path: root/74969-0.txt

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74969 ***





                              MARIONETTES
                           MASKS AND SHADOWS


[Illustration: T_his is the_ T_ree of the_ M_arionettes_]




[Illustration]




                    MARIONETTES MASKS _and_ SHADOWS


                                    BY
                            WINIFRED H. MILLS

     _Head of Art Department, Fairmount Junior High Training School,
                             Cleveland, Ohio_

                                    &

                              LOUISE M. DUNN

 _Assistant Curator of Education, the Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland,
                                  Ohio_


                               Illustrated
                                    by
                               CORYDON BELL


                          Garden City, New York
                          DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & CO.
                                   1927


                  COPYRIGHT, 1927, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE
                    & COMPANY. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
                  PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES AT THE
                 COUNTRY LIFE PRESS, GARDEN CITY, N. Y.


                             FIRST EDITION




                _To Adventurers among Puppets and Plays_

[Illustration: [Marionette]]




                                CONTENTS


 MARIONETTES                                                        PAGE
    I. The Marionette—Its Family Tree                                  1
   II. The Marionette—Its Famous Friends                              25
  III. Choosing Your Play                                             33
   IV. Making Your Stage                                              47
    V. Making Your Marionette                                         52
   VI. Making Your Scenery                                            84
  VII. Making Your Properties                                        102
 VIII. Lighting Your Stage                                           112
   IX. Training Your Puppeteers                                      119
    X. Presenting Your Play                                          135

 MASKS
    I. The Map of the Mask                                           143
   II. Occasions for Wearing the Mask                                152
  III. Making the Mask                                               160
   IV. The Costume and Setting for the Mask                          168
    V. The Mask with Pantomime, Music, and Dance                     196

 SHADOWS
    I. The Mystery of the Shadow                                     205
   II. Making a Shadow Play                                          212
  III. Producing Cut-out Shadow Plays                                215
   IV. Producing Human Shadow Plays                                  225
 Bibliography                                                        241
 Index                                                               265

[Illustration: [Marionette]]

[Illustration: [Shadows]]




                             ILLUSTRATIONS


 Tree of the Marionettes                                  _Frontispiece_


                                HALFTONES


                               MARIONETTES


                                                             FACING PACE

 Marionette play, “Men of Iron,” given by ninth year
   pupils, Fairmount Junior High School, Cleveland, Ohio              18

 Scenes from Marionette play, “Adventures of Alice,”
   given by ninth year pupils Fairmount Junior High
   School at the Cleveland Museum of Art. Marionettes
   made by Tuesday Marionette Club                                    34

 Scenes from the Marionette play, “Men of Iron”                       98

 Marionette Ballet, “Petroushka”                                     114

 _Upper._ Marionettes from “The Adventures of Alice.”
   _Lower Left._ Bear and Trainer from “Men of Iron.”
   _Lower Right._ Marionette from “Petroushka.”                      130


                                  MASKS
 Masks. Indian Corn Maidens. Clowns. Japanese Characters:
   Old Woman, Devil Mask, Old Man                                    146

 _Upper Row._ Bishop, Queen, King. _Middle Row._
   Lady-in-Waiting, Crusader, Child. _Lower Row._ Jester,
   Old Woman, Little Jack                                            150

 Masks. _Upper._ Mummer, Queen, Jester. _Middle._
   Egyptian Priest, Persian Poet, Greek Maiden. _Lower._
   Columbine and Pierrot                                             158

 Characters from Christmas Mask                                      162

 Scene from Christmas Mask given by ninth year Fairmount
   Junior High School pupils at the Cleveland Museum of
   Art. Lady-in-Waiting, King                                        178


                                 SHADOWS
 _Upper_: Scene from cut out shadow play, “The Traveling
   Musicians of Bremen.” _Lower_:—Behind the scene in a
   cut out shadow play, given by eighth grade pupils of
   Fairmount Junior High School, Cleveland, Ohio                     210

 Scenes from the cut out shadow play, “The Traveling
   Musicians of Bremen.”                                             214

 Behind the scenes in the human shadow play “The Indian
   and the Oki.”                                                     222

 Scenes from the human shadow play, “The Indian and the
   Oki.”                                                             226

 More scenes from the human shadow play, “The Indian and
   the Oki.”                                                         232

 Scenes from the human shadow play, “The Shepherdess.”               236


                         FULL PAGE LINE DRAWINGS
                                                                    PAGE

 Constructional drawing of Marionette stage, back view                50

 Side view of Marionette stage, with lighting                         51

 Knight Marionette                                                    77

                                                             FACING PAGE

 The Map of the Mask                                                 146




                              MARIONETTES


[Illustration: [Stage]]




                               CHAPTER I
                     The Marionette—Its Family Tree


This is the family tree of the marionette. Its roots are deep in the
life of ancient Egypt, India, Persia, China, Japan, and Java. Its great
trunk springs from the soil of Greece and Rome. Its branches spread over
Europe and reach to America.

Long ago, in Egypt, there were little carved figures of wood and ivory
with limbs that could be made to move by the pulling of strings. We do
not know for what use these little figures were intended. They may have
been the very first dolls in the world or they may have been little
images of the great gods which the people of that country worshiped. We
do know, however, that they were treasured, and were buried with the
kings and queens of ancient Egypt in their tombs near the banks of the
Nile. Some people tell us that the great idols in the Egyptian temples
were puppets and that the priests concealing themselves inside their
bodies could make them move their hands and open their mouths. This so
amazed many of the people who saw them that they fell down and worshiped
them.

Imagine a very long avenue with a row of carved stone figures called
sphinxes on either side, leading all the way up to a great temple.
Imagine a slowly moving procession of a hundred priests on its way to
the temple to do honor to the great god Osiris. These priests are
carrying a colossal golden boat on their shoulders. But more wonderful
than the temple with its lotus-flower columns and its beautiful colors,
more wonderful than the golden boat carried by these white-robed
priests, was a marvelously made statue of the god Osiris, which rode in
the golden boat. It moved its head constantly from side to side. The
priests knew which way it wished to go by the way it turned its head.
This figure of the god was a marionette. We also know that the ancient
Egyptians had miniature puppet stages. One has been unearthed which has
doors of ivory with the rods and wires still in their places. Among the
Egyptian puppets that have been found was one of a crocodile. Its lower
jaw moves on a pivot and its feet are connected with a kind of hinge.


                                 INDIA

It is possible that India rather than Egypt may have been the first home
of puppets. The people of India believed that puppets lived with the
gods long before they came down to this world. There is a story of
Parvati, wife of the god Siva, that tells of a puppet which she made,
that was so beautiful that she was afraid to let her husband see it, she
carried it away secretly, to the Malaya Mountains. But Siva suspected
his wife and followed her. When Siva saw the beauty of the puppet that
she was trying to hide from him, he fell in love with it, and brought it
to life.

Another story is told in India about a basket of wonderful wooden dolls
that was given to a little princess. These dolls were made in such a way
that when the princess touched a small wooden peg one would run and
bring her a cool drink, another would fly through the air and return
with a wreath of flowers, still another could dance and one could even
talk. Sometimes, when puppets were made to represent the gods, they were
made of pure gold and birds that could talk were placed in their mouths.

The fame of these wonderful Indian puppets reached Persia and Turkey,
China and Burma, Siam and Java, in each of which countries the puppets
were different and different kinds of temples and theaters were made for
them. Even the elephants carved for them to ride upon were different in
each country.

In many eastern countries there were two kinds of marionettes: the round
kind that we know and another thin, flat kind called “Shadows.” No one
seems to know just when the first shadow figures were made. An old
legend says they came from the time when all that the people saw of the
religious ceremonies was the shadow of the priest on the walls of the
sacred tent.


                                 CHINA

We do not know just when the earliest travelers brought puppets from
India to China and Japan. There is a legend that an old Chinese ruler
who lived more than three thousand years ago invited a famous showman to
bring his marionettes to the royal palace. This invitation delighted the
showman whose name was Yen Sze. In fact, he was so anxious to please the
king and his wives that he made his puppet courtiers smile at the royal
ladies, which so stirred the old king’s jealousy that he ordered Yen
Sze’s head cut off. Poor Yen Sze had to tear his puppets to pieces to
make the angry old ruler believe they were not real people.

Another story of Chinese puppets is one that comes from the old city of
Ping at the time it was besieged by a great warrior and his army. It
happened that the king of Ping had a very crafty adviser. This adviser
told the king to send for his chief marionette maker and order him to
make a very large and beautiful marionette, one that could dance on the
walls of the city, and this the king did. When the wives of the soldiers
of the besieging army saw the beauty and grace of this marionette
dancer, they became so jealous that they made their husbands give up the
siege and march away at once.

It is always interesting to see how human puppets are, no matter when or
where you find them. In China, some were aristocrats and lived at Court
with the Emperor and the royal family. They wore beautiful robes and
gave a great deal of thought to their speech and manners. Others were
very religious and lived with the priests in the temples; still others
seemed to have liked the out of doors, to travel and to meet and to
please the common people, and to be very much like them in all their
thoughts and ways. When these plebeian marionettes traveled, they took
little with them for they were poor and had few clothes and possessions.
This made travel very easy. Sometimes a small box would hold the stage,
properties, and all the puppets.

The master of the puppets stood inside a blue cloth sack when he gave
his play. These traveling puppets were apt to be rough and ready. They
loved to make the people laugh, but best of all they loved to please the
children. They gave plays about everyday life, about animals that could
talk, and about great Chinese heroes. They touched the hearts of the
people.


                                 PERSIA

Puppets have helped even to make friends out of enemies, as you may see
in this old Persian story. One day, a puppet play was being given before
the Emperor Ogotai. In this play the showman thought he would please His
Majesty by showing him some of his enemies, the Chinese, being dragged
along tied to the tails of horses. Instead of pleasing the Emperor, this
cruelty greatly distressed him. He ordered the showman to come to his
palace. When the showman came, the Emperor showed him many beautiful
things that had been made by Chinese and Persian artists, explaining to
the showman that both the Chinese and Persian people loved beautiful
things. He endeavored to make the showman understand that if he had
respect for the art of the Chinese people, he could not be their enemy.


                                 JAPAN

From China puppets traveled to Japan where the children still hear the
story of the old emperor who ordered his best showman to travel from
temple to temple for he knew that the gods would be entertained by his
wonderful marionette plays. Because they made their puppets entertain
the gods as well as the people, may be the reason that the Japanese have
become more expert in making puppets than any other people. Japanese
marionettes move their hands and their fingers and can even lift their
eyebrows to show scorn and surprise. The costumes for Japanese
marionettes have always been of the richest silks and brocades. Special
thought is given to embroidering the designs on their costumes.
Sometimes their gowns are covered with jewels. When a marionette has a
beautiful new gown, a boy comes forward and holds a light just in front
of the marionette, so that the audience can plainly see how beautiful
the costume is.

The great poets of Japan have written more than a thousand plays for
marionettes. In these plays the Japanese puppets do just the same things
that Japanese people do. They have gardens and enjoy walking in them.
The old ladies water the flowers, the young women play the kotes; the
puppet children dance and play games, the boys fly kites, the girls
carry dolls. The Japanese puppets are very silent little people. They do
not talk, they simply act. There are specially trained people who read
and chant their plays, and still others who are trained to play the
musical instruments that accompany them.


                                 GREECE

In the old Greek cities puppets were very much at home. They interested
the older people as much as they interested the children. Puppets were
taken to banquet tables and made to act. Such cities as Athens and
Ephesus were rivals in the art of making them.

Greek boys and girls, instead of going to the movies, went to wonderful
marionette shows. These were given in the public square, in the
theaters, and even in the temples. The marionettes used in these plays
could bend their heads, turn their eyes, and move their hands as though
they were alive. This need not surprise us, because in those days, great
engineers and mathematicians planned their mechanism. You probably
remember the story of Archimedes, who burned the ships that came to
attack his city of Syracuse by the use of concave mirrors. This great
Archimedes, it is said, made such a wonderful marionette that it seemed
to move of itself. One of the old Greek plays showed a temple in which
there stood a puppet god with small figures dancing about it, and a
fountain that, by means of weights and measures, jetted forth milk.

The best of the Greek puppet plays seem to have been taken from the
Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer. In a play of five scenes, one scene
showed the seashore, with men hammering, sawing, and building ships, a
second showed the men launching their boats, a third showed the coming
of a storm on the sea, the fourth showed the ships being driven toward
the rocks, the last scene showed the wreck of the ships and the drowning
of Ajax.


                                  ROME

Since the Romans seem to have copied so much from the Greeks, it is not
surprising that they copied the Greek marionettes. In fact, the Romans
and Greeks seem to have been equally fond of them. Roman writers
mentioned them in their books, Roman Emperors filled their palaces with
showmen and their puppets, and built small, richly furnished theaters
for them. Roman marionettes were sometimes covered with gold and silver,
precious stuffs, and shining armor. Their mechanism was amazing. Almost
every sort of transformation could be carried out. At one time, Roman
rulers became so interested in puppets that affairs of the government
were almost forgotten.

There were three kinds of Roman marionettes. The simplest kind was the
Burattini, a kind of marionette that is much like a mitten. They were
shown on the street corners by a showman who needed no more than two—one
for each hand. It cost almost nothing to see them. The shopkeepers,
gladiators, slaves, and surely the Roman children came to look whenever
they heard the showman’s fife. He would make them act droll little
dialogues or pretend to sing popular songs. There was another kind
called Fantoccini. These were jointed dolls strung on cords that were
drawn across the knees of the operator. He usually sang or played some
musical instrument while he made certain movements with his legs that
caused the puppets to advance or retire or to move all in one direction.
A third kind of marionette was manipulated by strings or wires from
above.

In the tomb of the tragic Empress Marie, wife of the Emperor Honorius,
who lived 365 B.C., were found the puppets of her little child. She
probably cared more for these puppets than for all her jewels. The great
Antiochus, when he became king of Syria, surrounded himself with mimes,
burattini, and showmen, seemingly caring little for his huge empire.

When Rome fell, the gods and temples were destroyed and puppets were
almost forgotten. But we find the world could not live long without
them. In a very short time, when the early Christians wished to help
each other to picture the precious story of the Christ, they again began
to make puppets. We must now try to picture them in the great
underground cities that we call catacombs—probably living in what were
the world’s first churches, and enacting for these persecuted peoples
the scenes of the new religion. We know that these early Christians
revered them, for they carved them on their tombs.

It was before the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem that the greatest of the
early passion plays were given by marionettes, plays so simple and
religious that they were greatly loved by the devout pilgrims who came
to that sacred shrine. It was here that puppets were probably seen by
the first crusaders who, no doubt, had much to tell of them when they
returned to their far-distant homes. Puppets lived in the churches, just
as they once had lived in the temples. The plays they gave were called
Mysteries. These puppet mystery plays were to be seen in both the
churches and the monasteries of all medieval Europe. They were solemn
festivals of sacred commemoration. Into the naves and chapels of these
early churches, large wooden stages were built, carpets were spread on
the floors, tapestries were hung on the walls. At the back of these
stages, evergreen trees were placed and in front of the trees there were
stones. These were covered with plants and moss in imitation of the
hills and valleys and pathways of the Holy Land. Everything was so
arranged that these marionettes could give the most dramatic scenes in
the life of Christ. The little figures were carved from wood, colored to
life, richly clothed, adapted by mechanisms so that their limbs could be
made to move by the action of springs and levers.

As time went on the people seemed to lose much of their strong religious
fervor. Marionettes did the same. Finally almost ceasing to be religious
they became interested only in entertaining people. At last Savonarola
banished them from the churches of Florence, and in the year 1550 the
Council of Trent tried to banish all marionettes from the churches. The
Council did this because it felt that marionettes were very irreligious.

Then the puppets rebelled and forsook the church for the theater.
Thereupon they were accused of witchcraft and magic, were tortured,
burned, beheaded, and even buried alive. All this was done in the XVIth
Century. But all these indignities did not drive the marionettes far
from the churches. They established themselves just outside the church
grounds. Here they were sure to be on the days when crowds of people
were coming to the great church celebrations. The plays they gave were
episodes taken from the Holy Scriptures. These episodes taken from the
miracles came to be known as Miracle Plays, and these plays became even
more popular than the Mystery Plays that had been given inside the
churches.

Sometimes puppets received invitations to visit great knights and ladies
in their castles. They were eager for such invitations because they
enjoyed the experiences of traveling. As always happens in travel, they
saw new things to interest them and met new people, many of whom were
quite different from their earlier and more serious-minded friends. They
enjoyed the life of the castle, the songs of the wandering minstrels,
and the heroic stories that the traveling bards told in the evenings
about the fire in the great halls. They liked the noble lords and
ladies, their speech and manners and dress. These marionettes became
what you might call aristocrats.

The marionettes that were religious found a home in the quiet of the
monasteries. They were the marionettes that were scholarly and were
interested in Latin plays as well as in the Mysteries and Sacred Dramas.

The greater number of marionettes preferred to live in the towns with
the common people and to know what was going on. These puppets were full
of health and good humor. It was this sort of marionette who changed his
name and his character almost everywhere he went. If he were in Naples,
he was Scaramuccia; in Venice, he was Messer Pantaleone; in Bergamo, he
was Arlequino; in France, he was Guignol or Polichinello; in Germany, he
was Hans Wurst and Kaspare; in Holland, he was Jean Pickel Herring; and
in England, he was Mr. Punch.


                                 ITALY

In Italy at about this time every kind of marionette was very popular.
Especially popular were the Burattini. These little figures consisted of
a head and two hands held together by a large cloak within which was
hidden the hand of the manipulator, who made the puppet act by the
movements of his fingers and wrist. The curious word, Burattini,
possibly came from a kind of coarse, durable cloth of bright colors
known as Burato, which was used for clothing this type of puppet. One of
these Burattini was called Arleechino. He was a great baby and played
the part of a servant. His dress was made from triangles of red, blue,
yellow, and violet pieces of Burato cloth. He wore a small hat that
scarcely covered his head. His little shoes had no soles. Michael
Angelo, it is said, did not like his head and face. He remodeled them to
suit the Burattini’s character, which was an odd mixture of ignorance,
ingenuity, stupidity, and grace. Listen to his speech: “Kind sir, I know
that you are in want of a servant, after having made 327 changes in a
year, and I hope to make up the round number. I am a man who knows how
to do everything—eating, drinking, sleeping, and making love to the
maids. The only fault I have is that I do not like work. I shall be as
punctual as an idler, as faithful as a domestic thief, as secret as an
earthquake, and as watchful as a cat. As to my honesty, surely no man
can call me a thief, but rather a clever mathematician who finds things
before their masters lose them.”

You may like to know how marionettes came by their name. One day, in the
year 944, in the city of Venice, twelve beautiful maidens went forth
from their homes to marry twelve young men at the church of Santa Maria
della Salute. Suddenly a band of Barbary pirates landed near the church,
attacked the crowd, and in the confusion that arose, carried away the
maidens. In a short time the young men of Venice recovered from the
shock, jumped into their ships, followed and overtook the pirates. After
much fighting, they rescued the brides. From that very day it was the
custom in Venice to celebrate the anniversary of this event by a great
festival. Always on the last day of the festival came the marriage of
twelve beautiful young women to twelve handsome young men. The wedding
gowns and doweries were provided by the state from the public treasury.
In the course of time, this led to so much jealousy and so many quarrels
among the young men and women of Venice, that the city decided to
substitute life-sized wooden dolls for the maidens. By and by, the
Venetian toy makers began to make little figures that were exactly like
the large figures, to sell as toys for the children. These were called
“little maries” or “marionettes.”

When one learns to know the people of Italy, he can easily understand
how puppets might feel more at home there than in any other country in
the world. The Italian people love music and color and motion and life,
above all else they love heroes, their great adventures and romances.
All these things are equally dear to the hearts of the marionettes. They
repay the sympathy of the Italian people by keeping alive for them their
great heroes and hero tales. The people might have forgotten many of
their great stories had it not been for the puppets. The legend of the
Court of Charlemagne, the story of golden-haired Roland, which Taillefer
sang before William of Normandy at the Battle of Hastings, have been
acted by puppets in Italy for more than three hundred years. One may
still see all the characters that were in the story as it was told in
the Xth Century. There is Rinaldo of Montauban, his horse Bayard, his
sword Flamberge, Malagigi, the magician, and Ganelon, the traitor, fair
Clarissa and Charlemagne himself. Italian boys and girls learn much of
their history from puppets. Sometimes it requires a whole year to give
one of their great plays like _Orlando Furioso_ or the story of the
seven Paladins. From Italy marionettes traveled to all the other
countries of Europe, to France, Spain, Germany, and England. Finally
they came to the United States.


                                 FRANCE

You may wish to know how puppets found their way from Italy to France.
There were two brothers, Giovanni and Francesco Briocchi. Francesco was
a skilful wood carver and mechanic. Giovanni was very clever with his
speeches and jokes. As children, they loved marionettes. They hardly
knew which they enjoyed more, sitting in the audience watching the play,
or standing behind the stage watching their friends manipulate the
puppets. They decided that when they grew up they would be puppeteers,
make their own puppets and travel from town to town and to the fair land
of which they had heard so many interesting tales. This they did.
Giovanni made the figures skilfully and dressed them beautifully.
Francesco made them say and do such clever and amusing things that their
fame went before them into small towns and into the large cities. When
they had made enough money they said, “Now we can go to France. We can
easily carry our little stage and puppets on our backs. We can earn our
way by giving plays.” This they did, to the delight of all who saw them.
Finally they reached the city of Paris. In those days great fairs were
held where people came to buy and sell and to make merry. Here was just
the place for Giovanni and Francesco. When the fairs became permanent
the brothers decided to settle down and make a real home for their
marionettes. This at first was a simple kind of theater, but later came
to have every beautiful thing that French taste and ingenuity could
provide. One day the king and queen made them a visit and engaged them
to come out to their beautiful château at St. Germain en Laye and give
puppet plays for their young son, the dauphin, and his friends. In the
records of France you may still see the account as it stands: “Sept.
1669, to Jean Briocchi, divertir les enfants de France, 1365 livres.”
When the Frenchmen saw the success of the Italian showmen, they, too,
began to make puppets and to take them to the places where people
gathered who might be willing to spend a few sous for entertainment.
Among these was an old dentist, who found it difficult to earn a living.
He made some marionettes and a clever little boxlike stage with a
curtain about it. It was just large enough for him to stand inside and
manipulate the puppets. He decided to take his stand to the Pont Neuf,
one of the principal bridges of Paris. Here he would pull teeth when
anyone needed his services and for the rest of the time would entertain
the people. He had also a very celebrated monkey, called Fagotin, that
he knew would attract a crowd. Fagotin he dressed as a sentry, gave him
a sword, and trained him to march up and down in front of the little
puppet booth. One day a great poet, whose name was Cyrano de Bergerac,
was crossing the bridge and stopped, as did most of the people, to see
Fagotin and the puppets. It happened that the poet had a very large nose
and was a very sensitive person. When he saw Fagotin marching up and
down and making grimaces, he thought he must surely be making fun of his
large nose. At this, the poet was so angry that he challenged him to a
duel. Poor little Fagotin drew his sword with the air of a master of the
foils, only to be slain by the irate poet.

The French people, like the Italians, had a great many heroes celebrated
in song and romance. It certainly would have been poor taste on the part
of the Italian puppets to have overlooked this. In a short time the
puppets forgot Italy and were at home in many new rôles of French
literature. New plays were written for them. When that great struggle,
the French Revolution, came, the puppets took sides. Some were on the
side of the poor starving people, others were unwilling to give up their
lives of ease and luxury. During the Reign of Terror many puppets were
beheaded. In fact, while one group of people was beheading King Louis
XVI and his queen, Marie Antoinette, another group in almost the same
place was beheading poor Punchinello. Many puppets, however, survived,
and a whole book might be written about the history of puppets in France
and the great men and women who have loved them.


                                 SPAIN

In Spain, the puppets first appeared in the churches, presenting great
scenes from the Bible. At first their garments were simple and
beautiful, but later they were so bejeweled and vulgar that they
offended the good taste of the people and the puppets were driven out.
Spain is the only country in which a marionette was ever made a citizen
and baptized. Don Quixote saw them, and the great Emperor Charles V, in
his retirement in the monastery of Cremona, spent many days with the
famous scholar, Torriani, making puppet soldiers and bull fighters, with
such skill that they were really able to fight.


                                ENGLAND

As in almost all other countries, the earliest English puppets were
those which gave religious plays in the churches. From the churches,
they went out among the people, still giving plays founded on the Bible
stories and the lives of the saints. These plays were combinations of
shadowgraph and marionette, and the English people sometimes called them
“motions.” English puppets were also very fond of going to the fairs.
Here is the pamphlet of a play given at the Fair of St. Bartholomew in
1641: “Here a knave in a fool’s coat, with a trumpet sounding or a drum
beating, invites you to see his puppets. Here a rogue, like a wild
woodman, or in antic shape like an incubus, desires your company to see
his motion.”

[Illustration:

  _Marionette play, "Men of Iron," given by ninth year pupils, Fairmount
    Junior High School, Cleveland, Ohio_
]

Probably the most popular puppet play in England in those days was one
called “The Old Creation of the world, with the addition of Noah’s
Flood.” The best scene showed “Noah and his family coming out of the ark
with all the animals, two by two, and all the fowls of the air seen in
prospect sitting upon trees; likewise, over the ark is the sun rising in
a glorious manner, moreover, a multitude of angels in a double rank, the
angels ringing bells. Likewise, machines descending from above, double,
with Dives rising out of hell and Lazarus seen in Abraham’s bosom;
besides several dancing gigs, sarabands and country dances, with merry
conceits of Squire Punch and Sir John Spendall.”

This play was given for fifty-two successive nights. Mr. Powell, the
clever but roguish fellow who owned these puppets, once set up his
little theater just outside the colonnades of Covent Garden, opposite
the parish church of St. Paul. He began his plays at the sound of the
church bells, and was successful in diverting so many from the church
services that he was severely reproved by the churchmen. It was this
same clever Powell, who had a very famous puppet called Lady Jane, who
went to Paris every month and came back with a trunk full of gowns of
the latest fashion. These marionette style shows delighted all the
ladies of fashion in London, including the queen.

About 1642, all regular theaters were abolished in England, but
marionette theaters were not included. You can scarcely imagine the good
fortune this meant for them, for they inherited everything that had
belonged to the great theaters, all the music and opera, the dramas, the
tragedies, and the comedies.

When news of this reached Italy and France, many showmen started at once
for England. They knew they could gather pennies on the way from almost
every pocket. The regular price of these puppet plays was but two pence,
but a fine play like _The Gun Powder Plot_ cost eighteen pence. There
were plays about giants and fairies, about Robin Hood and Little John,
about St. George and the dragon, and a hundred other tales.

All the great writers of those days now began to write plays for
marionettes. Beautiful new theaters were built for them. It became the
fashion to go to puppet plays. Ben Jonson says that many great ladies
went every day.

In 1688, Punchinello changed his name to Mr. Punch and he married Judy.
When they had a son and went to housekeeping, then the quarrels began.
You may have had the pleasure of hearing some of them. Punch had a wide
circle of friends and some of them were interested in politics. Many
great Englishmen, like Addison, Steele, Fielding, Milton, and Byron,
were glad to tell him what to say that would help to set the people
thinking. Some of the English puppets disliked cities and were only
happy when they were going up and down the lovely English roads,
traveling among the villages and country people. There you can still
find them.

To-day the most beautiful English puppets are being made by Mr. William
Simmonds who began his work with puppet plays for village children. Mr.
Simmonds manipulates his own puppets as he cleverly improvises songs,
dances, and pantomimes.


                         GERMANY—AUSTRIA—RUSSIA

Before we follow marionettes to our own country, we ought to take a
little time to see them in Germany, Austria, and Russia. These peoples
were skilful in wood carving and made their puppets beautifully.
Marionettes were used in the early churches of these countries, and gave
Holy Plays before the high altars. Then they went to the castles and at
last to the theaters. It was only in Germany that great musicians wrote
music for them. In 1762, Haydn wrote for them his toy symphony, “The
Children’s Fair,” which was followed by five operettas given in the
theater at Eisenstadt. Probably the great _Passion Play_ at Oberammergau
has grown out of the early puppet plays that were given in the
monasteries and cathedrals.

The city of Munich built a little theater for Papa Schmidt, an old man
who had spent all his life giving puppet plays. This was done through
citizens who felt indebted to him for the pleasure he had given them as
children. They said, the least they could do was to build him a theater,
a place for himself and his daughter and their thousand puppets, that
included all the characters in the beautiful fairy tales.

In Vienna, the artist Richard Teschner has created some remarkable
modern marionettes. He has carved them most delicately from wood and has
shown great ingenuity in the way he has put his little figures together.

In Bohemia, the puppets were interested in politics, if they were
serious, and in comedies if they were not serious. In Hungary, they
traveled with the gypsies. In Poland and Russia, they are loved by all
the common people, and at Christmas celebrations still appear in their
ancient rôles as Joseph and Mary and the Christ Child, as wise men,
shepherds, and angels.


                                AMERICA

Puppets are not new in America. The North American Indians for hundreds
of years used them in their great ceremonies. The Hopi Indians used
marionettes to represent the mystic maidens who in ancient times gave
them, according to their legends, the corn and other seeds. This
ceremony is performed in a darkened room—in the center of which is a
wooden framework. The marionettes are placed on a stage or platform and
when the corn maiden’s song begins, the figures bend their bodies
forward and backward in time to the music as they grind the meal between
the miniature grindstones before them. The little figures are so
cleverly manipulated that they even rub their faces with meal as the
young Indian girls are accustomed to do. During the ceremony, two
symbolic marionette birds are made to walk back and forth, on the
framework, above the maidens, seeming to utter bird calls. The Hopi
Indians also made marionettes of their enemies, the serpents, which
represented floods and misfortune.

Most of the marionettes that we have known in America, until a few years
ago, were Italian. They were very shy and would not leave their Italian
neighborhoods. They often spoke no English. They gave plays about heroes
that we know little or nothing about.

In America, there is a growing list of friends of the marionette.
Probably the name best known to you will be that of Tony Sarg, a
charming artist who has taken his puppet plays to the largest cities in
our country and delighted us with his _Rip Van Winkle_, _Rose and the
King_, and _Don Quixote_. The manager of his marionettes, Mr. Matthew
Searle, is also an artist of ingenuity and taste.

In Chicago, the splendid work of Mr. and Mrs. Maurice Brown made new
friends for the marionette. Mr. Perry Dilley introduced marionettes and
guignol to the people of California. He produced a great number of
interesting plays and all of his puppets are exceptionally fine. Mr.
William Duncan and Mr. Edward Mabley, creators of the “Tatterman
Marionettes,” have brought to the marionette stage unusual imagination
and skill, which is admirably shown in their _The Melon Thief_, _The
King of the Golden River_, and _Pierre Patelin_.

Madge Anderson has written beautifully of her puppet heroes. Mrs. Helen
Haiman Joseph has written an excellent _Book of Marionettes_. If it were
possible one would like to add the complete list of all those who are
carrying on the great tradition of the marionette. The interest, already
created, leads one to hope that America may take her place high up in
the marionette tree.

[Illustration: [Marionette]]

[Illustration: [Archimedes]]




                               CHAPTER II
                   The Marionette—Its Famous Friends


Every person is proud of his famous friends. If we know a great artist,
engineer, or traveler, we think we are fortunate. Can you imagine having
so many famous friends that you could not count them? This has been the
good fortune of marionettes. The names of all their Egyptian friends
seem to be lost. But it is not so with their Grecian friends.
Archimedes, Socrates, and Plato are the names of three famous friends
that have come down to us. Archimedes, the greatest inventor of his
time, liked puppets, it is said, because he could devise so many clever
ways of making them move and appear human. Socrates probably cared
nothing for the mechanism. He enjoyed taking a puppet in his own hands,
asking it clever questions, and then furnishing the equally clever
answers. These most unusual conversations would soon gather about him a
crowd of Athenian men and women, who were greatly interested in his
humor, irony, and whimsical paradoxes. The dialogues would probably go
on and on until his scolding wife, Xantippe, appeared. Plato also cared
little for their mechanism, but like his great master, Socrates, was
interested only when they were made to talk about the very serious
things of life, or when he saw them representing the gods and heroes in
the beautiful scenes of the plays given on the small stages built for
them in one part of the great theaters.

Kings and queens were among the famous Roman friends of puppets. You may
remember that puppets were found in the tomb of the Empress Marie and
that the Emperor Antiochus cared so much for them that he neglected the
affairs of his great empire. He had clever puppet makers as part of his
royal household, and delighted in planning the plays they were to give.
He designed the stage settings, and he sometimes assisted the royal
puppeteers.

