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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Thoughts on Man + His Nature, Productions and Discoveries, Interspersed with + Some Particulars Respecting the Author + +Author: William Godwin + +Release Date: November 30, 2009 [EBook #743] +Last Updated: February 4, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THOUGHTS ON MAN *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Keller, and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THOUGHTS ON MAN + </h1> + <h3> + HIS NATURE, PRODUCTIONS AND DISCOVERIES INTERSPERSED WITH SOME PARTICULARS + RESPECTING THE AUTHOR + </h3> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By William Godwin + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h4> + Oh, the blood more stirs<br /> To rouse a lion, than to start a hare!<br /> + SHAKESPEARE + </h4> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h5> + LONDON: <br /> EFFINGHAM WILSON, ROYAL EXCHANGE. <br /> <br /> 1831. + </h5> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + In the ensuing volume I have attempted to give a defined and permanent + form to a variety of thoughts, which have occurred to my mind in the + course of thirty-four years, it being so long since I published a volume, + entitled, the Enquirer,—thoughts, which, if they have presented + themselves to other men, have, at least so far as I am aware, never been + given to the public through the medium of the press. During a part of this + period I had remained to a considerable degree unoccupied in my character + of an author, and had delivered little to the press that bore my name.—And + I beg the reader to believe, that, since I entered in 1791 upon that which + may be considered as my vocation in life, I have scarcely in any instance + contributed a page to any periodical miscellany. + </p> + <p> + My mind has been constitutionally meditative, and I should not have felt + satisfied, if I had not set in order for publication these special fruits + of my meditations. I had entered upon a certain career; and I held it for + my duty not to abandon it. + </p> + <p> + One thing further I feel prompted to say. I have always regarded it as my + office to address myself to plain men, and in clear and unambiguous terms. + It has been my lot to have occasional intercourse with some of those who + consider themselves as profound, who deliver their oracles in obscure + phraseology, and who make it their boast that few men can understand them, + and those few only through a process of abstract reflection, and by means + of unwearied application. + </p> + <p> + To this class of the oracular I certainly did not belong. I felt that I + had nothing to say, that it should be very difficult to understand. I + resolved, if I could help it, not to "darken counsel by words without + knowledge." This was my principle in the Enquiry concerning Political + Justice. And I had my reward. I had a numerous audience of all classes, of + every age, and of either sex. The young and the fair did not feel deterred + from consulting my pages. + </p> + <p> + It may be that that book was published in a propitious season. I am told + that nothing coming from the press will now be welcomed, unless it + presents itself in the express form of amusement. He who shall propose to + himself for his principal end, to draw aside in one particular or another + the veil from the majesty of intellectual or moral truth, must lay his + account in being received with little attention. + </p> + <p> + I have not been willing to believe this: and I publish my speculations + accordingly. I have aimed at a popular, and (if I could reach it) an + interesting style; and, if I am thrust aside and disregarded, I shall + console myself with believing that I have not neglected what it was in my + power to achieve. + </p> + <p> + One characteristic of the present publication will not fail to offer + itself to the most superficial reader. I know many men who are + misanthropes, and profess to look down with disdain on their species. My + creed is of an opposite character. All that we observe that is best and + most excellent in the intellectual world, is man: and it is easy to + perceive in many cases, that the believer in mysteries does little more, + than dress up his deity in the choicest of human attributes and + qualifications. I have lived among, and I feel an ardent interest in and + love for, my brethren of mankind. This sentiment, which I regard with + complacency in my own breast, I would gladly cherish in others. In such a + cause I am well pleased to enrol myself a missionary. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p> + February 15, 1831. + </p> + <p> + The particulars respecting the author, referred to in the title-page, will + be found principally in Essays VII, IX, XIV, and XVIII. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE </a><br /> <br /> <br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0002"> ESSAY I. </a> OF BODY AND MIND <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> ESSAY II. </a> OF THE DISTRIBUTION + OF TALENTS <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0008"> ESSAY III. </a> OF + INTELLECTUAL ABORTION <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0009"> ESSAY IV. + </a> OF THE DURABILITY OF HUMAN ACHIEVEMENTS AND PRODUCTIONS + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0010"> ESSAY V. </a> OF THE + REBELLIOUSNESS OF MAN <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0011"> ESSAY VI. + </a> OF HUMAN INNOCENCE <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0012"> + ESSAY VII. </a> OF THE DURATION OF HUMAN LIFE <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0013"> ESSAY VIII. </a> OF HUMAN VEGETATION + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0014"> ESSAY IX. </a> OF + LEISURE <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0015"> ESSAY X. </a> OF + IMITATION AND INVENTION <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0016"> ESSAY XI. + </a> OF SELF-LOVE AND BENEVOLENCE <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0017"> ESSAY XII. </a> OF THE LIBERTY OF + HUMAN ACTIONS <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0018"> ESSAY XIII. </a> OF + BELIEF <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0019"> ESSAY XIV. </a> OF + YOUTH AND AGE <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0020"> ESSAY XV. </a> OF + LOVE AND FRIENDSHIP <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0021"> ESSAY XVI. </a> OF + FRANKNESS AND RESERVE <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0022"> ESSAY XVII. + </a> OF BALLOT <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0023"> ESSAY + XVIII. </a> OF DIFFIDENCE <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0024"> + ESSAY XIX. </a> OF SELF-COMPLACENCY <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0025"> ESSAY XX. </a> OF PHRENOLOGY <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2H_4_0026"> ESSAY XXI. </a> OF ASTRONOMY <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2H_4_0031"> ESSAY XXII. </a> OF THE MATERIAL + UNIVERSE <br /><br /> <a href="#link2H_4_0032"> ESSAY XXIII. </a> OF + HUMAN VIRTUE. THE EPILOGUE <br /><br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h1> + THOUGHTS, &c. + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY I. OF BODY AND MIND. + </h2> + <h3> + THE PROLOGUE. + </h3> + <p> + There is no subject that more frequently occupies the attention of the + contemplative than man: yet there are many circumstances concerning him + that we shall hardly admit to have been sufficiently considered. + </p> + <p> + Familiarity breeds contempt. That which we see every day and every hour, + it is difficult for us to regard with admiration. To almost every one of + our stronger emotions novelty is a necessary ingredient. The simple + appetites of our nature may perhaps form an exception. The appetite for + food is perpetually renewed in a healthy subject with scarcely any + diminution and love, even the most refined, being combined with one of our + original impulses, will sometimes for that reason withstand a thousand + trials, and perpetuate itself for years. In all other cases it is + required, that a fresh impulse should be given, that attention should anew + be excited, or we cannot admire. Things often seen pass feebly before our + senses, and scarcely awake the languid soul. + </p> + <p> + "Man is the most excellent and noble creature of the world, the principal + and mighty work of God, the wonder of nature, the marvel of marvels(1)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Anatomy of Melancholy, p. 1. +</pre> + <p> + Let us have regard to his corporeal structure. There is a simplicity in + it, that at first perhaps we slightly consider. But how exactly is it + fashioned for strength and agility! It is in no way incumbered. It is like + the marble when it comes out of the hand of the consummate sculptor; every + thing unnecessary is carefully chiseled away; and the joints, the muscles, + the articulations, and the veins come out, clean and finished. It has long + ago been observed, that beauty, as well as virtue, is the middle between + all extremes: that nose which is neither specially long, nor short, nor + thick, nor thin, is the perfect nose; and so of the rest. In like manner, + when I speak of man generally, I do not regard any aberrations of form, + obesity, a thick calf, a thin calf; I take the middle between all + extremes; and this is emphatically man. + </p> + <p> + Man cannot keep pace with a starting horse: but he can persevere, and + beats him in the end. + </p> + <p> + What an infinite variety of works is man by his corporeal form enabled to + accomplish! In this respect he casts the whole creation behind him. + </p> + <p> + What a machine is the human hand! When we analyse its parts and its uses, + it appears to be the most consummate of our members. And yet there are + other parts, that may maintain no mean rivalship against it. + </p> + <p> + What a sublimity is to be attributed to his upright form! He is not + fashioned, veluti pecora, quae natura prona atque ventri obedientia + finxit. He is made coeli convexa tueri. The looks that are given him in + his original structure, are "looks commercing with the skies." + </p> + <p> + How surpassingly beautiful are the features of his countenance; the eyes, + the nose, the mouth! How noble do they appear in a state of repose! With + what never-ending variety and emphasis do they express the emotions of his + mind! In the visage of man, uncorrupted and undebased, we read the + frankness and ingenuousness of his soul, the clearness of his reflections, + the penetration of his spirit. What a volume of understanding is unrolled + in his broad, expanded, lofty brow! In his countenance we see expressed at + one time sedate confidence and awful intrepidity, and at another godlike + condescension and the most melting tenderness. Who can behold the human + eye, suddenly suffused with moisture, or gushing with tears unbid, and the + quivering lip, without unspeakable emotion? Shakespear talks of an eye, + "whose bend could awe the world." + </p> + <p> + What a miraculous thing is the human complexion! We are sent into the + world naked, that all the variations of the blood might be made visible. + However trite, I cannot avoid quoting here the lines of the most + deep-thinking and philosophical of our poets: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + We understood + Her by her sight: her pure and eloquent blood + Spoke in her cheeks, and so distinctly wrought, + That one might almost say her body thought. +</pre> + <p> + What a curious phenomenon is that of blushing! It is impossible to witness + this phenomenon without interest and sympathy. It comes at once, + unanticipated by the person in whom we behold it. It comes from the soul, + and expresses with equal certainty shame, modesty, and vivid, + uncontrollable affection. It spreads, as it were in so many stages, over + the cheeks, the brow, and the neck, of him or her in whom the sentiment + that gives birth to it is working. + </p> + <p> + Thus far I have not mentioned speech, not perhaps the most inestimable of + human gifts, but, if it is not that, it is at least the endowment, which + makes man social, by which principally we impart our sentiments to each + other, and which changes us from solitary individuals, and bestows on us a + duplicate and multipliable existence. Beside which it incalculably + increases the perfection of one. The man who does not speak, is an + unfledged thinker; and the man that does not write, is but half an + investigator. + </p> + <p> + Not to enter into all the mysteries of articulate speech and the + irresistible power of eloquence, whether addressed to a single hearer, or + instilled into the ears of many,—a topic that belongs perhaps less + to the chapter of body than mind,—let us for a moment fix our + thoughts steadily upon that little implement, the human voice. Of what + unnumbered modulations is it susceptible! What terror may it inspire! How + may it electrify the soul, and suspend all its functions! How infinite is + its melody! How instantly it subdues the hearer to pity or to love! How + does the listener hang upon every note praying that it may last for ever, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ——that even silence + Was took ere she was ware, and wished she might + Deny her nature, and be never more, + Still to be so displaced. +</pre> + <p> + It is here especially that we are presented with the triumphs of + civilisation. How immeasurable is the distance between the voice of the + clown, who never thought of the power that dwells in this faculty, who + delivers himself in a rude, discordant and unmodulated accent, and is + accustomed to confer with his fellow at the distance of two fields, and + the man who understands his instrument as Handel understood the organ, and + who, whether he thinks of it or no, sways those that hear him as + implicitly as Orpheus is said to have subdued the brute creation! + </p> + <p> + From the countenance of man let us proceed to his figure. Every limb is + capable of speaking, and telling its own tale. What can equal the + magnificence of the neck, the column upon which the head reposes! The + ample chest may denote an almost infinite strength and power. Let us call + to mind the Apollo Belvidere, and the Venus de Medicis, whose very "bends + are adornings." What loftiness and awe have I seen expressed in the step + of an actress, not yet deceased, when first she advanced, and came down + towards the audience! I was ravished, and with difficulty kept my seat! + Pass we to the mazes of the dance, the inimitable charms and picturesque + beauty that may be given to the figure while still unmoved, and the + ravishing grace that dwells in it during its endless changes and + evolutions. + </p> + <p> + The upright figure of man produces, incidentally as it were, and by the + bye, another memorable effect. Hence we derive the power of meeting in + halls, and congregations, and crowded assemblies. We are found "at large, + though without number," at solemn commemorations and on festive occasions. + We touch each other, as the members of a gay party are accustomed to do, + when they wait the stroke of an electrical machine, and the spark spreads + along from man to man. It is thus that we have our feelings in common at a + theatrical representation and at a public dinner, that indignation is + communicated, and patriotism become irrepressible. + </p> + <p> + One man can convey his sentiments in articulate speech to a thousand; and + this is the nursing mother of oratory, of public morality, of public + religion, and the drama. The privilege we thus possess, we are indeed too + apt to abuse; but man is scarcely ever so magnificent and so awful, as + when hundreds of human heads are assembled together, hundreds of faces + lifted up to contemplate one object, and hundreds of voices uttered in the + expression of one common sentiment. + </p> + <p> + But, notwithstanding the infinite beauty, the magazine of excellencies and + perfections, that appertains to the human body, the mind claims, and + justly claims, an undoubted superiority. I am not going into an + enumeration of the various faculties and endowments of the mind of man, as + I have done of his body. The latter was necessary for my purpose. Before I + proceeded to consider the ascendancy of mind, the dominion and loftiness + it is accustomed to assert, it appeared but just to recollect what was the + nature and value of its subject and its slave. + </p> + <p> + By the mind we understand that within us which feels and thinks, the seat + of sensation and reason. Where it resides we cannot tell, nor can + authoritatively pronounce, as the apostle says, relatively to a particular + phenomenon, "whether it is in the body, or out of the body." Be it however + where or what it may, it is this which constitutes the great essence of, + and gives value to, our existence; and all the wonders of our microcosm + would without it be a form only, destined immediately to perish, and of no + greater account than as a clod of the valley. + </p> + <p> + It was an important remark, suggested to me many years ago by an eminent + physiologer and anatomist, that, when I find my attention called to any + particular part or member of my body, I may be morally sure that there is + something amiss in the processes of that part or member. As long as the + whole economy of the frame goes on well and without interruption, our + attention is not called to it. The intellectual man is like a disembodied + spirit. + </p> + <p> + He is almost in the state of the dervise in the Arabian Nights, who had + the power of darting his soul into the unanimated body of another, human + or brute, while he left his own body in the condition of an insensible + carcase, till it should be revivified by the same or some other spirit. + When I am, as it is vulgarly understood, in a state of motion, I use my + limbs as the implements of my will. When, in a quiescent state of the + body, I continue to think, to reflect and to reason, I use, it may be, the + substance of the brain as the implement of my thinking, reflecting and + reasoning; though of this in fact we know nothing. + </p> + <p> + We have every reason to believe that the mind cannot subsist without the + body; at least we must be very different creatures from what we are at + present, when that shall take place. For a man to think, agreeably and + with serenity, he must be in some degree of health. The corpus sanum is no + less indispensible than the mens sana. We must eat, and drink, and sleep. + We must have a reasonably good appetite and digestion, and a fitting + temperature, neither too hot nor cold. It is desirable that we should have + air and exercise. But this is instrumental merely. All these things are + negatives, conditions without which we cannot think to the best purpose, + but which lend no active assistance to our thinking. + </p> + <p> + Man is a godlike being. We launch ourselves in conceit into illimitable + space, and take up our rest beyond the fixed stars. We proceed without + impediment from country to country, and from century to century, through + all the ages of the past, and through the vast creation of the imaginable + future. We spurn at the bounds of time and space; nor would the thought be + less futile that imagines to imprison the mind within the limits of the + body, than the attempt of the booby clown who is said within a thick hedge + to have plotted to shut in the flight of an eagle. + </p> + <p> + We never find our attention called to any particular part or member of the + body, except when there is somewhat amiss in that part or member. And, in + like manner as we do not think of any one part or member in particular, so + neither do we consider our entire microcosm and frame. The body is + apprehended as no more important and of intimate connection to a man + engaged in a train of reflections, than the house or apartment in which he + dwells. The mind may aptly be described under the denomination of the + "stranger at home." On set occasions and at appropriate times we examine + our stores, and ascertain the various commodities we have, laid up in our + presses and our coffers. Like the governor of a fort in time of peace, + which was erected to keep out a foreign assailant, we occasionally visit + our armoury, and take account of the muskets, the swords, and other + implements of war it contains, but for the most part are engaged in the + occupations of peace, and do not call the means of warfare in any sort to + our recollection. + </p> + <p> + The mind may aptly be described under the denomination of the "stranger at + home." With their bodies most men are little acquainted. We are "like unto + a man beholding his natural face in a glass, who beholdeth himself, and + goeth his way, and straightway forgetteth what manner of man he is." In + the ruminations of the inner man, and the dissecting our thoughts and + desires, we employ our intellectual arithmetic, we add, and subtract, and + multiply, and divide, without asking the aid, without adverting to the + existence, of our joints and members. Even as to the more corporeal part + of our avocations, we behold the external world, and proceed straight to + the object of our desires, without almost ever thinking of this medium, + our own material frame, unaided by which none of these things could be + accomplished. In this sense we may properly be said to be spiritual + existences, however imperfect may be the idea we are enabled to affix to + the term spirit. + </p> + <p> + Hence arises the notion, which has been entertained ever since the birth + of reflection and logical discourse in the world, and which in some faint + and confused degree exists probably even among savages, that the body is + the prison of the mind. It is in this sense that Waller, after completing + fourscore years of age, expresses himself in these affecting and + interesting couplets. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + When we for age could neither read nor write, + The subject made us able to indite. + The soul's dark cottage, battered and decayed, + Lets in new light by chinks that time hath made: + Stronger by weakness, wiser, men become, + As they draw near to their eternal home. +</pre> + <p> + Thus it is common with persons of elevated soul to talk of neglecting, + overlooking, and taking small account of the body. It is in this spirit + that the story is recorded of Anaxarchus, who, we are told, was ordered by + Nicocreon, tyrant of Salamis, to be pounded in a mortar, and who, in + contempt of his mortal sufferings, exclaimed, "Beat on, tyrant! thou dost + but strike upon the case of Anaxarchus; thou canst not touch the man + himself." And it is in something of the same light that we must regard + what is related of the North American savages. Beings, who scoff at their + tortures, must have an idea of something that lies beyond the reach of + their assailants. + </p> + <p> + It is just however to observe, that some of the particulars here related, + belong not less to the brute creation than to man. If men are imperfectly + acquainted with their external figure and appearance, this may well be + conceived to be still more predicable of the inferior animals. It is true + that all of them seem to be aware of the part in their structure, where + lie their main strength and means of hostility. Thus the bull attacks with + his horns, and the horse with his heels, the beast of prey with his claws, + the bird with his beak, and insects and other venomous creatures with + their sting. We know not by what impulse they are prompted to the use of + the various means which are so intimately connected with their + preservation and welfare; and we call it instinct. We may be certain it + does not arise from a careful survey of their parts and members, and a + methodised selection of the means which shall be found most effectual for + the accomplishment of their ends. There is no premeditation; and, without + anatomical knowledge, or any distinct acquaintance with their image and + likeness, they proceed straight to their purpose. + </p> + <p> + Hence, even as men, they are more familiar with the figures and appearance + of their fellows, their allies, or their enemies, than with their own. + </p> + <p> + Man is a creature of mingled substance. I am many times a day compelled to + acknowledge what a low, mean and contemptible being I am. Philip of + Macedon had no need to give it in charge to a page, to repair to him every + morning, and repeat, "Remember, sir, you are a man." A variety of + circumstances occur to us, while we eat, and drink, and submit to the + humiliating necessities of nature, that may well inculcate into us this + salutary lesson. The wonder rather is, that man, who has so many things to + put him in mind to be humble and despise himself, should ever have been + susceptible of pride and disdain. Nebuchadnezzar must indeed have been the + most besotted of mortals, if it were necessary that he should be driven + from among men, and made to eat grass like an ox, to convince him that he + was not the equal of the power that made him. + </p> + <p> + But fortunately, as I have said, man is a "stranger at home." Were it not + for this, how incomprehensible would be + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The ceremony that to great ones 'longs, + The monarch's crown, and the deputed sword, + The marshal's truncheon, and the judge's robe! +</pre> + <p> + How ludicrous would be the long procession and the caparisoned horse, the + gilded chariot and the flowing train, the colours flying, the drums + beating, and the sound of trumpets rending the air, which after all only + introduce to us an ordinary man, no otherwise perhaps distinguished from + the vilest of the ragged spectators, than by the accident of his birth! + </p> + <p> + But what is of more importance in the temporary oblivion we are enabled to + throw over the refuse of the body, it is thus we arrive at the majesty of + man. That sublimity of conception which renders the poet, and the man of + great literary and original endowments "in apprehension like a God," we + could not have, if we were not privileged occasionally to cast away the + slough and exuviae of the body from incumbering and dishonouring us, even + as Ulysses passed over his threshold, stripped of the rags that had + obscured him, while Minerva enlarged his frame, and gave loftiness to his + stature, added a youthful beauty and grace to his motions, and caused his + eyes to flash with more than mortal fire. With what disdain, when I have + been rapt in the loftiest moods of mind, do I look down upon my limbs, the + house of clay that contains me, the gross flesh and blood of which my + frame is composed, and wonder at a lodging, poorly fitted to entertain so + divine a guest! + </p> + <p> + A still more important chapter in the history of the human mind has its + origin in these considerations. Hence it is that unenlightened man, in + almost all ages and countries, has been induced, independently of divine + revelation, to regard death, the most awful event to which we are subject, + as not being the termination of his existence. We see the body of our + friend become insensible, and remain without motion, or any external + indication of what we call life. We can shut it up in an apartment, and + visit it from day to day. If we had perseverance enough, and could so far + conquer the repugnance and humiliating feeling with which the experiment + would be attended, we might follow step by step the process of + decomposition and putrefaction, and observe by what degrees the "dust + returned unto earth as it was." But, in spite of this demonstration of the + senses, man still believes that there is something in him that lives after + death. The mind is so infinitely superior in character to this case of + flesh that incloses it, that he cannot persuade himself that it and the + body perish together. + </p> + <p> + There are two considerations, the force of which made man a religious + animal. The first is, his proneness to ascribe hostility or benevolent + intention to every thing of a memorable sort that occurs to him in the + order of nature. The second is that of which I have just treated, the + superior dignity of mind over body. This, we persuade ourselves, shall + subsist uninjured by the mutations of our corporeal frame, and undestroyed + by the wreck of the material universe. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY II. OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF TALENTS. + </h2> + <h3> + {Greek—omitted} Thucydides, Lib.I, cap. 84. + </h3> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT" id="link2H_SECT"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION I. + </h2> + <p> + PRESUMED DEARTH OF INTELLECTUAL POWER.—SCHOOLS FOR THE EDUCATION OF + YOUTH CONSIDERED.—THE BOY AND THE MAN COMPARED. + </p> + <p> + One of the earliest judgments that is usually made by those whose + attention is turned to the characters of men in the social state, is of + the great inequality with which the gifts of the understanding are + distributed among us. + </p> + <p> + Go into a miscellaneous society; sit down at table with ten or twelve men; + repair to a club where as many are assembled in an evening to relax from + the toils of the day—it is almost proverbial, that one or two of + these persons will perhaps be brilliant, and the rest "weary, stale, flat + and unprofitable." + </p> + <p> + Go into a numerous school—the case will be still more striking. I + have been present where two men of superior endowments endeavoured to + enter into a calculation on the subject; and they agreed that there was + not above one boy in a hundred, who would be found to possess a + penetrating understanding, and to be able to strike into a path of + intellect that was truly his own. How common is it to hear the master of + such a school say, "Aye, I am proud of that lad; I have been a + schoolmaster these thirty years, and have never had such another!" + </p> + <p> + The society above referred to, the dinner-party, or the club, was to a + considerable degree select, brought together by a certain supposed + congeniality between the individuals thus assembled. Were they taken + indiscriminately, as boys are when consigned to the care of a + schoolmaster, the proportion of the brilliant would not be a whit greater + than in the latter case. + </p> + <p> + A main criterion of the superiority of the schoolboy will be found in his + mode of answering a casual question proposed by the master. The majority + will be wholly at fault, will shew that they do not understand the + question, and will return an answer altogether from the purpose. One in a + hundred perhaps, perhaps in a still less proportion, will reply in a + laudable manner, and convey his ideas in perspicuous and spirited + language. + </p> + <p> + It does not certainly go altogether so ill, with men grown up to years of + maturity. They do not for the most part answer a plain question in a + manner to make you wonder at their fatuity. + </p> + <p> + A main cause of the disadvantageous appearance exhibited by the ordinary + schoolboy, lies in what we denominate sheepishness. He is at a loss, and + in the first place stares at you, instead of giving an answer. He does not + make by many degrees so poor a figure among his equals, as when he is + addressed by his seniors. + </p> + <p> + One of the reasons of the latter phenomenon consists in the torpedo effect + of what we may call, under the circumstances, the difference of ranks. The + schoolmaster is a despot to his scholar; for every man is a despot, who + delivers his judgment from the single impulse of his own will. The boy + answers his questioner, as Dolon answers Ulysses in the Iliad, at the + point of the sword. It is to a certain degree the same thing, when the boy + is questioned merely by his senior. He fears he knows not what,—a + reprimand, a look of lofty contempt, a gesture of summary disdain. He does + not think it worth his while under these circumstances, to "gird up the + loins of his mind." He cannot return a free and intrepid answer but to the + person whom he regards as his equal. There is nothing that has so + disqualifying an effect upon him who is to answer, as the consideration + that he who questions is universally acknowledged to be a being of a + higher sphere, or, as between the boy and the man, that he is the superior + in conventional and corporal strength. + </p> + <p> + Nor is it simple terror that restrains the boy from answering his senior + with the same freedom and spirit, as he would answer his equal. He does + not think it worth his while to enter the lists. He despairs of doing the + thing in the way that shall gain approbation, and therefore will not try. + He is like a boxer, who, though skilful, will not fight with one hand tied + behind him. He would return you the answer, if it occurred without his + giving himself trouble; but he will not rouse his soul, and task his + strength to give it. He is careless; and prefers trusting to whatever + construction you may put upon him, and whatever treatment you may think + proper to bestow upon him. It is the most difficult thing in the world, + for the schoolmaster to inspire into his pupil the desire to do his best. + </p> + <p> + Among full-grown men the case is different. The schoolboy, whether under + his domestic roof, or in the gymnasium, is in a situation similar to that + of the Christian slaves in Algiers, as described by Cervantes in his + History of the Captive. "They were shut up together in a species of + bagnio, from whence they were brought out from time to time to perform + certain tasks in common: they might also engage in pranks, and get into + scrapes, as they pleased; but the master would hang up one, impale + another, and cut off the ears of a third, for little occasion, or even + wholly without it." Such indeed is the condition of the child almost from + the hour of birth. The severities practised upon him are not so great as + those resorted to by the proprietor of slaves in Algiers; but they are + equally arbitrary and without appeal. He is free to a certain extent, even + as the captives described by Cervantes; but his freedom is upon + sufferance, and is brought to an end at any time at the pleasure of his + seniors. The child therefore feels his way, and ascertains by repeated + experiments how far he may proceed with impunity. He is like the slaves of + the Romans on the days of the Saturnalia. He may do what he pleases, and + command tasks to his masters, but with this difference—the Roman + slave knew when the days of his licence would be over, and comported + himself accordingly; but the child cannot foresee at any moment when the + bell will be struck, and the scene reversed. It is commonly enough + incident to this situation, that the being who is at the mercy of another, + will practise, what Tacitus calls, a "vernacular urbanity," make his bold + jests, and give utterance to his saucy innuendoes, with as much freedom as + the best; but he will do it with a wary eye, not knowing how soon he may + feel his chain plucked! and himself compulsorily reduced into the + established order. His more usual refuge therefore is, to do nothing, and + to wrap himself up in that neutrality towards his seniors, that may best + protect him from their reprimand and their despotism. + </p> + <p> + The condition of the full-grown man is different from that of the child, + and he conducts himself accordingly. He is always to a certain degree + under the control of the political society of which he is a member. He is + also exposed to the chance of personal insult and injury from those who + are stronger than he, or who may render their strength more considerable + by combination and numbers. The political institutions which control him + in certain respects, protect him also to a given degree from the robber + and assassin, or from the man who, were it not for penalties and statutes, + would perpetrate against him all the mischiefs which malignity might + suggest. Civil policy however subjects him to a variety of evils, which + wealth or corruption are accustomed to inflict under the forms of justice; + at the same time that it can never wholly defend him from those violences + to which he would be every moment exposed in what is called the state of + nature. + </p> + <p> + The full-grown man in the mean time is well pleased when he escapes from + the ergastulum where he had previously dwelt, and in which he had + experienced corporal infliction and corporal restraint. At first, in the + newness of his freedom, he breaks out into idle sallies and escapes, and + is like the full-fed steed that manifests his wantonness in a thousand + antics and ruades. But this is a temporary extravagance. He presently + becomes as wise and calculating, as the schoolboy was before him. + </p> + <p> + The human being then, that has attained a certain stature, watches and + poises his situation, and considers what he may do with impunity. He + ventures at first with no small diffidence, and pretends to be twice as + assured as he really is. He accumulates experiment after experiment, till + they amount to a considerable volume. It is not till he has passed + successive lustres, that he attains that firm step, and temperate and + settled accent, which characterise the man complete. He then no longer + doubts, but is ranged on the full level of the ripened members of the + community. + </p> + <p> + There is therefore little room for wonder, if we find the same individual, + whom we once knew a sheepish and irresolute schoolboy, that hung his head, + that replied with inarticulated monotony, and stammered out his meaning, + metamorphosed into a thoroughly manly character, who may take his place on + the bench with senators, and deliver a grave and matured opinion as well + as the best. It appears then that the trial and review of full-grown men + is not altogether so disadvantageous to the reckoning of our common + nature, as that of boys at school. + </p> + <p> + It is not however, that the full-grown man is not liable to be checked, + reprimanded and rebuked, even as the schoolboy is. He has his wife to read + him lectures, and rap his knuckles; he has his master, his landlord, or + the mayor of his village, to tell him of his duty in an imperious style, + and in measured sentences; if he is a member of a legislature, even there + he receives his lessons, and is told, either in phrases of well-conceived + irony, or by the exhibition of facts and reasonings which take him by + surprise, that he is not altogether the person he deemed himself to be. + But he does not mind it. Like Iago in the play, he "knows his price, and, + by the faith of man, that he is worth no worse a place" than that which he + occupies. He finds out the value of the check he receives, and lets it + "pass by him like the idle wind"—a mastery, which the schoolboy, + however he may affect it, never thoroughly attains to. + </p> + <p> + But it unfortunately happens, that, before he has arrived at that degree + of independence, the fate of the individual is too often decided for ever. + How are the majority of men trampled in the mire, made "hewers of wood, + and drawers of water," long, very long, before there was an opportunity of + ascertaining what it was of which they were capable! Thus almost every one + is put in the place which by nature he was least fit for: and, while + perhaps a sufficient quantity of talent is extant in each successive + generation, yet, for want of each man's being duly estimated, and assigned + his appropriate duty, the very reverse may appear to be the case. By the + time that they have attained to that sober self-confidence that might + enable them to assert themselves, they are already chained to a fate, or + thrust down to a condition, from which no internal energies they possess + can ever empower them to escape. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT" id="link2H_SECT_"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION II. + </h2> + <p> + EQUALITY OF MAN WITH MAN.—TALENTS EXTENSIVELY DISTRIBUTED.—WAY + IN WHICH THIS DISTRIBUTION IS COUNTERACTED.—THE APTITUDE OF CHILDREN + FOR DIFFERENT PURSUITS SHOULD BE EARLY SOUGHT OUT.—HINTS FOR A + BETTER SYSTEM OF EDUCATION.—AMBITION AN UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLE. + </p> + <p> + The reflections thus put down, may assist us in answering the question as + to the way in which talents are distributed among men by the hand of + nature. + </p> + <p> + All things upon the earth and under the earth, and especially all + organised bodies of the animal or vegetable kingdom, fall into classes. It + is by this means, that the child no sooner learns the terms, man, horse, + tree, flower, than, if an object of any of these kinds which he has never + seen before, is exhibited to him, he pronounces without hesitation, This + is a man, a horse, a tree, a flower. + </p> + <p> + All organised bodies of the animal or vegetable kingdom are cast in a + mould of given dimension and feature belonging to a certain number of + individuals, though distinguished by inexhaustible varieties. It is by + means of those features that the class of each individual is determined. + </p> + <p> + To confine ourselves to man. + </p> + <p> + All men, the monster and the lusus naturae excepted, have a certain form, + a certain complement of limbs, a certain internal structure, and organs of + sense—may we not add further, certain powers of intellect? + </p> + <p> + Hence it seems to follow, that man is more like and more equal to man, + deformities of body and abortions of intellect excepted, than the + disdainful and fastidious censors of our common nature are willing to + admit. + </p> + <p> + I am inclined to believe, that, putting idiots and extraordinary cases out + of the question, every human creature is endowed with talents, which, if + rightly directed, would shew him to be apt, adroit, intelligent and acute, + in the walk for which his organisation especially fitted him. + </p> + <p> + But the practices and modes of civilised life prompt us to take the + inexhaustible varieties of man, as he is given into our guardianship by + the bountiful hand of nature, and train him in one uniform exercise, as + the raw recruit is treated when he is brought under the direction of his + drill-serjeant. + </p> + <p> + The son of the nobleman, of the country-gentleman, and of those parents + who from vanity or whatever other motive are desirous that their offspring + should be devoted to some liberal profession, is in nearly all instances + sent to the grammar-school. It is in this scene principally, that the + judgment is formed that not above one boy in a hundred possesses an acute + understanding, or will be able to strike into a path of intellect that + shall be truly his own. + </p> + <p> + I do not object to this destination, if temperately pursued. It is fit + that as many children as possible should have their chance of figuring in + future life in what are called the higher departments of intellect. A + certain familiar acquaintance with language and the shades of language as + a lesson, will be beneficial to all. The youth who has expended only six + months in acquiring the rudiments of the Latin tongue, will probably be + more or less the better for it in all his future life. + </p> + <p> + But seven years are usually spent at the grammar-school by those who are + sent to it. I do not in many cases object to this. The learned languages + are assuredly of slow acquisition. In the education of those who are + destined to what are called the higher departments of intellect, a long + period may advantageously be spent in the study of words, while the + progress they make in theory and dogmatical knowledge is too generally a + store of learning laid up, to be unlearned again when they reach the + period of real investigation and independent judgment. There is small + danger of this in the acquisition of words. + </p> + <p> + But this method, indiscriminately pursued as it is now, is productive of + the worst consequences. Very soon a judgment may be formed by the + impartial observer, whether the pupil is at home in the study of the + learned languages, and is likely to make an adequate progress. But parents + are not impartial. There are also two reasons why the schoolmaster is not + the proper person to pronounce: first, because, if he pronounces in the + negative, he will have reason to fear that the parent will be offended; + and secondly, because he does not like to lose his scholar. But the very + moment that it can be ascertained, that the pupil is not at home in the + study of the learned languages, and is unlikely to make an adequate + progress, at that moment he should be taken from it. + </p> + <p> + The most palpable deficiency that is to be found in relation to the + education of children, is a sound judgment to be formed as to the vocation + or employment in which each is most fitted to excel. + </p> + <p> + As, according to the institutions of Lycurgus, as soon as a boy was born, + he was visited by the elders of the ward, who were to decide whether he + was to be reared, and would be made an efficient member of the + commonwealth, so it were to be desired that, as early as a clear + discrimination on the subject might be practicable, a competent decision + should be given as to the future occupation and destiny of a child. + </p> + <p> + But this is a question attended with no common degree of difficulty. To + the resolving such a question with sufficient evidence, a very + considerable series of observations would become necessary. The child + should be introduced into a variety of scenes, and a magazine, so to + speak, of those things about which human industry and skill may be + employed, should be successively set before him. The censor who is to + decide on the result of the whole, should be a person of great sagacity, + and capable of pronouncing upon a given amount of the most imperfect and + incidental indications. He should be clear-sighted, and vigilant to + observe the involuntary turns of an eye, expressions of a lip, and + demonstrations of a limb. + </p> + <p> + The declarations of the child himself are often of very small use in the + case. He may be directed by an impulse, which occurs in the morning, and + vanishes in the evening. His preferences change as rapidly as the shapes + we sometimes observe in the evening clouds, and are governed by whim or + fantasy, and not by any of those indications which are parcel of his + individual constitution. He desires in many instances to be devoted to a + particular occupation, because his playfellow has been assigned to it + before him. + </p> + <p> + The parent is not qualified to judge in this fundamental question, because + he is under the dominion of partiality, and wishes that his child may + become a lord chancellor, an archbishop, or any thing else, the possessor + of which condition shall be enabled to make a splendid figure in the + world. He is not qualified, because he is an interested party, and, either + from an exaggerated estimate of his child's merits, or from a selfish + shrinking from the cost it might require to mature them, is anxious to + arrive at a conclusion not founded upon the intrinsic claims of the case + to be considered. + </p> + <p> + Even supposing it to be sufficiently ascertained in what calling it is + that the child will be most beneficially engaged, a thousand extrinsical + circumstances will often prevent that from being the calling chosen. + Nature distributes her gifts without any reference to the distinctions of + artificial society. The genius that demanded the most careful and + assiduous cultivation, that it might hereafter form the boast and ornament + of the world, will be reared amidst the chill blasts of poverty; while he + who was best adapted to make an exemplary carpenter or artisan, by being + the son of a nobleman is thrown a thousand fathoms wide of his true + destination. + </p> + <p> + Human creatures are born into the world with various dispositions. + According to the memorable saying of Themistocles, One man can play upon a + psaltery or harp, and another can by political skill and ingenuity convert + a town of small account, weak and insignificant, into a city noble, + magnificent and great. + </p> + <p> + It is comparatively a very little way that we can penetrate into the + mysteries of nature. + </p> + <p> + Music seems to be one of the faculties most clearly defined in early + youth. The child who has received that destination from the hands of + nature, will even in infancy manifest a singular delight in musical + sounds, and will in no long time imitate snatches of a tune. The present + professor of music in the university of Oxford contrived for himself, I + believe at three years old, a way for playing on an instrument, the piano + forte, unprompted by any of the persons about him. This is called having + an ear. + </p> + <p> + Instances nearly as precocious are related of persons, who afterwards + distinguished themselves in the art of painting. + </p> + <p> + These two kinds of original destination appear to be placed beyond the + reach of controversy. + </p> + <p> + Horace says, The poet is born a poet, and cannot be made so by the + ingenuity of art: and this seems to be true. He sees the objects about him + with an eye peculiarly his own; the sounds that reach his ear, produce an + effect upon him, and leave a memory behind, different from that which is + experienced by his fellows. His perceptions have a singular vividness. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling, + Doth glance from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven; + + And his imagination bodies forth + The forms of things unknown, +</pre> + <p> + It is not probable that any trainings of art can give these endowments to + him who has not received them from the gift of nature. + </p> + <p> + The subtle network of the brain, or whatever else it is, that makes a man + more fit for, and more qualified to succeed in, one occupation than + another, can scarcely be followed up and detected either in the living + subject or the dead one. But, as in the infinite variety of human beings + no two faces are so alike that they cannot be distinguished, nor even two + leaves plucked from the same tree(2), so it may reasonably be presumed, + that there are varieties in the senses, the organs, and the internal + structure of the human species, however delicate, and to the touch of the + bystander evanescent, which may give to each individual a predisposition + to rise to a supreme degree of excellence in some certain art or + attainment, over a million of competitors. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) Papers between Clarke and Leibnitz, p. 95. +</pre> + <p> + It has been said that all these distinctions and anticipations are idle, + because man is born without innate ideas. Whatever is the incomprehensible + and inexplicable power, which we call nature, to which he is indebted for + his formation, it is groundless to suppose, that that power is cognisant + of, and guides itself in its operations by, the infinite divisibleness of + human pursuits in civilised society. A child is not designed by his + original formation to be a manufacturer of shoes, for he may be born among + a people by whom shoes are not worn, and still less is he destined by his + structure to be a metaphysician, an astronomer, or a lawyer, a + rope-dancer, a fortune-teller, or a juggler. + </p> + <p> + It is true that we cannot suppose nature to be guided in her operations by + the infinite divisibleness of human pursuits in civilised society. But it + is not the less true that one man is by his structure best fitted to excel + in some one in particular of these multifarious pursuits, however + fortuitously his individual structure and that pursuit may be brought into + contact. Thus a certain calmness and steadiness of purpose, much + flexibility, and a very accurate proportion of the various limbs of the + body, are of great advantage in rope-dancing; while lightness of the + fingers, and a readiness to direct our thoughts to the rapid execution of + a purpose, joined with a steadiness of countenance adapted to what is + figuratively called throwing dust in the eyes of the bystander, are of the + utmost importance to the juggler: and so of the rest. + </p> + <p> + It is as much the temper of the individual, as any particular subtlety of + organ or capacity, that prepares him to excel in one pursuit rather than a + thousand others. And he must have been a very inattentive observer of the + indications of temper in an infant in the first months of his existence, + who does not confess that there are various peculiarities in that respect + which the child brings into the world with him. + </p> + <p> + There is excellent sense in the fable of Achilles in the island of Scyros. + He was placed there by his mother in female attire among the daughters of + Lycomedes, that he might not be seduced to engage in the Trojan war. + Ulysses was commissioned to discover him, and, while he exhibited jewels + and various woman's ornaments to the princesses, contrived to mix with his + stores a suit of armour, the sight of which immediately awakened the + spirit of the hero. + </p> + <p> + Every one has probably within him a string more susceptible than the rest, + that demands only a kindred impression to be made, to call forth its + latent character. Like the war-horse described in the Book of Job: "He + paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength; he goeth on to meet + the armed men; he smelleth the battle afar off, the thunder of the + captains, and the shouting." + </p> + <p> + Nothing can be more unlike than the same man to himself, when he is + touched, and not touched, upon + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + the master-string + That makes most harmony or discord to him. +</pre> + <p> + It is like the case of Manlius Torquatus in Livy, who by his father was + banished among his hinds for his clownish demeanour and untractableness to + every species of instruction that was offered him, but who, understanding + that his parent was criminally arraigned for barbarous treatment of him, + first resolutely resorted to the accuser, compelling him upon pain of + death to withdraw his accusation, and subsequently, having surmounted this + first step towards an energetic carriage and demeanour, proved one of the + most illustrious characters that the Roman republic had to boast. + </p> + <p> + Those children whose parents have no intention of training them to the + highest departments of intellect, and have therefore no thought of + bestowing on them a classical education, nevertheless for the most part + send them to a school where they are to be taught arithmetic, and the + principles of English grammar. I should say in this case, as I said before + on the subject of classical education, that a certain initiation in these + departments of knowledge, even if they are pursued a very little way, will + probably be beneficial to all. + </p> + <p> + But it will often be found, in these schools for more ordinary education, + as in the school for classical instruction, that the majority of the + pupils will be seen to be unpromising, and, what is usually called, dull. + The mistake is, that the persons by whom this is perceived, are disposed + to set aside these pupils as blockheads, and unsusceptible of any species + of ingenuity. + </p> + <p> + It is unreasonable that we should draw such a conclusion. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, as has been already observed, it is the most difficult + thing in the world for the schoolmaster to inspire into his pupil the + desire to do his best. An overwhelming majority of lads at school are in + their secret hearts rebels to the discipline under which they are placed. + The instructor draws, one way, and the pupil another. The object of the + latter is to find out how he may escape censure and punishment with the + smallest expence of scholastic application. He looks at the task that is + set him, without the most distant desire of improvement, but with + alienated and averted eye. And, where this is the case, the wonder is not + that he does not make a brilliant figure. It is rather an evidence of the + slavish and subservient spirit incident to the majority of human beings, + that he learns any thing. Certainly the schoolmaster, who judges of the + powers of his pupil's mind by the progress he makes in what he would most + gladly be excused from learning, must be expected perpetually to fall into + the most egregious mistakes. + </p> + <p> + The true test of the capacity of the individual, is where the desire to + succeed, and accomplish something effective, is already awakened in the + youthful mind. Whoever has found out what it is in which he is qualified + to excel, from that moment becomes a new creature. The general torpor and + sleep of the soul, which is incident to the vast multitude of the human + species, is departed from him. We begin, from the hour in which our limbs + are enabled to exert themselves freely, with a puerile love of sport. + Amusement is the order of the day. But no one was ever so fond of play, + that he had not also his serious moments. Every human creature perhaps is + sensible to the stimulus of ambition. He is delighted with the thought + that he also shall be somebody, and not a mere undistinguished pawn, + destined to fill up a square in the chess-board of human society. He + wishes to be thought something of, and to be gazed upon. Nor is it merely + the wish to be admired that excites him: he acts, that he may be satisfied + with himself. Self-respect is a sentiment dear to every heart. The emotion + can with difficulty be done justice to, that a man feels, who is conscious + that he is breathing his true element, that every stroke that he strikes + will have the effect he designs, that he has an object before him, and + every moment approaches nearer to that object. Before, he was wrapped in + an opake cloud, saw nothing distinctly, and struck this way and that at + hazard like a blind man. But now the sun of understanding has risen upon + him; and every step that he takes, he advances with an assured and + undoubting confidence. + </p> + <p> + It is an admirable remark, that the book which we read at the very time + that we feel a desire to read it, affords us ten times the improvement, + that we should have derived from it when it was taken up by us as a task. + It is just so with the man who chooses his occupation, and feels assured + that that about which he is occupied is his true and native field. Compare + this person with the boy that studies the classics, or arithmetic, or any + thing else, with a secret disinclination, and, as Shakespear expresses it, + "creeps like snail, unwillingly, to school." They do not seem as if they + belonged to the same species. + </p> + <p> + The result of these observations certainly strongly tends to support the + proposition laid down early in the present Essay, that, putting idiots and + extraordinary cases out of the question, every human creature is endowed + with talents, which, if rightly directed, would shew him to be apt, + adroit, intelligent and acute, in the walk for which his organisation + especially fitted him. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT" id="link2H_SECT__"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION III. + </h2> + <p> + ENCOURAGING VIEW OF OUR COMMON NATURE.—POWER OF SOUND EXPOSITION + AFFORDED TO ALL.—DOCTRINE OF THIS ESSAY AND THE HYPOTHESIS OF + HELVETIUS COMPARED.—THE WILLING AND UNWILLING PUPIL CONTRASTED.—MISCHIEVOUS + TENDENCY OF THE USUAL MODES OF EDUCATION. + </p> + <p> + What a beautiful and encouraging view is thus afforded us of our common + nature! It is not true, as certain disdainful and fastidious censurers of + their fellow-men would persuade us to believe, that a thousand seeds are + sown in the wide field of humanity, for no other purpose than that + half-a-dozen may grow up into something magnificent and splendid, and that + the rest, though not absolutely extinguished in the outset, are merely + suffered to live that they may furnish manure and nourishment to their + betters. On the contrary, each man, according to this hypothesis, has a + sphere in which he may shine, and may contemplate the exercise of his own + powers with a well-grounded satisfaction. He produces something as perfect + in its kind, as that which is effected under another form by the more + brilliant and illustrious of his species. He stands forward with a serene + confidence in the ranks of his fellow-creatures, and says, "I also have my + place in society, that I fill in a manner with which I have a right to be + satisfied." He vests a certain portion of ingenuity in the work he turns + out. He incorporates his mind with the labour of his hands; and a + competent observer will find character and individuality in it. + </p> + <p> + He has therefore nothing of the sheepishness of the ordinary schoolboy, + the tasks imposed upon whom by his instructor are foreign to the true bent + of his mind, and who stands cowed before his seniors, shrinking under the + judgment they may pass upon him, and the oppression they may exercise + towards him. He is probably competent to talk in a manner that may afford + instruction to men in other respects wise and accomplished, and is no less + clear and well-digested in his discourse respecting the subjects to which + his study and labour have been applied, than they are on the questions + that have exercised the powers of analysis with which they are endowed. + Like Elihu in the Book of Job, he says, "I am young, and you are old; I + said therefore, Days shall speak, and multitude of years shall teach + wisdom. But there is a spirit in man; and the inspiration of the Almighty + giveth him understanding. Great men are not always wise; neither do the + aged understand judgment. Hearken therefore to me; and I also will shew my + opinion." + </p> + <p> + What however in the last instance is affirmed, is not always realised in + the experiment. The humblest mechanic, who works con amore, and feels that + he discharges his office creditably, has a sober satisfaction in the + retrospect, and is able to express himself perspicuously and well on the + subject that has occupied his industry. He has a just confidence in + himself. If the occasion arises, on which he should speak on the subject + of what he does, and the methods he adopts for effecting it, he will + undoubtedly acquit himself to the satisfaction of those who hear him. He + knows that the explanations he can afford will be sound and masculine, and + will stand the test of a rigid examination. + </p> + <p> + But, in proportion as he feels the ground on which he stands, and his own + power to make it good, he will not fail to retire from an audience that is + not willing to be informed by him. He will often appear in the presence of + those, whom the established arrangements of society call his superiors, + who are more copiously endowed with the treasures of language, and who, + confident perhaps in the advantage of opulence, and what is called, + however they may have received it, a liberal education, regard with + disdain his artless and unornamented explanations. He did not, it may be, + expect this. And, having experienced several times such unmerited + treatment, he is not willing again to encounter it. He knew the worth of + what he had to offer. And, finding others indisposed to listen to his + suggestions, he contentedly confines them within the circle of his own + thoughts. + </p> + <p> + To this it must be added that, though he is able to explain himself + perspicuously, yet he is not master of the graces of speech, nor even + perhaps of the niceties of grammar. His voice is not tuned to those + winning inflections by which men, accustomed to the higher ranks of + society, are enabled so to express themselves, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + That aged ears play truant at their tales, + And younger hearings are quite ravished, + So sweet and voluble is their discourse. +</pre> + <p> + On the contrary there is a ruggedness in his manner that jars upon the + sense. It is easy for the light and supercilious to turn him into + ridicule. And those who will not be satisfied with the soundness of his + matter, expounded, as he is able to expound it, in clear and appropriate + terms, will yield him small credit, and listen to him with little delight. + </p> + <p> + These considerations therefore bring us back again to the reasons of the + prevalent opinion, that the majority of mankind are dull, and of + apprehension narrow and confused. The mass of boys in the process of their + education appear so, because little of what is addressed to them by their + instructors, awakens their curiosity, and inspires them with the desire to + excel. The concealed spark of ambition is not yet cleared from the crust + that enveloped it as it first came from the hand of nature. And in like + manner the elder persons, who have not experienced the advantages of a + liberal education, or by whom small profit was made by those advantages, + being defective in exterior graces, are generally listened to with + impatience, and therefore want the confidence and the inclination to tell + what they know. + </p> + <p> + But these latter, if they are not attended to upon the subjects to which + their attention and ingenuity have been applied, do not the less possess a + knowledge and skill which are intrinsically worthy of applause. They + therefore contentedly shut up the sum of their acquisitions in their own + bosoms, and are satisfied with the consciousness that they have not been + deficient in performing an adequate part in the generation of men among + whom they live. + </p> + <p> + Those persons who favour the opinion of the incessant improveableness of + the human species, have felt strongly prompted to embrace the creed of + Helvetius, who affirms that the minds of men, as they are born into the + world, are in a state of equality, alike prepared for any kind of + discipline and instruction that may be afforded them, and that it depends + upon education only, in the largest sense of that word, including every + impression that may be made upon the mind, intentional or accidental, from + the hour of our birth, whether we shall be poets or philosophers, dancers + or singers, chemists or mathematicians, astronomers or dissectors of the + faculties of our common nature. + </p> + <p> + But this is not true. It has already appeared in the course of this Essay, + that the talent, or, more accurately speaking, the original suitableness + of the individual for the cultivation, of music or painting, depends upon + certain peculiarities that we bring into the world with us. The same thing + may be affirmed of the poet. As, in the infinite variety of human beings, + there are no two faces so alike that they cannot be distinguished, nor + even two leaves plucked from the same tree, so there are varieties in the + senses, the organs, and the internal structure of the human species, + however delicate, and to the touch of the bystander evanescent, which give + to each individual a predisposition to rise to excellence in one + particular art or attainment, rather than in any other. + </p> + <p> + And this view of things, if well considered, is as favourable, nay, more + so, to the hypothesis of the successive improveableness of the human + species, as the creed of Helvetius. According to that philosopher, every + human creature that is born into the world, is capable of becoming, or + being made, the equal of Homer, Bacon or Newton, and as easily and surely + of the one as the other. This creed, if sincerely embraced, no doubt + affords a strong stimulus to both preceptor and pupil, since, if true, it + teaches us that any thing can be made of any thing, and that, wherever + there is mind, it is within the compass of possibility, not only that that + mind can be raised to a high pitch of excellence, but even to a high pitch + of that excellence, whatever it is, that we shall prefer to all others, + and most earnestly desire. + </p> + <p> + Still this creed will, after all, leave both preceptor and pupil in a + state of feeling considerably unsatisfactory. What it sets before us, is + too vast and indefinite. We shall be left long perhaps in a state of + balance as to what species of excellence we shall choose; and, in the + immense field of accessible improvement it offers to us, without land-mark + or compass for the direction of our course, it is scarcely possible that + we should feel that assured confidence and anticipation of success, which + are perhaps indispensibly required to the completion of a truly arduous + undertaking. + </p> + <p> + But, upon the principles laid down in this Essay, the case is widely + different. We are here presented in every individual human creature with a + subject better fitted for one sort of cultivation than another. We are + excited to an earnest study of the individual, that we may the more + unerringly discover what pursuit it is for which his nature and + qualifications especially prepare him. We may be long in choosing. We may + be even on the brink of committing a considerable mistake. Our subsequent + observations may enable us to correct the inference we were disposed to + make from those which went before. Our sagacity is flattered by the result + of the laborious scrutiny which this view of our common nature imposes + upon us. + </p> + <p> + In addition to this we reap two important advantages. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, we feel assured that every child that is born has his + suitable sphere, to which if he is devoted, he will not fail to make an + honourable figure, or, in other words, will be seen to be endowed with + faculties, apt, adroit, intelligent and acute. This consideration may + reasonably stimulate us to call up all our penetration for the purpose of + ascertaining the proper destination of the child for whom we are + interested. + </p> + <p> + And, secondly, having arrived at this point, we shall find ourselves + placed in a very different predicament from the guardian or instructor, + who, having selected at random the pursuit which his fancy dictates, and + in the choice of which he is encouraged by the presumptuous assertions of + a wild metaphysical philosophy, must often, in spite of himself, feel a + secret misgiving as to the final event. He may succeed, and present to a + wondering world a consummate musician, painter, poet, or philosopher; for + even blind chance may sometimes hit the mark, as truly as the most perfect + skill. But he will probably fail. Sudet multum, frustraque laboret. And, + if he is disappointed, he will not only feel that disappointment in the + ultimate result, but also in every step of his progress. When he has done + his best, exerted his utmost industry, and consecrated every power of his + soul to the energies he puts forth, he may close every day, sometimes with + a faint shadow of success, and sometimes with entire and blank + miscarriage. And the latter will happen ten thousand times, for once that + the undertaking shall be blessed with a prosperous event. + </p> + <p> + But, when the destination that is given to a child has been founded upon a + careful investigation of the faculties, tokens, and accidental aspirations + which characterise his early years, it is then that every step that is + made with him, becomes a new and surer source of satisfaction. The moment + the pursuit for which his powers are adapted is seriously proposed to him, + his eyes sparkle, and a second existence, in addition to that which he + received at his birth, descends upon him. He feels that he has now + obtained something worth living for. He feels that he is at home, and in a + sphere that is appropriately his own. Every effort that he makes is + successful. At every resting-place in his race of improvement he pauses, + and looks back on what he has done with complacency. The master cannot + teach him so fast, as he is prompted to acquire. + </p> + <p> + What a contrast does this species of instruction exhibit, to the ordinary + course of scholastic education! There, every lesson that is prescribed, is + a source of indirect warfare between the instructor and the pupil, the one + professing to aim at the advancement of him that is taught, in the career + of knowledge, and the other contemplating the effect that is intended to + be produced upon him with aversion, and longing to be engaged in any thing + else, rather than in that which is pressed upon his foremost attention. In + this sense a numerous school is, to a degree that can scarcely be + adequately described, the slaughter-house of mind. It is like the + undertaking, related by Livy, of Accius Navius, the augur, to cut a + whetstone with a razor—with this difference, that our modern + schoolmasters are not endowed with the gift of working miracles, and, when + the experiment falls into their hands, the result of their efforts is a + pitiful miscarriage. Knowledge is scarcely in any degree imparted. But, as + they are inured to a dogged assiduity, and persist in their unavailing + attempts, though the shell of science, so to speak, is scarcely in the + smallest measure penetrated, yet that inestimable gift of the author of + our being, the sharpness of human faculties, is so blunted and destroyed, + that it can scarcely ever be usefully employed even for those purposes + which it was originally best qualified to effect. + </p> + <p> + A numerous school is that mint from which the worst and most flagrant + libels on our nature are incessantly issued. Hence it is that we are + taught, by a judgment everlastingly repeated, that the majority of our + kind are predestinated blockheads. + </p> + <p> + Not that it is by any means to be recommended, that a little writing and + arithmetic, and even the first rudiments of classical knowledge, so far as + they can be practicably imparted, should be withheld from any. The + mischief is, that we persist, month after month, and year after year, in + sowing our seed, when it has already been fully ascertained, that no + suitable and wholsome crop will ever be produced. + </p> + <p> + But what is perhaps worse is, that we are accustomed to pronounce, that + that soil, which will not produce the crop of which we have attempted to + make it fertile, is fit for nothing. The majority of boys, at the very + period when the buds of intellect begin to unfold themselves, are so + accustomed to be told that they are dull and fit for nothing, that the + most pernicious effects are necessarily produced. They become half + convinced by the ill-boding song of the raven, perpetually croaking in + their ears; and, for the other half, though by no means assured that the + sentence of impotence awarded against them is just, yet, folding up their + powers in inactivity, they are contented partly to waste their energies in + pure idleness and sport, and partly to wait, with minds scarcely half + awake, for the moment when their true destination shall be opened before + them. + </p> + <p> + Not that it is by any means to be desired that the child in his earlier + years should meet with no ruggednesses in his way, and that he should + perpetually tread "the primrose path of dalliance." Clouds and tempests + occasionally clear the atmosphere of intellect, not less than that of the + visible world. The road to the hill of science, and to the promontory of + heroic virtue, is harsh and steep, and from time to time puts to the proof + the energies of him who would ascend their topmost round. + </p> + <p> + There are many things which every human creature should learn, so far as, + agreeably to the constitution of civilised society, they can be brought + within his reach. He should be induced to learn them, willingly if + possible, but, if that cannot be thoroughly effected, yet with half a + will. Such are reading, writing, arithmetic, and the first principles of + grammar; to which shall be added, as far as may be, the rudiments of all + the sciences that are in ordinary use. The latter however should not be + brought forward too soon; and, if wisely delayed, the tyro himself will to + a certain degree enter into the views of his instructor, and be disposed + to essay Quid valeant humeri, quid ferre recusent. But, above all, the + beginnings of those studies should be encouraged, which unfold the + imagination, familiarise us with the feelings, the joys and sufferings of + our fellow-beings, and teach us to put ourselves in their place and + eagerly fly to their assistance. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT" id="link2H_SECT___"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION IV. + </h2> + <p> + HOW FAR OUR GENUINE PROPENSITIES AND VOCATION SHOULD BE FAVOURED.—SELF-REVERENCE + RECOMMENDED.—CONCLUSION. + </p> + <p> + I knew a man of eminent intellectual faculties(3), one of whose favourite + topics of moral prudence was, that it is the greatest mistake in the world + to suppose, that, when we have discovered the special aspiration of the + youthful mind, we are bound to do every thing in our power to assist its + progress. He maintained on the contrary, that it is our true wisdom to + place obstacles in its way, and to thwart it: as we may be well assured + that, unless it is a mere caprice, it will shew its strength in conquering + difficulties, and that all the obstacles that we can conjure up will but + inspire it with the greater earnestness to attain final success. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) Henry Fuseli. +</pre> + <p> + The maxim here stated, taken to an unlimited extent, is doubtless a very + dangerous one. There are obstacles that scarcely any strength of man would + be sufficient to conquer. "Chill penury" will sometimes "repress the + noblest rage," that almost ever animated a human spirit: and our wisest + course will probably be, secretly to favour, even when we seem most to + oppose, the genuine bent of the youthful aspirer. + </p> + <p> + But the thing of greatest importance is, that we should not teach him to + estimate his powers at too low a rate. One of the wisest of all the + precepts comprised in what are called the Golden Verses of Pythagoras, is + that, in which he enjoins his pupil to "reverence himself." Ambition is + the noblest root that can be planted in the garden of the human soul: not + the ambition to be applauded and admired, to be famous and looked up to, + to be the darling theme of "stupid starers and of loud huzzas;" but the + ambition to fill a respectable place in the theatre of society, to be + useful and to be esteemed, to feel that we have not lived in vain, and + that we are entitled to the most honourable of all dismissions, an + enlightened self-approbation. And nothing can more powerfully tend to + place this beyond our acquisition, even our contemplation, than the + perpetual and hourly rebuffs which ingenuous youth is so often doomed to + sustain from the supercilious pedant, and the rigid decision of his + unfeeling elders. + </p> + <p> + Self-respect to be nourished in the mind of the pupil, is one of the most + valuable results of a well conducted education. To accomplish this, it is + most necessary that it should never be inculcated into him, that he is + dull. Upon the principles of this Essay, any unfavourable appearances that + may present themselves, do not arise from the dulness of the pupil, but + from the error of those upon whose superintendence he is cast, who require + of him the things for which he is not adapted, and neglect those in which + he is qualified to excel. + </p> + <p> + It is further necessary, if self-respect is one of the most desirable + results of a well-conducted education, that, as we should not humble the + pupil in his own eyes by disgraceful and humiliating language, so we + should abstain, as much as possible, from personal ill-treatment, and the + employing towards him the measures of an owner towards his purchased or + indentured slave. Indignity is of all things the most hostile to the best + purposes of a liberal education. It may be necessary occasionally to + employ, towards a human creature in his years of nonage, the stimulants of + exhortation and remonstrance even in the pursuits to which he is best + adapted, for the purpose of overcoming the instability and fits of + idleness to which all men, and most of all in their early years, are + subject: though in such pursuits a necessity of this sort can scarcely be + supposed. The bow must not always be bent; and it is good for us that we + should occasionally relax and play the fool. It may more readily be + imagined, that some incitement may be called for in those things which, as + has been mentioned above, it may be fit he should learn though with but + half a will. All freaks must not be indulged; admonition is salutary, and + that the pupil should be awakened by his instructor to sober reflection + and to masculine exertion. Every Telemachus should have his Mentor.—But + through the whole it is necessary that the spirit of the pupil should not + be broken, and that he should not be treated with contumely. Stripes + should in all instances be regarded as the last resort, and as a sort of + problem set up for the wisdom of the wise to solve, whether the urgent + case can arise in which it shall be requisite to have recourse to them. + </p> + <p> + The principles here laid down have the strongest tendency to prove to us + how little progress has yet been made in the art of turning human + creatures to the best account. Every man has his place, in which if he can + be fixed, the most fastidious judge cannot look upon him with disdain. + But, to effect this arrangement, an exact attention is required to + ascertain the pursuit in which he will best succeed. In India the whole + mass of the members of the community is divided into castes; and, instead + of a scrupulous attention being paid to the early intimations of + individual character, it is already decided upon each, before he comes + into the world, which child shall be a priest, and which a soldier, a + physician, a lawyer, a merchant, and an artisan. In Europe we do not carry + this so far, and are not so elaborately wrong. But the rudiments of the + same folly flourish among us; and the accident of birth for the most part + decides the method of life to which each individual with whatever violence + shall be dedicated. A very few only, by means of energies that no tyranny + can subdue, escape from the operation of this murderous decree. + </p> + <p> + Nature never made a dunce. Imbecility of mind is as rare, as deformity of + the animal frame. If this position be true, we have only to bear it in + mind, feelingly to convince ourselves, how wholesale the error is into + which society has hitherto fallen in the destination of its members, and + how much yet remains to be done, before our common nature can be + vindicated from the basest of all libels, the most murderous of all + proscriptions. + </p> + <p> + There is a passage in Voltaire, in which he expresses himself to this + effect: "It is after all but a slight line of separation that divides the + man of genius from the man of ordinary mould." I remember the place where, + and the time when, I read this passage. But I have been unable to find the + expression. It is however but reasonable that I should refer to it on this + occasion, that I may hereby shew so eminent a modern concurring with the + venerable ancient in an early era of letters, whose dictum I have prefixed + to this Essay, to vouch to a certain extent for the truth of the doctrine + I have delivered. