events, deprives them of that apparent mystery in +which they were formerly involved. The love of the marvelous becomes +proportionally diminished; and when any science has made such progress as +to enable it to fortell the events with which it deals, it is clear that +the whole of those events are at once withdrawn from the jurisdiction of +the supernatural, and brought under the authority of natural power? Hence +it is that, supposing other things equal, the superstition of a nation +must always bear an exact proportion to the extent of its physical +knowledge." (Buckle, H. T., _History of Civilization in England_, vol. 1, +p. 269.) + +[28] The Charter of this Society stated the purpose to be to increase +knowledge by direct experiment, and that the object of the Society was the +extension of natural knowledge, as opposed to that which is supernatural. +As an institution embodying the idea of intellectual progress it was most +bitterly assailed by partisans of the old flunking. + +[29] Birmingham, Sheffield, Leeds, and Manchester, for example, great +manufacturing cities early in the nineteenth century, were insignificant +villages in Cromwell's day. The steam engine made the coal and iron +deposits of northern England of immense value, and the "smoky mill towns" +that arose in the north began to displace southern agricultural England in +population, wealth, and importance. + +[30] For example, in 1774 John Howard began his great work in prison +reform; in 1772 pressing to death was abolished; in 1780 the ducking-stool +was used for the last time; and soon thereafter the earlier laws relating +to the death penalty were modified, and the slave trade abolished. Up to +the middle of the eighteenth century as many as one hundred and sixty +offenses were punishable by death. + +[31] The Declaration of Independence was written by Thomas Jefferson, a +great admirer of French life and a propagandist for French ideas. + +[32] Compare the American preamble with the following sentence from the +_Social Contract_ (Book I, chap, ix) of Rousseau: + + "I shall close this chapter and this book with a remark which ought to + serve as a basis for the whole social system; it is that instead of + destroying natural equality, the fundamental pact, on the contrary, + substitutes a moral and lawful equality for the physical inequality + which nature imposed upon men, so that, although unequal in strength + or intellect, they all become equal by convention and legal right." + +[33] "I read attentively the _cahiers_ drawn up by the three Orders before +their union in 1789. I see that here the change of a law is demanded, and +there of a custom--and I make note of them. I continue thus to the end of +this immense task, and, when I come to put side by side all these +particular demands, I see, with a sort of terror, that what is called for +is the simultaneous and systematic abolition of all the laws and of all +the customs existing in the country; whereupon I instantly perceive the +approach of the vastest and most dangerous revolutions that have taken +place in the world." (De Tocqueville, A. C., _State of Society in France +before the Revolution of 1789_, p. 219.) + +[34] For example, the clergy of Rodez and Saumur demanded "that there may +be formed a plan of national education for the young"; the clergy of Lyons +that education be restricted "to a teaching body whose members may not be +removable except for negligence, misconduct, or incapacity; that it may no +longer be conducted according to arbitrary principles, and that all public +instructors be obliged to conform to a uniform plan adopted by the States- +General"; the clergy of Blois that a system of colleges under church +control be formed (R. 252); the nobility of Lyons that "a national +character be impressed on the education of both sexes"; the nobility of +Paris that "public education be perfected and extended to all classes of +citizens"; the nobility of Blois that "better facilities for the education +of children, and elementary textbooks adapted to their capacity, wherein +the rights of man and the social duties shall be clearly set forth" shall +be provided, and to this end that "there be established a council composed +of the most enlightened scholars of the capital and of the provinces and +of the citizens of the different orders, to formulate a plan of national +education, for the benefit of all classes of society, and to edit +elementary textbooks." The Third Estate of Blois demanded the +establishment of free schools in all the rural parishes. + +[35] See footnote 1, page 165. One of the great results of the French +Revolution was the abolition of serfdom in central and western Europe. The +last European nation to emancipate its serfs was Russia, where they were +freed in 1861. + +[36] "Great was the difference between France at the end of 1791 and at +the end of 1793. At the former date all looked hopeful for the future; the +king was the father of his people; the Constitution of 1791 was to +regenerate France, and set an example to Europe; all old institutions had +been renovated; everything was new, and popular on account of its +novelty.... By the end of 1793 all looked threatening for the future; for +the purpose of repelling her foreign foes, who included nearly the whole +of Europe, France submitted to be ground down by the most despotic and +arbitrary government ever known in modern history,--the Great Committee of +Public Safety; the Reign of Terror was in full exercise, and it was +doubtful whether the energy, audacity, and concentrated vigour of the +Great Committee would enable France to be victorious over Europe, and thus +secure for her the right of deciding on the character of their own +government. She was to be successful, but at what a cost!" (Stephens, H. +M., _The French Revolution_, vol. II, p. 512.) + +[37] The _Code Napoléon_, prepared in 1804, was the first modern code of +civil laws, though Frederick the Great had earlier prepared a partial code +of Prussian laws. What the _Justinian Code_ was to ancient Rome, this, +organized into better form, was to modern France. This _Code_, prepared +under Napoleon's direction, substituted one uniform code of laws worthy of +a modern nation for the thousands of local laws which formerly prevailed +in France. + + +CHAPTER X + +[1] The complaints were largely along such lines as that the instruction +was confined to a few Latin authors; that instruction in the French +language was neglected; that instruction in the history and geography of +France should be introduced; that time was wasted "in copying and learning +notebooks filled with vain distinctions and frivolous questions"; that +training in the use of the French language should be substituted for the +disputations in Latin; that in religion the study of the Bible was +neglected for books of devotion and propaganda compiled by the members of +the Order; that moral casuistry and religious bigotry were taught; and +that the discipline was unnecessarily severe and wrong in character. + +[2] In 1759 the Jesuits were expelled from Portugal, in 1767 from Spain, +and in 1773 the Pope at Rome, "recognizing that the members of this +Society have not a little troubled the Christian commonwealth, and that +for the welfare of Christendom it were better that the Order should +disappear," abolished the Society entirely. Forty years later it was +reconstituted in a modernized form. + +[3] Little boys wore their hair long and powdered, carried a sword, and +had coats with gilded cuffs, while little girls were dressed in imitation +of the lady of fashion. Proper deportment was an important part of a +child's training. + +[4] The iconoclastic nature of Rousseau's volume may be inferred from its +opening sentence, in which he says: "Everything is good as it comes from +the hand of the author of nature; everything degenerated in the hand of +man." In another place he breaks out: "Man is born, lives, and dies in a +state of slavery. At his birth he is stitched into swaddling clothes, at +his death he is nailed in his coffin; and as long as he preserves the +human form he is held captive by our institutions." + +[5] "I do not presume to exclude ecclesiastics, but I protest against the +exclusion of laymen. I dare claim for the nation an education which +depends only on the State, because it belongs essentially to the State; +because every State has an inalienable and indefeasible right to instruct +its members; because, finally, the children of the State ought to be +educated by the members of the State." (La Chalotais.) + +[6] "Education cannot be too widely diffused, to the end that there may be +no class of citizens who may not be brought to participate in its +benefits. It is expedient that each citizen receive the education which is +adapted to his needs." (Rolland.) + +[7] Condorcet had not been a member of the Constituent Assembly, but for +some years had been deeply interested in the idea of public education, and +had published five articles on the subject. His Report was a sort of +embodiment, in legal form, of his previous thinking on the question. + +[8] All the educational aims of the past were now relegated to a second +place, and man became a political animal, "brought into the world to know, +to love, and to obey the Constitution." The _Declaration of the Rights of +Man_ became the new Catechism of childhood. + +[9] This was created on a grand and visionary scale. Its purpose was to +supply professors for the higher institutions. It opened with a large +attendance, and lectures on mathematics, science, politics, and languages +were given by the most eminent scholars of the time. A normal school, +though, it hardly was, and in 1795 it closed--a virtual failure. In 1808 +Napoleon re-created it, on a less pretentious and a more useful scale, and +since then it has continued and rendered useful service as a training- +school for teachers for the higher secondary schools of France. + +[10] A total of 105 of these Central Schools were to be established, five +in Paris, and one in each of the one hundred chief towns in the +departments. By 1796 there were 40, by 1797 there were 52, by 1798 there +were 59, by 1799 there were 86, and by 1800 there were 91 such schools in +existence. This, times considered, was a remarkable development. + +[11] "The commercial depression of 1740 fell upon a generation of New +Englanders whose minds no longer dwelt preeminently upon religious +matters, but who were, on the contrary, preeminently commercial in their +interests." (Green, M, L., _Development of Religious Liberty in +Connecticut_, p, 226.) + +[12] Prominent in the Indiana constitutional convention of 1816 were a +number of Frenchmen of bearing and ability, then residing in the old +territorial capital--Vincennes. How much they influenced the statement of +the article on education is not known, but it reads as though French +revolutionary ideas had been influential in shaping it. + +[13] For the original Bill of 1779 in full, in the original spelling, see +the _Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for +Virginia_, 1900-01, pp. lxx-lxxv. + +[14] Though Jefferson had been Governor of Virginia during the +Revolutionary War; had repeatedly served in the Virginia legislature and +in Congress; and had twice been President of the United States, he counted +all these as of less importance than the three services mentioned, and in +preparing the inscription to be placed on his tomb he included only these +three. + + +CHAPTER XXI + +[1] "As a man who sought after glory, and whose gloomy temper took umbrage +at everything, Rousseau complained that his _Émile_ did not obtain the +same success as his other writings. He was truly hard to please! The anger +of some, the ardent sympathy of others; on the one hand, the parliamentary +decrees condemning the book and issuing a warrant for the author's arrest, +the thunders of the Church, and the famous mandate of the Archbishop of +Paris; on the other hand, the applause of the philosophers, of Clairant, +Duclos, and d'Alembert,--what more, then, did he want? _Émile_ was burned +in Paris and Geneva, but it was read with passion; it was twice translated +in London, an honor which no French work had received up to then. In truth +never did a book make more noise and thrust itself so much on the +attention of men. By its defects, no less than by its qualities, by the +inspired and prophetic character of its style, as well as by the +paradoxical audacity of its ideas, _Émile_ swayed opinion and stirred up +the more generous parts of the human soul." (Compayré, G., _Jean-Jacques +Rousseau_, p. 100.) + +[2] Paulsen, Fr., _German