In India, China, and Japan, the great rulers were greatly interested in
puppets, and required their presence at court.

One of the most interesting stories of a royal friend of the marionettes
is that of the Emperor Charles V of Spain. This strange ruler’s reason
was clouded. His devoted minister tried in many ways to divert his
beloved king, and finally succeeded when he found that the king could be
interested in puppets. Puppet soldiers, puppet generals, puppet kings
caught his imagination. The cleverest hands of Spain made them, by the
hundred, for His Majesty, who handled them with such interest and
pleasure that his reason was finally restored. Two other great kings
could be added to the list of royal friends—they are Saladin and Louis
XIV of France.

There is a long list of famous literary friends. Greatest of these is
Shakespeare, who not only enjoyed marionettes, but wrote plays for them.
Many people are surprised when they learn that _Midsummer Night’s Dream_
and _Julius Cæsar_ were written for marionettes. Shakespeare’s friend,
Ben Jonson, wrote a marionette play, _Every Man in His Humor_. Another
great literary friend was Cervantes. Some day you may wish to take his
story of Don Quixote and turn some of its wonderful scenes into a play
for marionettes. If you do so, you may be sure that their immortal
author would approve of your venture.

In France, among their many friends, was the great dramatist Voltaire.
At first he disliked marionettes thoroughly. For it happened that they
had made fun of him, and, naturally, that was more than this great wit
could stand. Finally, the story goes, he was invited to visit a friend
who had a little marionette theater and some puppets. When Voltaire took
the strings in his own hands, his feeling for them changed. He found
they could be made to say witty things, and to make fun of one’s
enemies. It ended by his writing short plays for them to act.

George Sand, the famous French novelist, made a very simple but
delightful puppet theater for her little boy, Maurice, and set the
fashion for puppets among her literary friends. Stories could be told of
many other famous French friends, of Molière, Fontaine, Doré, and
Rousseau. Great French writers still love marionettes. You probably know
two of these: Maurice Maeterlinck and Anatole France.

When we go to Italy, we find other friends, but none greater than
Michael Angelo. Picture this artist modeling heads for marionettes. We
wonder what they looked like and what became of them. His great patron,
Lorenzo de Medici, had a puppet theater built for his palace in
Florence.

Marionettes have had famous musicians as their friends. If you are
interested in music, you will enjoy reading about Joseph Haydn and the
five toy symphonies that he wrote for marionettes.

Goldoni, the greatest Italian writer of comedies, was born in Venice,
that city in which, you remember, puppets were first called marionettes.
He lived near the street where most of the puppet makers lived and had
their shops. As a child he played puppet games with many other children
in a little park near his home. When he was seven years old he wrote a
puppet play and invited his friends to come to see and hear it. He
enjoyed writing plays that made them laugh. When Goldoni grew up he was
still the friend of puppets because he felt that they had helped him in
learning the art of play writing.

The German poet, Goethe, was a friend of puppets from his childhood.
When he was about the age of seven, a friend of his good mother made
some puppets and sent them to him and his sister for a Christmas
present. The mother had a happy thought. She made a little stage and set
it in the doorway of a room, just off the living room. On Christmas
morning, after the children had seen their presents, she had the family
sit down before the closed door. When she opened it, there was a kind of
porch concealed with a mysterious curtain. The children were curious and
eager to know what was behind that half-transparent veil. The mother,
however, bade each sit down upon his stool. At length, Goethe says, “All
were silent, a whistle gave the signal, the curtain rolled aloft and
showed us the interior of a temple painted in deep red colors. The high
priest, Samuel, appeared with Jonathan, and their strange alternating
voices seemed to me the most striking thing on earth. Shortly after
entered Saul, overwhelmed with confusion at the impatience of that
heavy-limbed warrior who had defied him and all his people. But how glad
was I when the dapper son of Jesse, with his crook and shepherd’s pouch
and sling, came hopping forth and said, ‘Dread king and sovereign lord,
let no one’s heart sink down because of this. If your majesty will grant
me leave, I will go out to battle with this blustering giant!’

“Here ended the first act, leaving the spectators more curious than ever
to see what further would happen—each praying that the music might soon
be done. At last the curtain rose again. David devoted the flesh of the
monsters to the fowls of the air and the beasts of the field; the
Philistine scorned and bullied him, stamped mightily with both his feet,
and at length fell like a mass of clay, affording a splendid termination
to the piece, and then the virgins sang a song: ‘Saul hath slain his
thousands, but David his ten thousands.’ The giant’s head was borne
before his little victor, who received the king’s beautiful daughter to
wife.” This is part of the description that Goethe wrote when he grew up
and became a famous man.

Do read the delightful and vivid description which Constantin
Stanislavsky gives of his boyish experiences with marionettes in his
autobiography, _My Life in Art_. “We had decided to exchange the living
actors for actors made of pasteboard and to begin the construction of a
marionette theater with scenery, effects, and a full line of theatrical
necessities. The marionette theater demanded expenditures. We needed a
large table to put in the large doorway. While above and beneath it,
that is above and beneath the marionette stage, the openings were
covered with sheets. In this manner, the public sat in one room, the
auditorium and the other room, which was united to the first, was the
stage and all its accessories. It was there that we worked, we the
artists, the designers, the stage managers, and the inventors of all
sorts of scenic effects. My oldest brother also joined us. He was an
excellent draftsman, and a fine inventor of stage effects. His help was
important because he had a little money, and we needed capital for our
work.

“We began to paint scenery. At first we painted on wrapping paper which
tore and crumpled, but we did not lose heart for we thought that with
time, as soon as we became rich (for we were to charge ten kopeks as
admission), we would buy pasteboard and glue the painted wrapping paper
to it. From the moment that we began to feel ourselves managers and
directors of the new theater, that was being built according to our
plans, our lives became full. There was something to think about every
minute. There was a great deal to do. In the drawer of the table there
always lay hidden some piece of theatrical work, the figure of a
marionette which was to be painted and dressed, a piece of scenery, a
bush, a tree, or the plan and sketches for a new production. In the
margins of my books and copy books there were always sketches of scenery
or a geometric drawing. We always chose moments of catastrophic
character. For instance, an act from _The Corsair_, which called for a
sea quiet in the daylight but stormy all night with a wrecked ship, with
heroes swimming for their lives, with the appearance of a lighthouse, an
escape from a watery grave, the rising of the moon, prayer, and dawn.

“These performances were always sold out, notwithstanding the high price
of admission. Many people came to see them, some to encourage us, others
to amuse themselves. Our promenades between lessons took on a very deep
meaning. Before that we went to the Kugnetsky Bridge to buy the
photographs of circus artists. But with the appearance of our theater,
there appeared a need for all sorts of material for scenery and
marionettes. Now we were no longer too lazy to take a walk. We bought
all sorts of pictures, books with landscapes and costumes which served
as material for the scenery and the dramatic personæ of our theater.
These were the first volume of a rapidly increasing library.”

Perhaps that friend who has done most to keep the world still interested
in marionettes is Gordon Craig. He is a great English artist who sees
them not as so much wood and cloth pulled about by a few strings at the
whim of careless people, but rather as real creatures, human or more
than human, quiet and dignified, as the gods of old. It has been his
delight to give them again the great rôles of literature. He, too,
invited the greatest actors of Europe to come and learn from them.

Possibly you are asking what it is that gives such friendships to the
marionette. Perhaps none of its great friends could answer. The
marionette is quiet, submissive, dignified, and mysterious. It becomes a
different thing in every hand. It expresses every mood, thought, and
fancy of the one who pulls the strings. What will it do in your hands?

[Illustration: PATHOS SENTIMENT MIRTH]

[Illustration: [Boy]]




                              CHAPTER III
                           Choosing Your Play


It may not always be easy to find just the play you wish for your
marionettes. If you should go to your library and ask for a marionette
play, it is possible that the librarian would have very little to offer
you. But if you should go to her and ask for a good story that you could
make into a marionette play, you would probably be surprised to see how
many books she would place before you. You might even feel confused when
you came to make your choice. Suppose that you wish to give a humorous
play. Begin by making a list of the very best of the humorous books:

            _Alice in Wonderland_—Carroll
            _Alice, Through the Looking Glass_—Carroll
            _Gulliver’s Travels_—Swift
            _Pinocchio, The Story of a Marionette_—Lorenzini
            _Don Quixote_—Cervantes
            _Midsummer Night’s Dream_—Shakespeare
            _Peter and Wendy_—Barrie
            _Rip Van Winkle_—Irving
            _Just-So Stories_—Kipling
            _Arabian Nights_—Edited by Colum
            _Uncle Remus_—Harris
            _Rose and the Ring_—Thackeray
            _Tom Sawyer_—Clemens
            _Wind in the Willows_—Grahame
            _Tales of Laughter_—Wiggin and Smith

You will find that it is not at all difficult to turn the vivid and
amusing characters of these books into marionettes. Neither is it
difficult to turn these stories into marionette plays.

First: Make a list of the most important incidents in the story.

Second: Decide upon the number of scenes that you think necessary for
your play.

Third: Decide upon the number of characters required for these scenes.

These three things you must do if your play is to be only the simplest
kind of a Burattini play, if it is to be a shadow play, or a marionette
play.

If you are not experienced in making marionette plays, you may think
that you need a great many characters to act your story. But the more
you learn about marionette plays, the more you will be surprised to find
how few characters, and incidents, and scenes you will need. Choose only
those which are most important. This means that you should know your
story very well indeed before you begin to make your play. When you
thoroughly know your story and all the characters in it, all that they
say and do, you will enjoy your play-making quite as much as your
play-giving.

[Illustration:

  _Scenes from the marionette play, "Adventures of Alice," given by
    ninth year pupils of Fairmount Junior High School at the Cleveland
    Museum of Art. Marionettes made by Tuesday Marionette Club._
]

Let us choose one or two humorous books and see how we can turn them
into a marionette play. We might choose _Alice in Wonderland_ and
_Through the Looking Glass_. You remember how the story of _Alice in
Wonderland_ begins? Alice falls asleep under the tree and the white
rabbit passes by. So one might select:

 Incident I. Alice and the White Rabbit

 Incident II. Alice and the Caterpillar

 Incident III. Alice and Tweedle Dum and Tweedle Dee

 Incident IV. Alice and Humpty Dumpty

 Incident V. Alice and the Duchess, the Cheshire Cat, the Cook and the
              Pig Baby

 Incident VI. Alice and the Hatter, the March Hare and the Dormouse

Of course, a dozen plays could be made from these two books, but these
six incidents will be quite enough for your purpose. A good play, as you
know, must not be too long, it must begin in the right way, the story
must hold together, and it must be very interesting all the time, and it
must have the right ending. The above six incidents were selected with
these requirements in mind.

Now, how many acts shall we have? Since this is a dream story, the play
might begin by showing Alice falling asleep under the trees, and the
White Rabbit running past, and then Alice jumping up and following him.
This part of the play we might call a Prologue since it begins the
story. Then follow with:

     Act I. Scene: In the woods

    Act II. Scene: In the Duchess’s kitchen

   Act III. Scene: The mad tea party

To bring the play to an end, there might be a closing scene, or
epilogue, showing Alice waking from her dream and becoming herself
again.

We must now decide just how many characters are really necessary in
these six incidents. Let us take a pencil and make the list as we find
them in these three acts:

  Prologue: Alice and the White Rabbit.

     Act I. Alice, the Caterpillar, Tweedle Dee, Tweedle Dum, Humpty
              Dumpty

    Act II. Alice, the Duchess, the Pig Baby, the Cook, the Cheshire Cat

   Act III. Alice, the Hatter, the March Hare, the Dormouse

  Epilogue. Alice and the White Rabbit.

Here we have made from six important incidents, in the two stories about
Alice, a marionette play of three acts, with a cast of thirteen
characters. This play might be called _The Adventures of Alice_.

Possibly you and your friends are much interested in heroes and heroines
and would prefer a hero play made from such stories as:

        _The Book of King Arthur and His Noble Knights_—MacLeod
        _Sohrab and Rustum_—Arnold
        _The Boys’ Iliad_—Perry
        _The Boys’ Odyssey_—Perry
        _Adventures of Ulysses_—Lamb
        _Adventures of Odysseus and the Tale of Troy_—Colum
        _Robin Hood_—Pyle
        _The Tales of Troy and Greece_—Lang
        _Stories of Charlemagne_—Church
        _The Story of Roland_—Baldwin
        _Seven Champions of Christendom_—Johnson
        _Beowulf_—Cartwright
        _Sigurd, the Volsung_—Morris
        _Joan of Arc_—Boutet de Monvel
        _Ivanhoe_—Scott
        _Daniel Boone_—White
        _Norse Stories Retold_—Mabie
        _The Cid_—Wilson
        _Britain Long Ago_—Wilmot-Buxton

Instead of hero plays you may be interested in plays of adventure. The
list of excellent books of adventure is a long one, as you know. Here
are just a few that are waiting to be turned into wonderful marionette
plays:

             _Robinson Crusoe_—Defoe
             _Boy’s Froissart_—Lanier
             _The Wonder Book_—Hawthorne
             _The Boys Percy_—Lanier
             _Otto of the Silver Hand_—Pyle
             _Black Arrow_—Stevenson
             _Tales from the Alhambra_—Irving
             _William Tell_—Schiller
             _Treasure Island_—Stevenson
             _Men of Iron_—Pyle
             _The Story of the Canterbury Pilgrims_—Darton
             _The Lance of Kanana_—French
             _The Book of Bravery_—Lanier
             _The Last of the Mohicans_—Cooper
             _With Spurs of Gold_—Greene
             _The Golden Perch_—Hutchinson
             _Captains Courageous_—Kipling

Let us take one of these, Howard Pyle’s _Men of Iron_, a story laid in
England in the time of King Henry IV. The list of important incidents is
a long one.

         1. Myles parting from the old servant.

         2. Myles presenting his father’s letter to the Earl of
              Mackworth.

         3. Myles meeting with Gascoigne.

         4. Myles meeting with Sir James Lea.

         5. Myles at play with the boys.

         6. The ball flies over into the ladies’ garden.

         7. Myles and Lady Alice in the garden.

         8. Myles, discovered by the Earl of Mackworth, learns that the
              Earl is befriending him.

         9. Arrival of King Henry at Devlin Castle.

        10. The knighting of Myles.

        11. Myles’ challenge to the Earl of Alban, his father’s deadly
              enemy.

        12. The combat between the Earl of Alban and Myles.

        13. The triumph of Myles and his request for the hand of Lady
              Alice.

When you have studied the story of _Men of Iron_ and made your list of
important incidents, you will find that four acts are sufficient for
your play:

     Act I. Courtyard of Devlin Castle

    Act II. The ladies’ garden

   Act III. The great hall in Devlin Castle

    Act IV. The tournament ground and the royal pavilions and gallery .

The list of characters is long but it gives an opportunity to many boys
and girls in a class to make marionettes and to have a part in the play.
Here is the list of characters:

         1. Myles as a boy in Acts I and II

         2. Myles as a man in Acts III and IV

         3. The old Servant

         4. The Armorer

         5. The Bear Trainer

         6. The Bear

         7. Gascoigne

         8. Walter Blunt

         9. The Squire

        10. Sir James Lea

        11. Earl of Mackworth

        12. The Pryor

        13. The Earl of Alban

        14. The Minstrel

        15. The Jester

        16. Lady Alice

        17. Lady Anne

        18. Black Horse

        19. Gray Horse

        20. The Pigeons

Marionette plays are exactly like all other plays. They need songs and
dances, and many things that will be certain to interest the audience.
Here is a list of the incidents that were added to this play when it was
given by the boys and girls of Fairmount Junior High School in
Cleveland, Ohio:

         1. An Italian bear trainer, who whistled a jolly tune while his
              bear danced and did his tricks.

         2. The song of the Armorer as he worked at his forge. (The
              forge was so made and wired that every stroke of the
              hammer on the anvil gave forth a shower of sparks.)

         3. A fight between Myles and the young squire, Walter Blunt.

         4. Practice at the pells to show the training of the squires of
              that day.

         5. Lady Alice’s little dance.

         6. Lady Anne’s song as she plays her lute.

         7. Alice’s tame pigeon that flew down to her shoulder.

         8. The wandering minstrel with his lute and his ballad of Chevy
              Chase.

         9. The antics, capers, and songs of the jester.

In order to prepare the audience for the play and to carry every person
back in imagination to the time of this play, an announcer was chosen,
who, in the costume of that day, came before the curtain and gave the
introduction to the play. This announcer was chosen with great care
because his part was so important. He was responsible for carrying his
audience back into the days of chivalry, not only by his speech and
costume, but by his tone of voice and his gestures. Here is the prologue
that one of the children wrote:

         Hark ye! Hark ye! Ye who came to see
         Enacted here some scenes of chivalry.

         The castle gate swings wide its door
         Scenes long since gone return to us once more.

         Into times dim and far we bid you gaze,
         Down the long vista to the tournament days.

         Towers and turrets and battlements old,
         Squires and pages and bachelors bold.

         Lords and ladies step out from past ages
         While knights and earls throw down their iron gages.

         Then men were bold and strongly said their say
         And there were few who dared to say them “nay.”

         The minstrel, too, did tune on lyre his hero’s deeds
         And sang of love, of hope, and needs.

         Bears oft came dancing in court and in hall,
         Trained by their master to heed beck and call.

         Fair maids in latticed bowers were seen dancing,
         Fantastic and gay, a jester comes prancing.

         Hark! a blare of trumpets sounds as in a dream
         And lo! the king and train in mail and helmets gleam.

         Mid fluttering scarfs, the Queen of Beauty sat
         While in the lists brave knights did wage combat.

         All these have you from history’s page
         Now shall you see them pictured on our stage.

         Grant us your patience, lend eyes and ears as well,
         The truth our puppets now will strive to tell.

There were many things in this play that every member of the class was
uncertain about. No one knew about the kinds of costumes that were worn
in England in the time of Henry IV. Neither did anyone know about
houses, gardens, and furniture, nor about the armor and the musical
instruments of that day until he had studied reference books. Here is a
list of some of the books that were found helpful:

 Heraldry—_Complete Guide to Heraldry_—Fox-Davies
 Furniture—_How to Know Period Styles in Furniture_—Kimberly
 Tapestry—_Bayeux Tapestry_—Belloc
 Tapestry—_Bayeux Tapestry_—Bruce
 Tapestry—_The Practical Book of Tapestry_—Hunter
 Weapons—_Armour and Weapons_—Foulkes
 Customs and Life of the Time—_History of Everyday Things in
    England_—Quennell
 Songs and Ballads—_Songs of England_—Hatton
 Costumes—_The Heritage of Dress_—Webb
 Costumes—_British Costumes During Nineteen Centuries_—Ashdown

The Museum of Art and the Historical Museum can be visited for
first-hand information. Librarians, history, art, and English teachers
can be counted upon for help. The librarian will help you to find the
kind of book you wish, and will be glad to help find reference books and
pictures. The history teacher will help you in learning about the life
and customs of the people who are of the time of your play. The English
teacher can be of invaluable help to you in working out the development
of your play. Last, but not least, you will have very great need of your
art and manual training teachers. They will help you in learning how to
make your marionettes, how to make your marionette stage, how to make
your scenery and properties, how to light the stage, what colors to use
in your costumes and in your scenery, and how to place both your scenery
and your actors on the stage. They will also assist you in planning the
stage pictures.

Moreover, you may be interested in other literary plays made from such
stories as:

                 _Birds’ Christmas Carol_—Wiggin
                 _Little Women_—Alcott
                 _Prince and the Pauper_—Clemens
                 _Oliver Twist_—Dickens
                 _Cricket on the Hearth_—Dickens
                 _The Tempest_—Shakespeare
                 _The Merchant of Venice_—Shakespeare
                 _Heidi_—Spyri
                 _Master Skylark_—Bennett
                 _Gabriel and the Hour Book_—Stein
                 _Rip Van Winkle_—Irving
                 _David Copperfield_—Dickens
                 _The Christmas Carol_—Dickens
                 _The King of the Golden River_—Ruskin

Should you like the story of _The Childhood of David Copperfield_, some
such interesting incidents as the following might be chosen:

         1. David and Pegotty.

         2. David meets Captain Pegotty, Emil, and Mrs. Grummage.

         3. David and Emily.

         4. David in the schoolroom.

         5. Betsy Trotwood and Master Dick.

         6. David and Betsy Trotwood.

The characters in these incidents are:

         1. David

         2. Pegotty

         3. Captain Pegotty

         4. Mrs. Grummage

         5. Emily

         6. Sam

         7. Tommy Traddles

         8. Schoolboy

         9. Mr. Schoolmaster

        10. Mr. Schoolmaster’s assistant

        11. Betsy Trotwood

        12. Master Dick

        13. The mouse

Five acts would give the story:

     Act I. The Copperfield sitting room

    Act II. Inside the boathouse

   Act III. Along the seashore

    Act IV. In the schoolroom

     Act V. Betsy Trotwood’s garden

Since every act of a play should help in telling the story, in solving
the principal problem, and in bringing about the proper ending, this
arrangement might be made:

     Act I. David reads and talks to Pegotty about her brother’s
              boathouse. Pegotty invites David to spend a week there.

    Act II. In the boathouse. David meets Pegotty’s family.

   Act III. By the seashore. David plays with Emily, who sings a song,
              and David tells Emily how much he will miss her when he
              goes away to school.

    Act IV. In the schoolroom. The cruel schoolmaster and his assistant.
              David decides to run away.

     Act V. Betsy Trotwood’s garden. David finds a home with his good
              Aunt Betsy and gentle old Master Dick.

At the same time that Charles Dickens was writing _David Copperfield_
and other stories about the people he knew, several clever artists were
making drawings of the same people. You probably know many of the
amusing pictures they drew, especially those of Cruikshank, Tenniel, and
Du Maurier. If you wish to know how David and Pegotty and Betsy Trotwood
and little Emily really looked, ask your librarian to show you some of
the illustrations that these artists made. Because these pictures give
the very best idea of how the people of Dickens’ time looked, you might
copy them for your marionettes. Their faces have a great deal of
character, their clothes are those of that time, and they are so quaint
and characteristic that they will never be uninteresting.

Probably the most beautiful marionette plays that one can imagine could
be done from the great stories in the Bible. Just as in the early days
of Christianity, when marionettes helped the people to see and feel the
great scenes in their new religion, so, it would seem, that a time might
come again when the little figures might return to their earliest uses.
This could well be done in Christmas and Easter plays for the church and
Sunday school. Imagine the story of Joseph and his brethren with scenes
showing:

         1. The tent life of Israel.

         2. The kind old father.

         3. The cruel brothers.

         4. The selling into bondage.

         5. The court life in Egypt.

         6. Joseph among his new friends.

         7. The famine.

         8. The visit of the brothers.

         9. The remorse of the brothers.

        10. Joseph’s forgiveness in the last scene.

Parables, such as that of the Good Samaritan, are full of dramatic
possibilities.

How many beautiful plays appropriate for Christmas, Easter, and saints’
days could be made from the lives of the saints! If you are interested
in a play for your Sunday school or your parochial school, read and make
into a play the life of Saint Christopher, Saint George, Saint Patrick,
Saint Francis of Assisi, Saint Agnes, Saint Genevieve, Saint Catherine
of Sienna, or Saint Joan of Arc.

If you love fairy tales you will, no doubt, wish to make a fairy
marionette play. You probably know many of the books listed here:

           _Mother Goose_
           _Hans Christian Andersen’s Fairy Tales_—Tr. Lucas
           _The Brothers Grimm Fairy Tales_—Tr. Crane.
           _The Arabian Nights_—Ed. Colum
           _Adventures of Nils_—Lagerlöf
           _Gulliver’s Travels_—Swift
           _The Blue Bird_—Maeterlinck
           _Water Babies_—Kingsley
           _The Little Lame Prince_—Craik
           _Old Peter’s Russian Tales_—Ransome
           _Æsop’s Fables_—Ed. Jacobs
           _Undine_—La Motte Fouqué
           _Story of the Rheingold_—Chapin
           _Japanese Fairy Book_—Ozaki
           _Wonder Tales of China Seas_—Olcott
           _Tales of Wonder_—Wiggin and Smith

Here are a few familiar poems that may be turned into marionette plays:

                    _Hiawatha_—Longfellow
                    _Evangeline_—Longfellow
                    _Story Telling Ballads_—Olcott
                    _Lady of the Lake_—Scott
                    _Lays of Ancient Rome_—Macaulay

Many other stories will, no doubt, occur to you, and many ways of
turning them to your needs.

[Illustration: [Marionettes]]

[Illustration: [Stage]]




                               CHAPTER IV
                           Making Your Stage


[Illustration: [Stage]]

A chair, sofa, or table top may have been the first stage on which you
moved about your tin soldiers and paper dolls. Your imagination supplied
the scenery and lighting. A small table turned upside down and placed on
top of another table may have been your next invention. A curtain drawn
about its three sides and your string of Christmas-tree lights gave you
a very satisfactory little theater. As your stagecraft developed, you
may have seen possibilities in a soap box or a dry goods box. By
knocking out one side to make a proscenium opening and painting scenery
on the back of the box or on to cardboards which you slipped in and out,
you had a very real stage. With a proscenium arch made from cardboard
and decorated to suit the play, a little curtain on a rod,
Christmas-tree lights, and your company of small doll actors, you had a
complete theater. It could be placed in a door or an archway, or between
two screens.

[Illustration: [Stage]]

Possibly you were interested in the Burattini. You may have made a booth
somewhat like the illustration and decorated it quite gaily. It had this
advantage. By means of hinges it could be folded together. It was no
trouble to take anywhere, indoors or out, to a friend’s backyard, to
school, to the playground, or even to a picnic.

If your enthusiasm had led you further, you would have been interested
in the drawings of a semi-professional marionette stage which are shown
on the next two pages.

[Illustration: [Stage]]

[Illustration:

  CONSTRUCTIONAL DRAWING OF MARIONETTE STAGE--BACK VIEW--WITHOUT
    LIGHTING
]

 _A_        _Stage floor, 10' × 32"._

 _B_        _Bridge for puppeteers, 24" wide, 12" high above stage
              floor._

 _C_        _Beaverboard facing (10' × 4' 6") in which proscenium arch
              (6' × 30") is cut._

 _D_        _Backdrop, 7' × 4'._

 _E_        _Supporting trestles, 33" high._

 _F_        _Bridge ladder._

 _G_        _Bridge fence._

 _H_        _Iron rod attached to fence for holding S hooks._

 _I_        _S hooks for holding marionettes when not in use._

 _J_        _Supporting frame for wings and backdrop._

 _K_        _Footlight trough._

 _L_        _Curtains._

[Illustration:

  SIDE VIEW OF MARIONETTE STAGE--WITH LIGHTING
]

 _K_         _Footlights._

 _M_        _Switchboard._

 _N_        _Movable strip (one for each side of stage) of wing lights._

 _O_        _Boxed overhead lights for general stage illumination. Nine
              sections complete the line._

 _R_         _Large curtains between the audience and back stage—framing
              the stage._

 _Fig. O_    _Two sections of overhead lights showing bulb, and colored
              sheet gelatin _Q_ inserted. Each section can be operated
              independently from the switchboard._

 _Fig. P_   _If the boxed lights are not practicable the simple tin
              trough with colored bulbs may be used._

[Illustration: [Marionette]]




                               CHAPTER V
                         Making Your Marionette


In your adventures with marionettes, probably nothing will give you more
pleasure than the actual making of them. This is equally true of the
Burattini, of the doll puppet, and of the real marionette.

The Burattini, Guignol, or Mitten puppet is the simplest kind of
marionette. It is usually nothing more than a head, two arms, and an
empty sack. The most important part of a Guignol is its head. This can
be made from unbleached muslin, from a hollow doll’s head, it can be
carved out of a block of soft wood, or it can be made from papier-mâché.

_Muslin Head._ Here is a pattern for the unbleached muslin head. Sew the
two halves together and then stuff firmly with cotton. If you dampen the
cheeks, the muslin will stretch and then you can round them out with
more cotton. Into the neck insert a cuff of stiff paper, ⅞ of an inch in
diameter. It should be fastened either by sewing or glueing. This cuff
gives you space for the finger which manipulates the head. Water colors
or crayons may be used for painting the face. Before you begin,
experiment on scraps of muslin.

[Illustration: [Head]]

_Doll’s Head._ If you wish to use the hollow head of a doll, you will
probably find it necessary to remodel its features. This is done by
taking papier-mâché, a mixture of bits of paper mixed with flour paste,
and building out the nose, the cheeks, and the chin, in order to give
them more character. The building out must be done gradually, a bit at a
time, after you have made the surface rough by the use of sandpaper or a
file. When you are sure that you have finished the head, stand twenty or
thirty feet away from it and see if it is still interesting to you. This
is an excellent test. Those in the last rows of your audience will be
even farther away and your Burattini must hold their interest.

_Wooden Head._ Boys who like to whittle will enjoy carving out wooden
heads. If you decide to carve the head from wood, use a soft wood, such
as pine. Start with a piece about 5 inches long by 3½ inches wide by 3½
inches high. It is well to keep in mind that the head is egg shaped. The
chin is the small end of the egg. Observe that the eyes are placed
halfway between the top of the head and the chin, and that the nose is
placed halfway between the eyes and the chin. Notice, also, that the
mouth is placed halfway between the nose and the chin. The illustration
will show you how to go about the carving. Cut the big planes first,
then the smaller planes. Curve the cheeks and chin if the character
requires it. You will then be ready to drill the ⅞ inch hole up into the
neck. Into this hole is thrust the forefinger of the puppeteer.

[Illustration: [Head]]

_Papier-mâché Head._ If you wish to make a papier-mâché head for your
Burattini, follow the directions for making the head of the true
marionette which you will find on page 67.

_Hair._ For hair, use yarn, lamb’s wool, or frayed hemp, as is best
suited to the character. The toe of a stocking makes an excellent
foundation for the wig, since it so perfectly fits the head. When the
material for the hair has been sewed to this foundation, glue it to the
head. When the glue has set, you can arrange the hair.

[Illustration: [Hands]]

_Hands._ Burattini hands should be cut out of wood and shaped as in the
illustration. Sandpapering makes them smooth. Little cuffs of cardboard
should be glued or tacked onto the wrists in order to make a place for
the thumb and second finger of the puppeteer.

_Painting._ When you have finished carving both the head and hands you
are ready to paint them. You will need red, yellow, blue, and white oil
paints. Use a piece of smooth wood or glass for a palette. Squeeze onto
your palette a small amount of each color. As you know, people do not
have pure-white skins. There is a tinge of yellow-orange in the white
man’s skin, deep red and orange in that of the red man, brown in that of
the Negro, and yellow in that of the Oriental. Begin by squeezing out
onto your palette a small quantity of white paint. Only clowns’ faces,
however, are painted a pure white. You must add a bit of yellow and red
to the white paint if you are painting a white man’s face. If you are
painting a red man’s face, you must add more red and a bit of blue. For
the face of an Oriental, add yellow to your white paint and the least
bit of red and blue. For the black man’s face, use black paint instead
of white paint and into it mix a very small amount of orange and blue.
Use a palette knife for mixing oil paints and turpentine for thinning
them. Do not be timid when you begin to paint. Strong and vigorous
painting is as important and necessary as strong and vigorous modeling
in bringing out the features and expression. When the painting is
finished, the face should fully express your idea of the character.

[Illustration: [Body]]

_The Body._ Now we come to the mantle or cloak which gives a kind of
body to the Burattini. The illustration shows patterns for the front,
back, and sleeves. To this foundation you can sew any costume that your
character may require. The hands are fastened into the ends of the
sleeves. When the cloak is fastened securely about the neck, it becomes
a kind of sack, open only at the bottom. Now slip your hand inside this
sack or mantle, your forefinger into the head, your thumb and second
finger into the arms. The head will bow, the arms will move, and the
little figure comes to life.


                            ANIMAL BURATTINI

[Illustration:

  _A After completing papier-mâché head, cut out lower jaw as shown by
    dotted line. Then replace and paste a piece of thin muslin over
    lower cut, as shown by light line. This will not be seen when the
    head is painted._

  _B Dotted lines show the narrow elastic glued to upper and lower jaw.
    One piece on each side. The forefinger of the puppeteer pulls down
    the lower jaw, when it is released the elastic snaps the mouth
    shut._
]

Burattini animals can be made for such stories as _The Three Pigs_, _The
Three Bears_, and _Little Red Riding Hood_. There are several ways of
making them. The first way is to use the head of an old toy animal. Into
the center of this head cut a hole for the forefinger. Then attach this
head to a suitable sack or coat. The forepaws of the animal can be
fastened into the sleeves.

