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+The Project Gutenberg EBook The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, v5
+#5 in our series by Edward Gibbon
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+Title: The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. 5
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+Author: Edward Gibbon
+
+Release Date: November, 1996  [EBook #735]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
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+Edition: 11
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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, v5 ***
+
+
+
+This eBook was produced by David Reed  <Haradda@aol.com>
+with additional work by David Widger <widger@cecomet.net>
+
+
+If you find any errors please feel free to notify me of them.
+I want to make this the best etext edition possible for both
+scholars and the general public.  Haradda@aol.com is my
+email address for now.  Please feel free to send me your
+comments and I hope you enjoy this.
+
+David Reed
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+Edward Gibbon, Esq.
+
+With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman
+
+Vol. 5
+
+
+
+
+Chapter XLIX: Conquest Of Italy By The Franks.
+
+
+Part I.
+
+     Introduction, Worship, And Persecution Of Images. - Revolt
+Of Italy And Rome. - Temporal Dominion Of The Popes. - Conquest
+Of Italy By The Franks. - Establishment Of Images. - Character
+And Coronation Of Charlemagne. - Restoration And Decay Of The
+Roman Empire In The West. - Independence Of Italy. - Constitution
+Of The Germanic Body.
+
+In the connection of the church and state, I have considered
+the former as subservient only, and relative, to the latter; a
+salutary maxim, if in fact, as well as in narrative, it had ever
+been held sacred.  The Oriental philosophy of the Gnostics, the
+dark abyss of predestination and grace, and the strange
+transformation of the Eucharist from the sign to the substance of
+Christ's body, ^1 I have purposely abandoned to the curiosity of
+speculative divines.  But I have reviewed, with diligence and
+pleasure, the objects of ecclesiastical history, by which the
+decline and fall of the Roman empire were materially affected,
+the propagation of Christianity, the constitution of the Catholic
+church, the ruin of Paganism, and the sects that arose from the
+mysterious controversies concerning the Trinity and incarnation.
+At the head of this class, we may justly rank the worship of
+images, so fiercely disputed in the eighth and ninth centuries;
+since a question of popular superstition produced the revolt of
+Italy, the temporal power of the popes, and the restoration of
+the Roman empire in the West.
+
+[Footnote 1: The learned Selden has given the history of
+transubstantiation in a comprehensive and pithy sentence: "This
+opinion is only rhetoric turned into logic," (his Works, vol.
+iii. p. 2037, in his Table-Talk.)]
+
+The primitive Christians were possessed with an
+unconquerable repugnance to the use and abuse of images; and this
+aversion may be ascribed to their descent from the Jews, and
+their enmity to the Greeks. The Mosaic law had severely
+proscribed all representations of the Deity; and that precept was
+firmly established in the principles and practice of the chosen
+people.  The wit of the Christian apologists was pointed against
+the foolish idolaters, who bowed before the workmanship of their
+own hands; the images of brass and marble, which, had they been
+endowed with sense and motion, should have started rather from
+the pedestal to adore the creative powers of the artist. ^2
+Perhaps some recent and imperfect converts of the Gnostic tribe
+might crown the statues of Christ and St. Paul with the profane
+honors which they paid to those of Aristotle and Pythagoras; ^3
+but the public religion of the Catholics was uniformly simple and
+spiritual; and the first notice of the use of pictures is in the
+censure of the council of Illiberis, three hundred years after
+the Christian aera.  Under the successors of Constantine, in the
+peace and luxury of the triumphant church, the more prudent
+bishops condescended to indulge a visible superstition, for the
+benefit of the multitude; and, after the ruin of Paganism, they
+were no longer restrained by the apprehension of an odious
+parallel.  The first introduction of a symbolic worship was in
+the veneration of the cross, and of relics.  The saints and
+martyrs, whose intercession was implored, were seated on the
+right hand if God; but the gracious and often supernatural
+favors, which, in the popular belief, were showered round their
+tomb, conveyed an unquestionable sanction of the devout pilgrims,
+who visited, and touched, and kissed these lifeless remains, the
+memorials of their merits and sufferings. ^4 But a memorial, more
+interesting than the skull or the sandals of a departed worthy,
+is the faithful copy of his person and features, delineated by
+the arts of painting or sculpture.  In every age, such copies, so
+congenial to human feelings, have been cherished by the zeal of
+private friendship, or public esteem: the images of the Roman
+emperors were adored with civil, and almost religious, honors; a
+reverence less ostentatious, but more sincere, was applied to the
+statues of sages and patriots; and these profane virtues, these
+splendid sins, disappeared in the presence of the holy men, who
+had died for their celestial and everlasting country.  At first,
+the experiment was made with caution and scruple; and the
+venerable pictures were discreetly allowed to instruct the
+ignorant, to awaken the cold, and to gratify the prejudices of
+the heathen proselytes.  By a slow though inevitable progression,
+the honors of the original were transferred to the copy: the
+devout Christian prayed before the image of a saint; and the
+Pagan rites of genuflection, luminaries, and incense, again stole
+into the Catholic church.  The scruples of reason, or piety, were
+silenced by the strong evidence of visions and miracles; and the
+pictures which speak, and move, and bleed, must be endowed with a
+divine energy, and may be considered as the proper objects of
+religious adoration.  The most audacious pencil might tremble in
+the rash attempt of defining, by forms and colors, the infinite
+Spirit, the eternal Father, who pervades and sustains the
+universe. ^5 But the superstitious mind was more easily
+reconciled to paint and to worship the angels, and, above all,
+the Son of God, under the human shape, which, on earth, they have
+condescended to assume.  The second person of the Trinity had
+been clothed with a real and mortal body; but that body had
+ascended into heaven: and, had not some similitude been presented
+to the eyes of his disciples, the spiritual worship of Christ
+might have been obliterated by the visible relics and
+representations of the saints.  A similar indulgence was
+requisite and propitious for the Virgin Mary: the place of her
+burial was unknown; and the assumption of her soul and body into
+heaven was adopted by the credulity of the Greeks and Latins.
+The use, and even the worship, of images was firmly established
+before the end of the sixth century: they were fondly cherished
+by the warm imagination of the Greeks and Asiatics: the Pantheon
+and Vatican were adorned with the emblems of a new superstition;
+but this semblance of idolatry was more coldly entertained by the
+rude Barbarians and the Arian clergy of the West.  The bolder
+forms of sculpture, in brass or marble, which peopled the temples
+of antiquity, were offensive to the fancy or conscience of the
+Christian Greeks: and a smooth surface of colors has ever been
+esteemed a more decent and harmless mode of imitation. ^6
+
+[Footnote 2: Nec intelligunt homines ineptissimi, quod si sentire
+simulacra et moveri possent, adoratura hominem fuissent a quo
+sunt expolita.  (Divin. Institut. l. ii. c. 2.) Lactantius is the
+last, as well as the most eloquent, of the Latin apologists.
+Their raillery of idols attacks not only the object, but the form
+and matter.]
+
+[Footnote 3: See Irenaeus, Epiphanius, and Augustin, (Basnage,
+Hist. des Eglises Reformees, tom. ii. p. 1313.) This Gnostic
+practice has a singular affinity with the private worship of
+Alexander Severus, (Lampridius, c. 29. Lardner, Heathen
+Testimonies, vol. iii. p. 34.)]
+
+[Footnote 4: See this History, vol. ii. p. 261; vol. ii. p. 434;
+vol. iii. p. 158 - 163.]
+
+[Footnote 5: (Concilium Nicenum, ii. in Collect. Labb. tom. viii.
+p. 1025, edit. Venet.) Il seroit peut-etre a-propos de ne point
+souffrir d'images de la Trinite ou de la Divinite; les defenseurs
+les plus zeles des images ayant condamne celles-ci, et le concile
+de Trente ne parlant que des images de Jesus Christ et des
+Saints, (Dupin, Bibliot. Eccles. tom. vi. p. 154.)]
+
+[Footnote 6: This general history of images is drawn from the
+xxiid book of the Hist. des Eglises Reformees of Basnage, tom.
+ii. p. 1310 - 1337.  He was a Protestant, but of a manly spirit;
+and on this head the Protestants are so notoriously in the right,
+that they can venture to be impartial. See the perplexity of poor
+Friar Pagi, Critica, tom. i. p. 42.]