Education, Past and Present_, p. 157. + +[3] Within three years Basedow had collected seven thousand +_Reichsthaler_, subscriptions coming to him from such widely scattered +sources as Joseph II of Austria, Empress Catherine of Russia, King +Christian VII of Denmark, "the wealthy class in Basle," the Abbot of the +monastery of Einsiedel in Switzerland, "the royal government of +Osnabruck," the Grand Prince Paul, and others. Jews and Freemasons seem to +have taken particular interest in his ideas. Freemason lodges in Hamburg, +Leipzig, and Göttingen were among the generous contributors. + +[4] See Barnard's _American Journal of Education_, vol. v, pp. 487-520, +for an account of the examinations and the institution. + +[5] "The pedagogical character of the _Real_ school was established by +Basedow and his followers. Originally the plan was to provide for the +middle classes what would be called nowadays manual training schools, in +which the scientific principles underlying the various trades and business +vocations should have a prominent place. These schools were to be one step +removed from the trade schools for the lower classes. But under the +influence of the Philanthropinists the _Real_ school was transformed into +a modern humanistic school, and placed in competition with the humanistic +_Gymnasium_." (Russell, J. E., _German Higher Schools_, pp. 65-66.) + +[6] His two most important followers were Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746- +1818), who succeeded Basedow at Dessau and later founded a Philanthropinum +at Hamburg, and Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (1744-1811), who founded a +school at Schnepfenthal, in Saxe-Gotha. Both these men had for a time been +teachers with Basedow at Dessau. Campe translated Locke's _Thoughts_ and +Rousseau's _Émile_ into German, wrote a number of books for children +(chief among which was the famous _Robinson der Jünger_), and also +prepared a number of treatises for teachers. Salzmann's school, opened in +1784 in the Thuringen forest, made much of gardening, agricultural work, +animal study, home geography, nature study, gymnastics, and recreation, as +well as book study. It was distinctively a small but high-grade +experimental school, so successful that in 1884 it celebrated its one +hundredth anniversary. A pupil in the school was Carl Ritter, the founder +of modern geographical study. + +[7] "The picture shown in _Leonard and Gertrude_ is very crude. Everywhere +is visible the rough hand of the painter, a strong, untiring hand, +painting an eternal image, of which this in paper and print is the merest +sketch.... Read it and see how puerile it is, how too obvious are its +moralities. Read it a second time, and note how earnest it is, how exact +and accurate are its peasant scenes. Read it yet again, and recognize in +it the outpouring of a rare soul, working, pleading, ready to be despised, +for fellow souls." (J. P. Monroe, _The Educational Ideal_, p. 182.) + +[8] "When I now look back and ask myself: What have I specially done for +the very being of education, I find I have fixed the highest supreme +principle of instruction in the recognition of _sense impression as the +absolute foundation of all knowledge_. Apart from all special teaching I +have sought to discover the _nature of teaching itself_, and the +prototype, by which nature herself has determined the instruction of our +race." (Pestalozzi, _How Gertrude teaches her Children_, X, Section 1.) + +[9] "What he did was to emphasize the new purpose in education, but +vaguely perceived, where held at all, by others; to make clear the new +meaning of education which existed in rather a nebulous state in the +public mind; to formulate an entirely new method, based on new principles, +both of which were to receive a further development in subsequent times, +and to pass under his name; and finally, to give an entirely new spirit to +the schoolroom." (Monroe, Paul, _Text Book in the History of Education_, +p. 600.) + +[10] In 1809 the German, Carl Ritter, a former pupil of Salzmann (see +footnote 2, p. 538) and the creator of modern geographical study, visited +Pestalozzi at Yverdon. Of this visit he writes: + + "I have seen more than the paradise of Switzerland, I have seen + Pestalozzi, I have learned to know his heart and his genius. Never + have I felt so impressed with the sanctity of my vocation as when I + was with this noble son of Switzerland. I cannot recall without + emotion this society of strong men, struggling with the present, with + the aim of clearing the way for a better future, men whose only joy + and reward is the hope of raising the child to the dignity of man. + + "I left Yverdon resolved to fulfill my promise made to Pestalozzi to + carry his method into geography.... Pestalozzi did not know as much + geography as a child in our Primary Schools, but, none the less, have + I learned that science from him, for it was in listening to him that I + felt awaken within me the instinct of the natural methods; he showed + me the way." (Guimps, Baron de, _Pestalozzi, his Aim and Work_, + p. 167.) + +[11] The young German student of geology and mineralogy, Karl George von +Raumer (1783-1865), was in Paris, in 1808. While there he read +Pestalozzi's _How Gertrude teaches her Children_, and what Fichte had said +of his work in his _Addresses to the German Nation_ (see chapter xxii). +These sent him to Yverdon to see for himself. He remained two years, and +returned to Germany as a teacher. In 1846 he published his four-volume +_Geschichte der Pädagogik_, the first important history of education to be +written. + +[12] In 1814 King Frederick William III himself visited Pestalozzi, at +Neufchatel. His queen, Louise, was deeply touched by reading the _Émile_, +and frequently spent hours in the Prussian schools witnessing work +conducted after the ideas of Pestalozzi. + + +CHAPTER XXII + +[1] One of the first acts of the reign of Frederick the Great was to +recall Wolff from banishment. In doing so he said: "A man that seeks +truth, and loves it, must be reckoned precious in any human society." + +[2] "It was a bold declaration, but one which exactly described the great +change which had taken place. The older university instruction was +everywhere based upon the assumption that the truth had already been +given, that instruction had to do with its transmission only, and that it +was the duty of the controlling authorities to see to it that no false +doctrines were taught. The new university instruction began with the +assumption that the truth must be discovered, and that it was the duty of +instruction to qualify and guide the student in this task. By assuming +this attitude the university was the first to accept the consequences of +the conditions which the Reformation had created." (Paulsen, Fr., _The +German Universities_, p. 46.) + +[3] "He who reads the works of the ancients will enjoy the acquaintance of +the greatest men and the noblest souls who ever lived, and will get in +this way, as it happens in all refined conversation, beautiful thoughts +and expressive words. + +"We thus receive, in early childhood, doctrines and philosophy and wisdom +of life from the wisest and best educated men of all ages; we thus learn +to recognize and understand clearness, dignity, charm, ingenuity, +delicacy, and elegance in language and action, and gradually accustom +ourselves to them." (Gesner, Johann Matthias.) + +[4] The sacristan or custodian of the church was frequently also the +teacher of the elementary school, the two offices being combined in one +person. Out of this combination the elementary teacher was later evolved. +(See p. 446.) + +[5] "When the schoolmaster had to pass an examination before the clergyman +of the place by order of the inspector, the local authorities, owing to +the lamentable life of a schoolmaster, were glad to find persons at all +who were willing to accept an engagement for such a position. In +consequence an otherwise intolerable indulgence in examining and employing +teachers took place, especially in districts where large landholders had +patriarchal sway." (Schmid, K. A., _Encydopädie_, vol. VI, p. 287.) + +[6] Austria at that time included not only the Austro-Hungarian Empire of +1914, but extended further into the German Empire and Italy, and included +Belgium and Luxemburg as well. + +[7] Bassewitz, M. Fr. von, _Die Kurmark Brandenburg_, p. 342. (Leipzig, +1847.) + +[8] These lectures were listened to by Napoleon's police and passed to +print by his censor, not being regarded as containing anything seditious +or dangerous. + +[9] "He set all his hopes for Germany on a new national system of +education. One German State was to lead the way in establishing it, making +use of the same right of coercion to which it resorted in compelling its +subjects to serve in the army, and for the exercise of which certainly no +better justification could be found than the common good aimed at in +national education." (Paulsen, Fr., _German Education, Past and Present_, +p. 240.) + +[10] "Never have the souls of men been so deeply stirred by the idea of +raising the whole existence of mankind to a higher level. Something like +the enthusiasm which had taken hold of the minds at the outbreak of the +French Revolution was again at work, the only difference being that the +strong current of national feeling directed it toward an aim which, if +more limited, was, for that very reason, more practicable and more +defined." (Paulsen, Fr., _German Education, Past and Present_, p. 183.) + +[11] As a result of the overthrow of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna +restored to Prussia and France substantially the boundaries they had at +the opening of the Napoleonic Wars. Still more important for the future +was the consolidation of some four hundred States and petty German +kingdoms into thirty-eight States. + +[12] Friedrich Adolph Wilhelm Diesterweg became a pupil in one of the +earliest normal schools in Prussia, that at Frankfort; then a teacher; and +in 1820 became a director of a Teachers' Seminary at Moers. From 1833 to +1849 he was head of the normal school at Berlin. He has often been called +"der deutsche Pestalozzi." + +[13] Made in a letter to Baron von Altenstein, Prussian Minister for +Education. + +[14] "Herbart's seminar at the university of Königsberg was officially +recognized, in 1810; Gedike's seminar in Berlin was formally taken over by +the university, in 1812; the seminar in Stettin, founded in 1804, was +reorganized in 1816; Breslau began pedagogical work, in 1813; and in 1817 +it was stated that the purpose of the reorganized seminar in Halle was +'the training of skilled teachers for the _Gymnasien_.'" (Russell, James +E., _German Higher Schools_, p. 97.) + +[15] Gesner at Göttingen and Wolff at Halle laid down the lines for these +in the middle eighteenth century. The early nineteenth-century foundations +were at Königsberg, 1810; Berlin, 1812; Breslau, 1812; Bonn, 1819; +Griefswald, 1820; and Münster, 1825. + +[16] All prospective gymnasial teachers, whether graduates of the +universities or not, were now required to take examinations in philosophy, +pedagogy, theology, and the main gymnasial subjects, showing marked +proficiency in one of the following groups, and a reasonable knowledge of +the other two: namely, (1) Greek, Latin, German; (2) Mathematics and the +Natural Sciences; (3) History and Geography. + +[17] See Russell, Jas. E., _German Higher Schools_, p. 101, for the +detailed "Gymnasial Program" promulgated in 1837. + +[18] In 1840 there were six Prussian universities; by 1900 the number had +increased to eleven, and three technical universities in addition. In the +other German States eleven additional universities and six technical +universities were in existence, in 1900. + +[19] Benjamin Franklin visited Göttingen, as early as 1766, but the first +American student to take a degree at a German university was Benjamin S. +Barton, of Philadelphia, who took his doctor's degree at Göttingen, in +1799. By 1825 ten American students had studied one or more semesters at +Göttingen. That year the first American student registered at Berlin, and +in 1827 the first at Leipzig. (See Hinsdale, B. A., in _Report, U.S. +Commissioner of Education_, 1897-98, vol. 1, pp. 603-16.) + +[20] The remark attributed to Bismarck is interesting in this connection. +"Of the students who attend the German universities," he said, "one-third +die prematurely as the result of disease arising from too great poverty +and undernourishment while students; another one-third die prematurely or +amount to little due to bad habits and drinking and