Another way is to carve the heads and paws out of soft wood. A third way
is to cut them out of suitable cloth. A fourth way is to make them out
of papier-mâché in the same way as the papier-mâché heads described on
page 67. This illustration will show you how the lower jaw is cut out
and then attached in such a way that the puppeteer can open and close
the mouth.

_Scale._ Before you begin to make your marionette, you must decide upon
the kind of stage you intend to use, for the size of the stage
determines the size of the marionette. It is the right relation of the
marionette to the stage that creates an illusion and makes your audience
feel that the little figures are life-size. For the semi-professional
stage, use a scale of 2½ inches or 3 inches to the foot. If you use a
scale of 2½ inches to a foot, it would make a 15-inch marionette
represent a 6-foot man. If you use a scale of 3 inches to a foot, your
6-foot hero would be represented by a marionette 18 inches high. Never
forget your scale of measurements. All properties and stage settings
must be worked out to the same scale you have fixed for your
marionettes.


                     TURNING DOLLS INTO MARIONETTES

A very simple kind of marionette can be made from a ten- or fifteen-cent
doll. Change the face as you did the Burattini face. Then take off the
arms and legs and separate the arms at the elbows and the legs at the
knees. Fasten the upper and lower arms together with tape. Do the same
thing with the upper and lower legs. Then fasten the arms and legs to
the body as in the illustration. The tape gives free movement at the
joints.

[Illustration: [Marionette]]

_Strings._ This type of marionette requires not more than seven strings:
two for the shoulders, two for the hands, two for the knees, and one for
the back. The shoulder string should be about 42 inches long. The other
strings are longer as you can see in the illustration. Waxed black linen
thread can be used for the strings.

_Controllers._ For this kind of marionette you can use either a
horizontal-bar controller or a cross-bar controller. The illustration
gives measurements and construction, and indicates the place for
attaching the strings.

[Illustration: [Controller]]

   A _Horizontal-bar controller_

  1. _Back string_

  2. _Shoulder strings_

  3. _Hand strings_

   B _Cross-bar controller_

  1. _Hand strings_

  2. _Head strings_

  3. _Shoulder strings_

  4. _Back strings_

  5. _Leather strap under which the hand slips_

   C _Foot controller_

  1. _Foot strings_

  2. _Hole to slip over nail in controller B when not in use._

STOCKING MARIONETTE

Another kind of marionette is made from old stockings or any soft
material. The head and body are in one piece. Each arm is in one piece.
Each leg is in two pieces. Cut and sew according to directions. Stuff
the head very firmly with cotton. At the base of the neck leave a
quarter of an inch between the two rows of stitching. This will permit
the head to move. The body should be stuffed less firmly than the head,
especially at the waistline, so that the figure can bend easily.

[Illustration: [Pattern]]

          A _Body pattern. Dotted line indicates stitching. Do not
              stitch across the bottom until after the stuffing has been
              inserted._

          B _Arm pattern. Dotted line indicates stitching._

          C _Front view of the leg stuffed, showing upper leg extending
              over lower leg. This is to prevent a forward swing at the
              knee._

          D _Side view of C showing the fastening; the upper leg is
              sewed to the lower leg at the back of the knee. Note the
              downward slant of the foot._

          E _A dancer’s leg showing the downward drop of the toe._

          F _Lower leg showing round piece of wood to insure stiffness._

          G _Back view of upper leg. Dotted line indicates the piece of
              light-weight cardboard inserted to insure stiffness._

_Note: Pieces of lead or small shot are used to weight the feet and
hands. A lead dress weight may be sewed in the torso to give the body
weight. Cotton or soft rags are used for the stuffing._


_Staples._ Into each side of the head, where the ears would naturally
come, insert a staple. It requires a great deal of patience to insert
these staples into this kind of head but it can be done. Just where you
place these staples is very important. If you place them too far forward
the head will be drawn too far back when the strings are attached to the
staples. On the contrary, if the staples are inserted too far back, the
head will fall forward when suspended from the strings. If you wish to
make a pompous, strutting character, then place the staples forward. If
you wish to show a hunchback or bowed old age, then place the staples
quite far back. Between these two extremes is the normal place for your
staples.

_Modeling._ When the staples have been inserted, dip your fingers into
water and dampen the head and then cover it with some kind of modeling
clay that hardens when exposed to the air. The features of your
character can be modeled with your fingers and the help of an orange
stick or a toothpick. Do not cover the staples, for the head-strings
must be attached to them later. This kind of marionette head should be
painted with tempera colors or with oil paints. Paint the hands the same
color as the face. When the paint is dry, cover the head with glue and
attach the hair, which may be made from yarn, mercerized cotton, silk,
or lamb’s wool.

A marionette of this kind could be used on the semi-professional stage
if it is carefully constructed, made to scale, and appropriately
costumed. The strings are attached to the head staples, to the
shoulders, the hands, the back, and to the knees. For this type of
marionette use the cross-bar controller.


                          THE REAL MARIONETTE

The third type of marionette, which might be called the real marionette,
is somewhat more complicated, but it is better suited to the larger
stage and to more exacting plays. There is scarcely a thing that this
type of marionette cannot be made to do if skilfully constructed. Its
greater flexibility of neck, waist, wrist, and ankle makes it possible
for it to bow, kneel, sit down, turn its head, dance, play a musical
instrument, climb a wall, or perform any number of lively tricks.


                               CHARACTER

A marionette should be as individual as a human being, both in its
appearance and in its character. Before you make your marionette, you
must have clearly in mind the character you wish to portray. You should
aim to make its appearance indicate its character. Let us suppose that
you are about to make a marionette of Myles in _Men of Iron_. Let us
make a list of his characteristics: brave, strong, loyal, daring,
courageous. Now choose one of these traits which you think most fully
sums up the character of Myles. Probably you will choose the word
“courageous.” The problem now is to create a marionette whose appearance
will suggest the Myles who is brave, strong, loyal, daring, but, above
all things, courageous. Can you not see him, tall, broad of shoulder,
fearless of eye, as he stands before Sir James Lee? Strong of limb and
strong of will, he reflects the spirit of his time. You now have the
problem of creating out of a few bits of wood and cloth this daring,
headstrong young squire.

[Illustration: [Drawing]]

Begin by making a working drawing somewhat like the illustration. Now
make drawings of the face of Myles just as you imagine it, front view
and side view. Always consider the age of the character you wish to
model. Faces of the young are smooth and round, the brow unwrinkled;
those of the middle aged less smooth and round, with the jaw, chin, and
nose more clearly defined. In old age, sagging muscles produce lines and
hollows around the eyes, nose, and mouth. You must also consider the
structure of a face. This means giving attention to the shape of the
jaw, chin, nose, lips, and the eye sockets. In modeling the face of
Myles in _Men of Iron_, you would naturally give him a forceful chin and
nose, and a large, firm mouth. If you were modeling Lady Alice in the
same play, you would express her daintiness and lightness by giving her
a delicate nose, smiling lips, rounded cheeks and chin. Lastly, you
should study the expression of the face. Have you ever noticed what
happens to the muscles around the mouth when a person smiles or is sad
or angry? When we smile the muscles lift the corners of the mouth
upward; when we are sad the mouth droops at the corners; when we are
angry our lips become straight and firmly set. The brow is very
tell-tale and can show different moods. In surprise, the brows are
arched. Curiosity draws the brows together, anger draws them together
and downward. Sadness is shown by the drooping of both brows and mouth.

[Illustration: [Heads]]

If you are to become a successful puppet maker, keep a small sketch book
in your pocket and make numerous sketches of many different types of
faces and of human figures.

_Modeling._ With your drawings before you, take a lump of clay or
plasticine and model it into the general egg shape of the head. The
small end will represent the chin. The large end will represent the
crown of the head. Add the clay for the neck. Draw a light line on the
clay to locate the brow, the length of the nose, and the position of the
mouth. Now while you hold this egg-shaped head in your hands, place your
thumbs just below the line of the brow, and gently and firmly press the
clay down and out and up to form the eye sockets. Then build up the nose
and lips. It is unnecessary to model the ears. In the first stages of
your modeling, you cannot expect the head to resemble your ideal
character, because you will be striving for the general proportions of
the face. When once you have attained these proportions you can then
begin to work for a likeness. Besides your ten fingers, you may find an
orange stick or a sharpened match a valuable tool.

_Making a Mold._ After you have finished the head it is necessary to
make a plaster of Paris mold of it. One way to do this is to take a
small cardboard box that will hold the head and allow an inch of space
on all six sides. Grease the box on the inside with vaseline. At the
same time grease thoroughly and evenly with a brush the clay or
plasticine head. Now mix about one half pint of plaster of Paris with
enough water to give it the consistency of thick cream. This must be
done with quickness, for the hardening process cannot be stopped once it
has set in. Pour this mixture into the greased box until it is half
full. Then place the head, back down, into the plaster. Allow fifteen to
thirty minutes for the plaster of Paris to harden. Now grease the
exposed surface of the clay or plasticine head. Mix more plaster with
water and cover the face thoroughly. Allow this to stand overnight. The
next day, when you remove the box, the two halves of the plaster cast
can be separated. Out will fall the clay or plasticine head, which you
will no longer need because you now have the two molds for making the
papier-mâché head.

A simpler way to make the mold is this: Mark the clay as in the
illustration. Then insert pieces of tin or stiff paper, such as oak tag.
When the clay is dry, apply a coat of vaseline to it and to the tin or
paper. Then apply the plaster of Paris and keep applying it until you
think it is fully an inch thick. After the plaster hardens, proceed in
the same manner with the other side of the head. When both sides are
hard, separate them from the clay and you will have two molds.

[Illustration: [Heads]]

_Papier-mâché._ You are now ready to make the papier-mâché heads. Begin
by making a small quantity of flour paste. Take two heaping
tablespoonfuls of flour and mix with cold water to the consistency of
cream, add two cups of hot water, place over fire and stir constantly
until it comes to the boiling point and boil for two minutes. A few
drops of oil of cloves will keep the paste fresh in hot weather.

Now tear wrapping paper into small strips about five inches long. Soak
them in water for a few minutes, then wring out and dip into the flour
paste. Take a piece and rub it gently between the fingers until the
paper feels like wet chamois skin. Then press it into the back of the
mold for the head. Continue to cover the surface with piece after piece.
If necessary, you may tear the paper into smaller pieces. There must not
be a wrinkle, but the pieces should overlap slightly. In this way you
cover the entire surface with paper of one color. For the second layer
use paper of another color. For the third layer use the first color, and
so on, alternately, through the fifth layer. This alternation of colors
will help you to keep account of the layers, and insures uniform
thickness. Allow the edges of the paper to extend over the edges of the
mold.

Do the same thing with the mold for the face, but use much more care to
see that every depression is smoothly and evenly filled in order to
bring out the features properly. The paper should stay in the mold until
dry. The two halves of the head and neck can then easily be removed. The
edges should be trimmed off. The two halves can be held together and
fastened with strips of papier-mâché.

[Illustration: [Heads]]

When you have finished making the head, cut out the crown as you see in
the illustration. A round stick is now pushed down into the neck with
its lower end extending through the neck as you can see. This stick
should fit very closely. If it does not fit closely, a few tacks will
keep it from slipping. Now, take glue and rags, and fill them into the
small spaces between this stick and the upper part of the neck. Do not
spare the glue. The crown can now be fitted back onto the head and
fastened with a few strips of papier-mâché. The following day, when the
glue is thoroughly set, you can insert a screw eye into the base of the
neck. The head is then complete.

[Illustration: [Heads]]

          A _Piece of wood to which the papier-mâché chin is glued_

          B _Small blocks of wood to be glued to inside of cheeks_

          C _Lead weight_

          D _Lead weight_

          E _String for operating the lower jaw_

          F _Metal pivot_

It is possible to make marionettes which can open their mouths. This is
done by cutting out the lower lip and chin in one piece and then
fastening it to a rounded piece of wood, and inserting it through the
crown of the head. The illustration is a working drawing of the Duchess
in the _Adventures of Alice_ and shows the way the piece was weighted
and then fastened inside the head. This same principle can be used in
various ways in constructing the heads of marionette animals.

[Illustration: [Body]]

          A _Top view of shoulder piece_

          B _Side view of hip piece_

The body consists of the trunk, arms, and legs. For the trunk, you will
need two pieces of wood shaped as you see in the illustration. Here is a
table for approximate measurements for the shoulder and hip pieces for
the 15- and 18-inch marionette:

  18-inch marionette man—shoulders 4 inches wide, hips 3 inches wide

  16-inch marionette woman—shoulders 3 inches wide, hips 3 inches wide

  15-inch marionette man—shoulders 3 inches wide, hips 2½ inches wide

  13½-inch marionette woman—shoulders 2½ inches wide, hips 2½ inches
    wide

Keep your character in mind. A warrior will have broad, heavy shoulders
and be deep of chest. A slender young woman will have a light frame.
Take the shoulders and hip piece, and place them on your working drawing
as in the illustration and then fasten them together with a strip of
cloth, tacked as indicated.

[Illustration: [Hands]]

          A _Wire construction_

          B _Finished hand sewed into lower arm, which is weighted with
              small shot_

_Hands._ Arms, hands, legs, and feet are yet to be constructed. Let us
begin with the hand. Its length is that of the face from the chin to the
line of the hair. Into a piece of wood drive seven brads as in the
illustration. Take a piece of light-weight copper wire, such as a strand
of aërial wire, about thirty inches long, and attach one end to the
lower wrist brad. You then loop the wire around the brads loosely, in
the order indicated, beginning and ending with “A.” When you return to
“A,” lift the wire loops from the brads carefully, holding the wrist
loop. Now thread the loose end of the wire through these wrist loops in
order to fasten them together. With the loose end, you now begin the
tying of the two wires of the thumb together by going under and over as
the illustration indicates. From the thumb, go to the fingers, taking
each in turn. After tying the little finger, return to the wrist and
wrap it three or four times before cutting off the last bit of wire.
This wire frame corresponds to the bony structure of the hand. Small
pieces of plasticine or modeling wax are now applied, long narrow strips
to the fingers, heavier strips for the palm of the hand. A hand should
show character. Keep this in mind as you are shaping it. The last thing
to be done is the wrapping of the hand with quarter-inch white tape.
Begin at the wrist, then wrap the thumb, carry the tape back to the
wrist, then wrap the palm of the hand. When the hand has been carefully
wrapped, then take a needle and thread and close any openings, such as
those at the ends of the fingers or in the palms of the hands. The hand
can now be pressed into any number of lifelike positions.

_Arms._ The upper and lower arm are made in one piece from white
stockings or any other soft white material. The illustration indicates
fairly wide seams. Begin your sewing at the wrist and follow the arrow
around and back to the wrist. Now stuff the upper arm rather lightly
with cotton. When you reach the elbow, stop and sew twice across,
leaving one-fourth inch between the rows. This will make the arm
flexible at the elbow. Then stuff the lower arm until it is quite firm.
Into the open wrist insert and sew the hand. Attach a small piece of
tape to the top of the upper arm and then tack it to the shoulder piece
as in the illustration.

[Illustration: [Legs]]

          A _Wire construction for foot._

          B _Stocking leg and foot. Shows upright piece of wood and
              piece of lead shaped to the bottom of the foot. This gives
              the necessary weight for the lower leg._

          C _Stocking barefoot leg. Use wire foot construction, lead to
              weight the foot and upright piece of wood. Fill out foot
              and leg with cotton and soft rags._

          D _Wooden leg and foot. Strip of leather at the knee hinge._

_Legs and Feet._ The leg consists of an upper and lower part and a foot.
These three parts may be made of cloth or of wood. If made of cloth, cut
and sew and stuff according to the illustration. For a dancer a long
silk stocking should be drawn over the entire leg to conceal the
mechanics of the knee. This was done with the marionette dancers in the
ballet _Petrouchka_. It is sometimes necessary to have a barefoot
character, as in the play of _Tom Sawyer_. In that case the foot is made
in much the same way as the wire and tape hand was made, as you can see
in the illustration. If you prefer to carve the leg and foot out of
wood, there are several ways of doing this. A very simple way is shown
in the illustration. When forming the upper and lower leg, keep in mind
the fact that the marionette’s lower leg works just like your own, which
goes backward but never forward or sidewise. The attaching of the cloth
legs to the hip piece requires thought and judgment. Two tacks should be
used to fasten each leg securely. If these tacks are well placed, the
legs will hang evenly and the feet will point forward.

[Illustration: [Head]]

_Attaching the Head._ When the arms and legs are attached to the body,
take the head and place the screw eye in the hole that is in the center
of the shoulder piece. A brad driven through from front to back will
secure the head and allow free movement in any direction.

_Painting._ For this type of marionette you will have better results if
you paint the face and hands with oil paints, rather than with water
colors or tempera. Remember that there is a tinge of yellow-orange in
the white man’s skin, deep red and orange in the red man’s skin, brown
in that of the Negro, and yellow in that of the Oriental.

You might think that you were now ready to costume your marionette. Not
so. The reason for this is that if you costumed your marionette without
consulting the group, you might find that your marionette would not fit
into the stage picture at all. Therefore the next step is group
discussion of the background, and of the colors of the costumes seen on
the stage together.

_Backgrounds._ A background may be either light, medium, or dark. If the
background is light, the costumes which appear against it should be
somewhat darker. Likewise if the background is dark, the costumes which
appear against it should be lighter. You might think that a costume
could be seen quite easily if it were of a color unlike the background.
This is not true, if the costume and background are of the same color
value. If you experiment and observe your stage picture from a distance,
you will discover that you must use light-colored costumes against a
dark-colored background, or dark-colored costumes against a
light-colored background. This contrast between light and dark need not
be a strong one. However, there must be some contrast if the figures are
to be seen from a distance. Stage compositions build themselves about
the most important characters of the play. Therefore, the costumes of
these important characters must be outstanding. They must be in contrast
to the background and to the other costumes. The costumes of the less
important characters should not rival those of the principal characters.
With these suggestions in mind, you are ready to begin the costuming of
your marionette.

_Costuming._ In the family scrap bag you will probably find all the
materials you need: cotton, wool, silk, satin, velvet, ribbons, laces,
and braids. Your marionette may represent a character of a particular
period and country. If so, it must have a costume similar to the costume
worn in that country at that time. In your library, you can probably
find books of historic costumes from which you can make sketches or
tracings. It is well to sketch several of the costumes that seem best
suited to your character. In this way, you acquire, not only a knowledge
of the costumes, but of details such as headdresses, shoes, and
ornaments. Also make careful color notes. On the tree of the marionette,
you will find a gay company of little figures in historic costumes of
many lands. They are worth studying.

Suppose your character is an imaginary one, such as an elf, fairy, or
gnome. Then turn to the books illustrated by such artists as Dulac,
Rackham, Nielson, and Bilibin. They will inspire you to create and
costume your own elves, fairies, and gnomes. Remember to choose suitable
materials and appropriate colors. For example, thin, gauzy materials
would be appropriate for fairies, while coarse, dark materials would be
appropriate for gnomes. Try to express your conception of a character in
the colors you choose for its costume.

[Illustration: [Marionette]]

          A _Body of controller: 9½ in. long; 1⅝ in. wide_

          B _Cross bar: 7½ in. long; 1⅛ in. wide at center_

          C _Shoulder controller: 6 in. long_

          D _Foot controller: 8½ in. long; ⅞ in. wide_

          E _Screw and nut for fastening cross bar to body of
              controller_

          F _Post for holding foot controller when latter is not in use_

          G _Pivot (nail)_

          1 _Back string_

          2 _Head strings_

          3 _Shoulder strings_

          4 _Hand strings_

          5 _Sword strings_

          6 _Knee strings_

With your sketches and materials before you, cut out the costume in the
same way that you would cut out doll clothes. It might be wise to
experiment with paper patterns before you cut into your materials. Avoid
wide seams, as they make a garment clumsy. Both your mother and your
sewing teacher can give you valuable suggestions for both cutting and
making. When your marionette is costumed, drive a staple into each
shoulder for the shoulder strings. It is a fine art to costume a
marionette. It requires not only research and thought but it also
requires skill, taste, and subtle character appreciations.

_Controller._ Here is a sketch of a controller suitable for the true
marionette. The frame is made from wood, the loop is of leather. Follow
the measurements and directions as indicated.

_Strings._ Black and white woven fish line makes the very best strings
for your marionettes. It is strong, it does not tangle, and it is almost
invisible. Unfortunately it is expensive. A fifty-cent spool will string
but two marionettes. Strong gray linen thread may be used instead. If
you cannot get gray linen thread, then use white linen thread and gray
it by rubbing with a cloth that has been dipped in black paint or in
India ink. If you use black thread, gray it by rubbing with white chalk.
Strings should be made as nearly invisible as possible. If the linen
thread is rubbed with a little beeswax, it is less liable to break and
to become tangled.

_Cutting the Strings._ It is an exciting moment when you begin to cut
the strings, for the strings bring the puppet to life. The first to be
cut are the head strings. They should be at least forty-two inches long
and should be tied securely to the head staples. Next, measure and cut
the hand strings. These will be longer, since they are measured from the
palm of the hand as it hangs down. Allow three extra inches for arm
movements. The back string is measured from the small of the back. The
knee strings are measured from the knees. The shoulder string is not cut
at this time.

_Attaching the Strings._ The head strings are the first to be attached
to the controller. Next in order, attach the back string. Now you are
ready to measure and attach the shoulder string. It goes from one
shoulder up through the screw eyes in the swinging bar, and then down
again to the other shoulder. When the knee strings have been attached to
the separate horizontal bars, your marionette is complete.


                           ANIMAL MARIONETTES

It is possible to make a surprising number of different kinds of animal
marionettes. There are many plays in which they are indispensable. For
instance, in _Men of Iron_, the horses are indispensable, as there could
be no tournament scene without them. The bear and the doves are not
indispensable but they add a touch of humor and lively interest. When we
gave the play the making of these animals presented an interesting
problem. Two boys asked to be responsible for the horses in _Men of
Iron_. They went downtown and looked about in the toy departments of the
largest stores until they found two wooden toy horses exactly in scale
with the 15-inch marionettes which were to be used in this play. They
began by taking the horses off their wheeled platforms. These toy horses
were very stiff. In order to enable them to move their heads, necks, and
legs, it was first necessary to saw off the heads, necks, upper and
lower legs. The drawing shows the way these parts were again attached so
that great freedom of movement was possible.

[Illustration: [Marionette]]

For the bear marionette, a teddy bear was used. Since a teddy bear is
very stiff, it was necessary to remove all the stuffing from the head,
body, and legs. In order to make the head drop forward, the snout was
weighted with a small three-cornered sack of shot. The paws were also
weighted in order to make the bear stand naturally. The bear was very
lightly restuffed. The strings were attached to each side of the head,
to the shoulders, lower part of the back, and to each of the four paws.
The marionette was reweighted no less than four times, in order to get
the right balance to make its movements seem natural and bearlike.

A girl was responsible for the three doves used in the second scene of
_Men of Iron_. She decided upon the proper scale and then cut a pattern
for the body and another for the wings. The body she made from soft gray
silk and weighted it near the tail. The wings were wired along their
upper edges and then attached to the body. Each dove required three
strings, one for the center of the back and one for the tip of each
wing.

In the _Adventures of Alice_, it was necessary to have a caterpillar, a
frog footman, a Cheshire cat, a pig baby, a dormouse, and a March hare.
The Tenniel illustrations for _Alice in Wonderland_ and _Through the
Looking Glass_ were closely followed. The students who made these
animals tried to give to each one the character which it had in the
story. The heads of the caterpillar, the frog footman, and the March
hare were first modeled in clay. Molds were then made from these modeled
heads. Then papier-mâché heads were made in just the same way as the
papier-mâché heads of the true marionettes. To the papier-mâché head of
the caterpillar was attached a body. Nile-green silk was used for the
upper part and yellow-green silk for the under part. Half hoops of dress
cord were stitched to the under side of the back, in order to indicate
the segments. A rubber tube for smoke passed through the body from mouth
to tail. Because the caterpillar was almost human, he was given hands
and arms. The frog footman had a frog’s head, throat, and webbed hands,
and the body of a footman.

The March hare had the head and forepaws of a hare and the body of a
country gentleman. He was made to appear rather simple, credulous and
bland. He had great ears, side burns, and an engaging air, which belied
his occasional impatience. The white rabbit was brisk and dapper. He was
conscious of his shell-pink ears, fetching whiskers, and the large
elegant watch which he drew from his pocket with a flourish.

Marionette animals such as dogs, cats, and pigs may be made from cloth.
Even dragons may be made from cloth. Every animal marionette presents a
new problem for your ingenuity to solve.

The directions and suggestions which are given in this chapter are meant
to guide and to help you. However, it will be your own experiments and
inventions which will give you the greatest satisfaction and lead you on
to new achievements in the art of puppet-making.

[Illustration: [Scenery]]




                               CHAPTER VI
                          Making Your Scenery


The stage is made. The puppets have a floor to walk upon. Is anything
more required? You say, “Oh, yes, there must be scenery before it will
be a real stage.” Who shall plan and make this scenery? Shall this be
the work of one pupil or the work of the whole group? All will want a
share in it. This means that the large group should be divided into
smaller groups and that each group should be made responsible for a
scene.

Let us suppose you have dramatized Howard Pyle’s _Men of Iron_ and made
a play of four scenes. In order to give the same note of unity to the
scenery that you are trying to give to your play, every scene must be in
harmony with every other scene and with the whole idea of the play.

Three scenes of _Men of Iron_ are laid in Devlin Castle, England. What
do we know about castles and about English castles? When were castles
built? We go to the library and find books that give us both
illustrations and descriptions. In one of these, Quennell’s _History of
Everyday Things in England_, there are drawings and descriptions of
castles of the XIth, XIIth, XIIIth, XIVth, and XVth centuries. The story
of _Men of Iron_ is laid in the year 1509. Devlin Castle had probably
seen many generations of the Mackworth family come and go long before
this time. It probably was built in the XIIIth or early XIVth century.
Let us follow, therefore, the plan of a XIVth Century castle. On page
86, we find a ground plan and a picture of such a castle. Read the
description of its massive stone walls and towers, colorless and gray,
and of its courtyard and great hall. The first scene of the play is laid
in the courtyard. The second scene is laid in the ladies’ garden. The
third is laid in the great hall.

Your problem now is to give your audience a picture of this castle, and
the varied life of its courtyard, its ladies’ garden, and its great
hall. On a stage measuring 30 inches by 55 inches, how can this be done?
If the settings are wisely planned, the audience will have such a vivid
impression of the courtyard, the garden, and the castle, that they will
feel they are living in the time of the play.

[Illustration: [Stage]]

You may be interested in the way a group of boys and girls planned the
stage settings for this play. The first scene was laid in the courtyard.
Instead of trying to show every little incident and detail of the life
of the courtyard, every stable and blacksmith shop, every well and water
trough, they asked themselves what important things happened in this
first act and listed them as follows: First, Myles practised at the
pells. Second, the armorer worked in his shop. Third, Myles played with
the squire, and threw a ball over the wall. Then they took the
ground-floor plan of the XIVth century castle, as they found it in the
book, studied it carefully, and planned this setting. Every stage
setting must give the actors enough room to move about in. It must have
exits. It must be a well-composed picture. It must be related to the
scene that follows. You can readily see how this careful planning met
each of these requirements: First, it gave room for their puppets to do
what they were required to do. Second, it gave them the two necessary
exits, one into the castle, the other out to the drawbridge. Third, it
made, by the arrangement of wall, towers, and armorer’s shop, a
well-composed picture. Fourth, by this arrangement of the first scene,
they were able to carry the imagination of the audience, with Myles,
when he climbed over the wall, into the ladies’ garden, in the second
scene.

[Illustration: [Stage]]

Another group planned the second scene. They imagined themselves on the
inside of the garden, on the other side of the wall shown in the first
scene. They asked themselves, not what do we see, but what happens in
the garden during this scene.

First, Lady Anne plays a lute and Lady Alice dances.

Second, Myles tumbles over the wall.

Third, the Earl of Mackworth comes from the castle and returns into the
castle.

Here is the plan they made. You can see how they planned first to have
plenty of floor space for Lady Alice’s dance, and then, to keep the wall
away from the back drop so that Myles could climb over it. Second, it
provided the necessary exit. Third, through the arrangement of
ivy-covered towers, trellised wall, and garden bench, it made a charming
picture. Fourth, by means of the exit into the castle, the interest of
the audience was carried into the third scene.

[Illustration: [Stage]]

Still another group planned the third scene which is laid in the great
hall of the castle. Their purpose was to make the audience feel the
spaciousness of the great hall and of its galleries and corridors. Again
it was necessary to think of what happened in this scene. The first
difficulty to present itself was this: How can enough space be provided
for eleven puppets to be on the stage at the same time, to move about
freely and moreover keep the stage picture beautiful? A clever boy
thought of making a gallery at the side for Lady Anne and Lady Alice to
sit in. This gave them a place in the picture and enabled their
puppeteers to stand behind the wings of the bridge. Here they were out
of the way of the other nine puppeteers who stood on the bridge behind
the back drop. These illustrations will show you the floor plan and
elevations. Another boy ingeniously planned the doorway seen in the
elevation, for a rear exit. He made two back drops. In the rear drop he
made a stained-glass window. The forward drop he made in two parts. As
you can see in the illustration, he placed one section just a little in
front of the other. This provided space between the two parts, for the
passage of the strings of the king and all the other characters that
should enter from this doorway. To the eyes of the audience there
appeared to be no break in the wall above the doorway, neither did the
eyes of the audience detect the painting of the tiled floor on the rear
back drop, done in perspective, another bit of cleverness, which seemed
to give width to what otherwise would have appeared a very narrow
corridor. Whenever one sees a puppet going out through a door, or
passing by outside a window, he is interested, because it gives the
suggestion of life and activity beyond the stage.

You have a chance to show yourselves artists in the placing of doorways
and windows. Doorways that open upon courtyards, or that give glimpses
of distant landscapes, and windows that open out upon gardens, are
charming details when appropriately used. Avoid, if possible, painting
doors and windows on to your scenery.

[Illustration: [Stage]]

The group that made the tournament scene had the problem of providing
plenty of space for the puppet spectators. It was decided that a very
effective scene could be made by placing the royal box, for the king and
his court, at the rear of the stage. Directly in front of the box there
was space enough for the tournament. The entrances for this scene were
on the right and left, and were large enough to admit the horses and
their riders. On the back drop was painted a landscape of the
surrounding country, with hills, trees, and a distant castle. It usually
happens that certain members of a large group are more drawn to one
scene than to another. If there are too many in one group, some pupils,
realizing the importance of equalizing the size of the groups, will,
good-naturedly, turn to the assistance of the smaller groups. There
should be boys and girls in each group, and a chairman selected for
each, who will be responsible for his group. Each chairman meets with
his group to discuss the requirements, general arrangement, and the
color scheme.

Do not be in a hurry to begin. Have the impression you wish to convey to
your audience clearly in mind. Close your eyes. Can you see with your
mind’s eye the place where the scene is laid? Can you see its color, the
movements of your characters, and hear their voices? Does the picture
which comes to your mind’s eye put you into the mood which you felt when
you first read the story? If it does, you are ready to begin. Take a
sheet of paper about 14 by 17 inches. Let the rectangle you draw on this
be the same proportion as the proscenium arch. As you plan within this
rectangle, keep in mind the picture your audience is going to see when
your scene is presented.

When the plans for a scene have been submitted, choose the best one, or
put all the best ideas into a new plan. Remember, if you understand
proportion, everything is possible. You can show lofty cliffs that seem
to tower into the air. You can show level plains that seem to stretch
miles to the horizon.

When you have finished your plan for each scene, you are ready for your
tools and materials. Here is a list of the things usually required:

                         Tools

                       Rulers
                       Scissors
                       Hammers
                       Brushes
                       Saws, large and very small
                       Screw driver
                       Dye pans

                         Materials

                       Beaver board
                       Wood
                       Unbleached muslin
                       Burlap
                       Tacks, nails
                       Screws
                       Dyes
                       Gesso
                       Glue (flake and liquid)
                       Oil colors
                       Water colors by the pound

Suppose that you belong to the first group. Take your plan and place it
before you. For the back drop, wall, and wing, you may use beaver board,
heavy paper, canvas, or muslin stiffened by a thin coat of boiled
starch. Now go to your stage and measure the height and width of the
back drop and the wing frames. Then cut out the back drop and wing from
the material you have chosen. Place these in their positions on the
stage. Take a piece of charcoal, or soft lead pencil, and lightly sketch
your design onto the back drop and wing. Now step back, at least ten
feet, in order to see if your arrangement, perspective, and scale are
correct. You may find that your distant tower is too large or too small,
or that your trees are too small or too tall, or that your arrangement
is not according to your well-worked-out plan. Make your corrections.
Then take the back drop and wing from the stage, and lay them flat on
desks or tables. With your scenery in this position carefully complete
your sketch.