+
+The merit and effect of a copy depends on its resemblance
+with the original; but the primitive Christians were ignorant of
+the genuine features of the Son of God, his mother, and his
+apostles: the statue of Christ at Paneas in Palestine ^7 was more
+probably that of some temporal savior; the Gnostics and their
+profane monuments were reprobated; and the fancy of the Christian
+artists could only be guided by the clandestine imitation of some
+heathen model.  In this distress, a bold and dexterous invention
+assured at once the likeness of the image and the innocence of
+the worship.  A new super structure of fable was raised on the
+popular basis of a Syrian legend, on the correspondence of Christ
+and Abgarus, so famous in the days of Eusebius, so reluctantly
+deserted by our modern advocates.  The bishop of Caesarea ^8
+records the epistle, ^9 but he most strangely forgets the picture
+of Christ; ^10 the perfect impression of his face on a linen,
+with which he gratified the faith of the royal stranger who had
+invoked his healing power, and offered the strong city of Edessa
+to protect him against the malice of the Jews.  The ignorance of
+the primitive church is explained by the long imprisonment of the
+image in a niche of the wall, from whence, after an oblivion of
+five hundred years, it was released by some prudent bishop, and
+seasonably presented to the devotion of the times.  Its first and
+most glorious exploit was the deliverance of the city from the
+arms of Chosroes Nushirvan; and it was soon revered as a pledge
+of the divine promise, that Edessa should never be taken by a
+foreign enemy. It is true, indeed, that the text of Procopius
+ascribes the double deliverance of Edessa to the wealth and valor
+of her citizens, who purchased the absence and repelled the
+assaults of the Persian monarch.  He was ignorant, the profane
+historian, of the testimony which he is compelled to deliver in
+the ecclesiastical page of Evagrius, that the Palladium was
+exposed on the rampart, and that the water which had been
+sprinkled on the holy face, instead of quenching, added new fuel
+to the flames of the besieged.  After this important service, the
+image of Edessa was preserved with respect and gratitude; and if
+the Armenians rejected the legend, the more credulous Greeks
+adored the similitude, which was not the work of any mortal
+pencil, but the immediate creation of the divine original. The
+style and sentiments of a Byzantine hymn will declare how far
+their worship was removed from the grossest idolatry.  "How can
+we with mortal eyes contemplate this image, whose celestial
+splendor the host of heaven presumes not to behold?  He who
+dwells in heaven, condescends this day to visit us by his
+venerable image; He who is seated on the cherubim, visits us this
+day by a picture, which the Father has delineated with his
+immaculate hand, which he has formed in an ineffable manner, and
+which we sanctify by adoring it with fear and love." Before the
+end of the sixth century, these images, made without hands, (in
+Greek it is a single word, ^11) were propagated in the camps and
+cities of the Eastern empire: ^12 they were the objects of
+worship, and the instruments of miracles; and in the hour of
+danger or tumult, their venerable presence could revive the hope,
+rekindle the courage, or repress the fury, of the Roman legions.
+Of these pictures, the far greater part, the transcripts of a
+human pencil, could only pretend to a secondary likeness and
+improper title: but there were some of higher descent, who
+derived their resemblance from an immediate contact with the
+original, endowed, for that purpose, with a miraculous and
+prolific virtue.  The most ambitious aspired from a filial to a
+fraternal relation with the image of Edessa; and such is the
+veronica of Rome, or Spain, or Jerusalem, which Christ in his
+agony and bloody sweat applied to his face, and delivered to a
+holy matron.  The fruitful precedent was speedily transferred to
+the Virgin Mary, and the saints and martyrs.  In the church of
+Diospolis, in Palestine, the features of the Mother of God ^13
+were deeply inscribed in a marble column; the East and West have
+been decorated by the pencil of St. Luke; and the Evangelist, who
+was perhaps a physician, has been forced to exercise the
+occupation of a painter, so profane and odious in the eyes of the
+primitive Christians. The Olympian Jove, created by the muse of
+Homer and the chisel of Phidias, might inspire a philosophic mind
+with momentary devotion; but these Catholic images were faintly
+and flatly delineated by monkish artists in the last degeneracy
+of taste and genius. ^14
+
+[Footnote 7: After removing some rubbish of miracle and
+inconsistency, it may be allowed, that as late as the year 300,
+Paneas in Palestine was decorated with a bronze statue,
+representing a grave personage wrapped in a cloak, with a
+grateful or suppliant female kneeling before him, and that an
+inscription was perhaps inscribed on the pedestal.  By the
+Christians, this group was foolishly explained of their founder
+and the poor woman whom he had cured of the bloody flux, (Euseb.
+vii. 18, Philostorg. vii. 3, &c.) M. de Beausobre more reasonably
+conjectures the philosopher Apollonius, or the emperor Vespasian:
+in the latter supposition, the female is a city, a province, or
+perhaps the queen Berenice, (Bibliotheque Germanique, tom. xiii.
+p. 1 - 92.)]
+
+[Footnote 8: Euseb. Hist. Eccles. l. i. c. 13.  The learned
+Assemannus has brought up the collateral aid of three Syrians,
+St. Ephrem, Josua Stylites, and James bishop of Sarug; but I do
+not find any notice of the Syriac original or the archives of
+Edessa, (Bibliot. Orient. tom. i. p. 318, 420, 554;) their vague
+belief is probably derived from the Greeks.]
+
+[Footnote 9: The evidence for these epistles is stated and
+rejected by the candid Lardner, (Heathen Testimonies, vol. i. p.
+297 - 309.) Among the herd of bigots who are forcibly driven from
+this convenient, but untenable, post, I am ashamed, with the
+Grabes, Caves, Tillemonts, &c., to discover Mr. Addison, an
+English gentleman, (his Works, vol. i. p. 528, Baskerville's
+edition;) but his superficial tract on the Christian religion
+owes its credit to his name, his style, and the interested
+applause of our clergy.]
+
+[Footnote 10: From the silence of James of Sarug, (Asseman.
+Bibliot. Orient. p. 289, 318,) and the testimony of Evagrius,
+(Hist. Eccles. l. iv. c. 27,) I conclude that this fable was
+invented between the years 521 and 594, most probably after the
+siege of Edessa in 540, (Asseman. tom. i. p. 416. Procopius, de
+Bell. Persic. l. ii.) It is the sword and buckler of, Gregory
+II., (in Epist. i. ad. Leon. Isaur. Concil. tom. viii. p. 656,
+657,) of John Damascenus, (Opera, tom. i. p. 281, edit. Lequien,)
+and of the second Nicene Council, (Actio v. p. 1030.) The most
+perfect edition may be found in Cedrenus, (Compend. p. 175 -
+178.)]
+
+[Footnote 11: See Ducange, in Gloss. Graec. et Lat.  The subject
+is treated with equal learning and bigotry by the Jesuit Gretser,
+(Syntagma de Imaginibus non Manu factis, ad calcem Codini de
+Officiis, p. 289 - 330,) the ass, or rather the fox, of
+Ingoldstadt, (see the Scaligerana;) with equal reason and wit by
+the Protestant Beausobre, in the ironical controversy which he
+has spread through many volumes of the Bibliotheque Germanique,
+(tom. xviii. p. 1 - 50, xx. p. 27 - 68, xxv. p. 1 - 36, xxvii. p.
+85 - 118, xxviii. p. 1 - 33, xxxi. p. 111 - 148, xxxii. p. 75 -
+107, xxxiv. p. 67 - 96.)]
+
+[Footnote 12: Theophylact Simocatta (l. ii. c. 3, p. 34, l. iii.
+c. 1, p. 63) celebrates it; yet it was no more than a copy, since
+he adds (of Edessa). See Pagi, tom. ii. A.D. 588 No. 11.]
+
+[Footnote 13: See, in the genuine or supposed works of John
+Damascenus, two passages on the Virgin and St. Luke, which have
+not been noticed by Gretser, nor consequently by Beausobre,
+(Opera Joh. Damascen. tom. i. p. 618, 631.)]
+
+[Footnote 14: "Your scandalous figures stand quite out from the
+canvass: they are as bad as a group of statues!" It was thus that
+the ignorance and bigotry of a Greek priest applauded the
+pictures of Titian, which he had ordered, and refused to accept.]