disease contracted +while students; the remaining third rule Europe." + +[21] Barnard, Henry, _American Journal of Education_, vol. xx, p. 365. + +[22] This was proposed by Czar Alexander I of Russia in 1815, and became a +personal alliance of the Czar of Russia, the Emperor of Austria, and the +King of Prussia, "to promote religion, peace, and order." Other princes +were asked to join this continental League to enforce peace and, under the +rule of Prince Metternich, chief minister of Austria, it dominated Europe +until after the political revolutions of 1848. + +[23] As a young man Altenstein had been in charge of a subordinate +division of the Department of Public Instruction under Humboldt, and was a +man of somewhat liberal ideas. Now he was compelled to fall in with the +ideas of the political leaders and the wishes of the king, though he still +did something to hold back the reactionary forces and preserve much of +what had been gained. + +[24] Paulsen, Fr., _German Education, Past and Present_, p. 246. + +[25] It was this same Frederick William IV who had for a time refused to +grant constitutional government to Prussia, saying: "No written sheet of +paper shall ever thrust itself like a second providence between the Lord +God in heaven and this land." In 1850, however, he was forced to grant a +limited form of constitutional government to his people. + +[26] "The motive which dictated the law of 1872 on school supervision +(namely, placing the State in complete control of the supervision of +religious as well as other instruction) was, as is well understood, to +strengthen the hands of the government in its struggle with the Catholic +hierarchy, which was then prominently before the public. The law affirmed +again the sovereign right of the State over the whole school system, +including the elementary or people's schools." (Nohle, Dr. E., _History of +the German School System_, p. 79.) + +[27] Alexander, Thomas, _The Prussian Elementary Schools_, pp. 537-38. + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +[1] The commune in France was the smallest unit for local government, and +corresponded to the district, town, or township with us, or with the +Church parish under the old régime. There were approximately 37,000 +communes in France. The Department was a much larger unit, France being +divided, for administrative purposes, into 82 Departments, these +corresponding to a rather large county. + +[2] By this term what is known elsewhere as secondary school must be +understood. See footnote, page 272, for explanation of the term. + +[3] The University had at its disposal approximately 2,500,000 francs a +year. This was derived from a state grant of 400,000 francs, the income +from the property still remaining from the old confiscated universities, +and the remainder largely from examination fees. In 1850 its property was +taken over by the State, and the University was changed into a state +department. + +[4] This type of administrative organization is at first not easy for the +American student to understand. The University of the State of New York-- +virtually the department of public instruction for the State--is our +closest American analogy. On the banishment of Napoleon and the +restoration of the monarchy, in 1815, the Grand Master and Council were +replaced by a Commissioner of Public Instruction, with Assistant +Commissioners for the different divisions, and in 1820 this was further +changed into a Royal Council of Public Instruction. + +[5] In 1909 a decree restored Greek and Latin to their old place of first +importance in the Lycées, thus destroying the strong interest in +scientific instruction, in so far as the higher secondary schools were +concerned, which had characterized the Revolution. + +[6] _Report on the Condition of Public Instruction in Germany, and +particularly in Prussia_. Paris, 1831. Reprinted in London, 1834; New York +City, 1835. + +[7] François Pierre Guillaume Guizot was Minister for public Instruction +from 1832 to 1837, and head of the French government from 1840 to 1848. He +was throughout his entire political career a conservative, anxious to +preserve constitutional government under a monarchy and stem the tide of +republicanism. + +[8] We see here the beginnings of education in agriculture, in which the +French were pioneers. + +[9] The schools, though, were not very successful, because of social +reasons. Parents who could afford to do so sent their children to the much +higher-priced Communal Colleges or _Lycées_, where Latin was the main +study, in preference to sending them to a scientific, modern-type, middle- +class school, as conferring a better social distinction on both pupils and +parents. + +[10] By 1838 there were 14,873 public schools the property of the +communes; by 1847 there were 23,761; and by 1851 but 2500 out of +approximately 37,000 communes were without schools. There were also over +six thousand religious schools by 1850. By 1834 the number of boys in the +communal schools was 1,656,828, and a decade later over two millions. The +thirteen normal schools of 1830 had grown to seventy-six by 1838, with +over 2500 young men then in training for teaching. In 1836 the Law of 1833 +was extended to include, where possible, schools for girls as well, and +the creation of a new set of normal schools to train schoolmistresses was +begun. By 1848 over three and a half millions of children, of both sexes, +were receiving instruction in the primary schools. In 1835 primary +inspectors, those "sinews of public instruction," as Guizot termed them, +were established, one for every Department, by royal decree. By 1847 there +were two inspectors-general, and 13 inspectors and sub-inspectors at work +in France. + +[11] This was in large part due to manufacturing and business needs, as +France was rapidly forging ahead during the period as a manufacturing and +commercial nation. + +[12] Prominent among these, perhaps most prominent, was Jules Ferry, Mayor +of Paris during the trying period of 1870-71, then member of the French +legislature and Minister of Public Instruction in a number of cabinets +between 1879 and 1885. Drawing his inspiration from Condorcet's _Plan of +Education_ (p. 514; R. 256) and Edgar Quinet's _Instruction of the People_ +(R. 289), he brought about the enactment of a series of reform school laws +commonly known as the "Ferry Laws." These provided for free, compulsory, +elementary education, to be given by laymen; secondary education for +girls; the extension of normal schools; and enlarged aid by the State in +the building up of popular education. + +[13] "The non-sectarian school is not the work of a few advanced thinkers +imposed upon a docile country. They would not have been able to create +anything enduring if the French conscience had not been ready to follow +them. This is what the adversaries of our schools do not wish to +understand, cannot understand, or are anxious to conceal from those whom +they direct. Certainly they have the right to attempt a reaction according +to their own preferences. They have no right to believe, nor even to allow +it to be believed, that the creation of the non-sectarian school was the +_coup de force_ of an audacious minority. The non-sectarian school has +come because the nation wished it. The program of moral instruction, long +prophesied, conceived, and hoped for, was in the traditions of France as +she marched forward toward her republican aspirations. This program is not +only the conscious effort of the men who gave the school a new mission-- +that of laying the foundation of social peace through elementary +instruction; it is the expression of the republican conscience of 1882." +(Moulet, Alfred, _D'une éducation morale démocratique_.) + +[14] "To each man his proper sphere; to the minister of religion the +liberty of preaching the doctrine of the different churches, to teachers +who teach in the name of the State, that is, of society, the right of +limiting themselves to the field of universal human morals, together with +the duty of refraining from any attack on religious beliefs. Neutrality is +guaranteed by the secularization of the teaching body, and it must be +strictly observed." (Compayré, Gabriel.) + +[15] "The most striking feature is that, in place of the one single and +uniform course for all pupils, several are provided for their selection. +Here is obvious the influence of the elective courses common in the United +States, whose existence and success were reported on to the Minister of +Public Instruction by the Commission to the World Exposition at Chicago, +in 1893. The courses last seven years. The school period is divided into +two cycles, first one of four years, and then one of three. In the first +cycle, the pupils have a choice of two sections, one emphasizing the +ancient and modern languages, the other the modern languages and science. +In the second cycle there are four sections, viz., Graeco-Latin; Latin- +modern languages; Latin-scientific; and scientific-modern languages." +(Compayré, Gabriel, _Education in France_.) + +[16] Arnold, Matthew, _Schools and Universities on the Continent_, p. 115, +(London, 1868.) + +[17] For example, by the Peace of Lunéville (1801), by which Napoleon took +from the Germans all territory west of the Rhine and consolidated it, he +extinguished 118 free cities, principalities, and petty states. In +addition, he extinguished the separate existence of 160 others east of the +Rhine. The importance of such consolidations for the future of Germany has +been large. + +[18] Bologna, for example, had 166 professors in the early seventeenth +century, but by 1737 it had but 62. The universities came chiefly to be +places where young men obtained degrees but not learning. At Naples a +noble family by the name of Avellino came to have the power of virtually +selling degrees in law and medicine. + +[19] Not only were schools built up, but commerce, roads, and in +particular scientific agriculture were subjects of deep interest to +Cavour. He saw, very clearly, that if Sardinia was to be the nucleus of a +future Italy, Sardinia must show unmistakably her worthiness to lead. + +[20] By 1859 Sardinia had come to include Savoy and Lombardy, and was the +largest State in northern Italy. A year later all but Venetia and the +States of the Church had been added. + +[21] The Law of 1877 fixed the instruction in the primary schools, for the +three compulsory years, as reading, writing, the Italian language, +elements of civics, arithmetic, and the metric system. The omission of +religious instruction excited much opposition from church authorities, but +without effect. + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +[1] Prussia and Holland possibly form exceptions in the matter. Frederick +the Great (p. 474) was noted for his liberality in religious matters. +There different varieties of Protestants, Catholics, and Jews were all +tolerated, and there they mingled and intermarried. So well were the Jews +received that the type--German-Jew--is to-day familiar to the world. + +[2] As early as 1670, in the celebrated Bates case, the English court held +that a teacher could not be dispossessed from his school for teaching +without the Bishop's license, if he were the nominee of the founder or +patron. This led (p. 438) to a great increase in endowed schools. + +[3] In the Cox case (1700), another important legal decision, the English +court held that there was not and never had been any ecclesiastical +control over any schools other than grammar schools, and that teachers in +elementary schools did not need to have a license from the Bishop. The +year following, in the case of _Rex_ v. _Douse_, the same principle was +affirmed in even clearer language. + +[4] It was not until 1779 that an Act (19 Geo. III, c. 44) granted full +freedom to Dissenters to teach. In 1791 a supplemental Act (31 Geo. III, +c. 32, s. 13-14) granted similar liberty to Roman Catholics. + +[5] It was this second Society that did notable work in the Anglican +Colonies of America, and particularly in and about New York City (p. 369). +See Kemp, W. W., _Support of Schools in Colonial New York by the S.P.G._ +(New York, 1913.) + +[6] Begun, in 1704, in London, these were continued yearly there until +1877. They were also preached for more than a century in many other +places. To these sermons the children marched in procession, wearing their +uniforms, and a collection for the support of the schools was taken. Of +the first of these occasions in London, Strype; in his edition of Stow, +says: "It was a wondrous surprising, as well as a pleasing sight, that +happened June the 8th, 1704, when all