Now take a piece of white chalk and draw on the stage floor the ground
plan. If the tower nearest the front is made large, and the one farther
away slightly smaller, you will get the effect of distance. You will
observe that the larger tower is not round, although it appears so to
the audience. By making it flat at the back, you gain floor space for
the marionettes that may be waiting to go on the stage. The bases and
tops of these towers are of wood; the sides are of strips of wood which
serve as a foundation for the burlap cover. The armorer’s shop, too, may
be made of wood and beaver board. The effect of stone may be produced by
covering the surface of these towers, walls, and shop with a mixture of
sand and gesso.


_Colors._ When you are ready to paint the scenery, you can use ordinary
house paints, showcard colors, or water colors. House paints are ready
mixed. Water colors are practical and inexpensive when bought in powder
form, but when you use them you should add several tablespoonfuls of a
fixative made from flake glue dissolved in water. Various kinds of
showcard colors are clear and pure and very easy to use, but they are
comparatively expensive. If you cannot afford many colors buy red,
yellow, dark blue, and white. By combining them you can get a wide range
of colors. If you are not limited in the amount you can spend, add to
your list orange, light green, light blue, mauve, and magenta.


_Color Mixing._ You probably know something about color and the mixing
of colors. However, you may find the following directions helpful. First
let us experiment with yellow. If you add a very little bit of blue to
the yellow you can see the yellow turning to greenish-yellow. As you
gradually add more blue you can see the greenish-yellow turning to
yellow-green and finally to green.

Let us begin again with pure yellow. If you add a very little bit of red
to the yellow you can see the yellow turning to orange-yellow. As you
gradually add more red, you can see the orange-yellow turning to
yellow-orange and finally to orange.

Let us begin once more with pure yellow. If you add a very little bit of
blue and red to the yellow, you can see the yellow turning to a
grayish-yellow. As you gradually add more blue and red you can see the
grayish-yellow turning to yellowish-gray, and finally turning to a
neutral gray.

Let us experiment with red. If you add a little bit of yellow to the red
you can see the red turning to yellowish-red. As you gradually add more
you can see the yellowish-red turning to reddish-orange, and finally to
orange.

Let us begin again with pure red. If you add a very little bit of blue
to the red you can see the red turning to a bluish-red. As you gradually
add more blue you can see the bluish-red turning to reddish-purple and
finally to purple.

Let us begin once more with pure red. If you add a very little bit of
yellow and blue to the red you can see the red turning to a grayish-red.
As you gradually add more yellow and blue you can see the grayish-red
turning to reddish-gray and finally turning to a neutral gray.

Let us experiment with blue. If you add a little bit of yellow to the
blue you can see the blue turning to greenish-blue. As you gradually add
more yellow you can see the greenish-blue turning to bluish-green and
finally to green.

Let us begin again with pure blue. If you add a very little bit of red
to the blue you can see the blue turning to a reddish-blue. As you
gradually add more red you can see the reddish-blue turning to
bluish-purple and finally to purple.

Let us begin once more with pure blue. If you add a very little bit of
yellow and red to the blue you can see the blue turning to a
grayish-blue. As you gradually add more yellow and red you can see the
grayish-blue turning to bluish-gray and finally turning to a neutral
gray.

Brown, which is not a pure color, is made by adding a little blue to
orange. There are yellow-browns and red-browns, but some blue is used in
making every one of them.


_Value and Intensity._ What do these technical terms: “Color Value” and
“Color Intensity” mean to you? There is a certain satisfaction in
understanding their meanings and in being able to use them correctly.
Value refers to the amount of light reflected by a color. Light red is
lighter in value than dark red. A color is always made lighter in value
by the addition of white. Intensity refers to the strength or brilliancy
of a color. Pure red is intense. When a little yellow or blue is added
to it, it becomes a grayish-red, and consequently is less intense. If
white is added to pure red, its intensity is lessened.


_Brushes._ For the painting of the scenery you will need several brushes
of different sizes, varying in width from the small sable brush to the
inch or inch and a half bristle brush. Use large brushes whenever
possible. Work from left to right, using horizontal strokes or vertical
downward strokes. Brushes are expensive, and should be given excellent
care and thoroughly cleaned after using.

Let us suppose that you are ready to paint the scenery for _Men of
Iron_. Let us take Scene I: what is the time of year and what is the
hour of the day? You answer, “It is a day of sunshine, in early spring.”
Spring skies are clear and may be painted light blue; the trees may be
painted yellow-green with splashes of pure yellow to give an effect of
sunlight. The castle towers, wall, and armor shop, should be painted a
warm neutral gray. An occasional touch of darker gray at the top of
wall, windows, and tower suggests thickness and adds to the illusion you
are creating. The distant castle tower on the back drop should be
painted a lighter gray because it is far away.

In the second scene, the time of year is midsummer, and the time of day
is mid-afternoon. Therefore, the sky was painted a deeper blue than that
of the first scene. The trees were painted a richer green; the flowers
were painted in brilliant colors. The castle walls and towers were
painted a yellowish-gray, while the vines that clambered over them were
painted a rich green. In order to carry the imagination of the audience
into the castle, a circling stairway was painted on the right wing. The
audience caught a glimpse of this stairway at the right of the tower.

In the third scene, which is laid in the great hall, the back drop,
wings, and walls were painted a lighter gray than the outside walls.
Sand and gesso were mixed with the gray paint in order to give the
suggestion of rough stone. The great stone walls, as you know, made the
old castles cold and colorless. This coldness was relieved by
stained-glass windows, rich tapestries, hangings, and colorful costumes.

The boy who painted the tapestry for this scene went to books and to the
old tapestries in the art museum for his inspiration. He produced the
effect of rich tapestry by painting directly on the beaver board, with
thin vertical strokes of pure color. Another student produced the effect
of stained glass by making a design on tracing paper, painting it on
both sides with water colors, and then fastening it to the window
opening in the back drop. Manila, Haytol, or oak tag paper may be used
instead of tracing paper; you can make them translucent by brushing both
sides with a little linseed oil after the water colors are dry. A light
placed behind these stained-glass windows brings out their designs and
colors.

In the fourth act, which is the tournament scene, the time of year is
late summer, the time of day is late afternoon. On the back drop was
painted a landscape of the surrounding country, hills, trees, and a
distant castle. The sky was painted a pale gold to signify the success
of Myles in the combat. The royal box and fence were painted a dark
earth brown. The box was enriched with gold and colorful hangings.

These directions are not meant to be followed. They are merely offered
as suggestions, to assist you in meeting the problems your play may
present. Every boy and girl ought to feel free enough, in every phase of
his work, to express his own ideas. This should be equally true in
arranging or writing a play, in making a marionette, in planning and
constructing properties and scenery, and in experimenting with lighting.
Few pleasures in life compare with the pleasure of creating something.
In planning your scenery, much depends upon the plan and the type of
stage you have chosen. No matter what the play or what the stage, you
can make no mistake if you keep your backgrounds simple. Some of the
greatest artists use no scenery. They produce their effects simply by
means of curtains and lighting. Begin your experiment by using curtains.
A light gray curtain for a back drop and the sides of your stage can
give many charming effects, as you will discover when you begin
experimenting with colored lights.

[Illustration:

  _Scenes from the Marionette play, "Men of Iron."_
]

Few things will show your judgment and good taste more than your
scenery, which must be first, last, and always, a background for the
marionettes. This means that it must be either lighter or darker than
the puppets, so that they can be seen against it. It must be so simple
that the eye can follow the marionette easily, and not be lost in the
detail of the background, which will happen if there are too many
colors, and the colors are not of the same value. The scenery should not
be an end in itself, but should be a beautiful setting for the
marionettes, and by its fitness give an added sense of the beauty of
your play.

[Illustration:

  _How to pull your curtains. Attach central ring of one curtain at A
    and the central ring of the other at B. Pulling string C closes the
    curtains, while D opens them._
]

So far we have not thought of the frame for our stage, which is called
the proscenium, nor have we spoken of the stage curtains. These are
important because they are what might be called an introduction to the
play. If they strike the right note, they may even hold the thread of
interest between the acts. It is usual to have a contrast between the
proscenium and the curtains, and between the proscenium and the several
settings of the play. If your play has several brightly lighted scenes,
you will probably find that a gray proscenium with a very simple,
appropriate design looks much better than a brightly colored one with
elaborate designs. Use the same good taste in framing your stage picture
as you would in framing any other picture. Grays, yellows, and dull gold
are always pleasing. The best material to use for the curtains is
unbleached muslin. Because it takes dye so beautifully, it sometimes
comes to have the look of the richest old velvet. It should be
thoroughly soaked in hot water and then rubbed between the hands before
dipping in the dye bath. The selvedges should be gathered together and
then the entire piece should be wrung out. The dye bath should be ready.
If you wish a plain color you may dip the entire piece, usually four
yards, two for each curtain, at one time. If, however, you wish to have
the curtains darker at the bottom than at the top, you must allow the
lower part to remain longer in the dye bath. As you gain experience in
dyeing, you may wish to use two or even three different dyes for your
curtains. The curtains for _Sigurd, the Volsung_, kept the same color
symbolism as the costumes. The upper part was yellow to symbolize the
wisdom of Odin, running into orange to symbolize the home ties of the
Volsung line, and into deep red at the bottom, symbolizing the valor and
courage of the hero, Sigurd. The curtains for _Men of Iron_ were red at
the top to symbolize the valor of Myles, then purple to symbolize the
royal blood of the Mackworths, black at the bottom to symbolize the
deceit, overthrow, and death of the Earl of Alban. Until you have
acquired skill in dyeing it is best to hold to very simply colored
curtains. These may be either in harmony with or in contrast to the
color you have chosen for the proscenium. The curtains should never be
ironed. They should be smoothed out with the hands, when the muslin is
still very damp, then hung up to dry. Hem carefully at the top and
bottom, fold into pleats at the top. Small brass rings should then be
sewed on to every pleat for the curtain strings to pass through. To the
bottom of the curtain small dress weights should be fastened every five
or six inches just under each curtain ring. Crease the folds with your
hands. Your curtain may come to have its own way of looking just
right—of behaving properly when it has its part to do, and may add the
last note of craftsmanship and perfection to your scenery.

[Illustration: [Stage]]

[Illustration: [Marionette]]




                              CHAPTER VII
                         Making Your Properties


Puppets usually require a few well-chosen properties. These should be in
scale with the puppets, and serve some practical need. Properties should
be similar to the things used in the time of your play, in the country
of your play, and by the class or classes of people represented in your
play.

It is well to be familiar with the life, customs, and manners of the
people who lived at the time of your play. The library, historical
museum, and art museum are sources of information. First, there is the
library in which there are always books and pictures and a wealth of
information for your use. Take several pieces of tracing paper with you
when you go there, also several well-sharpened pencils, and your colored
crayons. When you find a suitable illustration, make a sketch or a
tracing of it and careful color notes.

Let us suppose that you are about to make the properties for _Men of
Iron._ Take the story and from it make a list of the properties that you
will need. You will probably make a list somewhat like this:

Act I—Courtyard. Properties required:

         1. Bench for the squires to sit upon and later for Myles to
              stand upon.

         2. An upright post, or pell, to be used by Myles when he
              practises with his sword.

         3. An anvil to be placed in the armorer’s shop.

         4. A ball for Myles.

Act II—Garden. Properties required:

         1. Garden seat for Lady Anne to sit upon when she plays her
              lute.

         2. A lute for Lady Anne.

         3. A ball for Myles.

Act III—Great Hall. Properties required:

         1. Throne for the king to sit upon.

         2. A dais for the throne to rest upon.

         3. A seat for the minstrel.

         4. A carved oak chest, such as was usually seen in the great
              halls.

         5. Royal carpet.

         6. Hangings for the ladies’ gallery.

         7. A lute for the minstrel.

Act IV—The tournament. Properties required:

         1. A royal box.

         2. A fence.

The bench in Scene I was made of wood and was a copy of a picture of an
English XVth Century bench.

Sometimes there are properties and effects that take special ingenuity
and skill. Many boys have unusual ability in solving these problems. In
the first scene of _Men of Iron_ an anvil was needed. One boy asked to
be responsible for the anvil. There was a miniature anvil in the
classroom that had been used the year before by the class that had given
_Sigurd, the Volsung_. Now, what did he do? First, he drilled two holes
into the top of the anvil and placed a strip of mica on the iron between
the holes. Then he attached a thin coil of wire, about the size of that
in an electric toaster, screwed it down into the holes, where it met the
charged wires which came up through the holes in the anvil. When the
current was turned on, the coil glowed red. This boy also made a hammer,
which he fastened in the hand of the puppet armorer. From the hammer a
long wire stretched upward to the controller, and then down behind the
scenes to the socket. When the armorer struck the anvil with his hammer,
brilliant sparks flew in every direction. Care was taken to strike the
broad surface of the anvil top and to avoid striking the coil of wire.
You will notice that he placed the mica and coil close to the edge, in
order to give the armorer plenty of room for the strokes of his hammer.

[Illustration: [Anvil]]

The garden bench in Act II was made by a pupil who had made a special
study of gardens. When one of the boys found that a lute was needed for
this scene, he went to the art museum where he had the good fortune to
find two lutes, a large one and a small one, both of Italian make. He
then went to the historical museum where he found pictures of similar
lutes used in England, in the time of his play. He now decided to use
the large lute in the museum as a model for the lute of his minstrel,
and the smaller one for Lady Alice. He then made careful drawings to
scale, proceeded to carve the instruments from wood, and to stain them,
and enrich them with gold. When they were finished, with the little
detail of strings, they were such an exquisite note of perfection that
they added much to the beauty of the scene, and gave a thrill of delight
to all who saw them.

In Act III, a Gothic throne and a Gothic chest were needed. The boy who
was responsible for these went to the art museum to look for Gothic
furniture. He found a Gothic chest, and adapted its proportions and
design to both the throne and the chest. He copied a XVth Century stool
for the minstrel to sit upon. The carpet and hangings for this scene
were made from large scraps of rich crimson velvet given by a generous
upholsterer.

In Act IV, the royal box was historically true, as it was made from
drawings of a royal box found in an old illuminated manuscript. It was
constructed from wood and beaver board. Tapestries hung from the front
of the box and pennants from tall poles at the corners.

Sometimes, when scenery has been especially well designed, it makes
properties almost unnecessary. For instance, in the throne room of King
Elf in _Sigurd, the Volsung_ the background is a dark, richly colored
tapestry. Against this was placed the throne on a raised dais. With this
single property the scene was a satisfying picture. When the three
fair-haired maidens, dressed in white and gold, with flowing veils of
pale rose, came to present the baby Sigurd to King Elf, it was a lovely
picture.

The materials used for making properties are usually wood, cardboard,
tacks, glue, ½-inch linen or cotton tape, papier-mâché, gesso, and
paints. The tools needed are hammer, coping saw, scissors, and a sharp
knife. Drawings should be kept before the worker for constant reference.
They are his guide for proportion, design, and scale.

Accidents are as likely to happen in puppet families and at puppet
parties as they are to happen in our homes and at our own parties. If
the chairs are unsteady and the tables too light, they may cause trouble
and embarrassment. Think what might have happened at Bob Kratchet’s
Christmas party in Charles Dickens’ _Christmas Carol_, when all the
puppets sat down to the well-laden table, if some thought had not been
given to making it secure. How do you imagine this was done? The table
and all the chairs were glued to a large piece of cardboard. When the
scene was set, this was placed on the stage. In the time of Bob
Kratchet, just as in our own time, houses contained many pieces of
furniture and other things of daily use. Imagine what would happen, if
we made all the properties that are mentioned in the story and then
tried to crowd them on to the stage. There would be no room for the
puppets to move about in. Our eyes would be confused with details and
the picture would be ruined. Here is a list of the properties that were
chosen by the group of children who gave _The Childhood of David
Copperfield_:

     Act I. Sitting room in the Copperfield house

            An armchair for Peggoty

            A table for Peggoty and work basket

            Stool for little David

            Curtains for the windows

    Act II. In the boathouse

            A chair for Peggoty

            A chair for Mrs. Gummage

            A table for Peggoty’s work basket and balls of
              bright-colored wool.

            A chest for David and Emily to sit upon

            A small box for Ham

            A chest of drawers, on top of the drawers a tray, teapot,
              two cups, and saucers

            Curtains for the windows

   Act III. The seashore

            A log for David to sit upon

            A large rock for Emily to sit upon

            Two or three small rocks to complete the picture

    Act IV. The schoolroom

            Six benches for the schoolboys

            Two desks, one for the master, one for his assistant

            Two chairs

            Books for the desks

     Act V. Betsy Trotwood’s garden

            A long bench where David rested

            A large kite for old Master Dick

            Three or four flower pots to complete the picture

Nearly all properties need some decoration. Some need color, others need
merely stain. Occasionally it is necessary to give the effect of carved
wood. This is necessary in plays of the Middle Ages like _Sigurd, the
Volsung_, and _Men of Iron_, where your properties represent old wood
carving. Gesso may be used to suggest this carving. Gesso was used by
the craftsmen of the Middle Ages, especially in Italy, for enriching
surfaces. This is the formula for making it: 2 tablespoons of varnish,
12 tablespoons of glue (best quality), 8 tablespoons of linseed oil. Mix
these three ingredients together and allow to stand. In a separate dish
put 20 rounded tablespoons full of whiting and then mix with water until
it is the consistency of thick cream. Pour this into your first mixture
and cook in a double boiler for ten minutes, stirring constantly. Then
pour into a bottle and cork tightly. The gesso is now ready for use.

Work out your design and then draw it carefully upon the chair, chest,
or throne which you mean to decorate. Apply the gesso with a small
brush. Be very careful to keep well within the line of your design. The
gesso will give you a pattern in relief. You must keep each surface flat
for at least 12 hours, or until dry. If the design is not high enough
when it is dry, a second coat may be applied. When you have covered all
the parts which are to be painted and the gesso is dry, rub it over with
a bit of oil paint mixed in these proportions: ¾ of ivory black, ¼ of
burnt sienna thinned with a little turpentine. After the oil paint has
dried, add a coat of dull finishing wax and rub down.

[Illustration: [Fountain]]

A fountain is a most effective and beautiful device. When placed in a
garden, surrounded by miniature ferns and flowers, with birds singing,
and soft colored lights playing upon its jetting water, it makes a scene
of enchantment. Fountains are very simply made as you can see in this
illustration. A low cake tin, with a hollow tin centerpiece, a funnel,
and a piece of ¾-inch rubber tubing about six feet long, are the only
materials necessary.

Occasionally there is a need for smoke. In the play of _Aladdin and the
Wonderful Lamp_, the genii appear out of a cloud of smoke. In _Sigurd,
the Volsung_, the dragon may be made to breathe forth smoke. In the
_Adventures of Alice_, you may remember the old caterpillar who sits on
a toadstool and smokes his pipe. Smoke can be made from ammonia and
hydrochloric acid. The illustration shows how this is done. In order to
make the dragon breathe forth smoke, a rubber tube was run through its
body from mouth to tail. The end that extended from the tail was
connected with the tube that came from the bottles. When a boy blew
through the tube, smoke came from the dragon’s mouth. In the marionette
play of _Aladdin and His Wonderful Lamp_, a hole was bored through the
stage floor at the spot where the genie was to appear. At the clap of
thunder that announced the genie’s appearance, a cloud of smoke poured
forth.

[Illustration: [Lamp]]

In the _Adventures of Alice_, when the caterpillar was made, a tube was
run through his body from tail to mouth. When this tube was attached to
the bottle tube, and the lazy old fellow took his pipe in his mouth, he
appeared to blow out great puffs of smoke to the surprise and delight of
everyone.

The toadstool was such a nice property that you may wish to know how it
was constructed. The girl who made it found some beautiful pictures of
toadstools in an old number of the _National Geographic_. She chose one
of interesting shape and color as her model, and reproduced it with
papier-mâché. When it was quite dry, she colored it to represent the
illustration. It was winter time when this play was given. Had it been
any other season, she could have gone to the woods and fields and
searched out a beautiful specimen which would have served her purpose
much better than the illustration.

Fireplaces and stoves are comparatively modern inventions. Braziers were
used in earlier times. They consisted of a metal tripod and a basin to
hold the coals. A brazier could be used appropriately in a Greek or
Roman play, or in a play of the Middle Ages. The tripod could be made of
wire or of tin. The basin could be made of tin, wood, or papier-mâché.
Both the tripod and the basin should be painted to imitate bronze or
iron. A tiny red bulb can be fastened into the center of the basin, and
attached to a wire leading down from the tripod, through the stage
floor. Slightly conceal the bulb with small bits of wood. The warm light
from this brazier will throw a glow on the face of a marionette, who is
warming his hands over it.

A marionette may carry a lantern. This marionette lantern may be made
from any small tin or cardboard box. Find some pictures of old lanterns
suitable for your play, and then make a lantern as much like the
illustration as you can. A pattern of holes should be punched in the
sides. A tiny electric bulb may be fastened inside the lantern and its
wire carried up to the controller and from there to the battery.

Properties should be made in a craftsmanlike way. A craftsman respects
his materials and his tools. He cleans his brushes and palette as soon
as he finishes the work of the day, and puts his materials in order for
the next day’s work. He never hurries. His reward is his satisfaction in
the excellence of his work.

[Illustration: [Marionettes]]




                              CHAPTER VIII
                          Lighting Your Stage


Let us imagine that we are seated in a dimly lighted theater. The signal
rings. The curtains open and what do we see? People. What makes them
visible? Light. What makes the color? Light. What makes the interesting
shadows? Light. It is light that does all these things, makes the
picture visible and carries our thoughts and feelings into the play
which is about to begin.

By what means is all this done? By means of footlights, overhead lights,
movable strips of lights, and movable spotlights. A few years ago every
stage was lighted by footlights only. These lights threw a crude glare
on to the faces of the actors and sometimes made large ugly shadows on
the back drop. Later, when overhead lights were used with footlights,
there were no shadows at all. This was equally bad. The majority of
people did not seem to mind this, but when certain artists went to the
theater, they began to ask themselves whether there might not be some
way of remedying the glare of the footlights and of managing the
shadows. These artists began to experiment. They made little stages,
took the footlights away, and began, by means of arc lights, to light
their stages indirectly. They began to use movable spotlights behind the
scenes, and to fasten lights on to strips of wood and place these strips
wherever they felt they were necessary.

They made further experiments. They covered their lights with pieces of
different colored silks and gelatine. This not only removed the glare of
the lights but produced new and very interesting effects. Next they
turned to Nature and began to observe how she produced her wonderful
effects. They discovered that these usually came in the soft light of
early morning and late evening, in twilight and moonlight, and not in
the strong garish light of mid-day. With these observations in mind,
they went to work to reproduce some of these effects. The result of
their experiments is that, to-day, we see stage pictures as beautiful as
pictures painted by the finest artists. Lighting has now come to be such
an important factor in the producing of plays that no stage, however
small, can ignore it.

Let us now consider the kind of lighting which may be used in the
several kinds of marionette stages. The Punch and Judy stage requires no
lighting when used in daylight. But even this stage requires some
thought for its lighting when it is used in a darkened room. Your set of
Christmas-tree lights may be fastened to the top of the proscenium arch
and an extension light may be used in the same way as is shown in the
illustration. Christmas-tree lights and extension lights are all that
are necessary for the table stage and the soap-box stage. In the chapter
on “Making Your Stage” you will see how these lights are placed.

If you have made the semi-professional stage with overhead lights,
footlights, and strips, you are ready to experiment with your lighting.
Begin by asking yourself whether the scenes of your play take place
indoors or out of doors. What is the time of day and the season of the
year? Is it an out-of-door scene, representing the cold of winter, or
the heat of summer? Does your scene occur in the soft light of early
morning or in the glow of sunset? Is your scene laid in a deep cool wood
or in a warm sunny garden? All of these questions must be considered.

Now, how can you produce these varied effects of sunlight and moonlight,
coldness and warmth, somberness and gaiety? Certain colors such as red,
orange, and yellow are called warm colors, because they give the feeling
of warmth. Other colors such as green, blue, and violet are called cool,
because they give the feeling of coolness. If your scene suggests
warmth, whether indoors or out of doors, begin experimenting with warm
lights, ambers, reds, and yellows. You will find that usually a certain
number of white lights are needed with the colored lights in order to
produce the effects you seek.

[Illustration:

  _Marionette Ballet, "Petroushka"_
]

Everyone knows that color produces varied emotions. We are familiar with
the effects of red which are stimulating, exciting, or irritating. The
toreador, recognizing this principle, waves a flaming red mantle before
the bull. Blue has an exactly opposite effect. It quiets and soothes,
and when it runs into violet, it becomes depressing. Experiment with
purple lights and you will find that they give a note of gloom, mystery,
or of impending disaster. Yellow is the color that brings gaiety and
light-heartedness, as you will recall when you contrast your own
feelings on a sunshiny day and on a gray day.

You will find that most out-of-door effects are produced by soft natural
lighting which gives a sense of distance and perspective to the scene.
For this effect use yellow, amber, and white lights with an occasional
blue or red. Only lights coming from several directions will produce the
subtle tones of nature. This means using footlights with discretion,
stronger lights overhead, and placing strips wherever you need them in
order to destroy the shadows which other lights may throw. Sometimes it
takes several hours of experimenting to find the right lighting for a
single scene. It means changing the position of the strips, using more
lighting or less lighting, and always asking yourself whether your
lighting is just that which your scene demands to bring out its mood.
The shadows produced by footlights may sometimes be used to give charm
or mystery to a scene. For instance, in the second scene in the
_Petrouchka Ballet_, only footlights were used. The pattern of the
shadows of the dancers falling on a neutral background was very
effective.

If your scene is laid indoors, your lighting will be somewhat determined
by the period of the play. For instance, in the third act of _Men of
Iron_, the great hall of Devlin Castle was softly lighted to suggest
candle and torch light. This effect was produced by using amber and blue
lights overhead; red, blue, white, and amber in the footlights. A strip
of blue and red lights placed upright against the proscenium frame threw
rich color against the king and those of his courtiers who stood near
the throne. This color was most pleasing when it fell upon the armor of
Myles as he knelt before the king.

Again your lighting may be determined by the kind of action. A gay scene
naturally requires bright lighting. As an illustration of this: The
royal kitchen in the _Knave of Hearts_ was made warm and gay by the use
of white and amber lights overhead, and amber, blue, and red footlights
to throw rich colors on the costumes. The fireplace gave a warm light,
and through the window could be seen the bright summer landscape.

As an illustration of a serious and somber scene, we might take the
first act of the hero tale, _Sigurd, the Volsung_. Here many blue lights
were used with a very few red and amber. The result was that the great
hall became a mysterious place in which Odin himself could appear, and a
somber enough setting for the traitorous Siggeir.

If your picture is an imaginative one, such as the garden of jewels in
_Aladdin and His Wonderful Lamp_, you are free to use your lights as you
wish, to produce a scene of enchantment.

When you have finished your experimenting, and have found the right
lighting for a scene, take a sheet of paper and make a chart. This
illustration suggests a form for you to follow.

                                  CHART
                             _Name of Play_
 Scene I.
                               Overhead lights.
 Left (as seen from the audience)                                  Right
                                blue, white, white, white,
                                           blue
                               Footlights
 Left                                                              Right
                               blue, red, amber, white, red,
                                           blue
 Left strip
                                   blue, red, blue, blue
                                                             Right strip
                                                                   blue,
                                                                  amber,
                                                              blue, blue
 Left extension
                                           white

The stage electrician will need a chart for each scene of your play. The
changing of the lights for each scene will be his responsibility.

You will probably have little need for baby-spots unless your equipment
is very elaborate, and to use them requires almost professional
experience. Every boy who is interested in electricity knows that a
rheostat or dimmer is used for turning lights off and on gradually. They
may be purchased for a small sum or they may be made.

Every new play and every new scene presents a new problem for you to
solve. You will know that you have solved your problem when, as a group,
you can sit before each scene and feel that it is harmonious, that it
surrounds the figures with suitable atmosphere, and that your lighting
interprets the idea and mood of your play.

[Illustration:

  _From A the current from one wire passes to the stationary electrode C
    which is submerged in a gallon jar of water containing one eighth
    teaspoon of ammonium chloride. The graduated electrodes (all
    connected) are fastened to the wooden bar B which is made to slide
    up and down the vertical posts at either side. Both sets of
    electrodes are made of thin sheet copper. By means of the cord
    (attached to the screw eye in B) which runs over the pulleys D, D
    down to the spool drum E, the upper electrodes can be slowly let
    down into the ammonium chloride solution, completing the circuit and
    increasing it as more of the electrode surface is exposed to the
    liquid. This dimmer will carry as many lights as your theater will
    ever require._
]

[Illustration: [Marionette]]

[Illustration: [Marionettes]]




                               CHAPTER IX
                        Training Your Puppeteers


The stage is set. The play has been chosen. The puppets are ready. Let
us gather around the table to talk about our parts. There should be a
copy of the play in the hands of each puppeteer. Begin by reading the
play, each pupil reading the part that he has chosen. After the reading,
discuss and analyze each character, his appearance, his disposition, and
his voice.

For instance, Captain Peggoty in _The Childhood of David Copperfield_
would have a rough-and-ready seaman’s voice that would boom from his
deep chest, but his words would show generosity and kindness. Alice, in
_Alice in Wonderland_ would have a little girl’s voice, one that would
suggest wonderment, sometimes impatience, and a quaint dignity when she
tried to appear grown up. The White Rabbit’s voice would be high,
nervous, and impatient. The Caterpillar would have a slow, full,
dignified voice, while the voice of the Duchess would be gruff and
peppery. Deacon Bowman, the faithful old servant in _Men of Iron_, would
have the trembling, wavering voice of extreme old age.

How shall the right person be found for each part? One of the most
satisfactory ways is that of trying out for parts, with the group acting
as a jury. The judges must keep in mind that the voice is very important
in interpreting character and they will do well to choose the voice that
is best suited to the character. If each puppeteer takes the same
position at the table at each rehearsal, you will soon associate each
voice with a certain place. This will make it much easier to address
your lines to the proper character. The lines should be reread slowly
for the sake of better understanding. In this way, each in turn soon
comes to read the lines of his character with real appreciation. Do not
hurry over the little words. Every word should be clearly spoken. Lift
your eyes as often as you can from your manuscript. “Talk” your lines.
In almost no time you will know your lines without looking at them. When
you can speak your lines so naturally that any of your friends, with his
eyes closed, could imagine the character you are interpreting from your
voice, you are ready to take your puppet in hand.

Manipulation of your marionette is the second step in your training as a
puppeteer. You will be surprised at the amount of time this requires.
Some of the greatest puppeteers have spent months learning to manage a
single puppet. In all your practice work, avoid careless motions of your
hands, with your thoughts elsewhere. Be wholly absorbed in what you wish
to do.

[Illustration: [Marionettes]]

[Illustration: [Marionettes]]

Your puppet in the making has been so weighted that when you hold your
controller you will know the very second the puppet’s feet touch the
floor. This delicate position must be held. Hold your controller steady.
If you lower your controller after the feet have touched the floor your
puppet will sag. Behold the sagging puppet! Begin gently. Do not jerk
the strings. The least motion of the hand brings a quick response from
the puppet. In fact, puppets are just like ourselves, if handled
skilfully they will do almost anything you may wish them to do. As your
skill grows so will your pleasure in your puppet grow. Its many almost
human movements and gestures will delight you as they have delighted all
those men and women who have been its friends. If you can hold your
marionette before a mirror and practise with it, speaking your lines, as
you pull the strings, you will be surprised to see how lifelike it
becomes. You will discover that a slight movement may indicate very
strong feeling.

A whole chapter could be written about the movements of the head. Let us
see how the head may show thoughtfulness. When you are thoughtful, how
do you hold your head? Release the head strings and your puppet’s head
will drop forward as yours has just done. If you wish to turn this
thoughtful pose into one of discouragement, let the shoulders droop
forward as well, so that the chest becomes hollow. How would you stand
if listening? Release the head strings and slant the controller so that
the head falls a little to one side and a little forward. How near to
this and yet how different is the attitude of craftiness and cunning. To
the listening pose you simply add a forward thrust of the head and a
hunching up of the shoulders. For the proud, erect bearing of a king,
hold your controller horizontally. If your puppet is a charming young
lady, her head will make many quick, graceful little turns. This may be
done by releasing the head strings and tipping the controller back and
forth.