+
+The worship of images had stolen into the church by
+insensible degrees, and each petty step was pleasing to the
+superstitious mind, as productive of comfort, and innocent of
+sin.  But in the beginning of the eighth century, in the full
+magnitude of the abuse, the more timorous Greeks were awakened by
+an apprehension, that under the mask of Christianity, they had
+restored the religion of their fathers: they heard, with grief
+and impatience, the name of idolaters; the incessant charge of
+the Jews and Mahometans, ^15 who derived from the Law and the
+Koran an immortal hatred to graven images and all relative
+worship.  The servitude of the Jews might curb their zeal, and
+depreciate their authority; but the triumphant Mussulmans, who
+reigned at Damascus, and threatened Constantinople, cast into the
+scale of reproach the accumulated weight of truth and victory.
+The cities of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt had been fortified with
+the images of Christ, his mother, and his saints; and each city
+presumed on the hope or promise of miraculous defence. In a rapid
+conquest of ten years, the Arabs subdued those cities and these
+images; and, in their opinion, the Lord of Hosts pronounced a
+decisive judgment between the adoration and contempt of these
+mute and inanimate idols. ^* For a while Edessa had braved the
+Persian assaults; but the chosen city, the spouse of Christ, was
+involved in the common ruin; and his divine resemblance became
+the slave and trophy of the infidels.  After a servitude of three
+hundred years, the Palladium was yielded to the devotion of
+Constantinople, for a ransom of twelve thousand pounds of silver,
+the redemption of two hundred Mussulmans, and a perpetual truce
+for the territory of Edessa. ^16 In this season of distress and
+dismay, the eloquence of the monks was exercised in the defence
+of images; and they attempted to prove, that the sin and schism
+of the greatest part of the Orientals had forfeited the favor,
+and annihilated the virtue, of these precious symbols.  But they
+were now opposed by the murmurs of many simple or rational
+Christians, who appealed to the evidence of texts, of facts, and
+of the primitive times, and secretly desired the reformation of
+the church.  As the worship of images had never been established
+by any general or positive law, its progress in the Eastern
+empire had been retarded, or accelerated, by the differences of
+men and manners, the local degrees of refinement, and the
+personal characters of the bishops.  The splendid devotion was
+fondly cherished by the levity of the capital, and the inventive
+genius of the Byzantine clergy; while the rude and remote
+districts of Asia were strangers to this innovation of sacred
+luxury. Many large congregations of Gnostics and Arians
+maintained, after their conversion, the simple worship which had
+preceded their separation; and the Armenians, the most warlike
+subjects of Rome, were not reconciled, in the twelfth century, to
+the sight of images. ^17 These various denominations of men
+afforded a fund of prejudice and aversion, of small account in
+the villages of Anatolia or Thrace, but which, in the fortune of
+a soldier, a prelate, or a eunuch, might be often connected with
+the powers of the church and state.
+
+[Footnote 15: By Cedrenus, Zonaras, Glycas, and Manasses, the
+origin of the Aconoclcasts is imprinted to the caliph Yezid and
+two Jews, who promised the empire to Leo; and the reproaches of
+these hostile sectaries are turned into an absurd conspiracy for
+restoring the purity of the Christian worship, (see Spanheim,
+Hist. Imag. c. 2.)]
+
+[Footnote *: Yezid, ninth caliph of the race of the Ommiadae,
+caused all the images in Syria to be destroyed about the year
+719; hence the orthodox reproaches the sectaries with following
+the example of the Saracens and the Jews Fragm. Mon. Johan.
+Jerosylym.  Script. Byzant. vol. xvi. p. 235. Hist. des Repub.
+Ital. par M. Sismondi, vol. i. p. 126. - G.]
+
+[Footnote 16: See Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 267,)
+Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 201,) and Abulfeda, (Annal. Moslem. p.
+264,), and the criticisms of Pagi, (tom. iii. A.D. 944.) The
+prudent Franciscan refuses to determine whether the image of
+Edessa now reposes at Rome or Genoa; but its repose is
+inglorious, and this ancient object of worship is no longer
+famous or fashionable.]
+
+[Footnote 17: (Nicetas, l. ii. p. 258.) The Armenian churches are
+still content with the Cross, (Missions du Levant, tom. iii. p.
+148;) but surely the superstitious Greek is unjust to the
+superstition of the Germans of the xiith century.]
+
+Of such adventurers, the most fortunate was the emperor Leo
+the Third, ^18 who, from the mountains of Isauria, ascended the
+throne of the East. He was ignorant of sacred and profane
+letters; but his education, his reason, perhaps his intercourse
+with the Jews and Arabs, had inspired the martial peasant with a
+hatred of images; and it was held to be the duty of a prince to
+impose on his subjects the dictates of his own conscience.  But
+in the outset of an unsettled reign, during ten years of toil and
+danger, Leo submitted to the meanness of hypocrisy, bowed before
+the idols which he despised, and satisfied the Roman pontiff with
+the annual professions of his orthodoxy and zeal.  In the
+reformation of religion, his first steps were moderate and
+cautious: he assembled a great council of senators and bishops,
+and enacted, with their consent, that all the images should be
+removed from the sanctuary and altar to a proper height in the
+churches where they might be visible to the eyes, and
+inaccessible to the superstition, of the people.  But it was
+impossible on either side to check the rapid through adverse
+impulse of veneration and abhorrence: in their lofty position,
+the sacred images still edified their votaries, and reproached
+the tyrant.  He was himself provoked by resistance and invective;
+and his own party accused him of an imperfect discharge of his
+duty, and urged for his imitation the example of the Jewish king,
+who had broken without scruple the brazen serpent of the temple.
+By a second edict, he proscribed the existence as well as the use
+of religious pictures; the churches of Constantinople and the
+provinces were cleansed from idolatry; the images of Christ, the
+Virgin, and the saints, were demolished, or a smooth surface of
+plaster was spread over the walls of the edifice.  The sect of
+the Iconoclasts was supported by the zeal and despotism of six
+emperors, and the East and West were involved in a noisy conflict
+of one hundred and twenty years.  It was the design of Leo the
+Isaurian to pronounce the condemnation of images as an article of
+faith, and by the authority of a general council: but the
+convocation of such an assembly was reserved for his son
+Constantine; ^19 and though it is stigmatized by triumphant
+bigotry as a meeting of fools and atheists, their own partial and
+mutilated acts betray many symptoms of reason and piety. The
+debates and decrees of many provincial synods introduced the
+summons of the general council which met in the suburbs of
+Constantinople, and was composed of the respectable number of
+three hundred and thirty-eight bishops of Europe and Anatolia;
+for the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria were the slaves of
+the caliph, and the Roman pontiff had withdrawn the churches of
+Italy and the West from the communion of the Greeks. This
+Byzantine synod assumed the rank and powers of the seventh
+general council; yet even this title was a recognition of the six
+preceding assemblies, which had laboriously built the structure
+of the Catholic faith. After a serious deliberation of six
+months, the three hundred and thirty-eight bishops pronounced and
+subscribed a unanimous decree, that all visible symbols of
+Christ, except in the Eucharist, were either blasphemous or
+heretical; that image-worship was a corruption of Christianity
+and a renewal of Paganism; that all such monuments of idolatry
+should be broken or erased; and that those who should refuse to
+deliver the objects of their private superstition, were guilty of
+disobedience to the authority of the church and of the emperor.
+In their loud and loyal acclamations, they celebrated the merits
+of their temporal redeemer; and to his zeal and justice they
+intrusted the execution of their spiritual censures.  At
+Constantinople, as in the former councils, the will of the prince
+was the rule of episcopal faith; but on this occasion, I am
+inclined to suspect that a large majority of the prelates
+sacrificed their secret conscience to the temptations of hope and
+fear.  In the long night of superstition, the Christians had
+wandered far away from the simplicity of the gospel: nor was it
+easy for them to discern the clew, and tread back the mazes, of
+the labyrinth.  The worship of images was inseparably blended, at
+least to a pious fancy, with the Cross, the Virgin, the Saints
+and their relics; the holy ground was involved in a cloud of
+miracles and visions; and the nerves of the mind, curiosity and
+scepticism, were benumbed by the habits of obedience and belief.
+Constantine himself is accused of indulging a royal license to
+doubt, or deny, or deride the mysteries of the Catholics, ^20 but
+they were deeply inscribed in the public and private creed of his
+bishops; and the boldest Iconoclast might assault with a secret
+horror the monuments of popular devotion, which were consecrated
+to the honor of his celestial patrons.  In the reformation of the
+sixteenth century, freedom and knowledge had expanded all the
+faculties of man: the thirst of innovation superseded the
+reverence of antiquity; and the vigor of Europe could disdain
+those phantoms which terrified the sickly and servile weakness of
+the Greeks.