the boys and girls maintained at +these schools, in their habits, walked two and two, with their Masters and +Mistresses, some from Westminster, and some through London; with many of +the Parish ministers going before them; and all meeting at Saint Andrews', +Holburn, Church, where a seasonable sermon was preached... upon Genesis +xviii, 19, _I know him that he will command his children_, etc., the +children (about 2000) being placed in the galleries." + +[7] "The religious revival under Wesley owed, perhaps, more than is +generally suspected to the Christian teaching in these new and humble +elementary schools." (Montmorency, J. E. G. de, _The Progress of Education +in England_, p. 54.) + +[8] He gathered together the children (90 at first) employed in the pin +factories of Gloucester, and paid four women a shilling each to spend +their Sundays in instructing these poor children "in reading and the +Church Catechism." + +[9] Sunday being a day of rest and the mills and factories closed, the +children ran the streets and spent the day in mischief and vice. In the +agricultural districts of England farmers were forced to take special +precautions on Sundays to protect their places and crops from the +depredations of juvenile offenders. + +[10] "In a very special way they met the sentiment of the times. They were +cheap--many were conducted by purely voluntary teachers--they did not +teach too much, and they had the further merit of not interfering with the +work of the week." (Birchenough, C., _History of Elementary Education in +England and Wales_, p. 40.) + +[11] In a Manchester Sunday School, in 1834, there were 2700 scholars and +120 unsalaried teachers, all but two or three of whom were former pupils +in the Sunday Schools, now teaching others, free of charge, in return for +the advantages once given them. + +[12] "The amount of instruction rarely, if ever, exceeds the first four +rules of arithmetic, with reading and writing. The class of children +instructed is presumed to be of the very poorest, living in the most +crowded districts. No doubt a large number come under this designation, +but not a few better-to-do persons are found ready to take advantage for +their children of the free instruction thus held out to them, and even at +times almost pressed upon them." (Bartley, George C. T., _The Schools for +the People_, p. 385.) + +[13] The Reverend George Crabbe (1754-1832). "The schools of the Borough." + +[14] French Revolutionary thought "represented an attack on over- +interference, vested interests, superstition, and tyranny of every form. +It showed a marked propensity to ignore history, and to judge everything +by its immediate reasonableness. It pictured a society free from all laws +and coercion, freed from all clerical influence and ruled by benevolence, +a society in which all men had equal rights and were able to attain the +fullest self-realization. In its strictly educational aspects, it demanded +the withdrawal of education from the Church and the setting up of a state +system of secular instruction." (Birchenough, C., _History of Elementary +Education in England and Wales_, p. 20.) + +[15] The ideas of Malthus were especially offensive to his brother +clergymen, and created quite a furor. Many regarded him as an insane and +unorthodox fanatic. A prevailing idea of the time was that of a "beautiful +order Providentially arranged," and it was the custom to give everything a +rose-colored hue. The poor were thought to be contented in their poverty, +and the rich and the aristocratic considered themselves divinely appointed +to rule over them. Malthus saw the fallacy of such thinking, and stated +matters in the light of biologic and political truths. + +[16] Foster, John, _An Essay on the Evils of Popular Ignorance_, p. 259. + +[17] Bell, Reverend Dr. Andrew, _An Experiment in Education made at the +Male Asylum at Madras, Suggesting a System by which a School or a Family +may teach itself under the Superintendence of the Master or Parent_. +London, 1797. + +[18] Lancaster, Joseph, _Improvements in Education as it Respects the +Industrial Classes of the Community_. London, 1803; New York, 1807. + +[19] Both Bell and Lancaster worked with great energy to organize schools +after their respective plans, and quarreled with equal energy as to who +originated the idea. While both probably did, the idea nevertheless is +older than either. In 1790 Chevalier Paulet organized a monitorial school +in Paris; while the English schoolmaster, John Brinsley (1587-1665), in +his _Ludus Literarius, or the Grammar Schooles_ (1612), laid down the +monitorial principle in explicit language. + +[20] This Society adopted, as a fundamental principle, "that the national +religion should be made the foundation of national education, and +according to the excellent liturgy and catechism adopted by our Church for +that purpose." + +[21] "When Lancaster had his famous interview with King George III, that +monarch was impressed, as he naturally might be, by the statement that one +master 'could teach five hundred children at the same time.' 'Good,' said +the King; 'Good,' echoed a number of wealthy subscribers to Lancaster's +projects." (Binns, H. B., _A Century of Education_, p. 299.) + +[22] In 1807 Mr. Whitbread, an ardent supporter of schools, said, in an +address before the House of Commons: "I cannot help noticing that this is +a period particularly favorable for the institution of a national system +of education, because within a few years there has been discovered a plan +for the instruction of youth which is now brought to a state of great +perfection, happily combining rules by which the object of learning must +be infallibly attained with expedition and cheapness, and holding out the +fairest prospect of utility to mankind." + +[23] When Lancaster first hired the large hall in Borough Road which later +became an important training-college, and opened it as a mutual- +instruction school, he announced: "All that will may send their children, +and have them educated freely, and those who do not wish to have education +for nothing, may pay for it if they please." + +[24] In 1820, Brougham, in introducing his "Bill for the Better Education +of the Poor in England and Wales," gave statistics as to the progress of +education at that time in England. His estimate as to the numbers being +educated were: + + 430,000 in endowed and privately managed schools; + 220,000 in monitorial schools; + 50,000 being educated at home; + 100,000 educated only in Sunday Schools; + 53,000 being educated in dame schools. + +From these figures he argued that one in fifteen of the population of +England and one in twenty in Wales were attending some form of school, but +with only one in twenty-four in London. The usual period of school +attendance for the poorer classes was only one and a half to two years. + +[25] Known as the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act. It limited the +working hours of apprentices to twelve; forbade night work; required day +instruction to be provided in reading, writing, and arithmetic; required +church attendance once a month; and provided for the registration and +inspection of factories. The Act was very laxly enforced, and its chief +value lay in the precedent of state interference which it established. + +[26] Whitbread proposed a national system of rate-aided schools to provide +all children in England with two years of free schooling, between the ages +of seven and fourteen. + +[27] See J. E. G. de Montmorency's _State Intervention in English +Education_, pp. 248-85, for Brougham's address to the Commons in 1820 on +"The Education of the Poor"; and pp. 285-324 for his address before the +House of Lords in 1835, on "The Education of the People." Both addresses +contain an abundance of data as to existing conditions and needs. + +[28] So called because the House of Lords rejected the first two passed by +the Commons, and finally accepted the third only because the King had +agreed to create enough new Lords to pass the bill unless it was enacted +by the upper House. + +[29] This was a development of the monitorial system of training, and was +virtually an apprenticeship form of teacher-training. + +[30] In 1885 the same liberty was extended to rural laborers. This added +two million more voters, and gave England almost full manhood suffrage. +Finally, in 1918, some five million women were added to the voting +classes. + +[31] Nearly two million children had been provided with school +accommodations, three fourths of which had been done by those associated +with the Church of England. In doing this the Church had spent some +£6,270,000 on school buildings, and had raised some £8,500,000 in +voluntary subscriptions for maintenance. The Government had also paid out +some £6,500,000 in grants, since 1833. In 1870 it was estimated that +1,450,000 children were on the registers of the state-aided schools, while +1,500,000 children, between the ages of six and twelve, were unprovided +for. + +[32] Speech before the House of Commons, July 23, 1870. + +[33] "The clergy of the National Society exhibited amazing energy and +succeeded, according to their own account, in doing in twelve months what +in the normal course of events would have taken twenty years. By the end +of the year they had lodged claims for 2885 building grants, out of a +total of 3342. They also set to work, without any governmental assistance, +to enlarge their schools and so increased denominational accommodation +enormously. The voluntary contributions in aid of this work have been +estimated at over £3,000,000. At the same time the annual subscriptions +doubled.... By 1886, over 3,000,000 places had been added, one-half of +which were due to voluntary agencies, and Voluntary Schools were providing +rather more than two-thirds of the school places in the country. In 1897 +the proportion had fallen to three-fifths." (Birchenough, C., _History of +Elementary Education_, pp. 138, 140.) + +[34] These were the seven endowed secondary boarding schools--Winchester +(1382), Eton (1440), Shrewsbury (1552), Westminster (1560), Rugby (1567), +Harrow (1571), and Charterhouse (1611)--and the two endowed day schools,-- +Saint Paul's (1510) and Merchant Taylors' (1561). + +[35] At least one hundred towns, the Report showed, with a population of +five thousand or over had no endowed secondary school, and London, with a +population then (1867) of over three million, had but twenty-six schools +and less than three thousand pupils enrolled. All the new manufacturing +cities were in even worse condition than London. + +[36] The University of London was originally founded in 1836, and +reorganized in 1900. + +[37] The scientist Thomas Huxley was a London School Board member, and, +speaking as such, he expressed the views of many when he said: "I conceive +it to be our duty to make a ladder from the gutter to the university along +which any child may climb." + +[38] Royal (Bryce) Commission on Secondary Education, vol. I, p. 299. +London, 1895. + +[39] Known as the "Education Act, 1918" (8 and 9 Geo. V, ch. 39). The Act +has been reprinted in full in the _Biennial Survey of Education_, 1916-18, +of the United States Commissioner of Education, in the chapter on +Education in Great Britain. It also has been reprinted as an appendix to +Moore, E. C., _What the War teaches about Education_, New York, 1919. + + +CHAPTER XXV + +[1] "The Constitution," as John Quincy Adams expressed it, "was extorted +from the grinding necessities of a reluctant people" to escape anarchy and +the ultimate entire loss, of independence, and many had grave doubts as to +the permanence of the Union. It was not until after the close of the War +of 1812 that belief in the stability of the Union and in the capacity of +the people to govern themselves became the belief of the many rather than +the very few, and plans for education and national development began to +obtain a serious hearing. + +[2] After the beginning of the national life a number of States founded +and endowed a state system of academies. Massachusetts, in 1797, granted +land endowments to approved academies. Georgia, in 1783, created a system +of county academies for the State. New York extended state aid to its +academies, in 1813, having put them under state inspection as early as +1787. Maryland chartered many academies between 1801 and 1817, and +authorized many lotteries to provide them with funds, as did also North +Carolina. The Rhode Island General Assembly chartered many academies, and +aided them by lotteries. Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana, among western +States, also provided for county systems of academies. + +[3] The study of Latin and a little Greek had constituted the curriculum +of the old Latin grammar school, and its purpose had been almost +exclusively to prepare boys for admission to the colony colleges. In true +English style, Latin was made the language of the classroom, and even +attempted for the playground as well. As a concession, reading, writing, +and arithmetic were sometimes taught. The new academies, while retaining +the study of Latin, and usually Greek, though now taught through the +medium of the English, added a number of new studies adapted to the needs +of a new society. English grammar was introduced and soon rose to a place +of great importance, as did also oratory and declamation. Arithmetic, +algebra, geometry, geography, and astronomy were in time added, and +surveying, rhetoric (including some literature), natural and moral +philosophy, and Roman antiquities were frequently taught. Girls were +admitted rather freely to the new academies, whereas the grammar schools +had been exclusively for boys. For better instruction a "female +department" was frequently organized. + +[4] Thomas Jefferson's name appears in the first subscription list as +giving $200, and he was elected a member of the first governing board. The +chief sources of support of the schools, which up to 1844 remained pauper +schools, were subscriptions, lotteries, a tax on slaves and dogs, certain +license fees, and a small appropriation ($1500) each year from the city +council. + +[5] This organization opened the first schools in Philadelphia for +children regardless of religious affiliation, and for thirty-seven years +rendered a useful service there. + +[6] All at once, comparatively, a new system had been introduced which not +only improved but tremendously cheapened education. In 1822 it cost but +$1.22 per pupil per year to give instruction in New York City, though by +1844 the per-capita cost, due largely to the decreasing size of the +classes, had risen to $2.70, and by 1852 to $5.83. In Philadelphia, in +1817, the expense was $3, as against $12 in the private and church +schools. One finds many notices in the newspapers of the time as to the +value and low cost of the new system. + +[7] The cotton-spinning industry illustrates the rapid growth of +manufacturing in the United States. The 15 cotton mills of 1807 had +increased to 801, by 1831; and to 1240, by 1840. The South owed its +prosperity chiefly to cotton-growing and shipping, and did not develop +factories and workshops until a much more recent period. + +[8] Among many resolutions adopted by the laboring organizations the +following is typical: "At a General Meeting of Mechanics and Workingmen +held in New York City, in 1829, it was + + "_Resolved_, that next to life and liberty, we consider education + the greatest blessing bestowed upon mankind. + + "_Resolved_, that the public funds should be appropriated (to a + reasonable extent) to the purpose of education upon a regular system + that shall insure the opportunity to every individual of obtaining a + competent education before he shall have arrived at the age of + maturity." + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +[1] Connecticut and New York both had set aside lands, before 1800, to +create such a fund, Connecticut's fund dating back to 1750. Delaware, in +1796, devoted the income from marriage and tavern licenses to the same +purpose, but made no use of the fund for twenty years. Connecticut, in +1795, sold its "Western Reserve" in Ohio for $1,200,000, and added this to +its school fund. New York, in 1805, similarly added the proceeds of the +sale of half a million acres of state lands, though the fund then formally +created accumulated unused until 1812. Tennessee began to build up a +permanent state school fund in 1806; Virginia in 1810; South Carolina in +1811; Maryland in 1812; New Jersey in 1816; Georgia in 1817; Maine, New +Hampshire, Kentucky, and Louisiana in 1821; Vermont and North Carolina in +1825; Pennsylvania in 1831; and Massachusetts in 1834. These were +established as permanent state funds, the annual income only to be used, +in some way to be determined later, for the support of some form of +schools. + +[2] Now for the first time direct taxation for schools was likely to be +felt by the taxpayer, and the fight for and against the imposition of such +taxation was on in earnest. The course of the struggle and the results +were somewhat different in the different States, but, in a general way, +the progress of the conflict was somewhat as follows: + + 1. Permission granted to communities so desiring to organize a school + taxing district, and to tax for school support the property of those + consenting and residing therein. + + 2. Taxation of all property in the taxing district permitted. + + 3. State aid to such districts, at first from the income from + permanent endowment funds, and later from the proceeds of a small + state appropriation or a state or county tax. + + 4. Compulsory local taxation to supplement the state or county grant. + +[3] Concerning the system, "The Philadelphia Society for the Establishment +and Support of Charity Schools," in an "Address to the Public," in 1818, +said: + + "In the United States the benevolence of the inhabitants has led to + the establishment of Charity Schools, which, though affording + individual advantages, are not likely to be followed by the political + benefits kindly contemplated by their founders. In the country a + parent will raise children in ignorance rather than place them in + charity schools. It is only in large cities that charity schools + succeed to any extent. These dispositions may be improved to the best + advantage, by the Legislature, in place of Charity Schools, + establishing Public Schools for the education of all children, the + offspring of the rich and the poor alike." + +[4] In 1821 the counties of Dauphin (Harrisburg), Allegheny (Pittsburg), +Cumberland (Carlisle), and Lancaster (Lancaster) were also exempted from +the state pauper-school law, and allowed to organize schools for the +education of the children of their poor. + +[5] Some 32,000 persons petitioned for a repeal of the law, 66 of whom +signed by making their mark, and "not more than five names in a hundred," +reported a legislative committee which investigated the matter, "were +signed in English script." It was from among the parochial-school Germans +that the strongest opposition to the law came. + +[6] For Stevens's speech in defense of the Law of 1834, see _Report of the +United States Commissioner of Education_, 1898-99, vol. I, pp. 516-24. + +[7] By 1836 the new free-school law had been accepted by 75 per cent of +the districts in the State, by 1838 by 84 per cent, and by 1847 by 88 per +cent. + +[8] This State had enacted an experimental school law, and made an annual +state grant for schools, from 1795 to 1800. Then, unable to reënact the +law, the system was allowed to lapse and was not reëstablished until the +New England element gained control, in 1812. + +[9] By his vigorous work in behalf of schools the first appointee, Gideon +Hawley, gave such offense to the politicians of the time that he was +removed from office, in 1821, and the legislature then abolished the +position and designated the Secretary of State to act, _ex officio_, as +Superintendent. This condition continued until 1854, when New York again +created the separate office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. + +[10] When Connecticut sold its Western Reserve, in 1795, and added the sum +to the Connecticut school fund, it was stated to be for the aid of +"schools and the gospel." In the sales of the first national lands in Ohio +(1,500,000 acres to The Ohio Company, in 1787; and 1,000,000 acres in the +Symmes Purchase, near Cincinnati, in 1788), section 16 in each township +was reserved and given as an endowment for schools, and section 29 "for +the purposes of religion." + +[11] The Public School Society continued to receive money grants, it being +regarded as a non-denominational organization, though chartered to teach +"the sublime truths of religion and morality contained in the Holy +Scriptures" in its schools. In 1828 the Society was even permitted to levy +a local tax to supplement its resources, it being estimated that at that +time there were 10,000 children in the city with no opportunities for +education. + +[12] The question may be regarded as a settled one in our American States. +Our people mean to keep the public-school system united as one state +school system, well realizing that any attempt to divide the schools among +the different religious denominations (the _World Almanac_ for 1917 lists +49 different denominations and 171 different sects in the United States) +could only lead to inefficiency and educational chaos. + +[13] The movement gained a firm hold everywhere east of the Missouri +River, the States incorporating the largest number being New York with +887, Pennsylvania with 524, Massachusetts with 403, Kentucky with 330, +Virginia with 317, North Carolina with 272, and Tennessee with 264. Some +States, as Kentucky and Indiana, provided for a system of county +academies, while many States extended to them some form of state aid. In +New York State they found a warm advocate in Governor De Witt Clinton, who +urged (1827) that they be located at the county towns of the State to give +a practical scientific education suited to the wants of farmers, +merchants, and mechanics, and also to train teachers for the schools of +the State. + +[14] The new emphasis given to the study of English, mathematics, and +book-science is noticeable. New subjects appeared in proportion as the +academies increased in numbers and importance. Of 149 new subjects for +study appearing in the academies of New York, between 1787 and 1870, 23 +appeared before 1826, 100 between 1826 and 1840, and 26 after 1840. +Between 1825 and 1828 one half of the new subjects appeared. This also was +the maximum period of development of the academies. + +[15] The existence of a number of colleges, basing their entrance +requirements on the completion of the classical course of the academy, and +the establishment of a few embryo state universities in the new States of +the West and the South, naturally raised the further question of why there +should be a gap in the public-school system. The increase of wealth in the +cities tended to increase the number who passed through the elementary +course and could profit by more extended education; the academies had +popularized the idea of more advanced education; while the new +manufacturing and commercial activities of the time called for more +training than the elementary schools afforded, and of a different type +from that demanded by the small colleges of the time for entrance. + +[16] For an interesting table showing the simple entrance requirements of +Harvard in 1642, 1734, 1803, 1825, 1850, 1875, and 1885, see _Report of +the United States Commissioner of Education_, 1902, vol. I, pp. 930-33. + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +[1] In Spain, for example, the percentage of illiteracy in 1860 was 75.52; +in 1870 70.01 per cent; in 1887, 68.01 per cent; in 1890, 63.78 per cent; +and in 1910, 59.35 per cent. The percentage for 1920 will probably not be +less than for 1910, due to the closing of many schools for lack of +teachers during the World War. In 1916 ten provinces had an illiteracy of +over 70 per cent, and but five had less than 40 per cent. In Madrid and +Barcelona, cities as large as Baltimore and Cleveland, the illiteracy +approaches a third of the population in Madrid, and a half in Barcelona. + +[2] While an exile from the Argentine, Dr. Sarmiento was commissioned by +Chili to visit, study, and report on the state school systems of the +United States and Europe. While in the United States he became intimately +acquainted with Horace Mann. Later he was Minister from the Argentine to +the United States, being recalled, in 1868, to assume the presidency of +the Republic. He was deeply impressed with the type of educational +opportunity provided in the schools of the United States and, through an +appointed Minister of Education, impressed his ideas on the Argentine +nation. + +[3] In 1910 only about 3 per cent of the total population was in any type +of school. + +[4] The Mikado still retained, through his ministers, very large powers, +while the parliament was a consultative assembly rather than a legislative +one. The form of government has been much like that of the German Empire +before the World War. + +[5] The Japanese Government has so far been a military