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY III. OF INTELLECTUAL ABORTION. + </h2> + <p> + In the preceding Essay I have endeavoured to establish the proposition, + that every human creature, idiots and extraordinary cases excepted, is + endowed with talents, which, if rightly directed, would shew him to be + apt, adroit, intelligent and acute, in the walk for which his organisation + especially fitted him. + </p> + <p> + There is however a sort of phenomenon, by no means of rare occurrence, + which tends to place the human species under a less favourable point of + view. Many men, as has already appeared, are forced into situations and + pursuits ill assorted to their talents, and by that means are exhibited to + their contemporaries in a light both despicable and ludicrous. + </p> + <p> + But this is not all. Men are not only placed, by the absurd choice of + their parents, or an imperious concurrence of circumstances, in + destinations and employments in which they can never appear to advantage: + they frequently, without any external compulsion, select for themselves + objects of their industry, glaringly unadapted to their powers, and in + which all their efforts must necessarily terminate in miscarriage. + </p> + <p> + I remember a young man, who had been bred a hair-dresser, but who + experienced, as he believed, the secret visitations of the Muse, and + became inspired. "With sad civility, and aching head," I perused no fewer + than six comedies from the pen of this aspiring genius, in no page of + which I could discern any glimmering of poetry or wit, or in reality could + form a guess what it was that the writer intended in his elaborate + effusions. Such are the persons enumerated by Pope in the Prologue to his + Satires, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + a parson, much bemused in beer, + A maudlin poetess, a rhyming peer, + A clerk, foredoomed his father's sou to cross, + Who pens a stanza, when he should engross. +</pre> + <p> + Every manager of a theatre, and every publishing bookseller of eminence, + can produce you in each revolving season whole reams, almost cartloads, of + blurred paper, testifying the frequent recurrence of this phenomenon. + </p> + <p> + The cause however of this painful mistake does not lie in the + circumstance, that each man has not from the hand of nature an appropriate + destination, a sphere assigned him, in which, if life should be prolonged + to him, he might be secure of the respect of his neighbours, and might + write upon his tomb, "I have filled an honourable career; I have finished + my course." + </p> + <p> + One of the most glaring infirmities of our nature is discontent. One of + the most unquestionable characteristics of the human mind is the love of + novelty. Omne ignotum pro magnifico est. We are satiated with those + objects which make a part of our business in every day, and are desirous + of trying something that is a stranger to us. Whatever we see through a + mist, or in the twilight, is apt to be apprehended by us as something + admirable, for the single reason that it is seen imperfectly. What we are + sure that we can easily and adequately effect, we despise. He that goes + into battle with an adversary of more powerful muscle or of greater + practice than himself, feels a tingling sensation, not unallied to + delight, very different from that which would occur to him, when his + victory was easy and secure. + </p> + <p> + Each man is conscious what it is that he can certainly effect. This does + not therefore present itself to him as an object of ambition. We have many + of us internally something of the spirit expressed by the apostle: + "Forgetting the things that are behind, we press forward to those that + remain." And, so long as this precept is soberly applied, no conduct can + be more worthy of praise. Improvement is the appropriate race of man. We + cannot stand still. If we do not go forward, we shall inevitably recede. + Shakespear, when he wrote his Hamlet, did not know that he could produce + Macbeth and Othello. + </p> + <p> + But the progress of a man of reflection will be, to a considerable degree, + in the path he has already entered. If he strikes into a new career, it + will not be without deep premeditation. He will attempt nothing wantonly. + He will carefully examine his powers, and see for what they are adapted. + Sudet multum. He will be like the man, who first in a frail bark committed + himself to the treachery of the waves. He will keep near to the shore; he + will tremble for the audaciousness of his enterprise; he will feel that it + calls for all his alertness and vigilance. The man of reflection will not + begin, till he feels his mind swelling with his purposed theme, till his + blood flows fitfully and with full pulses through his veins, till his eyes + sparkle with the intenseness of his conceptions, and his "bosom labours + with the God." + </p> + <p> + But the fool dashes in at once. He does not calculate the dangers of his + enterprise. He does not study the map of the country he has to traverse. + He does not measure the bias of the ground, the rising knolls and the + descending slopes that are before him. He obeys a blind and unreflecting + impulse. + </p> + <p> + His case bears a striking resemblance to what is related of Oliver + Goldsmith. Goldsmith was a man of the most felicitous endowments. His + prose flows with such ease, copiousness and grace, that it resembles the + song of the sirens. His verses are among the most spirited, natural and + unaffected in the English language. Yet he was not contented. If he saw a + consummate dancer, he knew no reason why he should not do as well, and + immediately felt disposed to essay his powers. If he heard an accomplished + musician, he undertook to enter the lists with him. His conduct was of a + piece with that of the countryman, who, cheapening spectacles, and making + experiment of them for ever in vain upon the book before him, was at + length asked, "Could you ever read without spectacles?" to which he was + obliged to answer, "I do not know; I never tried." The vanity of Goldsmith + was infinite; and his failure in such attempts must necessarily have been + ludicrous. + </p> + <p> + The splendour of the thing presented to our observation, awakens the + spirit within us. The applause and admiration excited by certain + achievements and accomplishments infects us with desire. We are like the + youthful Themistocles, who complained that the trophies of Miltiades would + not let him sleep. We are like the novice Guido, who, while looking on the + paintings of Michael Angelo, exclaimed, "I also am a painter." + Themistocles and Guido were right, for they were of kindred spirit to the + great men they admired. But the applause bestowed on others will often + generate uneasiness and a sigh, in men least of all qualified by nature to + acquire similar applause. We are not contented to proceed in the path of + obscure usefulness and worth. We are eager to be admired, and thus often + engage in pursuits for which perhaps we are of all men least adapted Each + one would be the man above him. + </p> + <p> + And this is the cause why we see so many individuals, who might have + passed their lives with honour, devote themselves to incredible efforts, + only that they may be made supremely ridiculous. + </p> + <p> + To this let it be added, that the wisest man that ever existed, never yet + knew himself, especially in the morning of life. The person, who + ultimately stamped his history with the most heroic achievements, was far + perhaps even from suspecting, in the dawn of his existence, that he should + realise the miracles that mark its maturity. He might be ready to exclaim, + with Hazael in the Scriptures, "Is thy servant more than man, that he + should do this great thing?" The sublimest poet that ever sung, was + peradventure, while a stripling, unconscious of the treasures which formed + a part of the fabric of his mind, and unsuspicious of the high destiny + that in the sequel awaited him. What wonder then, that, awaking from the + insensibility and torpor which precede the activity of the soul, some men + should believe in a fortune that shall never be theirs, and anticipate a + glory they are fated never to sustain! And for the same reason, when + unanticipated failure becomes their lot, they are unwilling at first to be + discouraged, and find a certain gallantry in persevering, and "against + hope believing in hope." + </p> + <p> + This is the explanation of a countless multitude of failures that occur in + the career of literature. Nor is this phenomenon confined to literature. + In all the various paths of human existence, that appear to have something + in them splendid and alluring, there are perpetual instances of daring + adventures, unattended with the smallest rational hope of success. Optat + ephippia bos piger. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + All quit their sphere, and rush into the skies. +</pre> + <p> + But, beside these instances of perfect and glaring miscarriage, there are + examples worthy of a deeper regret, where the juvenile candidate sets out + in the morning of life with the highest promise, with colours flying, and + the spirit-stirring note of gallant preparation, when yet his voyage of + life is destined to terminate in total discomfiture. I have seen such an + one, whose early instructors regarded him with the most sanguine + expectation, and his elders admired him, while his youthful competitors + unreluctantly confessed his superiority, and gave way on either side to + his triumphant career; and all this has terminated in nothing. + </p> + <p> + In reality the splendid march of genius is beset with a thousand + difficulties. "The race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to the + strong." A multitude of unthought-of qualifications are required; and it + depends at least as much upon the nicely maintained balance of these, as + upon the copiousness and brilliancy of each, whether the result shall be + auspicious. The progress of genius is like the flight of an arrow; a + breath may turn it out of its course, and cause that course to terminate + many a degree wide of its purposed mark. It is therefore scarcely possible + that any sharpness of foresight can pronounce of the noblest beginnings + whether they shall reach to an adequate conclusion. + </p> + <p> + I have seen such a man, with the most fervent imagination, with the most + diligent study, with the happiest powers of memory, and with an + understanding that apparently took in every thing, and arranged every + thing, at the same time that by its acuteness it seemed able to add to the + accumulated stores of foregone wisdom and learning new treasures of its + own; and yet this man shall pass through the successive stages of human + life, in appearance for ever active, for ever at work, and leave nothing + behind that shall embalm his name to posterity, certainly nothing in any + degree adequately representing those excellencies, which a chosen few, + admitted to his retired and his serenest hours, knew to reside in him. + </p> + <p> + There are conceptions of the mind, that come forth like the coruscations + of lightning. If you could fix that flash, it would seem as if it would + give new brightness to the sons of men, and almost extinguish the luminary + of day. But, ere you can say it is here, it is gone. It appears to reveal + to us the secrets of the world unknown; but the clouds congregate again, + and shut in upon us, before we had time to apprehend its full radiance and + splendour. + </p> + <p> + To give solidity and permanence to the inspirations of genius two things + are especially necessary. First, that the idea to be communicated should + be powerfully apprehended by the speaker or writer; and next, that he + should employ words and phrases which might convey it in all its truth to + the mind of another. The man who entertains such conceptions, will not + unfrequently want the steadiness of nerve which is required for their + adequate transmission. Suitable words will not always wait upon his + thoughts. Language is in reality a vast labyrinth, a scene like the + Hercinian Forest of old, which, we are told, could not be traversed in + less than sixty days. If we do not possess the clue, we shall infallibly + perish in the attempt, and our thoughts and our memory will expire with + us. + </p> + <p> + The sentences of this man, when he speaks, or when he writes, will be full + of perplexity and confusion. They will be endless, and never arrive at + their proper termination. They will include parenthesis on parenthesis. We + perceive the person who delivers them, to be perpetually labouring after a + meaning, but never reaching it. He is like one flung over into the sea, + unprovided with the skill that should enable him to contend with the + tumultuous element. He flounders about in pitiable helplessness, without + the chance of extricating himself by all his efforts. He is lost in + unintelligible embarrassment. It is a delightful and a ravishing sight, to + observe another man come after him, and tell, without complexity, and in + the simplicity of self-possession, unconscious that there was any + difficulty, all that his predecessor had fruitlessly exerted himself to + unfold. + </p> + <p> + There are a multitude of causes that will produce a miscarriage of this + sort, where the richest soil, impregnated with the choicest seeds of + learning and observation, shall entirely fail to present us with such a + crop as might rationally have been anticipated. Many such men waste their + lives in indolence and irresolution. They attempt many things, sketch out + plans, which, if properly filled up, might illustrate the literature of a + nation, and extend the empire of the human mind, but which yet they desert + as soon as begun, affording us the promise of a beautiful day, that, ere + it is noon, is enveloped in darkest tempests and the clouds of midnight. + They skim away from one flower in the parterre of literature to another, + like the bee, without, like the bee, gathering sweetness from each, to + increase the public stock, and enrich the magazine of thought. The cause + of this phenomenon is an unsteadiness, ever seduced by the newness of + appearances, and never settling with firmness and determination upon what + had been chosen. + </p> + <p> + Others there are that are turned aside from the career they might have + accomplished, by a visionary and impracticable fastidiousness. They can + find nothing that possesses all the requisites that should fix their + choice, nothing so good that should authorise them to present it to public + observation, and enable them to offer it to their contemporaries as + something that we should "not willingly let die." They begin often; but + nothing they produce appears to them such as that they should say of it, + "Let this stand." Or they never begin, none of their thoughts being judged + by them to be altogether such as to merit the being preserved. They have a + microscopic eye, and discern faults unworthy to be tolerated, in that in + which the critic himself might perceive nothing but beauty. + </p> + <p> + These phenomena have introduced a maxim which is current with many, that + the men who write nothing, and bequeath no record of themselves to + posterity, are not unfrequently of larger calibre, and more gigantic + standard of soul, than such as have inscribed their names upon the columns + of the temple of Fame. And certain it is, that there are extraordinary + instances which appear in some degree to countenance this assertion. Many + men are remembered as authors, who seem to have owed the permanence of + their reputation rather to fortune than merit. They were daring, and + stepped into a niche that was left in the gallery of art or of science, + where others of higher qualifications, but of unconquerable modesty, held + back. At the same time persons, whose destiny caused them to live among + the elite of an age, have seen reason to confess that they have heard such + talk, such glorious and unpremeditated discourse, from men whose thoughts + melted away with the breath that uttered them, as the wisest of their + vaunted contemporary authors would in vain have sought to rival. + </p> + <p> + The maxim however, notwithstanding these appearances, may safely be + pronounced to be a fallacious one. It has been received in various + quarters with the greater indulgence, inasmuch as the human mind is prone + in many cases to give a more welcome reception to seeming truths, that + present us at the first blush the appearance of falshood. + </p> + <p> + It must however be recollected that the human mind consists in the first + instance merely of faculties prepared to be applied to certain purposes, + and susceptible of improvement. It cannot therefore happen, that the man, + who has chosen a subject towards which to direct the energy of his + faculties, who has sought on all sides for the materials that should + enable him to do that subject justice, who has employed upon it his + contemplations by day, and his meditations during the watches of the + night, should not by such exercise greatly invigorate his powers. In this + sense there was much truth in the observation of the author who said, "I + did not write upon the subject you mention because I understood it; but I + understood it afterward, because I had written upon it." + </p> + <p> + The man who merely wanders through the fields of knowledge in search of + its gayest flowers and of whatever will afford him the most enviable + amusement, will necessarily return home at night with a very slender + collection. He that shall apply himself with self-denial and an + unshrinking resolution to the improvement of his mind, will unquestionably + be found more fortunate in the end. + </p> + <p> + He is not deterred by the gulphs that yawn beneath his feet, or the + mountains that may oppose themselves to his progress. He knows that the + adventurer of timid mind, and that is infirm of purpose, will never make + himself master of those points which it would be most honourable to him to + subdue. But he who undertakes to commit to writing the result of his + researches, and to communicate his discoveries to mankind, is the genuine + hero. Till he enters on this task, every thing is laid up in his memory in + a certain confusion. He thinks he possesses a thing whole; but, when he + brings it to the test, he is surprised to find how much he was deceived. + He that would digest his thoughts and his principles into a regular + system, is compelled in the first place to regard them in all their + clearness and perspicuity, and in the next place to select the fittest + words by which they may be communicated to others. It is through the + instrumentality of words that we are taught to think accurately and + severely for ourselves; they are part and parcel of all our propositions + and theories. It is therefore in this way that a preceptor, by undertaking + to enlighten the mind of his pupil, enlightens his own. He becomes twice + the man in the sequel, that he was when he entered on his task. We admire + the amateur student in his public essays, as we admire a jackdaw or a + parrot: he does considerably more than could have been expected from him. + </p> + <p> + In attending to the subject of this Essay we have been led to observe the + different ways, in which the mind of man may be brought into a position + tending to exhibit its powers in a less creditable and prepossessing point + of view, than that in which all men, idiots and extraordinary cases + excepted, are by nature qualified to appear. Many, not contented with + those occupations, modest and humble in certain cases, to which their + endowments and original bent had designed them, shew themselves + immoderately set upon more alluring and splendid pursuits in which they + are least qualified to excel. Other instances there are, still more + entitled to our regret, where the individual is seen to be gifted with no + ordinary qualities, where his morning of life has proved auspicious, and + the highest expectations were formed of a triumphant career, while yet in + the final experiment he has been found wanting, and the "voyage of his + life" has passed "in shallows and in miseries." + </p> + <p> + But our survey of the subject of which I treat will not be complete, + unless we add to what has been said, another striking truth respecting the + imperfection of man collectively taken. The examples of which the history + of our species consists, not only abound in cases, where, from mistakes in + the choice of life, or radical and irremediable imperfection in the + adventurer, the most glaring miscarriages are found to result,—but + it is also true, that all men, even the most illustrious, have some fatal + weakness, obliging both them and their rational admirers to confess, that + they partake of human frailty, and belong to a race of beings which has + small occasion to be proud. Each man has his assailable part. He is + vulnerable, though it be only like the fabled Achilles in his heel. We are + like the image that Nebuchadnezzar saw in his dream, of which though the + head was of fine gold, and the breast and the arms were silver, yet the + feet were partly only of iron, and partly of clay. No man is whole and + entire, armed at all points, and qualified for every undertaking, or even + for any one undertaking, so as to carry it through, and to make the + achievement he would perform, or the work he would produce, in all its + parts equal and complete. + </p> + <p> + It is a gross misapprehension in such men as, smitten with admiration of a + certain cluster of excellencies, or series of heroic acts, are willing to + predicate of the individual to whom they belong, "This man is consummate, + and without alloy." Take the person in his retirement, in his hours of + relaxation, when he has no longer a part to play, and one or more + spectators before whom he is desirous to appear to advantage, and you + shall find him a very ordinary man. He has "passions, dimensions, senses, + affections, like the rest of his fellow-creatures, is fed with the same + food, hurt with the same weapons, warmed and cooled by the same summer and + winter." He will therefore, when narrowly observed, be unquestionably + found betraying human weaknesses, and falling into fits of ill humour, + spleen, peevishness and folly. No man is always a sage; no bosom at all + times beats with sentiments lofty, self-denying and heroic. It is enough + if he does so, "when the matter fits his mighty mind." + </p> + <p> + The literary genius, who undertakes to produce some consummate work, will + find himself pitiably in error, if he expects to turn it out of his hands, + entire in all its parts, and without a flaw. + </p> + <p> + There are some of the essentials of which it is constituted, that he has + mastered, and is sufficiently familiar with them; but there are others, + especially if his work is miscellaneous and comprehensive, to which he is + glaringly incompetent. He must deny his nature, and become another man, if + he would execute these parts, in a manner equal to that which their + intrinsic value demands, or to the perfection he is able to give to his + work in those places which are best suited to his powers. There are points + in which the wisest man that ever existed is no stronger than a child. In + this sense the sublimest genius will be found infelix operas summa, nam + ponere totum nescit. And, if he properly knows himself, and is aware where + lies his strength, and where his weakness, he will look for nothing more + in the particulars which fall under the last of these heads, than to + escape as he can, and to pass speedily to things in which he finds himself + at home and at his ease. + </p> + <p> + Shakespear we are accustomed to call the most universal genius that ever + existed. He has a truly wonderful variety. It is almost impossible to + pronounce in which he has done best, his Hamlet, Macbeth, Lear, or + Othello. He is equally excellent in his comic vein as his tragic. Falstaff + is in his degree to the full as admirable and astonishing, as what he + achieved that is noblest under the auspices of the graver muse. His poetry + and the fruits of his imagination are unrivalled. His language, in all + that comes from him when his genius is most alive, has a richness, an + unction, and all those signs of a character which admits not of mortality + and decay, for ever fresh as when it was first uttered, which we + recognise, while we can hardly persuade ourselves that we are not in a + delusion. As Anthony Wood says(4), "By the writings of Shakespear and + others of his time, the English tongue was exceedingly enriched, and made + quite another thing than what it was before." His versification on these + occasions has a melody, a ripeness and variety that no other pen has + reached. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) Athenae Oxonienses, vol. i. p. 592. +</pre> + <p> + Yet there were things that Shakespear could not do. He could not make a + hero. Familiar as he was with the evanescent touches of mind en + dishabille, and in its innermost feelings, he could not sustain the tone + of a character, penetrated with a divine enthusiasm, or fervently devoted + to a generous cause, though this is truly within the compass of our + nature, and is more than any other worthy to be delineated. He could + conceive such sentiments, for there are such in his personage of Brutus; + but he could not fill out and perfect what he has thus sketched. He seems + even to have had a propensity to bring the mountain and the hill to a + level with the plain. Caesar is spiritless, and Cicero is ridiculous, in + his hands. He appears to have written his Troilus and Cressida partly with + a view to degrade, and hold up to contempt, the heroes of Homer; and he + has even disfigured the pure, heroic affection which the Greek poet has + painted as existing between Achilles and Patroclus with the most odious + imputations. + </p> + <p> + And, as he could not sustain an heroic character throughout, so neither + could he construct a perfect plot, in which the interest should be + perpetually increasing, and the curiosity of the spectator kept alive and + in suspense to the last moment. Several of his plays have an unity of + subject to which nothing is wanting; but he has not left us any production + that should rival that boast of Ancient Greece in the conduct of a plot, + the OEdipus Tyrannus, a piece in which each act rises upon the act before, + like a tower that lifts its head story above story to the skies. He has + scarcely ever given to any of his plays a fifth act, worthy of those that + preceded; the interest generally decreases after the third. + </p> + <p> + Shakespear is also liable to the charge of obscurity. The most sagacious + critics dispute to this very hour, whether Hamlet is or is not mad, and + whether Falstaff is a brave man or a coward. This defect is perhaps partly + to be imputed to the nature of dramatic writing. It is next to impossible + to make words, put into the mouth of a character, develop all those things + passing in his mind, which it may be desirable should be known. + </p> + <p> + I spoke, a short time back, of the language of Shakespear in his finest + passages, as of unrivalled excellence and beauty; I might almost have + called it miraculous. O, si sic omnia! It is to be lamented that this + felicity often deserts him. He is not seldom cramp, rigid and pedantic. + What is best in him is eternal, of all ages and times; but what is worst, + is crusted with an integument, almost more cumbrous than that of any other + writer, his contemporary, the merits of whose works continue to invite us + to their perusal. + </p> + <p> + After Shakespear, it is scarcely worth while to bring forward any other + example, of a writer who, notwithstanding his undoubted claims to + excellencies of the highest order, yet in his productions fully displays + the inequality and non-universality of his genius. One of the most + remarkable instances may be alleged in Richardson, the author of Clarissa. + In his delineation of female delicacy, of high-souled and generous + sentiments, of the subtlest feelings and even mental aberrations of + virtuous distress strained beyond the power of human endurance, nothing + ever equalled this author. But he could not shape out the image of a + perfect gentleman, or of that winning gaiety of soul, which may indeed be + exemplified, but can never be defined, and never be resisted. His + profligate is a man without taste; and his coquettes are insolent and + profoundly revolting. He has no resemblance of the art, so conspicuous in + Fletcher and Farquhar, of presenting to the reader or spectator an + hilarity, bubbling and spreading forth from a perennial spring, which we + love as surely as we feel, which communicates its own tone to the + bystander, and makes our very hearts dance within us with a responsive + sportiveness. We are astonished however that the formal pedant has + acquitted himself of his uncongenial task with so great a display of + intellectual wealth; and, though he has not presented to us the genuine + picture of an intellectual profligate, or of that lovely gaiety of the + female spirit which we have all of us seen, but which it is scarcely + possible to fix and to copy, we almost admire the more the astonishing + talent, that, having undertaken a task for which it was so eminently + unfit, yet has been able to substitute for the substance so amazing a + mockery, and has treated with so much copiousness and power what it was + unfit ever to have attempted. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY IV. OF THE DURABILITY OF HUMAN ACHIEVEMENTS AND PRODUCTIONS. + </h2> + <p> + There is a view of the character of man, calculated more perhaps than any + other to impress us with reverence and awe. + </p> + <p> + Man is the only creature we know, that, when the term of his natural life + is ended, leaves the memory of himself behind him. + </p> + <p> + All other animals have but one object in view in their more considerable + actions, the supply of the humbler accommodations of their nature. Man has + a power sufficient for the accomplishment of this object, and a residue of + power beyond, which he is able, and which he not unfrequently feels + himself prompted, to employ in consecutive efforts, and thus, first by the + application and arrangement of material substances, and afterward by the + faculty he is found to possess of giving a permanent record to his + thoughts, to realise the archetypes and conceptions which previously + existed only in his mind. + </p> + <p> + One method, calculated to place this fact strongly before us, is, to + suppose ourselves elevated, in a balloon or otherwise, so as to enable us + to take an extensive prospect of the earth on which we dwell. We shall + then see the plains and the everlasting hills, the forests and the rivers, + and all the exuberance of production which nature brings forth for the + supply of her living progeny. We shall see multitudes of animals, herds of + cattle and of beasts of prey, and all the varieties of the winged tenants + of the air. But we shall also behold, in a manner almost equally + calculated to arrest our attention, the traces and the monuments of human + industry. We shall see castles and churches, and hamlets and mighty + cities. We shall see this strange creature, man, subjecting all nature to + his will. He builds bridges, and he constructs aqueducts. He "goes down to + the sea in ships," and variegates the ocean with his squadrons and his + fleets. To the person thus mounted in the air to take a wide and + magnificent prospect, there seems to be a sort of contest between the face + of the earth, as it may be supposed to have been at first, and the + ingenuity of man, which shall occupy and possess itself of the greatest + number of acres. We cover immense regions of the globe with the tokens of + human cultivation. + </p> + <p> + Thus the matter stands as to the exertions of the power of man in the + application and arrangement of material substances. + </p> + <p> + But there is something to a profound and contemplative mind much more + extraordinary, in the effects produced by the faculty we possess of giving + a permanent record to our thoughts. + </p> + <p> + From the development of this faculty all human science and literature take + their commencement. Here it is that we most distinctly, and with the + greatest astonishment, perceive that man is a miracle. Declaimers are + perpetually expatiating to us upon the shortness of human life. And yet + all this is performed by us, when the wants of our nature have already by + our industry been supplied. We manufacture these sublimities and + everlasting monuments out of the bare remnants and shreds of our time. + </p> + <p> + The labour of the intellect of man is endless. How copious is the volume, + and how extraordinary the variety, of our sciences and our arts! The + number of men is exceedingly great in every civilised state of society, + that make these the sole object of their occupation. And this has been + more or less the condition of our species in all ages, ever since we left + the savage and the pastoral modes of existence. + </p> + <p> + From this view of the history of man we are led by an easy transition to + the consideration of the nature and influence of the love of fame in + modifying the actions of the human mind. We have already stated it to be + one of the characteristic distinctions of our species to erect monuments + which outlast the existence of the persons that produced them. This at + first was accidental, and did not enter the design of the operator. The + man who built himself a shed to protect him from the inclemency of the + seasons, and afterwards exchanged that shed for a somewhat more commodious + dwelling, did not at first advert to the circumstance that the + accommodation might last, when he was no longer capable to partake of it. + </p> + <p> + In this way perhaps the wish to extend the memory of ourselves beyond the + term of our mortal existence, and the idea of its being practicable to + gratify that wish, descended upon us together. In contemplating the brief + duration and the uncertainty of human life, the idea must necessarily have + occurred, that we might survive those we loved, or that they might survive + us. In the first case we inevitably wish more or less to cherish the + memory of the being who once was an object of affection to us, but of + whose society death has deprived us. In the second case it can scarcely + happen but that we desire ourselves to be kindly recollected by those we + leave behind us. So simple is the first germ of that longing after + posthumous honour, which presents us with so memorable effects in the page + of history. + </p> + <p> + But, previously to the further consideration of posthumous fame, let us + turn our attention for a moment to the fame, or, as in that sense it is + more usually styled, popularity, which is the lot of a few favoured + individuals while they live. The attending to the subject in this point of + view, will be found to throw light upon the more extensive prospect of the + question to which we will immediately afterwards proceed. + </p> + <p> + Popularity is an acquisition more level to the most ordinary capacities, + and therefore is a subject of more general ambition, than posthumous fame. + It addresses itself to the senses. Applause is a species of good fortune + to which perhaps no mortal ear is indifferent. The persons who constitute + the circle in which we are applauded, receive us with smiles of + approbation and sympathy. They pay their court to us, seem to be made + happy by our bare presence among them, and welcome us to their houses with + congratulation and joy. The vulgar portion of mankind scarcely understand + the question of posthumous fame, they cannot comprehend how panegyric and + honour can "soothe the dull, cold ear of death:" but they can all conceive + the gratification to be derived from applauding multitudes and loud + huzzas. + </p> + <p> + One of the most obvious features however that attends upon popularity, is + its fugitive nature. No man has once been popular, and has lived long, + without experiencing neglect at least, if he were not also at some time + subjected to the very intelligible disapprobation and censure of his + fellows. The good will and kindness of the multitude has a devouring + appetite, and is like a wild beast that you should stable under your roof, + which, if you do not feed with a continual supply, will turn about and + attack its protector. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + One touch of nature makes the whole world kin,— + That all, with one consent, praise new-born gauds, + And give to dust, that is a little gilt, + More laud than they will give to gold o'erdusted. +</pre> + <p> + Cromwel well understood the nature of this topic, when he said, as we are + told, to one of his military companions, who called his attention to the + rapturous approbation with which they were received by the crowd on their + return from a successful expedition, "Ah, my friend, they would accompany + us with equal demonstrations of delight, if, upon no distant occasion, + they were to see us going to be hanged!" + </p> + <p> + The same thing which happens to the popularity attendant on the real or + imaginary hero of the multitude, happens also in the race after posthumous + fame. + </p> + <p> + As has already been said, the number of men is exceedingly great in every + civilised state of society, who make the sciences and arts engendered by + the human mind, the sole or the principal objects of their occupation. + </p> + <p> + This will perhaps be most strikingly illustrated by a retrospect of the + state of European society in the middle, or, as they are frequently + styled, the dark ages. + </p> + <p> + It has been a vulgar error to imagine, that the mind of man, so far as + relates to its active and inventive powers, was sunk into a profound + sleep, from which it gradually recovered itself at the period when + Constantinople was taken by the Turks, and the books and the teachers of + the ancient Greek language were dispersed through Europe. The epoch from + which modern invention took its rise, commenced much earlier. The feudal + system, one of the most interesting contrivances of man in society, was + introduced in the ninth century; and chivalry, the offspring of that + system, an institution to which we are mainly indebted for refinement of + sentiment, and humane and generous demeanour, in the eleventh. Out of + these grew the originality and the poetry of romance. + </p> + <p> + These were no mean advancements. But perhaps the greatest debt which after + ages have contracted to this remote period, arose out of the system of + monasteries and ecclesiastical celibacy. Owing to these a numerous race of + men succeeded to each other perpetually, who were separated from the + world, cut off from the endearments of conjugal and parental affection, + and who had a plenitude of leisure for solitary application. To these men + we are indebted for the preservation of the literature of Rome, and the + multiplied copies of the works of the ancients. Nor were they contented + only with the praise of never-ending industry. They forged many works, + that afterwards passed for classical, and which have demanded all the + perspicacity of comparative criticism to refute. And in these pursuits the + indefatigable men who were dedicated to them, were not even goaded by the + love of fame. They were satisfied with the consciousness of their own + perseverance and ingenuity. + </p> + <p> + But the most memorable body of men that adorned these ages, were the + Schoolmen. They may be considered as the discoverers of the art of logic. + The ancients possessed in an eminent degree the gift of genius; but they + have little to boast on the score of arrangement, and discover little + skill in the strictness of an accurate deduction. They rather arrive at + truth by means of a felicity of impulse, than in consequence of having + regularly gone through the process which leads to it. The schools of the + middle ages gave birth to the Irrefragable and the Seraphic doctors, the + subtlety of whose distinctions, and the perseverance of whose + investigations, are among the most wonderful monuments of the intellectual + power of man. The thirteenth century produced Thomas Aquinas, and Johannes + Duns Scotus, and William Occam, and Roger Bacon. In the century before, + Thomas a Becket drew around him a circle of literary men, whose + correspondence has been handed down to us, and who deemed it their + proudest distinction that they called each other philosophers. The + Schoolmen often bewildered themselves in their subtleties, and often + delivered dogmas and systems that may astonish the common sense of + unsophisticated understandings. But such is man. So great is his + persevering labour, his invincible industry, and the resolution with which + he sets himself, year after year, and lustre after lustre, to accomplish + the task which his judgment and his zeal have commanded him to pursue. + </p> + <p> + But I return to the question of literary fame. All these men, and men of a + hundred other classes, who laboured most commendably and gallantly in + their day, may be considered as swept away into the gulph of oblivion. As + Swift humorously says in his Dedication to Prince Posterity, "I had + prepared a copious list of Titles to present to your highness, as an + undisputed argument of the prolificness of human genius in my own time: + the originals were posted upon all gates and corner's of streets: but, + returning in a very few hours to take a review, they were all torn down, + and fresh ones put in their places. I enquired after them among readers + and booksellers, but in vain: the memorial of them was lost among men; + their place was no more to be found." + </p> + <p> + It is a just remark that had been made by Hume(5): "Theories of abstract + philosophy, systems of profound theology, have prevailed during one age. + In a successive period these have been universally exploded; their + absurdity has been detected; other theories and systems have supplied + their place, which again gave way to their successors; and nothing has + been experienced more liable to the revolutions of chance and fashion than + these pretended decisions of science. The case is not the same with the + beauties of eloquence and poetry. Just expressions of passion and nature + are sure, after a little time, to gain public applause, which they + maintain for ever. Aristotle and Plato and Epicurus and Descartes may + successively yield to each other: but Terence and Virgil maintain an + universal, undisputed empire over the minds of men. The abstract + philosophy of Cicero has lost its credit: the vehemence of his oratory is + still the object of our admiration." + </p> + <p> + (5) Essays, Part 1, Essay xxiii. + </p> + <p> + A few examples of the instability of fame will place this question in the + clearest light. + </p> + <p> + Nicholas Peiresk was born in the year 1580. His progress in knowledge was + so various and unprecedented, that, from the time that he was twenty-one + years of age, he was universally considered as holding the helm of + learning in his hand, and guiding the commonwealth of letters. He died at + the age of fifty-seven. The academy of the Humoristi at Rome paid the most + extraordinary honours to his memory; many of the cardinals assisted at his + funeral oration; and a collection of verses in his praise was published in + more than forty languages. + </p> + <p> + Salmasius was regarded as a prodigy of learning; and various princes and + powers entered into a competition who should be so fortunate as to secure + his residence in their states. Christina, queen of Sweden, having obtained + the preference, received him with singular reverence and attention; and, + Salmasius being taken ill at Stockholm, and confined to his bed, the queen + persisted with her own hand to prepare his caudles, and mend his fire. + Yet, but for the accident of his having had Milton for his adversary, his + name would now be as little remembered, even by the generality of the + learned, as that of Peiresk. + </p> + <p> + Du Bartas, in the reign of Henry the Fourth of France, was one of the most + successful poets that ever existed. His poem on the Creation of the World + went through upwards of thirty editions in the course of five or six + years, was translated into most European languages, and its commentators + promised to equal in copiousness and number the commentators on Homer. + </p> + <p> + One of the most admired of our English poets about the close of the + sixteenth century, was Donne. Unlike many of those trivial writers of + verse who succeeded him after an interval of forty or fifty years, and who + won for themselves a brilliant reputation by the smoothness of their + numbers, the elegance of their conceptions, and the politeness of their + style, Donne was full of originality, energy and vigour. No man can read + him without feeling himself called upon for earnest exercise of his + thinking powers, and, even with the most fixed attention and application, + the student is often obliged to confess his inability to take in the whole + of the meaning with which the poet's mind was perceptibly fraught. Every + sentence that Donne writes, whether in verse or prose, is exclusively his + own. In addition to this, his thoughts are often in the noblest sense of + the word poetical; and passages may be quoted from him that no English + poet may attempt to rival, unless it be Milton and Shakespear. Ben Jonson + observed of him with great truth and a prophetic spirit: "Donne for not + being understood will perish." But this is not all. If Waller and Suckling + and Carew sacrificed every thing to the Graces, Donne went into the other + extreme. With a few splendid and admirable exceptions, his phraseology and + versification are crabbed and repulsive. And, as poetry is read in the + first place for pleasure, Donne is left undisturbed on the shelf, or + rather in the sepulchre; and not one in an hundred even among persons of + cultivation, can give any account of him, if in reality they ever heard of + his productions. + </p> + <p> + The name of Shakespear is that before which every knee must bow. But it + was not always so. When the first novelty of his pieces was gone, they + were seldom called into requisition. Only three or four of his plays were + upon the acting list of the principal company of players during the reign + of Charles the Second; and the productions of Beaumont and Fletcher, and + of Shirley, were acted three times for once of his. At length Betterton + revived, and by his admirable representation gave popularity to, Macbeth, + Hamlet and Lear, a popularity they have ever since retained. But Macbeth + was not revived (with music, and alterations by sir William Davenant) till + 1674; and Lear a few years later, with love scenes and a happy catastrophe + by Nahum Tate. + </p> + <p> + In the latter part of the reign of Charles the Second, Dryden and Otway + and Lee held the undisputed supremacy in the serious drama. + </p> + <p> + Such was the insensibility of the English public to nature, and her high + priest, Shakespear. The only one of their productions that has survived + upon the theatre, is Venice Preserved: and why it has done so it is + difficult to say; or rather it would be impossible to assign a just and + honourable reason for it. All the personages in this piece are of an + abandoned and profligate character. Pierre is a man resolved to destroy + and root up the republic by which he was employed, because his mistress, a + courtesan, is mercenary, and endures the amorous visits of an impotent old + lecher. Jaffier, without even the profession of any public principle, + joins in the conspiracy, because he has been accustomed to luxury and + prodigal expence and is poor. He has however no sooner entered into the + plot, than he betrays it, and turns informer to the government against his + associates. Belvidera instigates him to this treachery, because she cannot + bear the thought of having her father murdered, and is absurd enough to + imagine that she and her husband shall be tender and happy lovers ever + after. Their love in the latter acts of the play is a continued tirade of + bombast and sounding nonsense, without one real sentiment, one just + reflection, or one strong emotion working from the heart, and analysing + the nature of man. The folly of this love can only be exceeded, by the + abject and despicable crouching and fawning of Jaffier to the man he had + so basely betrayed, and their subsequent reconciliation. There is not a + production in the whole realms of fiction, that has less pretension to + manly, or even endurable feeling, or to common propriety. The total defect + of a moral sense in this piece is strongly characteristic of the reign in + which it was written. It has in the mean while a richness of melody, and a + picturesqueness of action, that enables it to delude, and that even draws + tears from the eyes of, persons who can be won over by the eye and the + ear, with almost no participation of the understanding. And this unmeaning + rant and senseless declamation sufficed for the time to throw into shade + those exquisite delineations of character, those transcendent bursts of + passion, and that perfect anatomy of the human heart, which render the + master-pieces of Shakespear a property for all nations and all times. + </p> + <p> + While Shakespear was partly forgotten, it continued to be totally unknown + that he had contemporaries as inexpressibly superior to the dramatic + writers that have appeared since, as these contemporaries were themselves + below the almighty master of scenic composition. It was the fashion to + say, that Shakespear existed alone in a barbarous age, and that all his + imputed crudities, and intermixture of what was noblest with unparalleled + absurdity and buffoonery, were to be allowed for to him on that + consideration. + </p> + <p> + Cowley stands forward as a memorable instance of the inconstancy of fame. + He was a most amiable man; and the loveliness of his mind shines out in + his productions. He had a truly poetic frame of soul; and he pours out the + beautiful feelings that possessed him unreservedly and at large. He was a + great sufferer in the Stuart cause, he had been a principal member of the + court of the exiled queen; and, when the king was restored, it was a deep + sentiment among his followers and friends to admire the verses of Cowley. + He was "the Poet." The royalist rhymers were set lightly by in comparison + with him. Milton, the republican, who, by his collection published during + the civil war, had shewn that he was entitled to the highest eminence, was + unanimously consigned to oblivion. Cowley died in 1667; and the duke of + Buckingham, the author of the Rehearsal, eight years after, set up his + tomb in the cemetery of the nation, with an inscription, declaring him to + be at once "the Pindar, the Horace and Virgil of his country, the delight + and the glory of his age, which by his death was left a perpetual + mourner."—Yet—so capricious is fame—a century has nearly + elapsed, since Pope said, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Who now reads Cowley? If he pleases yet, + His moral pleases, not his pointed wit; + Forgot his epic, nay, Pindaric art, + But still I love the language of his heart. +</pre> + <p> + As Cowley was the great royalist poet after the Restoration, Cleveland + stood in the same rank during the civil war. In the publication of his + works one edition succeeded to another, yearly or oftener, for more than + twenty years. His satire is eminently poignant; he is of a strength and + energy of thinking uncommonly masculine; and he compresses his meaning so + as to give it every advantage. His imagination is full of coruscation and + brilliancy. His petition to Cromwel, lord protector of England, when the + poet was under confinement for his loyal principles, is a singular example + of manly firmness, great independence of mind, and a happy choice of + topics to awaken feelings of forbearance and clemency. It is unnecessary + to say that Cleveland is now unknown, except to such as feel themselves + impelled to search into things forgotten. + </p> + <p> + It would be endless to adduce all the examples that might be found of the + caprices of fame. It has been one of the arts of the envious to set up a + contemptible rival to eclipse the splendour of sterling merit. Thus Crowne + and Settle for a time disturbed the serenity of Dryden. Voltaire says, the + Phaedra of Pradon has not less passion than that of Racine, but expressed + in rugged verse and barbarous language. Pradon is now forgotten: and the + whole French poetry of the Augustan age of Louis the Fourteenth is + threatened with the same fate. Hayley for a few years was applauded as the + genuine successor of Pope; and the poem of Sympathy by Pratt went through + twelve editions. For a brief period almost each successive age appears + fraught with resplendent genius; but they go out one after another; they + set, "like stars that fall, to rise no more." Few indeed are endowed with + that strength of construction, that should enable them to ride triumphant + on the tide of ages. + </p> + <p> + It is the same with conquerors. What tremendous battles have been fought, + what oceans of blood have been spilled, by men who were resolved that + their achievements should be remembered for ever! And now even their names + are scarcely preserved; and the very effects of the disasters they + inflicted on mankind seem to be swept away, as of no more validity than + things that never existed. Warriors and poets, the authors of systems and + the lights of philosophy, men that astonished the earth, and were looked + up to as Gods, even like an actor on the stage, have strutted their hour, + and then been heard of no more. + </p> + <p> + Books have the advantage of all other productions of the human head or + hand. Copies of them may be multiplied for ever, the last as good as the + first, except so far as some slight inadvertent errors may have insinuated + themselves. The Iliad flourishes as green now, as on the day that + Pisistratus is said first to have stamped upon it its present order. The + songs of the Rhapsodists, the Scalds, and the Minstrels, which once seemed + as fugitive as the breath of him who chaunted them, repose in libraries, + and are embalmed in collections. The sportive sallies of eminent wits, and + the Table Talk of Luther and Selden, may live as long as there shall be + men to read, and judges to appreciate them. + </p> + <p> + But other human productions have their date. Pictures, however admirable, + will only last as long as the colours of which they are composed, and the + substance on which they are painted. Three or four hundred years + ordinarily limit the existence of the most favoured. We have scarcely any + paintings of the ancients, and but a small portion of their statues, while + of these a great part are mutilated, and various members supplied by later + and inferior artists. The library of Bufo is by Pope described, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + where busts of poets dead, + And a true Pindar stood without a head. +</pre> + <p> + Monumental records, alike the slightest and the most solid, are subjected + to the destructive operation of time, or to the being removed at the + caprice or convenience of successive generations. The pyramids of Egypt + remain, but the names of him who founded them, and of him whose memory + they seemed destined to perpetuate, have perished together. Buildings for + the use or habitation of man do not last for ever. Mighty cities, as well + as detached edifices, are destined to disappear. Thebes, and Troy, and + Persepolis, and Palmyra have vanished from the face of the earth. + </p> + <p> + "Thorns and brambles have grown up in their palaces: they are habitations + for serpents, and a court for the owl." + </p> + <p> + There are productions of man however that seem more durable than any of + the edifices he has raised. Such are, in the first place, modes of + government. The constitution of Sparta lasted for seven hundred years. + That of Rome for about the same period. Institutions, once deeply rooted + in the habits of a people, will operate in their effects through + successive revolutions. Modes of faith will sometimes be still more + permanent. Not to mention the systems of Moses and Christ, which we + consider as delivered to us by divine inspiration, that of Mahomet has + continued for twelve hundred years, and may last, for aught that appears, + twelve hundred more. The practices of the empire of China are celebrated + all over the earth for their immutability. + </p> + <p> + This brings us naturally to reflect upon the durability of the sciences. + According to Bailly, the observation of the heavens, and a calculation of + the revolutions of the heavenly bodies, in other words, astronomy, + subsisted in maturity in China and the East, for at least three thousand + years before the birth of Christ: and, such as it was then, it bids fair + to last as long as civilisation shall continue. The additions it has + acquired of late years may fall away and perish, but the substance shall + remain. The circulation of the blood in man and other animals, is a + discovery that shall never be antiquated. And the same may be averred of + the fundamental elements of geometry and of some other sciences. + Knowledge, in its most considerable branches shall endure, as long as + books shall exist to hand it down to successive generations. + </p> + <p> + It is just therefore, that we should regard with admiration and awe the + nature of man, by whom these mighty things have been accomplished, at the + same time that the perishable quality of its individual monuments, and the + temporary character and inconstancy of that fame which in many instances + has filled the whole earth with its renown, may reasonably quell the fumes + of an inordinate vanity, and keep alive in us the sentiment of a wholsome + diffidence and humility. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0010" id="link2H_4_0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY V. OF THE REBELLIOUSNESS OF MAN. + </h2> + <p> + There is a particular characteristic in the nature of the human mind, + which is somewhat difficult to be explained. + </p> + <p> + Man is a being of a rational and an irrational nature. + </p> + <p> + It has often been said that we have two souls. Araspes, in the Cyropedia, + adopts this language to explain his inconsistency, and desertion of + principle and honour. The two souls of man, according to this hypothesis, + are, first, animal, and, secondly, intellectual. + </p> + <p> + But I am not going into any thing of this slight and every-day character. + </p> + <p> + Man is a rational being. It is by this particular that he is eminently + distinguished from the brute creation. He collects premises and deduces + conclusions. He enters into systems of thinking, and combines systems of + action, which he pursues from day to day, and from year to year. It is by + this feature in his constitution that he becomes emphatically the subject + of history, of poetry and fiction. It is by this that he is raised above + the other inhabitants of the globe of earth, and that the individuals of + our race are made the partners of "gods, and men like gods." + </p> + <p> + But our nature, beside this, has another section. We start occasionally + ten thousand miles awry. We resign the sceptre of reason, and the high + dignity that belongs to us as beings of a superior species; and, without + authority derived to us from any system of thinking, even without the + scheme of gratifying any vehement and uncontrolable passion, we are + impelled to do, or at least feel ourselves excited to do, something + disordinate and strange. It seems as if we had a spring within us, that + found the perpetual restraint of being wise and sober insupportable. We + long to be something, or to do something, sudden and unexpected, to throw + the furniture of our apartment out at window, or, when we are leaving a + place of worship, in which perhaps the most solemn feelings of our nature + have been excited, to push the grave person that is just before us, from + the top of the stairs to the bottom. A thousand absurdities, wild and + extravagant vagaries, come into our heads, and we are only restrained from + perpetrating them by the fear, that we may be subjected to the treatment + appropriated to the insane, or may perhaps be made amenable to the + criminal laws of our country. + </p> + <p> + A story occurs to me, which I learned from the late Dr. Parr at Hatton, + that may not unhappily illustrate the point I am endeavouring to explain. + </p> + <p> + Dr. Samuel Clarke, rector of St. James's, Westminster, the especial friend + of Sir Isaac Newton, the distinguished editor of the poems of Homer, and + author of the Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God, was one + day summoned from his study, to receive two visitors in the parlour. When + he came downstairs, and entered the room, he saw a foreigner, who by his + air seemed to be a person of distinction, a professor perhaps of some + university on the continent; and an alderman of London, a relation of the + doctor, who had come to introduce the foreigner. The alderman, a man of + uncultivated mind and manners, and whom the doctor had been accustomed to + see in sordid attire, surrounded with the incumbrances of his trade, was + decked out for the occasion in a full-dress suit, with a wig of majestic + and voluminous structure. Clarke was, as it appears, so much struck with + the whimsical nature of this unexpected metamorphosis, and the + extraordinary solemnity of his kinsman's demeanour, as to have felt + impelled, almost immediately upon entering the room, to snatch the wig + from the alderman's head, and throw it against the ceiling: after which + this eminent person immediately escaped, and retired to his own apartment. + I was informed from the same authority, that Clarke, after exhausting his + intellectual faculties by long and intense study, would not unfrequently + quit his seat, leap upon the table, and place himself cross-legged like a + tailor, being prompted, by these antagonist sallies, to relieve himself + from the effect of the too severe strain he had previously put upon his + intellectual powers. + </p> + <p> + But the deviousness and aberration of our human faculties frequently + amount to something considerably more serious than this. + </p> + <p> + I will put a case. + </p> + <p> + I will suppose myself and another human being together, in some spot + secure from the intrusion of spectators. A musket is conveniently at hand. + It is already loaded. I say to my companion, "I will place myself before + you; I will stand motionless: take up that musket, and shoot me through + the heart." I want to know what passes in the mind of the man to whom + these words are addressed. + </p> + <p> + I say, that one of the thoughts that will occur to many of the persons who + should be so invited, will be, "Shall I take him at his word?" + </p> + <p> + There are two things that restrain us from acts of violence and crime. The + first is, the laws of morality. The second is, the construction that will + be put upon our actions by our fellow-creatures, and the treatment we + shall receive from them.—I put out of the question here any + particular value I may entertain for my challenger, or any degree of + friendship and attachment I may feel for him. + </p> + <p> + The laws of morality (setting aside the consideration of any documents of + religion or otherwise I may have imbibed from my parents and instructors) + are matured within us by experience. In proportion as I am rendered + familiar with my fellow-creatures, or with society at large, I come to + feel the ties which bind men to each other, and the wisdom and necessity + of governing my conduct by inexorable rules. We are thus further and + further removed from unexpected sallies of the mind, and the danger of + suddenly starting away into acts not previously reflected on and + considered. + </p> + <p> + With respect to the censure and retaliation of other men on my proceeding, + these, by the terms of my supposition, are left out of the question. + </p> + <p> + It may be taken for granted, that no man but a madman, would in the case I + have stated take the challenger at his word. But what I want to ascertain + is, why the bare thought of doing so takes a momentary hold of the mind of + the person addressed? + </p> + <p> + There are three principles in the nature of man which contribute to + account for this. + </p> + <p> + First, the love of novelty. + </p> + <p> + Secondly, the love of enterprise and adventure. I become insupportably + wearied with the repetition of rotatory acts and every-day occurrences. I + want to be alive, to be something more than I commonly am, to change the + scene, to cut the cable that binds my bark to the shore, to launch into + the wide sea of possibilities, and to nourish my thoughts with observing a + train of unforeseen consequences as they arise. + </p> + <p> + A third principle, which discovers itself in early childhood, and which + never entirely quits us, is the love of power. We wish to be assured that + we are something, and that we can produce notable effects upon other + beings out of ourselves. It is this principle, which instigates a child to + destroy his playthings, and to torment and kill the animals around him. + </p> + <p> + But, even independently of the laws of morality, and the fear of censure + and retaliation from our fellow-creatures, there are other things which + would obviously restrain us from taking the challenger in the above + supposition at his word. + </p> + <p> + If man were an omnipotent being, and at the same time retained all his + present mental infirmities, it would be difficult to say of what + extravagances he would be guilty. It is proverbially affirmed that power + has a tendency to corrupt the best dispositions. Then what would not + omnipotence effect? + </p> + <p> + If, when I put an end to the life of a fellow-creature, all vestiges of + what I had done were to disappear, this would take off a great part of the + control upon my actions which at present subsists. But, as it is, there + are many consequences that "give us pause." I do not like to see his blood + streaming on the ground. I do not like to witness the spasms and + convulsions of a dying man. Though wounded to the heart, he may speak. + Then what may be chance to say? What looks of reproach may he cast upon + me? The musket may miss fire. If I wound him, the wound may be less mortal + than I contemplated. Then what may I not have to fear? His dead body will + be an incumbrance to me. It must be moved from the place where it lies. It + must be buried. How is all this to be done by me? By one precipitate act, + I have involved myself in a long train of loathsome and heart-sickening + consequences. + </p> + <p> + If it should be said, that no one but a person of an abandoned character + would fail, when the scene was actually before him, to feel an instant + repugnance to the proposition, yet it will perhaps be admitted, that + almost every reader, when he regards it as a supposition merely, says to + himself for a moment, "Would I? Could I?" + </p> + <p> + But, to bring the irrationality of man more completely to the test, let us + change the supposition. Let us imagine him to be gifted with the powers of + the fabled basilisk, "to monarchise, be feared, and kill with looks." His + present impulses, his passions, his modes of reasoning and choosing shall + continue; but his "will is neighboured to his act;" whatever he has formed + a conception of with preference, is immediately realised; his thought is + succeeded by the effect; and no traces are left behind, by means of which + a shadow of censure or suspicion can be reflected on him. + </p> + <p> + Man is in truth a miracle. The human mind is a creature of celestial + origin, shut up and confined in a wall of flesh. We feel a kind of proud + impatience of the degradation to which we are condemned. We beat ourselves + to pieces against the wires of our cage, and long to escape, to shoot + through the elements, and be as free to change at any instant the place + where we dwell, as to change the subject to which our thoughts are + applied. + </p> + <p> + This, or something like this, seems to be the source of our most + portentous follies and absurdities. This is the original sin upon which + St. Austin and Calvin descanted. Certain Arabic writers seem to have had + this in their minds, when they tell us, that there is a black drop of + blood in the heart of every man, in which is contained the fomes peccati, + and add that, when Mahomet was in the fourth year of his age, the angel + Gabriel caught him up from among his playfellows, and taking his heart + from his bosom, squeezed out of it this first principle of frailty, in + consequence of which he for ever after remained inaccessible to the + weaknesses of other men(6). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (6) Life of Mahomet, by Prideaux. +</pre> + <p> + It is the observation of sir Thomas Browne: "Man is a noble animal, + splendid in ashes, and pompous in the grave." One of the most remarkable + examples of this is to be found in the pyramids of Egypt. They are + generally considered as having been erected to be the tombs of the kings + of that country. They have no opening by which for the light of heaven to + enter, and afford no means for the accommodation of living man. An hundred + thousand men are said to have been constantly employed in the building; + ten years to have been consumed in hewing and conveying the stones, and + twenty more in completing the edifice. Of the largest the base is a + square, and the sides are triangles, gradually diminishing as they mount + in the air. The sides of the base are two hundred and twenty feet in + length, and the perpendicular height is above one hundred and fifty-five + feet. The figure of the pyramid is precisely that which is most calculated + for duration: it cannot perish by accident; and it would require almost as + much labour to demolish it, as it did to raise it at first. + </p> + <p> + What a light does this fact convey into the inmost recesses of the human + heart! Man reflects deeply, and with feelings of a mortified nature, upon + the perishableness of his frame, and the approaching close, so far as + depends upon the evidence of our senses, of his existence. He has indeed + an irrepressible "longing after immortality;" and this is one of the + various and striking modes in which he has sought to give effect to his + desire. + </p> + <p> + Various obvious causes might be selected, which should be calculated to + give birth to the feeling of discontent. + </p> + <p> + One is, the not being at home. + </p> + <p> + I will here put together some of the particulars which make up the idea of + home in the most emphatical sense of the word. + </p> + <p> + Home is the place where a man is principally at his ease. It is the place + where he most breathes his native air: his lungs play without impediment; + and every respiration brings a pure element, and a cheerful and gay frame + of mind. Home is the place where he most easily accomplishes all his + designs; he has his furniture and materials and the elements of his + occupations entirely within his reach. Home is the place where he can be + uninterrupted. He is in a castle which is his in full propriety. No + unwelcome guests can intrude; no harsh sounds can disturb his + contemplations; he is the master, and can command a silence equal to that + of the tomb, whenever he pleases. + </p> + <p> + In this sense every man feels, while cribbed in a cabin of flesh, and shut + up by the capricious and arbitrary injunctions of human communities, that + he is not at home. + </p> + <p> + Another cause of our discontent is to be traced to the disparity of the + two parts of which we are composed, the thinking principle, and the body + in which it acts. The machine which constitutes the visible man, bears no + proportion to our thoughts, our wishes and desires. Hence we are never + satisfied; we always feel the want of something we have not; and this + uneasiness is continually pushing us on to precipitate and abortive + resolves. + </p> + <p> + I find in a book, entitled, Illustrations of Phrenology, by Sir George + Mackenzie, Baronet, the following remark. 'If this portrait be correctly + drawn, the right side does not quite agree with the left in the region of + ideality. This dissimilarity may have produced something contradictory in + the feelings of the person it represents, which he may have felt extremely + annoying(7).' An observation of this sort may be urged with striking + propriety as to the dissimilar attributes of the body and the thinking + principle in man. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) The remark thus delivered is applied to the portrait of the author +of the present volume. +</pre> + <p> + It is perhaps thus that we are to account for a phenomenon, in itself + sufficiently obvious, that our nature has within it a principle of + boundless ambition, a desire to be something that we are not, a feeling + that we are out of our place, and ought to be where we are not. This + feeling produces in us quick and earnest sallies and goings forth of the + mind, a restlessness of soul, and an aspiration after some object that we + do not find ourselves able to chalk out and define. + </p> + <p> + Hence comes the practice of castle-building, and of engaging the soul in + endless reveries and imaginations of something mysterious and unlike to + what we behold in the scenes of sublunary life. Many writers, having + remarked this, have endeavoured to explain it from the doctrine of a + preexistent state, and have said that, though we have no clear and + distinct recollection of what happened to us previously to our being + launched in our present condition, yet we have certain broken and + imperfect conceptions, as if, when the tablet of the memory was cleared + for the most part of the traces of what we had passed through in some + other mode of being, there were a few characters that had escaped the + diligence of the hand by which the rest had been obliterated. + </p> + <p> + It is this that, in less enlightened ages of the world, led men to engage + so much of their thoughts upon supposed existences, which, though they + might never become subject to our organs of vision, were yet conceived to + be perpetually near us, fairies, ghosts, witches, demons and angels. Our + ancestors often derived suggestions from these, were informed of things + beyond the ken of ordinary faculties, were tempted to the commission of + forbidden acts, or encouraged to proceed in the paths of virtue. + </p> + <p> + The most remarkable of these phenomena was that of necromancy, sorcery and + magic. There were men who devoted themselves to "curious arts," and had + books fraught with hidden knowledge. They could "bedim" + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The noon-tide sun, call forth the mutinous winds, + And 'twixt the green sea and the azured vault + Set roaring war: to the dread, rattling thunder + They could give fire, and rift even Jove's stout oak + With his own bolt—graves at their command + Have waked their sleepers, oped and let them forth. +</pre> + <p> + And of these things the actors in them were so certain, that many witches + were led to the stake, their guilt being principally established on their + own confessions. But the most memorable matters in the history of the + black art, were the contracts which those who practised it not + unfrequently entered into with the devil, that he should assist them by + his supernatural power for ten or twenty years, and, in consideration of + this aid, they consented to resign their souls into his possession, when + the period of the contract was expired. + </p> + <p> + In the animal creation there are some species that may be tamed, and + others whose wildness is irreclaimable. Horace says, that all men are mad: + and no doubt mankind in general has one of the features of madness. In the + ordinary current of our existence we are to a considerable degree rational + and tractable. But we are not altogether safe. I may converse with a + maniac for hours; he shall talk as soberly, and conduct himself with as + much propriety, as any other of the species who has never been afflicted + with his disease; but touch upon a particular string, and, before you are + aware of it, he shall fly out into the wildest and most terrifying + extravagances. Such, though in a greatly inferior degree, are the majority + of human beings. + </p> + <p> + The original impulse of man is uncontrolableness. When the spirit of life + first descends upon us, we desire and attempt to be as free as air. We are + impatient of restraint. This is the period of the empire of will. There is + a power within us that wars against the restraint of another. We are eager + to follow our own impulses and caprices, and are with difficulty subjected + to those who believe they best know how to control inexperienced youth in + a way that shall tend to his ultimate advantage. + </p> + <p> + The most moderate and auspicious method in which the old may endeavour to + guide and control the pursuits of the young, undoubtedly is by the + conviction of the understanding. But this is not always easy. It is not at + all times practicable fully to explain to the apprehension of a very young + person the advantage, which at a period a little more advanced he would be + able clearly to recognise. + </p> + <p> + There is a further evil appertaining to this view of the subject. + </p> + <p> + A young man even, in the early season of life, is not always disposed to + obey the convictions of his understanding. He has prescribed to himself a + task which returns with the returning day; but he is often not disposed to + apply. The very sense that it is what he conceives to be an incumbent + duty, inspires him with reluctance. + </p> + <p> + An obvious source of this reluctance is, that the convictions of our + understanding are not always equally present to us. I have entered into a + deduction of premises, and arrived at a conclusion; but some of the steps + of the chain are scarcely obvious to me, at the time that I am called upon + to act upon the conclusion I have drawn. Beside which, there was a + freshness in the first conception of the reasons on which my conduct was + to be framed, which, by successive rehearsals, and by process of time, is + no longer in any degree spirit-stirring and pregnant. + </p> + <p> + This restiveness and impracticability are principally incident to us in + the period of youth. By degrees the novelties of life wear out, and we + become sober. We are like soldiers at drill, and in a review. At first we + perform our exercise from necessity, and with an ill grace. We had rather + be doing almost any thing else. + </p> + <p> + By degrees we are reconciled to our occupation. We are like horses in a + manege, or oxen or dogs taught to draw the plough, or be harnessed to a + carriage. Our stubbornness is subdued; we no longer exhaust our strength + in vain efforts to free ourselves from the yoke. + </p> + <p> + Conviction at first is strong. Having arrived at years of discretion, I + revolve with a sobered mind the different occupations to which my efforts + and my time may be devoted, and determine at length upon that which under + all the circumstances displays the most cogent recommendations. Having + done so, I rouse my faculties and direct my energies to the performance of + my task. By degrees however my resolution grows less vigorous, and my + exertions relax. I accept any pretence to be let off, and fly into a + thousand episodes and eccentricities. + </p> + <p> + But, as the newness of life subsides, the power of temptation becomes + less. That conviction, which was at first strong, and gradually became + fainter and less impressive, is made by incessant repetitions a part of my + nature. I no more think of doubting its truth, than of my own existence. + Practice has rendered the pursuits that engage me more easy, till at + length I grow disturbed and uncomfortable if I am withheld from them. They + are like my daily bread. If they are not afforded me, I grow sick and + attenuated, and my life verges to a close. The sun is not surer to rise, + than I am to feel the want of my stated employment. + </p> + <p> + It is the business of education to tame the wild ass, the restive and + rebellious principle, in our nature. The judicious parent or instructor + essays a thousand methods to accomplish his end. The considerate elder + tempts the child with inticements and caresses, that he may win his + attention to the first rudiments of learning. + </p> + <p> + He sets before him, as he grows older, all the considerations and reasons + he can devise, to make him apprehend the advantage of improvement and + literature. He does his utmost to make his progress easy, and to remove + all impediments. He smooths the path by which he is to proceed, and + endeavours to root out all its thorns. He exerts his eloquence to inspire + his pupil with a love for the studies in which he is engaged. He opens to + him the beauties and genius of the authors he reads, and endeavours to + proceed with him hand in hand, and step by step. He persuades, he exhorts, + and occasionally he reproves. He awakens in him the love of excellence, + the fear of disgrace, and an ambition to accomplish that which "the + excellent of the earth" accomplished before him. + </p> + <p> + At a certain period the young man is delivered into his own hands, and + becomes an instructor to himself. And, if he is blessed with an ingenuous + disposition, he will enter on his task with an earnest desire and a + devoted spirit. No person of a sober and enlarged mind can for a moment + delude himself into the opinion that, when he is delivered into his own + hands, his education is ended. In a sense to which no one is a stranger, + the education of man and his life terminate together. We should at no + period of our existence be backward to receive information, and should at + all times preserve our minds open to conviction. We should through every + day of our lives seek to add to the stores of our knowledge and + refinement. But, independently of this more extended sense of the word, a + great portion of the education of the young man is left to the direction + of the man himself. The epoch of entire liberty is a dangerous period, and + calls upon him for all his discretion, that he may not make an ill use of + that, which is in itself perhaps the first of sublunary blessings. The + season of puberty also, and all the excitements from this source, "that + flesh is heir to," demand the utmost vigilance and the strictest + restraint. In a word, if we would counteract the innate rebelliousness of + man, that indocility of mind which is at all times at hand to plunge us + into folly, we must never slumber at our post, but govern ourselves with + steady severity, and by the dictates of an enlightened understanding. We + must be like a skilful pilot in a perilous sea, and be thoroughly aware of + all the rocks and quicksands, and the multiplied and hourly dangers that + beset our navigation. + </p> + <p> + In this Essay I have treated of nothing more than the inherent restiveness + and indocility of man, which accompany him at least through all the + earlier sections and divisions of his life. I have not treated of those + temptations calculated to lead him into a thousand excesses and miseries, + which originate in our lower nature, and are connected with what we call + the passion of love. Nor have I entered upon the still more copious + chapter, of the incentives and provocations which are administered to us + by those wants which at all times beset us as living creatures, and by the + unequal distribution of property generally in civil society. I have not + considered those attributes of man which may serve indifferently for good + or for ill, as he may happen to be or not to be the subject of those + fiercer excitements, that will oft times corrupt the most ingenuous + nature, and have a tendency to inspire into us subtle schemes and a deep + contrivance. I have confined myself to the consideration of man, as yet + untamed to the modes of civilised community, and unbroken to the steps + which are not only prescribed by the interests of our social existence, + but which are even in some degree indispensible to the improvement and + welfare of the individual. I have considered him, not as he is often acted + upon by causes and motives which seem almost to compel him to vice, but + merely as he is restless, and impatient, and disdainful both of the + control of others, and the shackles of system. + </p> + <p> + For the same reason I have not taken notice of another species of + irrationality, and which seems to answer more exactly to the Arabic notion + of the fomes peccati, the black drop of blood at the bottom of the heart. + We act from motives apprehended by the judgment; but we do not stop at + them. Once set in motion, it will not seldom happen that we proceed beyond + our original mark. We are like Othello in the play: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Our blood begins our safer guides to rule; + And passion, having our best judgment quelled, + Assays to lead the way. +</pre> + <p> + This is the explanation of the greatest enormities that have been + perpetrated by man, and the inhuman deeds of Nero and Caligula. We proceed + from bad to worse. The reins of our discretion drop from our hands. It + fortunately happens however, that we do not in the majority of cases, like + Phaeton in the fable, set the world on fire; but that, with ordinary men, + the fiercest excesses of passion extend to no greater distance than can be + reached by the sound of their voice. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0011" id="link2H_4_0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY VI. OF HUMAN INNOCENCE. + </h2> + <p> + One of the most obvious views which are presented to us by man in society + is the inoffensiveness and innocence that ordinarily characterise him. + </p> + <p> + Society for the greater part carries on its own organization. Each man + pursues his proper occupation, and there are few individuals that feel the + propensity to interrupt the pursuits of their neighbours by personal + violence. When we observe the quiet manner in which the inhabitants of a + great city, and, in the country, the frequenters of the fields, the high + roads, and the heaths, pass along, each engrossed by his private + contemplations, feeling no disposition to molest the strangers he + encounters, but on the contrary prepared to afford them every courteous + assistance, we cannot in equity do less than admire the innocence of our + species, and fancy that, like the patriarchs of old, we have fallen in + with "angels unawares." + </p> + <p> + There are a few men in every community, that are sons of riot and plunder, + and for the sake of these the satirical and censorious throw a general + slur and aspersion upon the whole species. + </p> + <p> + When we look at human society with kind and complacent survey, we are more + than half tempted to imagine that men might subsist very well in clusters + and congregated bodies without the coercion of law; and in truth criminal + laws were only made to prevent the ill-disposed few from interrupting the + regular and inoffensive proceedings of the vast majority. + </p> + <p> + From what disposition in human nature is it that all this accommodation + and concurrence proceed? + </p> + <p> + It is not primarily love. We feel in a very slight degree excited to good + will towards the stranger whom we accidentally light upon in our path. + </p> + <p> + Neither is it fear. + </p> + <p> + It is principally forecast and prudence. We have a sensitiveness, that + forbids us for a slight cause to expose ourselves to we know not what. We + are unwilling to be disturbed. + </p> + <p> + We have a mental vis inertiae, analogous to that quality in material + substances, by means of which, being at rest, they resist being put into a + state of motion. We love our security; we love our respectability; and + both of these may be put to hazard by our rashly and unadvisedly thrusting + ourselves upon the course of another. We like to act for ourselves. We + like to act with others, when we think we can foresee the way in which the + proposed transaction will proceed, and that it will proceed to our wish. + </p> + <p> + Let us put the case, that I am passing along the highway, destitute and + pennyless, and without foresight of any means by which I am to procure the + next meal that my nature requires. + </p> + <p> + The vagrant, who revolves in his mind the thought of extorting from + another the supply of which he is urgently in need, surveys the person + upon whom he meditates this violence with a scrutinising eye. He + considers, Will this man submit to my summons without resistance, or in + what manner will he repel my trespass? He watches his eye, he measures his + limbs, his strength, and his agility. Though they have met in the deserts + of Africa, where there is no law to punish the violator, he knows that he + exposes himself to a fearful hazard; and he enters upon his purpose with + desperate resolve. All this and more must occur to the man of violence, + within the pale of a civilised community. + </p> + <p> + Begging is the mildest form in which a man can obtain from the stranger he + meets, the means of supplying his urgent necessities. + </p> + <p> + But, even here, the beggar knows that he exposes himself not only to + refusal, but to the harsh and opprobrious terms in which that refusal may + be conveyed. In this city there are laws against begging; and the man that + asks alms of me, is an offender against the state. In country-towns it is + usual to remark a notice upon entering, to say, Whoever shall be found + begging in this place, shall be set in the stocks. + </p> + <p> + There are modes however in which I may accost a stranger, with small + apprehension that I shall be made to repent of it. I may enquire of him my + way to the place towards which my business or my pleasure invites me. + Ennius of old has observed, that lumen de lumine, to light my candle at my + neighbour's lamp, is one of the privileges that the practices of civil + society concede. + </p> + <p> + But it is not merely from forecast and prudence that we refrain from + interrupting the stranger in his way. We have all of us a certain degree + of kindness for a being of our own species. A multitude of men feel this + kindness for every thing that has animal life. We would not willingly + molest the stranger who has done us no injury. On the contrary we would + all of us to a certain extent assist him, under any unforeseen casualty + and tribulation. A part therefore of the innocence that characterises our + species is to be attributed to philanthropy. + </p> + <p> + Childhood is diffident. Children for the most part are averse to the + addressing themselves to strangers, unless in cases where, from the mere + want of anticipation and reflection, they proceed as if they were wholly + without the faculty of making calculations and deducing conclusions. The + child neither knows himself nor the stranger he meets in his path. He has + not measured either the one or the other. He does not know what the + stranger may be able, or may likely be prompted to do to him, nor what are + his own means of defence or escape. He takes refuge therefore in a wary, + sometimes an obstinate silence. It is for this reason that a boy at school + often appears duller and more inept, than would be the amount of a fair + proportion to what he is found to be when grown up to a man. + </p> + <p> + As we improve in judgment and strength, we know better ourselves and + others, and in a majority of instances take our due place in the ranks of + society. We acquire a modest and cautious firmness, yield what belongs to + another, and assert what is due to ourselves. To the last however, we for + the most part retain the inoffensiveness described in the beginning of + this Essay. + </p> + <p> + How comes it then that our nature labours under so bitter an aspersion? We + have been described as cunning, malicious and treacherous. Other animals + herd together for mutual convenience; and their intercourse with their + species is for the most part a reciprocation of social feeling and + kindness. But community among men, we are told, is that condition of human + existence, which brings out all our evil qualities to the face of day. We + lie in wait for, and circumvent each other by multiplied artifices. We + cannot depend upon each other for the truth of what is stated to us; and + promises and the most solemn engagements often seem as if they were made + only to mislead. We are violent and deadly in our animosities, easily + worked up to ferocity, and satisfied with scarcely any thing short of + mutilation and blood. We are revengeful: we lay up an injury, real or + imaginary, in the store-house of an undecaying memory, waiting only till + we can repay the evil we have sustained tenfold, at a time when our + adversary shall be lulled in unsuspecting security. We are rapacious, with + no symptom that the appetite for gain within us will ever be appeased; and + we practise a thousand deceits, that it may be the sooner, and to the + greater degree glutted. The ambition of man is unbounded; and he hesitates + at no means in the course it prompts him to pursue. In short, man is to + man ever the most fearful and dangerous foe: and it is in this view of his + nature that the king of Brobdingnag says to Gulliver, "I cannot but + conclude the bulk of your race to be the most pernicious generation of + little, odious vermin, that were ever suffered to crawl upon the surface + of the earth." The comprehensive faculties of man therefore, and the + refinements and subtlety of his intellect, serve only to render him the + more formidable companion, and to hold us up as a species to merited + condemnation. + </p> + <p> + It is obvious however that the picture thus drawn is greatly overcharged, + that it describes a very small part of our race, and that even as to them + it sets before us a few features only, and a partial representation. + </p> + <p> + History—the successive scenes of the drama in which individuals play + their part—is a labyrinth, of which no man has as yet exactly seized + the clue. + </p> + <p> + It has long since been observed, that the history of the four great + monarchies, of tyrannies and free states, of chivalry and clanship, of + Mahometanism and the Christian church, of the balance of Europe and the + revolution of empires, is little else than a tissue of crimes, exhibiting + nations as if they were so many herds of ferocious animals, whose genuine + occupation was to tear each other to pieces, and to deform their + mother-earth with mangled carcases and seas of blood. + </p> + <p> + But it is not just that we should establish our opinion of human nature + purely from the records of history. Man is alternately devoted to + tranquillity and to violence. But the latter only affords the proper + materials of narration. When he is wrought upon by some powerful impulse, + our curiosity is most roused to observe him. We remark his emotions, his + energies, his tempest. It is then that he becomes the person of a drama. + And, where this disquietude is not the affair of a single individual, but + of several persons together, of nations, it is there that history finds + her harvest. She goes into the field with all the implements of her + industry, and fills her storehouses and magazines with the abundance of + her crop. But times of tranquillity and peace furnish her with no + materials. They are dismissed in a few slight sentences, and leave no + memory behind. + </p> + <p> + Let us divide this spacious earth into equal compartments, and see in + which violence, and in which tranquillity prevails. Let us look through + the various ranks and occupations of human society, and endeavour to + arrive at a conclusion of a similar sort. The soldier by occupation, and + the officer who commands him, would seem, when they are employed in their + express functions, to be men of strife. Kings and ministers of state have + in a multitude of instances fallen under this description. Conquerors, the + firebrands of the earth, have sufficiently displayed their noxious + propensities. + </p> + <p> + But these are but a small part of the tenantry of the many-peopled globe. + Man lives by the sweat of his brow. The teeming earth is given him, that + by his labour he may raise from it the means of his subsistence. + Agriculture is, at least among civilised nations, the first, and certainly + the most indispensible of professions. The profession itself is the emblem + of peace. All its occupations, from seed-time to harvest, are tranquil; + and there is nothing which belongs to it, that can obviously be applied to + rouse the angry passions, and place men in a frame of hostility to each + other. Next to the cultivator, come the manufacturer, the artificer, the + carpenter, the mason, the joiner, the cabinet-maker, all those numerous + classes of persons, who are employed in forming garments for us to wear, + houses to live in, and moveables and instruments for the accommodation of + the species. All these persons are, of necessity, of a peaceable + demeanour. So are those who are not employed in producing the + conveniencies of life, but in conducting the affairs of barter and + exchange. Add to these, such as are engaged in literature, either in the + study of what has already been produced, or in adding to the stock, in + science or the liberal arts, in the instructing mankind in religion and + their duties, or in the education of youth. "Civility," "civil," are + indeed terms which express a state of peaceable occupation, in opposition + to what is military, and imply a tranquil frame of mind, and the absence + of contention, uproar and violence. It is therefore clear, that the + majority of mankind are civil, devoted to the arts of peace, and so far as + relates to acts of violence innocent, and that the sons of rapine + constitute the exception to the general character. + </p> + <p> + We come into the world under a hard and unpalatable law, "In the sweat of + thy brow shalt thou eat bread." It is a bitter decree that is promulgated + against us, "He that will not work, neither shall he eat." We all of us + love to do our own will, and to be free from the manacles of restraint. + What our hearts "find us to do," that we are disposed to execute "with all + our might." Some men are lovers of strenuous occupation. They build and + they plant; they raise splendid edifices, and lay out pleasure-grounds of + mighty extent. Or they devote their minds to the acquisition of knowledge; + they + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ——outwatch the bear, + With thrice great Hermes, or unsphere + The spirit of Plato, to unfold + What worlds, or what vast regions hold + The immortal mind. +</pre> + <p> + Others again would waste perhaps their whole lives in reverie and + idleness. They are constituted of materials so kindly and serene, that + their spirits never flag from want of occupation and external excitement. + They could lie for ever on a sunny bank, in a condition divided between + thinking and no thinking, refreshed by the fanning breeze, viewing the + undulations of the soil, and the rippling of the brook, admiring the azure + heavens, and the vast, the bold, and the sublime figure of the clouds, + yielding themselves occasionally to "thick-coming fancies," and + day-dreams, and the endless romances of an undisciplined mind; + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + And find no end, in wandering mazes lost. +</pre> + <p> + But all men, alike the busy of constitution and the idle, would desire to + follow the impulses of their own minds, unbroken in upon by harsh + necessity, or the imperious commands of their fellows. + </p> + <p> + We cannot however, by the resistless law of our existence, live, except + the few who by the accident of their birth are privileged to draw their + supplies from the labour of others, without exerting ourselves to procure + by our efforts or ingenuity the necessaries of food, lodging and attire. + He that would obtain them for himself in an uninhabited island, would find + that this amounted to a severe tax upon that freedom of motion and thought + which would otherwise be his inheritance. And he who has his lot cast in a + populous community, exists in a condition somewhat analogous to that of a + negro slave, except that he may to a limited extent select the occupation + to which he shall addict himself, or may at least starve, in part or in + whole, uncontroled, and at his choice. Such is, as it were, the universal + lot. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 'Tis destiny unshunnable like death: + Even then this dire necessity falls on us, + When we do quicken. +</pre> + <p> + I go forth in the streets, and observe the occupations of other men. I + remark the shops that on every side beset my path. It is curious and + striking, how vast are the ingenuity and contrivance of human beings, to + wring from their fellow-creatures, "from the hard hands of peasants" and + artisans, a part of their earnings, that they also may live. We soon + become feelingly convinced, that we also must enter into the vast + procession of industry, upon pain that otherwise, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Like to an entered tide, they all rush by, + And leave you hindmost: there you lie, + For pavement to the abject rear, o'errun + And trampled on. +</pre> + <p> + It is through the effect of this necessity, that civilised communities + become what they are. We all fall into our ranks. Each one is member of a + certain company or squadron. We know our respective places, and are + marshaled and disciplined with an exactness scarcely less than that of the + individuals of a mighty army. We are therefore little disposed to + interrupt the occupations of each other. We are intent upon the peculiar + employment to which we have become devoted. We "rise up early, and lie + down late," and have no leisure to trouble ourselves with the pursuits of + others. Hence of necessity it happens in a civilised community, that a + vast majority of the species are innocent, and have no inclination to + molest or interrupt each other's avocations. + </p> + <p> + But, as this condition of human society preserves us in comparative + innocence, and renders the social arrangement in the midst of which we + exist, to a certain degree a soothing and agreeable spectacle, so on the + other hand it is not less true that its immediate tendency is, to clip the + wings of the thinking principle within us, and plunge the members of the + community in which we live into a barren and ungratifying mediocrity. + Hence it should be the aim of those persons, who from their situation have + more or less the means of looking through the vast assemblage of their + countrymen, of penetrating "into the seeds" of character, and determining + "which grain will grow, and which will not," to apply themselves to the + redeeming such as are worthy of their care from the oblivious gulph into + which the mass of the species is of necessity plunged. It is therefore an + ill saying, when applied in the most rigorous extent, "Let every man + maintain himself, and be his own provider: why should we help him?" + </p> + <p> + The help however that we should afford to our fellow-men requires of us + great discernment in its administration. The deceitfulness of appearances + is endless. And nothing can well be at the same time more lamentable and + more ludicrous, than the spectacle of those persons, the weaver, the + thresher, and the mechanic, who by injudicious patronage are drawn from + their proper sphere, only to exhibit upon a larger stage their imbecility + and inanity, to shew those moderate powers, which in their proper + application would have carried their possessors through life with respect, + distorted into absurdity, and used in the attempt to make us look upon a + dwarf, as if he were one of the Titans who in the commencement of recorded + time astonished the earth. + </p> + <p> + It is also true to a great degree, that those efforts of the human mind + are most healthful and vigorous, in which the possessor of talents + "administers to himself," and contends with the different obstacles that + arise, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ————throwing them aside, + And stemming them with hearts of controversy. +</pre> + <p> + Many illustrious examples however may be found in the annals of + literature, of patronage judiciously and generously applied, where men + have been raised by the kindness of others from the obscurest situations, + and placed on high, like beacons, to illuminate the world. And, + independently of all examples, a sound application of the common sense of + the human mind would teach us, that the worthies of the earth, though + miracles, are not omnipotent, and that a certain aid, from those who by + counsel or opulence are enabled to afford it, have oft times produced the + noblest effects, have carried on the generous impulse that works within + us, and prompted us manfully to proceed, when the weakness of our nature + was ready to give in from despair. + </p> + <p> + But the thing that in this place it was most appropriate to say, is, that + we ought not quietly to affirm, of the man whose mind nature or education + has enriched with extraordinary powers, "Let him maintain himself, and be + his own provider: why should we help him?" It is a thing deeply to be + regretted, that such a man will frequently be compelled to devote himself + to pursuits comparatively vulgar and inglorious, because he must live. + Much of this is certainly inevitable. But what glorious things might a man + with extraordinary powers effect, were he not hurried unnumbered miles + awry by the unconquerable power of circumstances? The life of such a man + is divided between the things which his internal monitor strongly prompts + him to do, and those which the external power of nature and circumstances + compels him to submit to. The struggle on the part of his better self is + noble and admirable. The less he gives way, provided he can accomplish the + purpose to which he has vowed himself, the more he is worthy of the + admiration of the world. If, in consequence of listening too much to the + loftier aspirations of his nature, he fails, it is deeply to be regretted—it + is a man to a certain degree lost—but surely, if his miscarriage be + not caused by undue presumption, or the clouds and unhealthful atmosphere + of self-conceit, he is entitled to the affectionate sympathy and sorrow of + every generous mind. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0012" id="link2H_4_0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY VII. OF THE DURATION OF HUMAN LIFE. + </h2> + <p> + The active and industrious portion of the human species in civilised + countries, is composed of those who are occupied in the labour of the + hand, and in the labour of the head. + </p> + <p> + The following remarks expressly apply only to the latter of these classes, + principally to such as are occupied in productive literature. They may + however have their use to all persons a considerable portion of whose time + is employed in study and contemplation, as, if well founded, they will + form no unimportant chapter in the science of the human mind. + </p> + <p> + In relation to all the members of the second class then, I should say, + that human life is made up of term and vacation, in other words, of hours + that may be intellectually employed, and of hours that cannot be so + employed. + </p> + <p> + Human life consists of years, months and days: each day contains + twenty-four hours. Of these hours how many belong to the province of + intellect? + </p> + <p> + "There is," as Solomon says, "a time for all things." There must be a time + for sleep, a time for recreation, a time for exercise, a time for + supplying the machine with nourishment, and a time for digestion. When all + these demands have been supplied, how many hours will be left for + intellectual occupation? + </p> + <p> + These remarks, as I have said, are intended principally to apply to the + subject of productive literature. Now, of the hours that remain when all + the necessary demands of human life have been supplied, it is but a + portion, perhaps a small portion, that can be beneficially, judiciously, + employed in productive literature, or literary composition. + </p> + <p> + It is true, that there are many men who will occupy eight, ten, or twelve + hours in a day, in the labour of composition. But it may be doubted + whether they are wisely so occupied. + </p> + <p> + It is the duty of an author, inasmuch as he is an author, to consider, + that he is to employ his pen in putting down that which shall be fit for + other men to read. He is not writing a letter of business, a letter of + amusement, or a letter of sentiment, to his private friend. He is writing + that which shall be perused by as many men as can be prevailed on to + become his readers. If he is an author of spirit and ambition, he wishes + his productions to be read, not only by the idle, but by the busy, by + those who cannot spare time to peruse them but at the expence of some + occupations which ought not to be suspended without an adequate occasion. + He wishes to be read not only by the frivolous and the lounger, but by the + wise, the elegant, and the fair, by those who are qualified to appreciate + the merit of a work, who are endowed with a quick sensibility and a + discriminating taste, and are able to pass a sound judgment on its + beauties and defects. He advances his claim to permanent honours, and + desires that his lucubrations should be considered by generations yet + unborn. + </p> + <p> + A person, so occupied, and with such aims, must not attempt to pass his + crudities upon the public. If I may parody a celebrated aphorism of + Quintilian, I would say, "Magna debetur hominibus reverentia(8):" in other + words, we should carefully examine what it is that we propose to deliver + in a permanent form to the taste and understanding of our species. An + author ought only to commit to the press the first fruits of his field, + his best and choicest thoughts. He ought not to take up the pen, till he + has brought his mind into a fitting tone, and ought to lay it down, the + instant his intellect becomes in any degree clouded, and his vital spirits + abate of their elasticity. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (8) Mankind is to be considered with reverence. +</pre> + <p> + There are extraordinary cases. A man may have so thoroughly prepared + himself by long meditation and study, he may have his mind so charged with + an abundance of thought, that it may employ him for ten or twelve hours + consecutively, merely to put down or to unravel the conceptions already + matured in his soul. It was in some such way, that Dryden, we are told, + occupied a whole night, and to a late hour in the next morning, in penning + his Alexander's Feast. But these are the exceptions. In most instances two + or three hours are as much as an author can spend at a time in delivering + the first fruits of his field, his choicest thoughts, before his intellect + becomes in some degree clouded, and his vital spirits abate of their + elasticity. + </p> + <p> + Nor is this all. He might go on perhaps for some time longer with a + reasonable degree of clearness. But the fertility which ought to be his + boast, is exhausted. He no longer sports in the meadows of thought, or + revels in the exuberance of imagination, but becomes barren and + unsatisfactory. Repose is necessary, and that the soil should be refreshed + with the dews of another evening, the sleep of a night, and the freshness + and revivifying influence of another morning. + </p> + <p> + These observations lead, by a natural transition, to the question of the + true estimate and value of human life, considered as the means of the + operations of intellect. + </p> + <p> + A primary enquiry under this head is as to the duration of life: Is it + long, or short? + </p> + <p> + The instant this question is proposed, I hear myself replied to from all + quarters: What is there so well known as the brevity of human life? "Life + is but a span." It is "as a tale that is told." "Man cometh forth like a + flower, and is cut down: he fleeth also as a shadow, and continueth not." + We are "as a sleep; or as grass: in the morning it flourisheth, and + groweth up; in the evening it is cut down, and withereth." + </p> + <p> + The foundation of this sentiment is obvious. Men do not live for ever. The + longest duration of human existence has an end: and whatever it is of + which that may be affirmed, may in some sense be pronounced to be short. + The estimation of our existence depends upon the point of view from which + we behold it. Hope is one of our greatest enjoyments. Possession is + something. But the past is as nothing. Remorse may give it a certain + solidity; the recollection of a life spent in acts of virtue may be + refreshing. But fruition, and honours, and fame, and even pain, and + privations, and torment, when they ere departed, are but like a feather; + we regard them as of no account. Taken in this sense, Dryden's celebrated + verses are but a maniac's rant: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + To-morrow, do thy worst, for I have lived to-day: + Be fair, or foul, or rain, or shine, + The joys I have possessed, in spite of fate are mine. + Not heaven itself upon the past has power, + But what has been has been, and I have had my hour. +</pre> + <p> + But this way of removing the picture of human life to a certain distance + from us, and considering those things which were once in a high degree + interesting as frivolous and unworthy of regard, is not the way by which + we shall arrive at a true and just estimation of life. Whatever is now + past, and is of little value, was once present: and he who would form a + sound judgment, must look upon every part of our lives as present in its + turn, and not suffer his opinion to be warped by the consideration of the + nearness or remoteness of the object he contemplates. + </p> + <p> + One sentence, which has grown into a maxim for ever repeated, is + remarkable for the grossest fallacy: Ars longa, vita brevis(9). I would + fain know, what art, compared with the natural duration of human life from + puberty to old age, is long. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (9) Art is long; life is short. +</pre> + <p> + If it is intended to say, that no one man can be expected to master all + possible arts, or all arts that have at one time or another been the + subject of human industry, this indeed is true. But the cause of this does + not lie in the limited duration of human life, but in the nature of the + faculties of the mind. Human understanding and human industry cannot + embrace every thing. When we take hold of one thing, we must let go + another. Science and art, if we would pursue them to the furthest extent + of which we are capable, must be pursued without interruption. It would + therefore be more to the purpose to say, Man cannot be for ever young. In + the stream of human existence, different things have their appropriate + period. The knowledge of languages can perhaps be most effectually + acquired in the season of nonage. + </p> + <p> + At riper years one man devotes himself to one science or art, and another + man to another. This man is a mathematician; a second studies music; a + third painting. This man is a logician; and that man an orator. The same + person cannot be expected to excel in the abstruseness of metaphysical + science, and in the ravishing effusions of poetical genius. When a man, + who has arrived at great excellence in one department of art or science, + would engage himself in another, he will be apt to find the freshness of + his mind gone, and his faculties no longer distinguished by the same + degree of tenacity and vigour that they formerly displayed. It is with the + organs of the brain, as it is with the organs of speech, in the latter of + which we find the tender fibres of the child easily accommodating + themselves to the minuter inflections and variations of sound, which the + more rigid muscles of the adult will for the most part attempt in vain. + </p> + <p> + If again, by the maxim, Ars longa, vita brevis, it is intended to signify, + that we cannot in any art arrive at perfection; that in reality all the + progress we can make is insignificant; and that, as St. Paul says, we must + "not count ourselves to have already attained; but that, forgetting the + things that are behind, it becomes us to press forward to the prize of our + calling,"—this also is true. But this is only ascribable to the + limitation of our faculties, and that even the shadow of perfection which + man is capable to reach, can only be attained by the labour of successive + generations. The cause does not lie in the shortness of human life, unless + we would include in its protracted duration the privilege of being for + ever young; to which we ought perhaps to add, that our activity should + never be exhausted, the freshness of our minds never abate, and our + faculties for ever retain the same degree of tenacity and vigour, as they + had in the morning of life, when every thing was new, when all that + allured or delighted us was seen accompanied with charms inexpressible, + and, as Dryden expresses it(10), "the first sprightly running" of the wine + of life afforded a zest never after to be hoped for. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (10) Aurengzebe. +</pre> + <p> + I return then to the consideration of the alleged shortness of life. I + mentioned in the beginning of this Essay, that "human life consists of + years, months and days; each day containing twenty-four hours." But, when + I said this, I by no means carried on the division so far as it might be + carried. It has been calculated that the human mind is capable of being + impressed with three hundred and twenty sensations in a second of + time.(11) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) See Watson on Time, Chapter II. +</pre> + <p> + "How infinitely rapid is the succession of thought! While I am speaking, + perhaps no two ideas are in my mind at the same time, and yet with what + facility do I slide from one to another! If my discourse be argumentative, + how often do I pass in review the topics of which it consists, before I + utter them; and, even while I am speaking, continue the review at + intervals, without producing any pause in my discourse! How many other + sensations are experienced by me during this period, without so much as + interrupting, that is, without materially diverting, the train of my + ideas! My eye successively remarks a thousand objects that present + themselves. My mind wanders to the different parts of my body, and + receives a sensation from the chair on which I sit, or the table on which + I lean. It reverts to a variety of things that occurred in the course of + the morning, in the course of yesterday, the most remote from, the most + unconnected with, the subject that might seem wholly to engross me. I see + the window, the opening of a door, the snuffing of a candle. When these + most perceptibly occur, my mind passes from one to the other, without + feeling the minutest obstacle, or being in any degree distracted by their + multiplicity(12)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (12) Political Justice, Book IV, Chapter ix. +</pre> + <p> + If this statement should appear to some persons too subtle, it may however + prepare us to form a due estimate of the following remarks. + </p> + <p> + "Art is long." No, certainly, no art is long, compared with the natural + duration of human life from puberty to old age. There is perhaps no art + that may not with reasonable diligence be acquired in three years, that + is, as to its essential members and its skilful exercise. We may improve + afterwards, but it will be only in minute particulars, and only by fits. + Our subsequent advancement less depends upon the continuance of our + application, than upon the improvement of the mind generally, the refining + of our taste, the strengthening our judgment, and the accumulation of our + experience. + </p> + <p> + The idea which prevails among the vulgar of mankind is, that we must make + haste to be wise. The erroneousness of this notion however has from time + to time been detected by moralists and philosophers; and it has been felt + that he who proceeds in a hurry towards the goal, exposes himself to the + imminent risk of never reaching it. + </p> + <p> + The consciousness of this danger has led to the adoption of the modified + maxim, Festina lente, Hasten, but with steps deliberate and cautious. + </p> + <p> + It would however be a more correct advice to the aspirant, to say, Be + earnest in your application, but let your march be vigilant and slow. + </p> + <p> + There is a doggrel couplet which I have met with in a book on elocution: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Learn to speak slow: all other graces + Will follow in their proper places. +</pre> + <p> + I could wish to recommend a similar process to the student in the course + of his reading. + </p> + <p> + Toplady, a celebrated methodist preacher of the last age, somewhere + relates a story of a coxcomb, who told him that he had read over Euclid's + Elements of Geometry one afternoon at his tea, only leaving out the A's + and B's and crooked lines, which seemed to be intruded merely to retard + his progress. + </p> + <p> + Nothing is more easy than to gabble through a work replete with the + profoundest elements of thinking, and to carry away almost nothing, when + we have finished. + </p> + <p> + The book does not deserve even to be read, which does not impose on us the + duty of frequent pauses, much reflecting and inward debate, or require + that we should often go back, compare one observation and statement with + another, and does not call upon us to combine and knit together the + disjecta membra. + </p> + <p> + It is an observation which has often been repeated, that, when we come to + read an excellent author a second and a third time, we find in him a + multitude of things, that we did not in the slightest degree perceive in a + first reading. A careful first reading would have a tendency in a + considerable degree to anticipate this following crop. + </p> + <p> + Nothing is more certain than that a schoolboy gathers much of his most + valuable instruction when his lesson is not absolutely before him. In the + same sense the more mature student will receive most important benefit, + when he shuts his book, and goes forth in the field, and ruminates on what + he has read. It is with the intellectual, as with the corporeal eye: we + must retire to a certain distance from the object we would examine, before + we can truly take in the whole. We must view it in every direction, + "survey it," as Sterne says, "transversely, then foreright, then this way, + and then that, in all its possible directions and foreshortenings(13);" + and thus only can it be expected that we should adequately comprehend it. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (13) Tristram Shandy, Vol. IV, Chap. ii. +</pre> + <p> + But the thing it was principally in my purpose to say is, that it is one + of the great desiderata of human life, not to accomplish our purposes in + the briefest time, to consider "life as short, and art as long," and + therefore to master our ends in the smallest number of days or of years, + but rather to consider it as an ample field that is spread before us, and + to examine how it is to be filled with pleasure, with advantage, and with + usefulness. Life is like a lordly garden, which it calls forth all the + skill of the artist to adorn with exhaustless variety and beauty; or like + a spacious park or pleasure-ground, all of whose inequalities are to be + embellished, and whose various capacities of fertilisation, sublimity or + grace, are to be turned to account, so that we may wander in it for ever, + and never be wearied. + </p> + <p> + We shall perhaps understand this best, if we take up the subject on a + limited scale, and, before we consider life in its assigned period of + seventy years, first confine our attention to the space of a single day. + And we will consider that day, not as it relates to the man who earns his + subsistence by the labour of his hands, or to him who is immersed in the + endless details of commerce. But we will take the case of the man, the + whole of whose day is to be disposed of at his own discretion. + </p> + <p> + The attention of the curious observer has often been called to the + tediousness of existence, how our time hangs upon our hands, and in how + high estimation the art is held, of giving wings to our hours, and making + them pass rapidly and cheerfully away. And moralists of a cynical + disposition have poured forth many a sorrowful ditty upon the + inconsistency of man, who complains of the shortness of life, at the same + time that he is put to the greatest straits how to give an agreeable and + pleasant occupation to its separate portions. "Let us hear no more," say + these moralists, "of the transitoriness of human existence, from men to + whom life is a burthen, and who are willing to assign a reward to him that + shall suggest to them an occupation or an amusement untried before." + </p> + <p> + But this inconsistency, if it merits the name, is not an affair of + artificial and supersubtle refinement, but is based in the fundamental + principles of our nature. It is unavoidable that, when we have reached the + close of any great epoch of our existence, and still more when we have + arrived at its final term, we should regret its transitory nature, and + lament that we have made no more effectual use of it. And yet the periods + and portions of the stream of time, as they pass by us, will often be felt + by us as insufferably slow in their progress, and we would give no + inconsiderable sum to procure that the present section of our lives might + come to an end, and that we might turn over a new leaf in the volume of + existence. + </p> + <p> + I have heard various men profess that they never knew the minutes that + hung upon their hands, and were totally unacquainted with what, borrowing + a term from the French language, we call ennui. I own I have listened to + these persons with a certain degree of incredulity, always excepting such + as earn their subsistence by constant labour, or as, being placed in a + situation of active engagement, have not the leisure to feel apathy and + disgust. + </p> + <p> + But we are talking here of that numerous class of human beings, who are + their own masters, and spend every hour of the day at the choice of their + discretion. To these we may add the persons who are partially so, and who, + having occupied three or four hours of every day in discharge of some + function necessarily imposed on them, at the striking of a given hour go + out of school, and employ themselves in a certain industry or sport purely + of their own election. + </p> + <p> + To go back then to the consideration of the single day of a man, all of + whose hours are at his disposal to spend them well or ill, at the bidding + of his own judgment, or the impulse of his own caprice. + </p> + <p> + We will suppose that, when he rises from his bed, he has sixteen hours + before him, to be employed in whatever mode his will shall decide. I bar + the case of travelling, or any of those schemes for passing the day, which + by their very nature take the election out of his hands, and fill up his + time with a perpetual motion, the nature of which is ascertained from the + beginning. + </p> + <p> + With such a man then it is in the first place indispensibly necessary, + that he should have various successive occupations. There is no one study + or intellectual enquiry to which a man can apply sixteen hours + consecutively, unless in some extraordinary instances which can occur but + seldom in the course of a life. And even then the attention will from time + to time relax, and the freshness of mental zeal and activity give way, + though perhaps, after the lapse of a few minutes they may be revived and + brought into action again. + </p> + <p> + In the ordinary series of human existence it is desirable that, in the + course of the same day, a man should have various successive occupations. + I myself for the most part read in one language at one part of the day, + and in another at another. I am then in the best health and tone of + spirits, when I employ two or three hours, and no more, in the act of + writing and composition. There must also in the sixteen hours be a time + for meals. There should be a time for fresh air and bodily exercise. It is + in the nature of man, that we should spend a part of every day in the + society of our fellows, either at public spectacles and places of + concourse, or in the familiar interchange of conversation with one, two, + or more persons with whom we can give ourselves up to unrestrained + communication. All human life, as I have said, every day of our existence, + consists of term and vacation; and the perfection of practical wisdom is + to interpose these one with another, so as to produce a perpetual change, + a well-chosen relief, and a freshness and elastic tone which may bid + defiance to weariness. + </p> + <p> + Taken then in this point of view, what an empire does the man of leisure + possess in each single day of his life! He disposes of his hours much in + the same manner, as the commander of a company of men whom it is his + business to train in the discipline of war. + </p> + <p> + This officer directs one party of his men to climb a mountain, and another + to ford or swim a stream which rushes along the valley. He orders this set + to rush forward with headlong course, and the other to wheel, and approach + by circuitous progress perhaps to the very same point. He marches them to + the right and the left. He then dismisses them from the scene of exercise, + to furbish their arms, to attend to their accoutrements, or to partake of + necessary refection. Not inferior to this is the authority of the man of + leisure in disposing of the hours of one single day of his existence. And + human life consists of many such days, there being three hundred and + sixty-five in each year that we live. + </p> + <p> + How infinitely various may be the occupations of the life of man from + puberty to old age! We may acquire languages; we may devote ourselves to + arts; we may give ourselves up to the profoundness of science. Nor is any + one of these objects incompatible with the others, nor is there any reason + why the same man should not embrace many. We may devote one portion of the + year to travelling, and another to all the abstractions of study. I + remember when I was a boy, looking forward with terror to the ample field + of human life, and saying, When I have read through all the books that + have been written, what shall I do afterwards? And there is infinitely + more sense in this, than in the ludicrous exclamations of men who complain + of the want of time, and say that life affords them no space in which to + act their imaginings. + </p> + <p> + On the contrary, when a man has got to the end of one art or course of + study, he is compelled to consider what he shall do next. And, when we + have gone through a cycle of as many acquisitions, as, from the limitation + of human faculties, are not destructive of each other, we shall find + ourselves frequently reduced to the beginning some of them over again. Nor + is this the least agreeable occupation of human leisure. The book that I + read when I was a boy, presents quite a new face to me as I advance in the + vale of years. The same words and phrases suggest to me a new train of + ideas. And it is no mean pleasure that I derive from the singular + sensation of finding the same author and the same book, old and yet not + old, presenting to me cherished and inestimable recollections, and at the + same time communicating mines of wealth, the shaft of which was till now + unexplored. + </p> + <p> + The result then of these various observations is to persuade the candid + and ingenuous man, to consider life as an important and ample possession, + to resolve that it shall be administered with as much judgment and + deliberation as a person of true philanthropy and wisdom would administer + a splendid income, and upon no occasion so much to think upon the point of + in how short a time an interesting pursuit is to be accomplished, as by + what means it shall be accomplished in a consummate and masterly style. + Let us hear no more, from those who have to a considerable degree the + command of their hours, the querulous and pitiful complaint that they have + no time to do what they ought to do and would wish to do; but let them + feel that they have a gigantic store of minutes and hours and days and + months, abundantly sufficient to enable them to effect what it is + especially worthy of a noble mind to perform! + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0013" id="link2H_4_0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY VIII. OF HUMAN VEGETATION. + </h2> + <p> + There is another point of view from which we may look at the subject of + time as it is concerned with the business of human life, that will lead us + to conclusions of a very different sort from those which are set down in + the preceding Essay. + </p> + <p> + Man has two states of existence in a striking degree distinguished from + each other: the state in which he is found during his waking hours; and + the state in which he is during sleep. + </p> + <p> + The question has been agitated by Locke and other philosophers, "whether + the soul always thinks," in other words, whether the mind, during those + hours in which our limbs lie for the most part in a state of inactivity, + is or is not engaged by a perpetual succession of images and impressions. + This is a point that can perhaps never be settled. When the empire of + sleep ceases, or when we are roused from sleep, we are often conscious + that we have been to that moment busily employed with that sort of + conceptions and scenes which we call dreams. And at times when, on waking, + we have no such consciousness, we can never perhaps be sure that the shock + that waked us, had not the effect of driving away these fugitive and + unsubstantial images. There are men who are accustomed to say, they never + dream. If in reality the mind of man, from the hour of his birth, must by + the law of its nature be constantly occupied with sensations or images + (and of the contrary we can never be sure), then these men are all their + lives in the state of persons, upon whom the shock that wakes them, has + the effect of driving away such fugitive and unsubstantial images.—Add + to which, there may be sensations in the human subject, of a species + confused and unpronounced, which never arrive at that degree of + distinctness as to take the shape of what we call dreaming. + </p> + <p> + So much for man in the state of sleep. + </p> + <p> + But during our waking hours, our minds are very differently occupied at + different periods of the day. I would particularly distinguish the two + dissimilar states of the waking man, when the mind is indolent, and when + it is on the alert. + </p> + <p> + While I am writing this Essay, my mind may be said to be on the alert. It + is on the alert, so long as I am attentively reading a book of philosophy, + of argumentation, of eloquence, or of poetry. + </p> + <p> + It is on the alert, so long as I am addressing a smaller or a greater + audience, and endeavouring either to amuse or instruct them. It is on the + alert, while in silence and solitude I endeavour to follow a train of + reasoning, to marshal and arrange a connected set of ideas, or in any + other way to improve my mind, to purify my conceptions, and to advance + myself in any of the thousand kinds of intellectual process. It is on the + alert, when I am engaged in animated conversation, whether my cue be to + take a part in the reciprocation of alternate facts and remarks in + society, or merely to sit an attentive listener to the facts and remarks + of others. + </p> + <p> + This state of the human mind may emphatically be called the state of + activity and attention. + </p> + <p> + So long as I am engaged in any of the ways here enumerated, or in any + other equally stirring mental occupations which are not here set down, my + mind is in a frame of activity. + </p> + <p> + But there is another state in which men pass their minutes and hours, that + is strongly contrasted with this. It depends in some men upon + constitution, and in others upon accident, how their time shall be + divided, how much shall be given to the state of activity, and how much to + the state of indolence. + </p> + <p> + In an Essay I published many years ago there is this passage. + </p> + <p> + "The chief point of difference between the man of talent and the man + without, consists in the different ways in which their minds are employed + during the same interval. They are obliged, let us suppose, to walk from + Temple-Bar to Hyde-Park-Corner. The dull man goes straight forward; he has + so many furlongs to traverse. He observes if he meets any of his + acquaintance; he enquires respecting their health and their family. He + glances perhaps the shops as he passes; he admires the fashion of a + buckle, and the metal of a tea-urn. If he experiences any flights of + fancy, they are of a short extent; of the same nature as the flights of a + forest-bird, clipped of his wings, and condemned to pass the rest of his + life in a farm-yard. On the other hand the man of talent gives full scope + to his imagination. He laughs and cries. Unindebted to the suggestions of + surrounding objects, his whole soul is employed. He enters into nice + calculations; he digests sagacious reasonings. In imagination he declaims + or describes, impressed with the deepest sympathy, or elevated to the + loftiest rapture. He makes a thousand new and admirable combinations. He + passes through a thousand imaginary scenes, tries his courage, tasks his + ingenuity, and thus becomes gradually prepared to meet almost any of the + many-coloured events of human life. He consults by the aid of memory the + books he has read, and projects others for the future instruction and + delight of mankind. If he observe the passengers, he reads their + countenances, conjectures their past history, and forms a superficial + notion of their wisdom or folly, their virtue or vice, their satisfaction + or misery. If he observe the scenes that occur, it is with the eye of a + connoisseur or an artist. Every object is capable of suggesting to him a + volume of reflections. The time of these two persons in one respect + resembles; it has brought them both to Hyde-Park-Corner. In almost every + other respect it is dissimilar;(14)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (14) Enquirer, Part 1, Essay V. +</pre> + <p> + This passage undoubtedly contains a true description of what may happen, + and has happened. + </p> + <p> + But there lurks in this statement a considerable error. + </p> + <p> + It has appeared in the second Essay of this volume, that there is not that + broad and strong line of distinction between the wise man and the dull + that has often been supposed. We are all of us by turns both the one and + the other. Or, at least, the wisest man that ever existed spends a portion + of his time in vacancy and dulness; and the man, whose faculties are + seemingly the most obtuse, might, under proper management from the hour of + his birth, barring those rare exceptions from the ordinary standard of + mind which do not deserve to be taken into the account, have proved apt, + adroit, intelligent and acute, in the walk for which his organisation + especially fitted him(15). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (15) See above, Essay 3. +</pre> + <p> + Many men without question, in a walk of the same duration as that above + described between Temple-Bar and Hyde-Park-Corner, have passed their time + in as much activity, and amidst as strong and various excitements, as + those enumerated in the passage above quoted. + </p> + <p> + But the lives of all men, the wise, and those whom by way of contrast we + are accustomed to call the dull, are divided between animation and + comparative vacancy; and many a man, who by the bursts of his genius has + astonished the world, and commanded the veneration of successive ages, has + spent a period of time equal to that occupied by a walk from Temple-Bar to + Hyde-Park-Corner, in a state of mind as idle, and as little affording + materials for recollection, as the dullest man that ever breathed the + vital air. + </p> + <p> + The two states of man which are here attempted to be distinguished, are, + first, that in which reason is said to fill her throne, in which will + prevails, and directs the powers of mind or of bodily action in one + channel or another; and, secondly, that in which these faculties, tired of + for ever exercising their prerogatives, or, being awakened as it were from + sleep, and having not yet assumed them, abandon the helm, even as a + mariner might be supposed to do, in a wide sea, and in a time when no + disaster could be apprehended, and leave the vessel of the mind to drift, + exactly as chance might direct. + </p> + <p> + To describe this last state of mind I know not a better term that can be + chosen, than that of reverie. It is of the nature of what I have seen + denominated BROWN STUDY(16) a species of dozing and drowsiness, in which + all men spend a portion of the waking part of every day of their lives. + Every man must be conscious of passing minutes, perhaps hours of the day, + particularly when engaged in exercise in the open air, in this species of + neutrality and eviration. It is often not unpleasant at the time, and + leaves no sinking of the spirits behind. It is probably of a salutary + nature, and may be among the means, in a certain degree beneficial like + sleep, by which the machine is restored, and the man comes forth from its + discipline reinvigorated, and afresh capable of his active duties. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (16) Norris, and Johnson, Dictionary of the English Language. +</pre> + <p> + This condition of our nature has considerably less vitality in it, than we + experience in a complete and perfect dream. In dreaming we are often + conscious of lively impressions, of a busy scene, and of objects and + feelings succeeding each other with rapidity. We sometimes imagine + ourselves earnestly speaking: and the topics we treat, and the words we + employ, are supplied to us with extraordinary fluency. But the sort of + vacancy and inoccupation of which I here treat, has a greater resemblance + to the state of mind, without distinct and clearly unfolded ideas, which + we experience before we sink into sleep. The mind is in reality in a + condition, more properly accessible to feeling and capable of thought, + than actually in the exercise of either the one or the other. We are + conscious of existence and of little more. We move our legs, and continue + in a peripatetic state; for the man who has gone out of his house with a + purpose to walk, exercises the power of volition when he sets out, but + proceeds in his motion by a semi-voluntary act, by a sort of vis inertiae, + which will not cease to operate without an express reason for doing so, + and advances a thousand steps without distinctly willing any but the + first. When it is necessary to turn to the right or the left, or to choose + between any two directions on which he is called upon to decide, his mind + is so far brought into action as the case may expressly require, and no + further. + </p> + <p> + I have here instanced in the case of the peripatetic: but of how many + classes and occupations of human life may not the same thing be affirmed? + It happens to the equestrian, as well as to him that walks on foot. It + occurs to him who cultivates the fruits of the earth, and to him who is + occupied in any of the thousand manufactures which are the result of human + ingenuity. It happens to the soldier in his march, and to the mariner on + board his vessel. It attends the individuals of the female sex through all + their diversified modes of industry, the laundress, the housemaid, the + sempstress, the netter of purses, the knotter of fringe, and the worker in + tambour, tapestry and embroidery. In all, the limbs or the fingers are + employed mechanically; the attention of the mind is only required at + intervals; and the thoughts remain for the most part in a state of + non-excitation and repose. + </p> + <p> + It is a curious question, but extremely difficult of solution, what + portion of the day of every human creature must necessarily be spent in + this sort of intellectual indolence. In the lower classes of society its + empire is certainly very great; its influence is extensive over a large + portion of the opulent and luxurious; it is least among those who are + intrusted in the more serious affairs of mankind, and among the literary + and the learned, those who waste their lives, and consume the + midnight-oil, in the search after knowledge. + </p> + <p> + It appeared with sufficient clearness in the immediately preceding Essay, + that the intellect cannot be always on the stretch, nor the bow of the + mind for ever bent. In the act of composition, unless where the province + is of a very inferior kind, it is likely that not more than two or three + hours at a time can be advantageously occupied. But in literary labour it + will often occur, that, in addition to the hours expressly engaged in + composition, much time may be required for the collecting materials, the + collating of authorities, and the bringing together a variety of + particulars, so as to sift from the mass those circumstances which may + best conduce to the purpose of the writer. In all these preliminary and + inferior enquiries it is less necessary that the mind should be + perpetually awake and on the alert, than in the direct office of + composition. The situation is considerably similar of the experimental + philosopher, the man who by obstinate and unconquerable application + resolves to wrest from nature her secrets, and apply them to the + improvement of social life, or to the giving to the human mind a wider + range or a more elevated sphere. A great portion of this employment + consists more in the motion of the hands and the opportune glance of the + eye, than in the labour of the head, and allows to the operator from time + to time an interval of rest from the momentous efforts of invention and + discovery, and the careful deduction of consequences in the points to be + elucidated. + </p> + <p> + There is a distinction, sufficiently familiar to all persons who occupy a + portion of their time in reading, that is made between books of + instruction, and books of amusement. From the student of mathematics or + any of the higher departments of science, from the reader of books of + investigation and argument, an active attention is demanded. Even in the + perusal of the history of kingdoms and nations, or of certain memorable + periods of public affairs, we can scarcely proceed with any satisfaction, + unless in so far as we collect our thoughts, compare one part of the + narrative with another, and hold the mind in a state of activity. + </p> + <p> + We are obliged to reason while we read, and in some degree to construct a + discourse of our own, at the same time that we follow the statements of + the author before us. Unless we do this, the sense and spirit of what we + read will be apt to slip from under our observation, and we shall by and + by discover that we are putting together words and sounds only, when we + purposed to store our minds with facts and reflections. We apprehended not + the sense of the writer even when his pages were under our eye, and of + consequence have nothing laid up in the memory after the hour of reading + is completed. + </p> + <p> + In works of amusement it is otherwise, and most especially in writings of + fiction. These are sought after with avidity by the idle, because for the + most part they are found to have the virtue of communicating impressions + to the reader, even while his mind remains in a state of passiveness. He + finds himself agreeably affected with fits of mirth or of sorrow, and + carries away the facts of the tale, at the same time that he is not called + upon for the act of attention. This is therefore one of the modes of + luxury especially cultivated in a highly civilized state of society. + </p> + <p> + The same considerations will also explain to us the principal part of the + pleasure that is experienced by mankind in all states of society from + public shews and exhibitions. The spectator is not called upon to exert + himself; the amusement and pleasure come to him, while he remains + voluptuously at his ease; and it is certain that the exertion we make when + we are compelled to contribute to, and become in part the cause of our own + entertainment, is more than the human mind is willing to sustain, except + at seasons in which we are specially on the alert and awake. + </p> + <p> + This is further one of the causes why men in general feel prompted to seek + the society of their fellows. We are in part no doubt called upon in + select society to bring our own information along with us, and a certain + vein of wit, humour or narrative, that we may contribute our proportion to + the general stock. We read the newspapers, the newest publications, and + repair to places of fashionable amusement and resort; partly that we may + at least be upon a par with the majority of the persons we are likely to + meet. But many do not thus prepare themselves, nor does perhaps any one + upon all occasions. + </p> + <p> + There is another state of human existence in which we expressly dismiss + from our hands the reins of the mind, and suffer our minutes and our hours + to glide by us undisciplined and at random. + </p> + <p> + This is, generally speaking, the case in a period of sickness. We have no + longer the courage to be on the alert, and to superintend the march of our + thoughts. It is the same with us for the most part when at any time we lie + awake in our beds. To speak from my own experience, I am in a restless and + uneasy state while I am alone in my sitting-room, unless I have some + occupation of my own choice, writing or reading, or any of those + employments the pursuit of which was chosen at first, and which is more or + less under the direction of the will afterwards. But when awake in my bed, + either in health or sickness, I am reasonably content to let my thoughts + flow on agreeably to those laws of association by which I find them + directed, without giving myself the trouble to direct them into one + channel rather than another, or to marshal and actively to prescribe the + various turns and mutations they may be impelled to pursue. + </p> + <p> + It is thus that we are sick; and it is thus that we die. The man that + guides the operations of his own mind, is either to a certain degree in + bodily health, or in that health of mind which shall for a longer or + shorter time stand forward as the substitute of the health of the body. + When we die, we give up the game, and are not disposed to contend any + further. It is a very usual thing to talk of the struggles of a man in + articulo mortis. But this is probably, like so many other things that + occur to us in this sublunary stage, a delusion. The bystander mistakes + for a spontaneous contention and unwillingness to die, what is in reality + nothing more than an involuntary contraction and convulsion of the nerves, + to which the mind is no party, and is even very probably unconscious.—But + enough of this, the final and most humiliating state through which mortal + men may be called on to pass. + </p> + <p> + I find then in the history of almost every human creature four different + states or modes of existence. First, there is sleep. In the strongest + degree of contrast to this there is the frame in which we find ourselves, + when we write! or invent and steadily pursue a consecutive train of + thinking unattended with the implements of writing, or read in some book + of science or otherwise which calls upon us for a fixed attention, or + address ourselves to a smaller or greater audience, or are engaged in + animated conversation. In each of these occupations the mind may + emphatically be said to be on the alert. + </p> + <p> + But there are further two distinct states or kinds of mental indolence. + The first is that which we frequently experience during a walk or any + other species of bodily exercise, where, when the whole is at an end, we + scarcely recollect any thing in which the mind has been employed, but have + been in what I may call a healthful torpor, where our limbs have been + sufficiently in action to continue our exercise, we have felt the fresh + breeze playing on our cheeks, and have been in other respects in a frame + of no unpleasing neutrality. This may be supposed greatly to contribute to + our bodily health. It is the holiday of the faculties: and, as the bow, + when it has been for a considerable time unbent, is said to recover its + elasticity, so the mind, after a holiday of this sort, comes fresh, and + with an increased alacrity, to those occupations which advance man most + highly in the scale of being. + </p> + <p> + But there is a second state of mental indolence, not so complete as this, + but which is still indolence, inasmuch as in it the mind is passive, and + does not assume the reins of empire. Such is the state in which we are + during our sleepless hours in bed; and in this state our ideas, and the + topics that successively occur, appear to go forward without remission, + while it seems that it is this busy condition of the mind, and the + involuntary activity of our thoughts, that prevent us from sleeping. + </p> + <p> + The distinction then between these two sorts of indolence is, that in the + latter our ideas are perfectly distinct, are attended with consciousness, + and can, as we please, be called up to recollection. This therefore is not + what we understand by reverie. In these waking hours which are spent by us + in bed, the mind is no less busy, than it is in sleep during a dream. The + other and more perfect sort of mental indolence, is that which we often + experience during our exercise in the open air. This is of the same nature + as the condition of thought which seems to be the necessary precursor of + sleep, and is attended with no precise consciousness. + </p> + <p> + By the whole of the above statement we are led to a new and a modified + estimate of the duration of human life. + </p> + <p> + If by life we understand mere susceptibility, a state of existence in + which we are accessible at any moment to the onset of sensation, for + example, of pain—in this sense our life is commensurate, or nearly + commensurate, to the entire period, from the quickening of the child in + the womb, to the minute at which sense deserts the dying man, and his body + becomes an inanimate mass. + </p> + <p> + But life, in the emphatical sense, and par excellence, is reduced to much + narrower limits. From this species of life it is unavoidable that we + should strike off the whole of the interval that is spent in sleep; and + thus, as a general rule, the natural day of twenty-four hours is + immediately reduced to sixteen. + </p> + <p> + Of these sixteen hours again, there is a portion that falls under the + direction of will and attention, and a portion that is passed by us in a + state of mental indolence. By the ordinary and least cultivated class of + mankind, the husbandman, the manufacturer, the soldier, the sailor, and + the main body of the female sex, much the greater part of every day is + resigned to a state of mental indolence. The will does not actively + interfere, and the attention is not roused. Even the most intellectual + beings of our species pass no inconsiderable portion of every day in a + similar condition. Such is our state for the most part during the time + that is given to bodily exercise, and during the time in which we read + books of amusement merely, or are employed in witnessing public shews and + exhibitions. + </p> + <p> + That portion of every day of our existence which is occupied by us with a + mind attentive and on the alert, I would call life in a transcendant + sense. The rest is scarcely better than a state of vegetation. + </p> + <p> + And yet not so either. The happiest and most valuable thoughts of the + human mind will sometimes come when they are least sought for, and we + least anticipated any such thing. In reading a romance, in witnessing a + performance at a theatre, in our idlest and most sportive moods, a vein in + the soil of intellect will sometimes unexpectedly be broken up, "richer + than all the tribe" of contemporaneous thoughts, that shall raise him to + whom it occurs, to a rank among his species altogether different from any + thing he had looked for. Newton was led to the doctrine of gravitation by + the fall of an apple, as he indolently reclined under the tree on which it + grew. "A verse may find him, who a sermon flies." Polemon, when + intoxicated, entered the school of Xenocrates, and was so struck with the + energy displayed by the master, and the thoughts he delivered, that from + that moment he renounced the life of dissipation he had previously led, + and applied himself entirely to the study of philosophy. —But these + instances are comparatively of rare occurrence, and do not require to be + taken into the account. + </p> + <p> + It is still true therefore for the most part, that not more than eight + hours in the day are passed by the wisest and most energetic, with a mind + attentive and on the alert. The remainder is a period of vegetation only. + In the mean time we have all of us undoubtedly to a certain degree the + power of enlarging the extent of the period of transcendant life in each + day of our healthful existence, and causing it to encroach upon the period + either of mental indolence or of sleep.—With the greater part of the + human species the whole of their lives while awake, with the exception of + a few brief and insulated intervals, is spent in a passive state of the + intellectual powers. Thoughts come and go, as chance, or some undefined + power in nature may direct, uninterfered with by the sovereign will, the + steersman of the mind. And often the understanding appears to be a blank, + upon which if any impressions are then made, they are like figures drawn + in the sand which the next tide obliterates, or are even lighter and more + evanescent than this. + </p> + <p> + Let me add, that the existence of the child for two or three years from + the period of his birth, is almost entirely a state of vegetation. The + impressions that are made upon his sensorium come and go, without either + their advent or departure being anticipated, and without the interference + of the will. It is only under some express excitement, that the faculty of + will mounts its throne, and exercises its empire. When the child smiles, + that act is involuntary; but, when he cries, will presently comes to mix + itself with the phenomenon. Wilfulness, impatience and rebellion are + infallible symptoms of a mind on the alert. And, as the child in the first + stages of its existence puts forth the faculty of will only at intervals, + so for a similar reason this period is but rarely accompanied with memory, + or leaves any traces of recollection for our after-life. + </p> + <p> + There are other memorable states of the intellectual powers, which if I + did not mention, the survey here taken would seem to be glaringly + imperfect. The first of these is madness. In this humiliating condition of + our nature the sovereignty of reason is deposed: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Chaos umpire sits, + And by decision more embroils the fray. +</pre> + <p> + The mind is in a state of turbulence and tempest in one instant, and in + another subsides into the deepest imbecility; and, even when the will is + occasionally roused, the link which preserved its union with good sense + and sobriety is dissolved, and the views by which it has the appearance of + being regulated, are all based in misconstruction and delusion. + </p> + <p> + Next to madness occur the different stages of spleen, dejection and + listlessness. The essence of these lies in the passiveness and neutrality + of the intellectual powers. In as far as the unhappy sufferer could be + roused to act, the disease would be essentially diminished, and might + finally be expelled. But long days and months are spent by the patient in + the midst of all harassing imaginations, and an everlasting nightmare + seems to sit on the soul, and lock up its powers in interminable + inactivity. Almost the only interruption to this, is when the demands of + nature require our attention, or we pay a slight and uncertain attention + to the decencies of cleanliness and attire. + </p> + <p> + In all these considerations then we find abundant occasion to humble the + pride and vain-glory of man. But they do not overturn the principles + delivered in the preceding Essay respecting the duration of human life, + though they certainly interpose additional boundaries to limit the + prospects of individual improvement. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0014" id="link2H_4_0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY IX. OF LEISURE. + </h2> + <p> + The river of human life is divided into two streams; occupation and + leisure—or, to express the thing more accurately, that occupation, + which is prescribed, and may be called the business of life, and that + occupation, which arises contingently, and not so much of absolute and set + purpose, not being prescribed: such being the more exact description of + these two divisions of human life, inasmuch as the latter is often not + less earnest and intent in its pursuits than the former. + </p> + <p> + It would be a curious question to ascertain which of these is of the + highest value. + </p> + <p> + To this enquiry I hear myself loudly and vehemently answered from all + hands in favour of the first. "This," I am told by unanimous acclamation, + "is the business of life." + </p> + <p> + The decision in favour of what we primarily called occupation, above what + we called leisure, may in a mitigated sense be entertained as true. Man + can live with little or no leisure, for millions of human beings do so + live: but the species to which we belong, and of consequence the + individuals of that species, cannot exist as they ought to exist, without + occupation. + </p> + <p> + Granting however the paramount claims that occupation has to our regard, + let us endeavour to arrive at a just estimate of the value of leisure. + </p> + <p> + It has been said by some one, with great appearance of truth, that + schoolboys learn as much, perhaps more, of beneficial knowledge in their + hours of play, as in their hours of study. + </p> + <p> + The wisdom of ages has been applied to ascertain what are the most + desirable topics for the study of the schoolboy. They are selected for the + most part by the parent. There are few parents that do not feel a sincere + and disinterested desire for the welfare of their children. It is an + unquestionable maxim, that we are the best judges of that of which we have + ourselves had experience; and all parents have been children. It is + therefore idle and ridiculous to suppose that those studies which have for + centuries been chosen by the enlightened mature for the occupation of the + young, have not for the most part been well chosen. Of these studies the + earliest consist in the arts of reading and writing. Next follows + arithmetic, with perhaps some rudiments of algebra and geometry. Afterward + comes in due order the acquisition of languages, particularly the dead + languages; a most fortunate occupation for those years of man, in which + the memory is most retentive, and the reasoning powers have yet acquired + neither solidity nor enlargement. Such are the occupations of the + schoolboy in his prescribed hours of study. + </p> + <p> + But the schoolboy is cooped up in an apartment, it may be with a number of + his fellows. He is seated at a desk, diligently conning the portion of + learning that is doled out to him, or, when he has mastered his lesson, + reciting it with anxious brow and unassured lips to the senior, who is to + correct his errors, and pronounce upon the sufficiency of his industry. + All this may be well: but it is a new and more exhilarating spectacle that + presents itself to our observation, when he is dismissed from his + temporary labours, and rushes impetuously out to the open air, and gives + free scope to his limbs and his voice, and is no longer under the eye of a + censor that shall make him feel his subordination and dependence. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the question under consideration was, not in which state he + experienced the most happiness, but which was productive of the greatest + improvement. + </p> + <p> + The review of the human subject is conveniently divided under the heads of + body and mind. + </p> + <p> + There can be no doubt that the health of the body is most promoted by + those exercises in which the schoolboy is engaged during the hours of + play. And it is further to be considered that health is required, not only + that we may be serene, contented and happy, but that we may be enabled + effectually to exert the faculties of the mind. + </p> + <p> + But there is another way, in which we are called upon to consider the + division of the human subject under the heads of body and mind. + </p> + <p> + The body is the implement and instrument of the mind, the tool by which + most of its purposes are to be effected. We live in the midst of a + material world, or of what we call such. The greater part of the pursuits + in which we engage, are achieved by the action of the limbs and members of + the body upon external matter. + </p> + <p> + Our communications with our fellow-men are all of them carried on by means + of the body. + </p> + <p> + Now the action of the limbs and members of the body is infinitely improved + by those exercises in which the schoolboy becomes engaged during his hours + of play. In the first place it is to be considered that we do those things + most thoroughly and in the shortest time, which are spontaneous, the + result of our own volition; and such are the exercises in which the + schoolboy engages during this period. His heart and soul are in what he + does. The man or the boy must be a poor creature indeed, who never does + any thing but as he is bid by another. It is in his voluntary acts and his + sports, that he learns the skilful and effective use of his eye and his + limbs. He selects his mark, and he hits it. He tries again and again, + effort after effort, and day after day, till he has surmounted the + difficulty of the attempt, and the rebellion of his members. Every + articulation and muscle of his frame is called into action, till all are + obedient to the master-will; and his limbs are lubricated and rendered + pliant by exercise, as the limbs of the Grecian athleta were lubricated + with oil. + </p> + <p> + Thus he acquires, first dexterity of motion, and next, which is of no less + importance, a confidence in his own powers, a consciousness that he is + able to effect what he purposes, a calmness and serenity which resemble + the sweeping of the area, and scattering of the saw-dust, upon which the + dancer or the athlete is to exhibit with grace, strength and effect. + </p> + <p> + So much for the advantages reaped by the schoolboy during his hours of + play as to the maturing his bodily powers, and the improvement of those + faculties of his mind which more immediately apply to the exercise of his + bodily powers. + </p> + <p> + But, beside this, it is indispensible to the well-being and advantage of + the individual, that he should employ the faculties of his mind in + spontaneous exertions. I do not object, especially during the period of + nonage, to a considerable degree of dependence and control. But his + greatest advancement, even then, seems to arise from the interior impulses + of his mind. The schoolboy exercises his wit, and indulges in sallies of + the thinking principle. This is wholsome; this is fresh; it has twice the + quickness, clearness and decision in it, that are to be found in those + acts of the mind which are employed about the lessons prescribed to him. + </p> + <p> + In school our youth are employed about the thoughts, the acts and + suggestions of other men. This is all mimicry, and a sort of second-hand + business. It resembles the proceeding of the fresh-listed soldier at + drill; he has ever his eye on his right-hand man, and does not raise his + arm, nor advance his foot, nor move his finger, but as he sees another + perform the same motion before him. It is when the schoolboy proceeds to + the playground, that he engages in real action and real discussion. It is + then that he is an absolute human being and a genuine individual. + </p> + <p> + The debates of schoolboys, their discussions what they shall do, and how + it shall be done, are anticipations of the scenes of maturer life. They + are the dawnings of committees, and vestries, and hundred-courts, and + ward-motes, and folk-motes, and parliaments. When boys consult when and + where their next cricket-match shall be played, it may be regarded as the + embryo representation of a consult respecting a grave enterprise to be + formed, or a colony to be planted. And, when they enquire respecting + poetry and prose, and figures and tropes, and the dictates of taste, this + happily prepares them for the investigations of prudence, and morals, and + religious principles, and what is science, and what is truth. + </p> + <p> + It is thus that the wit of man, to use the word in the old Saxon sense, + begins to be cultivated. One boy gives utterance to an assertion; and + another joins issue with him, and retorts. The wheels of the engine of the + brain are set in motion, and, without force, perform their healthful + revolutions. The stripling feels himself called upon to exert his presence + of mind, and becomes conscious of the necessity of an immediate reply. + Like the unfledged bird, he spreads his wings, and essays their powers. He + does not answer, like a boy in his class, who tasks his understanding or + not, as the whim of the moment shall prompt him, where one boy honestly + performs to the extent of his ability, and others disdain the empire + assumed over them, and get off as cheaply as they can. He is no longer + under review, but is engaged in real action. The debate of the schoolboy + is the combat of the intellectual gladiator, where he fences and parries + and thrusts with all the skill and judgment he possesses. + </p> + <p> + There is another way in which the schoolboy exercises his powers during + his periods of leisure. He is often in society; but he is ever and anon in + solitude. At no period of human life are our reveries so free and + untrammeled, as at the period here spoken of. He climbs the + mountain-cliff; and penetrates into the depths of the woods. His joints + are well strung; he is a stranger to fatigue. He rushes down the + precipice, and mounts again with ease, as though he had the wings of a + bird. He ruminates, and pursues his own trains of reflection and + discovery, "exhausting worlds," as it appears to him, "and then imagining + new." He hovers on the brink of the deepest philosophy, enquiring how came + I here, and to what end. He becomes a castle-builder, constructing + imaginary colleges and states, and searching out the businesses in which + they are to be employed, and the schemes by which they are to be + regulated. He thinks what he would do, if he possessed uncontrolable + strength, if he could fly, if he could make himself invisible. In this + train of mind he cons his first lessons of liberty and independence. He + learns self-reverence, and says to himself, I also am an artist, and a + maker. He ruffles himself under the yoke, and feels that he suffers foul + tyranny when he is driven, and when brute force is exercised upon him, to + compel him to a certain course, or to chastise his faults, imputed or + real. + </p> + <p> + Such are the benefits of leisure to the schoolboy: and they are not less + to man when arrived at years of discretion. It is good for us to have some + regular and stated occupation. Man may be practically too free; this is + frequently the case with those who have been nurtured in the lap of + opulence and luxury. We were sent into the world under the condition, "In + the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat bread." And those who, by the + artificial institutions of society, are discharged from this necessity, + are placed in a critical and perilous situation. They are bound, if they + would consult their own well-being, to contrive for themselves a + factitious necessity, that may stand them in the place of that necessity + which is imposed without appeal on the vast majority of their brethren. + </p> + <p> + But, if it is desirable that every man should have some regular and stated + occupation, so it is certainly not less desirable, that every man should + have his seasons of relaxation and leisure. + </p> + <p> + Unhappy is the wretch, whose condition it is to be perpetually bound to + the oar, and who is condemned to labour in one certain mode, during all + the hours that are not claimed by sleep, or as long as the muscles of his + frame, or the fibres of his fingers will enable him to persevere. "Apollo + himself," says the poet, "does not always bend the bow." There should be a + season, when the mind is free as air, when not only we should follow + without restraint any train of thinking or action, within the bounds of + sobriety, and that is not attended with injury to others, that our own + minds may suggest to us, but should sacrifice at the shrine of + intellectual liberty, and spread our wings, and take our flight into + untried regions. It is good for man that he should feel himself at some + time unshackled and autocratical, that he should say, This I do, because + it is prescribed to me by the conditions without which I cannot exist, or + by the election which in past time I deliberately made; and this, because + it is dictated by the present frame of my spirit, and is therefore that in + which the powers my nature has entailed upon me may be most fully + manifested. In addition to which we are to consider, that a certain + variety and mutation of employments is best adapted to humanity. When my + mind or my body seems to be overwrought by one species of occupation, the + substitution of another will often impart to me new life, and make me feel + as fresh as if no labour had before engaged me. For all these reasons it + is to be desired, that we should possess the inestimable privilege of + leisure, that in the revolving hours of every day a period should arrive, + at which we should lay down the weapons of our labour, and engage in a + sport that may be no less active and strenuous than the occupation which + preceded it. + </p> + <p> + A question, which deserves our attention in this place, is, how much of + every day it behoves us to give to regular and stated occupation, and how + much is the just and legitimate province of leisure. It has been remarked + in a preceding Essay(17), that, if my main and leading pursuit is literary + composition, two or three hours in the twenty-four will often be as much + as can advantageously and effectually be so employed. But this will + unavoidably vary according to the nature of the occupation: the period + above named may be taken as the MINIMUM. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (17) See above, Essay 7. +</pre> + <p> + Such, let us say, is the portion of time which the man of letters is + called on to devote to literary composition. + </p> + <p> + It may next be fitting to enquire as to the humbler classes of society, + and those persons who are engaged in the labour of the hands, how much + time they ought to be expected to consume in their regular and stated + occupations, and how much would remain to them for relaxation and leisure. + It has been said(18), that half an hour in the day given by every member + of the community to manual labour, might be sufficient for supplying the + whole with the absolute necessaries of life. But there are various + considerations that would inevitably lengthen this period. In a community + which has made any considerable advance in the race of civilisation, many + individuals must be expected to be excused from any portion of manual + labour. It is not desirable that any community should be contented to + supply itself with necessaries only. There are many refinements in life, + and many advances in literature and the arts, which indispensibly conduce + to the rendering man in society a nobler and more exalted creature than he + could otherwise be; and these ought not to be consigned to neglect. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (18) Political Justice, Book VIII, Chap. VI. +</pre> + <p> + On the other hand however it is certain, that much of the ostentation and + a multitude of the luxuries which subsist in European and Asiatic society + are just topics of regret, and that, if ever those improvements in + civilisation take place which philosophy has essayed to delineate, there + would be a great abridgment of the manual labour that we now see around + us, and the humbler classes of the community would enter into the + inheritance of a more considerable portion of leisure than at present + falls to their lot. + </p> + <p> + But it has been much the habit, for persons not belonging to the humbler + classes of the community, and who profess to speculate upon the genuine + interests of human society, to suppose, however certain intervals of + leisure may conduce to the benefit of men whose tastes have been + cultivated and refined, and who from education have many resources of + literature and reflection at all times at their beck, yet that leisure + might prove rather pernicious than otherwise to the uneducated and the + ignorant. Let us enquire then how these persons would be likely to employ + the remainder of their time, if they had a greater portion of leisure than + they at present enjoy.—I would add, that the individuals of the + humbler classes of the community need not for ever to merit the + appellation of the uneducated and ignorant. + </p> + <p> + In the first place, they would engage, like the schoolboy, in active + sports, thereby giving to their limbs, which, in rural occupation and + mechanical labour, are somewhat too monotonously employed, and contract + the stiffness and experience the waste of a premature old age, the + activity and freedom of an athlete, a cricketer, or a hunter. Nor do these + occupations only conduce to the health of the body, they also impart a + spirit and a juvenile earnestness to the mind. + </p> + <p> + In the next place, they may be expected to devote a part of the day, more + than they do at present, to their wives and families, cultivating the + domestic affections, watching the expanding bodies and minds of their + children, leading them on in the road of improvement, warning them against + the perils with which they are surrounded, and observing with somewhat of + a more jealous and parental care, what it is for which by their individual + qualities they are best adapted, and in what particular walk of life they + may most advantageously be engaged. The father and the son would grow in a + much greater degree friends, anticipating each other's wishes, and + sympathising in each other's pleasures and pains. + </p> + <p> + Thirdly, one infallible consequence of a greater degree of leisure in the + lower classes would be that reading would become a more common propensity + and amusement. It is the aphorism of one of the most enlightened of my + contemporaries, "The schoolmaster is abroad:" and many more than at + present would desire to store up in their little hoard a certain portion + of the general improvement. We should no longer have occasion to say, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + But knowledge to their eyes her ample page, + Rich with the spoils of time, did ne'er unrol. +</pre> + <p> + Nor should we be incited to fear that ever wakeful anticipation of the + illiberal, that, by the too great diffusion of the wisdom of the wise, we + might cease to have a race of men adapted to the ordinary pursuits of + life. Our ploughmen and artificers, who obtained the improvements of + intellect through the medium of leisure, would have already received their + destination, and formed their habits, and would be disposed to consider + the new lights that were opened upon them, as the ornament of existence, + not its substance. Add to which, as leisure became more abundant, and the + opportunities of intellectual improvement increased, they would have less + motive to repine at their lot. It is principally while knowledge and + information are new, that they are likely to intoxicate the brain of those + to whose share they have fallen; and, when they are made a common stock + upon which all men may draw, sound thinking and sobriety may be expected + to be the general result. + </p> + <p> + One of the scenes to which the leisure of the laborious classes is seen to + induce them to resort, is the public-house; and it is inferred that, if + their leisure were greater, a greater degree of drunkenness, dissipation + and riot would inevitably prevail. + </p> + <p> + In answer to this anticipation, I would in the first place assert, that + the merits and demerits of the public-house are very unjustly rated by the + fastidious among the more favoured orders of society. + </p> + <p> + We ought to consider that the opportunities and amusements of the lower + orders of society are few. They do not frequent coffee-houses; theatres + and places of public exhibition are ordinarily too expensive for them; and + they cannot engage in rounds of visiting, thus cultivating a private and + familiar intercourse with the few whose conversation might be most + congenial to them. We certainly bear hard upon persons in this rank of + society, if we expect that they should take all the severer labour, and + have no periods of unbending and amusement. + </p> + <p> + But in reality what occurs in the public-house we are too much in the + habit of calumniating. If we would visit this scene, we should find it + pretty extensively a theatre of eager and earnest discussion. It is here + that the ardent and "unwashed artificer," and the sturdy husbandman, + compare notes and measure wits with each other. It is their arena of + intellectual combat, the ludus literarius of their unrefined university. + It is here they learn to think. Their minds are awakened from the sleep of + ignorance; and their attention is turned into a thousand channels of + improvement. They study the art of speaking, of question, allegation and + rejoinder. They fix their thought steadily on the statement that is made, + acknowledge its force, or detect its insufficiency. They examine the most + interesting topics, and form opinions the result of that examination. They + learn maxims of life, and become politicians. They canvas the civil and + criminal laws of their country, and learn the value of political liberty. + They talk over measures of state, judge of the intentions, sagacity and + sincerity of public men, and are likely in time to become in no + contemptible degree capable of estimating what modes of conducting + national affairs, whether for the preservation of the rights of all, or + for the vindication and assertion of justice between man and man, may be + expected to be crowned with the greatest success: in a word, they thus + become, in the best sense of the word, citizens. + </p> + <p> + As to excess in drinking, the same thing may be expected to occur here, as + has been remarked of late years in better company in England. In + proportion as the understanding is cultivated, men are found to be less + the victims of drinking and the grosser provocatives of sense. The king of + Persia of old made it his boast that he could drink large quantities of + liquor with greater impunity than any of his subjects. Such was not the + case with the more polished Greeks. In the dark ages the most glaring + enormities of that kind prevailed. Under our Charles the Second coarse + dissipation and riot characterised the highest circles. Rochester, the + most accomplished man and the greatest wit of our island, related of + himself that, for five years together, he could not affirm that for any + one day he had been thoroughly sober. In Ireland, a country less refined + than our own, the period is not long past, when on convivial occasions the + master of the house took the key from his door, that no one of his guests + might escape without having had his dose. No small number of the + contemporaries of my youth fell premature victims to the intemperance + which was then practised. Now wine is merely used to excite a gayer and + livelier tone of the spirits; and inebriety is scarcely known in the + higher circles. In like manner, it may readily be believed that, as men in + the lower classes of society become less ignorant and obtuse, as their + thoughts are less gross, as they wear off the vestigia ruris, the remains + of a barbarous state, they will find less need to set their spirits afloat + by this animal excitement, and will devote themselves to those thoughts + and that intercourse which shall inspire them with better and more + honourable thoughts of our common nature. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0015" id="link2H_4_0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY X. OF IMITATION AND INVENTION. + </h2> + <p> + Of the sayings of the wise men of former times none has been oftener + repeated than that of Solomon, "The thing that hath been, is that which + is; and that which is done, is that which shall be done; and there is no + new thing under the sun." + </p> + <p> + The books of the Old Testament are apparently a collection of the whole + literary remains of an ancient and memorable people, whose wisdom may + furnish instruction to us, and whose poetry abounds in lofty flights and + sublime imagery. How this collection came indiscriminately to be + considered as written by divine inspiration, it is difficult to pronounce. + The history of the Jews, as contained in the Books of Kings and of + Chronicles, certainly did not require the interposition of the Almighty + for its production; and the pieces we receive as the compositions of + Solomon have conspicuously the air of having emanated from a conception + entirely human. + </p> + <p> + In the book of Ecclesiastes, from which the above sentence is taken, are + many sentiments not in accordance with the religion of Christ. For + example; "That which befalleth the sons of men, befalleth beasts; as the + one dieth, so dieth the other; yea, they have all one breath, so that a + man hath no preeminence above a beast: all go to one place; all are of the + dust, and turn to dust again. Wherefore I perceive that there is nothing + better, than that a man should rejoice in his works." And again, "The + living know that they shall die; but the dead know not any thing; their + love, and their hatred, and their envy are perished; neither have they any + more a reward." Add to this, "Wherefore I praise the dead which are + already dead, more than the living which are yet alive: yea, better is he + than both they, which hath not yet been." There can therefore be no just + exception taken against our allowing ourselves freely to canvas the maxim + cited at the head of this Essay. + </p> + <p> + It certainly contains a sufficient quantity of unquestionable truth, to + induce us to regard it as springing from profound observation, and + comprehensive views of what is acted "under the sun." + </p> + <p> + A wise man would look at the labours of his own species, in much the same + spirit as he would view an ant-hill through a microscope. He would see + them tugging a grain of corn up a declivity; he would see the tracks that + are made by those who go, and who return; their incessant activity; and + would find one day the copy of that which went before; and their labours + ending in nothing: I mean, in nothing that shall carry forward the + improvement of the head and the heart, either in the individual or + society, or that shall add to the conveniences of life, or the better + providing for the welfare of communities of men. He would smile at their + earnestness and zeal, all spent in supplying the necessaries of the day, + or, at most, providing for the revolution of the seasons, or for that + ephemeral thing we call the life of man. + </p> + <p> + Few things can appear more singular, when duly analysed, than that + articulated air, which we denominate speech. It is not to be wondered at + that we are proud of the prerogative, which so eminently distinguishes us + from the rest of the animal creation. The dog, the cat, the horse, the + bear, the lion, all of them have voice. But we may almost consider this as + their reproach. They can utter for the greater part but one monotonous, + eternal sound. + </p> + <p> + The lips, the teeth, the palate, the throat, which in man are instruments + of modifying the voice in such endless variety, are in this respect given + to them in vain: while all the thoughts that occur, at least to the bulk + of mankind, we are able to express in words, to communicate facts, + feelings, passions, sentiments, to discuss, to argue, to agree, to issue + commands on the one part, and report the execution on the other, to + inspire lofty conceptions, to excite the deepest feeling of commiseration, + and to thrill the soul with extacy, almost too mighty to be endured. + </p> + <p> + Yet what is human speech for the most part but mere imitation? In the most + obvious sense this stands out on the surface. We learn the same words, we + speak the same language, as our elders. Not only our words, but our + phrases are the same. We are like players, who come out as if they were + real persons, but only utter what is set down for them. We represent the + same drama every day; and, however stale is the eternal repetition, pass + it off upon others, and even upon ourselves, as if it were the suggestion + of the moment. In reality, in rural or vulgar life, the invention of a new + phrase ought to be marked down among the memorable things in the calendar. + We afford too much honour to ordinary conversation, when we compare it to + the exhibition of the recognised theatres, since men ought for the most + part to be considered as no more than puppets. They perform the + gesticulations; but the words come from some one else, who is hid from the + sight of the general observer. And not only the words, but the cadence: + they have not even so much honour as players have, to choose the manner + they may deem fittest by which to convey the sense and the passion of what + they speak. The pronunciation, the dialect, all, are supplied to them, and + are but a servile repetition. Our tempers are merely the work of the + transcriber. We are angry, where we saw that others were angry; and we are + pleased, because it is the tone to be pleased. We pretend to have each of + us a judgment of our own: but in truth we wait with the most patient + docility, till he whom we regard as the leader of the chorus gives us the + signal, Here you are to applaud, and Here you are to condemn. + </p> + <p> + What is it that constitutes the manners of nations, by which the people of + one country are so eminently distinguished from the people of another, so + that you cannot cross the channel from Dover to Calais, twenty-one miles, + without finding yourself in a new world? Nay, I need not go among the + subjects of another government to find examples of this; if I pass into + Ireland, Scotland or Wales, I see myself surrounded with a new people, all + of whose characters are in a manner cast in one mould, and all different + from the citizens of the principal state and from one another. We may go + further than this. Not only nations, but classes of men, are contrasted + with each other. What can be more different than the gentry of the west + end of this metropolis, and the money-making dwellers in the east? From + them I will pass to Billingsgate and Wapping. What more unlike than a + soldier and a sailor? the children of fashion that stroll in St. James's + and Hyde Park, and the care-worn hirelings, that recreate themselves, with + their wives and their brats, with a little fresh air on a Sunday near + Islington? The houses of lords and commons have each their characteristic + manners. Each profession has its own, the lawyer, the divine, and the man + of medicine. We are all apes, fixing our eyes upon a model, and copying + him, gesture by gesture. We are sheep, rushing headlong through the gap, + when the bell-wether shews us the way. We are choristers, mechanically + singing in a certain key, and giving breath to a certain tone. + </p> + <p> + Our religion, our civil practices, our political creed, are all imitation. + How many men are there, that have examined the evidences of their + religious belief, and can give a sound "reason of the faith that is in + them?" When I was a child, I was taught that there were four religions in + the world, the Popish, the Protestant, the Mahometan, the Pagan. It is a + phenomenon to find the man, who has held the balance steadily, and + rendered full and exact justice to the pretensions of each of these. No: + tell me the longitude and latitude in which a man is born, and I will tell + you his religion. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + By education most have been misled; + So they believe, because they so were bred: + The priest continues what the nurse began, + And thus the child imposes on the man. +</pre> + <p> + And, if this happens, where we are told our everlasting salvation is at + issue, we may easily judge of the rest. + </p> + <p> + The author, with one of whose dicta I began this Essay, has observed, "One + generation passeth away, and another generation cometh; but the earth + abideth for ever." It is a maxim of the English constitution, that "the + king never dies;" and the same may with nearly equal propriety be observed + of every private man, especially if he have children. "Death," say the + writers of natural history, "is the generator of life:" and what is thus + true of animal corruption, may with small variation be affirmed of human + mortality. I turn off my footman, and hire another; and he puts on the + livery of his predecessor: he thinks himself somebody; but he is only a + tenant. The same thing is true, when a country-gentleman, a noble, a + bishop, or a king dies. He puts off his garments, and another puts them + on. Every one knows the story of the Tartarian dervise, who mistook the + royal palace for a caravansera, and who proved to his majesty by + genealogical deduction, that he was only a lodger. In this sense the + mutability, which so eminently characterises every thing sublunary, is + immutability under another name. + </p> + <p> + The most calamitous, and the most stupendous scenes are nothing but an + eternal and wearisome repetition: executions, murders, plagues, famine and + battle. Military execution, the demolition of cities, the conquest of + nations, have been acted a hundred times before. The mighty conqueror, who + "smote the people in wrath with a continual stroke," who "sat in the seat + of God, shewing himself that he was God," and assuredly persuaded himself + that he was doing something to be had in everlasting remembrance, only did + that which a hundred other vulgar conquerors had done in successive ages + of the world, whose very names have long since perished from the records + of mankind. + </p> + <p> + Thus it is that the human species is for ever engaged in laborious + idleness. We put our shoulder to the wheel, and raise the vehicle out of + the mire in which it was swallowed, and we say, I have done something; but + the same feat under the same circumstances has been performed a thousand + times before. We make what strikes us as a profound observation; and, when + fairly analysed, it turns out to be about as sagacious, as if we told + what's o'clock, or whether it is rain or sunshine. Nothing can be more + delightfully ludicrous, than the important and emphatical air with which + the herd of mankind enunciate the most trifling observations. With much + labour we are delivered of what is to us a new thought; and, after a time, + we find the same in a musty volume, thrown by in a corner, and covered + with cobwebs and dust. + </p> + <p> + This is pleasantly ridiculed in the well known exclamation, "Deuce take + the old fellows who gave utterance to our wit, before we ever thought of + it!" + </p> + <p> + The greater part of the life of the mightiest genius that ever existed is + spent in doing nothing, and saying nothing. Pope has observed of + Shakespear's plays, that, "had all the speeches been printed without the + names of the persons, we might have applied them with certainty to every + speaker." To which another critic has rejoined, that that was impossible, + since the greater part of what every man says is unstamped with + peculiarity. We have all more in us of what belongs to the common nature + of man, than of what is peculiar to the individual. + </p> + <p> + It is from this beaten, turnpike road, that the favoured few of mankind + are for ever exerting themselves to escape. The multitude grow up, and are + carried away, as grass is carried away by the mower. The parish-register + tells when they were born, and when they died: "known by the ends of being + to have been." We pass away, and leave nothing behind. Kings, at whose + very glance thousands have trembled, for the most part serve for nothing + when their breath has ceased, but as a sort of distance-posts in the race + of chronology. "The dull swain treads on" their relics "with his clouted + shoon." Our monuments are as perishable as ourselves; and it is the most + hopeless of all problems for the most part, to tell where the mighty ones + of the earth repose. + </p> + <p> + All men are aware of the frailty of life, and how short is the span + assigned us. Hence every one, who feels, or thinks he feels the power to + do so, is desirous to embalm his memory, and to be thought of by a late + posterity, to whom his personal presence shall be unknown. Mighty are the + struggles; everlasting the efforts. The greater part of these we well know + are in vain. It is Aesop's mountain in labour: "Dire was the tossing, deep + the groans:" and the result is a mouse. But is it always so? + </p> + <p> + This brings us back to the question: "Is there indeed nothing new under + the sun?" + </p> + <p> + Most certainly there is something that is new. If, as the beast dies, so + died man, then indeed we should be without hope. But it is his + distinguishing faculty, that he can leave something behind, to testify + that he has lived. And this is not only true of the pyramids of Egypt, and + certain other works of human industry, that time seems to have no force to + destroy. It is often true of a single sentence, a single word, which the + multitudinous sea is incapable of washing away: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Quod non imber edax, non Aquilo impotens + Possit diruere, aut innumerabilis + Annorum series, et fuga temporum. +</pre> + <p> + It is the characteristic of the mind and the heart of man, that they are + progressive. One word, happily interposed, reaching to the inmost soul, + may "take away the heart of stone, and introduce a heart of flesh." And, + if an individual may be thus changed, then his children, and his + connections, to the latest page of unborn history. + </p> + <p> + This is the true glory of man, that "one generation doth not pass away, + and another come, velut unda supervenit undam;" but that we leave our + improvements behind us. What infinite ages of refinement on refinement, + and ingenuity on ingenuity, seem each to have contributed its quota, to + make up the accommodations of every day of civilised man; his table, his + chair, the bed he lies on, the food he eats, the garments that cover him! + It has often been said, that the four quarters of the world are put under + contribution, to provide the most moderate table. To this what mills, what + looms, what machinery of a thousand denominations, what ship-building, + what navigation, what fleets are required! Man seems to have been sent + into the world a naked, forked, helpless animal, on purpose to call forth + his ingenuity to supply the accommodations that may conduce to his + well-being. The saying, that "there is nothing new under the sun," could + never have been struck out, but in one of the two extreme states of man, + by the naked savage, or by the highly civilised beings among whom the + perfection of refinement has produced an artificial feeling of uniformity. + </p> + <p> + The thing most obviously calculated to impress us with a sense of the + power, and the comparative sublimity of man, is, if we could make a voyage + of some duration in a balloon, over a considerable tract of the cultivated + and the desert parts of the earth. A brute can scarcely move a stone out + of his way, if it has fallen upon the couch where he would repose. But man + cultivates fields, and plants gardens; he constructs parks and canals; he + turns the course of rivers, and stretches vast artificial moles into the + sea; he levels mountains, and builds a bridge, joining in giddy height one + segment of the Alps to another; lastly, he founds castles, and churches, + and towers, and distributes mighty cities at his pleasure over the face of + the globe. "The first earth has passed away, and another earth has come; + and all things are made new." + </p> + <p> + It is true, that the basest treacheries, the most atrocious cruelties, + butcheries, massacres, violations of all the restraints of decency, and + all the ties of nature, fields covered with dead bodies, and flooded with + human gore, are all of them vulgar repetitions of what had been acted + countless times already. If Nero or Caligula thought to perpetrate that + which should stand unparalleled, they fell into the grossest error. The + conqueror, who should lay waste vast portions of the globe, and destroy + mighty cities, so that "thorns should come up in the palaces, and nettles + in the fortresses thereof, and they should be a habitation of serpents, + and a court for owls, and the wild beasts of the desert should meet + there," would only do what Tamerlane, and Aurengzebe, and Zingis, and a + hundred other conquerors, in every age and quarter of the world, had done + before. The splendour of triumphs, and the magnificence of courts, are so + essentially vulgar, that history almost disdains to record them. + </p> + <p> + And yet there is something that is new, and that by the reader of + discernment is immediately felt to be so. + </p> + <p> + We read of Moses, that he was a child of ordinary birth, and, when he was + born, was presently marked, as well as all the male children of his race, + for destruction. He was unexpectedly preserved; and his first act, when he + grew up, was to slay an Egyptian, one of the race to whom all his + countrymen were slaves, and to fly into exile. This man, thus friendless + and alone, in due time returned, and by the mere energy of his character + prevailed upon his whole race to make common cause with him, and to + migrate to a region, in which they should become sovereign and + independent. He had no soldiers, but what were made so by the ascendancy + of his spirit no counsellors but such as he taught to be wise, no friends + but those who were moved by the sentiment they caught from him. The Jews + he commanded were sordid and low of disposition, perpetually murmuring + against his rule, and at every unfavourable accident calling to + remembrance "the land of Egypt, where they had sat by the fleshpots, and + were full." Yet over this race he retained a constant mastery, and finally + made of them a nation whose customs and habits and ways of thinking no + time has availed to destroy. This was a man then, that possessed the true + secret to make other men his creatures, and lead them with an irresistible + power wherever he pleased. This history, taken entire, has probably no + parallel in the annals of the world. + </p> + <p> + The invasion of Greece by the Persians, and its result, seem to constitute + an event that stands alone among men. Xerxes led against this little + territory an army of 5,280,000 men. They drank up rivers, and cut their + way through giant-mountains. They were first stopped at Thermopylae by + Leonidas and his three hundred Spartans. They fought for a country too + narrow to contain the army by which the question was to be tried. The + contest was here to be decided between despotism and liberty, whether + there is a principle in man, by which a handful of individuals, pervaded + with lofty sentiments, and a conviction of what is of most worth in our + nature, can defy the brute force, and put to flight the attack, of bones, + joints and sinews, though congregated in multitudes, numberless as the + waves of the sea, or the sands on its shore. The flood finally rolled + back: and in process of time Alexander, with these Greeks whom the + ignorance of the East affected to despise, founded another universal + monarchy on the ruins of Persia. This is certainly no vulgar history. + </p> + <p> + Christianity is another of those memorable chapters in the annals of + mankind, to which there is probably no second. The son of a carpenter in a + little, rocky country, among a nation despised and enslaved, undertook to + reform the manners of the people of whom he was a citizen. The reformation + he preached was unpalatable to the leaders of the state; he was + persecuted; and finally suffered the death reserved for the lowest + malefactors, being nailed to a cross. He was cut off in the very beginning + of his career, before he had time to form a sect. His immediate + representatives and successors were tax-gatherers and fishermen. What + could be more incredible, till proved by the event, than that a religion + thus begun, should have embraced in a manner the whole civilised world, + and that of its kingdom there should be no visible end? This is a novelty + in the history of the world, equally if we consider it as brought about by + the immediate interposition of the author of all things, or regard it, as + some pretend to do, as happening in the course of mere human events. + </p> + <p> + Rome, "the eternal city," is likewise a subject that stands out from the + vulgar history of the human race. Three times, in three successive forms, + has she been the mistress of the world. First, by the purity, the + simplicity, the single-heartedness, the fervour and perseverance of her + original character she qualified herself to subdue all the nations of + mankind. Next, having conquered the earth by her virtue and by the spirit + of liberty, she was able to maintain her ascendancy for centuries under + the emperors, notwithstanding all her astonishing profligacy and anarchy. + And, lastly, after her secular ascendancy had been destroyed by the + inroads of the northern barbarians, she rose like the phoenix from her + ashes, and, though powerless in material force, held mankind in subjection + by the chains of the mind, and the consummateness of her policy. Never was + any thing so admirably contrived as the Catholic religion, to subdue the + souls of men by the power of its worship over the senses, and, by its + contrivances in auricular confession, purgatory, masses for the dead, and + its claim magisterially to determine controversies, to hold the subjects + it had gained in everlasting submission. + </p> + <p> + The great principle of originality is in the soul of man. And here again + we may recur to Greece, the parent of all that is excellent in art. + Painting, statuary, architecture, poetry, in their most exquisite and + ravishing forms, originated in this little province. Is not the Iliad a + thing new, and that will for ever remain new? Whether it was written by + one man, as I believe, or, as the levellers of human glory would have us + think, by many, there it stands: all the ages of the world present us + nothing that can come in competition with it. + </p> + <p> + Shakespear is another example of unrivalled originality. His fame is like + the giant-rivers of the world: the further it flows, the wider it spreads + out its stream, and the more marvellous is the power with which it sweeps + along. + </p> + <p> + But, in reality, all poetry and all art, that have a genuine claim to + originality, are new, the smallest, as well as the greatest. + </p> + <p> + It is the mistake of dull minds only, to suppose that every thing has been + said, that human wit is exhausted, and that we, who have unfortunately + fallen upon the dregs of time, have no alternative left, but either to be + silent, or to say over and over again, what has been well said already. + </p> + <p> + There remain yet immense tracts of invention, the mines of which have been + untouched. We perceive nothing of the strata of earth, and the hidden + fountains of water, that we travel over, unconscious of the treasures that + are immediately within our reach, till some person, endowed with the gift + of a superior sagacity, comes into the country, who appears to see through + the opake and solid mass, as we see through the translucent air, and tells + us of things yet undiscovered, and enriches us with treasures, of which we + had been hitherto entirely ignorant. The nature of the human mind, and the + capabilities of our species are in like manner a magazine of undiscovered + things, till some mighty genius comes to break the surface, and shew us + the wonderful treasures that lay beneath uncalled for and idle. + </p> + <p> + Human character is like the contents of an ample cabinet, brought together + by the untired zeal of some curious collector, who tickets his rarities + with numbers, and has a catalogue in many volumes, in which are recorded + the description and qualities of the things presented to our view. Among + the most splendid examples of character which the genius of man has + brought to light, are Don Quixote and his trusty squire, sir Roger de + Coverley, Parson Adams, Walter Shandy and his brother Toby. Who shall set + bounds to the everlasting variety of nature, as she has recorded her + creations in the heart of man? Most of these instances are recent, and + sufficiently shew that the enterprising adventurer, who would aspire to + emulate the illustrious men from whose writings these examples are drawn, + has no cause to despair. + </p> + <p> + Vulgar observers pass carelessly by a thousand figures in the crowded + masquerade of human society, which, when inscribed on the tablet by the + pencil of a master, would prove not less wondrous in the power of + affording pleasure, nor less rich as themes for inexhaustible reflection, + than the most admirable of these. The things are there, and all that is + wanting is an eye to perceive, and a pen to record them. + </p> + <p> + As to a great degree we may subscribe to the saying of the wise man, that + "there is nothing new under the sun," so in a certain sense it may also be + affirmed that nothing is old. Both of these maxims may be equally true. + The prima materia, the atoms of which the universe is composed, is of a + date beyond all record; and the figures which have yet been introduced + into the most fantastic chronology, may perhaps be incompetent to + represent the period of its birth. But the ways in which they may be + compounded are exhaustless. It is like what the writers on the Doctrine of + Chances tell us of the throwing of dice. How many men now exist on the + face of the earth? Yet, if all these were brought together, and if, in + addition to this, we could call up all the men that ever lived, it may be + doubted, whether any two would be found so much alike, that a + clear-sighted and acute observer might not surely distinguish the one from + the other. Leibnitz informs us, that no two leaves of a tree exist in the + most spacious garden, that, upon examination, could be pronounced + perfectly similar(19). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (19) See above, Essay 2. +</pre> + <p> + The true question is not, whether any thing can be found that is new, but + whether the particulars in which any thing is new may not be so minute and + trifling, as scarcely to enter for any thing, into that grand and + comprehensive view of the whole, in which matters of obvious + insignificance are of no account. + </p> + <p> + But, if art and the invention of the human mind are exhaustless, science + is even more notoriously so. We stand but on the threshold of the + knowledge of nature, and of the various ways in which physical power may + be brought to operate for the accommodation of man. This is a business + that seems to be perpetually in progress; and, like the fall of bodies by + the power of gravitation, appears to gain in momentum, in proportion as it + advances to a greater distance from the point at which the impulse was + given. The discoveries which at no remote period have been made, would, if + prophesied of, have been laughed to scorn by the ignorant sluggishness of + former generations; and we are equally ready to regard with incredulity + the discoveries yet unmade, which will be familiar to our posterity. + Indeed every man of a capacious and liberal mind is willing to admit, that + the progress of human understanding in science, which is now going on, is + altogether without any limits that by the most penetrating genius can be + assigned. It is like a mighty river, that flows on for ever and for ever, + as far as the words, "for ever," can have a meaning to the comprehension + of mortals. The question that remains is, our practicable improvement in + literature and morals, and here those persons who entertain a mean opinion + of human nature, are constantly ready to tell us that it will be found to + amount to nothing. However we may be continually improving in mechanical + knowledge and ingenuity, we are assured by this party, that we shall never + surpass what has already been done in poetry and literature, and, which is + still worse, that, however marvellous may be our future acquisitions in + science and the application of science, we shall be, as much as ever, the + creatures of that vanity, ostentation, opulence and the spirit of + exclusive accumulation, which has hitherto, in most countries (not in all + countries), generated the glaring inequality of property, and the + oppression of the many for the sake of pampering the folly of the few. + </p> + <p> + There is another circumstance that may be mentioned, which, particularly + as regards the question of repetition and novelty that is now under + consideration, may seem to operate in an eminent degree in favour of + science, while it casts a most discouraging veil over poetry and the pure + growth of human fancy and invention. Poetry is, after all, nothing more + than new combinations of old materials. Nihil est in intellectu, quod non + fuit prius in sensu. The poet has perhaps in all languages been called a + maker, a creator: but this seems to be a vain-glorious and an empty boast. + He is a collector of materials only, which he afterwards uses as best he + may be able. He answers to the description I have heard given of a tailor, + a man who cuts to pieces whatever is delivered to him from the loom, that + he may afterwards sew it together again. The poet therefore, we may be + told, adds nothing to the stock of ideas and conceptions already laid up + in the storehouse of mind. But the man who is employed upon the secrets of + nature, is eternally in progress; day after day he delivers in to the + magazine of materials for thinking and acting, what was not there before; + he increases the stock, upon which human ingenuity and the arts of life + are destined to operate. He does not, as the poet may be affirmed by his + censurers to do, travel for ever in a circle, but continues to hasten + towards a goal, while at every interval we may mark how much further he + has proceeded from the point at which his race began. + </p> + <p> + Much may be said in answer to this, and in vindication and honour of the + poet and the artist. All that is here alleged to their disadvantage, is in + reality little better than a sophism. The consideration of the articles he + makes use of, does not in sound estimate detract from the glories of which + he is the artificer. Materiem superat opus. He changes the nature of what + he handles; all that he touches is turned into gold. The manufacture he + delivers to us is so new, that the thing it previously was, is no longer + recognisable. The impression that he makes upon the imagination and the + heart, the impulses that he communicates to the understanding and the + moral feeling, are all his own; and, "if there is any thing lovely and of + good report, if there is any virtue and any praise," he may well claim our + applauses and our thankfulness for what he has effected. + </p> + <p> + There is a still further advantage that belongs to the poet and the + votarist of polite literature, which ought to be mentioned, as strongly + calculated to repress the arrogance of the men of science, and the + supercilious contempt they are apt to express for those who are engrossed + by the pursuits of imagination and taste. They are for ever talking of the + reality and progressiveness of their pursuits, and telling us that every + step they take is a point gained, and gained for the latest posterity, + while the poet merely suits himself to the taste of the men among whom he + lives, writes up to the fashion of the day, and, as our manners turn, is + sure to be swept away to the gulph of oblivion. But how does the matter + really stand? It is to a great degree the very reverse of this. + </p> + <p> + The natural and experimental philosopher has nothing sacred and + indestructible in the language and form in which he delivers truths. New + discoveries and experiments come, and his individual terms and phrases and + theories perish. One race of natural philosophers does but prepare the way + for another race, which is to succeed. They "blow the trumpet, and give + out the play." And they must be contented to perish before the brighter + knowledge, of which their efforts were but the harbingers. The Ptolemaic + system gave way to Tycho Brahe, and his to that of Copernicus. The + vortices of Descartes perished before the discoveries of Newton; and the + philosophy of Newton already begins to grow old, and is found to have weak + and decaying parts mixed with those which are immortal and divine. In the + science of mind Aristotle and Plato are set aside; the depth of + Malebranche, and the patient investigation of Locke have had their day; + more penetrating, and concise, and lynx-eyed reasoners of our own country + have succeeded; the German metaphysicians seem to have thrust these aside; + and it perhaps needs no great degree of sagacity to foresee, that Kant and + Fichte will at last fare no better than those that went before them. + </p> + <p> + But the poet is immortal. The verses of Homer are of workmanship no less + divine, than the armour of his own Achilles. His poems are as fresh and + consummate to us now, as they were to the Greeks, when the old man of + Chios wandered in person through the different cities, rehearsing his + rhapsodies to the accompaniment of his lute. The language and the thoughts + of the poet are inextricably woven together; and the first is no more + exposed to decay and to perish than the last. Presumptuous innovators have + attempted to modernise Chaucer, and Spenser, and other authors, whose + style was supposed to have grown obsolete. But true taste cannot endure + the impious mockery. The very words that occurred to these men, when the + God descended, and a fire from heaven tingled in all their veins, are + sacred, are part of themselves; and you may as well attempt to preserve + the man when you have deprived him of all his members, as think to + preserve the poet when you have taken away the words that he spoke. No + part of his glorious effusions must perish; and "the hairs of his head are + all numbered." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0016" id="link2H_4_0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY XI. OF SELF-LOVE AND BENEVOLENCE. + </h2> + <p> + NO question has more memorably exercised the ingenuity of men who have + speculated upon the structure of the human mind, than that of the motives + by which we are actuated in our intercourse with our fellow-creatures. The + dictates of a plain and unsophisticated understanding on the subject are + manifest; and they have been asserted in the broadest way by the authors + of religion, the reformers of mankind, and all persons who have been + penetrated with zeal and enthusiasm for the true interests of the race to + which they belong. + </p> + <p> + "The end of the commandment," say the authors of the New Testament, "is + love." "This is the great commandment of the law, Thou shalt love thy + maker with all thy heart; and the second is like unto it, Thou shalt love + thy neighbour as thyself." "Though I bestow all my goods to feed the poor, + and give my body to be burned, and have not love, it profiteth me + nothing." "For none of us liveth to himself; and no man dieth to himself." + </p> + <p> + The sentiments of the ancient Greeks and Romans, for so many centuries as + their institutions retained their original purity, were cast in a mould of + a similar nature. A Spartan was seldom alone; they were always in society + with each other. The love of their country and of the public good was + their predominant passion, they did not imagine that they belonged to + themselves, but to the state. After the battle of Leuctra, in which the + Spartans were defeated by the Thebans, the mothers of those who were slain + congratulated one another, and went to the temples to thank the Gods, that + their children had done their duty; while the relations of those who + survived the defeat were inconsolable. + </p> + <p> + The Romans were not less distinguished by their self-denying patriotism. + It was in this spirit that Brutus put his two sons to death for conspiring + against their country. It was in this spirit that the Fabii perished at + their fort on the Cremera, and the Decii devoted themselves for the + public. The rigour of self-denial in a true Roman approached to a temper + which moderns are inclined to denominate savage. + </p> + <p> + In the times of the ancient republics the impulse of the citizens was to + merge their own individuality in the interests of the state. They held it + their duty to live but for their country. In this spirit they were + educated; and the lessons of their early youth regulated the conduct of + their riper years. + </p> + <p> + In a more recent period we have learned to model our characters by a + different standard. We seldom recollect the society of which we are + politically members, as a whole, but are broken into detached parties, + thinking only for the most part of ourselves and our immediate connections + and attachments. + </p> + <p> + This change in the sentiments and manners of modern times has among its + other consequences given birth to a new species of philosophy. We have + been taught to affirm, that we can have no express and pure regard for our + fellow-creatures, but that all our benevolence and affection come to us + through the strainers of a gross or a refined self-love. The coarser + adherents of this doctrine maintain, that mankind are in all cases guided + by views of the narrowest self-interest, and that those who advance the + highest claims to philanthropy, patriotism, generosity and self-sacrifice, + are all the time deceiving others, or deceiving themselves, and use a + plausible and high-sounding language merely, that serves no other purpose + than to veil from observation "that hideous sight, a naked human heart." + </p> + <p> + The more delicate and fastidious supporters of the doctrine of universal + self-love, take a different ground. They affirm that "such persons as talk + to us of disinterestedness and pure benevolence, have not considered with + sufficient accuracy the nature of mind, feeling and will. To understand," + they say, "is one thing, and to choose another." The clearest proposition + that ever was stated, has, in itself, no tendency to produce voluntary + action on the part of the percipient. It can be only something apprehended + as agreeable or disagreeable to us, that can operate so as to determine + the will. Such is the law of universal nature. We act from the impulse of + our own desires and aversions; and we seek to effect or avert a thing, + merely because it is viewed by us as an object of gratification or the + contrary. + </p> + <p> + The virtuous man and the vicious are alike governed by the same principle; + and it is therefore the proper business of a wise instructor of youth, and + of a man who would bring his own sentiments and feelings into the most + praise-worthy frame, to teach us to find our interest and gratification in + that which shall be most beneficial to others." + </p> + <p> + When we proceed to examine the truth of these statements, it certainly is + not strictly an argument to say, that the advocate of self-love on either + of these hypotheses cannot consistently be a believer in Christianity, or + even a theist, as theism is ordinarily understood. The commandments of the + author of the Christian religion are, as we have seen, purely + disinterested: and, especially if we admit the latter of the two + explanations of self-love, we shall be obliged to confess, on the + hypothesis of this new philosophy, that the almighty author of the + universe never acts in any of his designs either of creation or + providence, but from a principle of self-love. In the mean time, if this + is not strictly an argument, it is however but fair to warn the adherents + of the doctrine I oppose, of the consequences to which their theory leads. + It is my purpose to subvert that doctrine by means of the severest + demonstration; but I am not unwilling, before I begin, to conciliate, as + far as may be, the good-will of my readers to the propositions I proceed + to establish. + </p> + <p> + I will therefore further venture to add, that, upon the hypothesis of + self-love, there can be no such thing as virtue. There are two + circumstances required, to entitle an action to be denominated virtuous. + It must have a tendency to produce good rather than evil to the race of + man, and it must have been generated by an intention to produce such good. + The most beneficent action that ever was performed, if it did not spring + from the intention of good to others, is not of the nature of virtue. + Virtue, where it exists in any eminence, is a species of conduct, modelled + upon a true estimate of the good intended to be produced. He that makes a + false estimate, and prefers a trivial and partial good to an important and + comprehensive one, is vicious(20). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (20) Political Justice, Book 11, Chap. IV. +</pre> + <p> + It is admitted on all hands, that it is possible for a man to sacrifice + his own existence to that of twenty others. But the advocates of the + doctrine of self-love must say, that he does this that he may escape from + uneasiness, and because he could not bear to encounter the inward + upbraiding with which he would be visited, if he acted otherwise. This in + reality would change his action from an act of virtue to an act of vice. + So far as belongs to the real merits of the case, his own advantage or + pleasure is a very insignificant consideration, and the benefit to be + produced, suppose to a world, is inestimable. Yet he falsely and unjustly + prefers the first, and views the latter as trivial; nay, separately taken, + as not entitled to the smallest regard. If the dictates of impartial + justice be taken into the account, then, according to the system of + self-love, the best action that ever was performed, may, for any thing we + know, have been the action, in the whole world, of the most exquisite and + deliberate injustice. Nay, it could not have been otherwise, since it + produced the greatest good, and therefore was the individual instance, in + which the greatest good was most directly postponed to personal + gratification(21). Such is the spirit of the doctrine I undertake to + refute. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (21) Political Justice, Book IV, Chap. X. +</pre> + <p> + But man is not in truth so poor and pusillanimous a creature as this + system would represent. + </p> + <p> + It is time however to proceed to the real merits of the question, to + examine what in fact is the motive which induces a good man to elect a + generous mode of proceeding. + </p> + <p> + Locke is the philosopher, who, in writing on Human Understanding, has + specially delivered the doctrine, that uneasiness is the cause which + determines the will, and urges us to act. He says(22), "The motive we have + for continuing in the same state, is only the present satisfaction we feel + in it; the motive to change is always some uneasiness: nothing setting us + upon the change of state, or upon any new action, but some uneasiness. + This is the great motive that works on the mind." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (22) Book II, Chap. XXI, Sect. 29. +</pre> + <p> + It is not my concern to enquire, whether Locke by this statement meant to + assert that self-love is the only principle of human action. It has at any + rate been taken to express the doctrine which I here propose to refute. + </p> + <p> + And, in the first place, I say, that, if our business is to discover the + consideration entertained by the mind which induces us to act, this tells + us nothing. It is like the case of the Indian philosopher(23), who, being + asked what it was that kept the earth in its place, answered, that it was + supported by an elephant, and that elephant again rested on a tortoise. He + must be endowed with a slender portion of curiosity, who, being told that + uneasiness is that which spurs on the mind to act, shall rest satisfied + with this explanation, and does not proceed to enquire, what makes us + uneasy? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (23) Locke on Understanding, Book 11, Chap. XIII, Sect. 19. +</pre> + <p> + An explanation like this is no more instructive, than it would be, if, + when we saw a man walking, or grasping a sword or a bludgeon, and we + enquired into the cause of this phenomenon, any one should inform us that + he walks, because he has feet, and he grasps, because he has hands. + </p> + <p> + I could not commodiously give to my thoughts their present form, unless I + had been previously furnished with pens and paper. But it would be absurd + to say, that my being furnished with pens and paper, is the cause of my + writing this Essay on Self-love and Benevolence. + </p> + <p> + The advocates of self-love have, very inartificially and unjustly, + substituted the abstract definition of a voluntary agent, and made that + stand for the motive by which he is prompted to act. It is true, that we + cannot act without the impulse of desire or uneasiness; but we do not + think of that desire and uneasiness; and it is the thing upon which the + mind is fixed that constitutes our motive. In the boundless variety of the + acts, passions and pursuits of human beings, it is absurd on the face of + it to say that we are all governed by one motive, and that, however + dissimilar are the ends we pursue, all this dissimilarity is the fruit of + a single cause. + </p> + <p> + One man chooses travelling, another ambition, a third study, a fourth + voluptuousness and a mistress. Why do these men take so different courses? + </p> + <p> + Because one is partial to new scenes, new buildings, new manners, and the + study of character. Because a second is attracted by the contemplation of + wealth and power. Because a third feels a decided preference for the works + of Homer, or Shakespear, or Bacon, or Euclid. Because a fourth finds + nothing calculated to stir his mind in comparison with female beauty, + female allurements, or expensive living. + </p> + <p> + Each of these finds the qualities he likes, intrinsically in the thing he + chooses. One man feels himself strongly moved, and raised to extacy, by + the beauties of nature, or the magnificence of architecture. Another is + ravished with the divine excellencies of Homer, or of some other of the + heroes of literature. A third finds nothing delights him so much as the + happiness of others, the beholding that happiness increased, and seeing + pain and oppression and sorrow put to flight. The cause of these + differences is, that each man has an individual internal structure, + directing his partialities, one man to one thing, and another to another. + </p> + <p> + Few things can exceed the characters of human beings in variety. There + must be something abstractedly in the nature of mind, which renders it + accessible to these varieties. For the present we will call it taste. One + man feels his spirits regaled with the sight of those things which + constitute wealth, another in meditating the triumphs of Alexander or + Caesar, and a third in viewing the galleries of the Louvre. Not one of + these thinks in the outset of appropriating these objects to himself; not + one of them begins with aspiring to be the possessor of vast opulence, or + emulating the triumphs of Caesar, or obtaining in property the pictures + and statues the sight of which affords him so exquisite delight. Even the + admirer of female beauty, does not at first think of converting this + attractive object into a mistress, but on the contrary desires, like + Pygmalion, that the figure he beholds might become his solace and + companion, because he had previously admired it for itself. + </p> + <p> + Just so the benevolent man is an individual who finds a peculiar delight + in contemplating the contentment, the peace and heart's ease of other men, + and sympathises in no ordinary degree with their sufferings. He rejoices + in the existence and diffusion of human happiness, though he should not + have had the smallest share in giving birth to the thing he loves. It is + because such are his tastes, and what above all things he prefers, that he + afterwards becomes distinguished by the benevolence of his conduct. + </p> + <p> + The reflex act of the mind, which these new philosophers put forward as + the solution of all human pursuits, rarely presents itself but to the + speculative enquirer in his closet. The savage never dreams of it. The + active man, engaged in the busy scenes of life, thinks little, and on rare + occasions of himself, but much, and in a manner for ever, of the objects + of his pursuit. + </p> + <p> + Some men are uniform in their character, and from the cradle to the grave + prefer the same objects that first awakened their partialities. Other men + are inconsistent and given to change, are "every thing by starts, and + nothing long." Still it is probable that, in most cases, he who performs + an act of benevolence, feels for the time that he has a peculiar delight + in contemplating the good of his fellow-man. + </p> + <p> + The doctrine of the modern philosophers on this point, is in many ways + imbecil and unsound. It is inauspicious to their creed, that the reflex + act of the mind is purely the affair of experience. Why did the + liberal-minded man perform his first act of benevolence? The answer of + these persons ought to be, because the recollection of a generous deed is + a source of the truest delight. But there is an absurdity on the face of + this solution. + </p> + <p> + We do not experimentally know the delight which attends the recollection + of a generous deed, till a generous deed has been performed by us. We do + not learn these things from books. And least of all is this solution to + the purpose, when the business is to find a solution that suits the human + mind universally, the unlearned as well as the learned, the savage as well + as the sage. + </p> + <p> + And surely it is inconsistent with all sound reasoning, to represent that + as the sole spring of our benevolent actions, which by the very terms will + not fit the first benevolent act in which any man engaged. + </p> + <p> + The advocates of the doctrine of "self-love the source of all our + actions," are still more puzzled, when the case set before them is that of + the man, who flies, at an instant's warning, to save the life of the child + who has fallen into the river, or the unfortunate whom he beholds in the + upper story of a house in flames. This man, as might be illustrated in a + thousand instances, treats his own existence as unworthy of notice, and + exposes it to multiplied risks to effect the object to which he devotes + himself. + </p> + <p> + They are obliged to say, that this man anticipates the joy he will feel in + the recollection of a noble act, and the cutting and intolerable pain he + will experience in the consciousness that a human being has perished, whom + it was in his power to save. It is in vain that we tell them that, without + a moment's consideration, he tore off his clothes, or plunged into the + stream with his clothes on, or rushed up a flaming stair-case. Still they + tell us, that he recollected what compunctious visitings would be his lot + if he remained supine—he felt the sharpest uneasiness at sight of + the accident before him, and it was to get rid of that uneasiness, and not + for the smallest regard to the unhappy being he has been the means to + save, that he entered on the hazardous undertaking. + </p> + <p> + Uneasiness, the knowledge of what inwardly passes in the mind, is a thing + not in the slightest degree adverted to but in an interval of leisure. No; + the man here spoken of thinks of nothing but the object immediately before + his eyes; he adverts not at all to himself; he acts only with an + undeveloped, confused and hurried consciousness that he may be of some + use, and may avert the instantly impending calamity. He has scarcely even + so much reflection as amounts to this. + </p> + <p> + The history of man, whether national or individual, and consequently the + acts of human creatures which it describes, are cast in another mould than + that which the philosophy of self-love sets before us. A topic that from + the earliest accounts perpetually presents itself in the records of + mankind, is self-sacrifice, parents sacrificing themselves for their + children, and children for their parents. Cimon, the Athenian, yet in the + flower of his youth, voluntarily became the inmate of a prison, that the + body of his father might receive the honours of sepulture. Various and + unquestionable are the examples of persons who have exposed themselves to + destruction, and even petitioned to die, that so they might save the lives + of those, whose lives they held dearer than their own. Life is indeed a + thing, that is notoriously set at nothing by generous souls, who have + fervently devoted themselves to an overwhelming purpose. There have been + instances of persons, exposed to all the horrors of famine, where one has + determined to perish by that slowest and most humiliating of all the modes + of animal destruction, that another, dearer to him than life itself, + might, if possible, be preserved. + </p> + <p> + What is the true explanation of these determinations of the human will? Is + it, that the person, thus consigning himself to death, loved nothing but + himself, regarded only the pleasure he might reap, or the uneasiness he + was eager to avoid? Or, is it, that he had arrived at the exalted point of + self-oblivion, and that his whole soul was penetrated and ingrossed with + the love of those for whom he conceived so exalted a partiality? + </p> + <p> + This sentiment so truly forms a part of our nature, that a multitude of + absurd practices, and a multitude of heart-rending fables, have been + founded upon the consciousness of man in different ages and nations, that + these modes of thinking form a constituent part of our common existence. + In India there was found a woman, whose love to the deceased partner of + her soul was so overwhelming, that she resolved voluntarily to perish on + his funeral pile. And this example became so fascinating and admirable, + that, by insensible degrees, it grew into a national custom with the + Hindoos, that, by a sort of voluntary constraint, the widows of all men of + a certain caste, should consign themselves to the flames with the dead + bodies of their husbands. The story of Zopyrus cutting off his nose and + ears, and of Curtius leaping into the gulph, may be fictitious: but it was + the consciousness of those by whom these narratives were written that they + drew their materials from the mighty store-house of the heart of man, that + prompted them to record them. The institutions of clientship and clans, so + extensively diffused in different ages of the world, rests upon this + characteristic of our nature, that multitudes of men may be trained and + educated so, as to hold their existence at no price, when the life of the + individual they were taught unlimitedly to reverence might be preserved, + or might be defended at the risk of their destruction. + </p> + <p> + The principal circumstance that divides our feelings for others from our + feelings for ourselves, and that gives, to satirical observers, and + superficial thinkers, an air of exclusive selfishness to the human mind, + lies in this, that we can fly from others, but cannot fly from ourselves. + While I am sitting by the bed-side of the sufferer, while I am listening + to the tale of his woes, there is comparatively but a slight line of + demarcation, whether they are his sorrows or my own. My sympathy is + vehemently excited towards him, and I feel his twinges and anguish in a + most painful degree. But I can quit his apartment and the house in which + he dwells, can go out in the fields, and feel the fresh air of heaven + fanning my hair, and playing upon my cheeks. This is at first but a very + imperfect relief. His image follows me; I cannot forget what I have heard + and seen; I even reproach myself for the mitigation I involuntarily + experience. But man is the creature of his senses. I am every moment + further removed, both in time and place, from the object that distressed + me. There he still lies upon the bed of agony: but the sound of his + complaint, and the sight of all that expresses his suffering, are no + longer before me. A short experience of human life convinces us that we + have this remedy always at hand ("I am unhappy, only while I please")(24); + and we soon come therefore to anticipate the cure, and so, even while we + are in the presence of the sufferer, to feel that he and ourselves are not + perfectly one. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (24) Douglas. +</pre> + <p> + But with our own distempers and adversities it is altogether different. It + is this that barbs the arrow. We may change the place of our local + existence; but we cannot go away from ourselves. With chariots, and + embarking ourselves on board of ships, we may seek to escape from the + enemy. But grief and apprehension enter the vessel along with us; and, + when we mount on horseback, the discontent that specially annoyed us, gets + up behind, and clings to our sides with a hold never to be loosened(25). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (25) Horace. +</pre> + <p> + Is it then indeed a proof of selfishness, that we are in a greater or less + degree relieved from the anguish we endured for our friend, when other + objects occupy us, and we are no longer the witnesses of his sufferings? + If this were true, the same argument would irresistibly prove, that we are + the most generous of imaginable beings, the most disregardful of whatever + relates to ourselves. Is it not the first ejaculation of the miserable, + "Oh, that I could fly from myself? Oh, for a thick, substantial sleep!" + What the desperate man hates is his own identity. But he knows that, if + for a few moments he loses himself in forgetfulness, he will presently + awake to all that distracted him. He knows that he must act his part to + the end, and drink the bitter cup to the dregs. He can do none of these + things by proxy. It is the consciousness of the indubitable future, from + which we can never be divorced, that gives to our present calamity its + most fearful empire. Were it not for this great line of distinction, there + are many that would feel not less for their friend than for themselves. + But they are aware, that his ruin will not make them beggars, his mortal + disease will not bring them to the tomb, and that, when he is dead, they + may yet be reserved for many years of health, of consciousness and vigour. + </p> + <p> + The language of the hypothesis of self-love was well adapted to the + courtiers of the reign of Louis the Fourteenth. The language of + disinterestedness was adapted to the ancient republicans in the purest + times of Sparta and Rome. + </p> + <p> + But these ancients were not always disinterested; and the moderns are not + always narrow, self-centred and cold. The ancients paid, though with + comparative infrequency, the tax imposed upon mortals, and thought of + their own gratification and ease; and the moderns are not utterly + disqualified for acts of heroic affection. + </p> + <p> + It is of great consequence that men should come to think correctly on this + subject. The most snail-blooded man that exists, is not so selfish as he + pretends to be. In spite of all the indifference he professes towards the + good of others, he will sometimes be detected in a very heretical state of + sensibility towards his wife, his child or his friend; he will shed tears + at a tale of distress, and make considerable sacrifices of his own + gratification for the relief of others. + </p> + <p> + But his creed is a pernicious one. He who for ever thinks, that his + "charity must begin at home," is in great danger of becoming an + indifferent citizen, and of withering those feelings of philanthropy, + which in all sound estimation constitute the crowning glory of man. He + will perhaps have a reasonable affection towards what he calls his own + flesh and blood, and may assist even a stranger in a case of urgent + distress.—But it is dangerous to trifle with the first principles + and sentiments of morality. And this man will scarcely in any case have + his mind prepared to hail the first dawnings of human improvement, and to + regard all that belongs to the welfare of his kind as parcel of his own + particular estate. + </p> + <p> + The creed of self-love will always have a tendency to make us Frenchmen in + the frivolous part of that character, and Dutchmen in the plodding and + shopkeeping spirit of barter and sale. There is no need that we should + beat down the impulse of heroism in the human character, and be upon our + guard against the effervescences and excess of a generous sentiment. One + of the instructors of my youth was accustomed to say to his pupils, "Do + not be afraid to commit your thoughts to paper in all the fervour and glow + of your first conception: when you come to look at them the next day, you + will find this gone off to a surprising degree." As this was no ill + precept for literary composition, even so in our actions and moral conduct + we shall be in small danger of being too warm-hearted and too generous. + </p> + <p> + Modern improvements in education are earnest in recommending to us the + study of facts, and that we should not waste the time of young persons + upon the flights of imagination. But it is to imagination that we are + indebted for our highest enjoyments; it tames the ruggedness of + uncivilised nature, and is the never-failing associate of all the + considerable advances of social man, whether in throwing down the strong + fences of intellectual slavery, or in giving firmness and duration to the + edifice of political freedom. + </p> + <p> + And who does not feel that every thing depends upon the creed we embrace, + and the discipline we exercise over our own souls? + </p> + <p> + The disciple of the theory of self-love, if of a liberal disposition, will + perpetually whip himself forward "with loose reins," upon a spiritless + Pegasus, and say, "I will do generous things; I will not bring into + contempt the master I serve—though I am conscious all the while that + this is but a delusion, and that, however I brag of generosity, I do not + set a step forward, but singly for my own ends, and my own gratification." + Meanwhile, this is all a forced condition of thought; and the man who + cherishes it, will be perpetually falling back into the cold, heartless + convictions he inwardly retains. Self-love is the unwholesome, infectious + atmosphere in which he dwells; and, however he may seek to rise, the wings + of his soul will eternally be drawn downwards, and he cannot be pervaded, + as he might have been, with the free spirit of genuine philanthropy. To be + consistent, he ought continually to grow colder and colder; and the + romance, which fired his youth, and made him forget the venomous potion he + had swallowed, will fade away in age, rendering him careless of all but + himself, and indifferent to the adversity and sufferings of all of whom he + hears, and all with whom he is connected. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, the man who has embraced the creed of disinterested + benevolence, will know that it is not his fitting element to "live for + himself, or to die for himself." Whether he is under the dominion of + family-affection, friendship, patriotism, or a zeal for his brethren of + mankind, he will feel that he is at home. The generous man therefore looks + forward to the time when the chilling and wretched philosophy of the reign + of Louis the Fourteenth shall be forgotten, and a fervent desire for the + happiness and improvement of the human species shall reign in all hearts. + </p> + <p> + I am not especially desirous of sheltering my opinions under the authority + of great names: but, in a question of such vital importance to the true + welfare of men in society, no fair advantage should be neglected. The + author of the system of "self-love the source of all our actions" was La + Rochefoucault; and the whole herd of the French philosophers have not been + ashamed to follow in the train of their vaunted master. I am grieved to + say, that, as I think, the majority of my refining and subtilising + countrymen of the present day have enlisted under his banner. But the more + noble and generous view of the subject has been powerfully supported by + Shaftesbury, Butler, Hutcheson and Hume. On the last of these I + particularly pique myself; inasmuch as, though he became naturalised as a + Frenchman in a vast variety of topics, the greatness of his intellectual + powers exempted him from degradation in this. + </p> + <p> + That however which I would chiefly urge in the way of authority, is the + thing mentioned in the beginning of this Essay, I mean, the sentiments + that have animated the authors of religion, that characterise the best + ages of Greece and Rome, and that in all cases display themselves when the + loftiest and most generous sentiments of the heart are called into action. + The opposite creed could only have been engendered in the dregs of a + corrupt and emasculated court; and human nature will never shew itself + what it is capable of being, till the last remains of a doctrine, invented + in the latter part of the seventeenth century, shall have been consigned + to the execration they deserve. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0017" id="link2H_4_0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY XII. OF THE LIBERTY OF HUMAN ACTIONS. + </h2> + <p> + The question, which has been attended with so long and obstinate debates, + concerning the metaphysical doctrines of liberty and necessity, and the + freedom of human actions, is not even yet finally and satisfactorily + settled. + </p> + <p> + The negative is made out by an argument which seems to amount to + demonstration, that every event requires a cause, a cause why it is as it + is and not otherwise, that the human will is guided by motives, and is + consequently always ruled by the strongest motive, and that we can never + choose any thing, either without a motive of preference, or in the way of + following the weaker, and deserting the stronger motive(26). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (26) Political Justice, Book IV, Chap. VII. +</pre> + <p> + Why is it then that disbelief or doubt should still subsist in a question + so fully decided? + </p> + <p> + For the same reason that compels us to reject many other demonstrations. + The human mind is so constituted as to oblige us, if not theoretically, at + least practically, to reject demonstration, and adhere to our senses. + </p> + <p> + The case is thus in the great question of the non-existence of an external + world, or of matter. How ever much the understanding may be satisfied of + the truth of the proposition by the arguments of Berkeley and others, we + no sooner go out into actual life, than we become convinced, in spite of + our previous scepticism or unbelief, of the real existence of the table, + the chair, and the objects around us, and of the permanence and reality of + the persons, both body and mind, with whom we have intercourse. If we were + not, we should soon become indifferent to their pleasure and pain, and in + no long time reason ourselves into the opinion that the one was not more + desirable than the other, and conduct ourselves accordingly. + </p> + <p> + But there is a great difference between the question of a material world, + and the question of liberty and necessity. The most strenuous Berkleian + can never say, that there is any contradiction or impossibility in the + existence of matter. All that he can consistently and soberly maintain is, + that, if the material world exists, we can never perceive it, and that our + sensations, and trains of impressions and thinking go on wholly + independent of that existence. + </p> + <p> + But the question of the freedom of human actions is totally of another + class. To say that in our choice we reject the stronger motive, and that + we choose a thing merely because we choose it, is sheer nonsense and + absurdity; and whoever with a sound understanding will fix his mind upon + the state of the question will perceive its impossibility. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time it is not less true, that every man, the necessarian as + well as his opponent, acts on the assumption of human liberty, and can + never for a moment, when he enters into the scenes of real life, divest + himself of this persuasion. + </p> + <p> + Let us take separately into our consideration the laws of matter and of + mind. We acknowledge generally in both an established order of antecedents + and consequents, or of causes and effects. This is the sole foundation of + human prudence and of all morality. It is because we foresee that certain + effects will follow from a certain mode of conduct, that we act in one way + rather than another. It is because we foresee that, if the soil is + prepared in a certain way, and if seed is properly scattered and covered + up in the soil thus prepared, a crop will follow, that we engage in the + labours of agriculture. In the same manner, it is because we foresee that, + if lessons are properly given, and a young person has them clearly + explained to him, certain benefits will result, and because we are + apprised of the operation of persuasion, admonition, remonstrance, menace, + punishment and reward, that we engage in the labours of education. All the + studies of the natural philosopher and the chemist, all our journeys by + land and our voyages by sea, and all the systems and science of + government, are built upon this principle, that from a certain method of + proceeding, regulated by the precepts of wisdom and experience, certain + effects may be expected to follow. + </p> + <p> + Yet, at the same time that we admit of a regular series of cause and + effect in the operations both of matter and mind, we never fail, in our + reflections upon each, to ascribe to them an essential difference. In the + laws by which a falling body descends to the earth, and by which the + planets are retained in their orbits, in a word, in all that relates to + inanimate nature, we readily assent to the existence of absolute laws, so + that, when we have once ascertained the fundamental principles of + astronomy and physics, we rely with perfect assurance upon the invariable + operation of these laws, yesterday, to-day, and for ever. As long as the + system of things, of which we are spectators, and in which we act our + several parts, shall remain, so long have the general phenomena of nature + gone on unchanged for more years of past ages than we can define, and will + in all probability continue to operate for as many ages to come. We admit + of no variation, but firmly believe that, if we were perfectly acquainted + with all the causes, we could, without danger of error, predict all the + effects. We are satisfied that, since first the machine of the universe + was set going, every thing in inanimate nature has taken place in a + regular course, and nothing has happened and can happen, otherwise than as + it actually has been and will be. + </p> + <p> + But we believe, or, more accurately speaking, we feel, that it is + otherwise in the universe of mind. Whoever attentively observes the + phenomena of thinking and sentient beings, will be convinced, that men and + animals are under the influence of motives, that we are subject to the + predominance of the passions, of love and hatred, of desire and aversion, + of sorrow and joy, and that the elections we make are regulated by + impressions supplied to us by these passions. But we are fully penetrated + with the notion, that mind is an arbiter, that it sits on its throne, and + decides, as an absolute prince, this may or that; in short, that, while + inanimate nature proceeds passively in an eternal chain of cause and + effect, mind is endowed with an initiating power, and forms its + determinations by an inherent and indefeasible prerogative. + </p> + <p> + Hence arises the idea of contingency relative to the acts of living and + sentient beings, and the opinion that, while, in the universe of matter, + every thing proceeds in regular course, and nothing has happened or can + happen, otherwise than as it actually has been or will be, in the + determinations and acts of living beings each occurrence may be or not be, + and waits the mastery of mind to decide whether the event shall be one way + or the other, both issues being equally possible till that decision has + been made. + </p> + <p> + Thus, as was said in the beginning, we have demonstration, all the powers + of our reasoning faculty, on one side, and the feeling, of our minds, an + inward persuasion of which with all our efforts we can never divest + ourselves, on the other. This phenomenon in the history of every human + creature, had aptly enough been denominated, the "delusive sense of + liberty(27)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (27) The first writer, by whom this proposition was distinctly +enunciated, seems to have been Lord Kaimes, in his Essays on the +Principles of Morality and Natural Religion, published in 1751. But this +ingenious author was afterwards frightened with the boldness of his +own conclusions, and in the subsequent editions of his work endeavoured +ineffectually to explain away what he had said. +</pre> + <p> + And, though the philosopher in his closet will for the most part fully + assent to the doctrine of the necessity of human actions, yet this + indestructible feeling of liberty, which accompanies us from the cradle to + the grave, is entitled to our serious attention, and has never obtained + that consideration from the speculative part of mankind, which must by no + means be withheld, if we would properly enter into the mysteries of our + nature. The necessarian has paid it very imperfect attention to the + impulses which form the character of man, if he omits this chapter in the + history of mind, while on the other hand the advocate of free will, if he + would follow up his doctrine rigorously into all its consequences, would + render all speculations on human character and conduct superfluous, put an + end to the system of persuasion, admonition, remonstrance, menace, + punishment and reward, annihilate the very essence of civil government, + and bring to a close all distinction between the sane person and the + maniac. + </p> + <p> + With the disciples of the latter of these doctrines I am by no means + specially concerned. I am fully persuaded, as far as the powers of my + understanding can carry me, that the phenomena of mind are governed by + laws altogether as inevitable as the phenomena of matter, and that the + decisions of our will are always in obedience to the impulse of the + strongest motive. + </p> + <p> + The consequences of the principle implanted in our nature, by which men of + every creed, when they descend into the scene of busy life, pronounce + themselves and their fellow-mortals to be free agents, are sufficiently + memorable. + </p> + <p> + From hence there springs what we call conscience in man, and a sense of + praise or blame due to ourselves and others for the actions we perform. + </p> + <p> + How poor, listless and unenergetic would all our performances be, but for + this sentiment! It is in vain that I should talk to myself or others, of + the necessity of human actions, of the connection between cause and + effect, that all industry, study and mental discipline will turn to + account, and this with infinitely more security on the principle of + necessity, than on the opposite doctrine, every thing I did would be + without a soul. I should still say, Whatever I may do, whether it be right + or wrong, I cannot help it; wherefore then should I trouble the + master-spirit within me? It is either the calm feeling of + self-approbation, or the more animated swell of the soul, the quick + beatings of the pulse, the enlargement of the heart, the glory sparkling + in the eye, and the blood flushing into the cheek, that sustains me in all + my labours. This turns the man into what we conceive of a God, arms him + with prowess, gives him a more than human courage, and inspires him with a + resolution and perseverance that nothing can subdue. + </p> + <p> + In the same manner the love or hatred, affection or alienation, we + entertain for our fellow-men, is mainly referable for its foundation to + the "delusive sense of liberty." "We approve of a sharp knife rather than + a blunt one, because its capacity is greater. We approve of its being + employed in carving food, rather than in maiming men or other animals, + because that application of its capacity is preferable. But all + approbation or preference is relative to utility or general good. A knife + is as capable as a man, of being employed in purposes of utility; and the + one is no more free than the other as to its employment. The mode in which + a knife is made subservient to these purposes, is by material impulse. The + mode in which a man is made subservient, is by inducement and persuasion. + But both are equally the affair of necessity(28)." These are the + sentiments dictated to us by the doctrine of the necessity of human + actions. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (28) Political Justice, Book IV, Chap. VIII. +</pre> + <p> + But how different are the feelings that arise within us, as soon as we + enter into the society of our fellow-creatures! "The end of the + commandment is love." It is the going forth of the heart towards those to + whom we are bound by the ties of a common nature, affinity, sympathy or + worth, that is the luminary of the moral world. Without it there would + have been "a huge eclipse of sun and moon;" or at best, as a well-known + writer(29) expresses it in reference to another subject, we should have + lived in "a silent and drab-coloured creation." We are prepared by the + power that made us for feelings and emotions; and, unless these come to + diversify and elevate our existence, we should waste our days in + melancholy, and scarcely be able to sustain ourselves. The affection we + entertain for those towards whom our partiality and kindness are excited, + is the life of our life. It is to this we are indebted for all our + refinement, and, in the noblest sense of the word, for all our humanity. + Without it we should have had no sentiment (a word, however abused, which, + when properly defined, comprises every thing that is the crown of our + nature), and no poetry.