+
+[Footnote 18: Our original, but not impartial, monuments of the
+Iconoclasts must be drawn from the Acts of the Councils, tom.
+viii. and ix. Collect. Labbe, edit. Venet. and the historical
+writings of Theophanes, Nicephorus, Manasses, Cedrenus, Zonoras,
+&c.  Of the modern Catholics, Baronius, Pagi, Natalis Alexander,
+(Hist. Eccles. Seculum viii. and ix.,) and Maimbourg, (Hist. des
+Iconoclasts,) have treated the subject with learning, passion,
+and credulity.  The Protestant labors of Frederick Spanheim
+(Historia Imaginum restituta) and James Basnage (Hist. des
+Eglises Reformees, tom. ii. l. xxiiii. p. 1339 - 1385) are cast
+into the Iconoclast scale.  With this mutual aid, and opposite
+tendency, it is easy for us to poise the balance with philosophic
+indifference.
+
+Note: Compare Schlosser, Geschichte der Bilder-sturmender
+Kaiser, Frankfurt am-Main 1812 a book of research and
+impartiality - M.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Some flowers of rhetoric.  By Damascenus is styled
+(Opera, tom. i. p. 623.) Spanheim's Apology for the Synod of
+Constantinople (p. 171, &c.) is worked up with truth and
+ingenuity, from such materials as he could find in the Nicene
+Acts, (p. 1046, &c.) The witty John of Damascus converts it into
+slaves of their belly, &c.  Opera, tom. i. p. 806]
+
+[Footnote 20: He is accused of proscribing the title of saint;
+styling the Virgin, Mother of Christ; comparing her after her
+delivery to an empty purse of Arianism, Nestorianism, &c.  In his
+defence, Spanheim (c. iv. p. 207) is somewhat embarrassed between
+the interest of a Protestant and the duty of an orthodox divine.]
+
+The scandal of an abstract heresy can be only proclaimed to
+the people by the blast of the ecclesiastical trumpet; but the
+most ignorant can perceive, the most torpid must feel, the
+profanation and downfall of their visible deities.  The first
+hostilities of Leo were directed against a lofty Christ on the
+vestibule, and above the gate, of the palace.  A ladder had been
+planted for the assault, but it was furiously shaken by a crowd
+of zealots and women: they beheld, with pious transport, the
+ministers of sacrilege tumbling from on high and dashed against
+the pavement: and the honors of the ancient martyrs were
+prostituted to these criminals, who justly suffered for murder
+and rebellion. ^21 The execution of the Imperial edicts was
+resisted by frequent tumults in Constantinople and the provinces:
+the person of Leo was endangered, his officers were massacred,
+and the popular enthusiasm was quelled by the strongest efforts
+of the civil and military power.  Of the Archipelago, or Holy
+Sea, the numerous islands were filled with images and monks:
+their votaries abjured, without scruple, the enemy of Christ, his
+mother, and the saints; they armed a fleet of boats and galleys,
+displayed their consecrated banners, and boldly steered for the
+harbor of Constantinople, to place on the throne a new favorite
+of God and the people.  They depended on the succor of a miracle:
+but their miracles were inefficient against the Greek fire; and,
+after the defeat and conflagration of the fleet, the naked
+islands were abandoned to the clemency or justice of the
+conqueror.  The son of Leo, in the first year of his reign, had
+undertaken an expedition against the Saracens: during his
+absence, the capital, the palace, and the purple, were occupied
+by his kinsman Artavasdes, the ambitious champion of the orthodox
+faith. The worship of images was triumphantly restored: the
+patriarch renounced his dissimulation, or dissembled his
+sentiments and the righteous claims of the usurper was
+acknowledged, both in the new, and in ancient, Rome. Constantine
+flew for refuge to his paternal mountains; but he descended at
+the head of the bold and affectionate Isaurians; and his final
+victory confounded the arms and predictions of the fanatics.  His
+long reign was distracted with clamor, sedition, conspiracy, and
+mutual hatred, and sanguinary revenge; the persecution of images
+was the motive or pretence, of his adversaries; and, if they
+missed a temporal diadem, they were rewarded by the Greeks with
+the crown of martyrdom.  In every act of open and clandestine
+treason, the emperor felt the unforgiving enmity of the monks,
+the faithful slaves of the superstition to which they owed their
+riches and influence.  They prayed, they preached, they absolved,
+they inflamed, they conspired; the solitude of Palestine poured
+forth a torrent of invective; and the pen of St. John Damascenus,
+^22 the last of the Greek fathers, devoted the tyrant's head,
+both in this world and the next. ^23 ^* I am not at leisure to
+examine how far the monks provoked, nor how much they have
+exaggerated, their real and pretended sufferings, nor how many
+lost their lives or limbs, their eyes or their beards, by the
+cruelty of the emperor. ^! From the chastisement of individuals,
+he proceeded to the abolition of the order; and, as it was
+wealthy and useless, his resentment might be stimulated by
+avarice, and justified by patriotism. The formidable name and
+mission of the Dragon, ^24 his visitor-general, excited the
+terror and abhorrence of the black nation: the religious
+communities were dissolved, the buildings were converted into
+magazines, or bar racks; the lands, movables, and cattle were
+confiscated; and our modern precedents will support the charge,
+that much wanton or malicious havoc was exercised against the
+relics, and even the books of the monasteries.  With the habit
+and profession of monks, the public and private worship of images
+was rigorously proscribed; and it should seem, that a solemn
+abjuration of idolatry was exacted from the subjects, or at least
+from the clergy, of the Eastern empire. ^25
+
+[Footnote 21: The holy confessor Theophanes approves the
+principle of their rebellion, (p. 339.) Gregory II. (in Epist. i.
+ad Imp. Leon. Concil. tom. viii. p. 661, 664) applauds the zeal
+of the Byzantine women who killed the Imperial officers.]
+
+[Footnote 22: John, or Mansur, was a noble Christian of Damascus,
+who held a considerable office in the service of the caliph.  His
+zeal in the cause of images exposed him to the resentment and
+treachery of the Greek emperor; and on the suspicion of a
+treasonable correspondence, he was deprived of his right hand,
+which was miraculously restored by the Virgin.  After this
+deliverance, he resigned his office, distributed his wealth, and
+buried himself in the monastery of St. Sabas, between Jerusalem
+and the Dead Sea. The legend is famous; but his learned editor,
+Father Lequien, has a unluckily proved that St. John Damascenus
+was already a monk before the Iconoclast dispute, (Opera, tom. i.
+Vit. St. Joan. Damascen. p. 10 - 13, et Notas ad loc.)]
+
+[Footnote 23: After sending Leo to the devil, he introduces his
+heir, (Opera, Damascen. tom. i. p. 625.) If the authenticity of
+this piece be suspicious, we are sure that in other works, no
+longer extant, Damascenus bestowed on Constantine the titles.
+(tom. i. p. 306.)]
+
+[Footnote *: The patriarch Anastasius, an Iconoclast under Leo,
+an image worshipper under Artavasdes, was scourged, led through
+the streets on an ass, with his face to the tail; and, reinvested
+in his dignity, became again the obsequious minister of
+Constantine in his Iconoclastic persecutions.  See Schlosser p.
+211. - M.]
+
+[Footnote !: Compare Schlosser, p. 228 - 234. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 24: In the narrative of this persecution from
+Theophanes and Cedreves, Spanheim (p. 235 - 238) is happy to
+compare the Draco of Leo with the dragoons (Dracones) of Louis
+XIV.; and highly solaces himself with the controversial pun.]
+
+[Footnote 25: (Damascen.  Op. tom. i. p. 625.) This oath and
+subscription I do not remember to have seen in any modern
+compilation]
+
+The patient East abjured, with reluctance, her sacred
+images; they were fondly cherished, and vigorously defended, by
+the independent zeal of the Italians.  In ecclesiastical rank and
+jurisdiction, the patriarch of Constantinople and the pope of
+Rome were nearly equal.  But the Greek prelate was a domestic
+slave under the eye of his master, at whose nod he alternately
+passed from the convent to the throne, and from the throne to the
+convent.  A distant and dangerous station, amidst the Barbarians
+of the West, excited the spirit and freedom of the Latin bishops.
+
+Their popular election endeared them to the Romans: the public
+and private indigence was relieved by their ample revenue; and
+the weakness or neglect of the emperors compelled them to
+consult, both in peace and war, the temporal safety of the city.