autocracy, and the +Japanese have been the Prussians of the Orient. The two-class school +system has accordingly met the needs of a benevolent autocracy fairly +well. With the rise of a liberal party in Japan, and the beginning of some +democratic life, we may look for progressive changes in their schools +which will tend to produce a more democratic type of educational +organization. + +[6] "The idea of education for all classes, the aim of all educators and +statesmen of western countries, scarcely entered the minds of the leaders +of China under the traditional system of education. With the introduction +of the new educational system, however, the problem of universal education +suddenly came into prominence. Indeed, it is the stated goal of the new +educational policy." (Ping Wen Kuo, _The Chinese System of Public +Education_, p. 149.) + +[7] Education in China has been common, for a class, for over four +thousand years. The schools were private, but a detailed national system +of examinations was provided by the State, and all who expected any state +preferment were required to pass these state examinations. The system was +based on the old Confucian classics. Under it schools existed in all the +chief towns, and the examination system exerted a strong unifying +influence on the nation. In 1842 China opened five treaty ports to the +ships and commerce of western nations, and from 1842 to 1903 a process of +gradual transition from the ancient examination system to modern +conditions took place. + +[8] "A nation that has preserved its identity by peaceful means for three +milleniums; that has made the soil produce subsistence for a multitudinous +population during that long period, while Western peoples have worn out +their soil in less than that many centuries; that has produced many of the +most influential of modern inventions, such as printing, gunpowder, and +the compass; that has developed such mechanical ingenuity and commercial +ability as are shown in its everyday life, undoubtedly possesses the +ability to accomplish results by the use of methods worked out by the +Western world. When modern scientific knowledge is added by the Chinese to +the skill which they already have in agriculture, in commerce, in +industry, in government, and in military affairs, results will be +achieved, on the basis of their physical stamina and moral qualities, +which will remove the ignorance, the indifference, and the prejudice of +the Western world regarding things Chinese." (Monroe, Paul, Editorial +introduction to Ping Wen Kuo's _The Chinese System of Public Education_.) + +[9] Though appearing small on the map, Siam is a nation of six millions of +people and an area over three and a half times that of the six New England +States. + +[10] "Through metaphysics first; then through alchemy and chemistry, +through physical and astronomical spectroscopy, lastly through radio- +activity, science has slowly groped its way to the atom." (Soddy, F., +_Matter and Energy_.) + +[11] Adams in England, and Leverrier in France. The planet Uranus had for +long been known to be erratic in its movements, and Adams and Leverrier +concluded, working from Newton's law for gravitation, that it must be due +to the pull of an unknown planet. Both calculated the orbit of this +unknown body, Adams sending his calculations to the Royal Observatory at +Greenwich, and Leverrier to the observatory at Berlin. At both +observatories the new planet--later named Neptune--was picked up by the +telescope at the position indicated. + +[12] This theory of "catastrophes" held that at a number of successive +epochs, of which the age of Noah was the latest, great revolutions or +disasters had taken place on the earth's surface, in which all living +things were destroyed. Later the world was restocked, and again destroyed. +This explained the successive strata, and the fossils they contained. For +this theory Lyell substituted a slow and orderly evolution, covering ages, +and completely upset the Mosaic chronology. + +[13] For example:--mineralogy, petrography, petrology, crystallography, +stratigraphy, and paleontology. + +[14] "Darwin's Origin of Species had come into the theological world like +a plow into an ant-hill. Everywhere those thus rudely awakened from their +old comfort and repose had swarmed forth angry and confused. Reviews, +sermons, books, light and heavy, came flying at the new thinker from all +sides." (White, A. D., _The Warfare of Science and Theology_, vol. 1, p. +70.) + +[15] Natural history as a study goes back to the days of Aristotle, in +Greece, but it had always been a study of fixed forms. Darwin destroyed +this conception, and vitalized the new subject of biology. From this +botany and zoology have been derived, and from these again many other new +sciences, such as physiology, morphology, bacteriology, anthropology, +cytology, entomology, and all the different agricultural sciences. + +[16] The bacillus of tuberculosis was isolated in 1882, Asiatic cholera in +1883, lockjaw and diphtheria in 1884, and bubonic plague in 1894. + +[17] Schools of engineering, mining, agriculture, and applied science are +types. + +[18] The book on Germany (_De l'Allemagne_) by Madame de Staël (1766- +1817), a brilliant French novelist, was published and immediately +confiscated in France in 1811, and republished in England in 1813. It is +one of the most remarkable books on one country written by a native of +another which had appeared up to that time. Through reading it many +English and Americans discovered a new world. + +[19] For example, it has been estimated that one fifteenth of the working +population of modern industrial nations devotes itself to transportation; +another one fifteenth to maintaining public services--light, gas, +telephone, water, sewage, streets, parks--unknown in earlier times; and +another one fifteenth to the manufacture and distribution and care of +automobiles. Add still further the numbers employed in connection with +theaters, moving-picture shows, phonographs, magazines and the newspapers, +soft-drink places, millinery and dry goods, hospitals, and similar +"appendages of civilization," and we get some idea of the increased labor +efficiency which the applications of science have brought about. + +[20] Labor unions were legalized in England in 1825. In the United States +they arose about 1825-30, and for a time played an important part in +securing legislation to better the condition of the workingman and to +secure education for his children. In continental Europe, the reactionary +governments following the downfall of Napoleon forbade assemblies of +workingmen or their organization, as dangerous to government. In +consequence, labor organizations in France were not permitted until 1848, +and in Germany and Austria not until after the middle of the century. In +Japan, as late as 1919, laborers were denied the right to organize. + +[21] Up to 1789 serfdom was the rule on the continent of Europe; by 1850 +there was practically no serfdom in central and western Europe, and in +1866 serfdom was abolished in Russia. For the worker and farmer the years +between 1789 and 1848 were years of rapid progress in the evolution from +mediaeval to modern conditions of living. + +[22] Under conditions existing up to the close of the eighteenth century, +in part persisting up to the middle of the nineteenth on the continent, +and still found in unprogressive lands, a close limitation of the rights +of labor was maintained. Children followed the trade of their fathers, and +the right of an apprentice later to open a shop and better his condition +was prohibited until after he had become an accepted master (p. 210) in +his craft. Guild members, too, were not permitted to branch out into any +other line of activity, or to introduce any new methods of work. All these +old limitations the Industrial Revolution swept away. + +[23] Women in Europe have secured the ballot rapidly since the end of the +nineteenth century. With manhood suffrage secured, universal suffrage is +the next step. Women were given the right to vote and hold office in +Finland in 1906; in Norway in 1907; in Denmark in 1916; in England in +1918; in Germany in 1919; and in the United States in 1920. + +[24] See an excellent brief article "On German Education," by E. C. Moore, +in _School and Society_, vol. I, pp. 886-89. + +[25] A State approximately the size of Illinois, and containing a +population of about two million people. The great development of this +country is in reality a history of the work of President Manuel Estrada +Cabrera, who was president from 1898 to 1920. His ruling interest has been +public education, believing that in universal education rests the future +greatness of the State. He accordingly labored to establish schools, and +to bring them up to as high a level as possible. The government has spent +much in building modern-type schoolhouses and in subsidizing schools, +holding that with the proper training of the younger generation the future +position of the nation rests. A sincere admirer of the United States, +American models have been copied. When the United States entered the World +War, Guatemala was the first Central American republic to follow. During +the War President Cabrera "would allow nothing to interfere with the +advancement of free and compulsory education in the State." (See Domville- +Fife, C. W., _Guatemala and the States of Central America_.) + +[26] "Imagine how the streams of Celestials circulating between Hong Kong +and the mainland spread the knowledge of what a civilized government does +for the people! At Shanghai and Tientsin, veritable fairylands for the +Chinese, they cannot but contrast the throngs of rickshas, dog-carts, +broughams, and motor cars that pour endlessly through the spotless asphalt +streets with the narrow, crooked, filthy, noisome streets of their native +city, to be traversed only on foot or in a sedan chair. Even the young +mandarin, buried alive in some dingy walled town of the far interior, +without news, events, or society, recalled with longing the lights, the +gorgeous tea houses, and the alluring 'sing-song' girls of Foochow Road, +and cursed the stupid policy of a government that penalized even +enterprising Chinamen who tried to 'start something' for the benefit of +the community." (Ross, E. A., _Changing America_, p. 22.) + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +[1] The earliest Teachers' Seminaries in German lands were: + + 1750. Alfeld, in Hanover. + 1753. Wolfenbüttel, in Brunswick. + 1764. Glatz, in Prussia. + 1765. Breslau, in Prussia. + 1768. Carlsruhe, in Baden. + 1771. Vienna, in Austria. + 1777. Bamberg, in Bavaria. + 1778. Halberstadt, in Prussia. + 1779. Coburg, in Gotha. + 1780. Segeberg, in Holstein. + 1785. Dresden, in Saxony. + 1794. Weissenfels, in Prussia. + +[2] "My views of the subject," said he, "came out of a personal striving +after methods, the execution of which forced me actively and +experimentally to seek, to gain, and to work out what was not there, and +what I yet really knew not." + +[3] See footnote 1, page 573, for places and dates. + +[4] By the Reverend Samuel R. Hall, who conducted the school as an adjunct +to his work as a minister. The school accordingly traveled about, being +held at Concord, Vermont, from 1823 to 1830; at Andover, Massachusetts, +from 1830 to 1837; and at Plymouth, New Hampshire, from 1837 to 1840. + +[5] By James Carter, at Lancaster, Massachusetts. + +[6] In 1836, Calvin Stowe, a professor in the Lane Theological Seminary at +Cincinnati, went to Europe to buy books for the library of the +institution, and the legislature of Ohio commissioned him to examine and +report upon the systems of elementary education found there. The result +was his celebrated _Report on Elementary Education in Europe_, made to the +legislature in 1837. In it chief attention was given to contrasting the +schools of Würtemberg and Prussia with those found in Ohio. The report was +ordered printed by the legislature of Ohio, and later by the legislatures +of Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Michigan, North Carolina, and Virginia, +and did much to awaken American interest in advancing common school +education. + +[7] These are higher institutions which offer two, three, or four years of +academic and some professional education, and may be found in connection +with a university; may be maintained by city or county school authorities; +or may be voluntary institutions. In 1910-11 there were eighty-three such +institutions in England and Wales. + +[8] In China, for example, as soon as the new general system of education +had been