We now come to the movements of the shoulders and the waist. The center
string controls the movements of the waist and is used whenever you want
your puppet to sit down, kneel down, or bow. As you know there are a
hundred different ways of sitting down. The young and old, each has his
way. So, too, have the proud and the humble, the gentle and the
boisterous. When you make your puppet sit down, unless he is very stiff
and proud, let his body settle a little. You will notice that most
people do this. When you pull the center string you must at the same
time lower the controller slightly to keep the feet from swinging off
the floor.

There are quite as many ways of bowing as there are of sitting down. A
courtier would bow from the waist, his head slightly bent; the little
princess, in her full skirts, would courtesy gracefully with her head
tilted backward.

Next, we come to that small but important thing, the hand. When one
knows how to control it, it can do such wonderful things. It can show
force or gentleness, harshness or kindness, nervous excitement or shaky
old age. It is possible for a marionette to draw a sword, practise at
the pells, engage in fist fights, and hammer at a forge. When a
marionette must hammer at a forge, as in _Sigurd, the Volsung_, and in
_Men of Iron_, be sure that it makes a heavy, steady stroke. The hammer
must be of iron. If the armorer sings a jolly rhythmic song, he can keep
time with his hammer. Suit your gestures to your words. It is the fault
of inexperienced puppeteers that they make all gestures alike.
Experienced puppeteers suit their gestures to the ideas and to the
feelings which they wish to convey.

It is when a puppet is called upon to do some unusual thing, such as
dancing, climbing a wall, fighting a duel, riding a horse in a
tournament, that difficulties appear.

Let us take the first of these—dancing. The Bear in _Men of Iron_
danced. Dainty little Lady Alice in _Men of Iron_ danced. Fat jolly
Tweedle Dee in _Alice in Wonderland_ danced. The surly old cook in the
Duchess’s kitchen danced. But imagine the differences in these dances!
Each dance expressed the character of the dancer. The Bear danced to a
lively jig whistled by his trainer. His steps were carefully worked out
in time with the tune, and when once learned were never varied. Little
Lady Alice, with dainty step and charming courtesies, danced to the tune
of a medieval love song. Tweedle Dee danced to a rollicking tune played
on an accordion. His steps were lively and when he danced across the
stage on his right foot, kicking out his left in time with the music, he
made everyone laugh. The cook’s dance was an Irish jig.

Puppets are versatile. To them belongs not only the interpretation of
the spoken word but they are equally at home in the world of pantomime,
music, and dance.

The illustrations in this book show how puppets can even perform a
ballet. Here you can see their interpretation of the colorful and
dramatic Russian ballet, _Petrouchka_. The cast of twenty-one puppets
included four principal actors, the manager, the Moor, the Ballerina,
and Petrouchka and besides these, a showman and a trained bear, an organ
grinder, and bands of gypsies.

A ballet or an opera will naturally require a different procedure than a
play, because the character analysis comes from the music. Here are the
steps by which the _Petrouchka Ballet_ was worked out:

1. The story was told to the pupils.

2. The musical score as a whole was played to them.

3. The motif for each character and incident was played to them.

4. The musical score as a whole was again played and the pupils listened
for the motifs.

5. Each character was analyzed and his probable actions upon the stage
were discussed.

6. The puppet was taken in hand and the interpretation of the music with
it was begun.

There are four scenes in this ballet. The first scene is a street fair
in a Russian village. A little theater occupies the center back stage in
which the stage manager exhibits the Moor, the Ballerina, and
Petrouchka. The scene closes with their lively dance and Petrouchka’s
declaration of love to the Ballerina.

Scene II is in Petrouchka’s box and shows his despairing love for the
Ballerina.

Scene III is in the Moor’s box and shows him playing with his ball. The
Ballerina enters and they dance together. Petrouchka rushes in and in a
jealous rage tries to kill the Moor. The Moor chases Petrouchka out of
his box.

Scene IV is again at the fair. There are gay dances by gypsies and
nounous. Petrouchka runs in, chased by the Moor who stabs him. The
people draw away and the Ballerina kneels beside him. The manager comes
in, the Moor, the Ballerina, and all the people depart. The manager
drags poor, lifeless Petrouchka toward the little theater. Suddenly up
over the little theater appears the spirit of Petrouchka, mocking and
gesticulating. The manager stands aghast.

So that you may understand how this ballet was produced, let us take the
second scene and work it out together. The scene opens with a crashing
chord as Petrouchka is thrown onto the stage. (No less than thirty times
did the puppeteer rehearse this entrance with the music.) He lay in a
motionless heap. At a few plaintive notes he lifts his head, then drops
it again. To the quick notes that follow he beats the floor with his
hands. As the music grows in volume, his despair increases, and he leaps
to his feet and rushes wildly about the room, beating frantically upon
the walls. As the music changes and becomes soft and reminiscent,
Petrouchka thinks of the Ballerina and stretches out his arms, then
sorrowfully drops his head. The motif for the Ballerina announces her
entrance. She comes in gay and light as a bird. Petrouchka, overcome
with emotion, drops on his knees before her. She continues her gay
little dance and leaves as lightly as she entered. Despair again seizes
Petrouchka, who dashes himself against the walls, then finally falls to
the ground. The curtains close.

In a gymnasium there are certain exercises that bring all the muscles of
the body into use. Likewise there are times when the whole body of a
marionette must come into action. If you want a marionette to climb a
wall, your audience must feel that the marionette is actually pulling
himself, with effort, up and over the wall. This requires a great deal
of patient practice. To make your marionette climb a wall, he must first
appear to catch hold of the wall, then to draw up one knee, then to
strain up as you would, then to throw an arm over the wall, then to pull
his body up until he can throw a leg over the wall. If this is well
done, the audience climbs the walls with the puppet.

Sometimes, puppets must appear to assist each other. For instance, when
Myles was thrown on the ground by the bully, Walter Blunt, Gascoigne,
his friend, got down on one knee beside him, threw his arm around his
shoulders, and apparently helped him to rise.

There are certain little tricks which are very effective, such as
crying, or dropping off to sleep and snoring. In the _Childhood of David
Copperfield_, Mrs. Gummage frequently lifted her apron to her eyes and
wept. As one corner of her apron was sewed to her hand, this was an easy
thing to do. Can you see her, shoulders shaking, her apron to her eyes,
sniffling, “I am a lone, lorn critter and everything goes contrary with
me?”

In the illustration, page 130, you can see how a puppet may appear to
toss a ball. This is the way it was done. One puppeteer held the Moor’s
controller while his assistant held the end of a string attached to the
ball. Through practice, these puppeteers were able to make the Moor’s
hand and the ball rise at the same moment, thereby giving the impression
that the Moor tossed the ball. When the Moor stopped playing with the
ball, the puppeteer who held the string attached to the ball let it fall
to the stage. The audience felt that the Moor was tired of playing and
had tossed the ball aside.

In this same ballet, an organ grinder appeared. The handle of the organ
was fastened to one of his hands. When the puppeteer pulled the hand
string up and down in time with the music, it seemed to the audience
that the organ was really being played. A marionette can be made to play
a flute. The flute is fastened in one hand, and a string from the flute
passed through the mouth of the marionette up through the top of its
head to the controller. When the puppeteer pulls the flute string, the
flute is raised to the mouth of the marionette.

All these effects and many others can be accomplished when you
understand the manipulation of your strings. Sometimes you may wish to
use birds, bees, butterflies, or flying dragons. If you keep the wings
in constant motion you can make your audience believe that these winged
creatures are really flying. Of course, bees and butterflies move their
wings more rapidly than birds and dragons. The more you observe flying
birds, the better you will be able to imitate them.

You have made the puppet look the part, now see that it acts the part.
You have made your hero look like a hero, now see that he acts like a
hero. You made the king look like a king. Can you make him act like a
king?

The third step in your training as a puppeteer comes when you have
acquired enough skill to manage your puppet. Then you are ready to join
your fellow puppeteers on the bridge. At first you will probably feel
that the bridge is not large enough for you alone, not to mention four
or five others. Experience will show you, however, that you can do a
great deal in a very small space. This means good management and
practice and consideration for your fellow puppeteers.

Now that the puppet is on the stage, imagine what a shock it would be to
your audience to see a great hand coming down below the proscenium arch.
To prevent this, always keep your hand, even during rehearsals, close to
your control.

While on the stage, every motion must have a reason behind it. Puppets
cannot move aimlessly about the stage any more than real actors can.
Every gesture, too, must mean something.

Now the time has come to show yourselves as real artists. Your stage is
your picture and though you change it with every move of your puppets,
you are always making it the picture. This means that you should know
what artists speak of as arrangement or composition.

[Illustration: [Stage]]

Let us suppose that you are sitting in the audience and saw two puppets
standing like this: “Oh, how stupid,” you would say. Imagine them
standing like this:

[Illustration: [Stage]]

[Illustration:

  _Upper: Marionettes from "The Adventures of Alice."_

  _Lower Left: Bear and Trainer from "Men of Iron."_

  _Lower Right: Marionette from "Petroushka."_
]

“How interesting.” But why interesting? The first spacing was equal,
hence it was monotonous. The second was varied, therefore, more
interesting. Again you are sitting in the audience looking at the
picture and this is what you see:

[Illustration: [Stage]]

Two small figures on one side and one large figure on the other side.
How satisfying! The reason is balance. You can see by these two simple
illustrations how necessary it is to keep in mind not only the movements
of your puppets, but the positions of all the puppets on the stage. If
each puppeteer understands this and considers the relation of his puppet
to every other puppet, the audience will always see an interesting
picture.

Equally as important as the stage picture is the conduct of your puppets
when on the stage. They should all show interest when another puppet is
speaking. This may be done by turning the head to listen, nodding the
head to show agreement, shaking the head to show disagreement, leaning
forward to show interest. In a hundred small ways a puppet can show
life. The point is, there should be no dead puppets on the stage.

But there is a danger here. Puppets must not divert the attention of the
audience from the main character. For example, in _Men of Iron_ in the
scene showing the great hall of Devlin Castle, the minstrel is singing
before the king and his court. The jester, with his pranks and capers,
could easily have taken too much of the attention of the audience to
himself and away from the minstrel, but instead, he sat down on the
floor near the minstrel and pretended to be playing a lute. He followed
every gesture of the minstrel and when the minstrel finished his song,
rose and bowed low before the king. The jester did likewise, to the
amusement of the audience.

Good puppeteering is much like good ball playing, the interest is in the
ball but the ball always moves. It goes from player to player. Any
player who holds the ball is the center of interest, some longer and
some shorter. Your skill and cleverness can keep this sense of movement
and interest in your puppets and their play. This smoothness is
accomplished by your quickness in watching for the last words spoken by
the speaker before you, which is called your cue; and also by your
cleverness in planning ways to help out a puppeteer and his puppet who
has difficult things to do.

When the bear trainer, for example, commands his bear to stand on his
head, the boy who is holding the bear’s controller must have time enough
to make the difficult manipulation of the strings. If the puppeteers who
manage the squires make their puppets lean forward and call out in
surprise to each other, “What? A trick?” “The bear can do a trick.”
“Look.” “Bravo!” “Bravo!” (as the bear succeeds in standing on its
head), they will be of great assistance to the bear puppeteer.

Here is an illustration of the way in which you can avoid awkward
pauses. The Knave of Hearts, in the play by that name, steals some tarts
and climbs out of the window. Now you can see that his puppeteer would
need plenty of time in getting the knave through the window. Lady
Violetta, who helps him steal the tarts, shows great excitement and
cries to him to hurry, then she runs to the door, saying that she hears
someone coming. Then she runs back again. She repeats this until the
knave has made his escape. You can easily imagine how this clever trick
excited the audience.

Getting your puppet off the stage is just as important as getting it on.
Time your exits so that there is no awkward pause between the last word
spoken and the exit.

You have imagined yourself sitting in the audience seeing a picture. Now
can you imagine your disappointment when you cannot understand a single
word the puppets say? Inexperienced puppeteers are apt to think that it
is the high, loud voice that will reach the people in the last row of
seats. Experienced puppeteers know that it is the clear, full, rich
voice that carries. Address your words to those farthest away from you.
Keep in mind that your voice must travel down and out through the
proscenium arch. If your head is not lowered, your voice will strike the
curtain, which will deaden it.

Sometimes it is necessary to make the voice seem to come from a distance
and yet every word must be distinct. This can be done in a very simple
way. Bend your arm and lift it to your face, holding your mouth inside
your elbow. Now when you speak, your words seem to come from a distance.
As you slowly lift your mouth from your arm, your voice seems to come
nearer and nearer. In _Sigurd, the Volsung_, there is a scene where the
dragon, who possesses a treasure of gold, comes, at twilight, out of the
rocky crevice of a great cliff, to drink at a pool. Before he is seen,
his voice is dimly heard calling, “Gold, gold, my gold, my gold.” The
boy who spoke these lines used this trick so cleverly that his audience
shivered as the dragon appeared.

Every person knows that the greatest charm of a voice is its
naturalness. This naturalness comes to you when you let your feelings go
down the strings into your puppet. Then it is that your puppet comes to
life, is gay, sad, prankish, haughty, timid, bold, willful, cunning,
sly, or lovable. When your puppet obeys your every feeling, you and your
puppet are one.

[Illustration: [Marionette]]

[Illustration: [Stage]]




                               CHAPTER X
                          Presenting Your Play


The successful presenting of a play requires much planning and
organization. It will be necessary to choose a property man, two
assistants, a stage electrician, an inspector of the strings, one
assistant, and a prompter. It is the business of the property man to see
that the scenery and properties are in perfect condition before each
performance. He, with his assistant, sets the stage long in advance of
the performance. He changes the settings for each act. It is necessary
for him to have two assistants, one for the right and one for the left
of the stage. The property man finds places for all his properties. He
places the properties for each scene together. He places the back drops
and wings in the order in which they are to be used. Each property, when
not in use, should be in its place. Benches should be provided behind
the scenes for the puppeteers. If chairs are used, beware of squeaky
ones.

The stage electrician is responsible for the lights and the making of
all changes in lighting between acts. He must be provided with a chart
of instructions, giving the lighting plan for every scene. This plan
should be securely tacked where it can be easily referred to. The
electrician can also take care of the drawing of the curtains, which is
an important task. There should also be a sheet of cues for the drawing
of the curtains, since a scene can be spoiled by drawing the curtains
too soon, too quickly, too slowly, or too jerkily. The last words spoken
in the first scene of _Men of Iron_ were: “I will climb the wall and
fetch it.” This was the signal or cue for the electrician to close the
curtains.

The prompter ought to have a low, clear voice and ought to be a person
in whom every puppeteer has confidence. Girls usually make good
prompters because of the quality of their voices. The prompter should
stand on the bridge near the middle and always keep her eyes on the
lines. She should never fail to prompt a puppeteer the instant he needs
it. She never confuses the puppeteers by trying to prompt them when they
do not need it. She must know the play so well that she understands
every pause.

The inspector of the strings is another important person in the
organization. This office is usually well filled by a girl. If there are
a great many puppets she may need an assistant. It is her duty to test
all the strings about a half hour before the play. This is done by
placing the thumb and forefinger on the string, just under the
controller, then letting the string pass between the thumb and
forefinger as they travel down to the marionette. If there is a weak
part in the string it can be easily detected. She sees that the
fastening at the controller is secure, and that the strings hang
straight and untangled from the controller to the marionette. She should
provide a first-aid box fully equipped with scissors, thread, paper of
pins, thumb tacks, and needles. A threaded needle, with the thread the
length of the knee strings, can be pinned into the curtain so that it is
available the second it is needed. A place for everything, and
everything in its place, does much toward making your performance move
along with smoothness and rapidity. All puppeteers, including property
man, electrician, and prompter should wear gymnasium shoes. In fact,
anyone who assists behind the scenes should do the same. If you find
that your bridge stairs creak the puppeteers should remain on the bridge
throughout the scene. Before a puppeteer comes down from the bridge, he
hangs up his marionette.

Since silence is so necessary behind the scenes, it can readily be
understood how important it is to have absolutely no talking on the
bridge, or between puppeteers who are waiting behind the stage. Scenes
must be changed and properties moved almost noiselessly. If you have a
high ideal of perfection for your play, two or three weeks of daily
rehearsals will be necessary. This is especially true for any marionette
ballet, such as Petrouchka, where it is necessary to memorize the music,
because each puppeteer is dependent on the music for his cues. Before
the curtains open all marionettes that are to be in the scene should be
in their places on the stage. Hold your controller with a steady hand,
so that your marionette is motionless. Keep your puppet on its feet. Do
not let it sag. Remember the sagging puppet.

As soon as the curtains open, begin your lines. Remember that a play is
like a piece of music, it moves onward in perfect time. An awkward
pause, or hesitation, breaks the time and destroys the spell you are
weaving about your audience. Entrances and exits should be so arranged
that the marionette makes his entrance and begins to speak his lines as
soon as the speaker before him finishes his lines. We have spoken of the
spell that you are trying to weave. Let us see what has been done, so
far, toward this end. The puppets are beautifully made. The scenery is
lovely in design and color. Hands, through patient practice, have
acquired that deftness and sureness that we call skill. The voices are
well pitched and appropriate for each character.

The greatest thing, however, is yet to be done. It is to touch the
imagination of your audience. The key to this world of the imagination
is suggestion. The lights and setting give the mood. The voices and the
movements of the puppets convey the thoughts and emotions of the
characters of the play. The harmony of lights, setting, voices, and the
movements of the puppets work the spell.

In the battle scene in _Sigurd, the Volsung_, the curtains open on a
stage where a low mound and one tree is silhouetted against a twilight
sky. A bit of afterglow still lingers. On the ground are several shields
and spears and two prostrate figures. Against one of the figures lies
Sigmund, the great Norse hero. Beside him kneels his faithful wife,
Hiordis. The audience feels that, shrouded in the mysterious blue light,
are a great host of noble slain. Sigmund bids Hiordis gather up the
pieces of his broken sword to keep for his son that is to be born. Out
of the shadows, dimly seen in his “gleaming gray mantle and cloud-blue
hood,” comes Odin, to welcome Sigmund to the hall of the heroes in
Walhalla. Hiordis bows her head in silence and the audience experiences
her grief, and shares her hope for the future. The afterglow in the sky
seems to be a promise of a new day.

[Illustration: [Stage]]

[Illustration]




                                 MASKS


[Illustration: [Mask]]




                               CHAPTER I
                          The Map of the Mask


From the map it is evident that masks have been worn in every part of
the world. They are older than the idols which primitive man made for
himself. Why he invented masks we do not exactly know. They may have
originated when man first attempted to impersonate the gods as he sought
to control nature. If you can imagine how vast and mysterious the world
of nature looked to primitive man and how he felt about all moving
things, animals, clouds, winds, flowing water, swaying trees, and
creeping vines, you can understand how he came to believe that there
were spirits dwelling in such things and that these indwelling spirits
had power to work him good or evil. Through offerings and prayers he
sought to control these mysterious spirits and make them do his will.

Death was the greatest of all mysteries. Where did the spirit go when it
left the body? It must go somewhere. Why not into an animal, or a tree,
or even into a stone? Gradually this came to be his belief. His desire
for mastery and power over the spirits led him to imagine faces more
powerful and compelling than his own which would dominate them. He was
full of invention. He invented the mask and became a god. When he wore
the mask he believed that he controlled indwelling spirits and even
coming events. This belief was true of primitive man the world over.

In Africa, masks were always worn in the tribal religious rites. When a
dancer wore a mask, he was no longer an individual for he felt within
himself the spirit of all his tribe. When the dance was finished, the
mask was taken from the head and worshiped like an idol. These masks
were created by the greatest artists of the tribe. They were simple,
strong, and severe, without naturalism of any kind. They exaggerated the
character of eyes, nose, and mouth in order to give intensity of
expression. They were strange, but not terrifying. They were an effort
to reveal the inner relations of man, nature, and God. They were
beautifully made out of wood, copper, bronze, and ivory.

Quite different masks are found among the primitive people of North
America. The Eskimos in Alaska make animal masks such as of the bear,
wolf, beaver, and various birds to represent their totem ancestors.
Every totemistic tribe has its own animal ancestor which it believes is
impressed upon everything around the dwelling. The Eskimos believe that
in the early days, if animals wished to assume human form, they could do
so at will by pushing up their faces or beaks, as if they were masks.
This human or man-like form they called the “inua.” It was supposed to
represent the thinking part of the animal, and, at its death, became its
shade or ghost. During the many festivals when the Eskimos wore their
animal masks, they believed that they actually became the creature that
they represented. Some of their masks were ingeniously made with double
faces, so arranged that, at certain times in the ceremony, the outer
mask which was held in place by pegs could be removed, thus symbolizing
the transformation of the animal into the man.

The Indians of California observe annual ceremonies of mourning for the
dead. Ten or more men prepare themselves to play the part of the ghosts.
Disguised with painted masks, and adorned with feathers and grasses,
they dance and sing in the village or rush about at night in the forest,
with burning torches in their hands. The relatives of the dead look upon
the maskers as their departed friends.

Other Indian tribes disguise themselves by painting their faces instead
of wearing masks. The inspiration for the painting comes from a trance
or a vision. The dancer makes his request to the leader of the ceremony.
“My Father, I have come to be painted, so that I may see my friends.
Have pity on me and paint me.” Elaborate designs in red, yellow, green,
and blue are put upon the face, with a red or yellow line upon the
parting of the hair. The designs most commonly used are sun, moon,
stars, crosses, and birds.

The Indians of Arizona and New Mexico, such as the Hopi and Zuni, are
ancestor worshipers. They believe that their dead relatives become
supernatural spirits or “cachinas” or “kokos.” They consider them
guardians that they may call upon in time of distress and need. If the
crops have suffered from drought, they bring out the sacred masks and
perform the rain dance.

The Zuni believe that the earth is watered by these departed ancestors,
who as they pass to and fro continuously over the middle plains collect
water in vases and gourd jugs from the six great waters of the world.
They are unseen by the people below, because they wear cloud masks.

The masks worn by the Zuni dancers in their great winter festivals bear
symbols characteristic of the cachinas and are repainted with great care
before each dance. Many and varied are the names of the different masks,
such as Mountain Goat-hunter Mask, Thrush Mask, Owl Mask, Buffalo Mask,
Dust-in-the-House Woman Mask, Rain-Drop-Maker Mask, Long-Life-Maker
Mask.

The ancient Aztecs wore masks decorated with turquoise and shell.

[Illustration:

  _Masks_

  _Indian Corn Maidens_

  _Clowns_

  _Japanese Characters_: _Old Woman_, _Devil Mask_, _Old Man_
]

[Illustration: MAP of the MASK]

 1          _AFRICA (Congo)_

 2          _ESQUIMAU_

 3          _ITALY (Commedia del Arte)_

 4          _ROMAN_

 5          _Greece (Ancient)_

 6          _ASIA (Thibet)_

 7          _EGYPT_

 8          _BRAZIL_

 9          _NEW MEXICO (Hopi)_

 10         _ARIZONA (Zuñi)_

 11         _CALIFORNIA_

 12         _NEW YORK (Benda)_

 13         _PHILADELPHIA (Bellsnickles)_

 14         _ENGLAND (Mummers)_

 15         _FRANCE (Revels)_

 16         _CEYLON (Lion)_

 17         _NEW ORLEANS (Mardi Gras)_

 18         _JAVA_

 19         _SIAM_

 20         _BURMA_

 21         _CHINA_

 22         _JAPAN (No Drama)_

In Brazil, masks were used in dances performed in honor of the dead. The
mask represented animals, birds, and insects. They obtained their
magical power by the wearer imitating the movements and actions of these
creatures. For instance, the butterfly masks came by their magic through
the dance of two men who imitated the play of these brilliant insects
fluttering on the wing, settling on sand banks and rocks. The magic of
the swallow masks came through the imitation of the swallow, and so it
was with the owl, spider, vulture, beetle, toad, jaguar mask, and
others. After the dance the masks were burned in order to drive the
indwelling spirits back to their haunts. Even idols needed masks to give
them life, and special power over disease and disaster. These masks must
be as enduring as the gods themselves, so they were made of terra cotta,
shell, and stone. Among the gifts made to Columbus when he landed in San
Salvador were some of these sacred masks.

Masks originated in Asia just as they did in Africa and America, through
man’s fears and superstitions. In India, China, Japan, and throughout
the Orient, they have been used for centuries in religious ceremonies.
Gradually they were introduced into court functions, such as wedding and
birthday celebrations, and finally animal masks were used to entertain
the common people.

The highly involved religions of these eastern peoples, with their
countless deities, brought infinite variety to their masks. Their
civilization, being old and rich in tradition, gave to the mask
subtleties and refinement of characterization that could not be
conceived of by primitive peoples. Their masks reflected their clear,
well-defined ideas, and showed their artists’ amazing ability to
recognize and analyze expressions of the human face. Tranquillity,
mirth, cunning, scorn, wrath, and subtle shades of feeling are
portrayed. The idea in the mind of the mask maker was so clear that we
are never left in doubt as to the meaning of the mask. They are
emotional interpretations, never realistic portraits.

Chinese priests used the mask in morality plays showing the rewards and
punishments that will be meted out in their many heavens, hells, and
purgatories. Their masks are usually horrible or terrifying, sometimes
humorous, rarely beautiful. They are worn by gorgeously costumed priests
who enact the plays, in pantomime, on stages erected in the temple
courtyards.

In Siam, Burma, Java, and Ceylon, the mask passed from the temple to the
theater and the strolling players. Much of its old symbolism has been
lost, and it frequently becomes merely an elaborate piece of decoration.

Probably the most beautiful masks in the world are the religious or _No_
masks of Japan. These are worn in the sacred _No_ plays, of which there
are more than two hundred. They represent the Japanese idea of the
appearance of their gods and heroes. Music, dance, and dialogue all are
used in the five or six short plays which make the _No_ cycle. The _No_
begins with the bestowing of blessings by the gods and their victory
over the demons. A short love story follows, with possibly a bit of
humor, and then a picture of the passing of life. The end is a gracious
recognition of the favor of the gods. These ancient plays are performed
out of doors on a simple platform erected against a wall on which is
painted a symbolic pine tree. Masks have been used for more than four
hundred years in these _No_ dramas.

The ancient Egyptians used the mask in their sacrificial ceremonies. In
the “Book of the Dead” ceremony one may see a priest wearing the
jackal-headed mask of Anubis, standing before the bier of the great god,
Osiris. The victims kneeling before him wear hare and hawk headed masks.
Egyptian kings wore lion, bull, and dragon masks to impress their
subjects with their mighty power. Even the mummies wore masks. On the
faces of their dead kings they placed masks of pure gold as did the
Mycenæans.

The mask, as we know it, came to us through the Greeks. In the worship
of Demeter, the earth mother of the Greeks, masks of horses, pigs, cats,
hares, and asses were used. Masks were also used in the worship of
Dionysus, with dancing, chanting, and chorus. The Greeks, being the
first people to have a theater, were also the first people to realize
that no human face could portray the sustained expression of tragedy and
comedy called for by the great rôles of their dramas. The mask became a
necessity. Thespis is credited with its invention. The mask enabled an
actor to play female rôles, to play many different characters, and to
represent his character in youth, middle life, and old age. The open
mouth characterized the Greek mask. Some scholars have believed that a
brass mouthpiece was used to amplify the voice of the actor.

The Romans appropriated the Greek mask. Virgil tells us that they hung
masks on trees at the time of sowing, in order to better the crops.
Noble Romans wore masks of their illustrious ancestors at funerals. The
impersonators riding in chariots through the streets were dressed in
rich robes of office, resplendent in purple and gold such as the dead
nobles had worn in their lifetime. When the funeral procession reached
the Forum, the maskers solemnly took their seats on the ivory chairs
placed for them on the platform of the rostra, in the sight of all the
people. This spectacle, no doubt, stirred memories of the glorious past
in the hearts of the old and fired the young with noble ambitions. It is
said that Nero wore masks resembling his own face and those of his
favorites.

With the passing of glorious Rome the mask became a degraded thing,
abhorred by the early Christians.

Throughout the Dark Ages in Europe the mask was used only in the revels,
and to celebrate the coming of the New Year and the springtime.
Gradually the spirit of revelling slipped into the Church. In England
and in France, during the XIIth Century, there was a very famous revel
called “The Feast of Fools” that began at vespers on the last day of the
year. Two equally famous revels were those of the “Boy Bishop” and the
“Feast of the Ass,” celebrated with rout and mock ritual. Such were the
excesses indulged in that Pope Innocent III, in 1207 A. D., formally
prohibited masking in the church. But it was not until the XVth Century
that these revels were effectively driven out. We hear next of the mask
in scriptural plays, such as those given at Christmas time. These plays
were performed outside the church. During the XIVth Century, we discover
the guilds or corporations of craftsmen employing the mask in their
religious plays, in honor of royal visits, and in their May Day
processions. In fact, all over Europe, at that time wherever the
mystery, miracle, or morality play was given, we are sure to find at
least occasional use of the mask.

[Illustration:

  _Masks_

  _Upper Row_: _Bishop_, _Queen_, _King_
  _Middle Row_: _Lady-in-Waiting_, _Crusader_, _Child_
  _Lower Row_: _Jester_, _Old Woman_, _Little Jack_
]

In Italy, from the XIVth to the XVIIth Century, the mask was worn by
Harlequin, Pantaloon, Pulcinella, the Doctor, and all the characters of
the _Commedia dell’arte_. In the XVIIIth Century, the comedy theaters of
France also affected the mask as a dramatic requisite.

During the XIXth Century the mask had degenerated to the crude false
faces used by Europeans or their descendants in America. In
Philadelphia, children wear masks at Thanksgiving. Masks appear at the
celebration of the Mardi Gras in New Orleans, and the old-time custom of
wearing masks at Hallowe’en still prevails.

A few years ago a group of artists, foremost among them W. T. Benda, who
knew the great and beautiful tradition of the mask and had felt its
strange fascination, lifted the mask to a new level of distinction.
Anyone who has had the good fortune to see one of their masks cannot
escape its spell nor can he rest until he finds an occasion to make a
mask.

[Illustration: [Mask]]

[Illustration: [Mask]]




                               CHAPTER II
                     Occasions for Wearing the Mask


We all know the thrill of wearing a mask, but an entirely new and
strange thrill awaits him who wears a mask of his own creation. Anyone
who has imagination is apt to turn away from the ordinary commercial
mask, because his fancy can picture something much more clever and
interesting.

When one looks at the calendar he is surprised to find that there are so
many days that invite the wearing of masks. The first occasion for
wearing a mask that comes to mind is Hallowe’en, that old celebration of
the eve of All Saints’ Day. The religious significance of this festival
is almost forgotten, but it still marks the fullness of the harvest time
and has long been celebrated with masks and merry-making. Even the
glowing jack-o’-lantern is a kind of mask.

For occasions such as the New Year and April Fools’ Day the mask may
express an individual idea or fancy. There are a few days, however, such
as Thanksgiving, Christmas, and Easter, for which masks must be
specially designed. These masks should represent the characters that one
associates with the occasions. When a story is woven about these
characters and then told in pantomime, by actors wearing masks, it may
be called a mask. Music and dance add much to the beauty of a mask.

Woodland, park, and garden are ideal settings for masks in spring,
summer, and autumn. Arbor Day, Shakespeare’s birthday, and May Day are
delightful occasions which stir the imagination and have rich
associations in music and literature.

Let us suppose that one wishes to celebrate Christmas with a mask.
Christmas is a Christian festival but it is being celebrated more and
more by all people who believe in brotherly love and good will. These
attributes can become the theme of the mask. The possibilities for
developing this theme of brotherly love and good will are endless. The
story may be laid in any land. It may center about the life of a great
court or about the humblest home. But wherever it is laid, the story
must have dramatic interest and touch the feelings of those who see it.

A simple mask may be just as beautiful and moving as a very elaborate
mask. Whether it is to be one or the other will depend largely upon the
size of the group that wishes to present it, and the place where it is
to be given.

Since the mask grew out of the Church, and since the Church provides a
beautiful and dignified setting, naturally it becomes a most appropriate
place for a Christmas mask. The Church has so much to offer that it is
not surprising to find it again welcoming pageantry and the mask. The
organist and choir provide the music, members with dramatic talent
perform the pantomime, sewing groups make the costumes, while those who
have a gift for crafts can make the masks and properties.