+In the school of adversity the priest insensibly imbibed the
+virtues and the ambition of a prince; the same character was
+assumed, the same policy was adopted, by the Italian, the Greek,
+or the Syrian, who ascended the chair of St. Peter; and, after
+the loss of her legions and provinces, the genius and fortune of
+the popes again restored the supremacy of Rome.  It is agreed,
+that in the eighth century, their dominion was founded on
+rebellion, and that the rebellion was produced, and justified, by
+the heresy of the Iconoclasts; but the conduct of the second and
+third Gregory, in this memorable contest, is variously
+interpreted by the wishes of their friends and enemies.  The
+Byzantine writers unanimously declare, that, after a fruitless
+admonition, they pronounced the separation of the East and West,
+and deprived the sacrilegious tyrant of the revenue and
+sovereignty of Italy.  Their excommunication is still more
+clearly expressed by the Greeks, who beheld the accomplishment of
+the papal triumphs; and as they are more strongly attached to
+their religion than to their country, they praise, instead of
+blaming, the zeal and orthodoxy of these apostolical men. ^26 The
+modern champions of Rome are eager to accept the praise and the
+precedent: this great and glorious example of the deposition of
+royal heretics is celebrated by the cardinals Baronius and
+Bellarmine; ^27 and if they are asked, why the same thunders were
+not hurled against the Neros and Julians of antiquity, they
+reply, that the weakness of the primitive church was the sole
+cause of her patient loyalty. ^28 On this occasion the effects of
+love and hatred are the same; and the zealous Protestants, who
+seek to kindle the indignation, and to alarm the fears, of
+princes and magistrates, expatiate on the insolence and treason
+of the two Gregories against their lawful sovereign. ^29 They are
+defended only by the moderate Catholics, for the most part, of
+the Gallican church, ^30 who respect the saint, without approving
+the sin.  These common advocates of the crown and the mitre
+circumscribe the truth of facts by the rule of equity, Scripture,
+and tradition, and appeal to the evidence of the Latins, ^31 and
+the lives ^32 and epistles of the popes themselves.
+
+[Footnote 26: Theophanes. (Chronograph. p. 343.) For this Gregory
+is styled by Cedrenus . (p. 450.) Zonaras specifies the thunder,
+(tom. ii. l. xv. p. 104, 105.) It may be observed, that the
+Greeks are apt to confound the times and actions of two
+Gregories.]
+
+[Footnote 27: See Baronius, Annal.  Eccles. A.D. 730, No. 4, 5;
+dignum exemplum!  Bellarmin. de Romano Pontifice, l. v. c. 8:
+mulctavit eum parte imperii.  Sigonius, de Regno Italiae, l. iii.
+Opera, tom. ii. p. 169.  Yet such is the change of Italy, that
+Sigonius is corrected by the editor of Milan, Philipus Argelatus,
+a Bolognese, and subject of the pope.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Quod si Christiani olim non deposuerunt Neronem aut
+Julianum, id fuit quia deerant vires temporales Christianis,
+(honest Bellarmine, de Rom. Pont. l. v. c. 7.) Cardinal Perron
+adds a distinction more honorable to the first Christians, but
+not more satisfactory to modern princes - the treason of heretics
+and apostates, who break their oath, belie their coin, and
+renounce their allegiance to Christ and his vicar, (Perroniana,
+p. 89.)]
+
+[Footnote 29: Take, as a specimen, the cautious Basnage (Hist.
+d'Eglise, p. 1350, 1351) and the vehement Spanheim, (Hist.
+Imaginum,) who, with a hundred more, tread in the footsteps of
+the centuriators of Magdeburgh.]
+
+[Footnote 30: See Launoy, (Opera, tom. v. pars ii. epist. vii. 7,
+p. 456 - 474,) Natalis Alexander, (Hist. Nov. Testamenti, secul.
+viii. dissert. i. p. 92 - 98,) Pagi, (Critica, tom. iii. p. 215,
+216,) and Giannone, (Istoria Civile Napoli, tom. i. p. 317 -
+320,) a disciple of the Gallican school In the field of
+controversy I always pity the moderate party, who stand on the
+open middle ground exposed to the fire of both sides.]
+
+[Footnote 31: They appeal to Paul Warnefrid, or Diaconus, (de
+Gestis Langobard. l. vi. c. 49, p. 506, 507, in Script. Ital.
+Muratori, tom. i. pars i.,) and the nominal Anastasius, (de Vit.
+Pont. in Muratori, tom. iii. pars i. Gregorius II. p. 154.
+Gregorius III. p. 158.  Zacharias, p. 161. Stephanus III. p. 165.
+
+Paulus, p. 172.  Stephanus IV. p. 174.  Hadrianus, p. 179.  Leo
+III. p. 195.) Yet I may remark, that the true Anastasius (Hist.
+Eccles. p. 134, edit. Reg.) and the Historia Miscella, (l. xxi.
+p. 151, in tom. i. Script.  Ital.,) both of the ixth century,
+translate and approve the Greek text of Theophanes.]
+
+[Footnote 32: With some minute difference, the most learned
+critics, Lucas Holstenius, Schelestrate, Ciampini, Bianchini,
+Muratori, (Prolegomena ad tom. iii. pars i.,) are agreed that the
+Liber Pontificalis was composed and continued by the apostolic
+librarians and notaries of the viiith and ixth centuries; and
+that the last and smallest part is the work of Anastasius, whose
+name it bears.  The style is barbarous, the narrative partial,
+the details are trifling - yet it must be read as a curious and
+authentic record of the times.  The epistles of the popes are
+dispersed in the volumes of Councils.]
+
+
+
+Chapter XLIX: Conquest Of Italy By The Franks.
+
+Part II.
+
+Two original epistles, from Gregory the Second to the
+emperor Leo, are still extant; ^33 and if they cannot be praised
+as the most perfect models of eloquence and logic, they exhibit
+the portrait, or at least the mask, of the founder of the papal
+monarchy.  "During ten pure and fortunate years," says Gregory to
+the emperor, "we have tasted the annual comfort of your royal
+letters, subscribed in purple ink, with your own hand, the sacred
+pledges of your attachment to the orthodox creed of our fathers.
+How deplorable is the change!  how tremendous the scandal!  You
+now accuse the Catholics of idolatry; and, by the accusation, you
+betray your own impiety and ignorance. To this ignorance we are
+compelled to adapt the grossness of our style and arguments: the
+first elements of holy letters are sufficient for your confusion;
+and were you to enter a grammar-school, and avow yourself the
+enemy of our worship, the simple and pious children would be
+provoked to cast their horn-books at your head." After this
+decent salutation, the pope attempts the usual distinction
+between the idols of antiquity and the Christian images. The
+former were the fanciful representations of phantoms or daemons,
+at a time when the true God had not manifested his person in any
+visible likeness.  The latter are the genuine forms of Christ,
+his mother, and his saints, who had approved, by a crowd of
+miracles, the innocence and merit of this relative worship.  He
+must indeed have trusted to the ignorance of Leo, since he could
+assert the perpetual use of images, from the apostolic age, and
+their venerable presence in the six synods of the Catholic
+church.  A more specious argument is drawn from present
+possession and recent practice the harmony of the Christian world
+supersedes the demand of a general council; and Gregory frankly
+confesses, than such assemblies can only be useful under the
+reign of an orthodox prince.  To the impudent and inhuman Leo,
+more guilty than a heretic, he recommends peace, silence, and
+implicit obedience to his spiritual guides of Constantinople and
+Rome.  The limits of civil and ecclesiastical powers are defined
+by the pontiff.  To the former he appropriates the body; to the
+latter, the soul: the sword of justice is in the hands of the
+magistrate: the more formidable weapon of excommunication is
+intrusted to the clergy; and in the exercise of their divine
+commission a zealous son will not spare his offending father: the
+successor of St. Peter may lawfully chastise the kings of the
+earth.  "You assault us, O tyrant!  with a carnal and military
+hand: unarmed and naked we can only implore the Christ, the
+prince of the heavenly host, that he will send unto you a devil,
+for the destruction of your body and the salvation of your soul.