decided upon, normal schools of three types--higher normal +schools, lower normal schools, and teacher-training schools--were created, +and missionary teachers, foreign teachers, and students returning from +abroad were used to staff these new schools. By 1910 as many as thirty +higher normal schools, two hundred and three lower normal schools, and a +hundred and eighty-two training classes had been established in China +under government auspices. (Ping Wen Kuo, _The Chinese System of Public +Education_, p. 156.) + +[9] The beginnings in the United States date from about 1890, and in +England even later. In France, on the other hand, the training of teachers +for the secondary schools goes back to the days of Napoleon. + +[10] A common division was between the teacher who taught reading, +religion, and spelling, and the teacher who taught writing and arithmetic +(R. 307). Writing being considered a difficult art, this was taught by a +separate teacher, who often included the ability to teach arithmetic also +among his accomplishments. + +[11] A good example of this may be found in the monitorial schools. The +New York Free School Society (p. 660), for example, reported in its +_Fourteenth Annual Report_ (1819) that the children in its schools had +pursued studies as follows: + + 297 children have been taught to form letters in sand. + 615 have been advanced from letters in sand, to monosyllabic reading + on boards. + 686 from reading on boards, to Murray's First Book. + 335 from Murray's First Book, to writing on slates. + 218 from writing on slates, to writing on paper. + 341 to reading in the Bible. + 277 to addition and subtraction. + 153 to multiplication and division.. + 60 to the compound of the four first rules. + 20 to reduction. + 24 to the rule of three. + +[12] Herbart had visited Pestalozzi at Burgdorf, in 1799, just after +graduating from Jena and while acting as a tutor for three Swiss boys, and +had written a very sympathetic description of his school and his theory of +instruction. Herbart was one of the first of the Germans to understand and +appreciate "the genial and noble Pestalozzi." + +[13] The son of a well-educated public official, Herbart was himself +educated at the _Gymnasium_ of Oldenburg and the University of Jena. After +spending three years as a tutor, he became, at the age of twenty-six, an +under teacher at the University of Göttingen. At the age of thirty-three +he was called to succeed Kant as professor of philosophy at Königsberg, +and from the age of fifty-seven to his death at sixty-five he was again a +professor at Göttingen. + +[14] Charles De Garmo's _Essentials of Method_, published in 1889, marked +the beginning of the introduction of these ideas into this country. In +1892 Charles A. McMurry published his _General Method_, and in 1897, with +his brother, Frank, published the _Method in the Recitation_. These three +books probably have done more to popularize Herbartian ideas and introduce +them into the normal schools and colleges of the United States than all +other influences combined. Another important influence was the "National +Herbart Society," founded in 1892 by students returning from Jena, in +imitation of the similar German society. + +[15] The studies which have come to characterize the modern elementary +school may now be classified under the following headings: + + _Drill subjects_ _Content subjects_ _Expression subjects_ + Reading Literature Kindergarten Work + Writing Geography Music + Spelling History Manual Arts + Language Civic Studies Domestic Arts + Arithmetic Manners and Conduct Plays and Games + Nature Study School Gardening + Agriculture Vocational Subjects + +[16] Next, perhaps, would come Italy, which is strongly democratic in +spirit. In the cities of Holland one finds many privately supported +kindergartens, but the State has not made them a part of the school +system. In Norway and Sweden the kindergarten practically does not exist. +The kindergarten will always do best among self-governing peoples, and +seldom meets with favor from autocratic power. + +[17] "In the best English Infant Schools a profound revolution has taken +place in recent years. Formal lessons in the 3 Rs have disappeared, and +the whole of the training of the little ones has been based on the +principles of the kindergarten as enunciated by Froebel. Much of the old +routine still remains; nevertheless there is no part of the English +educational system so brimful of real promise as the work that is now +being done in the best Infant Schools." (Hughes, R. E., _The Making of +Citizens_ (1902), p. 40.) + +[18] In France, the Infant School or kindergarten is known as the Maternal +School. Pupils are received at two years of age, and carried along until +six. In the lower division the school is largely in the nature of a day +nursery, but in the upper division many of the features of the +kindergarten are found. + +[19] Since Froebel's day we have learned much about children that was then +unknown, especially as to the muscular and nervous organization and +development of children, and with this new knowledge the tendency has been +to enlarge the "gifts" and change their nature, to introduce new +"occupations," elaborate the kindergarten program of daily exercises, and +to give the kindergarten more of an out-of-door character. Especially has +the work of Dewey (p. 780) and the child-study specialists been important +in modifying kindergarten procedure. + +[20] By 1880 some 300 kindergartens and 10 kindergarten training-schools, +mostly private undertakings, had been opened in the cities of thirty of +the States of the Union. By 1890 philanthropic kindergarten associations +to provide and support kindergartens had been organized in most of the +larger cities, and after that date cities rapidly began to adopt the +kindergarten as a part of the public-school system, and thus add, at the +bottom, one more rung to the American educational ladder. To-day there are +approximately 9000 public and 1500 private kindergartens in the cities of +the United States, and training in kindergarten principles and practices +is now given by many of the state normal schools. + +[21] In 1918, for example, according to a recent Report to the Zionist +Board of Education in the United States, there were over 5300 children in +kindergartens in Palestine, 125 kindergarten teachers there, and a College +for Kindergarten Teachers had been organized in the Holy Land to train +additional teachers. + +[22] The Saint Louis Manual Training High School, founded in 1880 in +connection with Washington University, first gave expression to this new +form of education, and formed a type for the organization of such schools +elsewhere. Privately supported schools of this type were organized in +Chicago, Toledo, Cincinnati, and Cleveland before 1886, and the first +public manual-training high schools were established in Baltimore in 1884, +Philadelphia in 1885, and Omaha in 1886. The shop-work, based for long on +the "Russian system," included wood-turning, joinery, pattern-making, +forging, foundry and machine work. The first high school to provide +sewing, cooking, dressmaking, and millinery for girls was the one at +Toledo, established in 1886, though private classes had been organized +earlier in a number of cities. + +[23] A few of the earlier adaptations of the idea may be given. In 1882 +Montclair, New Jersey, introduced manual training into its elementary +schools, and in 1885 the State of New Jersey first offered state aid to +induce the extension of the idea. In 1885 Philadelphia added cooking and +sewing to its elementary schools, having done so in the girls' high school +five years earlier. In 1888 the City of New York added drawing, sewing, +cooking, and woodworking to its elementary-school course of study. + +[24] In 1802 Napoleon provided for instruction in natural history, +astronomy, chemistry, physics, and mineralogy in the scientific course of +the _lycées_, and in 1814 enlarged this instruction. He also established +numerous technical and military schools, with instruction based on +mathematics and science. + +[25] The Royal Commissioners which reported on the condition of the +University of Oxford, in 1850, said: "It is generally acknowledged that +both Oxford and the country at large suffer greatly from the absence of a +body of learned men devoting their lives to the cultivation of science, +and to the direction of academical education. The fact that so few books +of profound research emanate from the University of Oxford materially +impairs its character as a seat of learning, and consequently its hold on +the respect of the nation." + +[26] Book instruction in the new sciences goes back, in the universities +of most lands, to the late eighteenth century, but laboratory instruction +is a much more recent development. Chemistry was the first science to +develop, being the mother of science instruction, and probably the first +chemical laboratory in the world to be opened to students was that of +Liebig at Giessen, in 1826. The first American university to provide +laboratory instruction in chemistry was Harvard, in 1846. The instruction +in science in most of the universities, up to at least 1850, was book +instruction. (See schedule of studies for University of Michigan, R. 331.) +The first American university to be founded on the German model was Johns +Hopkins, in 1876. + +[27] By Charles Mayo and his sister, who opened a private Pestalozzian +school, about 1825. Miss Mayo published her _Lessons on Objects_, +explaining the method, and this became very popular in England after about +1830. Both the Mayos were prominent in the Infant-School movement, which +adopted a formalized type of Pestalozzian procedure. + +[28] In 1871 Dr. William T. Harris, then Superintendent of City Schools in +Saint Louis, published a well-organized course for the orderly study of +the different sciences. This attracted wide attention, and was in time +substituted for the scattered lessons on objects which had preceded it. +This in turn has largely given way, in the lower grades, to nature study. + +[29] At the time of Professor Bache's visit, in 1838, the instruction +included Latin, French, English, German, history, religion, music, +drawing, mathematics, natural history, physics, chemistry, and geography. + +[30] Scientific instruction in the _Lycées_ was not in favor in France +after 1815, and in 1840 it was materially reduced, on the ground that it +was injuring classical studies. + +[31] Astronomy, botany, chemistry, and natural philosophy had been +prominent studies in the American academies. Between about 1825 and 1840 +was the great period of their introduction. The first American high school +(Boston, 1821) provided for instruction in geography, navigation and +surveying, astronomy, and natural philosophy. By 1850 the rising high +schools were incorporating scientific studies quite generally. The +instruction was still textbook instruction, but some lecture-table +demonstrations had begun to be common. + +[32] The Oneida School of Science and Industry, the Genesee Manual-Labor +School, the Aurora Manual-Labor Seminary, and the Rensselaer School, all +founded in the State of New York, between 1825 and 1830, were among the +most important of these early institutions. + +[33] Spencer's classification of life activities and needs, in the order +of their importance, was (R. 362): + + 1 Those ministering directly to self-preservation. + + 2. Those which secure for one the necessities of life, and hence + minister indirectly to self-preservation. + + 3. Those which have for their end the rearing and discipline of + offspring. + + 4. Those involved in the maintenance of proper social and political + relations. + + 5. Those which fill up the leisure part of life, and are devoted to + the gratification of tastes and feelings. + +[34] All were republished in book form, in 1861, under the title of +_Education; Intellectual, Moral, and Physical_. The volume contains four +essays: What Knowledge is of Most Worth?; Intellectual Education; Moral +Education; and Physical Education. The first essay served as an +introduction to the other three. + +[35] "A Liberal Education," in his _Science and Education_. p. 86. + +[36] For many years head of the School of Education at the University of +Chicago, but more recently Professor of Philosophy at Columbia University, +New York City. + +[37] Dewey, John, in _Elementary School Record_, p. 142. + +[38] Described in _The Elementary School Record_, a series of nine +monographs, making a volume of 241 pages. University of Chicago Press, +1900. + +[39] A very good example of this is to be