A Christmas mask, when given in a school, may require the coöperation of
all departments. The English department may find the theme and place it
in a period and give it dramatic form and train the reader and maskers
in pantomime. In the art department, the masks will be made, the
costumes and properties will be designed and decorated. The library
furnishes books and plates. The sewing department makes the costumes.
The wood-working department makes the properties. The music department
finds appropriate music and trains the chorus. The printing department
prints programs, posters, and tickets.

Here is an example of the plan and development of a Christmas mask given
for children by the pupils of a junior high school. The first
consideration was the size of the stage and its possibilities. The
second consideration was the attention of the audience. It was thought
that an entertainment that lasted an hour would not be too long. The
problem then was to find or to make a story that would develop, reach
its climax and conclusion within an hour. Naturally this story had to be
dramatic, have a simple and clearly defined plot, and its characters few
and vivid. The story chosen was laid in England in the XVth Century. The
history, art, songs, and customs of that time seemed to lend themselves
so readily to a mask. The theme chosen was unselfish love. The
characters were the King, Queen, Sage, Lady-in-Waiting, Pages, Peasant
Mother, and her son, St. George, the Dragon, the Doctor and Jack, the
Giant Killer, and the Morris dancers. Beautiful old English carols were
woven into the story, which was told by a reader, accompanied by a harp.
The mask begins with the carol “Holy Night, Silent Night.” This is sung
by a concealed chorus of boys. The curtains open, the King is seated on
his throne, his Counsellor and Page beside him. The reader begins a
story of selfishness and greed that rule throughout the kingdom and with
a dream of the unhappy King. The Sage opens his great book and counsels
the King to send forth messengers to find if anyone in all the land has
done an unselfish deed. This alone can save the kingdom. The scene
closes with the departure of the pages and the singing of the carol: “We
three Kings of the Orient are, bearing gifts, we have traveled afar.”

The second scene is laid in a humble dwelling. Here an old peasant
mother awaits the return of her son from his day’s work. The reader
tells the story of their poverty, and of the old mother’s courage in
facing the day when her son must leave her to go forth into the world.
Distant carolers are heard singing:

        Good King Wenceslaus looked out on the feast of Stephen.
        While the snow lay round about deep and crisp and even.

As the carolers’ voices die away, the son returns and tells a marvelous
tale. He has saved the son of a nobleman from a wild boar and as a
reward the nobleman offers to take him away to his great castle. The
mother rejoices in his good fortune, though it means their separation.
The son tells his mother that he has refused the reward in order to stay
and take care of her.

They sit down to their humble meal, and bow their heads in thanksgiving.
One of the King’s messengers enters, tells of his futile quest and asks
them if they have heard of anyone who has performed an unselfish deed.
The mother tells of her son’s devotion. The messenger rejoices and
declares that in all his wanderings he has heard of nothing but
selfishness. He bids them follow him to the court. As the curtains
close, the chorus sings: “Joy to the World.”

The third scene shows the King and Queen upon the throne, a
Lady-in-Waiting and the Counsellor attending them. The unsuccessful
messengers return, kneel before the throne, and sadly bow their heads.
The triumphant messenger returns, bringing with him the old mother and
her son. The reader tells the story of their devotion and there is
general rejoicing. The King bestows blessings and favors and then sends
for the mummers, who come in led by St. George and the Doctor with his
great bottles of pills (“red to cure, and blue to kill”) little Jack,
the Giant Killer, the terrible Dragon, and the Morris dancers.

The mummers perform the old English play of St. George and the Dragon.
The Morris men give the stick dance. At the close St. George and little
Jack beg pennies from the court, while the dancers go begging through
the audience and the chorus sings:

          Here we come a wassailing among the leaves so green.
          Here we come a wandering so fair to be seen.

The King steps forth and blesses all the people. They kneel reverently
as the Christmas chimes begin to ring. The King and Queen now come down
and kneel with their people, while the chorus triumphantly sings: “Hark,
the Herald Angels Sing, Glory to the New-born King.”

The Christmas mask illustrated in these pages was written about the
Crusade of St. Louis of France. It sought to re-create, through music,
pantomime, costumes, and dance, the spirit of the XVth Century. It was
inspired by the wealth of the material of this period in the Cleveland
Museum of Art. Here were examples of Gothic sculpture which gave the
note of simplicity and reverence, and at the same time accurate
information about pose, expression, costume, and line. The stained-glass
windows, enamels, and illuminated manuscripts gave suggestions for color
and color arrangement. Old Italian chests and the frames of early
Siennese paintings influenced the designs of the necessary furniture. In
the art library were found photographs and plates of sculptures of the
cathedrals of Chartres, Amiens, and Rheims. These were studied for
costumes, headdresses, ornaments, and especially for the types of faces
which were to be used in the masks. Examples of early textiles were
drawn upon for designs of costumes and background.

The King collection of books on costume at the Cleveland Historical
Society furnished references on costumes.

The rare John G. White collection of folklore and music in the Cleveland
Public Library furnished songs and chronicles of the time. In this
collection beautiful old French music of the XIth, XIIth, and XIIIth
centuries was found. The songs were translated and adapted so that they
could be sung by children. The action of the mask was made to take place
on Christmas Eve, in the year 1255, in the hall of the castle of Count
Mathew of Brittany. The mask began with a procession of forty children,
in costume, singing this XIVth Century noel:

              Lead us, Lord, where He doth lie this night!
                There is a Child of Mary born!
              Salvation hath He brought to us,
                Whom we should worship night and morn.

              Lead us, Lord, a star now shineth bright!
                In Bethlehem it so befell
              That in a stable born He was
                Pray Him for grace to serve Him well.

              Show us, Lord, where angel wings are light!
                The shepherds heard that Angel-song
              That grace did bring from out the sky
                Where Man was born mankind among.

              Conditor, our Lord of Power and Might
                Now let each man upon Him call,
              Who sits enthroned in Heaven high,
                That to His bliss He bring us all.

[Illustration:

  _Masks_

  _Upper_: _Mummer_, _Queen_, _Jester_
  _Middle_: _Egyptian Priest_, _Persian Poet_, _Greek Maiden_
  _Lower_: _Columbine and Pierrot_
]

These children made a beautiful picture as they grouped themselves
before the tall trees at the right and left of the stage. With them sat
the soloists and the orchestra. A reader dressed in the costume of the
period told the story. A group of sixteen children, masked and costumed
as the characters in the story, presented the pantomime.

This mask aimed to impress, through music and the harmony between spoken
word and gesture, the deep significance of Christmas.

[Illustration: [Mask]]

[Illustration: [Masks]]




                              CHAPTER III
                            Making the Mask


Anyone who has ever tried to make masks, knows their fascination. A
pillowcase with two holes cut in it for eyes may have been your first
mask. A paper bag may have been your second mask. What a wonderful
chance this gave you to show your originality. You may remember how you
labored to express some humorous or grotesque idea. There was the paper
nose that you cut, fitted and glued to it, and the ears that you made
for it, the mouth that you painted, and the headdress of feathers and
quills. Above all, there was the joy of wearing it and of comparing your
mask with the masks of your friends.

All masks reflect the ideas and feelings of those who make them. Great
masks have individuality and character. How does one make a mask that
has character? It is done in some such manner as this: First decide
whether your mask is to represent an imaginary character or a historical
character. If it is to represent an imaginary character you will have a
great deal of freedom in working out your idea, for no one can say,
exactly, what a goblin or demon or any fanciful creature looks like. But
if your mask is to represent a historical character the problem is quite
a different one. In that case you are guided by tradition and also by
the structure and proportions of the human face.

Let us suppose that you wish to make a mask of a noble king. He probably
would have a high forehead, a straight brow, a strong, firm chin, and a
kindly mouth. Exaggerate the high forehead, the straight brow, the firm
chin, and the kindliness of the mouth, and you will find that every one
who sees your mask will be conscious of its nobility. Is your king young
or old? If he is old, there will be hollows about his eyes, nose, and
mouth, and his cheeks may be thin. If he is young, his flesh will be
firm and there will be no drawn or sagging muscles. Exaggerate the
roundness of youth and the thinness of old age, keeping the proportions
and qualities which indicate nobility.

The brow indicates mood—surprise and curiosity are shown by arched
eyebrows; sadness and grief are shown by drooping eyebrows; perplexity
and anger are shown by the drawing together of the eyebrows.

The nose is very important and demands careful study. It should be
consistent with the character. Can you imagine a noble, generous king
with a short, upturned nose?

The mouth and chin are quite as important as the brow and nose.
Beginners often have great difficulty in modeling them, because they
forget to consider the profile. The lips and chin must be built out and
shaped exactly like those of the human face.

[Illustration: [Mask]]

When you have the character of this noble king well in mind, take a
pencil and paper and make a sketch of him, front view and side view.
Keep in mind the general proportions of his face. Having made your
drawing you are ready to begin your work with clay. Measure your face
from chin to the crown of the head, and the width of your face from ear
to ear. Do this carefully, for a good mask should fit the face of the
wearer. Onto a slate or a board crush some newspapers into a mound,
about 4 by 6 inches, and 3 inches high. This paper, acting as a core,
will save your clay and insure its quick drying. Pack the clay over the
paper as in the illustration, to a depth of about 6 inches. If the
length of your face is 8½ inches, make the mound of clay 8¾ inches,
since the clay shrinks in drying. For the same reason, add an extra ¼
inch to the width. With your drawing before you, begin modeling the
clay. Remember that a face is not flat. Observe the plans of the
forehead, the cheeks, and eye sockets. The expression which you imagine
the noble king to have had should be modeled into the clay and the
wrinkles cut into the forehead and about the mouth. You must study your
mask from many angles in order to make it lifelike.

[Illustration:

  _Characters from Christmas Mask_
]

If you do not finish your modeling the first day, cover the clay with
wet cloths to keep it from hardening. When you have completed your clay
model it will require twenty-four to thirty-six hours for it to dry.
From this model you are now ready to make either a papier-mâché mask or
a buckram mask. If you wish to make a papier-mâché mask cover the model
when thoroughly dry with a thin coat of vaseline. Now tear medium-weight
wrapping paper, cream and brown for instance, into pieces three or four
inches long, soak them in hot water, wring out separately, dip into
flour paste, and rub gently between the fingers until they feel like wet
chamois skin. Cover the entire surface with the cream-colored strips of
paper. The pieces may overlap but there must be no wrinkles. When the
entire surface is covered you may apply immediately a second layer. Let
this be of the brown paper. Follow this with a third layer of cream and
a fourth layer of brown. If your paper is thin, apply a fifth or even a
sixth layer to give the necessary thickness and strength. The
alternating of the cream and brown will help you to count your layers
and insures uniform thickness. Strive to keep a smooth surface and a
uniform thickness. Do not forget that in this process the last layer of
paper becomes the outer surface of your mask. After twenty-four or
thirty-six hours, the paper masks should be dry enough to remove from
the clay. Plasticine may be used instead of clay but since it does not
harden, this process necessitates making a plaster of Paris mold. The
directions for making this are given on page 66.

When you have removed the paper mask from the clay or plaster mold, cut
out the eye and nostril holes. If a mask is to be worn by a dancer, the
lips should be modeled slightly opened to permit the cutting away of the
paper between the lips.

If you decide to make a buckram mask you will require a piece of
light-colored buckram about twice the size of the face. Soften the
buckram with warm water, then place over the clay model which has been
covered with a coat of soapsuds. Press the buckram carefully, so as to
bring out all the modeling of the features, then allow to dry.

The next step is the construction of that part of the mask which will
cover the head. Here you will need assistance. While you hold the mask
to your face, your assistant will take a one-inch strip of heavy paper,
long enough to go around the back of the head, and attach it to the
outside edges of the mask, just above the ears. If this strip is
attached too low, the mask cannot be removed from the head, if too high,
the mask will not be held securely. You will soon discover that it is
necessary to put the chin into the mask first, when you put it on. A
mask should fit the face and head closely. If you follow the steps in
the illustration, you will see how this basketlike framework is
constructed and how any kind of headdress can be built up on it. When a
headdress is completed, and the inside of the mask is finished with a
lining of papier-mâché, you are ready to paint the mask. Oil paints are
the most practical. Tempera colors, however, may be used. The painting
of the mask should emphasize the character.

[Illustration: [Masks]]

Complexion is the first consideration. Faces usually are fair, sallow,
or swarthy. There are certain masks, however, that are much more
effective when they are painted symbolically. The mask of the priest of
Osiris was painted a rich green to indicate the fertility of the Nile.
The demon mask was painted a greenish-gray. Yellow, vermilion, and black
were used to heighten the terrifying aspects. Observation and experiment
will guide you in the painting of the eyes, lips, brow, and hair, and
also in the subtle violet shadows about the eyes, cheeks, and chin.
Beware of timid lines that imitate nature. They say very little when the
mask is a few feet away from you. Big, sweeping rhythmic lines make for
design and carrying power, and are to be seen in all great masks. The
inside of the mask should also be painted, decorated if you like, and
shellacked when the oil paint is thoroughly dry. This prevents the
breath from softening the papier-mâché. The outside must not be
shellacked.

The masks shown in the accompanying illustrations aimed to bring out the
most important traits of the character chosen. North American Indian
symbolism of design and color was carried out in the masks of the Corn
Maidens. Each mask was made by a different person, with a very clear
idea in mind of what she wished her mask to express. Notice how like and
yet unlike these Corn Maiden masks are. A clown’s face is supposed to
show grotesque humor. By exaggerating nose, ears, and mouth, both in
shape and color, the grotesque effects of the clown group were produced.
Cheerfulness and contented old age are characterized by two Oriental
masks shown at the bottom of the page. The demon mask grew out of a
careful study of Chinese and Japanese demon masks.

The remoteness and dignity of ancient Egypt are reflected in the mask of
the Priest of Osiris. The poetical sensitiveness of the mask of an
Oriental poet was inspired by the faces in early Persian miniatures.
There is much of wistfulness and subtle character delineation in the
mask of the jester. This mask was worn with a parti-colored costume, cap
and bells.

The possibilities of character masks are suggested by the photographs of
the “Christmas Masque” given by the children’s singing classes of the
Cleveland Museum of Art, and by the ninth grade special art class of
Fairmount Junior High School, assisted by the Music School Settlement at
the Cleveland Museum of Art, Christmas, 1925.

[Illustration: [Mask]]

[Illustration: [Costume]]




                               CHAPTER IV
                  The Costume and Setting for the Mask


Costume is a means of introducing characters, of telling time and place,
and of creating dramatic mood. A costume should be different from
ordinary clothes, and should have a characteristic quality that will
help an actor to interpret his part. Imagine Charlie Chaplin in any
other outfit than his own. Do you think this costume of his came by
chance? Much thought and experiment went into its creation. Have you
ever noticed how this artist wears his shabby, droll, almost pathetic
costume, and how he uses it to play upon your feelings? His work is an
illustrious example of a great artist’s use of costume.

There are two kinds of costumes, those which grow out of pure
imagination and those which reproduce the costumes worn in different
periods in different countries. The latter are spoken of as period
costumes. Under imaginative costumes come those of Maeterlinek’s _Blue
Bird_ which represent fire, water, milk, sugar, bread, and those of the
old morality plays, such as virtue, vice, modesty, poverty, envy, and
greed.


_Imaginative Costumes._ Three things are essential to the imaginative
costume: appropriate line, appropriate color, and appropriate material.
The kind of costume that would represent wind would require drapery, the
lines of which would suggest the movement of wind when the body was in
motion. Water, however, would require straight, downward falling lines.
The color of an imaginative costume is important. Who can imagine a
fairy in black or a gnome in white, a character representing spring in
russet brown or one representing autumn in yellow-green? Materials
likewise have their appropriate uses. Fairies are not weighted down with
velvet, neither are gnomes given costumes of gauze.


_Period Costumes._ When we come to period costumes, accurate information
is necessary. The quest leads us to libraries, with their illustrated
books, photographs, and plates; to historical and art museums with
whatever they may have of original material.


_North American Indian Costumes._ One costume that is familiar to every
American boy and girl is that of the North American Indian. We
occasionally see Indians at the circus, as traveling medicine men, or on
their reservations. Many museums are making collections of their
costumes and their arts. Government publications, such as the
beautifully illustrated ethnological reports, with information about
almost every tribe, are in most libraries. Many libraries have the
wonderful Curtis photographs. The _National Geographic_ and other
magazines have illustrations that could also be used.

[Illustration:

  _Indian Costumes_
  _Warrior_| | | _Maiden_| | | _Chief_
]

Considering the dramatic part that the Indian has played in American
life, what subject could be more appropriate for a mask? Indian life and
legend offer an equally vivid and colorful opportunity for the mask. The
wealth of material is inspiring. Every community in our country can find
somewhere in its history stirring events related to Indian life. What
could be more interesting than to weave these incidents of pioneer life
into masks? These could be presented by school clubs and boy and girl
scout troops, in parks and playgrounds.

[Illustration:

  _Israelite Costumes_

  _Priest_
  _Maiden_
  _Tribesman_]
]


_Bible Costumes._ A mask with characters taken from the Bible could be
very beautifully costumed. One could use pictures of the artist, Tissot,
who spent many years of his life in Palestine, sketching costumes that
he felt were similar to those of Bible times. His illustrations show how
widely the rich Eastern costumes differ from our own. The materials used
were fine, transparent linen and silk and cloth made from wool and
camels’ and goats’ hair. The various classes of people were
distinguished by difference in the richness, costliness, and simplicity
of their dress. Ornament is very characteristic of all these Oriental
costumes. The sculptured figures on one of the tombs near Thebes show
the Israelites brought before their Egyptian conquerors wearing fringed
garments. Moses commanded that fringe be worn by his people. This was
probably a survival of a still more ancient usage in the family of
Jacob. Assyrian reliefs show Israelite captives being stripped of their
ornaments, sandals, anklets, embroidered robes and tunics, girdles and
armlets, thin veils, caps of network, ear pendants, bracelets, rings,
and jewels of the nose.


_Egyptian Costumes._ The costumes of the ancient Egyptians may easily
come into a mask of Bible times. Materials used were fine linen, cotton,
and wool. The common people wore merely a piece of linen tied around the
loins. Occasionally the skin of a tiger or leopard was thrown over the
shoulders. Both men and women wore broad collars around the neck and
over the breast. The men wore armlets, bracelets, and finger rings,
while the women added to these ornaments, diadems, girdles, and bands of
ornament around the breast and hips. The headdress was important, for it
indicated the rank of the wearer. The illustration shows the
characteristic features of their costumes.

[Illustration:

  _Egyptian Costumes_
  _God Osiris_| | | _Princess_| | | _King_
]


_Cretan Costumes._ If you have ever felt that the ancient costume lacked
what we call “style,” behold this snappy, chic little Cretan goddess!
With her short-sleeved, closely fitting jacket, full flounced skirt and
wasp waist, headgear, loops, and sashes. She might have been the very
latest word from Paris a generation ago.

[Illustration:

  _Cretan Goddess_
]


_Greek Costumes._ When we speak of Greek costumes, we usually think of
those upon Greek statues, such as the Athena and Artemis. Since these
are in marble or in plaster of Paris, it is quite natural that we should
think of the Greek costume as being white. It is interesting to learn,
however, that Greek costumes showed a great variety of colors.

[Illustration:

  _Greek Costumes: Man and Woman_
]

The favorite colors were deep purple, red, and yellow. There was a very
dark blue and a green described as the color of unripe grapes or frog
colored. The materials used, were linen, wool, sometimes cotton, and
silk. The costumes worn by the common people were of coarsely woven
wool. The finest weaving was worn by the people of wealth. Design was
important in the Greek costume. Sometimes it was an all over symmetrical
pattern or a floral or an animal pattern. Even the human figure was used
as a motif. A fragment having a naturalistic design of ducks embroidered
in gold and green on a dark brown background has been found. These
designs were sometimes woven into the material, sometimes embroidered,
and very frequently painted upon the materials. Border designs beaten
out in thin gold were not infrequently stitched onto the dress.

The chief and indispensable garment of a Greek woman was her peplos,
which was a piece of material sewed together, open at top and bottom,
and reaching from the neck to the feet. The width was equal to the
extended arms. It was fastened over the shoulders with a kind of pin or
fibula and about the waist with a girdle. Under this she wore a short
undergarment. A similar but much shorter and simpler chiton was
sometimes worn by the Greek men. The outer garment for both men and
women was a kind of cloak or mantle made from an oblong of wool, 7 or 8
feet long by 5 or 6 feet wide. There were many ways of wearing this
garment which was called the “himation.” Here is a description of the
toilet of the Goddess Hera: “Then she clad her in her fragrant robe,
that Athena wrought delicately for her, and therein set many things
beautifully made, and fastened it over her breast with clasps of gold.
And she girdled it with a girdle arrayed with a hundred tassels, and she
set earrings in her pierced ears—earrings of three drops and
glistening—and therefrom shone grace abundantly. And with a veil over
all, the peerless goddess veiled herself—a fair, new veil, bright as the
sun, and beneath her shining feet she bound goodly sandals.” (Lang,
Leaf, & Myers.)

[Illustration:

  _Roman Costumes_
  _Soldier_| | | _Lady_| | | _Noble_
]


_Roman Costumes._ Roman dress was patterned after the Greek. It was
unbelievably ample. The toga was a huge elliptical piece of cloth in
length three times the height of the person who wore it and in width
twice his height. Imagine the skill required to arrange this garment.
The toga was of thin white woolen stuff. When bordered with purple, it
denoted a person holding public office. A purple toga was always a mark
of high office. It was sometimes embroidered in gold. Under the toga was
worn a short garment called the tunica, which corresponded to the Greek
chiton. The dress of a Roman matron corresponded to that of a Roman man.
She wore a tunica, loose and without sleeves. Over this a stola which
was belted at the waist and had sleeves. Out of doors, she wore the
palla, which is identical with the Greek himation. Sandals and sometimes
shoes were worn on the feet. These were bright colored and sometimes
embroidered with gold and pearls. Roman jewelry lacked Greek refinement.


_Costumes of the Early Church._ What could be more dignified and
beautiful than a mask built upon the history of the early church! The
costumes for such a mask would be ecclesiastical in character and would
reflect the influences of the Eastern and Western worlds. The materials
of these costumes would be rich and colorful and of Byzantine design.
The lines of the costumes would very closely resemble the state dresses
of the Roman official dignitaries. The illustration shows how elaborate
were the vestments of a bishop. In marked contrast but equally
interesting were the habits worn by the monastic orders. Here is a brief
description of the habits of several of these:

Benedictines wore gowns of black, white, or russet cloth, with white or
black fur, and black cape and hood.

Augustines wore black cassocks under white full-sleeved tunics, over all
black cloak and hood, square black cap.

[Illustration:

  _Scene from Christmas Mask given by ninth year Fairmount Junior High
    School pupils at the Cleveland Museum of Art._

  _Lady-in-Waiting_| | | _King_
]

Dominicans or Black Friars wore similar habit to that worn by the
Augustine monks.

Franciscans or Gray Friars wore long, loose gray cassocks girded with a
cord, a hood or cowl, and a cloak of the same.

[Illustration:

  _Ecclesiastical Costumes_
  _Bishop_| | | _Nun_| | | _Monk_
]

Carmelite or White Friars wore habits of white throughout, but from
about 1240 to 1290 their cloaks were parti-colored, white and red.

Crossed Friars wore blue habits with a plain red cross.

In the early church there were various orders of nuns. They lived in
convents, apart from the world, and took the vows of poverty, chastity,
and obedience. Their costumes were of extreme simplicity and dignity, in
keeping with their religious ideas. Each order had a distinctive costume
of gray, blue, brown, white, or black. The materials were wool and
linen. Note the full mantle, sleeves, and head-covering.


_Crusaders’ Costumes._ Every boy and girl who loves adventures has no
doubt been thrilled by stories of the Crusaders. The story of Richard
the Lion-hearted may come to your mind. This illustration shows you the
kind of costumes that he and other Crusaders wore. Beginning in the year
1096, and during the two hundred years which followed, there were nine
crusades. People from every country in Europe and from every class set
forth for the conquest of Jerusalem and the recovery of the Holy
Sepulcher. When these great companies of people set forth each wore the
costume of his own country and class, but upon each surcoat was worn the
cross. According to the order of Pope Urban II which read: “You are a
soldier of the Cross, wear, then, on your shoulder the blood-red sign of
Him who died for the salvation of your souls.” What a sight it must have
been! Godfrey of Bouillon set forth from his province of Lorraine with
10,000 horsemen and 80,000 infantry, all bearing this blood-red cross
upon their surcoats. Raymond of Toulouse led forth, it is said, with
160,000 horse and foot.

[Illustration:

  _Crusader's Costume_
]

Out of the successes and failures of these great pilgrimages came the
experience and inspiration that created the literature, architecture,
and arts of the Middle Ages, and gave the Christian world many of its
saints and martyrs.


_XIIIth Century Costumes._ One of the greatest expressions of this
intensely religious age was the cathedrals. From the infinite number of
statues that are carved upon their façades and especially their portals
and those statues that are within the cathedrals, from the figures in
their stained-glass windows, the brass effigies in their pavements, and
their frescoes and paintings, came the most authentic and complete
information about the costumes of this period. Illuminated manuscripts
and tapestries, such as the Bayeux tapestry, are also valuable sources.
Photographs and reproductions of all this material are available. If one
is seriously interested in costume he can collect reproductions from a
surprising number of sources, such as newspapers, especially the Sunday
supplement, magazines, and postcards, and make them into a costume
scrapbook.

[Illustration:

  _XIIth Century Costumes: Lady and Noble_
]

The history of England from the time of William the Conqueror to that of
King John and Magna Carta furnishes a wealth of material for the mask.
Stories of William the Conqueror, Robin Hood and his Merry Men, the
Canterbury Pilgrims and Ivanhoe, will come to your mind. English
costumes show little change from the IXth to the XIVth Century. The men
wore a sleeved tunic, rather short, partly open at the sides, confined
by a girdle. Over this tunic, usually very plain, was worn a mantle. It
was a universal custom to cross-bandage the legs from the knee down.
Pointed caps and shoes or low boots were worn. Women wore long tunics or
gowns with close-fitting sleeves, made loose and girt in about the
waist. A short tunic with very wide sleeves at the wrist was worn over
this. This garment was often richly embroidered. For the out of doors
there was an extra mantle with hood. Beautiful ornaments of gold and
bronze were worn by both men and women. Coverchiefs were worn over the
head, encircling the face and covering the throat and shoulders. The
coverchief later became the wimple. Women wore their hair flowing or in
two braids brought forward over the shoulders. The men wore flowing hair
and the two-pointed beard. The garments of royal persons were made of
very rich materials.

An illuminated portrait of Eleanor of Acquitaine represents her “with a
wimple with a circlet of gems; her under tunic fitting closely and
having tight sleeves is gathered into a rich collar about her throat;
over this dress is a long tunic, loose and flowing, bordered with
ermine, its full and open sleeves being lined with fur; and over all,
there is the ever-present mantle so adjusted that at the pleasure of the
wearer it might be drawn over the head.”

[Illustration:

  _XIIIth Century Costumes: Lady and Noble_
]

Richard the Lion-hearted wore over a white under tunic a longer tunic
and an almost equally long crimson dalmatic slit up at the sides. The
latter garment had very full sleeves. The mantle of royal blue and gold
was fastened in the center over the chest by a large morse. He wore
gloves jeweled at the back of the hand, and enriched boots with spurs
attached with buckled straps.

Here is a description of a XIIIth Century costume of King John. At a
certain Christmas festival he appeared in a white damask tunic with
jeweled girdle and gloves, his mantle being of red satin embroidered
with sapphires and pearls.

[Illustration:

  _XVth Century Costumes: Lady and Noble_
]


[Illustration:

  _XVIth Century Costumes: Lady and Noble_
]

_XVth Century Costumes._ Romances and ballads founded upon tales of
chivalry are colorful material for the mask. These are most frequently
laid in the XIVth and XVth centuries. This was the time when heraldry
was at its height and there was great interest in armorial devices.
These appeared on the rich costumes of the time, which were made from
silk, satin, velvet, and cloth of gold. Women wore very long and full
skirts, tight waists and sleeves. Rows of buttons appear on waists and
sleeves. There is a loose girdle about the hips. The horned, steeple,
and butterfly headdresses were most extravagant. Shoes had long, pointed
toes. Long mantles were popular. The costumes of the men of the same
century consisted of a tight-fitting tunic with tight sleeves, rows of
buttons, loose girdle, long hose, shoes with pointed toes. Mantles were
of the richest materials and these were splendidly adorned.


_XVIth Century Costumes._ Masks founded on the life of Columbus and the
discovery of America will require costumes following those of the XVIth
Century. The costume for men show trunk hose, a jerkin or jacket closed
at the throat, sleeves cut and slashed, and a very short coat that was
called a doublet. In addition to this there was a very full cloak or
cape that hung from the shoulder; a little flat cap was worn with this
costume. Short hair came into style early in this century. Women wore
full skirts, sometimes extended by a kind of wheellike frame of
whalebone that was known as a “farthingale,” tight waists, puffed and
slashed sleeves, and wide muffs. The world was ransacked to find stuffs
to satisfy the extravagance of the XVIth Century.

The colonial history of the United States is rich in material for
pageants and masks. What could be more vivid and interesting than the
story of the Pilgrims, Dutch founders of New York, or of the Cavaliers
of Virginia? The costumes of these periods are well known to you.

The Cavalier of the XVIIth Century continued the extravagance of the
XVIth Century. His hat was wide brimmed and befeathered. There was lace
at his neck, wrist, and boot top. His doublet let his fine cambric shirt
be seen at the waist.

[Illustration:

  _XVIIth Century Costumes: Cavalier and Lady_
]

The women were equally elegant. Loose sleeves were turned up at the
elbows with bows of ribbon. A tight-fitting bodice came down over a full
skirt divided in front to show an elaborate underskirt. A wide collar
covered the shoulders. This was a time of patches, hair powder, face
paints, great feather fans, and muffs of fur, and the wearing of small
black masks, presumably as a protection from the sun.

The costume of the XVIIth Century most familiar to us is that of the
Pilgrim. It reflects the protest against the worldliness and
extravagance of the time. The hat was wide-brimmed and high-crowned,
with a wide ribbon band. Plain, wide collars of linen fell over the
shoulders of their simply cut garments, which were of home-spun linen or
wool. Not all Pilgrims wore somber gray, brown, or black. Many chose
deep red, blue, or plum color.

[Illustration:

  _XVIIth Century Pilgrim Costumes_
]

The characteristic features of the XVIIIth Century costume of the French
court during the reign of Louis XV and Louis XVI are shown in the high
ornate head, dress of the women, the small waist, the wide flounced
skirt, the exquisite silk brocades, jeweled and painted fans. The men of
this period wore as elegant costumes as the women and gave much thought
to their wigs, laces, and snuffboxes.

[Illustration:

  _XVIIIth Century Court Costumes_
]

The Colonial costume followed the XVIIth Century costume in America. It
was directly influenced by the fashions set by Louis XV and Louis XVI.
The costumes of the men of fashion of the colonies were made from
satins, laces, and embroideries imported from France. Their periwigs and
their enameled and jeweled snuffboxes were also French. The ladies of
this period were equally exquisite. They wore full flounced skirts over
huge whaleboned petticoats and tight bodices. Sloping shoulders,
powdered wigs, painted faces, and patches were the fashion.

[Illustration:

  _XVIIIth Century Colonial Costumes_
]

When you have decided upon the costume you wish to make, then comes the
very practical problem of materials. These need not be expensive since
satins, unbleached muslin, cambric, tarlatan, cheesecloth, and oilcloth
can be made to give beautiful effects. The advantages of satin are that
it has body and texture and comes in a great range of colors. It has the
sheen of satin, and is fairly inexpensive. It can be block printed or
stenciled with gold, silver, or colors, and made to resemble the richest
fabrics. Cambric is less expensive, but has less body and texture. It,
too, can be made very effective by block printing or stenciling. Designs
taken from fine old textiles in museums or from books or plates can be
sketched or traced and then adapted for stencil or block.

Cloth of gold or silver can be made by painting muslin, gauze, or net
with gold or silver radiator paint. This can be stenciled by brushing
the stencil pattern with rabbit’s foot glue, then removing the stencil
and sprinkling the design with gold or silver powder. There are no
materials more satisfactory than unbleached muslin or cheesecloth when
they have been dyed. These are very inexpensive. The dyeing is not
difficult and gives beautiful results for the small amount of time and
effort spent. The better standard dyes are very satisfactory, and can be
used either hot or cold. By combining the dyes in the same way that you
would mix pigments (see page 94) you can produce any true tint or shade
that you wish.