+You declare, with foolish arrogance, I will despatch my orders to
+Rome: I will break in pieces the image of St. Peter; and Gregory,
+like his predecessor Martin, shall be transported in chains, and
+in exile, to the foot of the Imperial throne.  Would to God that
+I might be permitted to tread in the footsteps of the holy
+Martin!  but may the fate of Constans serve as a warning to the
+persecutors of the church!  After his just condemnation by the
+bishops of Sicily, the tyrant was cut off, in the fullness of his
+sins, by a domestic servant: the saint is still adored by the
+nations of Scythia, among whom he ended his banishment and his
+life. But it is our duty to live for the edification and support
+of the faithful people; nor are we reduced to risk our safety on
+the event of a combat. Incapable as you are of defending your
+Roman subjects, the maritime situation of the city may perhaps
+expose it to your depredation but we can remove to the distance
+of four-and-twenty stadia, to the first fortress of the Lombards,
+and then - you may pursue the winds.  Are you ignorant that the
+popes are the bond of union, the mediators of peace, between the
+East and West?  The eyes of the nations are fixed on our
+humility; and they revere, as a God upon earth, the apostle St.
+Peter, whose image you threaten to destroy. ^35 The remote and
+interior kingdoms of the West present their homage to Christ and
+his vicegerent; and we now prepare to visit one of their most
+powerful monarchs, who desires to receive from our hands the
+sacrament of baptism. ^36 The Barbarians have submitted to the
+yoke of the gospel, while you alone are deaf to the voice of the
+shepherd. These pious Barbarians are kindled into rage: they
+thirst to avenge the persecution of the East.  Abandon your rash
+and fatal enterprise; reflect, tremble, and repent.  If you
+persist, we are innocent of the blood that will be spilt in the
+contest; may it fall on your own head!"
+
+[Footnote 33: The two epistles of Gregory II. have been preserved
+in the Acta of the Nicene Council, (tom. viii. p. 651 - 674.)
+They are without a date, which is variously fixed, by Baronius in
+the year 726, by Muratori (Annali d'Italia, tom. vi. p. 120) in
+729, and by Pagi in 730.  Such is the force of prejudice, that
+some papists have praised the good sense and moderation of these
+letters.]
+
+[Footnote 34: (Epist. i. p. 664.) This proximity of the Lombards
+is hard of digestion.  Camillo Pellegrini (Dissert. iv. de Ducatu
+Beneventi, in the Script. Ital. tom. v. p. 172, 173) forcibly
+reckons the xxivth stadia, not from Rome, but from the limits of
+the Roman duchy, to the first fortress, perhaps Sora, of the
+Lombards.  I rather believe that Gregory, with the pedantry of
+the age, employs stadia for miles, without much inquiry into the
+genuine measure.]
+
+[Footnote 35: {Greek}]
+
+[Footnote 36: (p. 665.) The pope appears to have imposed on the
+ignorance of the Greeks: he lived and died in the Lateran; and in
+his time all the kingdoms of the West had embraced Christianity.
+May not this unknown Septetus have some reference to the chief of
+the Saxon Heptarchy, to Ina king of Wessex, who, in the
+pontificate of Gregory the Second, visited Rome for the purpose,
+not of baptism, but of pilgrimage!  Pagi. A., 89, No. 2. A.D.
+726, No. 15.)]
+
+The first assault of Leo against the images of
+Constantinople had been witnessed by a crowd of strangers from
+Italy and the West, who related with grief and indignation the
+sacrilege of the emperor.  But on the reception of his
+proscriptive edict, they trembled for their domestic deities: the
+images of Christ and the Virgin, of the angels, martyrs, and
+saints, were abolished in all the churches of Italy; and a strong
+alternative was proposed to the Roman pontiff, the royal favor as
+the price of his compliance, degradation and exile as the penalty
+of his disobedience. Neither zeal nor policy allowed him to
+hesitate; and the haughty strain in which Gregory addressed the
+emperor displays his confidence in the truth of his doctrine or
+the powers of resistance.  Without depending on prayers or
+miracles, he boldly armed against the public enemy, and his
+pastoral letters admonished the Italians of their danger and
+their duty. ^37 At this signal, Ravenna, Venice, and the cities
+of the Exarchate and Pentapolis, adhered to the cause of
+religion; their military force by sea and land consisted, for the
+most part, of the natives; and the spirit of patriotism and zeal
+was transfused into the mercenary strangers. The Italians swore
+to live and die in the defence of the pope and the holy images;
+the Roman people was devoted to their father, and even the
+Lombards were ambitious to share the merit and advantage of this
+holy war.  The most treasonable act, but the most obvious
+revenge, was the destruction of the statues of Leo himself: the
+most effectual and pleasing measure of rebellion, was the
+withholding the tribute of Italy, and depriving him of a power
+which he had recently abused by the imposition of a new
+capitation. ^38 A form of administration was preserved by the
+election of magistrates and governors; and so high was the public
+indignation, that the Italians were prepared to create an
+orthodox emperor, and to conduct him with a fleet and army to the
+palace of Constantinople.  In that palace, the Roman bishops, the
+second and third Gregory, were condemned as the authors of the
+revolt, and every attempt was made, either by fraud or force, to
+seize their persons, and to strike at their lives.  The city was
+repeatedly visited or assaulted by captains of the guards, and
+dukes and exarchs of high dignity or secret trust; they landed
+with foreign troops, they obtained some domestic aid, and the
+superstition of Naples may blush that her fathers were attached
+to the cause of heresy.  But these clandestine or open attacks
+were repelled by the courage and vigilance of the Romans; the
+Greeks were overthrown and massacred, their leaders suffered an
+ignominious death, and the popes, however inclined to mercy,
+refused to intercede for these guilty victims. At Ravenna, ^39
+the several quarters of the city had long exercised a bloody and
+hereditary feud; in religious controversy they found a new
+aliment of faction: but the votaries of images were superior in
+numbers or spirit, and the exarch, who attempted to stem the
+torrent, lost his life in a popular sedition.  To punish this
+flagitious deed, and restore his dominion in Italy, the emperor
+sent a fleet and army into the Adriatic Gulf.  After suffering
+from the winds and waves much loss and delay, the Greeks made
+their descent in the neighborhood of Ravenna: they threatened to
+depopulate the guilty capital, and to imitate, perhaps to
+surpass, the example of Justinian the Second, who had chastised a
+former rebellion by the choice and execution of fifty of the
+principal inhabitants.  The women and clergy, in sackcloth and
+ashes, lay prostrate in prayer: the men were in arms for the
+defence of their country; the common danger had united the
+factions, and the event of a battle was preferred to the slow
+miseries of a siege.  In a hard-fought day, as the two armies
+alternately yielded and advanced, a phantom was seen, a voice was
+heard, and Ravenna was victorious by the assurance of victory.
+The strangers retreated to their ships, but the populous
+sea-coast poured forth a multitude of boats; the waters of the Po
+were so deeply infected with blood, that during six years the
+public prejudice abstained from the fish of the river; and the
+institution of an annual feast perpetuated the worship of images,
+and the abhorrence of the Greek tyrant.  Amidst the triumph of
+the Catholic arms, the Roman pontiff convened a synod of
+ninety-three bishops against the heresy of the Iconoclasts.  With
+their consent, he pronounced a general excommunication against
+all who by word or deed should attack the tradition of the
+fathers and the images of the saints: in this sentence the
+emperor was tacitly involved, ^40 but the vote of a last and
+hopeless remonstrance may seem to imply that the anathema was yet
+suspended over his guilty head.  No sooner had they confirmed
+their own safety, the worship of images, and the freedom of Rome
+and Italy, than the popes appear to have relaxed of their
+severity, and to have spared the relics of the Byzantine
+dominion.  Their moderate councils delayed and prevented the
+election of a new emperor, and they exhorted the Italians not to
+separate from the body of the Roman monarchy. The exarch was
+permitted to reside within the walls of Ravenna, a captive rather
+than a master; and till the Imperial coronation of Charlemagne,
+the government of Rome and Italy was exercised in the name of the
+successors of Constantine. ^41
+
+[Footnote 37: I shall transcribe the important and decisive
+passage of the Liber Pontificalis.  Respiciens ergo pius vir
+profanam principis jussionem, jam contra Imperatorem quasi contra
+hostem se armavit, renuens haeresim ejus, scribens ubique se
+cavere Christianos, eo quod orta fuisset impietas talis. Igitur
+permoti omnes Pentapolenses, atque Venetiarum exercitus contra
+Imperatoris jussionem restiterunt; dicentes se nunquam in ejusdem
+pontificis condescendere necem, sed pro ejus magis defensione
+viriliter decertare, (p. 156.)]