—Love and hatred, as they regard our + fellow-creatures, in contradistinction to the complacency, or the feeling + of an opposite nature, which is excited in us towards inanimate objects, + are entirely the offspring of the delusive sense of liberty. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (29) Thomas Paine. +</pre> + <p> + The terms, praise and blame, express to a great degree the same sentiments + as those of love and hatred, with this difference, that praise and blame + in their simplest sense apply to single actions, whereas love and hatred + are produced in us by the sum of those actions or tendencies, which + constitute what we call character. There is also another difference, that + love and hatred are engendered in us by other causes as well as moral + qualities; but praise and blame, in the sense in which they are peculiarly + applied to our fellow-mortals, are founded on moral qualities only. In + love and hatred however, when they are intense or are lasting, some + reference to moral qualities is perhaps necessarily implied. The love + between the sexes, unless in cases where it is of a peculiarly transient + nature, always comprises in it a belief that the party who is the object + of our love, is distinguished by tendencies of an amiable nature, which we + expect to see manifesting themselves in affectionate attentions and acts + of kindness. Even the admiration we entertain for the features, the + figure, and personal graces of the object of our regard, is mixed with and + heightened by our expectation of actions and tones that generate + approbation, and, if divested of this, would be of small signification or + permanence. In like manner in the ties of affinity, or in cases where we + are impelled by the consideration, "He also is a man as well as I," the + excitement will carry us but a little way, unless we discover in the being + towards whom we are moved some peculiarities which may beget a moral + partiality and regard. + </p> + <p> + And, as towards our fellow-creatures, so in relation to ourselves, our + moral sentiments are all involved with, and take their rise in, the + delusive sense of liberty. It is in this that is contained the peculiar + force of the terms virtue, duty, guilt and desert. We never pronounce + these words without thinking of the action to which they refer, as that + which might or might not be done, and therefore unequivocally approve or + disapprove in ourselves and others. A virtuous man, as the term is + understood by all, as soon as we are led to observe upon those qualities, + and the exhibition of those qualities in actual life, which constitute our + nature, is a man who, being in full possession of the freedom of human + action, is engaged in doing those things which a sound judgment of the + tendencies of what we do pronounces to be good. + </p> + <p> + Duty is a term that can scarcely be said to have a meaning, except that + which it derives from the delusive sense of liberty. According to the + creed of the necessarian, it expresses that mode of action on the part of + the individual, which constitutes the best possible application of his + capacity to the general benefit(30). In the mean time, if we confine + ourselves to this definition, it may as well be taken to describe the best + application of a knife, or any other implement proceeding from the hands + of the manufacturer, as of the powers of a human being. + </p> + <p> + But we surely have a very different idea in our minds, when we employ the + term duty. It is not agreeable to the use of language that we should use + this term, except we speak of a being in the exercise of volition. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (30) Political Justice, Book II, Chap. IV. +</pre> + <p> + Duty then means that which may justly be required of a human creature in + the possession of liberty of action. It includes in its proper sense the + conception of the empire of will, the notion that mind is an arbiter, that + it sits on its throne, and decides, as an absolute prince, this way or + that. + </p> + <p> + Duty is the performance of what is due, the discharge of a debt (debitum). + But a knife owes nothing, and can in no sense be said to be held to one + sort of application rather than another; the debt can only belong to a + human being in possession of his liberty, by whom the knife may be applied + laudably or otherwise. + </p> + <p> + A multitude of terms instantly occur to us, the application of which is + limited in the same manner as the term duty is limited: such are, to owe, + obligation, debt, bond, right, claim, sin, crime, guilt, merit and desert. + Even reward and punishment, however they may be intelligible when used + merely in the sense of motives employed, have in general acceptation a + sense peculiarly derived from the supposed freedom of the human will. + </p> + <p> + The mode therefore in which the advocates of the doctrine of necessity + have universally talked and written, is one of the most memorable examples + of the hallucination of the human intellect. They have at all times + recommended that we should translate the phrases in which we usually + express ourselves on the hypothesis of liberty, into the phraseology of + necessity, that we should talk no other language than that which is in + correspondence with the severest philosophy, and that we should exert + ourselves to expel all fallacious notions and delusions so much as from + our recollection. They did not perceive what a wide devastation and + destruction they were proposing of all the terms and phrases that are in + use in the communications between man and man in actual life.—They + might as well have recommended that we should rigorously bear in mind on + the ordinary occasions of life, that there is no such thing as colour, + that which we ordinary call by that name having no existence in external + objects, but belonging only to our way of perceiving them. + </p> + <p> + The language which is suggested to us by the conception of the freedom of + human actions, moulds the very first articulations of a child, "I will," + and "I will not;" and is even distinctly conveyed by his gestures, before + he arrives at the power of articulation. This is the explanation and key + to his vehement and ungovernable movements, and his rebellion. The + petulance of the stripling, the fervent and energetic exertions of the + warrior, and the calm and unalterable resolution of the sage, all imply + the same thing. Will, and a confidence in its efficiency, "travel through, + nor quit us till we die." It is this which inspires us with invincible + perseverance, and heroic energies, while without it we should be the most + inert and soulless of blocks, the shadows of what history records and + poetry immortalises, and not men. + </p> + <p> + Free will is an integral part of the science of man, and may be said to + constitute its most important chapter. We might with as much propriety + overlook the intelligence of the senses, that medium which acquaints us + with an external world or what we call such, we might as well overlook the + consideration of man's reason, his imagination or taste, as fail to dwell + with earnest reflection and exposition upon that principle which lies at + the foundation of our moral energies, fills us with a moral enthusiasm, + prompts all our animated exertions on the theatre of the world, whether + upon a wide or a narrow scale, and penetrates us with the most lively and + fervent approbation or disapprobation of the acts of ourselves and others + in which the forwarding or obstructing human happiness is involved. + </p> + <p> + But, though the language of the necessarian is at war with the + indestructible feelings of the human mind, and though his demonstrations + will for ever crumble into dust, when brought to the test of the activity + of real life, yet his doctrines, to the reflecting and enlightened, will + by no means be without their use. In the sobriety of the closet, we + inevitably assent to his conclusions; nor is it easy to conceive how a + rational man and a philosopher abstractedly can entertain a doubt of the + necessity of human actions. And the number of these persons is perpetually + increasing; enlarged and dispassionate views of the nature of man and the + laws of the universe are rapidly spreading in the world. We cannot indeed + divest ourselves of love and hatred, of the sentiments of praise and + blame, and the ideas of virtue, duty, obligation, debt, bond, right, + claim, sin, crime, guilt, merit and desert. And, if we could do so, the + effects would be most pernicious, and the world be rendered a blank. We + shall however unquestionably, as our minds grow enlarged, be brought to + the entire and unreserved conviction, that man is a machine, that he is + governed by external impulses, and is to be regarded as the medium only + through the intervention of which previously existing causes are enabled + to produce certain effects. We shall see, according to an expressive + phrase, that he "could not help it," and, of consequence, while we look + down from the high tower of philosophy upon the scene of human affairs, + our prevailing emotion will be pity, even towards the criminal, who, from + the qualities he brought into the world, and the various circumstances + which act upon him from infancy, and form his character, is impelled to be + the means of the evils, which we view with so profound disapprobation, and + the existence of which we so entirely regret. + </p> + <p> + There is an old axiom of philosophy, which counsels us to "think with the + learned, and talk with the vulgar;" and the practical application of this + axiom runs through the whole scene of human affairs. Thus the most learned + astronomer talks of the rising and setting of the sun, and forgets in his + ordinary discourse that the earth is not for ever at rest, and does not + constitute the centre of the universe. Thus, however we reason respecting + the attributes of inanimate matter and the nature of sensation, it never + occurs to us, when occupied with the affairs of actual life, that there is + no heat in fire, and no colour in the rainbow. + </p> + <p> + In like manner, when we contemplate the acts of ourselves and our + neighbours, we can never divest ourselves of the delusive sense of the + liberty of human actions, of the sentiment of conscience, of the feelings + of love and hatred, the impulses of praise and blame, and the notions of + virtue, duty, obligation, right, claim, guilt, merit and desert. And it + has sufficiently appeared in the course of this Essay, that it is not + desirable that we should do so. They are these ideas to which the world we + live in is indebted for its crowning glory and greatest lustre. They form + the highest distinction between men and other animals, and are the genuine + basis of self-reverence, and the conceptions of true nobility and + greatness, and the reverse of these attributes, in the men with whom we + live, and the men whose deeds are recorded in the never-dying page of + history. + </p> + <p> + But, though the doctrine of the necessity of human actions can never form + the rule of our intercourse with others, it will still have its use. It + will moderate our excesses, and point out to us that middle path of + judgment which the soundest philosophy inculcates. We shall learn, + according to the apostolic precept, to "be angry, and sin not, neither let + the sun go down upon our wrath." We shall make of our fellow-men neither + idols to worship, nor demons to be regarded with horror and execration. We + shall think of them, as of players, "that strut and fret their hour upon + the stage, and then are heard no more." We shall "weep, as though we wept + not, and rejoice, as though we rejoiced not, seeing that the fashion of + this world passeth away." And, most of all, we shall view with pity, even + with sympathy, the men whose frailties we behold, or by whom crimes are + perpetrated, satisfied that they are parts of one great machine, and, like + ourselves, are driven forward by impulses over which they have no real + control. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0018" id="link2H_4_0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY XIII. OF BELIEF. + </h2> + <p> + One of the prerogatives by which man is eminently distinguished from all + other living beings inhabiting this globe of earth, consists in the gift + of reason. + </p> + <p> + Beasts reason. They are instructed by experience; and, guided by what they + have already known of the series of events, they infer from the sense of + what has gone before, an assured expectation of what is to follow. Hence, + "beast walks with man, joint tenant of the shade;" and their sagacity is + in many instances more unerring than ours, because they have no + affectation to mislead them; they follow no false lights, no glimmering + intimation of something half-anticipating a result, but trust to the + plain, blunt and obvious dictates of their simple apprehension. This + however is but the first step in the scale of reason, and is in strictness + scarcely entitled to the name. + </p> + <p> + We set off from the same point from which they commence their career. But + the faculty of articulate speech comes in, enabling us to form the crude + elements of reason and inference into a code. We digest explanations of + things, assigning the particulars in which they resemble other classes, + and the particulars by which they are distinguished from whatever other + classes have fallen under our notice. We frame propositions, and, + detaching ourselves from the immediate impressions of sense, proceed to + generalities, which exist only, in a way confused, and not distinctly + adverted to, in the conceptions of the animal creation. + </p> + <p> + It is thus that we arrive at science, and go forward to those subtleties, + and that perspicuity of explanation, which place man in a distinct order + of being, leaving all the other inhabitants of earth at an immeasurable + distance below him. It is thus that we communicate our discoveries to each + other, and hand down the knowledge we have acquired, unimpaired and + entire, through successive ages, and to generations yet unborn. + </p> + <p> + But in certain respects we pay a very high price for this distinction. It + is to it that we must impute all the follies, extravagances and + hallucinations of human intellect. There is nothing so absurd that some + man has not affirmed, rendering himself the scorn and laughing-stock of + persons of sounder understanding. And, which is worst, the more ridiculous + and unintelligible is the proposition he has embraced, the more + pertinaciously does he cling to it; so that creeds the most outrageous and + contradictory have served as the occasion or pretext for the most + impassioned debates, bloody wars, inhuman executions, and all that most + deeply blots and dishonours the name of man—while often, the more + evanescent and frivolous are the distinctions, the more furious and + inexpiable have been the contentions they have produced. + </p> + <p> + The result of the whole, in the vast combinations of men into tribes and + nations, is, that thousands and millions believe, or imagine they believe, + propositions and systems, the terms of which they do not fully understand, + and the evidence of which they have not considered. They believe, because + so their fathers believed before them. No phrase is more commonly heard + than, "I was born a Christian;" "I was born a Catholic, or a Protestant." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The priest continues what the nurse began, + And thus the child imposes on the man. +</pre> + <p> + But this sort of belief forms no part of the subject of the present Essay. + My purpose is to confine myself to the consideration of those persons, who + in some degree, more or less, exercise the reasoning faculty in the + pursuit of truth, and, having attempted to examine the evidence of an + interesting and weighty proposition, satisfy themselves that they have + arrived at a sound conclusion. + </p> + <p> + It is however the rarest thing in the world, for any one to found his + opinion, simply upon the evidence that presents itself to him of the truth + of the proposition which comes before him to be examined. Where is the man + that breaks loose from all the shackles that in his youth had been imposed + upon hills, and says to Truth, "Go on; whithersoever thou leadest, I am + prepared to follow?" To weigh the evidence for and against a proposition, + in scales so balanced, that the "division of the twentieth part of one + poor scruple, the estimation of a hair," shall be recognised and submitted + to, is the privilege of a mind of no ordinary fairness and firmness. + </p> + <p> + The Scriptures say "The heart of man is deceitful above all things." The + thinking principle within us is so subtle, has passed through so many + forms of instruction, and is under the influence and direction of such a + variety of causes, that no man can accurately pronounce by what impulse he + has been led to the conclusion in which he finally reposes. Every + ingenuous person, who is invited to embrace a certain profession, that of + the church for example, will desire, preparatorily to his final + determination, to examine the evidences and the merits of the religion he + embraces, that he may enter upon his profession under the influence of a + sincere conviction, and be inspired with that zeal, in singleness of + heart, which can alone prevent his vocation from being disgraceful to him. + Yet how many motives are there, constraining him to abide in an + affirmative conclusion? His friends expect this from him. Perhaps his own + inclination leads him to select this destination rather than any other. + Perhaps preferment and opulence wait upon his decision. If the final + result of his enquiries lead him to an opposite judgment, to how much + obloquy will he be exposed! Where is the man who can say that no + unconscious bias has influenced him in the progress of his investigation? + Who shall pronounce that, under very different circumstances, his + conclusions would not have been essentially other than they are? + </p> + <p> + But the enquiry of an active and a searching mind does not terminate on a + certain day. He will be for ever revising and reconsidering his first + determinations. It is one of the leading maxims of an honourable mind, + that we must be, at all times, and to the last hour of our existence, + accessible to conviction built upon new evidence, or upon evidence + presented in a light in which it had not before been viewed. If then the + probationer for the clerical profession was under some bias in his first + investigation, how must it be expected to be with him, when he has already + taken the vow, and received ordination? Can he with a calm and unaltered + spirit contemplate the possibility, that the ground shall be cut away from + under him, and that, by dint of irrefragable argument, he shall be + stripped of his occupation, and turned out naked and friendless into the + world? + </p> + <p> + But this is only one of the broadest and most glaring instances. In every + question of paramount importance there is ever a secret influence urging + me earnestly to desire to find one side of the question right and the + other wrong. Shall I be a whig or a tory, believe a republic or a mixed + monarchy most conducive to the improvement and happiness of mankind, + embrace the creed of free will or necessity? There is in all cases a + "strong temptation that waketh in the heart." Cowardice urges me to become + the adherent of that creed, which is espoused by my nearest friends, or + those who are most qualified to serve me. Enterprise and a courageous + spirit on the contrary bid me embrace the tenet, the embracing of which + shall most conduce to my reputation for extraordinary perspicuity and + acuteness, and gain me the character of an intrepid adventurer, a man who + dares commit himself to an unknown voyage. + </p> + <p> + In the question of religion, even when the consideration of the profession + of an ecclesiastic does not occur, yet we are taught to believe that there + is only one set of tenets that will lead us in the way of salvation. Faith + is represented as the first of all qualifications. "If I had not come and + spoken unto them, they had not had sin." With what heart then does a man + set himself to examine, and scrupulously weigh the evidence on one side + and the other, when some undiscerned frailty, some secret bias that all + his care cannot detect, may lurk within, and insure for him the "greater + condemnation?" I well remember in early life, with what tingling sensation + and unknown horror I looked into the books of the infidels and the + repositories of unlawful tenets, lest I should be seduced. I held it my + duty to "prove all things;" but I knew not how far it might be my fate; to + sustain the penalty attendant even upon an honourable and virtuous + curiousity. + </p> + <p> + It is one of the most received arguments of the present day against + religious persecution, that the judgments we form are not under the + authority of our will, and that, for what it is not in our power to + change, it is unjust we should be punished: and there is much truth in + this. But it is not true to the fullest extent. The sentiments we shall + entertain, are to a considerable degree at the disposal of inticements on + the one side, and of menaces and apprehension on the other. That which we + wish to believe, we are already greatly in progress to embrace; and that + which will bring upon us disgrace and calamity, we are more than half + prepared to reject. Persecution however is of very equivocal power: we + cannot embrace one faith and reject another at the word of command. + </p> + <p> + It is a curious question to decide how far punishments and rewards may be + made effectual to determine the religion of nations and generations of + men. They are often unsuccessful. There is a feeling in the human heart, + that prompts us to reject with indignation this species of tyranny. We + become more obstinate in clinging to that which we are commanded to + discard. We place our honour and our pride in the firmness of our + resistance. "The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church." Yet + there is often great efficacy in persecution. It was the policy of the + court of Versailles that brought almost to nothing the Huguenots of + France. And there is a degree of persecution, if the persecuting party has + the strength and the inexorableness to employ it, that it is perhaps + beyond the prowess of human nature to stand up against. + </p> + <p> + The mind of the enquiring man is engaged in a course of perpetual + research; and ingenuousness prompts us never to be satisfied with the + efforts that we have made, but to press forward. But mind, as well as + body, has a certain vis inertiae, and moves only as it is acted upon by + impulses from without. With respect to the adopting new opinions, and the + discovery of new truths, we must be indebted in the last resort, either to + books, or the oral communications of our fellow-men, or to ideas + immediately suggested to us by the phenomena of man or nature. The two + former are the ordinary causes of a change of judgment to men: they are + for the most part minds of a superior class only, that are susceptible of + hints derived straight from the external world, without the understandings + of other men intervening, and serving as a conduit to the new conceptions + introduced. The two former serve, so to express it, for the education of + man, and enable us to master, in our own persons, the points already + secured, and the wisdom laid up in the great magazine of human knowledge; + the last imparts to us the power of adding to the stock, and carrying + forward by one step and another the improvements of which our nature is + susceptible. + </p> + <p> + It is much that books, the unchanging records of the thoughts of men in + former ages, are able to impart to us. For many of the happiest moments of + our lives, for many of the purest and most exalted feelings of the human + heart, we are indebted to them. Education is their province; we derive + from them civilization and refinement; and we may affirm of literature, + what Otway has said of woman, "We had been brutes without you." It is thus + that the acquisitions of the wise are handed down from age to age, and + that we are enabled to mount step after step on the ladder of paradise, + till we reach the skies. + </p> + <p> + But, inestimable as is the benefit we derive from books, there is + something more searching and soul-stirring in the impulse of oral + communication. We cannot shut our ears, as we shut our books; we cannot + escape from the appeal of the man who addresses us with earnest speech and + living conviction. It is thus, we are told, that, when Cicero pleaded + before Caesar for the life of Ligarius, the conqueror of the world was + troubled, and changed colour again and again, till at length the scroll + prepared for the condemnation of the patriot fell from his hand. Sudden + and irresistible conviction is chiefly the offspring of living speech. We + may arm ourselves against the arguments of an author; but the strength of + reasoning in him who addresses us, takes us at unawares. It is in the + reciprocation of answer and rejoinder that the power of conversion + specially lies. A book is an abstraction. It is but imperfectly that we + feel, that a real man addresses us in it, and that what he delivers is the + entire and deep-wrought sentiment of a being of flesh and blood like + ourselves, a being who claims our attention, and is entitled to our + deference. The living human voice, with a countenance and manner + corresponding, constrains us to weigh what is said, shoots through us like + a stroke of electricity, will not away from our memory, and haunts our + very dreams. It is by means of this peculiarity in the nature of mind, + that it has been often observed that there is from time to time an + Augustan age in the intellect of nations, that men of superior powers + shock with each other, and that light is struck from the collision, which + most probably no one of these men would have given birth to, if they had + not been thrown into mutual society and communion. And even so, upon a + narrower scale, he that would aspire to do the most of which his faculties + are susceptible, should seek the intercourse of his fellows, that his + powers may be strengthened, and he may be kept free from that torpor and + indolence of soul, which, without external excitement, are ever apt to + take possession of us. + </p> + <p> + The man, who lives in solitude, and seldom communicates with minds of the + same class as his own, works out his opinions with patient scrutiny, + returns to the investigation again and again, imagines that he had + examined the question on all sides, and at length arrives at what is to + him a satisfactory conclusion. He resumes the view of this conclusion day + after day; he finds in it an unalterable validity; he says in his heart, + "Thus much I have gained; this is a real advance in the search after + truth; I have added in a defined and palpable degree to what I knew + before." And yet it has sometimes happened, that this person, after having + been shut up for weeks, or for a longer period, in his sanctuary, living, + so far as related to an exchange of oral disquisitions with his + fellow-men, like Robinson Crusoe in the desolate island, shall come into + the presence of one, equally clear-sighted, curious and indefatigable with + himself, and shall hear from him an obvious and palpable statement, which + in a moment shivers his sightly and glittering fabric into atoms. The + statement was palpable and near at hand; it was a thin, an almost + imperceptible partition that hid it from him; he wonders in his heart that + it never occurred to his meditations. And yet so it is: it was hid from + him for weeks, or perhaps for a longer period: it might have been hid from + him for twenty years, if it had not been for the accident that supplied + it. And he no sooner sees it, than he instantly perceives that the + discovery upon which he plumed himself, was an absurdity, of which even a + schoolboy might be ashamed. + </p> + <p> + A circumstance not less curious, among the phenomena which belong to this + subject of belief, is the repugnance incident to the most ingenuous minds, + which we harbour against the suddenly discarding an opinion we have + previously entertained, and the adopting one which comes recommended to us + with almost the force of demonstration. Nothing can be better founded than + this repugnance. The mind of man is of a peculiar nature. It has been + disputed whether we can entertain more than one idea at a time. But + certain it is, that the views of the mind at any one time are considerably + narrowed. The mind is like the slate of a schoolboy, which can contain + only a certain number of characters of a given size, or like a moveable + panorama, which places a given scene or landscape before me, and the space + assigned, and which comes within the limits marked out to my perception, + is full. Many things are therefore almost inevitably shut out, which, had + it not been so, might have essentially changed the view of the case, and + have taught me that it was a very different conclusion at which I ought to + have arrived. + </p> + <p> + At first sight nothing can appear more unreasonable, than that I should + hesitate to admit the seemingly irresistible force of the argument + presented to me. An ingenuous disposition would appear to require that, + the moment the truth, or what seems to be the truth, is set before me, I + should pay to it the allegiance to which truth is entitled. If I do + otherwise, it would appear to argue a pusillanimous disposition, a mind + not prompt and disengaged to receive the impression of evidence, a temper + that loves something else better than the lustre which all men are bound + to recognise, and that has a reserve in favour of ancient prejudice, and + of an opinion no longer supported by reason. + </p> + <p> + In fact however I shall act most wisely, and in the way most honourable to + my character, if I resolve to adjourn the debate. No matter how complete + the view may seem which is now presented to my consideration, or how + irresistible the arguments: truth is too majestic a divinity, and it is of + too much importance that I should not follow a delusive semblance that may + shew like truth, not to make it in the highest degree proper that I should + examine again and again, before I come to the conclusion to which I mean + to affix my seal, and annex my sanction, "This is the truth." The ancient + Goths of Germany, we are told, had a custom of debating every thing of + importance to their state twice, once in the high animation of a convivial + meeting, and once in the serene stillness of a morning consultation. + Philip of Macedon having decided a cause precipitately, the party + condemned by him immediately declared his resolution to appeal from the + sentence. And to whom, said the king, wilt thou appeal? To Philip, was the + answer, in the entire possession of his understanding. + </p> + <p> + Such is the nature of the human mind—at least, such I find to be the + nature of my own—that many trains of thinking, many chains of + evidence, the result of accumulated facts, will often not present + themselves, at the time when their presence would be of the highest + importance. The view which now comes before me is of a substance so close + and well-woven, and of colours so brilliant and dazzling, that other + matters in a certain degree remote, though of no less intrinsic + importance, and equally entitled to influence my judgment in the question + in hand, shall be entirely shut out, shall be killed, and fail to offer + themselves to my perceptions. + </p> + <p> + It is a curious circumstance which Pope, a man of eminent logical power + and acuteness, relates, that, having at his command in his youth a + collection of all the tracts that had been written on both sides in the + reign of James the Second, he applied himself with great assiduity to + their perusal, and the consequence was, that he was a Papist and + Protestant by turns, according to the last book he read(31). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (31) Correspondence with Atterbury, Letter IV. +</pre> + <p> + This circumstance in the structure of the human understanding is well + known, and is the foundation of many provisions that occur in the + constitution of political society. How each man shall form his creed, and + arrange those opinions by which his conduct shall be regulated, is of + course a matter exclusively subjected to his own discretion. But, when he + is called upon to act in the name of a community, and to decide upon a + question in which the public is interested, he of necessity feels himself + called upon to proceed with the utmost caution. A judge on the bench, a + chancellor, is not contented with that sudden ray of mental illumination + to which an ingenuous individual is often disposed to yield in an affair + of abstract speculation. He feels that he is obliged to wait for evidence, + the nature of which he does not yet anticipate, and to adjourn his + decision. A deliberative council or assembly is aware of the necessity of + examining a question again and again. It is upon this principle that the + two houses of the English parliament are required to give a first, a + second and a third reading, together with various other forms and + technicalities, to the provision that is brought before them, previously + to its passing into a law. And there is many a fundamental dogma and + corner-stone of the sentiments that I shall emphatically call my own, that + is of more genuine importance to the individual, than to a nation is a + number of those regulations, which by courtesy we call acts of parliament. + </p> + <p> + Nothing can have a more glaring tendency to subvert the authority of my + opinion among my fellow-men, than instability. "What went ye out into the + wilderness to see" said Jesus Christ: "a reed shaken with the wind?" We + ought at all times to be open to conviction. We ought to be ever ready to + listen to evidence. But, conscious of our human frailty, it is seldom that + we ought immediately to subscribe to the propositions, however specious, + that are now for the first time presented to us. It is our duty to lay up + in our memory the suggestions offered upon any momentous question, and not + to suffer them to lose their inherent weight and impressiveness; but it is + only through the medium of consideration and reconsideration, that they + can become entitled to our full and unreserved assent. + </p> + <p> + The nature of belief, or opinion, has been well illustrated by Lord + Shaftesbury(32). There are many notions or judgments floating in the mind + of every man, which are mutually destructive of each other. In this sense + men's opinions are governed by high and low spirits, by the state of the + solids and fluids of the human body, and by the state of the weather. But + in a paramount sense that only can be said to be a man's opinion which he + entertains in his clearest moments, and from which, when he is most + himself, he is least subject to vary. In this emphatical sense, I should + say, a man does not always know what is his real opinion. We cannot + strictly be said to believe any thing, in cases where we afterwards change + our opinion without the introduction of some evidence that was unknown to + us before. But how many are the instances in which we can be affirmed to + be in the adequate recollection of all the evidences and reasonings which + have at some time occurred to us, and of the opinions, together with the + grounds on which they rested, which we conceived we had justly and + rationally entertained? + </p> + <p> + The considerations here stated however should by no means be allowed to + inspire us with indifference in matters of opinion. It is the glory and + lustre of our nature, that we are capable of receiving evidence, and + weighing the reasons for and against any important proposition in the + balance of an impartial and enlightened understanding. The only effect + that should be produced in us, by the reflection that we can at last by no + means be secure that we have attained to a perfect result, should be to + teach us a wholsome diffidence and humility, and induce us to confess + that, when we have done all, we are ignorant, dim-sighted and fallible, + that our best reasonings may betray, and our wisest conclusions deceive + us. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (32) Enquiry concerning Virtue, Book 1, Part 1, Section ii. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0019" id="link2H_4_0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY XIV. OF YOUTH AND AGE. + </h2> + <h3> + Magna debetur pueris reverentia. + </h3> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Quintilian. +</pre> + <p> + I am more doubtful in writing the following Essay than in any of those + which precede, how far I am treating of human nature generally, or to a + certain degree merely recording my own feelings as an individual. I am + guided however in composing it, by the principle laid down in my Preface, + that the purpose of my book in each instance should be to expand some new + and interesting truth, or some old truth viewed under a new aspect, which + had never by any preceding writer been laid before the public. + </p> + <p> + Education, in the conception of those whose office it is to direct it, has + various engines by means of which it is to be made effective, and among + these are reprehension and chastisement. + </p> + <p> + The philosophy of the wisest man that ever existed, is mainly derived from + the act of introspection. We look into our own bosoms, observe attentively + every thing that passes there, anatomise our motives, trace step by step + the operations of thought, and diligently remark the effects of external + impulses upon our feelings and conduct. Philosophers, ever since the time + in which Socrates flourished, to carry back our recollections no further, + have found that the minds of men in the most essential particulars are + framed so far upon the same model, that the analysis of the individual may + stand in general consideration for the analysis of the species. Where this + principle fails, it is not easy to suggest a proceeding that shall supply + the deficiency. I look into my own breast; I observe steadily and with + diligence what passes there; and with all the parade of the philosophy of + the human mind I can do little more than this. + </p> + <p> + In treating therefore of education in the point of view in which it has + just been proposed, I turn my observation upon myself, and I proceed thus.—If + I do not stand as a competent representative for the whole of my species, + I suppose I may at least assume to be the representative of no + inconsiderable number of them. + </p> + <p> + I find then in myself, for as long a time as I can trace backward the + records of memory, a prominent vein of docility. Whatever it was proposed + to teach me, that was in any degree accordant with my constitution and + capacity, I was willing to learn. And this limit is sufficient for the + topic I am proposing to treat. I do not intend to consider education of + any other sort, than that which has something in it of a liberal and + ingenuous nature. I am not here discussing the education of a peasant, an + artisan, or a slave. + </p> + <p> + In addition to this vein of docility, which easily prompted me to learn + whatever was proposed for my instruction and improvement, I felt in myself + a sentiment of ambition, a desire to possess the qualifications which I + found to be productive of esteem, and that should enable me to excel among + my contemporaries. I was ambitious to be a leader, and to be regarded by + others with feelings of complacency. I had no wish to rule by brute force + and compulsion; but I was desirous to govern by love, and honour, and "the + cords of a man." + </p> + <p> + I do not imagine that, when I aver thus much of myself, I am bringing + forward any thing unprecedented, or that multitudes of my fellow-men do + not largely participate with me. + </p> + <p> + The question therefore I am considering is, through what agency, and with + what engines, a youth thus disposed, and with these qualifications, is to + be initiated in all liberal arts. + </p> + <p> + I will go back no further than to the commencement of the learning of + Latin. All before was so easy to me, as never to have presented the idea + of a task. I was immediately put into the accidence. No explanation was + attempted to be given why Latin was to be of use to me, or why it was + necessary to commit to memory the cases of nouns and the tenses of verbs. + I know not whether this was owing to the unwillingness of my instructor to + give himself the trouble, or to my supposed incapacity to apprehend the + explanation. The last of these I do not admit. My docility however came to + my aid, and I did not for a moment harbour any repugnance to the doing + what was required of me. At first, and unassisted in the enquiry, I felt a + difficulty in supposing that the English language, all the books in my + father's library, did not contain every thing that it would be necessary + for me to know. In no long time however I came to experience a pleasure in + turning the thoughts expressed in an unknown tongue into my own; and I + speedily understood that I could never be on a level with those eminent + scholars whom it was my ambition to rival, without the study of the + classics. + </p> + <p> + What then were the obstacles, that should in any degree counteract my + smooth and rapid progress in the studies suggested to me? I can conceive + only two. + </p> + <p> + First, the versatility and fickleness which in a greater or less degree + beset all human minds, particularly in the season of early youth. However + docile we may be, and willing to learn, there will be periods, when either + some other object powerfully solicits us, or satiety creeps in, and makes + us wish to occupy our attention with any thing else rather than with the + task prescribed us. But this is no powerful obstacle. The authority of the + instructor, a grave look, and the exercise of a moderate degree of + patience will easily remove it in such a probationer as we are here + considering. + </p> + <p> + Another obstacle is presumption. The scholar is willing to conceive well + of his own capacity. He has a vanity in accomplishing the task prescribed + him in the shortest practicable time. He is impatient to go away from the + business imposed upon him, to things of his own election, and occupations + which his partialities and his temper prompt him to pursue. He has a pride + in saying to himself, "This, which was a business given to occupy me for + several hours, I can accomplish in less than one." But the presumption + arising out of these views is easily subdued. If the pupil is wrong in his + calculation, the actual experiment will speedily convince him of his + error. He is humbled by and ashamed of his mistake. The merely being sent + back to study his lesson afresh, is on the face of the thing punishment + enough. + </p> + <p> + It follows from this view of the matter, that an ingenuous youth, endowed + with sufficient capacity for the business prescribed him, may be led on in + the path of intellectual acquisition and improvement with a silken cord. + It will demand a certain degree of patience on the part of the instructor. + But Heaven knows, that this patience is sufficiently called into + requisition when the instructor shall be the greatest disciplinarian that + ever existed. Kind tones and encouragement will animate the learner amidst + many a difficult pass. A grave remark may perhaps sometimes be called for. + And, if the preceptor and the pupil have gone on like friends, a grave + remark, a look expressive of rebuke, will be found a very powerful engine. + The instructor should smooth the business of instruction to his pupil, by + appealing to his understanding, developing his taste, and assisting him to + remark the beauties of the composition on which he is occupied. + </p> + <p> + I come now then to the consideration of the two engines mentioned in the + commencement of this Essay, reprehension and chastisement. + </p> + <p> + And here, as in what went before, I am reduced to the referring to my own + experience, and looking back into the history of my own mind. + </p> + <p> + I say then, that reprehension and reprimand can scarcely ever be + necessary. The pupil should undoubtedly be informed when he is wrong. He + should be told what it is that he ought to have omitted, and that he ought + to have done. There should be no reserve in this. It will be worthy of the + highest censure, if on these points the instructor should be + mealy-mouthed, or hesitate to tell the pupil in the plainest terms, of his + faults, his bad habits, and the dangers that beset his onward and + honourable path. + </p> + <p> + But this may be best, and most beneficially done, and in a way most + suitable to the exigence, and to the party to be corrected, in a few + words. The rest is all an unwholsome tumour, the disease of speech, and + not the sound and healthful substance through which its circulation and + life are conveyed. + </p> + <p> + There is always danger of this excrescence of speech, where the speaker is + the umpire, and feels himself at liberty, unreproved, to say what he + pleases. He is charmed with the sound of his own voice. The periods flow + numerous from his tongue, and he gets on at his ease. There is in all this + an image of empire; and the human mind is ever prone to be delighted in + the exercise of unrestricted authority. The pupil in this case stands + before his instructor in an attitude humble, submissive, and bowing to the + admonition that is communicated to him. The speaker says more than it was + in his purpose to say; and he knows not how to arrest himself in his + triumphant career. He believes that he is in no danger of excess, and + recollects the old proverb that "words break no bones." + </p> + <p> + But a syllable more than is necessary and justly measured, is materially + of evil operation to ingenuous youth. The mind of such a youth is tender + and flexible, and easily swayed one way or the other. He believes almost + every thing that he is bid to believe; and the admonition that is given + him with all the symptoms of friendliness and sincerity he is prompt to + subscribe to. If this is wantonly aggravated to him, he feels the + oppression, and is galled with the injustice. He knows himself guiltless + of premeditated wrong. He has not yet learned that his condition is that + of a slave; and he feels a certain impatience at his being considered as + such, though he probably does not venture to express it. He shuts up the + sense of this despotism in his own bosom; and it is his first lesson of + independence and rebellion and original sin. + </p> + <p> + It is one of the grossest mistakes of which we can be guilty, if we + confound different offences and offenders together. The great and the + small alike appear before us in the many-coloured scene of human society, + and, if we reprehend bitterly and rate a juvenile sinner for the fault, + which he scarcely understood, and assuredly had not premeditated, we break + down at once a thousand salutary boundaries, and reduce the ideas of right + and wrong in his mind to a portentous and terrible chaos. The communicator + of liberal knowledge assuredly ought not to confound his office with that + of a magistrate at a quarter-sessions, who though he does not sit in + judgment upon transgressions of the deepest and most atrocious character, + yet has brought before him in many cases defaulters of a somewhat hardened + disposition, whose lot has been cast among the loose and the profligate, + and who have been carefully trained to a certain audacity of temper, + taught to look upon the paraphernalia of justice with scorn, and to place + a sort of honour in sustaining hard words and the lesser visitations of + punishment with unflinching nerve. + </p> + <p> + If this is the judgment we ought to pass upon the bitter and galling and + humiliating terms of reprehension apt to be made use of by the instructor + to his pupil, it is unnecessary to say a word on the subject of + chastisement. If such an expedient is ever to be had recourse to, it can + only be in cases of contumaciousness and rebellion; and then the + instructor cannot too unreservedly say to himself, "This is matter of deep + humiliation to me: I ought to have succeeded by an appeal to the + understanding and ingenuous feelings of youth; but I am reduced to a + confession of my impotence." + </p> + <p> + But the topic which, most of all, I was desirous to bring forward in this + Essay, is that of the language so customarily employed by the impatient + and irritated preceptor, "Hereafter, in a state of mature and ripened + judgment, you will thank me for the severity I now exercise towards you." + </p> + <p> + No; it may safely be answered: that time will never arrive. + </p> + <p> + As, in one of my earlier Essays(33), I undertook to shew that there is not + so much difference between the talents of one man and another as has often + been apprehended, so we are guilty of a gross error in the way in which we + divide the child from the man, and consider him as if he belonged to a + distinct species of beings. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (33) Essay II. +</pre> + <p> + I go back to the recollections of my youth, and can scarcely find where to + draw the line between ineptness and maturity. The thoughts that occurred + to me, as far back as I can recollect them, were often shrewd; the + suggestions ingenious; the judgments not seldom acute. I feel myself the + same individual all through. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes I was unreasonably presumptuous, and sometimes unnecessarily + distrustful. Experience has taught me in various instances a sober + confidence in my decisions; but that is all the difference. So to express + it, I had then the same tools to work with as now; but the magazine of + materials upon which I had to operate was scantily supplied. Like the + apothecary in Romeo and Juliet, the faculty, such as it was, was within + me; but my shelves contained but a small amount of furniture: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + A beggarly account of empty boxes, + Remnants of packthread, and old cakes of roses, + Which, thinly scattered, served to make a shew. +</pre> + <p> + In speaking thus of the intellectual powers of my youth, I am however + conceding too much. It is true, "Practice maketh perfect." But it is + surprising, in apt and towardly youth, how much there is to commend in the + first essays. The novice, who has his faculties lively and on the alert, + will strike with his hammer almost exactly where the blow ought to be + placed, and give nearly the precisely right force to the act. He will + seize the thread it was fitting to seize; and, though he fail again and + again, will shew an adroitness upon the whole that we scarcely know how to + account for. The man whose career shall ultimately be crowned with + success, will demonstrate in the beginning that he was destined to + succeed. + </p> + <p> + There is therefore no radical difference between the child and the man. + His flesh becomes more firm and sinewy; his bones grow more solid and + powerful; his joints are more completely strung. But he is still + essentially the same being that he was. When a genuine philosopher holds a + new-born child in his arms, and carefully examines it, he perceives in it + various indications of temper and seeds of character. It was all there, + though folded up and confused, and not obtruding itself upon the remark of + every careless spectator. It continues with the child through life, grows + with his growth, and never leaves him till he is at last consigned to the + tomb. How absurd then by artful rules and positive institutions to + undertake to separate what can never be divided! The child is occasionally + grave and reflecting, and deduces well-founded inferences; he draws on the + past, and plunges into the wide ocean of the future. In proportion as the + child advances into the youth, his intervals of gravity increase, and he + builds up theories and judgments, some of which no future time shall + suffice to overturn. It is idle to suppose that the first activity of our + faculties, when every thing is new and produces an unbated impression, + when the mind is uncumbered, and every interest and every feeling bid us + be observing and awake, should pass for nothing. We lay up stores then, + which shall never be exhausted. Our minds are the reverse of worn and + obtuse. We bring faculties into the world with us fresh from the hands of + the all-bounteous giver; they are not yet moulded to a senseless routine; + they are not yet corrupted by the ill lessons of effrontery, impudence and + vice. Childhood is beautiful; youth is ingenuous; and it can be nothing + but a principle which is hostile to all that most adorns this sublunary + scene, that would with violence and despotic rule mar the fairest flower + that creation has to boast. + </p> + <p> + It happens therefore almost unavoidably that, when the man mature looks + back upon the little incidents of his youth, he sees them to a surprising + degree in the same light, and forms the same conclusions respecting them, + as he did when they were actually passing. "The forgeries of opinion," + says Cicero, "speedily pass away; but the rules and decisions of nature + are strengthened." Bitter reproaches and acts of violence are the + offspring of perturbation engendered upon imbecility, and therefore can + never be approved upon a sober and impartial revision. And, if they are to + be impeached in the judgment of an equal and indifferent observer, we may + be sure they will be emphatically condemned by the grave and enlightened + censor who looks back upon the years of his own nonage, and recollects + that he was himself the victim of the intemperance to be pronounced upon. + The interest that he must necessarily take in the scenes in which he once + had an engrossing concern, will supply peculiar luminousness to his views. + He taxes himself to be just. The transaction is over now, and is passed to + the events that preceded the universal deluge. He holds the balance with a + steadiness, which sets at defiance all attempts to give it a false + direction one way or the other. But the judgment he made on the case at + the time, and immediately after the humiliation he suffered, remains with + him. It was the sentiment of his ripening youth; it was the opinion of his + opening manhood; and it still attends him, when he is already fast + yielding to the incroachments and irresistible assaults of declining + years. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0020" id="link2H_4_0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY XV. OF LOVE AND FRIENDSHIP. + </h2> + <p> + Who is it that says, "There is no love but among equals?" Be it who it + may, it is a saying universally known, and that is in every one's mouth. + The contrary is precisely the truth, and is the great secret of every + thing that is admirable in our moral nature. + </p> + <p> + By love it is my intention here to understand, not a calm, tranquil, and, + as it were, half-pronounced feeling, but a passion of the mind. We may + doubtless entertain an approbation of other men, without adverting to the + question how they stand in relation to ourselves, as equals or otherwise. + But the sentiment I am here considering, is that where the person in whom + it resides most strongly sympathises with the joys and sorrows of another, + desires his gratification, hopes for his welfare, and shrinks from the + anticipation of his being injured; in a word, is the sentiment which has + most the spirit of sacrifice in it, and prepares the person in whom it + dwells, to postpone his own advantage to the advantage of him who is the + object of it. + </p> + <p> + Having placed love among the passions, which is no vehement assumption, I + then say, there can be no passion, and by consequence no love, where there + is not imagination. In cases where every thing is understood, and + measured, and reduced to rule, love is out of the question. Whenever this + sentiment prevails, I must have my attention fixed more on the absent than + the present, more upon what I do not see than on what I do see. My + thoughts will be taken up with the future or the past, with what is to + come or what has been. Of the present there is necessarily no image. + Sentiment is nothing, till you have arrived at a mystery and a veil, + something that is seen obscurely, that is just hinted at in the distance, + that has neither certain outline nor colour, but that is left for the mind + to fill up according to its pleasure and in the best manner it is able. + </p> + <p> + The great model of the affection of love in human beings, is the sentiment + which subsists between parents and children. + </p> + <p> + Let not this appear a paradox. There is another relation in human society + to which this epithet has more emphatically been given: but, if we analyse + the matter strictly, we shall find that all that is most sacred and + beautiful in the passion between the sexes, has relation to offspring. + What Milton calls, "The rites mysterious of connubial love," would have + little charm in them in reflection, to a mind one degree above the brutes, + were it not for the mystery they include, of their tendency to give + existence to a new human creature like ourselves. Were it not for this + circumstance, a man and a woman would hardly ever have learned to live + together; there scarcely could have been such a thing as domestic society; + but every intercourse of this sort would have been "casual, joyless, + unendeared;" and the propensity would have brought along with it nothing + more of beauty, lustre and grace, than the pure animal appetites of hunger + and thirst. Bearing in mind these considerations, I do not therefore + hesitate to say, that the great model of the affection of love in human + beings, is the sentiment which subsists between parents and children. + </p> + <p> + The original feature in this sentiment is the conscious feeling of the + protector and the protected. Our passions cannot subsist in lazy + indolence; passion and action must operate on each other; passion must + produce action, and action give strength to the tide of passion. We do not + vehemently desire, where we can do nothing. It is in a very faint way that + I entertain a wish to possess the faculty of flying; and an ordinary man + can scarcely be said to desire to be a king or an emperor. None but a + madman, of plebeian rank, falls in love with a princess. But shew me a + good thing within my reach; convince me that it is in my power to attain + it; demonstrate to me that it is fit for me, and I am fit for it; then + begins the career of passion. In the same manner, I cannot love a person + vehemently, and strongly interest myself in his miscarriages or success, + till I feel that I can be something to him. Love cannot dwell in a state + of impotence. To affect and be affected, this is the common nature I + require; this is the being that is like unto myself; all other likeness + resides in the logic and the definition, but has nothing to do with + feeling or with practice. + </p> + <p> + What can be more clear and sound in explanation, than the love of a parent + to his child? The affection he bears and its counterpart are the ornaments + of the world, and the spring of every thing that makes life worth having. + Whatever besides has a tendency to illustrate and honour our nature, + descends from these, or is copied from these, grows out of them as the + branches of a tree from the trunk, or is formed upon them as a model, and + derives from them its shape, its character, and its soul. Yet there are + men so industrious and expert to strip the world we live in of all that + adorns it, that they can see nothing glorious in these affections, but + find the one to be all selfishness, and the other all prejudice and + superstition. + </p> + <p> + The love of the parent to his child is nursed and fostered by two plain + considerations; first, that the subject is capable of receiving much, and + secondly, that my power concerning it is great and extensive. + </p> + <p> + When an infant is presented to my observation, what a wide field of + sentiment and reflection is opened to me! Few minds are industrious and + ductile enough completely to compass this field, if the infant is only + accidentally brought under their view. But, if it is an infant with which + I begin to be acquainted to-day, and my acquaintance with which shall not + end perhaps till one of us ceases to exist, how is it possible that the + view of its little figure should not lead me to the meditation of its + future history, the successive stages of human life, and the various + scenes and mutations and vicissitudes and fortunes through which it is + destined to pass? The Book of Fate lies open before me. This infant, + powerless and almost impassive now, is reserved for many sorrows and many + joys, and will one day possess a power, formidable and fearful to afflict + those within its reach, or calculated to diffuse blessings, wisdom, + virtue, happiness, to all around. I conceive all the various destinations + of which man is susceptible; my fancy at least is free to select that + which pleases me best; I unfold and pursue it in all its directions, + observe the thorns and difficulties with which it is beset, and conjure up + to my thoughts all that it can boast of inviting, delightful and + honourable. + </p> + <p> + But if the infant that is near to me lays hold of my imagination and + affections at the moment in which he falls under my observation, how much + more do I become interested in him, as he advances from year to year! At + first, I have the blessing of the gospel upon me, in that, "having not + seen, yet I believe." But, as his powers expand, I understand him better. + His little eye begins to sparkle with meaning; his tongue tells a tale + that may be understood; his very tones, and gestures, and attitudes, all + inform me concerning what he shall be. I am like a florist, who has + received a strange plant from a distant country. At first he sees only the + stalk, and the leaves, and the bud having yet no other colour than that of + the leaves. But as he watches his plant from day to day, and from hour to + hour, the case which contains the flower divides, and betrays first one + colour and then another, till the shell gradually subsides more and more + towards the stalk, and the figure of the flower begins now to be seen, and + its radiance and its pride to expand itself to the ravished observer.—Every + lesson that the child leans, every comment that he makes upon it, every + sport that he pursues, every choice that he exerts, the demeanour that he + adopts to his playfellows, the modifications and character of his little + fits of authority or submission, all make him more and more an individual + to me, and open a wider field for my sagacity or my prophecy, as to what + he promises to be, and what he may be made. + </p> + <p> + But what gives, as has already been observed, the point and the finish to + all the interest I take respecting him, lies in the vast power I possess + to influence and direct his character and his fortune. At first it is + abstract power, but, when it has already been exerted (as the writers on + politics as a science have observed of property), the sweat of my brow + becomes mingled with the apple I have gathered, and my interest is + greater. No one understands my views and projects entirely but myself, and + the scheme I have conceived will suffer, if I do not complete it as I + began. + </p> + <p> + And there are men that say, that all this mystery, the most beautiful + attitude of human nature, and the crown of its glory, is pure selfishness! + </p> + <p> + Let us now turn from the view of the parental, to that of the filial + affection. + </p> + <p> + The great mistake that has been made on this subject, arises from the + taking it nakedly and as a mere abstraction. It has been sagely remarked, + that when my father did that which occasioned me to come into existence, + he intended me no benefit, and therefore I owe him no thanks. And the + inference which has been made from this wise position is, that the duty of + children to parents is a mere imposture, a trick, employed by the old to + defraud the young out of their services. + </p> + <p> + I grant most readily, that the mere material ligament that binds together + the father and the child, by itself is worthless, and that he who owes + nothing more than this to his father, owes him nothing. The natural, + unanimated relationship is like the grain of mustard-seed in the + discourses of Jesus Christ, "which indeed is the least of all seeds; but, + when it is unfolded and grows up, it becomes a mighty tree, so that the + birds of the air may come and lodge in its branches." + </p> + <p> + The hard and insensible man may know little of the debt he owes to his + father; but he that is capable of calling up the past, and beholding the + things that are not as if they now were, will see the matter in a very + different light. Incalculable are the privations (in a great majority of + instances), the toils, the pains, the anxieties, that every child imposes + on his father from the first hour of his existence. If he could know the + ceaseless cares, the tender and ardent feelings, the almost incredible + efforts and exertions, that have accompanied him in his father's breast + through the whole period of his growth, instead of thinking that he owed + his parent nothing, he would stand still and wonder that one human + creature could do so much for another. + </p> + <p> + I grant that all this may be done for a child by a stranger, and that then + in one sense the obligation would be greater. It is however barely + possible that all this should be done. The stranger wants the first + exciting cause, the consideration, "This creature by the great scheme of + nature belongs to me, and is cast upon my care." And, as the tie in the + case of the stranger was not complete in the beginning, so neither can it + be made so in the sequel. The little straggler is like the duckling + hatched in the nest of a hen; there is danger every day, that as the + nursling begins to be acquainted with its own qualities, it may plunge + itself into another element, and swim away from its benefactor. + </p> + <p> + Even if we put all these considerations out of the question, still the + affection of the child to its parent of adoption, wants the kernel, and, + if I may so speak, the soul, of the connection which has been formed and + modelled by the great hand of nature. If the mere circumstance of + filiation and descent creates no debt, it however is the principle of a + very close connection. One of the most memorable mysteries of nature, is + how, out of the slightest of all connections (for such, literally + speaking, is that between father and child), so many coincidences should + arise. The child resembles his parent in feature, in temperament, in turn + of mind, and in class of disposition, while at the same time in many + particulars, in these same respects, he is a new and individual creature. + In one view therefore the child is merely the father multiplied and + repeated. Now one of the indefeasible principles of affection is the + partaking of a common nature; and as man is a species by himself, so to a + certain degree is every nation and every family; and this consideration, + when added to the moral and spiritual ties already treated of, undoubtedly + has a tendency to give them their zest and perfection. + </p> + <p> + But even this is not the most agreeable point of view in which we may + consider the filial affection. I come back to my first position, that + where there is no imagination, there can be no passion, and by consequence + no love. No parent ever understood his child, and no child ever understood + his parent. We have seen that the affectionate parent considers his child + like a flower in the bud, as a mine of power that is to be unfolded, as a + creature that is to act and to pass through he knows not what, as a canvas + that "gives ample room and verge enough," for his prophetic soul to hang + over in endless visions, and his intellectual pencil to fill up with + various scenes and fortunes. And, if the parent does not understand his + child, certainly as little does the child understand his parent. Wherever + this relation subsists in its fairest form, the parent is as a God, a + being qualified with supernatural powers, to his offspring. The child + consults his father as an oracle; to him he proposes all his little + questions; from him he learns his natural philosophy, his morals, his + rules of conduct, his religion, and his creed. The boy is uninformed on + every point; and the father is a vast Encyclopedia, not merely of + sciences, but of feelings, of sagacity, of practical wisdom, and of + justice, which the son consults on all occasions, and never consults in + vain. Senseless and inexpert is that parent, who endeavours to govern the + mind by authority, and to lay down rugged and peremptory dogmas to his + child; the child is fully and unavoidably prepared to receive every thing + with unbounded deference, and to place total reliance in the oracle which + nature has assigned him. Habits, how beautiful! Inestimable benefit of + nature, that has given me a prop against which to sustain my unripened + strength, and has not turned me loose to wander with tottering steps + amidst the vast desert of society! + </p> + <p> + But it is not merely for contemplative wisdom that the child honours his + parent; he sees in him a vast fund of love, attachment and sympathy. That + he cannot mistake; and it is all a mystery to him. He says, What am I, + that I should be the object of this? and whence comes it? He sees neither + the fountain from which it springs, nor the banks that confine it. To him + it is an ocean, unfathomable, and without a shore. + </p> + <p> + To the bounty of its operations he trusts implicitly. The stores of + judgment and knowledge he finds in his father, prompt him to trust it. In + many instances where it appeared at first obscure and enigmatical, the + event has taught him to acknowledge its soundness. The mutinousness of + passion will sometimes excite a child to question the decrees of his + parent; it is very long before his understanding, as such, comes to set up + a separate system, and teaches him to controvert the decisions of his + father. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps I ought earlier to have stated, that the filial connection we have + here to consider, does not include those melancholy instances where some + woful defect or utter worthlessness in the parent counteracts the natural + course of the affections, but refers only to cases, where the character of + father is on the whole sustained with honour, and the principle of the + connection is left to its true operation. In such cases the child not only + observes for himself the manifestations of wisdom and goodness in his + parent, but is also accustomed to hear well of him from all around. There + is a generous conspiracy in human nature, not to counteract the honour + borne by the offspring to him from whom he sprung, and the wholsome + principle of superiority and dependence which is almost indispensible + between persons of different ages dwelling under the same roof. And, + exclusively of this consideration, the men who are chiefly seen by the son + are his father's friends and associates; and it is the very bent, and, as + it were, law of our nature, that we do not associate much, but with + persons whom we favour, and who are prepared to mention us with kindness + and honour. + </p> + <p> + Thus every way the child is deeply imbued with veneration for his parent, + and forms the habit of regarding him as his book of wisdom, his + philosopher and guide. He is accustomed to hear him spoken of as a true + friend, an active ally, and a pattern of justice and honour; and he finds + him so. Now these are the true objects of affection,—wisdom and + beneficence; and the human heart loves this beneficence better when it is + exercised towards him who loves, first, because inevitably in almost all + instances we are best pleased with the good that is done to ourselves, and + secondly, because it can scarcely happen but that we in that case + understand it best, both in its operation and its effects. + </p> + <p> + The active principles of religion are all moulded upon this familiar and + sensible relation of father and child: and to understand whet the human + heart is capable to conceive on this subject, we have only to refer to the + many eloquent and glowing treatises that have been written upon the love + of God to his creatures, and the love that the creature in return owes to + his God. I am not now considering religion in a speculative point of view, + or enquiring among the different sects and systems of religion what it is + that is true; but merely producing religion as an example of what have + been the conceptions of the human mind in successive ages of the world on + the subject of love. + </p> + <p> + This All that we behold, the immensity of the universe, the admirable + harmony and subtlety of its structure, as they appear in the vastest and + the minutest bodies, is considered by religion, as the emanation of pure + love, a mighty impulse and ardour in its great author to realise the idea + existing in his mind, and to produce happiness. The Providence that + watches over us, so that not a sparrow dies unmarked, and that "the great + Sensorium of the world vibrates, if a hair of our head but falls to the + ground in the remotest desert of his creation," is still unremitted, + never-satiated love. And, to go from this to the peculiarities of the + Christian doctrine, "Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay + down his life for his friends: God so loved the world, that he gave his + only-begotten Son to suffer, to be treated contumeliously, and to die with + ignominy, that we might live." + </p> + <p> + If on the other hand we consider the love which the creature must + naturally pay to his creator, we shall find that the affection we can + suppose the most ingenuous child to bear to the worthiest parent, is a + very faint image of the passion which may be expected to grow out of this + relation. In God, as he is represented to us in the books of the worthiest + divines, is every thing that can command love; wisdom to conceive, power + to execute, and beneficence actually to carry into effect, whatever is + excellent and admirable. We are lost in contemplating the depth and + immensity of his perfections. "Every good and every perfect gift is from + the universal Father, with whom is no variableness, neither shadow of + turning." The most soothing and gratifying of all sentiments, is that of + entire confidence in the divine goodness, a reliance which no adversity + can shake, and which supports him that entertains it under every calamity, + that sees the finger of God in every thing that comes to pass, that says, + "It is good for me to be afflicted," believes, that "all things work + together for blessings" to the pious and the just, and is intimately + persuaded that "our light affliction, which is but for a moment, is the + means and the earnest of a far more exceeding and eternal weight of + glory." + </p> + <p> + If we descend from these great archetypes, the love between parent and + child, and between the creator and his creature, we shall still find the + same inequality the inseparable attendant upon the most perfect ties of + affection. The ancients seem to have conceived the truest and most exalted + ideas on the subject of friendship. Among the most celebrated instances + are the friendship of Achilles and Patroclus, Orestes and Pylades, Aeneas + and Achates, Cyrus and Araspes, Alexander and Hephaestion, Scipio and + Laelius. In each of these the parties are, the true hero, the man of lofty + ambition, the magnificent personage in whom is concentred every thing that + the historian or the poet was able to realise of excellence, and the + modest and unpretending individual in whom his confidence was reposed. The + grand secret of the connection is unfolded in the saying of the Macedonian + conqueror, "Craterus loves the king, but Hephaestion loves Alexander." + Friendship is to the loftier mind the repose, the unbending of the soul. + The great man (whatever may be the department in which his excellence + consists) has enough of his greatness, when he stands before the world, + and receives the homage that is paid to his merits. Ever and anon he is + anxious to throw aside this incumbrance, and be as a man merely to a man. + He wishes to forget the "pride, pomp, and circumstance" of greatness, and + to be that only which he is himself. He desires at length to be sure, that + he receives no adulation, that he is accosted with no insincerity, and + that the individual to whose society he has thought proper to withdraw, + has no by-ends, no sinister purposes in all his thoughts. What he seeks + for, is a true friend, a being who sincerely loves, one who is attached to + him, not for the accidents that attend him, but for what most strictly + belongs to him, and of which he cannot be divested. In this friend there + is neither interested intention nor rivalry. + </p> + <p> + Such are the characteristic features of the superior party in these + exemplars of friendship among the ancients. Of the unpretending, + unassuming party Homer, the great master of the affections and emotions in + remoter ages, has given us the fullest portrait in the character of + Patroclus. The distinguishing feature of his disposition is a melting and + affectionate spirit, the concentred essence of tenderness and humanity. + When Patroclus comes from witnessing the disasters of the Greeks, to + collect a report of which he had been sent by Achilles, he is "overwhelmed + with floods of tears, like a spring which pours down its waters from the + steep edge of a precipice." It is thus that Jupiter characterises him when + he lies dead in the field of battle: + </p> + <p> + Thou (addressing himself in his thoughts to Hector) hast slain the friend + of Achilles, not less memorable for the blandness of his temper, than the + bravery of his deeds. + </p> + <p> + It is thus that Menelaus undertakes to excite the Grecian chiefs to rescue + his body: + </p> + <p> + Let each man recollect the sweetness of his disposition for, as long as he + lived, he was unremitted in kindness to all. When Achilles proposes the + games at the funeral, he says, "On any other occasion my horses should + have started for the prize, but now it cannot be. They have lost their + incomparable groom, who was accustomed to refresh their limbs with water, + and anoint their flowing manes; and they are inconsolable." Briseis also + makes her appearance among the mourners, avowing that, "when her husband + had been slain in battle, and her native city laid in ashes, this generous + man prevented her tears, averring to her, that she should be the wife of + her conqueror, and that he would himself spread the nuptial banquet for + her in the hero's native kingdom of Phthia." + </p> + <p> + The reciprocity which belongs to a friendship between unequals may well be + expected to give a higher zest to their union. Each party is necessary to + the other. The superior considers him towards whom he pours out his + affection, as a part of himself. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The head is not more native to the heart, + The hand more instrumental to the mouth. +</pre> + <p> + He cannot separate himself from him, but at the cost of a fearful maim. + When the world is shut out by him, when he retires into solitude, and + falls back upon himself, then his unpretending friend is most of all + necessary to him. He is his consolation and his pleasure, the safe coffer + in which he reposits all his anxieties and sorrows. If the principal, + instead of being a public man, is a man of science, this kind of unbending + becomes certainly not the less welcome to him. He wishes occasionally to + forget the severity of his investigations, neither to have his mind any + longer wound up and stretched to the height of meditation, nor to feel + that he needs to be any way on his guard, or not completely to give the + rein to all his sallies and the sportiveness of his soul. Having been for + a considerable time shut up in sequestered reflection, he wishes, it may + be, to have the world, the busy impassioned world, brought to his ears, + without his being obliged to enter into its formalities and mummeries. If + he desires to speak of the topics which had so deeply engaged him, he can + keep as near the edge as he pleases, and drop or resume them as his fancy + may prompt. And it seems useless to say, how much his modest and + unassuming friend will be gratified in being instrumental to relieve the + labours of his principal, in feeling that he is necessary to him, and in + meditating on the delight he receives in being made the chosen companion + and confident of him whom he so ardently admires. It was precisely in this + spirit, that Fulke Greville, two hundred years ago, directed that it + should be inscribed on his tomb, "Here lies the friend of Sir Philip + Sidney." Tenderness on the one part, and a deep feeling of honour and + respect on the other, give a completeness to the union which it must + otherwise for ever want. "There is no limit, none," to the fervour with + which the stronger goes forward to protect the weak; while in return the + less powerful would encounter a thousand deaths rather than injury should + befall the being to whom in generosity and affection he owes so much. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, though inequality is necessary to give this completeness + to friendship, the inequality must not be too great. + </p> + <p> + The inferior party must be able to understand and appreciate the sense and + the merits of him to whom he is thus bound. There must be no impediment to + hinder the communications of the principal from being fully comprehended, + and his sentiments entirely participated. There must be a boundless + confidence, without apprehension that the power of the stronger party can + by the remotest possibility be put forth ungenerously. "Perfect love + casteth out fear." The evangelist applies this aphorism even to the love + of the creature to his creator. "The Lord spake unto Moses, face to face, + as a man speaketh unto his friend." In the union of which I am treating + the demonstrative and ordinary appearance will be that of entire equality, + which is heightened by the inner, and for the greater part unexplained and + undeveloped, impression of a contrary nature. There is in either party a + perfect reliance, an idea of inequality with the most entire assurance + that it can never operate unworthily in the stronger party, or produce + insincerity or servility in the weaker. There will in reality always be + some reserve, some shadow of fear between equals, which in the friendship + of unequals, if happily assorted, can find no place. There is a pouring + out of the heart on the one side, and a cordial acceptance on the other, + which words are inadequate to describe. + </p> + <p> + To proceed. If from friendship we go forward to that which in all + languages is emphatically called love, we shall still find ourselves + dogged and attended by inequality. Nothing can be more certain, however we + may seek to modify and abate it, than the inequality of the sexes. Let us + attend to it as it stands in Milton: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + For contemplation he and velour formed + For softness she and sweet attractive grace; + He for God only, she for God in him. +</pre> + <p> + Thus it is painted to us as having been in Paradise; and with similar + inequality have the sexes subsisted in all ages and nations since. If it + were possible to take from the fair sex its softness and attractive grace, + and endow it instead with audacious, masculine and military qualities, + there is scarcely any one that does not perceive, with whatever advantages + it might be attended in other respects, that it would be far from tending + to cherish and increase the passion of love. + </p> + <p> + It is in reality obvious, that man and woman, as they come from the hands + of nature, are so much upon a par with each other, as not to afford the + best subjects between whom to graft a habit of entire, unalterable + affection. In the scenes of vulgar and ordinary society, a permanent + connection between persons of opposite sexes is too apt to degenerate into + a scene of warfare, where each party is for ever engaged in a struggle for + superiority, and neither will give way. A penetrating observer, with whom + in former days I used intimately to converse, was accustomed to say, that + there was generally more jarring and ill blood between the two parties in + the first year of their marriage, than during all the remainder of their + lives. It is at length found necessary, as between equally matched + belligerents on the theatre of history, that they should come to terms, + make a treaty of peace, or at least settle certain laws of warfare, that + they may not waste their strength in idle hostilities. + </p> + <p> + The nations of antiquity had a way of settling this question in a very + summary mode. As certain Oriental tribes have determined that women have + no souls, and that nothing can be more proper than to shut them up, like + singing birds in cages, so the Greeks and Romans for the most part + excluded their females from the society of the more martial sex. Marriage + with them was a convenience merely; and the husband and wife were in + reality nothing more than the master and the slave. This point once + settled as a matter of national law, there was certainly in most cases + little danger of any vexatious rivalship and struggle for power. + </p> + <p> + But there is nothing in which the superiority of modern times over the + ancient has been more conspicuous, than in our sentiments and practices on + this subject. This superiority, as well as several other of our most + valuable acquisitions, took its rise in what we call the dark ages. + Chivalry was for the most part the invention of the eleventh century. Its + principle was built upon a theory of the sexes, giving to each a relative + importance, and assigning to both functions full of honour and grace. The + knights (and every gentleman during that period in due time became a + knight) were taught, as the main features of their vocation, the "love of + God and the ladies." The ladies in return were regarded as the genuine + censors of the deeds of knighthood. From these principles arose a thousand + lessons of humanity. The ladies regarded it as their glory to assist their + champions to arm and to disarm, to perform for them even menial services, + to attend them in sickness, and to dress their wounds. They bestowed on + them their colours, and sent them forth to the field hallowed with their + benedictions. The knights on the other hand considered any slight towards + the fair sex as an indelible stain to their order; they contemplated the + graceful patronesses of their valour with a feeling that partook of + religious homage and veneration, and esteemed it as perhaps the first duty + of their profession, to relieve the wrongs, and avenge the injuries of the + less powerful sex. + </p> + <p> + This simple outline as to the relative position of the one sex and the + other, gave a new face to the whole scheme and arrangements of civil + society. It is like those admirable principles in the order of the + material universe, or those grand discoveries brought to light from time + to time by superior genius, so obvious and simple, that we wonder the most + common understanding could have missed them, yet so pregnant with results, + that they seem at once to put a new life and inspire a new character into + every part of a mighty and all-comprehensive mass. + </p> + <p> + The passion between the sexes, in its grosser sense, is a momentary + impulse merely; and there was danger that, when the fit and violence of + the passion was over, the whole would subside into inconstancy and a + roving disposition, or at least into indifference and almost brutal + neglect. But the institutions of chivalry immediately gave a new face to + this. Either sex conceived a deep and permanent interest in the other. In + the unsettled state of society which characterised the period when these + institutions arose, the defenceless were liable to assaults of multiplied + kinds, and the fair perpetually stood in need of a protector and a + champion. The knights on the other hand were taught to derive their fame + and their honour from the suffrages of the ladies. Each sex stood in need + of the other; and the basis of their union was mutual esteem. + </p> + <p> + The effect of this was to give a hue of imagination to all their + intercourse. A man was no longer merely a man, nor a woman merely a woman. + They were taught mutual deference. The woman regarded her protector as + something illustrious and admirable; and the man considered the smiles and + approbation of beauty as the adequate reward of his toils and his dangers. + These modes of thinking introduced a nameless grace into all the commerce + of society. It was the poetry of life. Hence originated the delightful + narratives and fictions of romance; and human existence was no longer the + bare, naked train of vulgar incidents, which for so many ages of the world + it had been accustomed to be. It was clothed in resplendent hues, and wore + all the tints of the rainbow. Equality fled and was no more; and love, + almighty, perdurable love, came to supply its place. + </p> + <p> + By means of this state of things the vulgar impulse of the sexes towards + each other, which alone was known to the former ages of the world, was + transformed into somewhat of a totally different nature. It became a kind + of worship. The fair sex looked upon their protectors, their fathers, + their husbands, and the whole train of their chivalry, as something more + than human. There was a grace in their motions, a gallantry in their + bearing, and a generosity in their spirit of enterprise, that the softness + of the female heart found irresistible. Nor less on the other hand did the + knights regard the sex to whose service and defence they were sworn, as + the objects of their perpetual deference. They approached them with a sort + of gallant timidity, listened to their behests with submission, and + thought the longest courtship and devotion nobly recompensed by the final + acceptance of the fair. + </p> + <p> + The romance and exaggeration characteristic of these modes of thinking + have gradually worn away in modern times; but much of what was most + valuable in them has remained. Love has in later ages never been divested + of the tenderness and consideration, which were thus rendered some of its + most estimable features. A certain desire in each party to exalt the + other, and regard it as worthy of admiration, became inextricably + interwoven with the simple passion. A sense of the honour that was borne + by the one to the other, had the happiest effect in qualifying the + familiarity and unreserve in the communion of feelings and sentiments, + without which the attachment of the sexes cannot subsist. It is something + like what the mystic divines describe of the beatific vision, where entire + wonder and adoration are not judged to be incompatible with the most + ardent affection, and all meaner and selfish regards are annihilated. + </p> + <p> + From what has been thus drawn together and recapitulated it seems clearly + to follow, as was stated in the beginning, that love cannot exist in its + purest form and with a genuine ardour, where the parties are, and are felt + by each other to be, on an equality; but that in all cases it is requisite + there should be a mutual deference and submission, agreeably to the + apostolic precept, "Likewise all of you be subject one to the other." + There must be room for the imagination to exercise its powers; we must + conceive and apprehend a thousand things which we do not actually witness; + each party must feel that it stands in need of the other, and without the + other cannot be complete; each party must be alike conscious of the power + of receiving and conferring benefit; and there must be the anticipation of + a distant future, that may every day enhance the good to be imparted and + enjoyed, and cause the individuals thus united perpetually to become more + sensible of the fortunate event which gave them to each other, and has + thus entailed upon each a thousand advantages in which they could + otherwise never have shared. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0021" id="link2H_4_0021"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY XVI. OF FRANKNESS AND RESERVE. + </h2> + <p> + Animals are divided into the solitary and the are gregarious: the former + being only occasionally associated with its mate, and perhaps engaged in + the care of its offspring; the latter spending their lives in herds and + communities. Man is of this last class or division. + </p> + <p> + Where the animals of any particular species live much in society, it seems + requisite that in some degree they should be able to understand each + other's purposes, and to act with a certain portion of concert. + </p> + <p> + All other animals are exceedingly limited in their powers of + communication. But speech renders that being whom we justly entitle the + lord of the creation, capable of a boundless interchange of ideas and + intentions. Not only can we communicate to each other substantively our + elections and preferences: we can also exhort and persuade, and employ + reasons and arguments to convince our fellows, that the choice we have + made is also worthy of their adoption. We can express our thoughts, and + the various lights and shades, the bleedings, of our thoughts. Language is + an instrument capable of being perpetually advanced in copiousness, + perspicuity and power. + </p> + <p> + No principle of morality can be more just, than that which teaches us to + regard every faculty we possess as a power intrusted to us for the benefit + of others as well as of ourselves, and which therefore we are bound to + employ in the way which shall best conduce to the general advantage. + </p> + <p> + "Speech was given us, that by it we might express our thoughts(34);" in + other words, our impressions, ideas and conceptions. We then therefore + best fulfil the scope of our nature, when we sincerely and unreservedly + communicate to each other our feelings and apprehensions. Speech should be + to man in the nature of a fair complexion, the transparent medium through + which the workings of the mind should be made legible. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (34) Moliere. +</pre> + <p> + I think I have somewhere read of Socrates, that certain of his friends + expostulated with him, that the windows of his house were so constructed + that every one who went by could discover all that passed within. "And + wherefore not?" said the sage. "I do nothing that I would wish to have + concealed from any human eye. If I knew that all the world observed every + thing I did, I should feel no inducement to change my conduct in the + minutest particular." + </p> + <p> + It is not however practicable that frankness should be carried to the + extent above mentioned. It has been calculated that the human mind is + capable of being impressed with three hundred and twenty sensations in a + second of time. At all events we well know that, even "while I am + speaking, a variety of sensations are experienced by me, without so much + as interrupting, that is, without materially diverting, the train of my + ideas. My eye successively remarks a thousand objects that present + themselves, and my mind wanders to the different parts of my body, without + occasioning the minutest obstacle to my discourse, or my being in any + degree distracted by the multiplicity of these objects(35)." It is + therefore beyond the reach of the faculty of speech, for me to communicate + all the sensations I experience; and I am of necessity reduced to a + selection. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (35) See above, Essay 7. +</pre> + <p> + Nor is this the whole. We do not communicate all that we feel, and all + that we think; for this would be impertinent. We owe a certain deference + and consideration to our fellow-men; we owe it in reality to ourselves. We + do not communicate indiscriminately all that passes within us. The time + would fail us; and "the world would not contain the books that might be + written." We do not speak merely for the sake of speaking; otherwise the + communication of man with his fellow would be but one eternal babble. + Speech is to be employed for some useful purpose; nor ought we to give + utterance to any thing that shall not promise to be in some way productive + of benefit or amusement. + </p> + <p> + Frankness has its limits, beyond which it would cease to be either + advantageous or virtuous. We are not to tell every thing: but we are not + to conceal any thing, that it would be useful or becoming in us to utter. + Our first duty regarding the faculty of speech is, not to keep back what + it would be beneficial to our neighbour to know. But this is a negative + sincerity only. If we would acquire a character for frankness, we must be + careful that our conversation is such, as to excite in him the idea that + we are open, ingenuous and fearless. We must appear forward to speak all + that will give him pleasure, and contribute to maintain in him an + agreeable state of being. It must be obvious that we are not artificial + and on our guard.—After all, it is difficult to lay down rules on + this subject: the spring of whatever is desirable respecting it, must be + in the temper of the man with whom others have intercourse. He must be + benevolent, sympathetic and affectionate. His heart must overflow with + good-will; and he must be anxious to relieve every little pain, and to + contribute to the enjoyment and complacent feelings, of those with whom he + is permanently or accidentally connected. "Out of the abundance of the + heart the mouth speaketh." + </p> + <p> + There are two considerations by which we ought to be directed in the + exercise of the faculty of speech. + </p> + <p> + The first is, that we should tell our neighbour all that it would be + useful to him to know. We must have no sinister or bye ends. "No man + liveth to himself." We are all of us members of the great congregation of + mankind. The same blood should circulate through every limb and every + muscle. Our pulses should beat time to each other; and we should have one + common sensorium, vibrating throughout, upon every material accident that + occurs, and when any object is at stake essentially affecting the welfare + of our fellow-beings. We should forget ourselves in the interest that we + feel for the happiness of others; and, if this were universal, each man + would be a gainer, inasmuch as he lost himself, and was cared and watched + for by many. + </p> + <p> + In all these respects we must have no reserve. We should only consider + what it is that it would be beneficial to have declared. + </p> + <p> + We must not look back to ourselves, and consult the dictates of a narrow + and self-interested prudence. The whole essence of communication is + adulterated, if, instead of attending to the direct effects of what + suggests itself to our tongue, we are to consider how by a circuitous + route it may react upon our own pleasures and advantage. + </p> + <p> + Nor only are we bound to communicate to our neighbour all that it will be + useful to him to know. We have many neighbours, beside those to whom we + immediately address ourselves. To these our absent fellow-beings, we owe a + thousand duties. We are bound to defend those whom we hear aspersed, and + who are spoken unworthily of by the persons whom we incidentally + encounter. We should be the forward and spontaneous advocates of merit in + every shape and in every individual in whom we know it to exist. What a + character would that man make for himself, of whom it was notorious that + he consecrated his faculty of speech to the refuting unjust imputations + against whomsoever they were directed, to the contradicting all false and + malicious reports, and to the bringing forth obscure and unrecognised + worth from the shades in which it lay hid! What a world should we live in, + if all men were thus prompt and fearless to do justice to all the worth + they knew or apprehended to exist! Justice, simple justice, if it extended + no farther than barely to the faculty of speech, would in no long time put + down all misrepresentation and calumny, bring all that is good and + meritorious into honour, and, so to speak, set every man in his true and + rightful position. But whoever would attempt this, must do it in all + honour, without parade, and with no ever-and-anon looking back upon his + achievement, and saying, See to how much credit I am entitled!—as if + he laid more stress upon himself, the doer of this justice, than upon + justice in its intrinsic nature and claims. + </p> + <p> + But we not only owe something to the advantage and interest of our + neighbours, but something also to the sacred divinity of Truth. I am not + only to tell my neighbour whatever I know that may be beneficial to him, + respecting his position in society, his faults, what other men appear to + contemplate that may conduce to his advantage or injury, and to advise him + how the one may best be forwarded, or the other defeated and brought to + nothing: I am bound also to consider in what way it may be in my power so + to act on his mind, as shall most enlarge his views, confirm and animate + his good resolutions, and meliorate his dispositions and temper. We are + all members of one great community: and we shall never sufficiently + discharge our duty in that respect, till, like the ancient Spartans, the + love of the whole becomes our predominant passion, and we cease to imagine + that we belong to ourselves, so much as to the entire body of which we are + a part. There are certain views in morality, in politics, and various + other important subjects, the general prevalence of which will be of the + highest benefit to the society of which we are members; and it becomes us + in this respect, with proper temperance and moderation, to conform + ourselves to the zealous and fervent precept of the apostle, to + "promulgate the truth and be instant, in season and out of season," that + we may by all means leave some monument of our good intentions behind us, + and feel that we have not lived in vain. + </p> + <p> + There is a maxim extremely in vogue in the ordinary intercourses of + society, which deserves to be noticed here, for the purpose of exposing it + to merited condemnation. It is very common between friends, or persons + calling themselves such, to say, "Do not ask my advice in a certain crisis + of your life; I will not give it; hereafter, if the thing turns out wrong, + you will reflect on me, and say that it was at my suggestion that you were + involved in calamity." This is a dastardly excuse, and shews a pitiful + selfishness in the man that urges it. + </p> + <p> + It is true, that we ought ever to be on the alert, that we may not induce + our friend into evil. We should be upon our guard, that we may not from + overweening arrogance and self-conceit dictate to another, overpower his + more sober judgment, and assume a rashness for him, in which perhaps we + would not dare to indulge for ourselves. We should be modest in our + suggestions, and rather supply him with materials for decision, than with + a decision absolutely made. There may however be cases where an opposite + proceeding is necessary. We must arrest our friend, nay, even him who is + merely our fellow-creature, with a strong arm, when we see him hovering on + the brink of a precipice, or the danger is so obvious, that nothing but + absolute blindness could conceal it from an impartial bystander. + </p> + <p> + But in all cases our best judgment should always be at the service of our + brethren of mankind. "Give to him that asketh thee; and from him that + would borrow of thee turn not thou away." + </p> + <p> + This may not always be practicable or just, when applied to the goods of + fortune: but the case of advice, information, and laws of conduct, comes + within that of Ennius, to suffer our neighbour to light his candle at our + lamp. To do so will enrich him, without making us a jot the poorer. We + should indeed respect the right of private judgment, and scarcely in any + case allow our will to supersede his will in his own proper province. But + we should on no account suffer any cowardly fears for ourselves, to induce + us to withhold from him any assistance that our wider information or our + sounder judgment might supply to him. + </p> + <p> + The next consideration by which we should be directed in the exercise of + the faculty of speech, is that we should employ it so as should best + conduce to the pleasure of our neighbour. Man is a different creature in + the savage and the civilised state. It has been affirmed, and it may be + true, that the savage man is a stranger to that disagreeable frame of + mind, known by the name of ennui. He can pore upon the babbling stream, or + stretch himself upon a sunny bank, from the rising to the setting of the + sun, and be satisfied. He is scarcely roused from this torpid state but by + the cravings of nature. If they can be supplied without effort, he + immediately relapses into his former supineness; and, if it requires + search, industry and exertion to procure their gratification, he still + more eagerly embraces the repose, which previous fatigue renders doubly + welcome. + </p> + <p> + But, when the mind has once been wakened up from its original lethargy, + when we have overstepped the boundary which divides the man from the + beast, and are made desirous of improvement, while at the same moment the + tumultuous passions that draw us in infinitely diversified directions are + called into act, the case becomes exceedingly different. It might be + difficult at first to rouse man from his original lethargy: it is next to + impossible that he should ever again be restored to it. The appetite of + the mind being once thoroughly awakened in society, the human species are + found to be perpetually craving after new intellectual food. We read, we + write, we discourse, we ford rivers, and scale mountains, and engage in + various pursuits, for the pure pleasure that the activity and earnestness + of the pursuit afford us. The day of the savage and the civilised man are + still called by the same name. They may be measured by a pendulum, and + will be found to be of the same duration. But in all other points of view + they are inexpressibly different. + </p> + <p> + Hence therefore arises another duty that is incumbent upon us as to the + exercise of the faculty of speech. This duty will be more or less urgent + according to the situation in which we are placed. + </p> + <p> + If I sit down in a numerous assembly, if I become one of a convivial party + of ten or twelve persons, I may unblamed be for the greater part, or + entirely silent, if I please. I must appear to enter into their sentiments + and pleasures, or, if I do not, I shall be an unwelcome guest; but it may + scarcely be required for me to clothe my feelings with articulate speech. + </p> + <p> + But, when my society shall be that of a few friends only, and still more + if the question is of spending hours or days in the society of a single + friend, my duty becomes altered, and a greater degree of activity will be + required from me. There are cases, where the minor morals of the species + will be of more importance than those which in their own nature are + cardinal. Duties of the highest magnitude will perhaps only be brought + into requisition upon extraordinary occasions; but the opportunities we + have of lessening the inconveniences of our neighbour, or of adding to his + accommodations and the amount of his agreeable feelings, are innumerable. + An acceptable and welcome member of society therefore will not talk, only + when he has something important to communicate. He will also study how he + may amuse his friend with agreeable narratives, lively remarks, sallies of + wit, or any of those thousand nothings, which' set off with a wish to + please and a benevolent temper, will often entertain more and win the + entire good will of the person to whom they are addressed, than the wisest + discourse, or the vein of conversation which may exhibit the powers and + genius of the speaker to the greatest advantage. + </p> + <p> + Men of a dull and saturnine complexion will soon get to an end of all they + felt it incumbent on them to say to their comrades. But the same thing + will probably happen, though at a much later period, between friends of an + active mind, of the largest stores of information, and whose powers have + been exercised upon the greatest variety of sentiments, principles, and + original veins of thinking. When two such men first fall into society, + each will feel as if he had found a treasure. Their communications are + without end; their garrulity is excited, and converts into a perennial + spring. The topics upon which they are prompted to converse are so + numerous, that one seems to jostle out the other. + </p> + <p> + It may proceed thus from day to day, from month to month, and perhaps from + year to year. But, according to the old proverb, "It is a long lane that + has no turning." The persons here described will have a vast variety of + topics upon which they are incited to compare their opinions, and will lay + down these topics and take them up again times without number. Upon some, + one of the parties will feel himself entirely at home while the other is + comparatively a novice, and, in others, the advantage will be with the + other; so that the gain of both, in this free and unrestrained opening of + the soul, will be incalculable. But the time will come, like as in + perusing an author of the most extraordinary genius and the most versatile + powers, that the reading of each other's minds will be exhausted. They + know so much of each other's tone of thinking, that all that can be said + will be anticipated. The living voice, the sparkling eye, and the beaming + countenance will do much to put off the evil day, when we shall say, I + have had enough. But the time will come in which we shall feel that this + after all is but little, and we shall become sluggish, ourselves to + communicate, or to excite the dormant faculties of our friend, when the + spring, the waters of which so long afforded us the most exquisite + delight, is at length drawn dry. + </p> + <p> + I remember in my childish years being greatly struck with that passage in + the Bible, where it is written, "But I say unto you, that, for every idle + word that men shall speak, they shall give an account in the day of + judgment:" and, as I was very desirous of conforming myself to the + directions of the sacred volume, I was upon the point of forming a sort of + resolution, that I would on no account open my mouth to speak, without + having a weighty reason for uttering the thing I felt myself prompted to + say. + </p> + <p> + But practical directions of this sort are almost in all cases of ambiguous + interpretation. From the context of this passage it is clear, that by + "idle words" we are to understand vicious words, words tending to instil + into the mind unauthorised impulses, that shew in the man who speaks "a + will most rank, foul disproportion, thoughts unnatural," and are + calculated to render him by whom they are listened to, light and frivolous + of temper, and unstrung for the graver duties of human life. + </p> + <p> + But idle words, in the sense of innocent amusement, are not vicious. + "There is a time for all things." Amusement must not encroach upon or + thrust aside the real business, the important engagements, and the + animated pursuits of man. But it is entitled to take its turn unreproved. + Human life is so various, and the disposition and temper of the mind of so + different tones and capacity, that a wise man will "frame his face to all + occasions." Playfulness, if not carried to too great an extreme, is an + additional perfection in human nature. We become relieved from our more + serious cares, and better fitted to enter on them again after an interval. + To fill up the days of our lives with various engagements, to make one + occupation succeed to another, so as to liberate us from the pains of + ennui, and the dangers of what may in an emphatical sense be called + idleness, is no small desideratum. That king may in this sense be admitted + to have formed no superficial estimate of our common nature, who is said + to have proclaimed a reward to the individual that should invent a new + amusement. + </p> + <p> + And, to consider the question as it stands in relation to the subject of + the present Essay, a perpetual gravity and a vigilant watch to be placed + on the door of our lips, would be eminently hostile to that frankness + which is to be regarded as one of the greatest ornaments of our nature. + "It is meet, that we should make merry and be glad." A formal countenance, + a demure, careful and unaltered cast of features, is one of the most + disadvantageous aspects under which human nature can exhibit itself. The + temper must be enterprising and fearless, the manner firm and assured, and + the correspondence between the heart and the tongue prompt and + instantaneous, if we desire to have that view of man that shall do him the + most credit, and induce us to form the most honourable opinion respecting + him. On our front should sit fearless confidence and unsubdued hilarity. + Our limbs should be free and unfettered, a state of the animal which + imparts a grace infinitely more winning than that of the most skilful + dancer. The very sound of our voice should be full, firm, mellow, and + fraught with life and sensibility; of that nature, at the hearing of which + every bosom rises, and every eye is lighted up. It is thus that men come + to understand and confide in each other. This is the only frame that can + perfectly conduce to our moral improvement, the awakening of our + faculties, the diffusion of science, and the establishment of the purest + notions and principles of civil and political liberty. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0022" id="link2H_4_0022"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY XVII. OF BALLOT. + </h2> + <p> + The subject of the preceding Essay leads by an obvious transition to the + examination of a topic, which at present occupies to a considerable extent + the attention of those who are anxious for the progress of public + improvement, and the placing the liberties of mankind on the securest + basis: I mean, the topic of the vote by ballot. + </p> + <p> + It is admitted that the most beneficial scheme for the government of + nations, is a government by representation: that is, that there shall be + in every nation, or large collection of men, a paramount legislative + assembly, composed of deputies chosen by the people in their respective + counties, cities, towns, or departments. In what manner then shall these + deputies be elected? + </p> + <p> + The argument in favour of the election by ballot is obvious. + </p> + <p> + In nearly all civilised countries there exists more or less an inequality + of rank and property: we will confine our attention principally to the + latter. + </p> + <p> + Property necessarily involves influence. Mankind are but too prone to pay + a superior deference to those who wear better clothes, live in larger + houses, and command superior accommodations to those which fall to the lot + of the majority. + </p> + <p> + One of the main sources of wealth in civilised nations is the possession + of land. Those who have a considerable allotment of land in property, for + the most part let it out in farms on lease or otherwise to persons of an + inferior rank, by whom it is cultivated. In this case a reciprocal + relation is created between the landlord and the tenant: and, if the + landlord conducts himself towards his tenant agreeably to the principles + of honour and liberality, it is impossible that the tenant should not feel + disposed to gratify his landlord, so far as shall be compatible with his + own notions of moral rectitude, or the paramount interests of the society + of which he is a member. + </p> + <p> + If the proprietor of any extensive allotment of land does not let it out + in farms, but retains it under his own direction, he must employ a great + number of husbandmen and labourers; and over them he must be expected to + exercise the same sort of influence, as under the former statement we + supposed him to exercise over his tenants. + </p> + <p> + The same principle will still operate wherever any one man in society is + engaged in the expenditure of a considerable capital. The manufacturer + will possess the same influence over his workmen, as the landed proprietor + over his tenants or labourers. Even the person who possesses considerable + opulence, and has no intention to engage in the pursuits of profit or + accumulation, will have an ample retinue, and will be enabled to use the + same species of influence over his retainers and trades-people, as the + landlord exercises over his tenants and labourers, and the manufacturer + over his workmen. + </p> + <p> + A certain degree of this species of influence in society, is perhaps not + to be excepted against. The possessor of opulence in whatever form, may be + expected to have received a superior education, and, being placed at a + certain distance from the minuter details and the lesser wheels in the + machine of society, to have larger and more expansive views as to the + interests of the whole. It is good that men in different ranks of society + should be brought into intercourse with each other; it will subtract + something from the prejudices of both, and enable each to obtain some of + the advantages of the other. The division of rank is too much calculated + to split society into parties having a certain hostility to each other. In + a free state we are all citizens: it is desirable that we should all be + friends. + </p> + <p> + But this species of influence may be carried too far. To a certain extent + it is good. Inasmuch as it implies the enlightening one human + understanding by the sparks struck out from another, or even the + communication of feelings between man and man, this is not to be + deprecated. Some degree of courteous compliance and deference of the + ignorant to the better informed, is inseparable from the existence of + political society as we behold it; such a deference as we may conceive the + candid and conscientious layman to pay to the suggestions of his honest + and disinterested pastor. + </p> + <p> + Every thing however that is more than this, is evil. There should be no + peremptory mandates, and no threat or apprehension of retaliation and + mischief to follow, if the man of inferior station or opulence should + finally differ in opinion from his wealthier neighbour. We may admit of a + moral influence; but there must be nothing, that should in the smallest + degree border on compulsion. + </p> + <p> + But it is unfortunately in the very nature of weak, erring and fallible + mortals, to make an ill use of the powers that are confided to their + discretion. The rich man in the wantonness of his authority will not stop + at moral influence, but, if he is disappointed of his expectation by what + he will call my wilfulness and obstinacy, will speedily find himself + impelled to vindicate his prerogative, and to punish my resistance. In + every such disappointment he will discern a dangerous precedent, and will + apprehend that, if I escape with impunity, the whole of that ascendancy, + which he has regarded as one of the valuable privileges contingent to his + station, will be undermined. + </p> + <p> + Opulence has two ways of this grosser sort, by which it may enable its + possessor to command the man below him,—punishment and reward. As + the holder, for example, of a large landed estate, or the administrator of + an ample income, may punish the man who shews himself refractory to his + will, so he may also reward the individual who yields to his suggestions. + This, in whatever form it presents itself, may be classed under the + general head of bribery. + </p> + <p> + The remedy for all this therefore, real or potential, mischief, is said to + lie in the vote by ballot, a contrivance, by means of which every man + shall be enabled to give his vote in favour of or against any candidate + that shall be nominated, in absolute secrecy, without it being possible + for any one to discover on which side the elector decided,—nay, a + contrivance, by which the elector is invited to practise mystery and + concealment, inasmuch as it would seem an impertinence in him to speak + out, when the law is expressly constructed to bid him act and be silent. + If he speaks, he is guilty of a sort of libel on his brother-electors, who + are hereby implicitly reproached by him for their impenetrableness and + cowardice. + </p> + <p> + We are told that the institution of the ballot is indispensible to the + existence of a free state, in a country where the goods of fortune are + unequally distributed. In England, as the right of sending members to + parliament is apportioned at the time I am writing, the power of electing + is bestowed with such glaring inequality, and the number of electors in + many cases is so insignificant, as inevitably to give to the noble and the + rich the means of appointing almost any representatives they think fit, so + that the house of commons may more justly be styled the nominees of the + upper house, than the deputies of the nation. And it is further said, + Remedy this inequality as much as you please, and reform the state of the + representation to whatever degree, still, so long as the votes at + elections are required to be given openly, the reform will be unavailing, + and the essential part of the mischief will remain. The right of giving + our votes in secrecy, is the only remedy that can cut off the ascendancy + of the more opulent members of the community over the rest, and give us + the substance of liberty, instead of cheating us with the shadow. + </p> + <p> + On the other side I would beg the reader to consider, that the vote by + ballot, in its obvious construction, is not the symbol of liberty, but of + slavery. What is it, that presents to every eye the image of liberty, and + compels every heart to confess, This is the temple where she resides? An + open front, a steady and assured look, an habitual and uninterrupted + commerce between the heart and the tongue. The free man communicates with + his neighbour, not in corners and concealed places, but in market-places + and scenes of public resort; and it is thus that the sacred spark is + caught from man to man, till all are inspired with a common flame. + Communication and publicity are of the essence of liberty; it is the air + they breathe; and without it they die. + </p> + <p> + If on the contrary I would characterise a despotism, I should say, It + implied a certain circumference of soil, through whose divisions and + districts every man suspected his neighbour, where every man was haunted + with the terror that "walls have ears," and only whispered his discontent, + his hopes and his fears, to the trees of the forest and the silent + streams. If the dwellers on this soil consulted together, it would be in + secret cabals and with closed doors; engaging in the sacred cause of + public welfare and happiness, as if it were a thing of guilt, which the + conspirator scarcely ventured to confess to his own heart. + </p> + <p> + A shrewd person of my acquaintance the other day, to whom I unadvisedly + proposed a question as to what he thought of some public transaction, + instantly replied with symptoms of alarm, "I beg to say that I never + disclose my opinions upon matters either of religion or politics to any + one." What did this answer imply as to the political government of the country + where it was given? + </p> + <p> + Is it characteristic of a free state or a tyranny? + </p> + <p> + One of the first and highest duties that falls to the lot of a human + creature, is that which he owes to the aggregate of reasonable beings + inhabiting what he calls his country. Our duties are then most solemn and + elevating, when they are calculated to affect the well being of the + greatest number of men; and of consequence what a patriot owes to his + native soil is the noblest theatre for his moral faculties. And shall we + teach men to discharge this debt in the dark? Surely every man ought to be + able to "render a reason of the hope that is in him," and give a modest, + but an assured, account of his political conduct. When he approaches the + hustings at the period of a public election, this is his altar, where he + sacrifices in the face of men to that deity, which is most worth his + adoration of all the powers whose single province is our sublunary state. + </p> + <p> + But the principle of the institution of ballot is to teach men to perform + their best actions under the cloke of concealment. When I return from + giving my vote in the choice of a legislative representative, I ought, if + my mode of proceeding were regulated by the undebauched feelings of our + nature, to feel somewhat proud that I had discharged this duty, + uninfluenced, uncorrupted, in the sincere frame of a conscientious spirit. + But the institution of ballot instigates me carefully to conceal what I + have done. If I am questioned respecting it, the proper reply which is as + it were put into my mouth is, "You have no right to ask me; and I shall + not tell." But, as every man does not recollect the proper reply at the + moment it is wanted, and most men feel abashed, when a direct question is + put to them to which they know they are not to return a direct answer, + many will stammer and feel confused, will perhaps insinuate a falshood, + while at the same time their manner to a discerning eye will, in spite of + all their precautions, disclose the very truth. + </p> + <p> + The institution of ballot not only teaches us that our best actions are + those which we ought most steadily to disavow, but carries distrust and + suspicion into all our most familiar relations. The man I want to deceive, + and throw out in the keenness of his hunting, is my landlord. But how + shall I most effectually conceal the truth from him? May I be allowed to + tell it to my wife or my child? I had better not. It is a known maxim of + worldly prudence, that the truth which may be a source of serious injury + to me, is safest, when it is shut up in my own bosom. If I once let it + out, there is no saying where the communication may stop. "Day unto day + uttereth speech; and night unto night sheweth forth knowledge." + </p> + <p> + And is this the proud attitude of liberty, to which we are so eager to + aspire? After all, there will be some ingenuous men in the community, who + will not know how for ever to suppress what is dearest to their hearts. + But at any rate this institution holds out a prize to him that shall be + most secret and untraceable in his proceedings, that shall "shoe his + horses with felt," and proceed in all his courses with silence and + suspicion. + </p> + <p> + The first principle of morality to social man is, that we act under the + eye of our fellows. The truly virtuous man would do as he ought, though no + eye observed him. Persons, it is true, who deport themselves merely as + "men-pleasers," for ever considering how the by-standers will pronounce of + their conduct, are entitled to small commendation. The good man, it is + certain, will see + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + To do what virtue would, though sun and moon + Were in the flat sea sunk. +</pre> + <p> + But, imperfect creatures as we mortals usually are, these things act and + react upon each other. A man of honourable intentions will demean himself + justly, from the love of right. But he is confirmed in his just dealing by + the approbation of his fellows; and, if he were tempted to step awry, he + would be checked by the anticipation of their censure. Such is the nature + of our moral education. It is with virtue, as it is with literary fame. If + I write well, I can scarcely feel secure that I do so, till I obtain the + suffrage of some competent judges, confirming the verdict which I was + before tempted to pronounce in my own favour. + </p> + <p> + This acting as in a theatre, where men and Gods are judges of my conduct, + is the true destination of man; and we cannot violate the universal law + under which we were born, without having reason to fear the most injurious + effects. + </p> + <p> + And is this mysterious and concealed way of proceeding one of the forms + through which we are to pass in the school of liberty? The great end of + all liberal institutions is, to make a man fearless, frank as the day, + acting from a lively and earnest impulse, which will not be restrained, + disdains all half-measures, and prompts us, as it were, to carry our + hearts in our hands, for all men to challenge, and all men to comment on. + It is true, that the devisers of liberal institutions will have foremost + in their thoughts, how men shall be secure in their personal liberty, + unrestrained in the execution of what their thoughts prompt them to do, + and uncontrolled in the administration of the fruits of their industry. + But the moral end of all is, that a man shall be worthy of the name, + erect, independent of mind, spontaneous of decision, intrepid, overflowing + with all good feelings, and open in the expression of the sentiments they + inspire. If man is double in his weightiest purposes, full of ambiguity + and concealment, and not daring to give words to the impulses of his soul, + what matters it that he is free? We may pronounce of this man, that he is + unworthy of the blessing that has fallen to his lot, and will never + produce the fruits that should be engendered in the lap of liberty. + </p> + <p> + There is however, it should seem, a short answer to all this. It is in + vain to expatiate to us upon the mischiefs of lying, hypocrisy and + concealment, since it is only through them, as the way by which we are to + march, that nations can be made free. + </p> + <p> + This certainly is a fearful judgment awarded upon our species: but is it + true? + </p> + <p> + We are to begin, it seems, with concealing from our landlord, or our + opulent neighbour, our political determinations; and so his corrupt + influence will be broken, and the humblest individual will be safe in + doing that which his honest and unbiased feelings may prompt him to do. + </p> + <p> + No: this is not the way in which the enemy of the souls of men is to be + defeated. We must not begin with the confession of our faint-heartedness + and our cowardice. A quiet, sober, unaltered frame of judgment, that + insults no one, that has in it nothing violent, brutal and defying, is the + frame that becomes us. If I would teach another man, my superior in rank, + how he ought to construe and decide upon the conduct I hold, I must begin + by making that conduct explicit. + </p> + <p> + It is not in morals, as it is in war. There stratagem is allowable, and to + take the enemy by surprise. "Who enquires of an enemy, whether it is by + fraud or heroic enterprise that he has gained the day?" But it is not so + that the cause of liberty is to be vindicated in the civil career of life. + </p> + <p> + The question is of reducing the higher ranks of society to admit the just + immunities of their inferiors. I will not allow that they shall be cheated + into it. No: no man was ever yet recovered to his senses in a question of + morals, but by plain, honest, soul-commanding speech. Truth is omnipotent, + if we do not violate its majesty by surrendering its outworks, and giving + up that vantage-ground, of which if we deprive it, it ceases to be truth. + It finds a responsive chord in every human bosom. Whoever hears its voice, + at the same time recognises its power. However corrupt he may be, however + steeped in the habits of vice, and hardened in the practices of tyranny, + if it be mildly, distinctly, emphatically enunciated, the colour will + forsake his cheek, his speech will alter and be broken, and he will feel + himself unable to turn it off lightly, as a thing of no impression and + validity. In this way the erroneous man, the man nursed in the house of + luxury, a stranger to the genuine, unvarnished state of things, stands a + fair chance of being corrected. + </p> + <p> + But, if an opposite, and a truer way of thinking than that to which he is + accustomed, is only brought to his observation by the reserve of him who + entertains it, and who, while he entertains it, is reluctant to hold + communion with his wealthier neighbour, who regards him as his adversary, + and hardly admits him to be of the same common nature, there will be no + general improvement. Under this discipline the two ranks of society will + be perpetually more estranged, view each other with eye askance, and will + be as two separate and hostile states, though inhabiting the same + territory. Is this the picture we desire to see of genuine liberty, + philanthropic, desirous of good to all, and overflowing with all generous + emotions? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I hate where vice can bolt her arguments, + And virtue has no tongue to check her pride. +</pre> + <p> + The man who interests himself for his country and its cause, who acts + bravely and independently, and knows that he runs some risk in doing so, + must have a strange opinion of the sacredness of truth, if the very + consciousness of having done nobly does not supply him with courage, and + give him that simple, unostentatious firmness, which shall carry immediate + conviction to the heart. It is a bitter lesson that the institution of + ballot teaches, while it says, "You have done well; therefore be silent; + whisper it not to the winds; disclose it not to those who are most nearly + allied to you; adopt the same conduct which would suggest itself to you, + if you had perpetrated an atrocious crime." + </p> + <p> + In no long time after the commencement of the war of the allies against + France, certain acts were introduced into the English parliament, + declaring it penal by word or writing to utter any thing that should tend + to bring the government into contempt; and these acts, by the mass of the + adversaries of despotic power, were in way of contempt called the Gagging + Acts. Little did I and my contemporaries of 1795 imagine, when we + protested against these acts in the triumphant reign of William Pitt, that + the soi-disant friends of liberty and radical reformers, when their turn + of triumph came, would propose their Gagging Acts, recommending to the + people to vote agreeably to their consciences, but forbidding them to give + publicity to the honourable conduct they had been prevailed on to adopt! + </p> + <p> + But all this reasoning is founded in an erroneous, and groundlessly + degrading, opinion of human nature. The improvement of the general + institutions of society, the correction of the gross inequalities of our + representation, will operate towards the improvement of all the members of + the community. While ninety-nine in an hundred of the inhabitants of + England are carried forward in the scale of intellect and virtue, it would + be absurd to suppose that the hundredth man will stand still, merely + because he is rich. Patriotism is a liberal and a social impulse; its + influence is irresistible; it is contagious, and is propagated by the + touch; it is infectious, and mixes itself with the air that we breathe. + </p> + <p> + Men are governed in their conduct in a surprising degree by the opinion of + others. It was all very well, when noblemen were each of them satisfied of + the equity and irresistible principle of their ascendancy, when the vulgar + population felt convinced that passive obedience was entailed on them from + their birth, when we were in a manner but just emancipated (illusorily + emancipated!) from the state of serfs and villains. But a memorable + melioration of the state of man will carry some degree of conviction to + the hearts of all. The most corrupt will be made doubtful: many who had + not gone so far in ill, will desert the banners of oppression. + </p> + <p> + We see this already. What a shock was propagated through the island, when, + the other day, a large proprietor, turning a considerable cluster of his + tenants out of the houses and lands they occupied, because they refused to + vote for a representative in parliament implicitly as he bade them, urged + in his own justification, "Shall I not do what I will with my own?" This + was all sound morals and divinity perhaps at the period of his birth. + Nobody disputed it; or, if any one did, he was set down by the oracles of + the vicinage as a crackbrained visionary. This man, so confident in his + own prerogatives, had slept for the last twenty years, and awoke totally + unconscious of what had been going on in almost every corner of Europe in + the interval. A few more such examples; and so broad and sweeping an + assumption will no more be heard of, and it will remain in the records of + history, as a thing for the reality of which we have sufficient evidence, + but which common sense repudiates, and which seems to demand from us a + certain degree of credulity to induce us to admit that it had ever been. + </p> + <p> + The manners of society are by no means so unchanged and unalterable as + many men suppose. It is here, as in the case of excessive drinking, which + I had lately occasion to mention(36). In rude and barbarous times men of + the highest circles piqued themselves upon their power of swallowing + excessive potations, and found pleasure in it. It is in this as in so many + other vices, we follow implicitly where our elders lead the way. But the + rage of drinking is now gone by; and you will with difficulty find a + company of persons of respectable appearance, who assemble round a table + for the purpose of making beasts of themselves. Formerly it was their + glory; now, if any man unhappily retains the weakness, he hides it from + his equals, as he would a loathsome disease. The same thing will happen as + to parliamentary corruption, and the absolute authority that was exercised + by landlords over the consciences of their tenants. He that shall attempt + to put into act what is then universally condemned, will be a marked man, + and will be generally shunned by his fellows. The eye of the world will be + upon him, as the murderer fancies himself followed by the eye of + omnipotence; and he will obey the general voice of the community, that he + may be at peace with himself. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (36) See above, Essay 9. +</pre> + <p> + Let us not then disgrace a period of memorable improvement, by combining + it with an institution that should mark that we, the great body of the + people, regard the more opulent members of the community as our foes. Let + us hold out to them the right hand of fellowship; and they will meet us. + They will be influenced, partly by ingenuous shame for the unworthy + conduct which they and their fathers had so long pursued, and partly by + sympathy for the genuine joy and expansion of heart that is spreading + itself through the land. Scarcely any one can restrain himself from + participating in the happiness of the great body of his countrymen; and, + if they see that we treat them with generous confidence, and are unwilling + to recur to the memory of former grievances, and that a spirit of + philanthropy and unlimited good-will is the sentiment of the day, it can + scarcely happen but that their conversion will be complete, and the + harmony be made entire(37). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (37) The subject of this Essay is resumed in the close of the following. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0023" id="link2H_4_0023"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY XVIII. OF DIFFIDENCE. + </h2> + <p> + The following Essay will be to a considerable degree in the nature of + confession, like the Confessions of St. Augustine or of Jean Jacques + Rousseau. It may therefore at first sight appear of small intrinsic value, + and scarcely worthy of a place in the present series. But, as I have had + occasion more than once to remark, we are all of us framed in a great + measure on the same model, and the analysis of the individual may often + stand for the analysis of a species. While I describe myself therefore, I + shall probably at the same time be describing no inconsiderable number of + my fellow-beings. + </p> + <p> + It is true, that the duty of man under the head of Frankness, is of a very + comprehensive nature. We ought all of us to tell to our neighbour whatever + it may be of advantage to him to know, we ought to be the sincere and + zealous advocates of absent merit and worth, and we are bound by every + means in our power to contribute to the improvement of others, and to the + diffusion of salutary truths through the world. + </p> + <p> + From the universality of these precepts many readers might be apt to + infer, that I am in my own person the bold and unsparing preacher of + truth, resolutely giving to every man his due, and, agreeably to the + apostle's direction, "instant in season, and out of season." The + individual who answers to this description will often be deemed + troublesome, often annoying; he will produce a considerable sensation in + the circle of those who know him; and it will depend upon various + collateral circumstances, whether he shall ultimately be judged a rash and + intemperate disturber of the contemplations of his neighbours, or a + disinterested and heroic suggester of new veins of thinking, by which his + contemporaries and their posterity shall be essentially the gainers. + </p> + <p> + I have no desire to pass myself upon those who may have any curiosity + respecting me for better than I am; and I will therefore here put down a + few particulars, which may tend to enable them to form an equitable + judgment. + </p> + <p> + One of the earliest passions of my mind was the love of truth and sound + opinion. "Why should I," such was the language of my solitary meditations, + "because I was born in a certain degree of latitude, in a certain century, + in a country where certain institutions prevail, and of parents professing + a certain faith, take it for granted that all this is right?—This is + matter of accident. 'Time and chance happeneth to all:' and I, the + thinking principle within me, might, if such had been the order of events, + have been born under circumstances the very reverse of those under which I + was born. I will not, if I can help it, be the creature of accident; I + will not, like a shuttle-cock, be at the disposal of every impulse that is + given me." I felt a certain disdain for the being thus directed; I could + not endure the idea of being made a fool of, and of taking every ignis + fatuus for a guide, and every stray notion, the meteor of the day, for + everlasting truth. I am the person, spoken of in a preceding Essay(38), + who early said to Truth, "Go on: whithersoever thou leadest, I am prepared + to follow." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (38) See above, Essay XIII. +</pre> + <p> + During my college-life therefore, I read all sorts of books, on every side + of any important question, that were thrown in my way, or that I could + hear of. But the very passion that determined me to this mode of + proceeding, made me wary and circumspect in coming to a conclusion. I knew + that it would, if any thing, be a more censurable and contemptible act, to + yield to every seducing novelty, than to adhere obstinately to a prejudice + because it had been instilled into me in youth. I was therefore slow of + conviction, and by no means "given to change." I never willingly parted + with a suggestion that was unexpectedly furnished to me; but I examined it + again and again, before I consented that it should enter into the set of + my principles. + </p> + <p> + In proportion however as I became acquainted with truth, or what appeared + to me to be truth, I was like what I have read of Melancthon, who, when he + was first converted to the tenets of Luther, became eager to go into all + companies, that he might make them partakers of the same inestimable + treasures, and set before them evidence that was to him irresistible. It + is needless to say, that he often encountered the most mortifying + disappointment. + </p> + <p> + Young and eager as I was in my mission, I received in this way many a + bitter lesson. But the peculiarity of my temper rendered this doubly + impressive to me. I could not pass over a hint, let it come from what + quarter it would, without taking it into some consideration, and + endeavouring to ascertain the precise weight that was to be attributed to + it. It would however often happen, particularly in the question of the + claims of a given individual to honour and respect, that I could see + nothing but the most glaring injustice in the opposition I experienced. In + canvassing the character of an individual, it is not for the most part + general, abstract or moral, principles that are called into question: I am + left in possession of the premises which taught me to admire the man whose + character is contested; and conformably to those premises I see that his + claim to the honour I have paid him is fully made out. + </p> + <p> + In my communications with others, in the endeavour to impart what I deemed + to be truth, I began with boldness: but I often found that the evidence + that was to me irresistible, was made small account of by others; and it + not seldom happened, as candour was my principle, and a determination to + receive what could be strewn to be truth, let it come from what quarter it + would, that suggestions were presented to me, materially calculated to + stagger the confidence with which I had set out. If I had been divinely + inspired, if I had been secured by an omniscient spirit against the danger + of error, my case would have been different. But I was not inspired. I + often encountered an opposition I had not anticipated, and was often + presented with objections, or had pointed out to me flaws and deficiencies + in my reasonings, which, till they were so pointed out, I had not + apprehended. I had not lungs enabling me to drown all contradiction; and, + which was still more material, I had not a frame of mind, which should + determine me to regard whatever could be urged against me as of no value. + I therefore became cautious. As a human creature, I did not relish the + being held up to others' or to myself, as rash, inconsiderate and + headlong, unaware of difficulties the most obvious, embracing propositions + the most untenable, and "against hope believing in hope." And, as an + apostle of truth, I distinctly perceived that a reputation for + perspicacity and sound judgment was essential to my mission. I therefore + often became less a speaker, than a listener, and by no means made it a + law with myself to defend principles and characters I honoured, on every + occasion on which I might hear them attacked. + </p> + <p> + A new epoch occurred in my character, when I published, and at the time I + was writing, my Enquiry concerning Political Justice. My mind was wrought + up to a certain elevation of tone; the speculations in which I was + engaged, tending to embrace all that was most important to man in society, + and the frame to which I had assiduously bent myself, of giving quarter to + nothing because it was old, and shrinking from nothing because it was + startling and astounding, gave a new bias to my character. The habit which + I thus formed put me more on the alert even in the scenes of ordinary + life, and gave me a boldness and an eloquence more than was natural to me. + I then reverted to the principle which I stated in the beginning, of being + ready to tell my neighbour whatever it might be of advantage to him to + know, to shew myself the sincere and zealous advocate of absent merit and + worth, and to contribute by every means in my power to the improvement of + others and to the diffusion of salutary truth through the world. I desired + that every hour that I lived should be turned to the best account, and was + bent each day to examine whether I had conformed myself to this rule. I + held on this course with tolerable constancy for five or six years: and, + even when that constancy abated, it failed not to leave a beneficial + effect on my subsequent conduct. + </p> + <p> + But, in pursuing this scheme of practice, I was acting a part somewhat + foreign to my constitution. I was by nature more of a speculative than an + active character, more inclined to reason within myself upon what I heard + and saw, than to declaim concerning it. I loved to sit by unobserved, and + to meditate upon the panorama before me. At first I associated chiefly + with those who were more or less admirers of my work; and, as I had risen + (to speak in the slang phrase) like "a star" upon my contemporaries + without being expected, I was treated generally with a certain degree of + deference, or, where not with deference and submission, yet as a person + whose opinions and view of things were to be taken into the account. The + individuals who most strenuously opposed me, acted with a consciousness + that, if they affected to despise me, they must not expect that all the + bystanders would participate in that feeling. + </p> + <p> + But this was to a considerable degree the effect of novelty. My lungs, as + I have already said, were not of iron; my manner was not overbearing and + despotic; there was nothing in it to deter him who differed from me from + entering the field in turn, and telling the tale of his views and + judgments in contradiction to mine. I descended into the arena, and stood + on a level with the rest. Beyond this, it occasionally happened that, if I + had not the stentorian lungs, and the petty artifices of rhetoric and + conciliation, that should carry a cause independently of its merits, my + antagonists were not deficient in these respects. I had nothing in my + favour to balance this, but a sort of constitutional equanimity and + imperturbableness of temper, which, if I was at any time silenced, made me + not look like a captive to be dragged at the chariot-wheels of my + adversary. + </p> + <p> + All this however had a tendency to subtract from my vocation as a + missionary. I was no longer a knight-errant, prepared on all occasions by + dint of arms to vindicate the cause of every principle that was unjustly + handled, and every character that was wrongfully assailed. Meanwhile I + returned to the field, occasionally and uncertainly. It required some + provocation and incitement to call me out: but there was the lion, or + whatever combative animal may more justly prefigure me, sleeping, and that + might be awakened. + </p> + <p> + There is another feature necessary to be mentioned, in order to make this + a faithful representation. There are persons, it should seem, of whom it + may be predicated, that they are semper parati. This has by no means been + my case. My genius often deserted me. I was far from having the thought, + the argument, or the illustration at all times ready, when it was + required. I resembled to a certain degree the persons we read of, who are + said to be struck as if with a divine judgment. I was for a moment changed + into one of the mere herd, de grege porcus. My powers therefore were + precarious, and I could not always be the intrepid and qualified advocate + of truth, if I vehemently desired it. I have often, a few minutes + afterwards, or on my return to my chambers, recollected the train of + thinking, which world have strewn me off to advantage, and memorably done + me honour, if I could have had it at my command the moment it was wanted. + </p> + <p> + And so much for confession. I am by no means vindicating myself. + </p> + <p> + I honour much more the man who is at all times ready to tell his neighbour + whatever it may be of advantage to him to know, to shew himself the + sincere and untemporising advocate of absent merit and worth, and to + contribute by every means in his power to the improvement of others, and + to the diffusion of salutary truths through the world. + </p> + <p> + This is what every man ought to be, and what the best devised scheme of + republican institutions would have a tendency to make us all. + </p> + <p> + But, though the man here described is to a certain degree a deserter of + his true place in society, and cannot be admitted to have played his part + in all things well, we are by no means to pronounce upon him a more + unfavourable judgment than he merits. Diffidence, though, where it + disqualifies us in any way from doing justice to truth, either as it + respects general principle or individual character, a defect, yet is on no + account to be confounded in demerit with that suppression of truth, or + misrepresentation, which grows out of actual craft and design. + </p> + <p> + The diffident man, in some cases seldomer, and in some oftener and in a + more glaring manner, deserts the cause of truth, and by that means is the + cause of misrepresentation, and indirectly the propagator of falshood. But + he is constant and sincere as far as he goes; he never lends his voice to + falshood, or intentionally to sophistry; he never for an instant goes over + to the enemy's standard, or disgraces his honest front by strewing it in + the ranks of tyranny or imposture. He may undoubtedly be accused, to a + certain degree, of dissimulation, or throwing into shade the thing that + is, but never of simulation, or the pretending the thing to be that is + not. He is plain and uniform in every thing that he professes, or to which + he gives utterance; but, from timidity or irresolution, he keeps back in + part the offering which he owes at the shrine where it is most honourable + and glorious for man to worship. + </p> + <p> + And this brings me back again to the subject of the immediately preceding + Essay, the propriety of voting by ballot. + </p> + <p> + The very essence of this scheme is silence. And this silence is not merely + like that which is prompted by a diffident temper, which by fits is + practiced by the modest and irresolute man, and by fits disappears before + the sun of truth and through the energies of a temporary fortitude. It is + uniform. It is not brought into act only, when the individual unhappily + does not find in himself the firmness to play the adventurer. It becomes + matter of system, and is felt as being recommended to us for a duty. + </p> + <p> + Nor does the evil stop there. In the course of my ordinary communications + with my fellow-men, I speak when I please, and I am silent when I please, + and there is nothing specially to be remarked either way. If I speak, I am + perhaps listened to; and, if I am silent, it is likely enough concluded + that it is because I have nothing of importance to say. But in the + question of ballot the case is far otherwise. There it is known that the + voter has his secret. When I am silent upon a matter occurring in the + usual intercourses of life where I might speak, nay, where we will suppose + I ought to speak, I am at least guilty of dissimulation only. But the + voter by ballot is strongly impelled to the practice of the more enormous + sin of simulation. It is known, as I have said, that he has his secret. + And he will often be driven to have recourse to various stratagems, that + he may elude the enquirer, or that he may set at fault the sagacity of the + silent observer. He has something that he might tell if he would, and he + distorts himself in a thousand ways, that he may not betray the hoard + which he is known to have in his custody. The institution of ballot is the + fruitful parent of ambiguities, equivocations and lies without number. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0024" id="link2H_4_0024"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY XIX. OF SELF-COMPLACENCY. + </h2> + <p> + The subject of this Essay is intimately connected with those of Essays XI + and XII, perhaps the most important of the series. + </p> + <p> + It has been established in the latter, that human creatures are constantly + accompanied in their voluntary actions with the delusive sense of liberty, + and that our character, our energies, and our conscience of moral right + and wrong, are mainly dependent upon this feature in our constitution. + </p> + <p> + The subject of my present disquisition relates to the feeling of + self-approbation or self-complacency, which will be found inseparable from + the most honourable efforts and exertions in which mortal men can be + engaged. + </p> + <p> + One of the most striking of the precepts contained in what are called the + Golden Verses of Pythagoras, is couched in the words, "Reverence thyself." + </p> + <p> + The duties which are incumbent on man are of two sorts, negative and + positive. We are bound to set right our mistakes, and to correct the evil + habits to which we are prone; and we are bound also to be generously + ambitious, to aspire after excellence, and to undertake such things as may + reflect honour on ourselves, and be useful to others. + </p> + <p> + To the practice of the former of these classes of duties we may be + instigated by prohibitions, menaces and fear, the fear of mischiefs that + may fall upon us conformably to the known series of antecedents and + consequents in the course of nature, or of mischiefs that may be inflicted + on us by the laws of the country in which we live, or as results of the + ill will and disapprobation felt towards us by individuals. There is + nothing that is necessarily generous or invigorating in the practice of + our negative duties. They amount merely to a scheme for keeping us within + bounds, and restraining us from those sallies and escapes, which human + nature, undisciplined and left to itself, might betray us into. But + positive enterprise, and great actual improvement cannot be expected by us + in this way. All this is what the apostle refers to, when he speaks of + "the law as a schoolmaster to bring us to liberty," after which he advises + us "not to be again entangled with the yoke of bondage." + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, if we would enter ourselves in the race of positive + improvement, if we would become familiar with generous sentiments, and the + train of conduct which such sentiments inspire, we must provide ourselves + with the soil in which such things grow, and engage in the species of + husbandry by which they are matured; in other words, we must be no + strangers to self-esteem and self-complacency. + </p> + <p> + The truth of this statement may perhaps be most strikingly illustrated, if + we take for our example the progress of schoolboys under a preceptor. A + considerable proportion of these are apt, diligent, and desirous to + perform the tasks in which they are engaged, so as to satisfy the demands + of their masters and parents, and to advance honourably in the path that + is recommended to them. And a considerable proportion put themselves on + the defensive, and propose to their own minds to perform exactly as much + as shall exempt them from censure and punishment, and no more. + </p> + <p> + Now I say of the former, that they cannot accomplish the purpose they have + conceived, unless so far as they are aided by a sentiment of + self-reverence. + </p> + <p> + The difference of the two parties is, that the latter proceed, so far as + their studies are concerned, as feeling themselves under the law of + necessity, and as if they were machines merely, and the former as if they + were under what the apostle calls "the law of liberty." + </p> + <p> + We cannot perform our tasks to the best of our power, unless we think well + of our own capacity. + </p> + <p> + But this is the smallest part of what is necessary. We must also be in + good humour with ourselves. We must say, I can do that which I shall have + just occasion to look back upon with satisfaction. It is the anticipation + of this result, that stimulates our efforts, and carries us forward. + Perseverance is an active principle, and cannot continue to operate but + under the influence of desire. It is incompatible with languor and + neutrality. It implies the love of glory, perhaps of that glory which + shall be attributed to us by others, or perhaps only of that glory which + shall be reaped by us in the silent chambers of the mind. The diligent + scholar is he that loves himself, and desires to have reason to applaud + and love himself. He sits down to his task with resolution, he approves of + what he does in each step of the process, and in each enquires, Is this + the thing I purposed to effect? + </p> + <p> + And, as it is with the unfledged schoolboy, after the same manner it is + with the man mature. He must have to a certain extent a good opinion of + himself, he must feel a kind of internal harmony, giving to the + circulations of his frame animation and cheerfulness, or he can never + undertake and execute considerable things. + </p> + <p> + The execution of any thing considerable implies in the first place + previous persevering meditation. He that undertakes any great achievement + will, according to the vulgar phrase, "think twice," before he buckles up + his resolution, and plunges into the ocean, which he has already surveyed + with anxious glance while he remained on shore. Let our illustration be + the case of Columbus, who, from the figure of the earth, inferred that + there must be a way of arriving at the Indies by a voyage directly west, + in distinction from the very complicated way hitherto practiced, by + sailing up the Mediterranean, crossing the isthmus of Suez, and so falling + down the Red Sea into the Indian Ocean. He weighed all the circumstances + attendant on such an undertaking in his mind. He enquired into his own + powers and resources, imaged to himself the various obstacles that might + thwart his undertaking, and finally resolved to engage in it. If Columbus + had not entertained a very good opinion of himself, it is impossible that + he should have announced such a project, or should have achieved it. + </p> + <p> + Again. Let our illustration be, of Homer undertaking to compose the Iliad. + If he had not believed himself to be a man of very superior powers to the + majority of the persons around him, he would most assuredly never have + attempted it. What an enterprise! To describe in twenty-four books, and + sixteen thousand verses, the perpetual warfare and contention of two great + nations, all Greece being armed for the attack, and all the western + division of Asia Minor for the defence: the war carried on by two vast + confederacies, under numerous chiefs, all sovereign and essentially + independent of each other. To conceive the various characters of the + different leaders, and their mutual rivalship. To engage all heaven, such + as it was then understood, as well as what was most respectable on earth, + in the struggle. To form the idea, through twenty-four books, of varying + the incidents perpetually, and keeping alive the attention of the reader + or hearer without satiety or weariness. For this purpose, and to answer to + his conception of a great poem, Homer appears to have thought it necessary + that the action should be one; and he therefore took the incidental + quarrel of Achilles and the commander in chief, the resentment of + Achilles, and his consequent defection from the cause, till, by the death + of Patroclus, and then of Hector, all traces of the misunderstanding + first, and then of its consequences, should be fully obliterated. + </p> + <p> + There is further an essential difference between the undertaking of + Columbus and that of Homer. Once fairly engaged, there was for Columbus no + drawing back. Being already at sea on the great Atlantic Ocean, he could + not retrace his steps. Even when he had presented his project to the + sovereigns of Spain, and they had accepted it, and still more when the + ships were engaged, and the crews mustered, he must go forward, or submit + to indelible disgrace. + </p> + <p> + It is not so in writing a poem. The author of the latter may stop whenever + he pleases. Of consequence, during every day of its execution, he requires + a fresh stimulus. He must look back on the past, and forward on what is to + come, and feel that he has considerable reason to be satisfied. The great + naval discoverer may have his intervals of misgiving and discouragement, + and may, as Pope expresses it, "wish that any one would hang him." He goes + forward; for he has no longer the liberty to choose. But the author of a + mighty poem is not in the same manner entangled, and therefore to a great + degree returns to his work each day, "screwing his courage to the + sticking-place." He must feel the same fortitude and elasticity, and be as + entirely the same man of heroic energy, as when he first arrived at the + resolution to engage. How much then of self-complacency and + self-confidence do his undertaking and performance imply! + </p> + <p> + I have taken two of the most memorable examples in the catalogue of human + achievements: the discovery of a New World, and the production of the + Iliad. But all those voluntary actions, or rather series and chains of + actions, which comprise energy in the first determination, and honour in + the execution, each in its degree rests upon self-complacency as the + pillar upon which its weight is sustained, and without which it must sink + into nothing. + </p> + <p> + Self-complacency then being the indispensible condition of all that is + honourable in human achievements, hence we may derive a multitude of + duties, and those of the most delicate nature, incumbent on the preceptor, + as well as a peculiar discipline to be observed by the candidate, both + while he is "under a schoolmaster," and afterwards when he is emancipated, + and his plan of conduct is to be regulated by his own discretion. + </p> + <p> + The first duty of the preceptor is encouragement. + </p> + <p> + Not that his face is to be for ever dressed in smiles, and that his tone + is to be at all times that of invitation and courtship. The great theatre + of the world is of a mingled constitution, made up of advantages and + sufferings; and it is perhaps best that so should be the different scenes + of the drama as they pass. The young adventurer is not to expect to have + every difficulty smoothed for him by the hand of another. This were to + teach him a lesson of effeminacy and cowardice. On the contrary it is + necessary that he should learn that human life is a state of hardship, + that the adversary we have to encounter does not always present himself + with his fangs sheathed in the woolly softness which occasionally renders + them harmless, and that nothing great or eminently honourable was ever + achieved but through the dint of resolution, energy and struggle. It is + good that the winds of heaven should blow upon him, that he should + encounter the tempest of the elements, and occasionally sustain the + inclemency of the summer's heat and winter's cold, both literally and + metaphorically. + </p> + <p> + But the preceptor, however he conducts himself in other respects, ought + never to allow his pupil to despise himself, or to hold himself as of no + account. Self-contempt can never be a discipline favourable to energy or + to virtue. The pupil ought at all times to judge himself in some degree + worthy, worthy and competent now to attempt, and hereafter to accomplish, + things deserving of commendation. The preceptor must never degrade his + pupil in his own eyes, but on the contrary must teach him that nothing but + resolution and perseverance are necessary, to enable him to effect all + that the judicious director can expect from him. He should be encouraged + through every step of his progress, and specially encouraged when he has + gained a certain point, and arrived at an important resting-place. It is + thus we are taught the whole circle of what are called accomplishments, + dancing, music, fencing, and the rest; and it is surely a strange anomaly, + if those things which are most essential in raising the mind to its true + standard, cannot be communicated with equal suavity and kindness, be + surrounded with allurements, and regarded as sources of pleasure and + genuine hilarity. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time it is to be admitted that every human creature, + especially in the season of youth, and not being the victim of some + depressing disease either of body or mind, has in him a good obstinate + sort of self-complacency, which cannot without much difficulty be + eradicated. "Though he falleth seven times, yet will he rise again." And, + when we have encountered various mortifications, and have been many times + rebuked and inveighed against, we nevertheless recover our own good + opinion, and are ready to enter into a fresh contention for the prize, if + not in one kind, then in another. + </p> + <p> + It is in allusion to this feature in the human character, that we have an + expressive phrase in the English language,—"to break the spirit." + The preceptor may occasionally perhaps prescribe to the pupil a severe + task; and the young adventurer may say, Can I be expected to accomplish + this? But all must be done in kindness. The generous attempter must be + reminded of the powers he has within him, perhaps yet unexercised; with + cheering sounds his progress must be encouraged; and, above all, the + director of the course must take care not to tax him beyond his strength. + And, be it observed, that the strength of a human creature is to be + ascertained by two things; first, the abstract capacity, that the thing + required is not beyond the power of a being so constituted to perform; + and, secondly, we must take into the account his past achievements, the + things he has already accomplished, and not expect that he is at once to + overleap a thousand obstacles. + </p> + <p> + For there is such a thing as a broken spirit. I remember a boy who was my + schoolfellow, that, having been treated with uncalled for severity, never + appeared afterwards in the scene of instruction, but with a neglected + appearance, and the articles of his dress scarcely half put on. I was very + young at the time, and viewed only the outside of things. I cannot tell + whether he had any true ambition previously to his disgrace, but I am sure + he never had afterwards. + </p> + <p> + How melancholy an object is the man, who, "for the privilege to breathe, + bears up and down the city + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + A discontented and repining spirit + Burthensome to itself," +</pre> + <p> + incapable of enterprise, listless, with no courage to undertake, and no + anticipation of the practicability of success and honour! And this + spectacle is still more affecting, when the subject shall be a human + creature in the dawn of youth, when nature opens to him a vista of beauty + and fruition on every side, and all is encouraging, redolent of energy and + enterprise! + </p> + <p> + To break the spirit of a man, bears a considerable resemblance to the + breaking the main spring, or principal movement, of a complicated and + ingeniously constructed machine. We cannot tell when it is to happen; and + it comes at last perhaps at the time that it is least expected. A + judicious superintendent therefore will be far from trying consequences in + his office, and will, like a man walking on a cliff whose extremes are + ever and anon crumbling away and falling into the ocean, keep much within + the edge, and at a safe distance from the line of danger. + </p> + <p> + But this consideration has led me much beyond the true subject of this + Essay. The instructor of youth, as I have already said, is called upon to + use all his skill, to animate the courage, and maintain the cheerfulness + and self-complacency of his pupil. And, as such is the discipline to be + observed to the candidate, while he is "under a schoolmaster," so, when he + is emancipated, and his plan of conduct is to be regulated by his own + discretion, it is necessary that he should carry forward the same scheme, + and cultivate that tone of feeling, which should best reconcile him to + himself, and, by teaching him to esteem himself and bear in mind his own + value, enable him to achieve things honourable to his character, and + memorably useful to others. Melancholy, and a disposition anticipating + evil are carefully to be guarded against, by him who is desirous to + perform his part well on the theatre of society. He should habitually + meditate all cheerful things, and sing the song of battle which has a + thousand times spurred on his predecessors to victory. He should + contemplate the crown that awaits him, and say to himself, I also will do + my part, and endeavour to enrol myself in the select number of those + champions, of whom it has been predicated that they were men, of whom, + compared with the herd of ordinary mortals, "the world," the species among + whom they were rated, "was not worthy." + </p> + <p> + Another consideration is to be recollected here. Without self-complacency + in the agent no generous enterprise is to be expected, and no train of + voluntary actions, such as may purchase honour to the person engaged in + them. + </p> + <p> + But, beside this, there is no true and substantial happiness but for the + self-complacent. "The good man," as Solomon says, "is satisfied from + himself." The reflex act is inseparable from the constitution of the human + mind. How can any one have genuine happiness, unless in proportion as he + looks round, and, "behold! every thing is very good?" This is the sunshine + of the soul, the true joy, that gives cheerfulness to all our + circulations, and makes us feel ourselves entire and complete. What indeed + is life, unless so far as it is enjoyed? It does not merit the name. If I + go into a school, and look round on a number of young faces, the scene is + destitute of its true charm, unless so far as I see inward peace and + contentment on all sides. And, if we require this eminently in the young, + neither can it be less essential, when in growing manhood we have the real + cares of the world to contend with, or when in declining age we need every + auxiliary to enable us to sustain our infirmities. + </p> + <p> + But, before I conclude my remarks on this subject, it is necessary that I + should carefully distinguish between the thesis, that self-complacency is + the indispensible condition of all that is honourable in human + achievements, and the proposition contended against in Essay XI, that + "self-love is the source of all our actions." Self-complacency is indeed + the feeling without which we cannot proceed in an honourable course; but + is far from being the motive that impels us to act. The motive is in the + real nature and absolute properties of the good thing that is proposed to + our choice: we seek the happiness of another, because his happiness is the + object of our desire. Self-complacency may be likened to the bottle-holder + in one of those contentions for bodily prowess, so characteristic of our + old English manners. The bottle-holder is necessary to supply the + combatant with refreshment, and to encourage him to persist; but it would + be most unnatural to regard him as the cause of the contest. No: the + parties have found reason for competition, they apprehend a + misunderstanding or a rivalry impossible to be settled but by open + contention, and the putting forth of mental and corporeal energy; and the + bottle-holder is an auxiliary called in afterwards, his interference + implying that the parties have already a motive to act, and have thrown + down the gauntlet in token of the earnest good-will which animates them to + engage. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0025" id="link2H_4_0025"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY XX. OF PHRENOLOGY. + </h2> + <p> + The following remarks can pretend to be nothing more than a few loose and + undigested thoughts upon a subject, which has recently occupied the + attention of many men, and obtained an extraordinary vogue in the world. + It were to be wished, that the task had fallen into the hands of a writer + whose studies were more familiar with all the sciences which bear more or + less on the topic I propose to consider: but, if abler and more competent + men pass it by, I feel disposed to plant myself in the breach, and to + offer suggestions which may have the fortune to lead others, better fitted + for the office than myself, to engage in the investigation. One advantage + I may claim, growing out of my partial deficiency. It is known not to be + uncommon for a man to stand too near to the subject of his survey, to + allow him to obtain a large view of it in all its bearings. I am no + anatomist: I simply take my stand upon the broad ground of the general + philosophy of man. + </p> + <p> + It is a very usual thing for fanciful theories to have their turn amidst + the eccentricities of the human mind, and then to be heard of no more. But + it is perhaps no ill occupation, now and then, for an impartial observer, + to analyse these theories, and attempt to blow away the dust which will + occasionally settle on the surface of science. If phrenology, as taught by + Gall and Spurzheim, be a truth, I shall probably render a service to that + truth, by endeavouring to shew where the edifice stands in need of more + solid supports than have yet been assigned to it. If it be a falshood, the + sooner it is swept away to the gulph of oblivion the better. Let the + inquisitive and the studious fix their minds on more substantial topics, + instead of being led away by gaudy and deceitful appearances. The human + head, that crowning capital of the column of man, is too interesting a + subject, to be the proper theme of every dabbler. And it is obvious, that + the professors of this so called discovery, if they be rash and groundless + in their assertions, will be in danger of producing momentous errors, of + exciting false hopes never destined to be realised, and of visiting with + pernicious blasts the opening buds of excellence, at the time when they + are most exposed to the chance of destruction. + </p> + <p> + I shall set out with acknowledging, that there is, as I apprehend, a + science in relation to the human head, something like what Plato + predicates of the statue hid in a block of marble. It is really contained + in the block; but it is only the most consummate sculptor, that can bring + it to the eyes of men, and free it from all the incumbrances, which, till + he makes application of his art to it, surround the statue, and load it + with obscurities and disfigurement. The man, who, without long study and + premeditation, rushes in at once, and expects to withdraw the curtain, + will only find himself disgraced by the attempt. + </p> + <p> + There is a passage in an acute writer(39), whose talents singularly fitted + him, even when he appeared totally immerged in mummery and trifles, to + illustrate the most important truths, that is applicable to the point I am + considering. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (39) Sterne, Tristram Shandy, Vol. 1. +</pre> + <p> + "Pray, what was that man's name,—for I write in such a hurry, I have + no time to recollect or look for it,—who first made the observation, + 'That there was great inconstancy in our air and climate?' Whoever he was, + it was a just and good observation in him. But the corollary drawn from + it, namely, 'That it is this which has furnished us with such a variety of + odd and whimsical characters;'—that was not his;—it was found + out by another man, at least a century and a half after him. Then again, + that this copious storehouse of original materials is the true and natural + cause that our comedies are so much better than those of France, or any + others that have or can be wrote upon the continent;—that discovery + was not fully made till about the middle of king William's reign, when the + great Dryden, in writing one of his long prefaces (if I mistake not), most + fortunately hit upon it. Then, fourthly and lastly, that this strange + irregularity in our climate, producing so strange an irregularity in our + characters, cloth thereby in some sort make us amends, by giving us + somewhat to make us merry with, when the weather will not suffer us to go + out of doors,—that observation is my own; and was struck out by me + this very rainy day, March 26, 1759, and betwixt the hour of nine and ten + in the morning. + </p> + <p> + "Thus—thus, my fellow-labourers and associates in this great harvest + of our learning, now ripening before our eyes; thus it is, by slow steps + of casual increase, that our knowledge physical, metaphysical, + physiological, polemical, nautical, mathematical, aenigmatical, technical, + biographical, romantical, chemical, and obstetrical, with fifty other + branches of it, (most of them ending, as these do, in ical,) has, for + these two last centuries and more, gradually been creeping upwards towards + that acme of their perfections, from which, if we may form a conjecture + from the advantages of these last seven years, we cannot possibly be far + off." + </p> + <p> + Nothing can be more true, than the proposition ludicrously illustrated in + this passage, that real science is in most instances of slow growth, and + that the discoveries which are brought to perfection at once, are greatly + exposed to the suspicion of quackery. Like the ephemeron fly, they are + born suddenly, and may be expected to die as soon. + </p> + <p> + Lavater, the well known author of Essays on Physiognomy, appears to have + been born seventeen years before the birth of Gall. He attempted to reduce + into a system the indications of human character that are to be found in + the countenance. Physiognomy, as a subject of ingenious and probable + conjecture, was well known to the ancients. But the test, how far any + observations that have been made on the subject are worthy the name of a + science, will lie in its application by the professor to a person + respecting whom he has had no opportunity of previous information. Nothing + is more easy, when a great warrior, statesman, poet, philosopher or + philanthropist is explicitly placed before us, than for the credulous + inspector or fond visionary to examine the lines of his countenance, and + to point at the marks which should plainly shew us that he ought to have + been the very thing that he is. This is the very trick of gipsies and + fortune-tellers. But who ever pointed to an utter stranger in the street, + and said, I perceive by that man's countenance that he is one of the great + luminaries of the world? Newton, or Bacon, or Shakespear would probably + have passed along unheeded. Instances of a similar nature occur every day. + Hence it plainly appears that, whatever may hereafter be known on the + subject, we can scarcely to the present time be said to have overstepped + the threshold. And yet nothing can be more certain than that there is a + science of physiognomy, though to make use of an illustration already + cited, it has not to this day been extricated out of the block of marble + in which it is hid. Human passions, feelings and modes of thinking leave + their traces on the countenance: but we have not, thus far, left the + dame's school in this affair, and are not qualified to enter ourselves in + the free-school for more liberal enquiries. + </p> + <p> + The writings of Lavater on the subject of physiognomy are couched in a + sort of poetic prose, overflowing with incoherent and vague exclamations, + and bearing small resemblance to a treatise in which the elements of + science are to be developed. Their success however was extraordinary; and + it was probably that success, which prompted Gall first to turn his + attention from the indications of character that are to be found in the + face of man, to the study of the head generally, as connected with the + intellectual and moral qualities of the individual. + </p> + <p> + It was about four years before the commencement of the present century, + that Gall appears to have begun to deliver lectures on the structure and + external appearances of the human head. He tells us, that his attention + was first called to the subject in the ninth year of his age (that is, in + the year 1767), and that he spent thirty years in the private meditation + of his system, before he began to promulgate it. Be that as it will, its + most striking characteristic is that of marking out the scull into + compartments, in the same manner as a country delineated on a map is + divided into districts, and assigning a different faculty or organ to + each. In the earliest of these diagrams that has fallen under my + observation, the human scull is divided into twenty-seven compartments. + </p> + <p> + I would say of craniology, as I have already said of physiognomy, that + there is such a science attainable probably by man, but that we have yet + made scarcely any progress in the acquiring it. As certain lines in the + countenance are indicative of the dispositions of the man, so it is + reasonable to believe that a certain structure of the head is in + correspondence with the faculties and propensities of the individual. + </p> + <p> + Thus far we may probably advance without violating a due degree of + caution. But there is a wide distance between this general statement, and + the conduct of the man who at once splits the human head into twenty-seven + compartments. + </p> + <p> + The exterior appearance of the scull is affirmed to correspond with the + structure of the brain beneath. And nothing can be more analogous to what + the deepest thinkers have already confessed of man, than to suppose that + there is one structure of the brain better adapted for intellectual + purposes than another. There is probably one structure better adapted than + another, for calculation, for poetry, for courage, for cowardice, for + presumption, for diffidence, for roughness, for tenderness, for + self-control and the want of it. Even as some have inherently a faculty + adapted for music or the contrary(40). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (40) See above, Essay II. +</pre> + <p> + But it is not reasonable to believe that we think of calculation with one + portion of the brain, and of poetry with another. + </p> + <p> + It is very little that we know of the nature of matter; and we are equally + ignorant as to the substance, whatever it is, in which the thinking + principle in man resides. But, without adventuring in any way to dogmatise + on the subject, we find so many analogies between the thinking principle, + and the structure of what we call the brain, that we cannot but regard the + latter as in some way the instrument of the former. + </p> + <p> + Now nothing can be more certain respecting the thinking principle, than + its individuality. It has been said, that the mind can entertain but one + thought at one time; and certain it is, from the nature of attention, and + from the association of ideas, that unity is one of the principal + characteristics of mind. It is this which constitutes personal identity; + an attribute that, however unsatisfactory may be the explanations which + have been given respecting it, we all of us feel, and that lies at the + foundation of all our voluntary actions, and all our morality. + </p> + <p> + Analogous to this unity of thought and mind, is the arrangement of the + nerves and the brain in the human body. The nerves all lead up to the + brain; and there is a centrical point in the brain itself, in which the + reports of the senses terminate, and at which the action of the will may + be conceived to begin. This, in the language of our fathers, was called + the "seat of the soul." + </p> + <p> + We may therefore, without departing from the limits of a due caution and + modesty, consider this as the throne before which the mind holds its + court. Hither the senses bring in their reports, and hence the sovereign + will issues his commands. The whole system appears to be conducted through + the instrumentality of the nerves, along whose subtle texture the feelings + and impressions are propagated. Between the reports of the senses and the + commands of the will, intervenes that which is emphatically the office of + the mind, comprising meditation, reflection, inference and judgment. How + these functions are performed we know not; but it is reasonable to believe + that the substance of the brain or of some part of the brain is implicated + in them. + </p> + <p> + Still however we must not lose sight of what has been already said, that + in the action of the mind unity is an indispensible condition. Our + thoughts can only hold their council and form their decrees in a very + limited region. This is their retreat and strong hold; and the special use + and functions of the remoter parts of the brain we are unable to + determine; so utterly obscure and undefined is our present knowledge of + the great ligament which binds together the body and the thinking + principle. + </p> + <p> + Enough however results from this imperfect view of the ligament, to + demonstrate the incongruity and untenableness of a doctrine which should + assign the indications of different functions, exercises and propensities + of the mind to the exterior surface of the scull or the brain. This is + quackery, and is to be classed with chiromancy, augury, astrology, and the + rest of those schemes for discovering the future and unknown, which the + restlessness and anxiety of the human mind have invented, built upon + arbitrary principles, blundered upon in the dark, and having no + resemblance to the march of genuine science. I find in sir Thomas Browne + the following axioms of chiromancy: "that spots in the tops of the nails + do signifie things past; in the middle, things present; and at the bottom, + events to come: that white specks presage our felicity; blue ones our + misfortunes: that those in the nails of the thumb have significations of + honour, in the forefinger, of riches, and so respectively in the rest." + </p> + <p> + Science, to be of a high and satisfactory character, ought to consist of a + deduction of causes and effects, shewing us not merely that a thing is so, + but why it is as it is, and cannot be otherwise. The rest is merely + empirical; and, though the narrowness of human wit may often drive us to + this; yet it is essentially of a lower order and description. As it + depends for its authority upon an example, or a number of examples, so + examples of a contrary nature may continually come in, to weaken its + force, or utterly to subvert it. And the affair is made still worse, when + we see, as in the case of craniology, that all the reasons that can be + deduced (as here from the nature of mind) would persuade us to believe, + that there can be no connection between the supposed indications, and the + things pretended to be indicated. + </p> + <p> + Craniology, or phrenology, proceeds exactly in the same train, as + chiromancy, or any of those pretended sciences which are built merely on + assumption or conjecture. The first delineations presented to the public, + marked out, as I have said, the scull into compartments, in the same + manner as a country delineated on a map is divided into districts. + Geography is a real science, and accordingly, like other sciences, has + been slow and gradual in its progress. At an early stage travellers knew + little more than the shores and islands of the Mediterranean. Afterwards, + they passed the straits of Hercules, and entered into the Atlantic. At + length the habitable world was distributed into three parts, Europe, Asia, + and Africa. More recently, by many centuries, came the discovery of + America. It is but the other day comparatively, that we found the + extensive island of New Holland in the Southern Ocean. The ancient + geographers placed an elephant or some marine monster in the vacant parts + of their maps, to signify that of these parts they knew nothing. Not so + Dr. Gall. Every part of his globe of the human Scull, at least with small + exceptions, is fully tenanted; and he, with his single arm, has conquered + a world. + </p> + <p> + The majority of the judgments that have been divulged by the professors of + this science, have had for their subjects the sculls of men, whose habits + and history have been already known. And yet with this advantage the + errors and contradictions into which their authors have fallen are + considerably numerous. Thus I find, in the account of the doctor's visit + to the House of Correction and the Hospital of Torgau in July 1805, the + following examples. + </p> + <p> + "Every person was desirous to know what Dr. Gall would say about T—, + who was known in the house as a thief full of cunning, and who, having + several times made his escape, wore an additional iron. It was surprising, + that he saw in him far less of the organ of cunning, than in many of the + other prisoners. However it was proved, that examples, and conversation + with other thieves in the house, had suggested to him the plan for his + escape, and that the stupidity which he possesses was the cause of his + being retaken." + </p> + <p> + "We were much surprised to be told, that M., in whom Dr. Gall had not + discovered the organ of representation, possessed extraordinary abilities + in imitating the voice of animals; but we were convinced after enquiries, + that his talent was not a natural one, but acquired by study. He related + to us that, when he was a Prussian soldier garrisoned at Berlin, he used + to deceive the waiting women in the Foundling Hospital by imitating the + voice of exposed infants, and sometimes counterfeited the cry of a wild + drake, when the officers were shooting ducks." + </p> + <p> + "Of another Dr. Gall said, His head is a pattern of inconstancy and + confinement, and there appears not the least mark of the organ of courage. + This rogue had been able to gain a great authority among his + fellow-convicts. How is this to be reconciled with the want of constancy + which his organisation plainly indicates? Dr. Gall answered, He gained his + ascendancy not by courage, but by cunning." + </p> + <p> + It is well known, that in Thurtel, who was executed for one of the most + cold-blooded and remorseless murders ever heard of, the phrenologists + found the organ of benevolence uncommonly large. + </p> + <p> + In Spurzheim's delineation of the human head I find six divisions of + organs marked out in the little hemisphere over the eye, indicating six + different dispositions. Must there not be in this subtle distribution much + of what is arbitrary and sciolistic? + </p> + <p> + It is to be regretted, that no person skilful in metaphysics, or the + history of the human mind, has taken a share in this investigation. Many + errors and much absurdity would have been removed from the statements of + these theorists, if a proper division had been made between those + attributes and propensities, which by possibility a human creature may + bring into the world with him, and those which, being the pure growth of + the arbitrary institutions of society, must be indebted to those + institutions for their origin. I have endeavoured in a former Essay(41) to + explain this distinction, and to shew how, though a human being cannot be + born with an express propensity towards any one of the infinite pursuits + and occupations which may be found in civilised society, yet that he may + be fitted by his external or internal structure to excel in some one of + those pursuits rather than another. But all this is overlooked by the + phrenologists. They remark the various habits and dispositions, the + virtues and the vices, that display themselves in society as now + constituted, and at once and without consideration trace them to the + structure that we bring into the world with us. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (41) See above, Essay II. +</pre> + <p> + Certainly many of Gall's organs are a libel upon our common nature. And, + though a scrupulous and exact philosopher will perhaps confess that he has + little distinct knowledge as to the design with which "the earth and all + that is therein" were made, yet he finds in it so much of beauty and + beneficent tendency, as will make him extremely reluctant to believe that + some men are born with a decided propensity to rob, and others to murder. + Nor can any thing be more ludicrous than this author's distinction of the + different organs of memory—of things, of places, of names, of + language, and of numbers: organs, which must be conceived to be given in + the first instance long before names or language or numbers had an + existence. The followers of Gall have in a few instances corrected this: + but what their denominations have gained in avoiding the grossest + absurdities of their master, they have certainly lost in explicitness and + perspicuity. + </p> + <p> + There is a distinction, not unworthy to be attended to, that is here to be + made between Lavater's system of physiognomy, and Gall's of craniology, + which is much in favour of the former. The lines and characteristic + expressions of the face which may so frequently be observed, are for the + most part the creatures of the mind. This is in the first place a mode of + observation more agreeable to the pride and conscious elevation of man, + and is in the next place more suitable to morality, and the vindication of + all that is most admirable in the system of the universe. It is just, that + what is most frequently passing in the mind, and is entertained there with + the greatest favour, should leave its traces upon the countenance. It is + thus that the high and exalted philosopher, the poet, and the man of + benevolence and humanity are sometimes seen to be such by the bystander + and the stranger. While the malevolent, the trickish, and the grossly + sensual, give notice of what they are by the cast of their features, and + put their fellow-creatures upon their guard, that they may not be made the + prey of these vices. + </p> + <p> + But the march of craniology or phrenology, by whatever name it is called, + is directly the reverse of this. It assigns to us organs, as far as the + thing is explained by the professors either to the public or to their own + minds, which are entailed upon us from our birth, and which are altogether + independent, or nearly so, of any discipline or volition that can be + exercised by or upon the individual who drags their intolerable chain. + Thus I am told of one individual that he wants the organ of colour; and + all the culture in the world can never supply that defect, and enable him + to see colour at all, or to see it as it is seen by the rest of mankind. + Another wants the organ of benevolence; and his case is equally hopeless. + I shrink from considering the condition of the wretch, to whom nature has + supplied the organs of theft and murder in full and ample proportions. The + case is like that of astrology + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (Their stars are more in fault than they), +</pre> + <p> + with this aggravation, that our stars, so far as the faculty of prediction + had been supposed to be attained, swayed in few things; but craniology + climbs at once to universal empire; and in her map, as I have said, there + are no vacant places, no unexplored regions and happy wide-extended + deserts. + </p> + <p> + It is all a system of fatalism. Independently of ourselves, and far beyond + our control, we are reserved for good or for evil by the predestinating + spirit that reigns over all things. Unhappy is the individual who enters + himself in this school. He has no consolation, except the gratified wish + to know distressing truths, unless we add to this the pride of science, + that he has by his own skill and application purchased for himself the + discernment which places him in so painful a preeminence. The great + triumph of man is in the power of education, to improve his intellect, to + sharpen his perceptions, and to regulate and modify his moral qualities. + But craniology reduces this to almost nothing, and exhibits us for the + most part as the helpless victims of a blind and remorseless destiny. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time it is happy for us, that, as this system is perhaps the + most rigorous and degrading that was ever devised, so it is in almost all + instances founded upon arbitrary assumptions and confident assertion, + totally in opposition to the true spirit of patient and laborious + investigation and sound philosophy. + </p> + <p> + It is in reality very little that we know of the genuine characters of + men. Every human creature is a mystery to his fellow. Every human + character is made up of incongruities. Of nearly all the great personages + in history it is difficult to say what was decidedly the motive in which + their actions and system of conduct originated. We study what they did, + and what they said; but in vain. We never arrive at a full and + demonstrative conclusion. In reality no man can be certainly said to know + himself. "The heart of man is deceitful above all things." + </p> + <p> + But these dogmatists overlook all those difficulties, which would persuade + a wise man to suspend his judgment, and induce a jury of philosophers to + hesitate for ever as to the verdict they would pronounce. They look only + at the external character of the act by which a man honours or disgraces + himself. They decide presumptuously and in a lump, This man is a murderer, + a hero, a coward, the slave of avarice, or the votary of philanthropy; and + then, surveying the outside of his head, undertake to find in him the + configuration that should indicate these dispositions, and must be found + in all persons of a similar character, or rather whose acts bear the same + outward form, and seem analogous to his. + </p> + <p> + Till we have discovered the clue that should enable us to unravel the + labyrinth of the human mind, it is with small hopes of success that we + should expect to settle the external indications, and decide that this + sort of form and appearance, and that class of character, will always be + found together. + </p> + <p> + But it is not to be wondered at, that these disorderly fragments of a + shapeless science should become the special favourites of the idle and the + arrogant. Every man (and every woman), however destitute of real + instruction, and unfitted for the investigation of the deep or the sublime + mysteries of our nature, can use his eyes and his hands. The whole + boundless congregation of mankind, with its everlasting varieties, is thus + at once subjected to the sentence of every pretender: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + And fools rush in, where angels fear to tread. +</pre> + <p> + Nothing is more delightful to the headlong and presumptuous, than thus to + sit in judgment on their betters, and pronounce ex cathedra on those, + "whose shoe-latchet they are not worthy to stoop down and unloose." I + remember, after lord George Gordon's riots, eleven persons accused were + set down in one indictment for their lives, and given in charge to one + jury. But this is a mere shadow, a nothing, compared with the wholesale + and indiscriminating judgment of the vulgar phrenologist. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0026" id="link2H_4_0026"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY XXI. OF ASTRONOMY. + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT" id="link2H_SECT____"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION I. + </h2> + <p> + It can scarcely be imputed to me as profane, if I venture to put down a + few sceptical doubts on the science of astronomy. All branches of + knowledge are to be considered as fair subjects of enquiry: and he that + has never doubted, may be said, in the highest and strictest sense of the + word, never to have believed. + </p> + <p> + The first volume that furnished to me the groundwork of the following + doubts, was the book commonly known by the name of Guthrie's Geographical + Grammar, many parts and passages of which engaged my attention in my own + study, in the house of a rural schoolmaster, in the year 1772. I cannot + therefore proceed more fairly than by giving here an extract of certain + passages in that book, which have relation to the present subject. I know + not how far they have been altered in the edition of Guthrie which now + lies before me, from the language of the book then in my possession; but I + feel confident that in the main particulars they continue the same(42). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (42) The article Astronomy, in this book, appears to have been written +by the well known James Ferguson. +</pre> + <p> + "In passing rapidly over the heavens with his new telescope, the universe + increased under the eye of Herschel; 44,000 stars, seen in the space of a + few degrees, seemed to indicate that there were seventy-five millions in + the heavens. But what are all these, when compared with those that fill + the whole expanse, the boundless field of aether? + </p> + <p> + "The immense distance of the fixed stars from our earth, and from each + other, is of all considerations the most proper for raising our ideas of + the works of God. Modern discoveries make it probable that each of these + stars is a sun, having planets and comets revolving round it, as our sun + has the earth and other planets revolving round him.—A ray of light, + though its motion is so quick as to be commonly thought instantaneous, + takes up more time in travelling from the stars to us, than we do in + making a West-India voyage. A sound, which, next to light, is considered + as the quickest body we are acquainted with, would not arrive to us from + thence in 50,000 years. And a cannon-ball, flying at the rate of 480 miles + an hour, would not reach us in 700,000 years. + </p> + <p> + "From what we know of our own system, it may be reasonably concluded, that + all the rest are with equal wisdom contrived, situated, and provided with + accommodations for rational inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + "What a sublime idea does this suggest to the human imagination, limited + as are its powers, of the works of the Creator! Thousands and thousands of + suns, multiplied without end, and ranged all around us, at immense + distances from each other, attended by ten thousand times ten thousand + worlds, all in rapid motion, yet calm, regular and harmonious, invariably + keeping the paths prescribed them: and these worlds peopled with myriads + of intelligent beings, formed for endless progression in perfection and + felicity!" + </p> + <p> + The thought that would immediately occur to a dispassionate man in + listening to this statement, would be, What a vast deal am I here called + on to believe! + </p> + <p> + Now the first rule of sound and sober judgment, in encountering any story, + is that, in proportion to the magnitude and seemingly incredible nature of + the propositions tendered to our belief, should be the strength and + impregnable nature of the evidence by which those propositions are + supported. + </p> + <p> + It is not here, as in matters of religion, that we are called upon by + authority from on high to believe in mysteries, in things above our + reason, or, as it may be, contrary to our reason. No man pretends to a + revelation from heaven of the truths of astronomy. They have been brought + to light by the faculties of the human mind, exercised upon such facts and + circumstances as our industry has set before us. + </p> + <p> + To persons not initiated in the rudiments of astronomical science, they + rest upon the great and high-sounding names of Galileo, Kepler, Halley and + Newton. But, though these men are eminently entitled to honour and + gratitude from their fellow-mortals, they do not stand altogether on the + same footing as Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, by whose pens has been + recorded "every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of God." + </p> + <p> + The modest enquirer therefore, without pretending to put himself on an + equality with these illustrious men, may be forgiven, when he permits + himself to suggest a few doubts, and presumes to examine the grounds upon + which he is called upon to believe all that is contained in the above + passages. + </p> + <p> + Now the foundations upon which astronomy, as here delivered, is built, + are, first, the evidence of our senses, secondly, the calculations of the + mathematician, and, in the third place, moral considerations. These have + been denominated respectively, practical astronomy, scientific, and + theoretical. + </p> + <p> + As to the first of these, it is impossible for us on this occasion not to + recollect what has so often occurred as to have grown into an every-day + observation, of the fallibility of our senses. + </p> + <p> + It may be doubted however whether this is a just statement. We are not + deceived by our senses, but deceived in the inference we make from our + sensations. Our sensations respecting what we call the external world, are + chiefly those of length, breadth and solidity, hardness and softness, heat + and cold, colour, smell, sound and taste. The inference which the + generality of mankind make in relation to these sensations is, that there + is something out of ourselves corresponding to the impressions we receive; + in other words, that the causes of our sensations are like to the + sensations themselves. But this is, strictly speaking, an inference; and, + if the cause of a sensation is not like the sensation, it cannot precisely + be affirmed that our senses deceive us. We know what passes in the theatre + of the mind; but we cannot be said absolutely to know any thing, more. + </p> + <p> + Modern philosophy has taught us, in certain cases, to controvert the + position, that the causes of our sensations are like to the sensations + themselves. Locke in particular has called the attention of the reasoning + part of mankind to the consideration, that heat and cold, sweet and + bitter, and odour offensive or otherwise, are perceptions, which imply a + percipient being, and cannot exist in inanimate substances. We might with + equal propriety ascribe pain to the whip that beats us, or pleasure to the + slight alternation of contact in the person or thing that tickles us, as + suppose that heat and cold, or taste, or smell are any thing but + sensations. + </p> + <p> + The same philosophers who have called our attention to these remarks, have + proceeded to shew that the causes of our sensations of sound and colour + have no precise correspondence, do not tally with the sensations we + receive. Sound is the result of a percussion of the air. Colour is + produced by the reflection of the rays of light; so that the same object, + placed in a position, different as to the spectator, but in itself + remaining unaltered, will produce in him a sensation of different colours, + or shades of colour, now blue, now green, now brown, now black, and so on. + This is the doctrine of Newton, as well as of Locke. + </p> + <p> + It follows that, if there were no percipient being to receive these + sensations, there would be no heat or cold, no taste, no smell, no sound, + and no colour. + </p> + <p> + Aware of this difference between our sensations in certain cases and the + causes of these sensations, Locke has divided the qualities of substances + in the material universe into primary and secondary, the sensations we + receive of the primary representing the actual qualities of material + substances, but the sensations we receive of what he calls the secondary + having no proper resemblance to the causes that produce them. + </p> + <p> + Now, if we proceed in the spirit of severe analysis to examine the primary + qualities of matter, we shall not perhaps find so marked a distinction + between those and the secondary, as the statement of Locke would have led + us to imagine. + </p> + <p> + The Optics of Newton were published fourteen years later than Locke's + Essay concerning Human Understanding. + </p> + <p> + In endeavouring to account for the uninterrupted transmission of rays of + light through transparent substances, however hard they may be found to + be, Newton has these observations. + </p> + <p> + "Bodies are much more rare and porous, than is commonly believed. Water is + nineteen times lighter, and by consequence nineteen times rarer, than + gold; and gold is so rare, as very readily, and without the least + opposition, to transmit the magnetic effluvia, and easily to admit + quicksilver into its pores, and to let water pass through it. From all + which we may conclude, that gold has more pores than solid parts, and by + consequence that water has above forty times more pores than parts. And he + that shall find out an hypothesis, by which water may be so rare, and yet + not capable of compression by force, may doubtless, by the same + hypothesis, make gold, and water, and all other bodies, as much rarer as + he pleases, so that light may find a ready passage through transparent + substances(43)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (43) Newton, Optics, Book II, Part III, Prop. viii. +</pre> + <p> + Again: "The colours of bodies arise from the magnitude of the particles + that reflect them. Now, if we conceive these particles of bodies to be so + disposed among themselves, that the intervals, or empty spaces between + them, may be equal in magnitude to them all; and that these particles may + be composed of other particles much smaller, which have as much empty + space between them as equals all the magnitudes of these smaller + particles; and that in like manner these smaller particles are again + composed of others much smaller, all which together are equal to all the + pores, or empty spaces, between them; and so on perpetually till you come + to solid particles, such as have no pores, or empty spaces within them: + and if in any gross body there be, for instance, three such degrees of + particles, the least of which are solid; this body will have seven times + more pores than solid parts. But if there be four such degrees of + particles, the least of which are solid, the body will have fifteen times + more pores than solid parts. If there be five degrees, the body will have + one and thirty times more pores than solid parts. If six degrees, the body + will have sixty and three times more pores than solid parts. And so on + perpetually(44)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (44) Ibid. +</pre> + <p> + In the Queries annexed to the Optics, Newton further suggests an opinion, + that the rays of light are repelled by bodies without immediate contact. + He observes that: + </p> + <p> + "Where attraction ceases, there a repulsive virtue ought to succeed. And + that there is such a virtue, seems to follow from the reflexions and + inflexions of the rays of light. For the rays are repelled by bodies, in + both these cases, without the immediate contact of the reflecting or + inflecting body. It seems also to follow from the emission of light; the + ray, so soon as it is shaken off from a shining body by the vibrating + motion of the parts of the body, and gets beyond the reach of attraction, + being driven away with exceeding great velocity. For that force, which is + sufficient to turn it back in reflexion, may be sufficient to emit it. It + seems also to follow from the production of air and vapour: the particles, + when they are shaken off from bodies by heat or fermentation, so soon as + they are beyond the reach of the attraction of the body, receding from it + and also from one another, with great strength; and keeping at a distance, + so as sometimes to take up a million of times more space than they did + before, in the form of a dense body." + </p> + <p> + Newton was of opinion that matter was made up, in the last resort, of + exceedingly small solid particles, having no pores, or empty spaces within + them. Priestley, in his Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit, + carries the theory one step farther; and, as Newton surrounds his + exceedingly small particles with spheres of attraction and repulsion, + precluding in all cases their actual contact, Priestley is disposed to + regard the centre of these spheres as mathematical points only. If there + is no actual contact, then by the very terms no two particles of matter + were ever so near to each other, but that they might be brought nearer, if + a sufficient force could be applied for that purpose. You had only another + sphere of repulsion to conquer; and, as there never is actual contact, the + whole world is made up of one sphere of repulsion after another, without + the possibility of ever arriving at an end. + </p> + <p> + "The principles of the Newtonian philosophy," says our author, "were no + sooner known, than it was seen how few in comparison, of the phenomena of + nature, were owing to solid matter, and how much to powers, which were + only supposed to accompany and surround the solid parts of matter. It has + been asserted, and the assertion has never been disproved, that for any + thing we know to the contrary, all the solid matter in the solar system + might be contained within a nutshell(45)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (45) Priestley, Disquisitions, Section II. I know not by whom this +illustration was first employed. Among other authors, I find, in +Fielding (Joseph Andrews, Book II, Chap. II), a sect of philosophers +spoken of, who "can reduce all the matter of the world into a nutshell." +</pre> + <p> + It is then with senses, from the impressions upon which we are impelled to + draw such false conclusions, and that present us with images altogether + unlike any thing that exists out of ourselves, that we come to observe the + phenomena of what we call the universe. The first observation that it is + here incumbent on us to make, and which we ought to keep ever at hand, to + be applied as occasion may offer, is the well known aphorism of Socrates, + that "we know only this, that we know nothing." We have no compass to + guide us through the pathless waters of science; we have no revelation, at + least on the subject of astronomy, and of the unnumbered inhabitable + worlds that float in the ocean of ether; and we are bound therefore to + sail, as the mariners of ancient times sailed, always within sight of + land. One of the earliest maxims of ordinary prudence, is that we ought + ever to correct the reports of one sense by the assistance of another + sense. The things we here speak of are not matters of faith; and in them + therefore it is but reason, that we should imitate the conduct of Didymus + the apostle, who said, "Except I put my fingers into the prints of the + nails, and thrust my hand into his side, I will not believe." My eyes + report to me an object, as having a certain magnitude, texture, and + roughness or smoothness; but I require that my hands should confirm to me + the evidence of my eyes. I see something that appears to be an island at + an uncertain distance from the shore; but, if I am actuated by a laudable + curiosity, and wish to possess a real knowledge, I take a boat, and + proceed to ascertain by nearer inspection, whether that which I imagined + to be an island is an island or no. + </p> + <p> + There are indeed many objects with which we are conversant, that are in so + various ways similar to each other, that, after having carefully examined + a few, we are satisfied upon slighter investigation to admit the + dimensions and character of others. Thus, having measured with a quadrant + the height of a tower, and found on the narrowest search and comparison + that the report of my instrument was right, I yield credit to this process + in another instance, without being at the trouble to verify its results in + any more elaborate method. + </p> + <p> + The reason why we admit the inference flowing from our examination in the + second instance, and so onward, with less scrupulosity and scepticism than + in the first, is that there is a strict resemblance and analogy in the two + cases. Experience is the basis of our conclusions and our conduct. I + strike against a given object, a nail for example, with a certain degree + of force, because I have remarked in myself and others the effect of such + a stroke. I take food and masticate it, because I have found that this + process contributes to the sound condition of my body and mind. I scatter + certain seeds in my field, and discharge the other functions of an + agriculturist, because I have observed that in due time the result of this + industry is a crop. All the propriety of these proceedings depends upon + the exact analogy between the old case and the new one. The state of the + affair is still the same, when my business is merely that of an observer + and a traveller. I know water from earth, land from sea, and mountains + from vallies, because I have had experience of these objects, and + confidently infer that, when certain appearances present themselves to my + organs of sight, I shall find the same results to all my other senses, as + I found when such appearances occurred to me before. + </p> + <p> + But the interval that divides the objects which occur upon and under the + earth, and are accessible in all ways to our examination, on the one hand, + and the lights which are suspended over our heads in the heavens on the + other, is of the broadest and most memorable nature. Human beings, in the + infancy of the world, were contented reverently to behold these in their + calmness and beauty, perhaps to worship them, and to remark the effects + that they produced, or seemed to produce, upon man and the subjects of his + industry. But they did not aspire to measure their dimensions, to enquire + into their internal frame, or to explain the uses, far removed from our + sphere of existence, which they might be intended to serve. + </p> + <p> + It is however one of the effects of the improvement of our intellect, to + enlarge our curiosity. The daringness of human enterprise is one of the + prime glories of our nature. It is our boast that we undertake to "measure + earth, weigh air, and state the tides." And, when success crowns the + boldness of our aspirations after what vulgar and timorous prudence had + pronounced impossible, it is then chiefly that we are seen to participate + of an essence divine. + </p> + <p> + What has not man effected by the boldness of his conceptions and the + adventurousness of his spirit? The achievements of human genius have + appeared so incredible, till they were thoroughly examined, and slowly + established their right to general acceptance, that the great heroes of + intellect were universally regarded by their contemporaries as dealers in + magic, and implements of the devil. The inventor of the art of printing, + that glorious instrument for advancing the march of human improvement, and + the discoverer of the more questionable art of making gunpowder, alike + suffered under this imputation. We have rendered the seas and the winds + instruments of our pleasure, "exhausted the old world, and then discovered + a new one," have drawn down lightning from heaven, and exhibited equal + rights and independence to mankind. Still however it is incumbent on us to + be no less wary and suspicious than we are bold, and not to imagine, + because we have done much, that we are therefore able to effect every + thing. + </p> + <p> + As was stated in the commencement of this Essay, we know our own + sensations, and we know little more. Matter, whether in its primary or + secondary qualities, is certainly not the sort of thing the vulgar imagine + it to be. The illustrious Berkeley has taught many to doubt of its + existence altogether; and later theorists have gone farther than this, and + endeavoured to shew, that each man, himself while he speaks on the + subject, and you and I while we hear, have no conclusive evidence to + convince us, that we may not, each of us, for aught we know, be the only + thing that exists, an entire universe to ourselves. + </p> + <p> + We will not however follow these ingenious persons to the startling + extreme to which their speculations would lead us. But, without doing so, + it will not misbecome us to be cautious, and to reflect what we do, before + we take a leap into illimitable space. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT" id="link2H_SECT_____"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION II. + </h2> + <p> + "The sun," we are told, "is a solid body, ninety-five millions of miles + distant from the earth we inhabit, one million times larger in cubic + measurement, and to such a degree impregnated with heat, that a comet, + approaching to it within a certain distance, was by that approximation + raised to a heat two thousand times greater than that of red-hot iron." + </p> + <p> + It will be acknowledged, that there is in this statement much to believe; + and we shall not be exposed to reasonable blame, if we refuse to subscribe + to it, till we have received irresistible evidence of its truth. + </p> + <p> + It has already been observed, that, for the greater part of what we + imagine we know on the surface or in the bowels of the earth, we have, or + may have if we please, the evidence of more than one of our senses, + combining to lead to the same conclusion. For the propositions of + astronomy we have no sensible evidence, but that of sight, and an + imperfect analogy, leading from those visible impressions which we can + verify, to a reliance upon those which we cannot. + </p> + <p> + The first cardinal particular we meet with in the above statement + concerning the sun, is the term, distance. Now, all that, strictly + speaking, we can affirm respecting the sun and other heavenly bodies, is + that we have the same series of impressions respecting them, that we have + respecting terrestrial objects near or remote, and that there is an + imperfect analogy between the one case and the other. + </p> + <p> + Before we affirm any thing, as of our own knowledge and competence, + respecting heavenly bodies which are said to be millions of millions of + miles removed from us, it would not perhaps be amiss that we should + possess ourselves of a certain degree of incontestible information, as to + the things which exist on the earth we inhabit. Among these, one of the + subjects attended with a great degree of doubt and obscurity, is the + height of the mountains with which the surface of the globe we inhabit is + diversified. It is affirmed in the received books of elementary geography, + that the Andes are the highest mountains in the world. Morse, in his + American Gazetteer, third edition, printed at Boston in 1810(46), says, + "The height of Chimborazzo, the most elevated point of the vast chain of + the Andes, is 20,280 feet above the level of the sea, which is 7102 feet + higher than any other mountain in the known world:" thus making the + elevation of the mountains of Thibet, or whatever other rising ground the + compiler had in his thought, precisely 13,178 feet above the level of the + sea, and no more. This decision however has lately been contradicted. Mr. + Hugh Murray, in an Account of Discoveries and Travels in Asia, published + in 1820, has collated the reports of various recent travellers in central + Asia; and he states the height of Chumularee, which he speaks of as the + most elevated point of the mountains of Thibet, as nearly 30,000 feet + above the level of the sea. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (46) Article, Andes. +</pre> + <p> + The elevation of mountains, till lately, was in no way attempted to be + ascertained but by the use of the quadrant, and their height was so + generally exaggerated, that Riccioli, one of the most eminent astronomers + of the seventeenth century, gives it as his opinion that mountains, like + the Caucasus, may have a perpendicular elevation of fifty Italian + miles(47). Later observers have undertaken to correct the inaccuracy of + these results through the application of the barometer, and thus, by + informing themselves of the weight of the air at a certain elevation, + proceeding to infer the height of the situation. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (47) Rees, Encyclopedia; article, Mountains. +</pre> + <p> + There are many circumstances, which are calculated to induce a circumspect + enquirer to regard the affirmative positions of astronomy, as they are + delivered by the most approved modern writers, with considerable + diffidence. + </p> + <p> + They are founded, as has already been said, next to the evidence of our + senses, upon the deductions of mathematical knowledge. + </p> + <p> + Mathematics are either pure or mixed. + </p> + <p> + Pure mathematics are concerned only with abstract propositions, and have + nothing to do with the realities of nature. There is no such thing in + actual existence as a mathematical point, line or surface. There is no + such thing as a circle or square. But that is of no consequence. We can + define them in words, and reason about them. We can draw a diagram, and + suppose that line to be straight which is not really straight, and that + figure to be a circle which is not strictly a circle. It is conceived + therefore by the generality of observers, that mathematics is the science + of certainty. + </p> + <p> + But this is not strictly the case. Mathematics are like those abstract and + imaginary existences about which they are conversant. They may constitute + in themselves, and in the apprehension of an infallible being, a science + of certainty. But they come to us mixed and incorporated with our + imperfections. Our faculties are limited; and we may be easily deceived, + as to what it is that we see with transparent and unerring clearness, and + what it is that comes to us through a crooked medium, refracting and + distorting the rays of primitive truth. We often seem clear, when in + reality the twilight of undistinguishing night has crept fast and far upon + us. In a train of deductions, as in the steps of an arithmetical process, + an error may have insinuated itself imperceptibly at a very early stage, + rendering all the subsequent steps a wandering farther and farther from + the unadulterated truth. Human mathematics, so to speak, like the length + of life, are subject to the doctrine of chances. Mathematics may be the + science of certainty to celestial natures, but not to man. + </p> + <p> + But, if in the case of pure mathematics, we are exposed to the chances of + error and delusion, it is much worse with mixed mathematics. The moment we + step out of the high region of abstraction, and apply ourselves to what we + call external nature, we have forfeited that sacred character and + immunity, which we seemed entitled to boast, so long as we remained + inclosed in the sanctuary of unmingled truth. As has already been said, we + know what passes in the theatre of the mind; but we cannot be said + absolutely to know any thing more. In our speculations upon actual + existences we are not only subject to the disadvantages which arise from + the limited nature of our faculties, and the errors which may insensibly + creep upon us in the process. We are further exposed to the operation of + the unevennesses and irregularities that perpetually occur in external + nature, the imperfection of our senses, and of the instruments we + construct to assist our observations, and the discrepancy which we + frequently detect between the actual nature of the things about us and our + impressions respecting them. + </p> + <p> + This is obvious, whenever we undertake to apply the processes of + arithmetic to the realities of life. Arithmetic, unsubjected to the + impulses of passion and the accidents of created nature, holds on its + course; but, in the phenomena of the actual world, "time and chance + happeneth to them all." + </p> + <p> + Thus it is, for example, in the arithmetical and geometrical ratios, set + up in political economy by the celebrated Mr. Malthus. His numbers will go + on smoothly enough, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, as representing the principle of + population among mankind, and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, the means of subsistence; + but restiff and uncomplying nature refuses to conform herself to his + dicta. + </p> + <p> + Dr. Price has calculated the produce of one penny, put out at the + commencement of the Christian era to five per cent. compound interest, and + finds that in the year 1791 it would have increased to a greater sum than + would be contained in three hundred millions of earths, all solid gold. + But what has this to do with the world in which we live? Did ever any one + put out his penny to interest in this fashion for eighteen hundred years? + And, if he did, where was the gold to be found, to satisfy his demand? + </p> + <p> + Morse, in his American Gazetteer, proceeding on the principles of Malthus, + tells us that, if the city of New York goes on increasing for a century in + a certain ratio, it will by that time contain 5,257,493 inhabitants. But + does any one, for himself or his posterity, expect to see this realised? + </p> + <p> + Blackstone, in his Commentaries on the Laws of England, has observed that, + as every man has two ancestors in the first ascending degree, and four in + the second, so in the twentieth degree he has more than a million, and in + the fortieth the square of that number, or upwards of a million millions. + This statement therefore would have a greater tendency to prove that + mankind in remote ages were numerous, almost beyond the power of figures + to represent, than the opposite doctrine of Malthus, that they have a + perpetual tendency to such increase as would infallibly bring down the + most tremendous calamities on our posterity. + </p> + <p> + Berkeley, whom I have already referred to on another subject, and who is + admitted to be one of our profoundest philosophers, has written a + treatise(48) to prove, that the mathematicians, who object to the + mysteries supposed to exist in revealed religion, "admit much greater + mysteries, and even falshoods in science, of which he alleges the doctrine + of fluxions as an eminent example(49)." He observes, that their + conclusions are established by virtue of a twofold error, and that these + errors, being in contrary directions, are supposed to compensate each + other, the expounders of the doctrine thus arriving at what they call + truth, without being able to shew how, or by what means they have arrived + at it. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (48) The Analyst. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (49) Life of Berkeley, prefixed to his Works. +</pre> + <p> + It is a memorable and a curious speculation to reflect, upon how slight + grounds the doctrine of "thousands and thousands of suns, multiplied + without end, and ranged all around us, at immense distances from each + other, and attended by ten thousand times ten thousand worlds," mentioned + in the beginning of this Essay, is built. It may be all true. But, true or + false, it cannot be without its use to us, carefully to survey the road + upon which we are advancing, the pier which human enterprise has dared to + throw out into the vast ocean of Cimmerian darkness. We have constructed a + pyramid, which throws into unspeakable contempt the vestiges of ancient + Egyptian industry: but it stands upon its apex; it trembles with every + breeze; and momentarily threatens to overwhelm in its ruins the fearless + undertakers that have set it up. + </p> + <p> + It gives us a mighty and sublime idea of the nature of man, to think with + what composure and confidence a succession of persons of the greatest + genius have launched themselves in illimitable space, with what invincible + industry they have proceeded, wasting the midnight oil, racking their + faculties, and almost wearing their organs to dust, in measuring the + distance of Sirius and the other fixed stars, the velocity of light, and + "the myriads of intelligent beings formed for endless progression in + perfection and felicity," that people the numberless worlds of which they + discourse. The illustrious names of Copernicus, Galileo, Gassendi, Kepler, + Halley and Newton impress us with awe; and, if the astronomy they have + opened before us is a romance, it is at least a romance more seriously and + perseveringly handled than any other in the annals of literature. + </p> + <p> + A vulgar and a plain man would unavoidably ask the astronomers, How came + you so familiarly acquainted with the magnitude and qualities of the + heavenly bodies, a great portion of which, by your own account, are + millions of millions of miles removed from us? But, I believe, it is not + the fashion of the present day to start so rude a question. I have just + turned over an article on Astronomy in the Encyclopaedia Londinensis, + consisting of one hundred and thirty-three very closely printed quarto + pages, and in no corner of this article is any evidence so much as hinted + at. Is it not enough? Newton and his compeers have said it. + </p> + <p> + The whole doctrine of astronomy rests upon trigonometry, a branch of the + science of mathematics which teaches us, having two sides and one angle, + or two angles and one side, of a triangle given us, to construct the + whole. To apply this principle therefore to the heavenly bodies, it is + necessary for us to take two stations, the more remote from each other the + better, from which our observations should be made. For the sake of + illustration we will suppose them to be taken at the extremes of the + earth's diameter, in other words, nearly eight thousand miles apart from + each other, the thing itself having never been realised to that extent. + From each of these stations we will imagine a line to be drawn, + terminating in the sun. Now it seems easy, by means of a quadrant, to find + the arch of a circle (in other words, the angle) included between these + lines terminating in the sun, and the base formed by a right line drawn + from one of these stations to the other, which in this case is the length + of the earth's diameter. I have therefore now the three particulars + required to enable me to construct my triangle. And, according to the most + approved astronomical observations hitherto made, I have an isosceles + triangle, eight thousand miles broad at its base, and ninety-five millions + of miles in the length of each of the sides reaching from the base to the + apex. + </p> + <p> + It is however obvious to the most indifferent observer, that the more any + triangle, or other mathematical diagram, falls within the limits which our + senses can conveniently embrace, the more securely, when our business is + practical, and our purpose to apply the result to external objects, can we + rely on the accuracy of our results. In a case therefore like the present, + where the base of our isosceles triangle is to the other two sides as + eight units to twelve thousand, it is impossible not to perceive that it + behoves us to be singularly diffident as to the conclusion at which we + have arrived, or rather it behoves us to take for granted that we are not + unlikely to fall into the most important error. We have satisfied + ourselves that the sides of the triangle including the apex, do not form + an angle, till they have arrived at the extent of ninety-five millions of + miles. How are we sure that they do then? May not lines which have reached + to so amazing a length without meeting, be in reality parallel lines? If + an angle is never formed, there can be no result. The whole question seems + to be incommensurate to our faculties. + </p> + <p> + It being obvious that this was a very unsatisfactory scheme for arriving + at the knowledge desired, the celebrated Halley suggested another method, + in the year 1716, by an observation to be taken at the time of the transit + of Venus over the sun(50). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (50) Philosophical Transactions, Vol. XXIX, p. 454. +</pre> + <p> + It was supposed that we were already pretty accurately acquainted with the + distance of the moon from the earth, it being so much nearer to us, by + observing its parallax, or the difference of its place in the heavens as + seen from the surface of the earth, from that in which it would appear if + seen from its centre(51). But the parallax of the sun is so exceedingly + small, as scarcely to afford the basis of a mathematical calculation(52). + The parallax of Venus is however almost four times as great as that of the + sun; and there must therefore be a very sensible difference between the + times in which Venus may be seen passing over the sun from different parts + of the earth. It was on this account apprehended, that the parallax of the + sun, by means of observations taken from different places at the time of + the transit of Venus in 1761 and 1769, might be ascertained with a great + degree of precision(53). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (51) Bonnycastle, Astronomy, 7th edition, p. 262, et seq. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (52) Ibid, p. 268. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (53) Phil. Transactions, Vol. XXIX, p. 457. +</pre> + <p> + But the imperfectness of our instruments and means of observation have no + small tendency to baffle the ambition of man in these curious + investigations. + </p> + <p> + "The true quantity of the moon's parallax," says Bonnycastle, "cannot be + accurately determined by the methods ordinarily resorted to, on account of + the varying declination of the moon, and the inconstancy of the horizontal + refractions, which are perpetually changing according to the state the + atmosphere is in at the time. For the moon continues but for a short time + in the equinoctial, and the refraction at a mean rate elevates her + apparent place near the horizon, half as much as her parallax depresses + it(54)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (54) Astronomy, p. 265. +</pre> + <p> + "It is well known that the parallax of the sun can never exceed nine + seconds, or the four-hundredth part of a degree(55)." "Observations," says + Halley, "made upon the vibrations of a pendulum, to determine these + exceedingly small angles, are not sufficiently accurate to be depended + upon; for by this method of ascertaining the parallax, it will sometimes + come out to be nothing, or even negative; that is, the distance will + either be infinite, or greater than infinite, which is absurd. And, to + confess the truth, it is hardly possible for a person to distinguish + seconds with certainty by any instruments, however skilfully they may be + made; and therefore it is not to be wondered at, that the excessive nicety + of this matter should have eluded the many ingenious endeavours of the + most able opetators."(56). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (55) Ibid, p. 268. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (56) Phil. Transactions, Vol. XXIX, p. 456. +</pre> + <p> + Such are the difficulties that beset the subject on every side. It is for + the impartial and dispassionate observers who have mastered all the + subtleties of the science, if such can be found, to determine whether the + remedies that have been resorted to to obviate the above inaccuracies and + their causes, have fulfilled their end, and are not exposed to similar + errors. But it would be vain to expect the persons, who have "scorned + delights, and lived laborious days" to possess themselves of the mysteries + of astronomy, should be impartial and dispassionate, or be disposed to + confess, even to their own minds, that their researches were useless, and + their labours ended in nothing. + </p> + <p> + It is further worthy of our attention, that the instruments with which we + measure the distance of the earth from the sun and the planets, are the + very instruments which have been pronounced upon as incompetent in + measuring the heights of mountains(57). In the latter case therefore we + have substituted a different mode for arriving at the truth, which is + supposed to be attended with greater precision: but we have no substitute + to which we can resort, to correct the mistakes into which we may fall + respecting the heavenly bodies. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (57) See above, Essay XXI. +</pre> + <p> + The result of the uncertainty which adheres to all astronomical + observations is such as might have been expected. Common readers are only + informed of the latest adjustment of the question, and are therefore + unavoidably led to believe that the distance of the sun from the earth, + ever since astronomy became entitled to the name of a science, has by + universal consent been recognised as ninety-five millions of miles, or, as + near as may be, twenty-four thousand semi-diameters of the earth. But how + does the case really stand? Copernicus and Tycho Brahe held the distance + to be twelve hundred semi-diameters; Kepler, who is received to have been + perhaps the greatest astronomer that any age has produced, puts it down as + three thousand five hundred semi-diameters; since his time, Riccioli as + seven thousand; Hevelius as five thousand two hundred and fifty(58); some + later astronomers, mentioned by Halley, as fourteen thousand; and Halley + himself as sixteen thousand five hundred(59). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (58) They were about thirty and forty years younger than Kepler +respectively. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (59) Halley, apud Philosophical Transactions, Vol. XXIX, p. 455. +</pre> + <p> + The doctrine of fluxions is likewise called in by the astronomers in their + attempts to ascertain the distance and magnitude of the different + celestial bodies which compose the solar system; and in this way their + conclusions become subject to all the difficulties which Berkeley has + alleged against that doctrine. + </p> + <p> + Kepler has also supplied us with another mode of arriving at the distance + and size of the sun and the planets: he has hazarded a conjecture, that + the squares of the times of the revolution of the earth and the other + planets are in proportion to the cubes of their distances from the sun, + their common centre; and, as by observation we can arrive with tolerable + certainty at a knowledge of the times of their revolutions, we may from + hence proceed to the other matters we are desirous to ascertain. And that + which Kepler seemed, as by a divine inspiration, to hazard in the way of + conjecture, Newton professes to have demonstratively established. But the + demonstration of Newton has not been considered as satisfactory by all men + of science since his time. + </p> + <p> + Thus far however we proceed as we may, respecting our propositions on the + subject of the solar system. But, beyond this, all science, real or + pretended, deserts us. We have no method for measuring angles, which can + be applied to the fixed stars; and we know nothing of any revolutions they + perform. All here therefore seems gratuitous: we reason from certain + alleged analogies; and we can do no more. + </p> + <p> + Huygens endeavoured to ascertain something on the subject, by making the + aperture of a telescope so small, that the sun should appear through it no + larger than Sirius, which he found to be only in the proportion of 1 to + 27,664 times his diameter, as seen by the naked eye. Hence, supposing + Sirius to be a globe of the same magnitude as the sun, it must be 27,664 + times as distant from us as the sun, in other words, at a distance so + considerable as to equal 345 million diameters of the earth(60). Every one + must feel on how slender a thread this conclusion is suspended. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (60) Encyclopaedia Londinensis, Vol. 11, p. 407. +</pre> + <p> + And yet, from this small postulate, the astronomers proceed to deduce the + most astounding conclusions. They tell us, that the distance of the + nearest fixed star from the earth is at least 7,600,000,000,000 miles, and + of another they name, not less than 38 millions of millions of miles. A + cannon-ball therefore, proceeding at the rate of about twenty miles in a + minute would be 760,000 years in passing from us to the nearest fixed + star, and 3,800,000 in passing to the second star of which we speak. + Huygens accordingly concluded, that it was not impossible, that there + might be stars at such inconceivable distances from us, that their light + has not yet reached the earth since its creation(61). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (61) Ibid, p. 408. +</pre> + <p> + The received system of the universe, founded upon these so called + discoveries, is that each of the stars is a sun, having planets and comets + revolving round it, as our sun has the earth and other planets revolving + round him. It has been found also by the successive observations of + astronomers, that a star now and then is totally lost, and that a new star + makes its appearance which had never been remarked before: and this they + explain into the creation of a new system from time to time by the + Almighty author of the universe, and the destruction of an old system worn + out with age(62). We must also remember the power of attraction every + where diffused through infinite space, by means of which, as Herschel + assures us, in great length of time a nebula, or cluster of stars, may be + formed, while the projectile force they received in the beginning may + prevent them from all coming together, at least for millions of ages. Some + of these nebulae, he adds, cannot well be supposed to be at a less + distance from us than six or eight thousand times the distance of + Sirius(63). Kepler however denies that each star, of those which + distinctly present themselves to our sight, can have its system of planets + as our sun has, and considers them as all fixed in the same surface or + sphere; since, if one of them were twice or thrice as remote as another, + it would, supposing their real magnitudes to be equal, appear to be twice + or thrice as small, whereas there is not in their apparent magnitudes the + slightest difference(64). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (62) Encycl. Lond. Vol. II, p. 411. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (63) Ibid, p. 348. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (64) Ibid, p. 411. +</pre> + <p> + Certainly the astronomers are a very fortunate and privileged race of men, + who talk to us in this oracular way of "the unseen things of God from the + creation of the world," hanging up their conclusions upon invisible hooks, + while the rest of mankind sit listening gravely to their responses, and + unreservedly "acknowledging that their science is the most sublime, the + most interesting, and the most useful of all the sciences cultivated by + man(65)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (65) Ferguson, Astronomy, Section 1. +</pre> + <p> + We have a sensation, which we call the sensation of distance. It comes to + us from our sight and our other senses. It does not come immediately by + the organ of sight. It has been proved, that the objects we see, + previously to the comparison and correction of the reports of the organ of + sight with those of the other senses, do not suggest to us the idea of + distance, but that on the contrary whatever we see seems to touch the eye, + even as the objects of the sense of feeling touch the skin. + </p> + <p> + But, in proportion as we compare the impressions made upon our organs of + sight with the impressions made on the other senses, we come gradually to + connect with the objects we see the idea of distance. I put out my hand, + and find at first that an object of my sense of sight is not within the + reach of my hand. I put out my hand farther, or by walking advance my body + in the direction of the object, and I am enabled to reach it. From smaller + experiments I proceed to greater. I walk towards a tree or a building, the + figure of which presents itself to my eye, but which I find upon trial to + have been far from me. I travel towards a place that I cannot see, but + which I am told lies in a certain direction. I arrive at the place. It is + thus, that by repeated experiments I acquire the idea of remote distances. + </p> + <p> + To confine ourselves however to the question of objects, which without + change of place I can discover by the sense of sight. I can see a town, a + tower, a mountain at a considerable distance. Let us suppose that the + limit of my sight, so far as relates to objects on the earth, is one + hundred miles. I can travel towards such an object, and thus ascertain by + means of my other senses what is its real distance. I can also employ + certain instruments, invented by man, to measure heights, suppose of a + tower, and, by experiments made in ways independent of these instruments, + verify or otherwise the report of these instruments. + </p> + <p> + The height of the Monument of London is something more than two hundred + feet. Other elevations, the produce of human labour, are considerably + higher. It is in the nature of the mind, that we conclude from the + observation that we have verified, to the accuracy of another, bearing a + striking analogy to the former, that we have not verified. But analogy has + its limits. Is it of irresistible certainty, or is it in fact to be + considered as approaching to certainty, because we have verified an + observation extending to several hundred feet, that an observation + extending to ninety-five millions of miles, or to the incredible distances + of which Herschel so familiarly talks, is to be treated as a fact, or laid + down as a principle in science? Is it reasonable to consider two + propositions as analogous, when the thing affirmed in the one is in + dimension many million times as great as the thing affirmed in the other? + The experience we have had as to the truth of the smaller, does it + authorise us to consider the larger as unquestionable? That which I see + with a bay of the sea or a wide river between, though it may appear very + like something with which I am familiar at home, do I immediately affirm + it to be of the same species and nature, or do I not regard it with a + certain degree of scepticism, especially if, along with the resemblance in + some points, it differs essentially, as for example in magnitude, in other + points? We have a sensation, and we enquire into its cause. This is always + a question of some uncertainty. Is its cause something of absolute and + substantive existence without me, or is it not? Is its cause something of + the very same nature, as the thing that gave me a similar sensation in a + matter of comparatively a pigmy and diminutive extension? + </p> + <p> + All these questions an untrained and inquisitive mind will ask itself in + the propositions of astronomy. We must believe or not, as we think proper + or reasonable. We have no way of verifying the propositions by the trial + of our senses. There they lie, to be received by us in the construction + that first suggests itself to us, or not. They are something like an + agreeable imagination or fiction: and a sober observer, in cold blood, + will be disposed deliberately to weigh both sides of the question, and to + judge whether the probability lies in favour of the actual affirmation of + the millions of millions of miles, and the other incredible propositions + of the travelling of light, and the rest, which even the most cautious and + sceptical of the retainers of modern astronomy, find themselves compelled + to receive. + </p> + <p> + But I shall be told, that the results of our observations of the distances + of the heavenly bodies are unvaried. We have measured the distances and + other phenomena of the sun, the moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, + Saturn, and their satellites, and they all fall into a grand system, so as + to convey to every unprejudiced mind the conviction that this system is + the truth itself. If we look at them day after day, and year after year, + we see them for ever the same, and performing the same divine harmony. + Successive astronomers in different ages and countries have observed the + celestial orbs, and swept the heavens, and for ever bring us back the same + story of the number, the dimensions, the distances, and the arrangement of + the heavenly bodies which form the subject of astronomical science. + </p> + <p> + This we have seen indeed not to be exactly the case. But, if it were, it + would go a very little way towards proving the point it was brought to + prove. It would shew that, the sensations and results being similar, the + causes of those results must be similar to each other, but it would not + shew that the causes were similar to the sensations produced. Thus, in the + sensations which belong to taste, smell, sound, colour, and to those of + heat and cold, there is all the uniformity which would arise, when the + real external causes bore the most exact similitude to the perceptions + they generate; and yet it is now universally confessed that tastes, + scents, sounds, colours, and heat and cold do not exist out of ourselves. + All that we are entitled therefore to conclude as to the magnitudes and + distances of the heavenly bodies, is, that the causes of our sensations + and perceptions, whatever they are, are not less uniform than the + sensations and perceptions themselves. + </p> + <p> + It is further alleged, that we calculate eclipses, and register the + various phenomena of the heavenly bodies. Thales predicted an eclipse of + the sun, which took place nearly six hundred years before the Christian + era. The Babylonians, the Persians, the Hindoos, and the Chinese early + turned their attention to astronomy. Many of their observations were + accurately recorded; and their tables extend to a period of three thousand + years before the birth of Christ. Does not all this strongly argue the + solidity of the science to which they belong? Who, after this, will have + the presumption to question, that the men who profess astronomy proceed on + real grounds, and have a profound knowledge of these things, which at + first sight might appear to be set at a distance so far removed from our + ken? + </p> + <p> + The answer to this is easy. I believe in all the astronomy that was + believed by Thales. I do not question the statements relative to the + heavenly bodies that were delivered by the wise men of the East. But the + supposed discoveries that were made in the eighteenth, and even in the + latter part of the seventeenth century, purporting to ascertain the + precise distance of the sun, the planets, and even of the fixed stars, are + matters entirely distinct from this. + </p> + <p> + Among the earliest astronomers of Greece were Thales, Anaximander, + Anaximenes and Anaxagoras. Thales, we are told, held that the earth is a + sphere or globe, Anaximenes that it is like a round, flat table; + Anaximander that the sun is like a chariot-wheel, and is twenty-eight + times larger than the earth. Anaxagoras was put in prison for affirming + that the sun was by many degrees larger than the whole Peloponnesus(66). + Kepler is of opinion that all the stars are at an equal distance from us, + and are fixed in the same surface or sphere. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (66) Plutarch, De Placitis Philosophorum. Diogenes Laertius. +</pre> + <p> + In reality the observations and the facts of astronomy do not depend + either upon the magnitudes or the distances of the heavenly bodies. They + proceed in the first place upon what may lie seen with the naked eye. They + require an accurate and persevering attention. They may be assisted by + telescopes. But they relate only to the sun and the planets. We are bound + to ascertain, as nearly as possible, the orbits described by the different + bodies in the solar system: but this has still nothing to do, strictly + speaking, with their magnitudes or distances. It is required that we + should know them in their relations to each other; but it is no + preliminary of just, of practical, it might almost be said, of liberal + science, that we should know any thing of them absolutely. + </p> + <p> + The unlimited ambition of the nature of man has discovered itself in + nothing more than this, the amazing superstructure which the votaries of + contemplation within the last two hundred years have built upon the simple + astronomy of the ancients. Having begun to compute the distances of miles + by millions, it appears clearly that nothing can arrest the more than + eagle-flight of the human mind. The distance of the nearest fixed star + from the earth, we are informed, is at least 7,000,000,000,000 miles, and + of another which the astronomers name, not less than 38 millions of + millions of miles. The particles of light are said to travel 193,940 miles + in every second, which is above a million times swifter than the progress + of a cannon-ball(67). And Herschel has concluded, that the light issuing + from the faintest nebulae he has discovered, must have been at this rate + two millions of years in reaching the Barth(68). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (67) Ferguson, Section 216. "Light moves," says Brewster, Optics, p. 2, +"from one pole of the earth to the other in the 24th part of a second: a +velocity which surpasses all comprehension." +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (68) Brinkley, Astronomy, p. 130. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT" id="link2H_SECT______"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION III. + </h2> + <p> + The next process of the modern astronomer is to affirm the innumerable + orbs around us, discovered with the naked eye, or with which we are made + acquainted by the aid of telescopes, to be all stocked with rational + inhabitants. The argument for this is, that an all-wise and omnipotent + creator could never have produced such immense bodies, dispersed through + infinite space, for any meaner purpose, than that of peopling them with + "intelligent beings, formed for endless progression in perfection and + felicity(69)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (69) See above, Essay XXI. +</pre> + <p> + Now it appears to me, that, in these assertions, the modern astronomers + are taking upon themselves somewhat too boldly, to expound the counsels of + that mysterious power, to which the universe is indebted for its + arrangement and order. + </p> + <p> + We know nothing of God but from his works. Certain speculative men have + adventured to reason upon the source of all the system and the wonders + that we behold, a priori, and, having found that the creator is all + powerful, all wise, and of infinite goodness, according to their ideas of + power, wisdom and goodness, have from thence proceeded to draw their + inferences, and to shew us in what manner the works of his hands are + arranged and conducted by him. This no doubt they have done with the + purest intentions in the world; but it is not certain, that their + discretion has equalled the boldness of their undertaking. + </p> + <p> + The world that we inhabit, this little globe of earth, is to us an + infinite mystery. Human imagination is unable to conceive any thing more + consummate than the great outline of things below. The trees and the + skies, the mountains and the seas, the rivers and the springs, appear as + if the design had been to realise the idea of paradise. The freshness of + the air, the silvery light of day, the magnificence of the clouds, the + gorgeous and soothing colouring of the world, the profusion and + exquisiteness of the fruits and flowers of the earth, are as if nothing + but joy and delicious sensations had been intended for us. When we ascend + to the animal creation, the scene is still more admirable and + transporting. The birds and the beasts, the insects that skim the air, and + the fishes that live in the great deep, are a magazine of wonders, that we + may study for ever, without fear of arriving at the end of their + excellence. Last of all, comes the crown of the creation, man, formed with + looks erect, to commerce with the skies. What a masterpiece of workmanship + is his form, while the beauty and intelligence of Gods seems to manifest + itself in his countenance! Look at that most consummate of all implements, + the human hand; think of his understanding, how composed and penetrating; + of the wealth of his imagination; of the resplendent virtues he is + qualified to display! "How wonderful are thy works, Oh God; in wisdom hast + thou created them all!" + </p> + <p> + But there are other parts of the system in which we live, which do not + seem to correspond with those already enumerated. Before we proceed to + people infinite space, it would be as well, if we surveyed the surface of + the earth we inhabit. What vast deserts do we find in it; what immense + tracks of burning sands! One half of the globe is perhaps irreclaimable to + the use of man. Then let us think of earthquakes and tempests, of wasting + hurricanes, and the number of vessels, freighted with human beings, that + are yearly buried in the caverns of the ocean. Let us call to mind in man, + the prime ornament of the creation, all the diseases to which his frame is + subject, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Convulsions, epilepsies, fierce catarrhs, + Intestine stone and ulcer, colic pangs, + Demoniac frenzy, moping melancholy, + And moon-struck madness, pining atrophy, + Marasmus, and wide-wasting pestilence, + Dropsies, and asthmas, and joint-racking rheums. +</pre> + <p> + The very idea of our killing, and subsisting upon the flesh of animals, + surely somewhat jars with our conceptions of infinite benevolence. + </p> + <p> + But, when we look at the political history of man, the case is infinitely + worse. This too often seems one tissue of misery and vice. War, conquest, + oppression, tyranny, slavery, insurrections, massacres, cruel punishments, + degrading corporal infliction, and the extinction of life under the forms + of law, are to be found in almost every page. It is as if an evil demon + were let loose upon us, and whole nations, from one decad of years to + another, were struck with the most pernicious madness. Certain reasoners + tell us that this is owing to the freedom of will, without which man could + not exist. But here we are presented with an alternative, from which it is + impossible for human understanding to escape. Either God, according to our + ideas of benevolence, would remove evil out of the world, and cannot; or + he can, and will not. If he has the will and not the power, this argues + weakness; if he has the power and not the will, this seems to be + malevolence. + </p> + <p> + Let us descend from the great stage of the nations, and look into the + obscurities of private misery. Which of us is happy? What bitter springs + of misery overflow the human heart, and are borne by us in silence! What + cruel disappointments beset us! To what struggles are we doomed, while we + struggle often in vain! The human heart seems framed, as if to be the + capacious receptacle of all imaginable sorrows. The human frame seems + constructed, as if all its fibres were prepared to sustain varieties of + torment. "In the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat bread, till thou return + to the earth." But how often does that sweat prove ineffective! There are + men of whom sorrow seems to be the destiny, from which they can never + escape. There are hearts, into which by their constitution it appears as + if serenity and content could never enter, but which are given up to all + the furious passions, or are for ever the prey of repining and depression. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Ah, little think the gay, licentious proud, + Whom pleasure, power and affluence surround, + How many pine in want! How many shrink + Into the sordid hut, how many drink + The cup of grief, and eat the bitter bread + Of misery! +</pre> + <p> + And, which aggravates the evil, almost all the worst vices, the most + unprincipled acts, and the darkest passions of the human mind, are bred + out of poverty and distress. Satan, in the Book of Job, says to the + Almighty, "Thou hast blessed the work of thy servant, and his substance is + increased in the land. But put forth thy hand now, and take away all that + he hath; and he will curse thee to thy face." The prayer of Agar runs, + "Feed me with food convenient for me; lest I be poor, and steal, and take + the name of my God in vain." + </p> + <p> + It is with a deep knowledge of the scenes of life, that the prophet + pronounces, "My thoughts are not your thoughts; neither are your ways my + ways, saith the Lord." + </p> + <p> + All reflecting persons, who have surveyed the state of the world in which + we live, have been struck with the contrarieties of sublunary things; and + many hypotheses have been invented to solve the enigma. Some have + maintained the doctrine of two principles, Oromasdes and Arimanius, the + genius of good and of evil, who are perpetually contending with each other + which shall have the greatest sway in the fortunes of the world, and each + alternately acquiring the upper hand. Others have inculcated the theory of + the fall of man, that God at first made all things beautiful and good, but + that man has incurred his displeasure, and been turned out of the paradise + for which he was destined. Hence, they say, has arisen the corruption of + our nature. "There is none that cloth good, no, not one. That every mouth + may be stopped, and all the world become guilty before God." But the + solution that has been most generally adopted, particularly in later days, + is that of a future state of retribution, in which all the inequalities of + our present condition shall be removed, the tears of the unfortunate and + the sufferer shall be wiped from their eyes, and their agonies and + miseries compensated. This, in other words, independently of the light of + revelation, is to infer infinite wisdom and benevolence from what we see, + and then, finding the actual phenomena not to correspond with our + theories, to invent something of which we have no knowledge, to supply the + deficiency. + </p> + <p> + The astronomer however proceeds from what we see of the globe of earth, to + fashion other worlds of which we have no direct knowledge. Finding that + there is no part of the soil of the earth into which our wanderings can + penetrate, that is not turned to the account of rational and happy beings, + creatures capable of knowing and adoring their creator, that nature does + nothing in vain, and that the world is full of the evidences of his + unmingled beneficence, according to our narrow and imperfect ideas of + beneficence, (for such ought to be our premises) we proceed to construct + millions of worlds upon the plan we have imagined. The earth is a globe, + the planets are globes, and several of them larger than our earth: the + earth has a moon; several of the planets have satellites: the globe we + dwell in moves in an orbit round the sun; so do the planets: upon these + premises, and no more, we hold ourselves authorised to affirm that they + contain "myriads of intelligent beings, formed for endless progression in + perfection and felicity." Having gone thus far, we next find that the + fixed stars bear a certain resemblance to the sun; and, as the sun has a + number of planets attendant on him, so, we say, has each of the fixed + stars, composing all together "ten thousand times ten thousand" habitable + worlds. + </p> + <p> + All this is well, so long as we view it as a bold and ingenious + conjecture. On any other subject it would be so regarded; and we should + consider it as reserved for the amusement and gratification of a fanciful + visionary in the hour, when he gives up the reins to his imagination. But, + backed as it is by a complexity of geometrical right lines and curves, and + handed forth to us in large quartos, stuffed with calculations, it + experiences a very different fortune. We are told that, "by the knowledge + we derive from astronomy, our faculties are enlarged, our minds exalted, + and our understandings clearly convinced, and affected with the + conviction, of the existence, wisdom, power, goodness, immutability and + superintendency of the supreme being; so that, without an hyperbole, 'an + undevout astronomer is mad(e)(70).'" + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (70) Ferguson, Astronomy, Section I. +</pre> + <p> + It is singular, how deeply I was impressed with this representation, while + I was a schoolboy, and was so led to propose a difficulty to the wife of + the master. I said, "I find that we have millions of worlds round us + peopled with rational creatures. I know not that we have any decisive + reason for supposing these creatures more exalted, than the wonderful + species of which we are individuals. We are imperfect; they are imperfect. + We fell; it is reasonable to suppose that they have fallen also. It became + necessary for the second person in the trinity to take upon him our + nature, and by suffering for our sins to appease the wrath of his father. + I am unwilling to believe that he has less commiseration for the + inhabitants of other planets. But in that case it may be supposed that + since the creation he has been making a circuit of the planets, and dying + on the cross for the sins of rational creatures in uninterrupted + succession." The lady was wiser than I, admonished me of the danger of + being over-inquisitive, and said we should act more discreetly in leaving + those questions to the judgment of the Almighty. + </p> + <p> + But thus far we have reasoned only on one side of the question. Our pious + sentiments have led us to magnify the Lord in all his works, and, however + imperfect the analogy, and however obscure the conception we can form of + the myriads of rational creatures, all of them no doubt infinitely varied + in their nature, their structure and faculties, yet to view the whole + scheme with an undoubting persuasion of its truth. It is however somewhat + in opposition to the ideas of piety formed by our less adventurous + ancestors, that we should usurp the throne of God, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Snatch from his hand the balance and the rod, +</pre> + <p> + and, by means of our telescopes and our calculations, penetrate into + mysteries not originally intended for us. According to the received Mosaic + chronology we are now in the five thousand eight hundred and thirty-fifth + year from the creation: the Samaritan version adds to this date. It is + therefore scarcely in the spirit of a Christian, that Herschel talks to us + of a light, which must have been two millions of years in reaching the + earth. + </p> + <p> + Moses describes the operations of the Almighty, in one of the six days + devoted to the work of creation, as being to place "lights in the + firmament of heaven, to divide the day from the night, to be for signs and + for seasons, and for days and years, and to give light upon the earth; two + great lights, the greater to rule the day, and the lesser the night; and + the stars also." And Christ, prophesying what is to happen in the latter + days, says, "The sun shall be darkened, and the moon shall not give her + light, and the stars shall fall from heaven." Whatever therefore be the + piety of the persons, who talk to us of "ten thousand times ten thousand + worlds, all peopled with rational creatures," it certainly is not a piety + in precise accordance with the Christian scriptures. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_SECT" id="link2H_SECT_______"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECTION IV. It is also no more than just, that we should bear in mind + </h2> + <p> + the apparent fitness or otherwise, of these bodies, so far as we are + acquainted with them, for the dwelling-place of rational creatures. Not to + mention the probable extreme coldness of Jupiter and Saturn, the heat of + the sunbeams in the planet Mercury is understood to be such as that water + would unavoidably boil and be carried away(71), and we can scarcely + imagine any living substance that would not be dissolved and dispersed in + such an atmosphere. The moon, of which, as being so much nearer to us, we + may naturally be supposed to know most, we are told by the astronomers has + no water and no atmosphere, or, if any, such an atmosphere as would not + sustain clouds and ascending vapour. To our eye, as seen through the + telescope, it appears like a metallic substance, which has been burned by + fire, and so reduced into the ruined and ragged condition in which we seem + to behold it. The sun appears to be still less an appropriate habitation + for rational, or for living creatures, than any of the planets. The + comets, which describe an orbit so exceedingly eccentric, and are subject + to all the excessive vicissitudes of heat and cold, are, we are told, + admirably adapted for a scene of eternal, or of lengthened punishment for + those who have acquitted themselves ill in a previous state of probation. + Buffon is of opinion, that all the planets in the solar system were once + so many portions of our great luminary, struck off from the sun by the + blow of a comet, and so having received a projectile impulse calculated to + carry them forward in a right line, at the same time that the power of + attraction counteracts this impulse, and gives them that compound + principle of motion which retains them in an orbicular course. In this + sense it may be said that all the planets were suns; while on the contrary + Herschel pronounces, that the sun itself is a planet, an opake body, + richly stored with inhabitants(72). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (71) Encyclopaedia Londinensis, Vol. II, p. 355. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (72) Philosophical Transactions for 1795, p. 68. +</pre> + <p> + The modern astronomers go on to account to us for the total disappearance + of a star in certain cases, which, they say, may be in reality the + destruction of a system, such as that of our sun and its attendant + planets, while the appearance of a new star may, in like manner, be the + occasional creation of a new system of planets. "We ought perhaps," says + Herschel, "to look upon certain clusters of stars, and the destruction of + a star now and then in some thousands of ages, as the very means by which + the whole is preserved and renewed. These clusters may be the laboratories + of the universe, wherein the most salutary remedies for the decay of the + whole are prepared(73)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (73) Philosophical Transactions for 1785, p. 217. +</pre> + <p> + All this must appear to a sober mind, unbitten by the rage which grows out + of the heat of these new discoverers, to be nothing less than astronomy + run mad. This occasional creation of new systems and worlds, is in little + accordance with the Christian scriptures, or, I believe, with any sober + speculation upon the attributes of the creator. The astronomer seizes upon + some hint so fine as scarcely by any ingenuity to be arrested, immediately + launches forth into infinite space, and in an instant returns, and + presents us with millions of worlds, each of them peopled with ten + thousand times ten thousand inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + We spoke a while since of the apparent unfitness of many of the heavenly + bodies for the reception of living inhabitants. But for all this these + discoverers have a remedy. They remind us how unlike these inhabitants may + be to ourselves, having other organs than ours, and being able to live in + a very different temperature. "The great heat in the planet Mercury is no + argument against its being inhabited; since the Almighty could as easily + suit the bodies and constitutions of its inhabitants to the heat of their + dwelling, as he has done ours to the temperature of our earth. And it is + very probable that the people there have such an opinion of us, as we have + of the inhabitants of Jupiter and Saturn; namely, that we must be + intolerably cold, and have very little light at so great a distance from + the sun." + </p> + <p> + These are the remarks of Ferguson(74). One of our latest astronomers + expresses himself to the same purpose. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (74) Astronomy, Section 22. +</pre> + <p> + "We have no argument against the planets being inhabited by rational + beings, and consequently by witnesses of the creator's power, magnificence + and benevolence, unless it be said that some are much nearer the sun than + the earth is, and therefore must be uninhabitable from heat, and those + more distant from cold. Whatever objection this may be against their being + inhabited by rational beings, of an organisation similar to those on the + earth, it can have little force, when urged with respect to rational + beings in general. + </p> + <p> + "But we may examine without indulging too much in conjecture, whether it + be not possible that the planets may be possessed by rational beings, and + contain animals and vegetables, even little different from those with + which we are familiar. + </p> + <p> + "Is the sun the principal cause of the temperature of the earth? We have + reason to suppose that it is not. The mean temperature of the earth, at a + small depth from the surface, seems constant in summer and in winter, and + is probably coeval with its first formation. + </p> + <p> + "At the planet Mercury, the direct heat of the sun, or its power of + causing heat, is six times greater than with us. If we suppose the mean + temperature of Mercury to be the same as of the earth, and the planet to + be surrounded with an atmosphere, denser than that of the earth, less + capable of transmitting heat, or rather the influence of the sun to + extricate heat, and at the same time more readily conducting it to keep up + an evenness of temperature, may we not suppose the planet Mercury fit for + the habitation of men, and the production of vegetables similar to our + own? + </p> + <p> + "At the Georgium Sidus, the direct influence of the sun is 360 times less + than at the earth, and the sun is there seen at an angle not much greater + than that under which we behold Venus, when nearest. Yet may not the mean + temperature of the Georgium Sidus be nearly the same as that of the earth? + May not its atmosphere more easily transmit the influence of the sun, and + may not the matter of heat be more copiously combined, and more readily + extricated, than with us? Whence changes of season similar to our own may + take place. Even in the comets we may suppose no great change of + temperature takes place, as we know of no cause which will deprive them of + their mean temperature, and particularly if we suppose, that on their + approach towards the sun, there is a provision for their atmosphere + becoming denser. The tails they exhibit, when in the neighbourhood of the + sun, seem in some measure to countenance this idea. + </p> + <p> + "We can hardly suppose the sun, a body three hundred times larger than all + the planets together, was created only to preserve the periodic motions, + and give light and heat to the planets. Many astronomers have thought that + its atmosphere only is luminous, and its body opake, and probably of the + same constitution as the planets. Allowing therefore that its luminous + atmosphere only extricates heat, we see no reason why the sun itself + should not be inhabited(75)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (75) Brinkley, Elements of Astronomy, Chap. IX. +</pre> + <p> + There is certainly no end to the suppositions that may be made by an + ingenious astronomer. May we not suppose that we might do nearly as well + altogether without the sun, which it appears is at present of little use + to us as to warmth and heat? As to light, the great creator might, for + aught we know, find a substitute; feelers, for example, endued with a + certain acuteness of sense: or, at all events, the least imaginable degree + of light might answer every purpose to organs adapted to this kind of + twilight. In that way the inhabitants of the Georgium Sidus are already + sufficiently provided for; they appear to have as little benefit of the + light as of the heat of the sun. How the satellites of the distant planets + are supplied with light is a mystery, since their principals have scarcely + any. Unless indeed, like the sun, they have a luminous atmosphere, + competent to enlighten a whole system, themselves being opake. But in + truth light in a greater or less degree seems scarcely worthy of a + thought, since the inhabitants of the planet Mercury have not their eyes + put out by a light, scarcely inferior in radiance to that which is + reflected by those plates of burning brass, with which tyrants in some + ages were accustomed to extinguish the sense of vision in their + unfortunate victims. The comets also must be a delectable residence; that + of 1680 completing its orbit in 576 years, and being at its greatest + distance about eleven thousand two hundred millions of miles from the sun, + and at its least within less than a third part of the sun's semi-diameter + from its surface(76). They must therefore have delightful vicissitudes of + light and the contrary; for, as to heat, that is already provided for. + Archdeacon Brinkley's postulate is, that these bodies are "possessed by + rational beings, and contain animals and vegetables, little different from + those with which we are familiar." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (76) Ferguson, Section 93. +</pre> + <p> + Now the only reason we have to believe in these extraordinary + propositions, is the knowledge we possess of the divine attributes. From + the force of this consideration it is argued that God will not leave any + sensible area of matter unoccupied, and therefore that it is impossible + that such vast orbs as we believe surround us even to the extent of + infinite space, should not be "richly stored with rational beings, the + capable witnesses of his power, magnificence and benevolence." All + difficulties arising from the considerations of light, and heat, and a + thousand other obstacles, are to give way to the perfect insight we have + as to how the deity will conduct himself in every case that can be + proposed. I am not persuaded that this is agreeable to religion; and I am + still less convinced that it is compatible with the sobriety and + sedateness of common sense. + </p> + <p> + It is with some degree of satisfaction that I perceive lord Brougham, the + reputed author of the Preliminary Discourse to the Library of Useful + Knowledge, at the same time that he states the dimensions and distances of + the heavenly bodies in the usual way, says not a word of their + inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + It is somewhat remarkable that, since the commencement of the present + century, four new planets have been added to those formerly contained in + the enumeration of the solar system. They lie between the planets Mars and + Jupiter, and have been named Vesta, Juno, Ceres and Pallas. Brinkley + speaks of them in this manner. "The very small magnitudes of the new + planets Ceres and Pallas, and their nearly equal distances from the sun, + induced Dr. Olbers, who discovered Pallas in 1802, nearly in the same + place where he had observed Ceres a few months before, to conjecture that + they were fragments of a larger planet, which had by some unknown cause + been broken to pieces. It follows from the law of gravity, by which the + planets are retained in their orbits, that each fragment would again, + after every revolution about the sun, pass nearly through the place in + which the planet was when the catastrophe happened, and besides the orbit + of each fragment would intersect the continuation of the line joining this + place and the sun. Thence it was easy to ascertain the two particular + regions of the heavens through which all these fragments would pass. Also, + by carefully noting the small stars thereabout, and examining them from + time to time, it might be expected that more of the fragments would be + discovered.—M. Harding discovered the planet Juno in one of these + regions; and Dr. Olbers himself also, by carefully examining them (the + small stars) from time to time, discovered Vesta." + </p> + <p> + These additions certainly afford us a new epoch in the annals of the solar + system, and of astronomy itself. It is somewhat remarkable, that Herschel, + who in the course of his observations traced certain nebulae, the light + from which must have been two millions of years in reaching the earth, + should never have remarked these planets, which, so to speak, lay at his + feet. It reminds one of Esop's astrologer, who, to the amusement of his + ignorant countrymen, while he was wholly occupied in surveying the + heavens, suddenly found himself plunged in a pit. These new planets also + we are told are fragments of a larger planet: how came this larger planet + never to have been discovered? + </p> + <p> + Till Herschel's time we were content with six planets and the sun, making + up the cabalistical number seven. He added another. But these four new + ones entirely derange the scheme. The astronomers have not yet had + opportunity to digest them into their places, and form new worlds of them. + This is all unpleasant. They are, it seems, "fragments of a larger planet, + which had by some unknown cause been broken to pieces." They therefore are + probably not inhabited. How does this correspond with the goodness of God, + which will suffer no mass of matter in his creation to remain unoccupied? + Herschel talks at his ease of whole systems, suns with all their attendant + planets, being consigned to destruction. But here we have a catastrophe + happening before our eyes, and cannot avoid being shocked by it. "God does + nothing in vain." For which of his lofty purposes has this planet been + broken to pieces, and its fragments left to deform the system of which we + are inhabitants; at least to humble the pride of man, and laugh to scorn + his presumption? Still they perform their revolutions, and obey the + projectile and gravitating forces, which have induced us to people ten + thousand times ten thousand worlds. It is time, that we should learn + modesty, to revere in silence the great cause to which the universe is + indebted for its magnificence, its beauty and harmony, and to acknowledge + that we do not possess the key that should unlock the mysteries of + creation. + </p> + <p> + One of the most important lessons that can be impressed on the human mind, + is that of self-knowledge and a just apprehension of what it is that we + are competent to achieve. We can do much. We are capable of much knowledge + and much virtue. We have patience, perseverance and subtlety. We can put + forth considerable energies, and nerve ourselves to resist great obstacles + and much suffering. Our ingenuity is various and considerable. We can form + machines, and erect mighty structures. The invention of man for the ease + of human life, and for procuring it a multitude of pleasures and + accommodations, is truly astonishing. We can dissect the human frame, and + anatomise the mind. We can study the scene of our social existence, and + make extraordinary improvements in the administration of justice, and in + securing to ourselves that germ of all our noblest virtues, civil and + political liberty. We can study the earth, its strata, its soil, its + animals, and its productions, "from the cedar that is in Lebanon, to the + hyssop that springeth out of the wall." + </p> + <p> + But man is not omnipotent. If he aspires to be worthy of honour, it is + necessary that he should compute his powers, and what it is they are + competent to achieve. The globe of earth, with "all that is therein," is + our estate and our empire. Let us be content with that which we have. It + were a pitiful thing to see so noble a creature struggling in a field, + where it is impossible for him to distinguish himself, or to effect any + thing real. There is no situation in which any one can appear more little + and ludicrous, than when he engages in vain essays, and seeks to + accomplish that, which a moment's sober thought would teach him was + utterly hopeless. + </p> + <p> + Even astronomy is to a certain degree our own. We can measure the course + of the sun, and the orbits of the planets. We can calculate eclipses. We + can number the stars, assign to them their places, and form them into what + we call constellations. But, when we pretend to measure millions of miles + in the heavens, and to make ourselves acquainted with the inhabitants of + ten thousand times ten thousand worlds and the accommodations which the + creator has provided for their comfort and felicity, we probably engage in + something more fruitless and idle, than the pigmy who should undertake to + bend the bow of Ulysses, or strut and perform the office of a warrior clad + in the armour of Achilles. + </p> + <p> + How beautiful is the "firmament; this majestical roof fretted with golden + fire!" Let us beware how we mar the magnificent scene with our + interpolations and commentaries! Simplicity is of the essence of the truly + great. Let us look at the operations of that mighty power from which we + ourselves derive our existence, with humility and reverential awe! It may + well become us. Let us not "presume into the heaven of heavens," unbidden, + unauthorised guests! Let us adopt the counsel of the apostle, and allow no + man to "spoil us through vain philosophy." The business of human life is + serious; the useful investigations in which we may engage are multiplied. + It is excellent to see a rational being conscious of his genuine province, + and not idly wasting powers adapted for the noblest uses in unmeasured + essays and ill-concocted attempts. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0031" id="link2H_4_0031"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY XXII. OF THE MATERIAL UNIVERSE. + </h2> + <p> + In the preceding Essay I have referred to the theory of Berkeley, whose + opinion is that there is no such thing as matter in the sense in which it + is understood by the writers on natural philosophy, and that the whole of + our experience in that respect is the result of a system of accidents + without an intelligible subject, by means of which antecedents and + consequents flow on for ever in a train, the past succession of which man + is able to record, and the future in many cases he is qualified to predict + and to act upon. + </p> + <p> + An argument more palpable and popular than that of Berkeley in favour of + the same hypothesis, might be deduced from the points recapitulated in + that Essay as delivered by Locke and Newton. If what are vulgarly + denominated the secondary qualities of matter are in reality nothing but + sensations existing in the human mind, then at any rate matter is a very + different thing from what it is ordinarily apprehended to be. To which I + add, in the second place, that, if matter, as is stated by Newton, + consists in so much greater a degree of pores than solid parts, that the + absolute particles contained in the solar system might, for aught we know, + he contained in a nutshell(77), and that no two ever touched each other, + or approached so near that they might not be brought nearer, provided a + sufficient force could be applied for that purpose,—and if, as + Priestley teaches, all that we observe is the result of successive spheres + of attraction and repulsion, the centre of which is a mathematical point + only, we then certainly come very near to a conclusion, which should + banish matter out of the theatre of real existences(78). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (77) See above, Essay XXI. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (78) See above, Essay XXI. +</pre> + <p> + But the extreme subtleties of human intellect are perhaps of little + further use, than to afford an amusement to persons of curious + speculation, and whose condition in human society procures them leisure + for such enquiries. The same thing happens here, as in the subject of my + Twelfth Essay, on the Liberty of Human Actions. The speculator in his + closet is one man: the same person, when he comes out of his retirement, + and mixes in intercourse with his fellow-creatures, is another man. The + necessarian, when he reasons on the everlasting concatenation of + antecedents and consequents, proves to his own apprehension irrefragably, + that he is a passive instrument, acted upon, and acting upon other things, + in turn, and that he can never disengage himself from the operation of the + omnipotent laws of physical nature, and the impulses of other men with + whom he is united in the ties of society. But no sooner does this acute + and ingenious reasoner come into active life and the intercourse of his + fellowmen, than all these fine-drawn speculations vanish from his + recollection. He regards himself and other men as beings endowed with a + liberty of action, as possessed of a proper initiative power, and free to + do a thing or not to do it, without being subject to the absolute and + irresistible constraint of motives. It is from this internal and + indefeasible sense of liberty, that we draw all our moral energies and + enthusiasm, that we persevere heroically in defiance of obstacles and + discouragements, that we praise or blame the actions of others, and admire + the elevated virtues of the best of our contemporaries, and of those whose + achievements adorn the page of history. + </p> + <p> + It is in a manner of precisely the same sort as that which prevails in the + philosophical doctrines of liberty and necessity, that we find ourselves + impelled to feel on the question of the existence of the material + universe. Berkeley, and as many persons as are persuaded by his or similar + reasonings, feel satisfied in speculation that there is no such thing as + matter in the sense in which it is understood by the writers on natural + philosophy, and that all our notions of the external and actual existence + of the table, the chair, and the other material substances with which we + conceive ourselves to be surrounded, of woods, and mountains, and rivers, + and seas, are mere prejudice and misconception. All this is very well in + the closet, and as long as we are involved in meditation, and remain + abstracted from action, business, and the exertion of our limbs and + corporal faculties. But it is too fine for the realities of life. + Berkeley, and the most strenuous and spiritualised of his followers, no + sooner descend from the high tower of their speculations, submit to the + necessities of their nature, and mix in the business of the world, than + they become impelled, as strongly as the necessarian in the question of + the liberty of human actions, not only to act like other men, but even to + feel just in the same manner as if they had never been acquainted with + these abstractions. A table then becomes absolutely a table, and a chair a + chair: they are "fed with the same food, hurt by the same weapons, and + warmed and cooled by the same summer and winter," as other men: and they + make use of the refreshments which nature requires, with as true an + orthodoxy, and as credulous a temper, as he who was never assailed with + such refinements. Nature is too strong, to be prevailed on to retire, and + give way to the authority of definitions and syllogistical deduction. + </p> + <p> + But, when we have granted all this, it is however a mistake to say, that + these "subtleties of human intellect are of little further use, than to + afford an amusement to persons of curious speculation(79)." We have seen, + in the case of the doctrine of philosophical necessity(80), that, though + it can never form a rule for the intercourse between man and man, it may + nevertheless be turned to no mean advantage. It is calculated to inspire + us with temperance and toleration. It tends impressively to evince to us, + that this scene of things is but like the shadows which pass before us in + a magic lanthorn, and that, after all, men are but the tools, not the + masters, of their fate. It corrects the illusions of life, much after the + same manner as the spectator of a puppet-shew is enlightened, who should + be taken within the curtain, and shewn how the wires are pulled by the + master, which produce all the turmoil and strife that before riveted our + attention. It is good for him who would arrive at all the improvement of + which our nature is capable, at one time to take his place among the + literal beholders of the drama, and at another to go behind the scenes, + and remark the deceptions in their original elements, and the actors in + their proper and natural costume. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (79) See above, Essay XXII. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (80) See above, Essay XII. +</pre> + <p> + And, as in the question of the liberty of human actions, so in that of the + reality of the material universe, it is a privilege not to be despised, + that we are so formed as to be able to dissect the subject that is + submitted to our examination, and to strip the elements of which this + sublunary scene is composed, of the disguise in which they present + themselves to the vulgar spectator. It is little, after all, that we are + capable to know; and the man of heroic mind and generous enterprise, will + not refuse the discoveries that are placed within his reach. The + subtleties of grammar are as the porch, which leads from the knowledge of + words to the knowledge of things. The subtleties of mathematics defecate + the grossness of our apprehension, and supply the elements of a sounder + and severer logic. And in the same manner the faculty which removes the + illusions of external appearance, and enables us to "look into the seeds + of time," is one which we are bound to estimate at its genuine value. The + more we refine our faculties, other things equal, the wiser we grow: we + are the more raised above the thickness of the atmosphere that envelops + our fellow-mortals, and are made partakers of a nature superhuman and + divine. + </p> + <p> + There is a curious question that has risen out of this proposition of + Berkeley, of the supposed illusion we suffer in our conceptions of the + material universe. It has been said, "Well then, I am satisfied that the + chairs, the tables, and the other material substances with which I + conceive myself to be surrounded, are not what they appear to be, but are + merely an eternal chain of antecedents and consequents, going on according + to what Leibnitz calls a 'preestablished harmony,' and thus furnishing the + ground of the speculations which mortals cherish, and the motives of their + proceeding. But, if thus, in the ordinary process of human affairs, we + believe in matter, when in reality there is no such thing as matter, how + shall we pronounce of mind, and the things which happen to us in our + seeming intercourse with our fellow-men, and in the complexities of love + and hatred, of kindred and friendship, of benevolence and misanthropy, of + robbery and murder, and of the wholesale massacre of thousands of human + beings which are recorded in the page of history? We absolutely know + nothing of the lives and actions of others but through the medium of + material impulse. And, if you take away matter, the bodies of our + fellow-men, does it not follow by irresistible consequence that all + knowledge of their minds is taken away also? Am not I therefore (the + person engaged in reading the present Essay) the only being in existence, + an entire universe to myself?" + </p> + <p> + Certainly this is a very different conclusion from any that Berkeley ever + contemplated. In the very title of the Treatise in which his notions on + this subject are unfolded, he professes his purpose to be to remove "the + grounds of scepticism, atheism and irreligion." Berkeley was a sincere + Christian, and a man of the most ingenuous dispositions. Pope, in the + Epilogue to his Satires, does not hesitate to ascribe to him "every virtue + under heaven." He was for twenty years a prelate of the Protestant church. + And, though his personal sentiments were in the highest degree + philanthropical and amiable, yet, in his most diffusive production, + entitled The Minute Philosopher, he treats "those who are called Free + Thinkers" with a scorn and disdain, scarcely to be reconciled with the + spirit of Christian meekness. + </p> + <p> + There are examples however, especially in the fields of controversy, where + an adventurous speculatist has been known to lay down premises and + principles, from which inferences might be fairly deduced, incompatible + with the opinions entertained by him who delivered them. It may therefore + be no unprofitable research to enquire how far the creed of the + non-existence of matter is to be regarded as in truth and reality + countenancing the inference which has just been recited. + </p> + <p> + The persons then, who refine with Berkeley upon the system of things so + far, as to deny that there is any such thing as matter in the sense in + which it is understood by the writers on natural philosophy, proceed on + the ground of affirming that we have no reason to believe that the causes + of our sensations have an express resemblance to the sensations + themselves(81). That which gives us a sensation of colour is not itself + coloured: and the same may be affirmed of the sensations of hot and cold, + of sweet and bitter, and of odours offensive or otherwise. The + immaterialist proceeds to say, that what we call matter has been strewn to + be so exceedingly porous, that, for any thing we know, all the solid + particles in the universe might be contained in a nutshell, that there is + no such thing in the external world as actual contact, and that no two + particles of matter were ever so near to each other, but that they might + be brought nearer, if a sufficient force could be applied for that + purpose. From these premises it seems to follow with sufficient evidence, + that the causes of our sensations, so far as the material universe is + concerned, bear no express resemblance to the sensations themselves. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (81) See above, Essay XXI. +</pre> + <p> + How then does the question stand with relation to mind? Are those persons + who deny the existence of matter, reduced, if they would be consistent in + their reasonings, to deny, each man for himself, that he has any proper + evidence of the existence of other minds than his own? + </p> + <p> + He denies, while he has the sensation of colour, that there exists colour + out of himself, unless in thinking and percipient beings constituted in a + manner similar to that in which he is constituted. And the same of the + sensations of hot and cold, sweet and bitter, and odours offensive or + otherwise. He affirms, while he has the sensation of length, breadth and + thickness, that there is no continuous substance out of himself, + possessing the attributes of length, breadth and thickness in any way + similar to the sensation of which he is conscious. He professes therefore + that he has no evidence, arising from his observation of what we call + matter, of the actual existence of a material world. He looks into + himself, and all he finds is sensation; but sensation cannot be a property + of inert matter. There is therefore no assignable analogy between the + causes of his sensations, whatever they may be, and the sensations + themselves; and the material world, such as we apprehend it, is the mere + creature of his own mind. + </p> + <p> + Let us next consider how this question stands as to the conceptions he + entertains respecting the minds of other men. That which gives him the + sensation of colour, is not any thing coloured out of himself; and that + which gives him the sensation of length, breadth and thickness, is not any + thing long, broad and thick in a manner corresponding with the impression + he receives. There is nothing in the nature of a parallel, a type and its + archetype, between that which is without him and that which is within, the + impresser and the impression. This is the point supposed to be established + by Locke and Newton, and by those who have followed the reasonings of + these philosophers into their remotest consequences. + </p> + <p> + But the case is far otherwise in the impressions we receive respecting the + minds of other men. In colour it has been proved by these authors that + there is no express correspondence and analogy between the cause of the + sensation and the sensation. They are not part and counterpart. But in + mind there is a precise resemblance and analogy between the conceptions we + are led to entertain respecting other men, and what we know of ourselves. + I and my associate, or fellow-man, are like two instruments of music + constructed upon the same model. We have each of us, so to speak, the + three great divisions of sound, base, tenor and treble. We have each the + same number of keys, capable of being struck, consecutively or with + alternations, at the will of the master. We can utter the same sound or + series of sounds, or sounds of a different character, but which respond to + each other. My neighbour therefore being of the same nature as myself, + what passes within me may be regarded as amounting to a commanding + evidence that he is a real being, having a proper and independent + existence. + </p> + <p> + There is further something still more impressive and irresistible in the + notices I receive respecting the minds of other men. The sceptics whose + reasonings I am here taking into consideration, admit, each man for + himself, the reality of his own existence. There is such a thing therefore + as human nature; for he is a specimen of it. Now the idea of human nature, + or of man, is a very complex thing. He is in the first place the subject + of sensible impressions, however these impressions are communicated to + him. He has the faculties of thinking and feeling. He is subject to the + law of the association of ideas, or, in other words, any one idea existing + in his mind has a tendency to call up the ideas of other things which have + been connected with it in his first experience. He has, be it delusive or + otherwise, the sense of liberty of action. + </p> + <p> + But we will go still further into detail as to the nature of man. + </p> + <p> + Our lives are carried forward by the intervention of what we call meat, + drink and sleep. We are liable to the accidents of health and sickness. We + are alternately the recipients of joy and sorrow, of cheerfulness and + melancholy. Our passions are excited by similar means, whether of love or + hatred, complacency or indignation, sympathy or resentment. I could fill + many pages with a description of the properties or accidents, which belong + to man as such, or to which he is liable. + </p> + <p> + Now with all these each man is acquainted in the sphere of his inward + experience, whether he is a single being standing by himself, or is an + individual belonging to a numerous species. + </p> + <p> + Observe then the difference between my acquaintance with the phenomena of + the material universe, and with the individuals of my own species. The + former say nothing to me; they are a series of events and no more; I + cannot penetrate into their causes; that which gives rise to my + sensations, may or may not be similar to the sensations themselves. The + follower of Berkeley or Newton has satisfied himself in the negative. + </p> + <p> + But the case is very different in my intercourse with my fellow-men. + Agreeably to the statement already made I know the reality of human + nature; for I feel the particulars that constitute it within myself. The + impressions I receive from that intercourse say something to me; for they + talk to me of beings like myself. My own existence becomes multiplied in + infinitum. Of the possibility of matter I know nothing; but with the + possibility of mind I am acquainted; for I am myself an example. I am + amazed at the consistency and systematic succession of the phenomena of + the material universe; though I cannot penetrate the veil which presents + itself to my grosser sense, nor see effects in their causes. But I can + see, in other words, I have the most cogent reasons to believe in, the + causes of the phenomena that occur in my apparent intercourse with my + fellow-men. What solution so natural, as that they are produced by beings + like myself, the duplicates, with certain variations, of what I feel + within me? + </p> + <p> + The belief in the reality of matter explains nothing. Supposing it to + exist, if Newton is right, no particle of extraneous matter ever touched + the matter of my body; and therefore it is not just to regard it as the + cause of my sensations. It would amount to no more than two systems going + on at the same time by a preestablished harmony, but totally independent + of and disjointed from each other. + </p> + <p> + But the belief in the existence of our fellow-men explains much. It makes + level before us the wonder of the method of their proceedings, and affords + an obvious reason why they should be in so many respects like our own. If + I dismiss from my creed the existence of inert matter, I lose nothing. The + phenomena, the train of antecedents and consequents, remain as before; and + this is all that I am truly concerned with. But take away the existence of + my fellow-men; and you reduce all that is, and all that I experience, to a + senseless mummery. "You take my life, taking the thing whereon I live." + </p> + <p> + Human nature, and the nature of mind, are to us a theme of endless + investigation. "The proper study of mankind is man." All the subtlety of + metaphysics, or (if there be men captious and prejudiced enough to dislike + that term) the science of ourselves, depends upon it. The science of + morals hangs upon the actions of men, and the effects they produce upon + our brother-men, in a narrower or a wider circle. The endless, and + inexpressibly interesting, roll of history relies for its meaning and its + spirit upon the reality and substance of the subjects of which it treats. + Poetry, and all the wonders and endless varieties that imagination + creates, have this for their solution and their soul. + </p> + <p> + Sympathy is the only reality of which we are susceptible; it is our heart + of hearts: and, if the world had been "one entire and perfect chrysolite," + without this it would have been no more than one heap of rubbish. + </p> + <p> + Observe the difference between what we know of the material world, and + what of the intellectual. The material goes on for ever according to + certain laws that admit of no discrimination. They proceed upon a first + principle, an impulse given them from the beginning of things. Their + effects are regulated by something that we call their nature: fire burns; + water suffocates; the substances around us that we call solid, depend for + their effects, when put in motion, upon momentum and gravity. + </p> + <p> + The principle that regulates the dead universe, "acts by general, not by + partial laws." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + When the loose mountain trembles from on high, + Shall gravitation cease, if you go by? +</pre> + <p> + No: the chain of antecedents and consequents proceeds in this respect for + ever the same. The laws of what we call the material world continue + unvaried. And, when the vast system of things was first set in motion, + every thing, so far as depends on inert matter, was determined to the + minutest particle, even to the end of time. + </p> + <p> + The material world, or that train of antecedents and consequents which we + understand by that term, goes on for ever in a train agreeably to the + impulse previously given. It is deaf and inexorable. It is unmoved by the + consideration of any accidents and miseries that may result, and + unalterable. But man is a source of events of a very different nature. He + looks to results, and is governed by views growing out of the + contemplation of them. He acts in a way diametrically opposite to the + action of inert matter, and "turns, and turns, and turns again," at the + impulse of the thought that strikes him, the appetite that prompts, the + passions that move, and the effects that he anticipates. It is therefore + in a high degree unreasonable, to make that train of inferences which may + satisfy us on the subject of material phenomena, a standard of what we + ought to think respecting the phenomena of mind. + </p> + <p> + It is further worthy of our notice to recollect, that the same reasonings + which apply to our brethren of mankind, apply also to the brute creation. + They, like ourselves, act from motives; that is, the elections they form + are adopted by them for the sake of certain consequences they expect to + see result from them. Whatever becomes therefore of the phenomena of what + we call dead matter, we are here presented with tribes of being, + susceptible of pleasure and pain, of hope and fear, of regard and + resentment. + </p> + <p> + How beautifully does this conviction vary the scene of things! What a + source to us is the animal creation, of amusement, of curious observations + upon the impulses of inferior intellect, of the exhaustless varieties of + what we call instinct, of the care we can exercise for their accommodation + and welfare, and of the attachment and affection we win from them in + return! If I travel alone through pathless deserts, if I journey from the + rising to the setting sun, with no object around me but nature's + desolation, or the sublime, the magnificent and the exuberant scenery she + occasionally presents, still I have that noble animal, the horse, and my + faithful dog, the companions of my toil, and with whom, when my solitude + would otherwise become insufferable, I can hold communion, and engage in + dumb dialogues of sentiment and affection. + </p> + <p> + I have heard of a man, who, talking to his friend on the subject of these + speculations, said, "What then, are you so poor and pusillanimous a + creature, that you could not preserve your serenity, be perfectly composed + and content, and hold on your way unvaried, though you were convinced that + you were the only real being in existence, and all the rest were mere + phantasies and shadows?" + </p> + <p> + If I had been the person to whom this speech was addressed, I should have + frankly acknowledged, "I am the poor and pusillanimous creature you are + disposed to regard with so much scorn." + </p> + <p> + To adopt the sententious language of the Bible, "It is not good for man to + be alone." All our faculties and attributes bear relation to, and talk to + us of, other beings like ourselves. We might indeed eat, drink and sleep, + that is, submit to those necessities which we so denominate, without + thinking of any thing beyond ourselves; for these are the demands of our + nature, and we know that we cannot subsist without them. We might make use + of the alternate conditions of exercise and repose. + </p> + <p> + But the life of our lives would be gone. As far as we bore in mind the + creed we had adopted, of our single existence, we could neither love nor + hate. Sympathy would be a solemn mockery. We could not communicate; for + the being to whom our communication was addressed we were satisfied was a + non-entity. We could not anticipate the pleasure or pain, the joy or + sorrow, of another; for that other had no existence. We should be in a + worse condition than Robinson Crusoe in the desolate island; for he + believed in the existence of other men, and hoped and trusted that he + should one day again enter into human society. We should be in a worse + condition than Robinson Crusoe; for he at least was unannoyed in his + solitude; while we are perpetually and per force intruded on, like a + delirious man, by visions which we know to be unreal, but which we are + denied the power to deliver ourselves from. We have no motive to any of + the great and cardinal functions of human life; for there is no one in + being, that we can benefit, or that we can affect. Study is nothing to us; + for we have no use for it. Even science is unsatisfactory; unless we can + communicate it by word or writing, can converse upon it, and compare notes + with our neighbour. History is nothing; for there were no Greeks and no + Romans; no freemen and no slaves; no kings and no subjects; no despots, + nor victims of their tyranny; no republics, nor states immerged in brutal + and ignominious servitude. Life must be inevitably a burthen to us, a + dreary, unvaried, motiveless existence; and death must be welcomed, as the + most desirable blessing that can visit us. It is impossible indeed that we + should always recollect this our, by supposition, real situation; but, as + often as we did, it would come over us like a blight, withering all the + prospects of our industry, or like a scirocco, unbracing the nerves of our + frame, and consigning us to the most pitiable depression. + </p> + <p> + Thus far I have allowed myself to follow the refinements of those who + profess to deny the existence of the material universe. But it is + satisfactory to come back to that persuasion, which, from whatever cause + it is derived, is incorporated with our very existence, and can never be + shaken off by us. Our senses are too powerful in their operation, for it + to be possible for us to discard them, and to take as their substitute, in + active life, and in the earnestness of pursuit, the deductions of our + logical faculty, however well knit and irresistible we may apprehend them + to be. Speculation and common sense are at war on this point; and however + we may "think with the learned," and follow the abstrusenesses of the + philosopher, in the sequestered hour of our meditation, we must always + act, and even feel, "with the vulgar," when we come abroad into the world. + </p> + <p> + It is however no small gratification to the man of sober mind, that, from + what has here been alleged, it seems to follow, that untutored mind, and + the severest deductions of philosophy, agree in that most interesting of + our concerns, our intercourse with our fellow-creatures. The inexorable + reasoner, refining on the reports of sense, may dispose, as he pleases, of + the chair, the table, and the so called material substances around him. He + may include the whole solid matter of the universe in a nutshell, or less + than a nutshell. But he cannot deprive me of that greatest of all + consolations, the sustaining pillar of my existence, "the cordial drop + Heaven in our cup has thrown,"—the intercourse of my + fellow-creatures. When we read history, the subjects of which we read are + realities; they do not "come like shadows, so depart;" they loved and + acted in sober earnest; they sometimes perpetrated crimes; but they + sometimes also achieved illustrious deeds, which angels might look down + from their exalted abodes and admire. We are not deluded with mockeries. + The woman I love, and the man to whom I swear eternal friendship, are as + much realities as myself. If I relieve the poor, and assist the progress + of genius and virtuous designs struggling with fearful discouragements, I + do something upon the success of which I may safely congratulate myself. + If I devote my energies to enlighten my fellow-creatures, to detect the + weak places in our social institutions, to plead the cause of liberty, and + to invite others to engage in noble actions and unite in effecting the + most solid and unquestionable improvements, I erect to my name an eternal + monument; or I do something better than this,—secure inestimable + advantage to the latest posterity, the benefit of which they shall enjoy, + long after the very name of the author shall, with a thousand other things + great and small, have been swallowed up in the gulph of insatiable + oblivion. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0032" id="link2H_4_0032"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ESSAY XXIII. OF HUMAN VIRTUE. THE EPILOGUE. + </h2> + <p> + The life of man is divided into many stages; and we shall not form a just + estimate of our common nature, if we do not to a certain degree pass its + successive periods in review, and observe it in its commencement, its + progress, and its maturity. + </p> + <p> + It has been attempted to be established in an early part of the present + volume(82), that all men, idiots and extraordinary cases being put out of + the question, are endowed with talents, which, if rightly directed, would + shew them to be apt, adroit, intelligent and acute, in the walk for which + their organisation especially fitted them. We are bound therefore, + particularly in the morning of life, to consider every thing that presents + itself to us in the human form, with deference and attention. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (82) See above, Essay III. +</pre> + <p> + "God," saith the Preacher, "made man upright; but he hath sought out many + inventions." There is something loose and difficult of exposition in this + statement; but we shall find an important truth hid beneath its obscurity. + </p> + <p> + Junius Brutus, in the play, says to his son, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I like thy frame: the fingers of the Gods + I see have left their mastery upon thee; + And the majestic prints distinct appear. +</pre> + <p> + Such is the true description of every well-formed and healthful infant + that is born into the world. + </p> + <p> + He is placed on the threshold of existence; and an eventful journey is + open before him. For the first four or five years of life indeed he has + little apprehension of the scenes that await him. But a child of quick + apprehension early begins to have day-dreams, and to form imaginations of + the various chances that may occur to him, and the things he shall have to + do, when, according to the language of the story-books, he "goes out to + seek his fortune." + </p> + <p> + "God made man upright." Every child that is born, has within him a + concealed magazine of excellence. His heart beats for every thing that is + lovely and good; and whatever is set before him of that sort in honest + colours, rouses his emulation. By how many tokens does he prove himself + worthy of our approbation and love—the unaffected and ingenuous + sobriety with which he listens to what addresses itself to his attention, + the sweetness of his smile, his hearty laugh, the clear, bell tones of his + voice, his sudden and assured impulses, and his bounding step! + </p> + <p> + To his own heart he promises well of himself. Like Lear in the play, he + says, "I will do such things!—What they are, yet I know not." But he + is assured, frank and light-spirited. He thinks of no disguise. He "wears + his heart upon his sleeve." He looks in the face of his seniors with the + glistening eye of confidence, and expects to encounter sympathy and + encouragement in return. Such is man, as he comes from the hands of his + maker. + </p> + <p> + Thus prepared, he is turned into the great field of society. Here he meets + with much that he had not anticipated, and with many rebuffs. He is taught + that he must accommodate his temper and proceedings to the expectations + and prejudices of those around him. He must be careful to give no offence. + With how many lessons, not always the most salutary and ingenuous, is this + maxim pregnant! It calls on the neophyte to bear a wary eye, and to watch + the first indications of disapprobation and displeasure in those among + whom his lot is cast. It teaches him to suppress the genuine emotions of + his soul. It informs him that he is not always to yield to his own + impulses, but that he must "stretch forth his hands to another, and be + carried whither he would not." + </p> + <p> + It recommends to him falseness, and to be the thing in outward appearance + that he is not in his heart. + </p> + <p> + Still however he goes on. He shuts up his thoughts in his bosom; but they + are not exterminated. On the contrary he broods over them with genial + warmth; and the less they are exposed to the eye of day, the more + perseveringly are they cherished. Perhaps he chooses some youthful + confident of his imaginings: and the effect of this is, that he pours out + his soul with uncontrolable copiousness, and with the fervour of a new and + unchecked conceiving. It is received with answering warmth; or, if there + is any deficiency in the sympathy of his companion, his mind is so earnest + and full, that he does not perceive it. By and by, it may be, he finds + that the discovery he had made of a friend, a brother of his soul, is, + like so many of the visions of this world, hollow and fallacious. He + grasped, as he thought, a jewel of the first water; and it turns out to be + a vulgar pebble. No matter: he has gained something by the communication. + He has heard from his own lips the imaginings of his mind shaped into + articulate air; they grew more definite and distinct as he uttered them; + they came by the very act to have more of reality, to be more tangible. He + shakes off the ill-assorted companion that only encumbered him, and + springs away in his race, more light of heart, and with a step more + assured, than ever. + </p> + <p> + By and by he becomes a young man. And, whatever checks he may have + received before, it usually happens that all his hopes and projects return + to him now with recruited strength. He has no longer a master. He no + longer crouches to the yoke of subjection, and is directed this way and + that at the judgment of another. Liberty is at all times dear to the + free-soured and ingenuous; but never so much so, as when we wear it in its + full gloss and newness. He never felt before, that he was sui juris, that + he might go whithersoever he would, without asking leave, without + consulting any other director than the law of his own mind. It is nearly + at the same season that he arrives at the period of puberty, at the + stature, and in a certain degree at the strength, which he is destined to + attain. He is by general consent admitted to be at years of discretion. + </p> + <p> + Though I have put all these things together, they do not, in the course of + nature, all come at the same time. It is a memorable period, when the + ingenuous youth is transferred from the trammels of the schoolmaster to + the residence of a college. It was at the age of seventeen that, according + to the custom of Rome, the youthful citizen put on the manly gown, and was + introduced into the forum. Even in college-life, there is a difference in + the privileges of the mere freshman, and of the youth who has already + completed the first half of his period in the university. + </p> + <p> + The season of what may be denominated the independence of the individual, + is certainly in no small degree critical. A human being, suddenly + emancipated from a state of subjection, if we may not call it slavery, and + transported into a state of freedom, must be expected to be guilty of some + extravagancies and follies. + </p> + <p> + But upon the whole, with a small number of exceptions, it is creditable to + human nature, that we take this period of our new powers and immunities + with so much sobriety as we do. + </p> + <p> + The young man then, calls to mind all that he imagined at an earlier + season, and that he promised himself. He adds to this the new lights that + he has since obtained, and the nearer and more distinct view that he has + reached, of the realities of life. + </p> + <p> + He recollects the long noviciate that he served to reach this period, the + twenty years that he passed in ardent and palpitating expectation; and he + resolves to do something worthy of all he had vowed and had imagined. He + takes a full survey of his stores and endowments; and to the latter, from + his enthusiasm and his self-love, he is morally sure to do justice. He + says to himself, "What I purpose to do will not be achieved to-day. No; it + shall be copious, and worthy of men's suffrage and approbation. But I will + meditate it; I will sketch a grand outline; I will essay my powers in + secret, and ascertain what I may be able to effect." The youth, whose + morning of life is not utterly abortive, palpitates with the desire to + promote the happiness of others, and with the desire of glory. + </p> + <p> + We have an apt specimen of this in the first period of the reign of Nero. + The historians, Tacitus in particular, have treated this with too much + incredulity. It was the passion of that eminent man to indulge in + subtleties, and to find hidden meanings in cases where in reality every + thing is plain. We must not regard the panegyric of Seneca, and the + devotion of Lucan to the imperial stripling, as unworthy of our attention. + He was declared emperor before he had completed the eighteenth year of his + age. No occasion for the exhibition of liberality, clemency, courtesy or + kindness escaped him. He called every one by his name, and saluted all + orders of men. When the senate shewed a disposition to confer on him + peculiar honours, he interposed, he said, "Let them be bestowed when I + have deserved them(83)." Seneca affirms, that in the first part of his + reign, and to the time in which the philosopher dedicated to him his + treatise of Clemency, he had "shed no drop of blood(84)." He adds, "If the + Gods were this day to call thee to a hearing, thou couldst account to them + for every man that had been intrusted to thy rule. Not an individual has + been lost from the number, either by secret practices, or by open + violence. This could scarcely have been, if thy good dispositions had not + been natural, but assumed. No one can long personate a character. A + pretended goodness will speedily give place to the real temper; while a + sincere mind, and acts prompted by the heart, will not fail to go on from + one stage of excellence to another(85)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (83) Suetonius, Nero, cap. 10. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (84) De Clementia, Lib. I, cap. II. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (85) De Clementia, cap. I. +</pre> + <p> + The philosopher expresses himself in raptures on that celebrated phrase of + Nero, WOULD I HAD NEVER LEARNED TO WRITE! "An exclamation," he says, "not + studied, not uttered for the purpose of courting popularity, but bursting + insuppressibly from thy lips, and indicating the vehemence of the struggle + between the kindness of thy disposition and the duties of thy office(86)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (86) Ibid., Lib. II, cap. I. +</pre> + <p> + How many generous purposes, what bright and heart-thrilling visions of + beneficence and honour, does the young man, just starting in the race of + life, conceive! There is no one in that period of existence, who has + received a reasonable education, and has not in his very nonage been trod + down in the mire of poverty and oppression, that does not say to himself, + "Now is the time; and I will do something worthy to be remembered by + myself and by others." Youth is the season of generosity. He calls over + the catalogue of his endowments, his attainments, and his powers, and + exclaims, "To that which I am, my contemporaries are welcome; it shall all + be expended for their service and advantage." + </p> + <p> + With what disdain he looks at the temptations of selfishness, effeminate + indulgence, and sordid gain! He feels within himself that he was born for + better things. His elders, and those who have already been tamed down and + emasculated by the corrupt commerce of the world, tell him, "All this is + the rhapsody of youth, fostered by inexperience; you will soon learn to + know better; in no long time you will see these things in the same light + in which we see them." But he despises the sinister prognostic that is + held out to him, and feels proudly conscious that the sentiments that now + live in his bosom, will continue to animate him to his latest breath. + </p> + <p> + Youth is necessarily ingenuous in its thoughts, and sanguine in its + anticipations of the future. But the predictions of the seniors I have + quoted, are unfortunately in too many cases fulfilled. The outline of the + scheme of civil society is in a high degree hostile to the growth and + maturity of human virtue. Its unavoidable operation, except in those rare + cases where positive institutions have arrested its tendency, has been to + divide a great portion of its members, especially in large and powerful + states, into those who are plentifully supplied with the means of luxury + and indulgence, and those who are condemned to suffer the rigours of + indigence. + </p> + <p> + The young man who is born to the prospect of hereditary wealth, will not + unfrequently feel as generous emotions, and as much of the spirit of + self-denial, as the bosom of man is capable of conceiving. He will say, + What am I, that I should have a monopoly of those things, which, if "well + dispensed, in unsuperfluous, even proportion," would supply the wants of + all? He is ready, agreeably to the advice of Christ to the young man in + the Gospel, to "sell all that he has, and give to the poor," if he could + be shewn how so generous a resolution on his part could be encountered + with an extensive conspiracy of the well-disposed, and rendered available + to the real melioration of the state of man in society. Who is there so + ignorant, or that has lived in so barren and unconceiving a tract of the + soil of earth, that has not his tale to tell of the sublime emotions and + the generous purposes he has witnessed, which so often mark this beautiful + era of our sublunary existence? + </p> + <p> + But this is in the dawn of life, and the first innocence of the human + heart. When once the young man of "great possessions" has entered the + gardens of Alcina, when he has drunk of the cup of her enchantments, and + seen all the delusive honour and consideration that, in the corruptness of + modern times, are the lot of him who is the owner of considerable wealth, + the dreams of sublime virtue are too apt to fade away. He was willing + before, to be nourished with the simplest diet, and clad with the plainest + attire. He knew that he was but a man like the rest of his species, and + was in equity entitled to no more than they. But he presently learns a + very different lesson. He believes that he cannot live without splendour + and luxury; he regards a noble mansion, elegant vesture, horses, equipage, + and an ample establishment, as things without which he must be hopelessly + miserable. That income, which he once thought, if divided, would have + secured the happiness and independence of many, he now finds scarcely + sufficient to supply his increased and artificial cravings. + </p> + <p> + But, if the rich are seduced and led away from the inspirations of virtue, + it may easily be conceived how much more injurious, and beyond the power + of control, are the effects on the poor. The mysterious source from which + the talents of men are derived, cannot be supposed in their distribution + to be regulated by the artificial laws of society, and to have one measure + for those which are bestowed upon the opulent, and another for the + destitute. It will therefore not seldom happen that powers susceptible of + the noblest uses may be cast, like "seed sown upon stony places," where + they have scarcely any chance to be unfolded and matured. In a few + instances they may attract the attention of persons both able and willing + to contribute to their being brought to perfection. In a few instances the + principle may be so vigorous, and the tendency to excel so decisive, as to + bid defiance to and to conquer every obstacle. But in a vast majority the + promise will be made vain, and the hopes that might have been entertained + will prove frustrate. What can be expected from the buds of the most + auspicious infancy, if encountered in their earliest stage with the + rigorous blasts of a polar climate? + </p> + <p> + And not only will the germs of excellence be likely to be extinguished in + the members of the lower class of the community, but the temptations to + irregular acts and incroachments upon the laws for the security of + property will often be so great, as to be in a manner irresistible. The + man who perceives that, with all his industry, he cannot provide for the + bare subsistence of himself and those dependent upon him, while his + neighbour revels in boundless profusion, cannot but sometimes feel himself + goaded to an attempt to correct this crying evil. What must be expected to + become of that general good-will which is the natural inheritance of a + well-constituted mind, when urged by so bitter oppression and such + unendurable sufferings? The whole temper of the human heart must be + spoiled, and the wine of life acquire a quality acrimonious and malignant. + </p> + <p> + But it is not only in the extreme classes of society that the glaring + inequality with which property is shared produces its injurious effects. + All those who are born in the intermediate ranks are urged with a + distempered ambition, unfavourable to independence of temper, and to true + philanthropy. Each man aspires to the improvement of his circumstances, + and the mounting, by one step and another, higher in the scale of the + community. The contemplations of the mind are turned towards selfishness. + In opulent communities we are presented with the genuine theatre for + courts and kings. And, wherever there are courts, duplicity, lying, + hypocrisy and cringing dwell as in their proper field. Next come trades + and professions, with all the ignoble contemplations, the resolved + smoothness, servility and falshood, by which they are enabled to gain a + prosperous and triumphant career. + </p> + <p> + It is by such means, that man, whom "God made upright," is led away into a + thousand devious paths, and, long before the closing scene of his life, is + rendered something the very reverse of what in the dawning of existence he + promised to be. He is like Hazael in the Jewish history, who, when the + prophet set before him the crying enormities he should hereafter + perpetrate, exclaimed, "Is thy servant a dog," that he should degrade + himself so vilely? He feels the purity of his purposes; but is goaded by + one excitement and exasperation after another, till he becomes debased, + worthless and criminal. This is strikingly illustrated in the story of Dr. + Johnson and the celebrated Windham, who, when he was setting out as + secretary to the lord lieutenant of Ireland, expressed to his aged + monitor, some doubts whether he could ever reconcile himself to certain + indirect proceedings which he was afraid would be expected of him: to + which the veteran replied, "Oh, sir, be under no alarm; in a short time, + depend upon it, you will make a very pretty rascal(87)." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (87) The phrase here used by Johnson is marked with the licentiousness +we sometimes indulge in familiar conversation. Translate it into a +general maxim; and it contains much melancholy truth. It is true also, +that there are few individuals, who, in the urgent realities of +life, have not occasionally descended from the heights of theoretical +excellence. It is but just however to observe in the case of Windham, +that, though he was a man of many errors, he was not the less +characterised by high honour and eminent virtue. +</pre> + <p> + Such are the "inventions of man," or rather such is the operation of those + institutions which ordinarily prevail in society. Still, however, much + honour ought to be rendered to our common nature, since all of us are not + led away by the potent spells of the enchantress. If the vulgar crew of + the vessel of Ulysses were by Circe changed into brutes, so was not their + commander. The human species is divided into two classes, the successfully + tempted, and the tempted in vain. And, though the latter must be admitted + to be a small minority, yet they ought to be regarded as the "salt of the + earth," which preserves the entire mass from putridity and dishonour. They + are like the remnant, which, if they had been to be found in the cities of + the Asphaltic lake, the God of Abraham pronounced as worthy to redeem the + whole community. They are like the two witnesses amidst the general + apostasy, spoken of in the book of Revelations, who were the harbingers + and forerunners of the millenium, the reign of universal virtue and peace. + Their excellence only appears with the greater lustre amidst the general + defection. + </p> + <p> + Nothing can be more unjust than the spirit of general levelling and + satire, which so customarily prevails. History records, if you will, the + vices and follies of mankind. But does it record nothing else? Are the + virtues of the best men, the noblest philosophers, and the most + disinterested patriots of antiquity, nothing? It is impossible for two + things to be more unlike than the general profligacy of the reigns of + Charles the Second and Louis the Fifteenth on the one hand, and the + austere virtues and the extinction of all private considerations in the + general happiness and honour, which constitute the spirit of the best + pages of ancient history, and which exalt and transfix the spirit of every + ingenuous and high-souled reader, on the other. + </p> + <p> + Let us then pay to human virtue the honour that is so justly its due! + Imagination is indeed a marvellous power; but imagination never equalled + history, the achievements which man has actually performed. It is in vain + that the man of contemplation sits down in his closet; it is in vain that + the poet yields the reins to enthusiasm and fancy: there is something in + the realities of life, that excites the mind infinitely more, than is in + the power of the most exalted reverie. The true hero cannot, like the + poet, or the delineator of fictitious adventures, put off what he has to + do till to-morrow. The occasion calls, and he must obey. He sees the + obstacles, and the adversary he has to encounter, before him. He sees the + individuals, for whose dear sake he resolves to expose himself to every + hazard and every evil. The very circumstance, that he is called on to act + in the face of the public, animates him. It is thus that resolution is + produced, that martyrdom is voluntarily encountered, and that the deeds of + genuine, pure and undeniable heroism are performed. + </p> + <p> + Let then no man, in the supercilious spirit of a fancied disdain, allow + himself to detract from our common nature. We are ourselves the models of + all the excellence that the human mind can conceive. There have been men, + whose virtues may well redeem all the contempt with which satire and + detraction have sought to overwhelm our species. There have been memorable + periods in the history of man, when the best, the most generous and + exalted sentiments have swallowed up and obliterated all that was of an + opposite character. And it is but just, that those by whom these things + are fairly considered, should anticipate the progress of our nature, and + believe that human understanding and human virtue will hereafter + accomplish such things as the heart of man has never yet been daring + enough to conceive. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Thoughts on Man, by William Godwin + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THOUGHTS ON MAN *** + +***** This file should be named 743-h.htm or 743-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/7/4/743/ + +Produced by Charles Keller, and David Widger + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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