Rich effects are often produced by a second and third dipping. Very
often colored cheesecloth gains by being redipped. As an illustration, a
piece of blue cheesecloth dipped in a green dye bath becomes a lovely
blue-green. Experiment with small pieces of your material before you dip
the larger pieces.

The accessories of costumes, such as chains, brooches, girdles, and
scabbards are often necessary. Beads of glass, wood, clay, macaroni, and
various seeds can be painted, enameled, or gilded, and set into
papier-mâché for crowns, brooches, bracelets, and earrings. Buttons and
glass ornaments can be used in the same way.

The design of a costume must be considered even more than its materials.
A designer is an artist who uses fabric, color, and line to create an
impression and to express an idea. He should study the play, and
understand its dramatic ideas and moods. If he does this, his costumes
will be as expressive, if properly worn, as the words of the actors.

Historic costumes reflect in a remarkable way the life, tastes, and
feelings of an earlier time. But historic costumes also require an
artist to reproduce them. The designer of an historic costume should
know a great deal about the people who first wore this particular kind
of costume and why they wore it. He will then choose suitable materials
and colors, and will try to reproduce characteristic lines and
silhouettes.

Last but not least comes the wearing of a costume. This requires two
very important things: intelligence and imagination. The wearer, as well
as the designer, should know the life, customs, and manners of the
period which the costume represents. If he does not know them how can he
move and gesture and assume the characteristic attitudes which the
period demands and bring the costume into harmonious relation with the
setting?

A mask requires but few properties. A throne, a chair, or a stool may be
sufficient, if well designed and of the proper period. A rich, colorful
hanging or rug against a neutral background will draw your stage picture
together and add dignity to a scene.

The throne and stool shown in the photograph on page 178 were made from
beaver board, after designs of Gothic furniture. The design was first
drawn on the beaver board; to the design were then glued pieces of rope
clothesline, while small rolls of papier-mâché were glued on for the
lowest relief. The entire surface was then covered with pieces of
unbleached muslin which had been soaked in whiting, glue, and warm
water. When this was dry a coat of dark earth-brown oil paint was
applied. Lastly a small amount of gold was rubbed over the design. The
result resembled rich carved wood.

Much can be done with papier-mâché in the making of minor properties,
such as croziers, maces, harps, lutes, jewel boxes, helmets, shields,
sword handles, and scabbards. Properties should add to the beauty of a
scene, never dominate it. They will be much more convincing when they
suggest rather than minutely imitate the actual object. A background may
be no more than a box hedge and still be most charming.

Everyone is familiar with the beauty of woodland settings. Masks of
spring, summer, and the harvest time of Shakespearean plays almost
demand some such setting.

Masks of winter bring us indoors. Possibly the best indoor background is
the simple gray curtain of velvet, velveteen, monks’ cloth, outing
flannel, or cambric. Against it costumes are seen to advantage and
lights of all colors may be thrown against it successfully.

Since a mask is a highly conventionalized form of drama, it is possible
to use a background painted with appropriate decorative or symbolic
designs. An illustration of this is the symbolic pine tree painted on
the wall of the temple courtyard for the Japanese _No_ dramas. Screens
of various kinds are full of possibilities. In the church or Sunday
school, classroom, auditorium, library, or settlement, in the yard,
playground, or park, ingenuity, imagination, and taste will always
create a fitting background.

[Illustration: [Tree]]

[Illustration: [Charioteers]]




                               CHAPTER V
               The Mask with Pantomime, Music, and Dance


The wearing of masks made it difficult for the Greek actors to speak
their lines. Naturally they came to rely upon gestures quite as much as
upon words to carry their meaning to the audience. This interpretation
by gesture led to the development of the art of pantomime.

The great pantomimists had wit and humor. They knew how to take a story
and improve it in the telling. Their hands expressed more than their
words, and their gestures were a language that all understood. Masks
made it possible for each actor to assume different rôles, and his
mimicking was in keeping with the character of the mask he wore.

It was no unusual thing in the Greek towns and cities to see a jolly
company of these mimes and musicians in grotesque costumes, their faces
masked or smeared with soot, riding in chariots through the streets so
that they might advertise their plays. These plays were little dramas
and comedies in which pantomime and music played an important part.

Pantomime was popular with the Romans and for this reason despised by
the early Christians. It survived, nevertheless, through a few obscure
actors and mountebanks. Gradually these mimics and their fellows banded
themselves together. They appeared at festivals whenever they were
summoned, only to disappear afterward into the deep obscurity of a
stroller’s life.

The mimics, or jongleurs (as they were called in France in the early
Middle Ages), kept alive the tradition of dramatic entertainment. Among
the famous mimics was Taillefer, who rode into the battle of Hastings
tossing his sword into the air and catching it again, while he sang
songs of Roland and Charlemagne. In France and in England the
pantomimist was welcome in castle, in convent, and on village green.

From the Vth Century on, the Church gave much thought to forms of
dramatic public worship, and sought thereby to interest and instruct the
people. Living pictures, accompanied by songs, were used to illustrate
the gospel narrative. On great festival days, such as Christmas, Good
Friday, and Easter, the priests performed in pantomime the incidents
appropriate to the occasion. Out of these very simple rites grew the
mysteries, miracles, and the elaborate morality plays in which pantomime
played a very important part.

In addition to such sacred plays, there were no end of secular plays.
These were given all over Europe by townsfolk and peasants, in the
streets, at the fairs, and in the great halls of the castles. Among the
most popular of the English folk plays were the St. George plays. These
were acted at Christmas time by bands of masked townsmen and peasants
who called themselves mummers. Several versions of these old St. George
plays, which can still be adapted and used in a Christmas mask, have
come down to us. Among the characters are St. George, the Doctor, Little
Jack, Father Christmas, the old dragon, and the Morris men.

In Italy during the XVIth and XVIIth centuries there was a popular form
of character comedy that was known as the _Commedia dell’ arte_. This
was performed by bands of professional actors who strolled about the
country giving their improvised plays to any chance audience. As time
went on and their popularity grew, the more clever of these bands
established themselves in theaters in the towns and cities, where they
gave a great variety of performances. The principal characters of their
plays were Harlequin, Scaramouch, Columbine, Pantalone, and Punchinello.
These characters all wore masks and were adepts in the art of pantomime.
These Italian musicians and actors of the _Commedia dell’ arte_ traveled
to Spain, France, and finally to England, where their boisterous humor
was warmly welcomed by high and low. Here is an account of one part of
the festivities that were given in Kenilworth, in the year 1576:

“Noow within allso ... waz thear showed before her Highness by an
Italian, such feats of agilitie, in goinges, turninges, tumblinges,
castinges, hops, jumps, leaps, skips, springs, gambauds, soomersaults,
caprittiez and flights; forward, backward, sydewize, a downward, upward,
and with sundry windings, gyrings and circumflexions; allso lightly and
with such easiness, as by me in feaw words it is not expressible by pen
or speech ... I bleast me by my faith to behold him, and began to doout
whither a waz a man or a spirite.... Az for thiz fellow I cannot tell
what to make of him, save that I may geese his back be metalld like a
lamprey, that haz no bones but a line like a lute-string.”

Pantomime was popular in England during the Reformation and morality
plays were given in dumb show.

French actors were greatly influenced by these clever traveling Italian
artists. They set up similar plays at their great fairs and finally
established a theater in Paris, in which music and pantomime were
developed to the highest perfection.

Until recent years nearly all that we have known of the great tradition
of pantomime came to us through the circus clowns. Among these were a
few artists such as Grimaldi, who never allowed their art to become low
and trivial.

Now, all this is quite changed, since the coming of the movie. The
moving picture depends entirely upon pantomime for interpreting
character and expressing emotion. The greatest of the movie actors are
great pantomimists. When we study the movements and gestures and the
facial expressions of such actors as Emil Jannings and Charlie Chaplin,
we begin to understand what pantomime really is. Chaliapin is another
great actor who understands the art of pantomime and uses it in opera.

Let us see how pantomime, music, and dance were used in the Christmas
mask described at the end of chapter II “Occasions for Wearing the
Mask.” Masks for this play had been made for the following characters: a
dignified king, a mournful queen, a gentle lady-in-waiting, an austere
learned bishop, a faithful son, a clever jester, a rollicking band of
mummers. Each pupil had made his own mask after very thorough study of
the character that he had chosen. Knowing his character well enabled
each student to interpret that character when he put on his mask, and
for the time of the play, each student sought to become that character,
king, queen, bishop, or mummer. The problem for each actor was that of
bringing his movements and gestures into harmony with his mask. The
king’s movements should be no less dignified and stately than his mask
suggested. The unhappy queen must express the sadness of her mask by her
drooping head and shoulders and by her impassive hands. Her mask was so
modeled that when lifted, it suggested a smile. This expression was
required when she lifted her head in joy at her son’s return.

The lady-in-waiting used pantomime to interpret her gentleness and
modesty and the music which accompanied her XIIIth Century song. This
song, sung off stage by one of the chorus, was singularly appropriate to
the pensive quality of her mask.

                         LADY-IN-WAITING’S SONG

                 Though the winter be a-cold
                 Safe the lamb lies in the fold
                   Roses red are sleeping
                 ’Neath the brown earth deep and warm.
                 Spring at last with winter’s storm
                   Steals now so gently creeping.

                 Soon the rose will bloom and blow,
                 Soon the birds sing loud and low.
                   Love hath breathed not coldly.
                 Deep in dungeon underground,
                 Love the knight hath fastly bound.
                   To these he strideth boldly.

                 Thou bereft and all alone
                 By our Lady Mary’s Son,
                   Weep ye not so sadly!
                 Of his true love, found again
                 Never knight was half so fain.
                   Look! now He cometh gladly.

The jester used pantomime in his dance. His inspiration for his poses
came from the illustrations in old manuscripts and reproductions of old
manuscripts. He sketches these, and then, assisted by a teacher who
understood folk dancing, he worked out every step and pose to the music
of this, his song:

                          JESTER’S SONG

                  Here am I, the Count’s good fool.
                    (Ch.) Aye, aye, ah.
                  Laughter is my only rule.
                    (Ch.) Aye, aye, ah.
                  Tears alone do wake my rage.
                    (Ch.) Aye, aye, ah.
                  With a smile I gain my wage.
                    For jollity am I a page.

                              _Chorus_:
                  O, for joy! O, for joy!
                  Ah, to thee we dance
                    To thee we dance,
                    To thee we dance.
                  With many a wink and glance
                    At Merriment’s fool.

                  List my bauble’s tinkling noise,
                    (Ch.) Aye, aye, ah.
                  Kingly crowns my golden toys.
                    (Ch.) Aye, aye, ah.
                  Dee, with gallant, blythesome pose,
                    (Ch.) Aye, aye, ah.
                  Leap I high upon my toes
                  To offer my ladie a rose.

                              _Chorus_:

What can the mask, the age-old form of entertainment, give us to-day? It
is so far from mere representation that it allows us to escape from
realism and to enter freely into the world of fine and subtle character
interpretation. It is a form of entertainment that lends itself to
humor, to dignity, and to beauty, and enlists the finest creative
effort.

[Illustration: [Clown]]




                                SHADOWS


[Illustration: [Samurai]]




                               CHAPTER I
                       The Mystery of the Shadow


The life of primitive man was full of peril. Out of the struggle to
survive the dangers which threatened him on every side came fear and
superstition. He developed a great regard for shadows which he could not
understand. They were mysterious, they moved and changed, appeared and
disappeared. They eluded him and yet pursued him. The shadow became for
him a living thing. Gradually he came to look upon his own shadow as his
very soul. He felt that he must shield and protect it. Consequently he
would permit no one to step upon it, or even to touch it.

Stories of regard for the shadow come from many lands. The natives of
Nias, an island in the Dutch East Indies, greatly feared the rainbow,
because to them it was a powerful net set by a great spirit to catch
their shadows, and to destroy them.

Savages of Wetar, a neighboring island, believe that a man can be made
ill unto death if his shadow is stabbed, while the Ottawa Indians
believed that a man will die if certain figures are drawn upon his
shadow, and the Bushmen of Australia never allow their shadows to fall
upon dead game. They are confident that bad luck will follow them if
they do so. When a Malay builds a house, he takes the greatest care to
prevent his shadow from falling into the hole that is being dug for the
center post. If, by chance, his shadow should fall into the hole, he
feels certain that sickness and trouble will follow him.

Here is a curious tale that comes from India. A priest named Saukara
disagreed with the grand lama. In order to show his supernatural powers
he soared far up into the sky, his long shadow falling on the ground.
When the lama saw this shadow moving along on the ground, he drew out
his sword and struck it. Saukara fell to the earth.

In Africa, the natives believe that even trees must guard their shadows.
This is especially true of the trees that have medicinal leaves. A
Kaffir doctor runs up very quickly to one of these medicinal trees and
tries to avoid stepping on its shadow lest the shadow inform the tree of
his coming and give it time to withdraw the healing properties of its
leaves into the trunk.

One of the strangest customs that has existed since the time of the
Greeks is still practised in southeastern Europe. It is that of
measuring a strong man’s shadow and then of building the measuring line
into the foundations of a building. The people believe that the strength
of the man goes into the structure. In Roumania one frequently hears
when passing a building under construction this warning cry: “Beware
lest they take thy shadow.” There are certain people who go about
stealthily measuring the shadows of strong men. They sell these shadow
measuring lines to the architects.

Gradually the superstitious fear of shadows passed. In the place of this
fear came an interest in using shadows for entertainment. This may have
been suggested by the shadows that fell on the walls of the sacred tent
while the priests within were performing the holy rites.

Shadow plays originated in the Orient and are known in every Eastern
country. Here is a tale of their Chinese origin. An emperor grew angry
with his two court fools, and ordered their heads cut off. When his
anger cooled, he began to feel that life was dull. He then ordered his
grand vizier to bring his fools back to life. At this command, the
vizier was almost at his wit’s end for he knew that he would lose his
own head if he could not fulfil the royal command. One day he met a
fisherman with two great fishes. It suddenly occurred to him that he
might take the skins of these fishes, dry them, and cut out from them
two figures that would look like the two jesters. He succeeded in doing
this, and after much thought and labor, he was able once more to show
the Emperor his fools, this time as shadows against a lighted curtain,
acting for his entertainment. These shadows seemed to please the Emperor
even more than the living jesters.

In all Eastern countries the people usually prefer flat shadow figures
to round marionettes. Such shadow figures are made from the carefully
prepared skin of a goat or buffalo. After it has been stretched and
dried, a clever artist takes the translucent skin and cuts out from it
figures which represent the gods and heroes of the people. The
illustration shows a characteristic Javanese shadow figure. The
elaborate pattern is made by means of many small holes of different
shapes and sizes. This figure is further enriched with transparent
colors and gold. The arms are jointed at the shoulder and the elbow.
Slender rods of wood, bone, or ivory are then fastened to the body and
arms. The puppeteer manipulates the figure by means of these rods which
extend below the figure. The shapes of the figures are most interesting,
as you can see, with their strange headdresses, long noses, thin arms
and legs. Their gestures are so grotesque and fascinating that they are
like the strange people one meets only in dreams.

The theaters in which these shadow figures are shown are often no more
than an angle of two walls before which is hung an opaque curtain in
which there is a small opening with a bit of very fine linen stretched
over it. This is lighted from behind. Here the showman sits with his
figures all about him. And a very clever fellow he must be! Think of all
the things he must do. First, he must know by heart all the stories that
the people may wish to see acted, then he must know how to make the
proper speech for each of his puppets, as well as how to make it act its
part with the proper feeling and gestures. Further, he must be able to
direct the orchestra of several men playing tomtoms, to manage his
lights, and to shuffle his feet when that is necessary.

Can you guess how many puppets belong to his set? Count the characters
in your favorite plays. If you take a long play like Shakespeare’s
_Midsummer Night’s Dream_, and include a great band of fairies, there
will scarcely be more than fifty characters. This showman has from sixty
to one hundred and twenty shadows in his set. He must know just where
every one is placed so that he can put his hand upon it the moment it is
needed. He must also please people of many different tastes, therefore
he must be able to give serious plays; plays about the gods, about
giants and dragons, elves and fairies. Besides all of this he must know
a great many hero plays, for it is through his art that the great heroes
are kept alive.

Omar Khayyam, the Persian poet, compared life itself to a shadow-show.

              For in and out, above, about, below,
              Life’s nothing but a Magic Shadow-show.
              Play’d in a Box whose Candle is the Sun,
              Round which we Phantom Figures come and go.

The shadow figures of Oriental countries differ widely. For example,
those of China are as beautiful in pattern and in color as those of the
Javanese but are much less grotesque. The Turkish shadow figures are
less beautiful than the Chinese and Javanese figures. They are very
cleverly articulated, however, and so skilfully manipulated that they
furnish the most common and popular form of dramatic entertainment.
Black Eye or _Karagheuz_ is the rogue hero, and is known throughout
Turkey and the whole of northern Africa. The Karagheuz shows are the
usual attraction of Greek and Turkish coffee houses.

Among the many things that came to Europe through trading with the
Orient were Chinese shadow figures. They probably reached England early
in the XVIth Century.

We know that the clever showman, Powell, used motions or shadows in his
_Old Creation of the World with the Addition of Noah’s Flood_, in 1641.
More than a century later Chinese shadow plays came under royal favor in
France. There they have been changed and adapted in many ways. The
modern French shadow plays are pretentious, with many scenes and
numerous characters. All the countries of Europe have made some use of
the cut-out shadow figures.

Recently cut-out shadow figures have found a rival. This has come about
through the growing appreciation of the dramatic possibilities of the
human shadow figure. Modern lighting has done much toward this end,
because it has made possible a clearly defined silhouette on the shadow
screen.

[Illustration:

  _Upper: Scene from cut out shadow play, "The Traveling Musicians of
    Bremen."_

  _Lower: Behind the scenes in a cut out shadow play, given by eighth
    grade pupils of Fairmount Junior High School, Cleveland, Ohio._
]

The art of the human shadow is not limited. It uses acting, dancing,
music, the voice, and color. With a sense of design and arrangement, a
beautiful picture is created before the audience every moment. The human
shadow play is a new challenge to imagination, taste, and ingenuity.

[Illustration: [Marionette]]

[Illustration: [Shadows]]




                               CHAPTER II
                          Making a Shadow Play


It is not at all difficult to make a shadow play if one knows what the
requirements are. The first requirement of either a cut-out shadow play
or a human play is that its story shall have action. In this it is like
a movie. You will recall how keenly you enjoy the action in such movies
as _Robin Hood_ and the _Black Pirate_. The second requirement is a
dramatic plan or problem. This is necessary in order to hold the
attention of the audience. For example, the dramatic plan or problem in
the _Black Pirate_ is the struggle of the hero to free himself from the
pirates. Your attention is held by this struggle. The third requirement
is the selection of the most important and interesting characters in the
play. Since the success of a shadow play depends upon interesting
silhouettes, each character must have individuality. No two silhouettes
should be alike, either in appearance or size. As an illustration of
this, notice that the shadow figures at the top of page 215 are of
different appearance and height. Lastly, the settings of a shadow play
should be very simple and suggestive and help to tell the story.

Nursery rhymes and fables, folk and fairy tales are delightful material
for cut-out shadow plays. They are vivid, humorous, and fanciful. They
are full of direct conversation which can be carried on by the
puppeteers behind the screen or by a reader in front of the screen. In
the following list you may find a story to turn into a cut-out shadow
play. Nursery rhymes such as: _Little Bo Peep_, _Old King Cole_, _The
Knave of Hearts_, _A Frog Who Would A-Wooing Go_, and _The House That
Jack Built_. Fables such as those of Æsop, La Fontaine, and Bidpai. Folk
and fairy tales, such as: _Cinderella_, _Beauty and the Beast_, _Jack
and the Beanstalk_, _The Three Little Pigs_, _The Elves and the
Shoemaker_, _Seven at a Blow_, _Snow White and the Dwarfs_, _The Three
Bears_, _Red Riding Hood_, _Aladdin and His Wonderful Lamp_, _Sleeping
Beauty_, _The Mermaid_, _Just-So Stories_, _Three Billy Goats Gruff_,
_The Traveling Musicians of Bremen_, and _The Pied Piper of Hamelin
Town_. Bible stories can be turned into beautiful shadow plays. For
example, David and Goliath, Daniel in the Lion’s Den, Jonah and the
Whale, and Joseph and His Brethren.

Tales of heroism and adventure, ballads and poems, stories of Christmas
and Easter, Bible stories and stories of the lives of the saints are
appropriate for human shadow plays because they have great human
interest and give opportunity for dramatic interpretation. The following
list may be a guide to you in choosing your play: William Tell, Robin
Hood, King Arthur, Roland and Oliver, Hiawatha, The Cid, Joseph and His
Brethren, The Story of Moses, David and Jonathan, David Before Saul, The
Good Samaritan, The Story of Ruth, The Story of Queen Esther, The Story
of St. Francis of Assisi, The Nativity, The Christ-child Legend, Where
Love Is There God Is. Also, and Christmas carols such as: Good King
Wenceslaus, We Three Kings of the Orient Are, Here We Come A Wassailing,
and Little Town of Bethlehem.

Boys and girls who have originality and a gift for writing will find
great pleasure in making their own shadow plays. These can be done
either in prose or in verse. They can do this easily, if they keep in
mind the requirements—action, dramatic interest, individuality of
characters, and a simple, harmonious setting. It is worth trying.

[Illustration: [Shadows]]

[Illustration:

  _Scenes from the cut out shadow play, "The Traveling Musicians of
    Bremen."_
]

[Illustration: [Shadows]]




                              CHAPTER III
                     Producing Cut-out Shadow Plays


When you were very young you probably were quite skilful in making
shadow rabbits, ducks, and donkeys on the nursery walls. With a friend
you may have cut out paper animals and people and fastened them to
sticks and then made a shadow play with their shadows on the wall.

Your interest in shadows may have led you to stretch a sheet across the
upper part of a doorway and cover the lower part with a shawl. Here you
stood concealed from your audience while you moved your shadow figures
back and forth in a lively fashion as you spoke the lines of a favorite
nursery rhyme or improvised a play.

The next step was converting the old three-part screen into a shadow
booth.

[Illustration:

  _The frame_ (_A_), _upon which is fastened the translucent paper or
    cloth_ (_B_), _slides in and out of the standard at the grooves C,
    C._
]

When one wishes to use scenery with cut-out shadows some sort of frame
is necessary to hold the screen. Here is a plan for a very simple and
inexpensive standard. You can see that you can have any number of
screens for this kind of standard, because it allows the screens to be
slipped in and out in a moment. The materials required other than the
lumber are unbleached muslin or cheap white window shades and black
showcard colors, and a few brushes of different sizes. The muslin should
be stretched and tacked to the frame. If you use a window shade it will
not be necessary to stretch it and it provides an excellent surface on
which to paint the scenery.

Making a shadow play is jolly good fun. First, make a list of the most
important incidents in the story. Second, decide upon the number of
scenes that you think necessary for your play. Third, decide upon the
number of characters required for these scenes. You will be surprised to
find how few characters and incidents are needed to tell your story.
Choose only those which are most important. Know your story well before
you begin. Let us choose the traveling musicians of Bremen for our play.
The list of important incidents are as follows:

 Incident     I— Donkey on the road

 Incident    II— Donkey meets Dog

 Incident   III— Donkey and Dog meet Cat

 Incident    IV— Donkey, Dog, and Cat meet Cock

 Incident     V— Donkey, Dog, Cat, and Cock seek shelter for night in the
              wood

 Incident    VI— Cock sees a distant light

 Incident   VII— Donkey looks through the window of the robbers’ house

 Incident  VIII— Donkey, Dog, Cat, and Cock break through the window

 Incident    IX— Robbers flee with fright

 Incident     X— The animals devour the robbers’ feast

 Incident    XI— The animals settle themselves for the night

 Incident   XII— One of the robbers returns

 Incident  XIII— He is scratched by the Cat

 Incident   XIV— He is bitten by the Dog

 Incident    XV— He is kicked by the Donkey

 Incident   XVI— The Cock calls “Cock-a-doodle-doo”

 Incident  XVII— The robber flees to his companions

 Incident XVIII— The robber describes the witch that clawed him, the demon
              that stabbed him, the giant that beat him with a club, the
              fateful spirit on the roof that screamed “Throw him up to
              me.” Four scenes will tell the story.

 Scene   I— The roadside

 Scene  II— The deep wood

 Scene III— The robbers’ house

 Scene  IV— The roadside

These four scenes require twelve characters: Donkey, Dog, Cat, Cock,
Four Robbers, Witch, Demon, Giant, and the fateful spirit. Each
character must be analyzed, for both disposition and general appearance.

Shadow figures require careful planning, because they present but one
silhouette throughout the play. Naturally this silhouette must be the
most characteristic one. The shape of the nose, chin, and head, of the
hands, the feet, and the body, all must be closely studied. Let us see
how a shadow figure is made. Let us begin with the Donkey. He looks old,
thin, and neglected, but he still has spirit enough to start out into
the world. His thin body and neck show that he is old and misused. His
strong jaw shows his will and determination. Before you draw him on a
piece of paper you should decide on his size. The scale is determined by
the size of the shadow screen. Let us suppose that this is 21 inches by
28 inches and that your scale is two inches to the foot. The Donkey is
made about 8½ inches high by 10 inches long, the robbers 11 and 12
inches high, the Dog four inches high by 4½ inches long, and the Cock 3
inches high by 4¼ inches long. After you have drawn the Donkey to scale,
cut him out and hold him behind a sheet of paper near the light and
study his silhouette. Are you satisfied? If not, draw another donkey.

[Illustration:

  _Moving parts are pivoted with paper fasteners (a). Wires running up
    the sticks_ (_f_) _to move the tail, neck and jaw are looped through
    the eyelets_ (_c_). _Thumb tacks_ (_b_) _or glue may be used to
    fasten the figure to the sticks. Pivot points should be eyeletted
    before inserting the fasteners; for greater ease in working, it is
    sometimes well to let the head of a fastener come between two parts
    as at_ (_e_). _The movement of the jaw piece blinks the eye which is
    cut at_ (_d_).
]

[Illustration: [Cut-outs]]

What is the Donkey expected to do? Move his jaw when he talks, move his
tail and ears and his legs when he walks. How can this be done? The
illustration may look very complicated at first. Study it carefully and
follow the directions and your donkey will be able to walk, open and
close his mouth, blink his eyes, and move his tail and ears. The
materials that you will need are black construction paper or any heavy
paper, thin sticks about 2 inches long and ⅜ inch wide, eyelets, and
long-pronged brass paper fasteners, thumb tacks, and light-weight wire.

Not all shadow animals are as complicated as this donkey. Here are a
deer, a cock, and a dog, each made of just three pieces of paper. The
illustrations of the farmer, fairy queen, and elf (see end of chapter)
will show how the human figures are made.

[Illustration: [Cut-outs]]

When you have finished constructing the cut-out shadow figures, your
next problem will be making the scenery. Composition and pattern are
extremely important in shadow pictures, for nothing in the world reveals
the fascination of dark and light more than the shadow play. If you can
recall the beauty of the landscape in a heavy winter snowstorm when the
branches and trunks of the trees are velvety black against masses of
white, you can appreciate this. Every tree has a characteristic
silhouette which everyone recognizes. A shadow pine tree must suggest
the silhouette of the pine, likewise the oak, the elm, and the poplar,
must suggest their silhouettes. So, too, with flowers and grasses. The
wide prairies were suggested by the coarse prairie grass in the _Indian
and the Oki_. Summer meadows were suggested by the flowers and slender
grasses in _The Shepherdess_.

When you have finished the plans for a scene take crayon or soft pencil
and draw it in outline on one of the screens. Use black showcard color
to fill that part of your scene which is to be dark. For a black
silhouette paint both sides of the screen. Distant hills and trees
should be painted on one side only.

For lighting use a lantern or an extension light. Place it about six
feet directly behind the screen. Color can be thrown on the screen by
placing a sheet of colored gelatine in front of the light. Experiment
with the light and color until you get the effects you wish.

If you use tracing cloth, such as the architects use, for your screen,
you may paint on it directly, with transparent water colors. When the
light comes through this screen, if you have kept your colors clear,
brilliant, and well related, the effect will be charming.

[Illustration:

  _Behind the scenes in the human shadow play, "The Indian and the Oki."
    Here you can see the well-stretched sheet on its large frame, the
    beaver board trees (left), great rock (right), bristol board
    foliage, grasses, and flowers, the bridge resting on 8″ horses.
    Notice that the actors stand very near the screen. The two actors on
    the right concealed by the great rock from the audience are
    manifesting the pair of fighting sparrows. The girl on the left is
    manifesting the rabbit which is shown in Scene I._
]

The shadow figure is manipulated from below. This means that you must
stand below the screen so that your own shadow will not be cast upon the
screen. As you bring your shadow figure forward, you will notice that as
it approaches the screen it grows smaller and smaller. To prevent the
figure from varying in size it should be held close against the screen.

Unlike the marionette that moves forward and backward as well as to the
right and left, the shadow figure can move only to the right or left.
With this limitation, however, it is surprising to find how many
movements and gestures are possible. Suit the action to the word. Avoid
jerky gestures and repetition of the same gesture.

The lines of the shadow play can be given by the puppeteers or by a
reader or readers in front of the screen. If the puppeteers are to speak
the lines they should sit down together and read the play again and
again, until they can speak the lines naturally and without hesitation.
When they can do this, they are ready to begin rehearsals with the
shadow figures. Do not hurry. Every word should be clearly spoken.

If two or three short plays are being given in a program, two readers,
one standing at the left and one at the right of the screen, can read
the lines alternately.

The shadow play is a delightful kind of entertainment for young and old.
It is appropriate for the home, the school, the settlement, and the
Sunday school. It has the advantage of requiring very little time to
produce, the materials are inexpensive, and it is an artistic means of
expression.

[Illustration: [Cut-outs]]

[Illustration: [Child]]




                               CHAPTER IV
                      Producing Human Shadow Plays


Did you ever feel about your shadow as Robert Louis Stevenson did, when
he wrote:

                    “I have a little shadow,
                      That goes in and out with me,
                    And what can be the use of him,
                      Is more than I can see.”

If you ever took part in a shadow game, you discovered many surprising
uses for your shadow. You may remember how you stretched a sheet in a
doorway and played the game of guessing silhouettes. This was highly
entertaining, and somewhat difficult when familiar faces were disguised
by unusual noses and chins. Then there were the shadow charades and the
game of guessing book titles.

If you wish to give a shadow play with scenery and several actors
performing at one time, then a large shadow screen becomes necessary.
This can be made from 2-inch strips of wood, strengthened in the corners
as shown in the illustration. The size of this screen will be determined
by the width of the sheeting which is to cover it. The screen used at
the Cleveland Museum of Art for the shadow plays _The Indian and the
Oki_ and _The Shepherdess_ was 7¼ feet high by 12 feet long, and was
covered with sheeting 90 inches in width. Great care was used in the
stretching of the sheet. The tacks were placed about two inches apart.

The reason for choosing _The Indian and the Oki_ for a shadow play was
that it had action and characters that were very individual, such as
would be easily recognized when they fell on the shadow screen. Another
reason for choosing this story was that its scenery could be suggested
by silhouettes. The group of boys and girls who gave this play selected
important incidents of the story and re-arranged them and added
incidents wherever they found it necessary. The following twelve
incidents made up the first act:

1. Rabbit wiggles ears, hops across stage.

2. Sparrows scrap upon rock, first gently, growing furious.

3. Eagle swoops across and down upon rock; birds leave.

4. Wild cat moves slightly, winks eye, raises tail, arches back ready
for spring as

5. Scandawatti peeps from rock, then disappears, then Indian lad
appears, with bow and arrow and shoots at wild cat, hits bear.

[Illustration:

  _Scenes from the human shadow play, "The Indian and the Oki"_
]

6. Bear bounds forward, pulls out arrow from shoulder with teeth, eyes
flash, rushes forward as lad attempts to climb rock, misses hold at top,
slips, almost falls backward, bear ready to pounce.

7. Achilles appears at right side, shoots quickly, bear rolls over,
Scandawatti leaps to feet, looks in surprise from bear to Achilles,
comes forward, examines gun.

8. Chief enters from right slowly, approaches boys, lad tells him of
escape.

9. French trapper enters from left, approaches, lays hand on Achilles,
hears story. Scandawatti leads way to Chief Iliol. Trapper gives pistols
to both boys who admire them. Chief nods satisfaction. Both trapper and
chief leave together to right.