+
+[Footnote 38: A census, or capitation, says Anastasius, (p. 156;)
+a most cruel tax, unknown to the Saracens themselves, exclaims
+the zealous Maimbourg, (Hist. des Iconoclastes, l. i.,) and
+Theophanes, (p. 344,) who talks of Pharaoh's numbering the male
+children of Israel.  This mode of taxation was familiar to the
+Saracens; and, most unluckily for the historians, it was imposed
+a few years afterwards in France by his patron Louis XIV.]
+
+[Footnote 39: See the Liber Pontificalis of Agnellus, (in the
+Scriptores Rerum Italicarum of Muratori, tom. ii. pars i.,) whose
+deeper shade of barbarism marks the difference between Rome and
+Ravenna.  Yet we are indebted to him for some curious and
+domestic facts - the quarters and factions of Ravenna, (p. 154,)
+the revenge of Justinian II, (p. 160, 161,) the defeat of the
+Greeks, (p. 170, 171,) &c.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Yet Leo was undoubtedly comprised in the si quis
+.... imaginum sacrarum .... destructor .... extiterit, sit
+extorris a cor pore D. N. Jesu Christi vel totius ecclesiae
+unitate.  The canonists may decide whether the guilt or the name
+constitutes the excommunication; and the decision is of the last
+importance to their safety, since, according to the oracle
+(Gratian, Caus. xxiii. q. 5, 47, apud Spanheim, Hist. Imag. p.
+112) homicidas non esse qui excommunicatos trucidant.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Compescuit tale consilium Pontifex, sperans
+conversionem principis, (Anastas. p. 156.) Sed ne desisterent ab
+amore et fide R. J. admonebat, (p. 157.) The popes style Leo and
+Constantine Copronymus, Imperatores et Domini, with the strange
+epithet of Piissimi.  A famous Mosaic of the Lateran (A.D. 798)
+represents Christ, who delivers the keys to St. Peter and the
+banner to Constantine V. (Muratori, Annali d'Italia, tom. vi. p.
+337.)]
+
+The liberty of Rome, which had been oppressed by the arms
+and arts of Augustus, was rescued, after seven hundred and fifty
+years of servitude, from the persecution of Leo the Isaurian.  By
+the Caesars, the triumphs of the consuls had been annihilated: in
+the decline and fall of the empire, the god Terminus, the sacred
+boundary, had insensibly receded from the ocean, the Rhine, the
+Danube, and the Euphrates; and Rome was reduced to her ancient
+territory from Viterbo to Terracina, and from Narni to the mouth
+of the Tyber. ^42 When the kings were banished, the republic
+reposed on the firm basis which had been founded by their wisdom
+and virtue.  Their perpetual jurisdiction was divided between two
+annual magistrates: the senate continued to exercise the powers
+of administration and counsel; and the legislative authority was
+distributed in the assemblies of the people, by a
+well-proportioned scale of property and service.  Ignorant of the
+arts of luxury, the primitive Romans had improved the science of
+government and war: the will of the community was absolute: the
+rights of individuals were sacred: one hundred and thirty
+thousand citizens were armed for defence or conquest; and a band
+of robbers and outlaws was moulded into a nation deserving of
+freedom and ambitious of glory. ^43 When the sovereignty of the
+Greek emperors was extinguished, the ruins of Rome presented the
+sad image of depopulation and decay: her slavery was a habit, her
+liberty an accident; the effect of superstition, and the object
+of her own amazement and terror.  The last vestige of the
+substance, or even the forms, of the constitution, was
+obliterated from the practice and memory of the Romans; and they
+were devoid of knowledge, or virtue, again to build the fabric of
+a commonwealth.  Their scanty remnant, the offspring of slaves
+and strangers, was despicable in the eyes of the victorious
+Barbarians. As often as the Franks or Lombards expressed their
+most bitter contempt of a foe, they called him a Roman; "and in
+this name," says the bishop Liutprand, "we include whatever is
+base, whatever is cowardly, whatever is perfidious, the extremes
+of avarice and luxury, and every vice that can prostitute the
+dignity of human nature." ^44 ^* By the necessity of their
+situation, the inhabitants of Rome were cast into the rough model
+of a republican government: they were compelled to elect some
+judges in peace, and some leaders in war: the nobles assembled to
+deliberate, and their resolves could not be executed without the
+union and consent of the multitude.  The style of the Roman
+senate and people was revived, ^45 but the spirit was fled; and
+their new independence was disgraced by the tumultuous conflict
+of vicentiousness and oppression.  The want of laws could only be
+supplied by the influence of religion, and their foreign and
+domestic counsels were moderated by the authority of the bishop.
+His alms, his sermons, his correspondence with the kings and
+prelates of the West, his recent services, their gratitude, and
+oath, accustomed the Romans to consider him as the first
+magistrate or prince of the city.  The Christian humility of the
+popes was not offended by the name of Dominus, or Lord; and their
+face and inscription are still apparent on the most ancient
+coins. ^46 Their temporal dominion is now confirmed by the
+reverence of a thousand years; and their noblest title is the
+free choice of a people, whom they had redeemed from slavery.
+
+[Footnote 42: I have traced the Roman duchy according to the
+maps, and the maps according to the excellent dissertation of
+father Beretti, (de Chorographia Italiae Medii Aevi, sect. xx. p.
+216-232.) Yet I must nicely observe, that Viterbo is of Lombard
+foundation, (p. 211,) and that Terracina was usurped by the
+Greeks.]
+
+[Footnote 43: On the extent, population, &c., of the Roman
+kingdom, the reader may peruse, with pleasure, the Discours
+Preliminaire to the Republique Romaine of M. de Beaufort, (tom.
+i.,) who will not be accused of too much credulity for the early
+ages of Rome.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Quos (Romanos) nos, Longobardi scilicet, Saxones,
+Franci, Locharingi, Bajoarii, Suevi, Burgundiones, tanto
+dedignamur ut inimicos nostros commoti, nil aliud contumeliarum
+nisi Romane, dicamus: hoc solo, id est Romanorum nomine, quicquid
+ignobilitatis, quicquid timiditatis, quicquid avaritiae, quicquid
+luxuriae, quicquid mendacii, immo quicquid vitiorum est
+comprehendentes, (Liutprand, in Legat Script. Ital. tom. ii. para
+i. p. 481.) For the sins of Cato or Tully Minos might have
+imposed as a fit penance the daily perusal of this barbarous
+passage.]
+
+[Footnote *: Yet this contumelious sentence, quoted by Robertson
+(Charles V note 2) as well as Gibbon, was applied by the angry
+bishop to the Byzantine Romans, whom, indeed, he admits to be the
+genuine descendants of Romulus. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Pipino regi Francorum, omnis senatus, atque
+universa populi generalitas a Deo servatae Romanae urbis. Codex
+Carolin. epist. 36, in Script. Ital. tom. iii. pars ii. p. 160.
+The names of senatus and senator were never totally extinct,
+(Dissert. Chorograph. p. 216, 217;) but in the middle ages they
+signified little more than nobiles, optimates, &c., (Ducange,
+Gloss. Latin.)]
+
+[Footnote 46: See Muratori, Antiquit. Italiae Medii Aevi, tom.
+ii. Dissertat xxvii. p. 548.  On one of these coins we read
+Hadrianus Papa (A.D. 772;) on the reverse, Vict. Ddnn. with the
+word Conob, which the Pere Joubert (Science des Medailles, tom.
+ii. p. 42) explains by Constantinopoli Officina B (secunda.)]
+
+In the quarrels of ancient Greece, the holy people of Elis
+enjoyed a perpetual peace, under the protection of Jupiter, and
+in the exercise of the Olympic games. ^47 Happy would it have
+been for the Romans, if a similar privilege had guarded the
+patrimony of St. Peter from the calamities of war; if the
+Christians, who visited the holy threshold, would have sheathed
+their swords in the presence of the apostle and his successor.