found in the work of Colonel +Francis W. Parker (1837-1902) in the United States. It was he who +introduced Germanized Pestalozzian-Ritter methods of teaching geography; +he who strongly advocated the Herbartian plan for concentration of +instruction about a central core, which he worked out for geography; he +who insisted so strongly on the Froebelian principle of self-expression as +the best way to develop the thinking process; he who advocated science +instruction in the schools; and he who saw educational problems so clearly +from the standpoint of the child that he, and the pupils he trained, did +much to bring about the reorganization in elementary education which was +worked out in the United States between about 1875 and 1900. + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +[1] For long the knowledge-conception dominated instruction, it being +firmly believed by the advocates of schools that knowledge and virtue were +somewhat synonymous terms. + +[2] It is to democratic England and the United States, and to the English +self-governing dominions, that the greatest flood of emigrants from less +advanced civilizations have gone. South America has also experienced a +large recent immigration, but this has been mainly of peoples from the +Latin races, and hence easier of assimilation. + +[3] See a good article on this development by I. L. Kandel, in the +_Educational Review_ for November, 1919, entitled "The Junior High School +in European Systems." + +[4] Paris, for example, has become the greatest university in Europe, +exceeding Berlin (1914) in students by approximately 25 per cent and in +expenditures 40 per cent. + +[5] "The rise of these great universities is the most epoch-making feature +of our American civilization, and they are to become more and more the +leaders and the makers of our civilization. They are of the people. When a +state university has gained solid ground, it means that the people of a +whole state have turned their faces toward the light; it means that the +whole system of state schools has been welded into an effective agent for +civilization. Those who direct the purposes of these great enterprises of +democracy cannot be too often reminded that the highest function of a +university is to furnish standards for a democracy." (Pritchett, Henry S., +in _Atlantic Monthly_.) + +[6] The gifts and bequests for colleges and universities in the United +States, from 1871 to 1916, totaled $647,536,608, and by 1920 probably have +reached $750,000,000. + +[7] The oldest was Charlottenburg (1799), Darmstadt (1822), Carlsruhe +(1825), Munich (1827), Dresden (1828), Nuremberg (1829), Stuttgart (1829), +Cassel (1830), Hanover (1831), Augsburg (1833), and Brunswick (1835). A +similar school, which later developed into a technical university, was +founded at Prague, in Bohemia, in 1806. + +[8] The German technical training "produces an engineer who is not only +older in years, but also more mature in experience and in judgment than +the average graduate of an engineering college in America. Whether or not +it would be wise to adopt--so far as that would be possible--German +methods in the schools and colleges of the United States, it must +nevertheless be recognized that those methods have given Germany a +leadership in applied science and in industry which she will keep unless +the educational authorities of other nations find some way of producing +men of like calibre." (Munroe, James P., "Technical Education"; in +Monroe's _Cyclopedia of Education_.) + +[9] _Report of Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education_, +Washington, 1914, p. 90. + +[10] The first veterinary school in the world was established at Lyons, +France, in 1762; the second at Alfort, a suburb of Paris, in 1766; the +third at Berlin, in 1792; and the fourth at London, in 1793. + +[11] The development of scientific training for nursing, begun by the +Germans near the end of their wars with Napoleon, is another example of +the creation of a new profession through the application of science. This +was carried to new levels by Miss Florence Nightingale, who began work in +London, in 1860, after her experiences in the Crimean War of 1854-56, and +has been greatly improved since 1870 as a result of the new medical +knowledge and methods which have come in since that time. The provision of +training for nurses, and the certification of doctors and nurses for +practice, are other new developments in the field of state education. +Similarly is the training and certification of dentists, veterinarians, +and pharmacists, all of which are nineteenth-century additions. + +[12] The work of the Rockefeller Foundation, an American Foundation +organized to promote "the well-being of mankind throughout the world," in +spending millions to provide China with a modern system of western medical +education and hospital service, is perhaps the greatest example of a +scientifically organized service ever tendered by the people of one nation +to those of another. + +[13] "Large-scale production, extreme division of labor, and the all- +conquering march of the machine, have practically driven out the +apprenticeship system through which, in a simpler age, young helpers were +taught, not simply the technique of some single process, but the 'arts and +mysteries of a craft' as well. The journeyman and the artisan have given +way to an army of machine workers, performing over and over one small +process at one machine, turning out one small part of the finished +article, and knowing nothing about the business beyond their narrow and +limited task." (_Report of the Commission on National Aid to Vocational +Education_, vol. i, pp. 19-20.) + +[14] "In no country will you find the problem taken up in so thorough a +manner; in no country will you find an attempt made to cover, by means of +industrial schools, the occupations of everyone, from the lowly laborer to +the director of the great manufacturing establishment. The State provided +industrial training for every person who will be better off with it than +without it. No occupation is too humble to receive the attention of the +German authorities; and the opinion prevails there that science and art +have a place in every occupation known to man." (Cooley, E. G., in _Report +to the Commercial Club of Chicago_, 1912.) + +[15] For example, the foreign trade of Germany, in 1880, was $31 per +capita of the total population, and that of the United States was $32. +Thirty years later, in 1910, Germany's foreign trade had increased to $62 +per capita, and that of the United States to only $37. + +[16] Chiefly raw products--a prodigal waste of natural resources. What +every nation should do is to work up its raw products at home, and sell +finished goods rather than raw products--"sell brains, rather than +materials." (R. 370.) + +[17] The first trade school in the United States was established +privately, in New York City, in 1881. By 1900 some half-dozen had been +similarly established in different parts of the country. In 1902 a trade +school for girls was founded in New York City, which did pioneer work. In +1906 Massachusetts created a State commission on Industrial Education, and +later provided for the creation of industrial schools. In 1907 Wisconsin +enacted the first trade-school law, and New York State followed in 1909. + +[18] Germany before 1914 formed an interesting contrast to such +conditions. There few untrained youths were to be found, and the nation, +before 1914, was rapidly moving toward universal vocational education. + +[19] As illustrative of the general character of the vocations to be +trained for, a few of the more common ones may be mentioned: + + _In agriculture_: The work of general farming, orcharding, + dairying, poultry-raising, truck gardening, horticulture, bee culture, + and stock-raising. + + _In the trades and industries_: The work of the carpenter, mason, + baker, stonecutter, electrician, plumber, machinist, toolmaker, + engineer, miner, painter, typesetter, linotype operator, shoecutter + and laster, tailor, garment maker, straw-hat maker, weaver, and glove + maker. + + _In commerce and commercial pursuits_: The work of the + bookkeeper, clerk, stenographer, typist, auditor, and accountant. + + _In home economics_: The work of the dietitian, cook and + housemaid, institution manager, and household decorator. + +[10] "The snail's pace at which the race has moved toward humanitarianism +is indicated by Payne's estimate (p. 6) that the race is perhaps two +hundred and forty thousand years old, civilized man a few hundred years +old, and a humanitarianism large enough to have any real concern in any +organized fashion for the protection of children scarcely fifty years old. +The fact that organizations in great number, laws, penalties, and constant +vigilance are still everywhere needed to secure for children their +inherent rights is evidence enough that we have still a long way to go +before we reach the golden age." (Waddel, C. W., _An Introduction to Child +Psychology_, p. 5.) + +[21] "As late as 1840 children of ten to fifteen years of age and younger +were driven by merciless overseers for ten, twelve, sixteen, even twenty +hours a day in the lace mills. Fed the coarsest food, in ways more +disgusting than those of the boarding schools described by Dickens, they +slept, when they had opportunity, often in relays, in beds that were +constantly occupied. They lived and toiled, day and night, in the din and +noise, filth and stench, of the factory that coined their life's blood +into gold for their exploiters. Sometimes with chains about their ankles, +to prevent their attempts to escape, they labored until epidemics, +disease, or premature death brought welcome relief from a slavery that was +forbidden by law for negro slaves in the colonies." (Payne, G. H., _The +Child in Human Progress_.) + +[22] An exception to this statement is to be found in the work of the +Pedagogical Seminars, organized in the German universities in the second +decade of the nineteenth century, which were intended for the professional +training of German university students for teaching in the German +secondary schools. (See footnote 1, page 573.) + +[23] When the first teachers' training-school in America was opened at +Concord, Vermont, by the Reverend Samuel R. Hall, in 1823, it included, +besides a three-year academy-type academic course, practice teaching in a +rural school in winter, and some lectures on the "Art of Teaching." +Without a professional book to guide him, and relying only upon his +experience as a teacher, Hall tried to tell his pupils how to organize and +manage a school. To make clear his ideas he wrote out a series of +_Lectures on School-keeping_, which some friends induced him to publish. +This, the first professional book in English issued in America for +teachers, appeared in 1829. + +[24] _Geschichte der Padagogik vom Wiederaufblühen klassicher Studien bis +auf unsere Zeit_. Vols. I and II, 1843; vol. III, 1847; vol. IV, 1855. +Much of this was translated into other languages. Barnard's _American +Journal of Education_, begun in 1855, published a translation of much of +von Raumer's work for American readers. + +[25] In 1876 S. S. Laurie (1829-1909) was elected to one of the first +chairs in education in Great Britain, that of "Professor of the Theory, +History, and Practice of Education" in the University of Edinburgh. + +[26] Probably the first lectures on Pedagogy given in any American college +were given in 1832, in what is now New York University. From 1850 to 1855 +the city superintendent of schools of Providence, Rhode Island, was +Professor of Didactics, in Brown University. In 1860 a course of lectures +on the "Philosophy of Education, School Economy, and the Teaching Art" was +given to the seniors of the University of Michigan. In 1873 a +Professorship of Philosophy and Education was established in the +University of Iowa. This was the first permanent chair created in America. +In 1879 a Department of the Science and Art of Teaching was created at the +University of Michigan. In 1881 a Department of Pedagogy was created at +the University of Wisconsin, and in 1884 similar departments at the +University of North Carolina and at Johns Hopkins University. + +[27] In education, as in other lines of work, the statement of Richard H. +Quick that the distinctive function of a university is not action, but +thought, has been exemplified. + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION *** + +This file should be named 7521-8.txt or 7521-8.zip + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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