10. Boys examine, admire, and handle pistols.

11. Red Deer sneaks from behind rock and looks jealously at weapons,
moves hands and body as if eager to possess prize, disappears.

12. Curtain closes as lads pledge friendship and prepare to leave.

The incidents chosen for the second act were:

1. Squaw stirs stew in the kettle that hangs over the fire.

2. Trapper and Chief Iliol enter and sit down. Squaw brings the pipe of
peace. They smoke.

3. An indian enters and dances to the tomtoms. The trapper, chief, and
dancer leave.

4. Scandawatti enters with a basket full of fish and Achilles with a
game bag full of rabbits and ducks. They give these to the squaw.

5. Scandawatti and Achilles sit on the ground and play with their
pistols.

6. Red Deer peers from behind bushes.

7. Squaw gives each boy a bowl of the stew. They eat greedily.

8. Boys undo bundle in which there are knives and beads. Achilles holds
up the Oki or false face.

9. Scandawatti, alarmed, jumps up and runs. Achilles runs after him,
carrying the Oki.

10. Red Deer enters, stealthily, and reaches for the pistols.

11. Achilles lifts up the Oki from behind a rock. Red Deer drops the
pistols and flees.

12. Scandawatti and Achilles enter laughing, pick up weapons, wrap
themselves in blankets, and lie down to sleep.

For the third act they chose the following:

1. A turkey runs across the stage.

2. Red Deer follows with Scandawatti. He binds him to a tree, then runs
after the turkey.

3. Red Deer returns with dead turkey. Builds a fire and places the
turkey over it.

4. Red Deer dances about, mocking Scandawatti.

5. Achilles peeks from behind rock. Motions to Scandawatti to have
courage. Then sticks up the Oki and waves it about in the air.

6. Red Deer flies in terror.

7. Achilles frees Scandawatti.

8. They devour the turkey.

9. The trapper and Indian chief appear and all rejoice.

Shadow plays require just as careful character analysis as any other
kind of play. Here is the character analysis.

Scandawatti, brave, loyal, fun loving.

Achilles, courageous, loyal, resourceful.

Red Deer, treacherous and superstitious.

Chief Iliol, trustworthy and dignified.

Squaw, stolid and good-natured.

Trapper, just and reliable.

Dancer, lively.

The story included the bear and turkey, the rabbit, wild cat, hawk and
birds were added for the sake of the picture. The illustrations show how
the turkey, wild cat, and birds were made.

The scenery consisted of tree trunks, branches, and a big rock cut from
beaver board, and foliage, flowers, and grasses cut from light-weight
bristol board.

The properties needed were a tripod and a kettle, a stick for the fire,
a basket of corn, bowls and a ladle, pistols, strings of beads, a game
bag filled with paper game, a fish basket filled with paper fish, bow
and arrow, gun, rope, two blankets, and a peace pipe.

The costuming of a shadow play is quite a different problem from the
costuming of any other kind of play. A costume may look quite right to
the eye and yet be ineffective as a shadow. It requires ingenuity and
much experimenting to produce satisfactory silhouettes. Scandawatti, Red
Deer, and the dancer wore loin cloths, head band, and feathers. The
Indian chief wore headdress and blanket. The squaw wore a fringed
curtain, head band, and beads. The trapper and Achilles wore trappers’
costumes and coon-skin caps. A boy took the part of the bear in a bear
costume made from outing flannel.

[Illustration: [Cut-outs]]

The profiles of the children were not in the least Indianlike. It was
necessary to provide them with characteristic Indian noses and this was
done by glueing on flat cut-out paper noses.

The producing of a shadow play requires a director and two assistants,
as well as the group of actors. The director is responsible for the
production of the play which will probably require five or six
rehearsals. During the first rehearsal he stays behind the screen,
working out with the group each incident of the play. He and the group
decide upon the entrances, positions on the bridge, the exits, and those
who are to manipulate the shadow animals receive their instructions. The
reader should be present at the first rehearsal, in order to observe the
development of the play. At this rehearsal the actors need not be in
costume. Each actor begins by interpreting his part as he feels it
should be done. The Director should inspire and encourage his actors to
do their best and guard against being too critical at this time, since
everyone is feeling his way—becoming familiar with properties, and with
this new kind of acting in one plane.

It was in the first rehearsal of _The Indian and the Oki_ that the boy
who took the part of Scandawatti discovered, as he was trying to escape
from the bear, that it would look more natural if he got out of the
bear’s reach by climbing the rock, rather than by dodging behind it.
When a stepladder was placed behind the beaver-board rock, the boy,
after much practice, was able to make it appear to the audience that he
was really climbing the rock. He was finally able to give a little slip
as he reached the top, just as the bear was about to overtake him. This
gave a real thrill to the young spectators.

At the second rehearsal the Director takes his position in front of the
screen. He watches every movement and gesture of the actors. He guides
the actors who cannot see their shadows, because they are so close to
the screen. If he understands pattern and rhythm he can direct their
movements so that every movement of the shadow play will be beautiful.
The reader begins his part at the second rehearsal. He can give an
introduction and carry the story on between the acts, or he can read as
the play is being given. The reader may be a girl or a boy and should be
chosen for a rich, well-modulated voice, dramatic sense, and ability to
enunciate distinctly. The reader should be appropriately costumed.

Introducing a dancer in a shadow play presents a problem. In the second
scene of _The Indian and the Oki_ you can see in the illustration how
the height, and bulk, and dignity of the Indian chief on the left and
the curved line of the trapper’s body on the right were used to frame
the space for the rhythmic movements of the dancer. The dancer also had
his problems. The first was that of keeping a characteristic Indian
silhouette on the screen at all times. The second problem was that of
varying his movements to show his veneration for his chief and his
adoration for the Great Spirit. The beating of the tomtom gave the tempo
for the steps of his dance. A teacher who understood folk dancing
coached the boy who took this part outside of the regular rehearsals, so
that he might gain confidence and skill.

[Illustration:

  _More scenes from the human shadow play, "The Indian and the Oki."_
]

By the fourth or fifth rehearsal, if the actors can interpret their part
naturally and convincingly, they will be ready to put on their costumes.
Here many surprises await them. As an illustration of this the
shepherdess in the play by that name made, for herself, a very correct
little bodice. When she appeared on the shadow screen her silhouette was
very disappointing. In order to give the right effect, a short length of
cheesecloth was slashed six or seven times at the ends, and then drawn
tightly around her, and the slashed ends were tied together down the
front. You can see her in the illustration, as she kneels on the bridge
manipulating one of the fighting sparrows in the first scene of _The
Indian and the Oki_. The long heavy braids of this shepherdess were made
of yarn.

Any ordinary lantern or an electric light with a reflector may be used
for lighting the screen. A screen 7 by 12 feet will require a 400-watt
light placed about eighteen feet behind it. If you have very little
space behind your screen, your lantern may throw a large disk of light.
You can avoid this disk by fastening to the front of the lantern a piece
of asbestos with an opening cut to the same proportions as the screen.

There are many possibilities of using color in a shadow play. A safe
rule to follow is either to use color throughout a play or not to use
color at all. A sheet of colored gelatine placed in front of the light
will diffuse color over the entire screen. The time of day can be
suggested by color: pink for early morning, yellow for noon,
yellow-orange for the late afternoon, blue or blue-green for night.

In the second scene of _The Indian and the Oki_, yellow-orange gelatine
was used to indicate the late summer afternoon. Under the cardboard
kettle a red bulb, partly concealed by sticks and twigs, suggested fire.

The depths of the sea can be suggested by covering the light with green
gelatine and using cut-out shells, seaweeds, and water plants as
scenery. Water sprites and fanciful sea creatures would be at home in
such a setting.

Music is a beautiful accompaniment for shadow plays, especially for
Christmas and Easter celebrations. Imagine a shadow play in six scenes
built about the Nativity according to the gospels of St. Matthew and St.
Luke.


                       _Scene I—The Annunciation_


  “The angel Gabriel was sent from God unto a city of Galilee, named
  Nazareth, to a virgin espoused to a man whose name was Joseph, of the
  house of David; and the virgin’s name was Mary. And the angel came in
  unto her, and said, ‘Hail, thou that art highly favored, the Lord is
  with thee; blessed art thou among women.’” (St. Luke, I: 26, 27, 28.)


                 _Scene II—The Angel and the Shepherds_


  “And there were in the same country, shepherds abiding in the field,
  keeping watch over their flocks by night. And, lo, the angel of the
  Lord came upon them, and the glory of the Lord shone round about them:
  and they were sore afraid. And the angel said unto them, ‘Fear not,
  for behold, I bring you good tidings of great joy, which shall be to
  all people. For unto you is born this day in the city of David, a
  Saviour, which is Christ the Lord. And this shall be a sign unto you;
  Ye shall find the babe wrapped in swaddling clothes, lying in a
  manger.’ And suddenly there was with the angel a multitude of the
  heavenly host praising God, and saying, ‘Glory to God in the highest,
  and on earth, peace and good will toward men.’ And it came to pass, as
  the angels were gone away from them into heaven, the shepherds said to
  one another, ‘Let us now go even unto Bethlehem, and see this thing
  which is come to pass, which the Lord hath made known unto us.’” (St.
  Luke, II: 3–16.)


               _Scene III—The Adoration of the Shepherds_


  “The Shepherds came with haste, and found Mary, and Joseph, and the
  babe lying in a manger.” (St. Luke, II: 17.)


                 _Scene IV—The Coming of the Wise Men_


  “Now when Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of Herod
  the king, behold, there came wise men from the east to Jerusalem,
  saying, ‘Where is he that is born King of the Jews? For we have seen
  his star in the east and are come to worship him.’” (St. Matthew, II:
  1, 3.)


                  _Scene V—Simeon and the Young Child_


  “And behold there was a man in Jerusalem, whose name was Simeon; and
  the same man was just and devout, waiting for the consolation of
  Israel: and the Holy Ghost was upon him, and it was revealed unto him
  by the Holy Ghost that he should not see death before he had seen the
  Lord’s Christ. And he came by Spirit into the Temple: and when the
  parents brought the Child Jesus, to do for him after the custom of the
  law, then took he him up in his arms, and blessed God, and said,
  ‘Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace, according to thy
  word: for mine eyes have seen thy salvation, which thou hast prepared
  before the face of all peoples: a light to lighten the Gentiles and
  the glory of thy people Israel.’” (St. Luke, II: 25, 33.)


                    _Scene VI—The Flight into Egypt_


  “And the angel of the Lord appeared to Joseph in a dream, saying,
  ‘Arise, and take the young Child and his mother, and flee into Egypt,
  and be thou there until I bring thee word: for Herod will seek the
  young Child to destroy him.’ When he arose he took the young Child and
  his mother by night, and departed into Egypt, and was there until the
  death of Herod; that it might be fulfilled which was spoken of the
  Lord by the prophet, saying, ‘Out of Egypt have I called my son.’”
  (St. Matthew, II: 13, 11.)


These incidents, so simple, vivid, and beautiful when reverently
interpreted as shadow plays, seem to carry something of the age-old
mystery of the shadow.

[Illustration:

  _Scenes from the human shadow play, "The Shepherdess."_
]

In the East, shadow plays are an intimate part of the everyday life of
the people. In the Western world they have, so far, meant very little.
European artists have already discovered their possibilities and are
even carrying the shadow into the world of the movie, revealing new
fields as a challenge to our creative efforts.

[Illustration: [Fish]]




                              BIBLIOGRAPHY


      A LIST OF BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR THE MAKING OF MARIONETTE PLAYS
                                                                    PAGE
    Humorous Tales                                                   245
    Heroic Tales                                                     246
    Tales of Adventure                                               247
    Fairy Tales                                                      248
    Unclassified                                                     249
 A SHORT LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS ON COSTUME                          253
 A SHORT LIST OF BOOKS ON MARIONETTES                                257
 A SHORT LIST OF BOOKS THAT CONTAIN INFORMATION ON THE MASK AND
   SHADOWS
    The Mask                                                         261
    Shadows                                                          262


       LIST OF BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR THE MAKING OF MARIONETTE PLAYS


                             HUMOROUS TALES

  _Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland_, by Carroll. Macmillan

  _Gulliver’s Travels_, by Swift. Macmillan

  _Don Quixote_, by Cervantes. Dodd

  _Peter and Wendy_, by Barrie. Scribner

  _Just-So Stories_, by Kipling. Doubleday

  _Uncle Remus_, by Harris. Appleton

  _Tom Sawyer_, by Clemens. Harper

  _Alice, Through the Looking Glass_, by Carroll. Macmillan

  _Pinocchio, the Story of a Marionette_, by Lorenzini. Ginn

  _Midsummer Night’s Dream_, by Shakespeare. Edited by Rolfe, Am. Book
    Co., Hudson, Ginn

  _Rip Van Winkle_, by Irving. Macmillan

  _Arabian Nights_, by Colum. Macmillan

  _Rose and the Ring_, by Thackeray, Stokes. Macmillan

  _Wind in the Willows_, by Grahame. Scribner

  _Tales of Laughter_, by Wiggin and Smith. Doubleday


                              HEROIC TALES

  _Sohrab and Rustum_, by Arnold. Houghton

  _The Boys’ Iliad_, by Perry. Macmillan

  _The Boys’ Odyssey_, by Perry. Macmillan

  _Robin Hood_, by Pyle. Scribner

  _The Tales of Troy and Greece_, by Lang. Longmans

  _The Story of Roland_, by Baldwin. Scribner

  _Brave Beowulf_, Ed. Cartwright. Dutton

  _Joan of Arc_, by Boutet de Monvel. Century

  _Ivanhoe_, by Scott. Houghton

  _Daniel Boone_, by White. Doubleday

  _Britain Long Ago_, by Wilmot-Buxton. London: Harrap

  _The Book of King Arthur and his Noble Knights_, by Macleod. Stokes

  _The Adventures of Ulysses_, by Lamb. Ginn

  _The Story of the Cid_, Ed. by Wilson. Lothrop

  _Stories of Charlemagne_, by Church. Macmillan

  _Seven Champions of Christendom_, by Cartwright. Dutton

  _Story of Sigurd_, the Volsung, by Morris. Longmans

  _Robinson Crusoe_, by Defoe. Harper, Houghton

  _Norse Stories Retold_, by Mabie. Rand


                           TALES OF ADVENTURE

  _The Boy’s Percy_, by Lanier. Scribner

  _The Black Arrow_, By Stevenson. Scribner

  _William Tell_, by Schmidt & Marshall. McClurg, Dutton

  _Treasure Island_, by Stevenson. Scribner

  _Men of Iron_, by Pyle. Harper

  _Wonder Book_, by Hawthorne. Houghton

  _Otto of the Silver Hand_, by Pyle. Scribner

  _The Boy’s Froissart_, Ed. by Lanier. Scribner

  _Tales from the Alhambra_, by Irving. Houghton

  _Story of the Canterbury Pilgrims_, retold by Darton, by Chaucer.
    Stokes

  _The Lance of Kanana_, by French. Lathrop

  _Spurs of Gold_, by Greene. Little

  _The Golden Perch_, by Hutchinson. Longmans

  _Captains Courageous_, by Kipling. Doubleday

  _Book of Bravery_, by Lanier. Scribner

  _The Last of the Mohicans_, by Cooper. Holt


                              FAIRY TALES

  _Hans Christian Andersen_, Tr. by Mrs. E. Lucas. Dutton

  _The Brothers Grimm_, Tr. by Lucy Crane. Macmillan

  _The Wonderful Adventures of Nils_, by Lagerlöf. Doubleday

  _The Blue Bird_, by Maeterlinck. Dodd

  _Water Babies_, by Kingsley. Houghton

  _The Little Lame Prince_, by Craik. Lippincott

  _Old Peter’s Russian Tales_, by Ransome. Rand, McNally

  _Japanese Fairy Book_, by Ozaki. Dutton

  _Æsop’s Fables_, Ed. by Jacobs. Macmillan

  _Undine_, by LaMotte Fouqué. Doubleday

  _Story of the Rheingold_, by Chapin. Harper


                              UNCLASSIFIED

  _Little Women_, by Alcott. Little

  _Bird’s Christmas Carol_, by Wiggin. Houghton

  _Rip Van Winkle_, by Irving. Macmillan

  _Oliver Twist_, by Dickens. Scribner

  _Prince and the Pauper_, by Clemens. Macmillan

  _The Christmas Carol_, by Dickens. Macmillan

  _Heidi_, by Spyri. Ginn. Houghton

  _Cricket on the Hearth_, by Dickens. Rand

  _David Copperfield_, by Dickens. Scribner

  _The Tempest_, by Shakespeare, Ed. Rolfe. Amer. Bk. Co., Hudson, Ginn

  _The Merchant of Venice_, by Shakespeare, Ed. Rolfe. Amer. Bk. Co.,
    Hudson, Ginn

  _King of the Golden River_, by Ruskin. Page

  _Master Skylark_, by Bennett. Century

  _Gabriel and His Hour Book_, by Stein. Page

  _The Piper_, by Peabody. Houghton

  _Evangeline_, by Longfellow. Houghton

  _Story Telling Ballads_, by Olcott. Houghton

  _Hiawatha_, by Longfellow. Houghton

  _Lady of the Lake_, by Scott. Houghton

  _Lays of Ancient Rome_, by Macaulay. Houghton

  _The Piper of Hamelin_, by Browning. Rand


               A SHORT LIST OF REFERENCE BOOKS ON COSTUME

  _The Heritage of Dress_, by Webb. London, E. Grant Richards

  _A Study of Costume_, by Sage. Scribner

  _Chats on Costume_, by Rhead. Stokes

  _Dress Design_, by Hughes. Macmillan

  _Greek Dress_, by Abrahams. London, John Murray

  _British Costume During 19 Centuries_, by Ashdown. Edinburgh, T. C. &
    E. C. Jack

  _The History of Fashion in France_, Tr. by Mrs. Hoey & M. Lillie.
    London, Scribner and Wetford

  _Costuming a Play_, by Elizabeth Grimball & Rhea Wells. Century

  _Historic Dress in America_, by McClellan. Jacobs

  _The Encyclopædia Britannica_


                  A SHORT LIST OF BOOKS ON MARIONETTES

  _Heroes of the Puppet Stage_, by Anderson. Harcourt

  _The Book of Marionettes_, by Joseph. Huebsch

  _The Tony Sarg Marionette Book_, McIsaacs. Greenburg

  _The Mask_—Vols. I-VIII, by Craig

  _The Marionette_, by Craig


  There are also many excellent books on the subject of Marionettes in
    French, German, and Italian. These are very exhaustive studies,
    fully illustrated, that will repay investigation.


 A SHORT LIST OF BOOKS THAT CONTAIN INFORMATION ON THE MASK AND SHADOWS


                                THE MASK

  _Masks and Demons_, by Macgowan & Rosse. Harcourt

  _The Golden Bough_, by Frazer. Macmillan

  _History of the Harlequinade_, by Sand. Lippincott

  _Clowns_, by Disher. Constable

  _Manners, Customs & Dress of the Middle Ages_, by LaCroix. Appleton

  _The Theater of the Greek_, by Donaldson. Macmillan

  _The Greek Theater_, by Flickinger. University of Chicago

  _History of Classical Greek Literature_, by Mahaffy. Macmillan

  _Noh_, by Fenelossa & Pound. Knopf

  _Field Museum Guide_—Part I, by Laufer. Field Museum

  _The NO Plays of Old Japan_, by Stopes. Dutton

  _The NO Plays of Japan_, by Waley. Knopf

  _Medicine-Men of the Apache_, by Bourke

  _9th Annual Report, U. S. Bureau of American Ethnology_

  _Tusayan Katcinas_, by Fewkes

  _15th Annual Report, U. S. Bureau of American Ethnology_

  _The Point Barrow Eskimo_, by Murdoch

  _9th Annual Report, U. S. Bureau of American Ethnology_


  There are several excellent books on Masks in French, German, and
    Italian


                                SHADOWS

  _The Golden Bough_, by Frazer. Macmillan

  _Field Museum Guide_, by Laufer. Field Museum

  _The Book of Marionettes_, by Joseph. Viking Press

  _A Book about the Theater_, by Mathews. Viking Press

  _Masks and Demons_, by Macgowan and Rosse. Harcourt


  Very important work in this field has been done by the German writers,
    Georg Jacob, Otto Höver, Wilhelm Grube, and Hellmut Ritter.




                                 INDEX


 African Masks, 144

 _Alice in Wonderland_, Marionette Play, 35–36

 Angelo, Michael, 28

 American Puppets, 22

 Animal:
   Burattini, 57
   Marionettes, 80–83
   Masks, 144, 146, 149
   Shadows, 218, 219, 220, 230

 Anderson, Madge, 23

 Antiquity of
   Marionettes, 1
   Masks, 143
   Shadows, 203

 Anvil, A puppet property, 104

 Antiochus, King of Syria, 9

 Archimedes, 7, 25

 Arms, for Marionettes, 72

 Arlequino, 12, 13

 Aztec Masks, 146

 Athens, 7

 Attaching head of Marionette, 74

 Austria, 21


 Backgrounds, 75

 Ballet, Marionette, 125, 127

 Bear, Marionette, 81

 Behavior behind the Scenes, 137–138

 Benda, W. T., 151

 Bergamo, 12

 Bible Costumes, 171

 Bibliography, 241
   Marionettes, 245
   Masks, 261
   Shadows, 262
   Costume Books, 253

 Bishops’ Costume, 179

 Body, of Burattini, 56
   Marionette, 70

 Bohemia, 22

 Brazier, a puppet property, 111

 Brazilian Masks, 146

 Briocchi, Giovanni & Francesco, 15

 Bronze Masks, 144

 Browne, Mrs. Maurice, 23

 Brushes, use and care of, 96

 Burato cloth, 12

 Burattini, description of, 8, 12, 52

 Burma, 3

 Burmese Masks, 148


 Castles, for Marionette stage, 84–85

 Catacombs, puppets found in, 9

 Caterpillar Marionette, 83, 110

 Cavalier costume, 188

 Cervantes, 27

 Character, study of, 63–64

 Character Masks, 161, 166

 China, 1, 4

 Chinese Masks, 147–148

 Christians, Their use of puppets, 9

 Christmas Masks, 153–159

 Christmas Shadow play, 234–236

 Churches, use of puppets in, 10, 11

 Color Mixing, suggestions for, 93–95

 Colonial Costume, 191

 Columbine, 198

 Columbus, 187

 Commedia dell’arte, 150, 151, 198

 Construction of Marionette, 52–83
   Masks, 160–164
   Puppet Stages, 47–50
   Marionette properties, 101–111
   Marionette scenery, 84–100
   Shadow figures, 219–221, 230
   Shadow standard, 216

 Controllers, 59–60, 79

 Copper Masks, 144

 Costume,
   Imaginative, 169
   Period, 169
   Indian, 170
   Bible, 171
   Egyptian, 172, 173
   Cretan, 174
   Greek, 175–176
   Roman, 177
   Early Church, 178–179
   Crusader, 180–181
   Twelfth Century, 182
   Thirteenth Century, 184
   Fifteenth Century, 185
   Sixteenth Century, 186–187
   Seventeenth Century, cavalier, 188–189
   Seventeenth Century, pilgrim, 189
   Eighteenth Century, French, 190
   Eighteenth Century, Colonial, 191

 Costuming Marionettes, 76

 Costume materials, 191–193

 Craig, Gordon, 32

 Cretan costume, 174

 Crusaders’ enjoy religious puppet plays, 10

 Crusaders’ costume, 180–181

 Curtains, material, dyeing & making of, 99–101

 Cyrano de Bergerac, 17


 Dancing, for Marionettes, 124
   for the Mask, 201

 _David Copperfield_, Marionette play, 42–44, 107

 Dilley, Perry, 23

 Dionysus, 149

 Dolls, 1, 3,
   Wooden dolls, 13
   Dolls into Marionettes, 58
   Dolls’ heads for Burattini, 53

 _Don Quixote_, 18, 27

 Doré, Gustave, 28

 Dove Marionette, 82

 Duncan, William, 23

 Dyeing, of materials, 99–100


 Early Church costumes, 178–179

 Eighteenth Century French costumes, 190

 Egypt, 1

 Egyptian Costumes, 172–173

 Egyptian Masks, 148

 Electrician, 136

 Empress Marie, 9

 Emperor Charles V of Spain, 18–26

 England, 12, 18

 Ephesus, 7

 Eskimo masks, 144

 Europe, 10–22

 _Every Man in his Humor_, Marionette play, 27


 Fair of St. Bartholomew, 18

 Fantoccini, description of, 9

 Fashion puppet, _Lady Jane_, 19

 Fagotin, the Trained Monkey, 16–17

 Fifteenth Century costume, 185

 Florence, 11

 Fontaine, Jean de la, 28

 Fountain, construction of, 109

 France, 12, 15

 France, Anatole, 28

 French Revolution, puppets beheaded, 17


 Germany, 12, 21

 Gesso, making of, 108

 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 29–31

 Gold, puppets of, 3

 Goldoni, Carlo, 28

 Greece, 1, 7

 Greek costumes, 175–176

 Greek masks, 149, 196

 Guignol, description of, 52


 Hair for Marionettes, 54

 Hallowe’en, masks for, 151, 152

 Hands, for
   Burattini, 53
   Marionettes, 71

 Hans Wurst, German puppet character, 12

 Harlequin, clown, 198

 Haydn, Joseph, 21

 Heads,
   Muslin, 52
   dolls’, 53
   wooden, 53–54
   modelling of, 62, 65, 66
   papier-mâché, 67–68

 Holland, 12

 Homer, 8

 Hopi Indians, 23, 146

 Horse Marionette, 81

 Hungary, 22


 Idols, articulated, 2, 144

 Iliad, stories from, 8

 Imaginative costumes, 169

 India, 2, 3

 Indian costumes, 170

 Indian masks, 145

 Inspector of the strings, 136

 Italy, 12

 Ivory Marionettes, 1

 Ivory masks, 144


 Japan, 1, 6

 Japanese masks, 148

 Java, 1

 Javanese masks, 148

 Jean Pickel Herring, a Dutch puppet, 12

 Jerusalem, puppets in, 10

 Jongleurs, French Traveling Minstrels, 197

 Joseph, Helen Haiman, 23

 _Julius Cæsar_, Marionette play, 27


 Karagheuz, Turkish puppet hero, 210

 Kaspare, German puppet character, 12

 Khayyam, Omar, 209


 Lantern, Marionette property, 111

 Legs and feet for Marionette, 72

 Lighting,
   chart for, 117
   dimmer for, 118
   shadow play, 222, 233

 Louis XIV, King of France, 27


 Mabley, Edward, 23

 Maeterlinck, Maurice, 28

 Making a mold for Marionette head, 66

 Making shadow plays, 212–214

 March hare Marionette, 82, 83

 Mardi Gras, Festival of, 151

 Marionettes, origin of name, 12, 14

 Marionettes,
   Burattini, or guignol, 52–57
   Doll, 58–60
   Stocking, 60–62
   Real Marionette, 62–83

 Masks,
   Primitive man, 143
   African, 144
   Eskimo, 144
   Indian, California, 145
   Indian, Hopi, 146
   Indian, Zuni, 146
   Aztec, 146
   Brazilian, 146
   Chinese, 147–148
   Siamese, 148
   Burmese, 148
   Javanese, 148
   Ceylonese, 148
   Japanese, 148
   Egyptian, 148
   Mycenean, 149
   Animal, 146–149
   Roman, 149
   Medieval, 150
   Commedia dell’Arte, 151

 Materials for properties, 106
   for animals, 183
   for costumes, 191–193

 Mechanism, for Marionettes, 52–83

 Medieval masks, 150

 Medici, Lorenzo de’, 28

 _Men of Iron_, Marionette play, 37–41, 84, 90, 103

 Messer Pantaleone, Italian puppet character, 12

 _Midsummer Night’s Dream_, Marionette play, 27

 Miracle plays, given by Marionettes, 11

 Mister Punch, English puppet character, 12

 Modeling, puppet heads, 62–65
   masks, 162

 Mold, for puppet head, 66

 Molière, French Dramatist, 68

 Monk’s costume, 179

 Movable jaw of Marionette, 69

 Munich, puppet theater in, 21

 Muslin head for Burattini, 52

 Mycenean masks, 149

 Mystery plays, 12


 Nun’s costume, 179


 Odyssey, Marionette plays from, 8

 Ogotai, Persian Emperor, 5

 Ornaments for Costume, 192–193

 Osiris, Egyptian god, 2


 Painting, Marionette face, hands, 44, 45

 Painting masks, 165

 Pantalone, Italian puppet character, 198

 Pantomime, Art of, 196–202

 Papa Schmidt, German puppet maker, 21

 Paper-bag mask, 160

 Papier-mâché, marionette head, 67, 68

 Papier-mâché mask, 194

 Paste, flour, 67

 Parvati, Indian goddess, 3

 Persia, Puppets in, 1, 5

 Period costumes, 169

 Petrouchka, Ballet of, 125–127

 Pilgrim costume, 189

 Ping, City of, 4

 Plato, 25

 Plaster of Paris, How to use, 66

 Plays, Japanese, 7

 Plays suited, to puppets, 33
   to shadow cut-outs, 212
   to human shadows, 226, 234

 Poland, 22

 Polichinello, 12

 Powell, Mr., English puppet showman, 19

 Presenting a play, 135

 Properties for:
   Marionette plays, 101–111
   Mask, 194–195

 Property man, 135

 Prompter, 136

 Proscenium, 99

 Pulcinella, French puppet character, 198

 Punch, English puppet character, 20


 Reader, shadow play, 223, 231, 232

 Rehearsals of:
   Marionette play, 118–134
   Shadow play, 231, 232

 Religious plays, Marionettes in, 10
   Shadow plays, 234–236

 Research, properties, 102–105

 Richard, the Lion-Hearted, 180

 Rome, 1, 8

 Roman costumes, 179

 Roman masks, 149

 Rousseau, 28

 Russia, 21


 Saladin, 27

 Sand, George, 27

 Sand, Maurice, 27

 Sarg, Tony, 23

 Savonarola, 11

 Scale, Importance of, 58

 Scaramuccia, Italian puppet character, 12

 Scenery:
   Castles in _Men of Iron_, 84
   Requirements and planning of, 85–93
   Materials for, 92
   Color mixing for, 94
   Brushes for painting, 96

 Scenery, shadow play, 222, 229

 Screen, for Human Shadows, 226

 Searle, Mr. Mathew, 23

 Seventeenth century costume, 188–189

 Shadows, 3, 205, 237

 Shadow superstitions:
   Nyas, 205
   Wetar, 206
   Ollowa Indians, 206
   Malay, 206
   India, 206
   Africa, 206
   S. E. Europe, 206–207

 Shadow figures, construction of, 218–221

 Shadow figures, manipulation of, 223

 Shakespeare, 27

 Siam, 3

 Siamese masks, 148

 Simmonds, Mr. William, 21

 Singhalese masks, 148

 Siva, Indian God, 3

 Sixteenth-century costume, 186–187

 Smoke, how to make, 109–110

 Socrates, 25

 Spain, 18

 Stage picture, 130–131

 Stages:
   Egyptian puppet stage, 2
   Wooden stages, 10
   Marionette stages, 47–51

 Standards for shadow play, 216

 Stanislavsky, Constantin, 30, 31

 Staples, for Marionette construction, 61

 Statues, articulated, 1, 2

 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 225

 Stocking Marionettes, 60, 61

 Strings, 1, 59, 79, 80

 Syracuse, 7


 Taillefer, 14, 197

 Teschner, Richard, 21

 _The Indian and the Oki_ as a shadow play, 226–233

 Thespis, 149

 Thirteenth-century costume, 184

 Tombs, Egyptian, 1

 Torriani, Giovanni, constructor of wonderful puppets, 18

 Training puppeteers:
   Choosing puppeteers, 120
   Manipulating, 122–127
   Voice, 133–134, 223
   Stage picture, 130–131

 _Traveling Musicians of Bremen_ as a shadow play, 217–220

 Trent, Council of, 11

 Turkey, 3

 Twelfth century costume, 182


 Value and Intensity, in relation to scene painting, 95

 Venice, 12, 13

 Virgil, 149

 Voice, how to use it in puppet plays, 133, 134

 Voltaire, 27


 Wearing costumes, the art of, 193

 Wood:
   figures, 10
   masks, 144

 Wooden head for Burattini, 53–54


 Yen Sze, Chinese Showman, 4


 Zuni Indian Masks, 146

------------------------------------------------------------------------




                          TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES


 ● Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained.
 ● Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.



*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 74969 ***