+But this mystic circle could have been traced only by the wand of
+a legislator and a sage: this pacific system was incompatible
+with the zeal and ambition of the popes the Romans were not
+addicted, like the inhabitants of Elis, to the innocent and
+placid labors of agriculture; and the Barbarians of Italy, though
+softened by the climate, were far below the Grecian states in the
+institutions of public and private life.  A memorable example of
+repentance and piety was exhibited by Liutprand, king of the
+Lombards.  In arms, at the gate of the Vatican, the conqueror
+listened to the voice of Gregory the Second, ^48 withdrew his
+troops, resigned his conquests, respectfully visited the church
+of St. Peter, and after performing his devotions, offered his
+sword and dagger, his cuirass and mantle, his silver cross, and
+his crown of gold, on the tomb of the apostle.  But this
+religious fervor was the illusion, perhaps the artifice, of the
+moment; the sense of interest is strong and lasting; the love of
+arms and rapine was congenial to the Lombards; and both the
+prince and people were irresistibly tempted by the disorders of
+Italy, the nakedness of Rome, and the unwarlike profession of her
+new chief.  On the first edicts of the emperor, they declared
+themselves the champions of the holy images: Liutprand invaded
+the province of Romagna, which had already assumed that
+distinctive appellation; the Catholics of the Exarchate yielded
+without reluctance to his civil and military power; and a foreign
+enemy was introduced for the first time into the impregnable
+fortress of Ravenna.  That city and fortress were speedily
+recovered by the active diligence and maritime forces of the
+Venetians; and those faithful subjects obeyed the exhortation of
+Gregory himself, in separating the personal guilt of Leo from the
+general cause of the Roman empire. ^49 The Greeks were less
+mindful of the service, than the Lombards of the injury: the two
+nations, hostile in their faith, were reconciled in a dangerous
+and unnatural alliance: the king and the exarch marched to the
+conquest of Spoleto and Rome: the storm evaporated without
+effect, but the policy of Liutprand alarmed Italy with a
+vexatious alternative of hostility and truce.  His successor
+Astolphus declared himself the equal enemy of the emperor and the
+pope: Ravenna was subdued by force or treachery, ^50 and this
+final conquest extinguished the series of the exarchs, who had
+reigned with a subordinate power since the time of Justinian and
+the ruin of the Gothic kingdom.  Rome was summoned to acknowledge
+the victorious Lombard as her lawful sovereign; the annual
+tribute of a piece of gold was fixed as the ransom of each
+citizen, and the sword of destruction was unsheathed to exact the
+penalty of her disobedience.  The Romans hesitated; they
+entreated; they complained; and the threatening Barbarians were
+checked by arms and negotiations, till the popes had engaged the
+friendship of an ally and avenger beyond the Alps. ^51
+
+[Footnote 47: See West's Dissertation on the Olympic Games,
+(Pindar. vol. ii. p. 32-36, edition in 12mo.,) and the judicious
+reflections of Polybius (tom. i. l. iv. p. 466, edit Gronov.)]
+
+[Footnote 48: The speech of Gregory to the Lombard is finely
+composed by Sigonius, (de Regno Italiae, l. iii. Opera, tom. ii.
+p. 173,) who imitates the license and the spirit of Sallust or
+Livy.]
+
+[Footnote 49: The Venetian historians, John Sagorninus, (Chron.
+Venet. p. 13,) and the doge Andrew Dandolo, (Scriptores Rer.
+Ital. tom. xii. p. 135,) have preserved this epistle of Gregory.
+The loss and recovery of Ravenna are mentioned by Paulus
+Diaconus, (de Gest. Langobard, l. vi. c. 42, 54, in Script. Ital.
+tom. i. pars i. p. 506, 508;) but our chronologists, Pagi,
+Muratori, &c., cannot ascertain the date or circumstances]
+
+[Footnote 50: The option will depend on the various readings of
+the Mss. of Anastasius - deceperat, or decerpserat, (Script.
+Ital. tom. iii. pars i. p. 167.)]
+
+[Footnote 51: The Codex Carolinus is a collection of the epistles
+of the popes to Charles Martel, (whom they style Subregulus,)
+Pepin, and Charlemagne, as far as the year 791, when it was
+formed by the last of these princes.  His original and authentic
+Ms. (Bibliothecae Cubicularis) is now in the Imperial library of
+Vienna, and has been published by Lambecius and Muratori,
+(Script. Rerum Ital. tom. iii. pars ii. p. 75, &c.)]
+
+In his distress, the first ^* Gregory had implored the aid
+of the hero of the age, of Charles Martel, who governed the
+French monarchy with the humble title of mayor or duke; and who,
+by his signal victory over the Saracens, had saved his country,
+and perhaps Europe, from the Mahometan yoke.  The ambassadors of
+the pope were received by Charles with decent reverence; but the
+greatness of his occupations, and the shortness of his life,
+prevented his interference in the affairs of Italy, except by a
+friendly and ineffectual mediation.  His son Pepin, the heir of
+his power and virtues, assumed the office of champion of the
+Roman church; and the zeal of the French prince appears to have
+been prompted by the love of glory and religion.  But the danger
+was on the banks of the Tyber, the succor on those of the Seine,
+and our sympathy is cold to the relation of distant misery.
+Amidst the tears of the city, Stephen the Third embraced the
+generous resolution of visiting in person the courts of Lombardy
+and France, to deprecate the injustice of his enemy, or to excite
+the pity and indignation of his friend.  After soothing the
+public despair by litanies and orations, he undertook this
+laborious journey with the ambassadors of the French monarch and
+the Greek emperor.  The king of the Lombards was inexorable; but
+his threats could not silence the complaints, nor retard the
+speed of the Roman pontiff, who traversed the Pennine Alps,
+reposed in the abbey of St. Maurice, and hastened to grasp the
+right hand of his protector; a hand which was never lifted in
+vain, either in war or friendship.  Stephen was entertained as
+the visible successor of the apostle; at the next assembly, the
+field of March or of May, his injuries were exposed to a devout
+and warlike nation, and he repassed the Alps, not as a suppliant,
+but as a conqueror, at the head of a French army, which was led
+by the king in person.  The Lombards, after a weak resistance,
+obtained an ignominious peace, and swore to restore the
+possessions, and to respect the sanctity, of the Roman church.
+But no sooner was Astolphus delivered from the presence of the
+French arms, than he forgot his promise and resented his
+disgrace.  Rome was again encompassed by his arms; and Stephen,
+apprehensive of fatiguing the zeal of his Transalpine allies
+enforced his complaint and request by an eloquent letter in the
+name and person of St. Peter himself. ^52 The apostle assures his
+adopted sons, the king, the clergy, and the nobles of France,
+that, dead in the flesh, he is still alive in the spirit; that
+they now hear, and must obey, the voice of the founder and
+guardian of the Roman church; that the Virgin, the angels, the
+saints, and the martyrs, and all the host of heaven, unanimously
+urge the request, and will confess the obligation; that riches,
+victory, and paradise, will crown their pious enterprise, and
+that eternal damnation will be the penalty of their neglect, if
+they suffer his tomb, his temple, and his people, to fall into
+the hands of the perfidious Lombards.  The second expedition of
+Pepin was not less rapid and fortunate than the first: St. Peter
+was satisfied, Rome was again saved, and Astolphus was taught the
+lessons of justice and sincerity by the scourge of a foreign
+master.  After this double chastisement, the Lombards languished
+about twenty years in a state of languor and decay.  But their
+minds were not yet humbled to their condition; and instead of
+affecting the pacific virtues of the feeble, they peevishly
+harassed the Romans with a repetition of claims, evasions, and
+inroads, which they undertook without reflection, and terminated
+without glory.  On either side, their expiring monarchy was
+pressed by the zeal and prudence of Pope Adrian the First, the
+genius, the fortune, and greatness of Charlemagne, the son of
+Pepin; these heroes of the church and state were united in public
+and domestic friendship, and while they trampled on the
+prostrate, they varnished their proceedings with the fairest
+colors of equity and moderation. ^53 The passes of the Alps, and
+the walls of Pavia, were the only defence of the Lombards; the
+former were surprised, the latter were invested, by the son of
+Pepin; and after a blockade of two years, ^* Desiderius, the last
+of their native princes, surrendered his sceptre and his capital.
+
+Under the dominion of a foreign king, but in the possession of
+their national laws, the Lombards became the brethren, rather
+than the subjects, of the Franks; who derived their blood, and
+manners, and language, from the same Germanic origin. ^54
+
+[Footnote *: Gregory I. had been dead above a century; read
+Gregory III. - M]
+
+[Footnote 52: See this most extraordinary letter in the Codex
+Carolinus, epist iii. p. 92.  The enemies of the popes have
+charged them with fraud and blasphemy; yet they surely meant to
+persuade rather than deceive.  This introduction of the dead, or
+of immortals, was familiar to the ancient orators, though it is
+executed on this occasion in the rude fashion of the age.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Except in the divorce of the daughter of
+Desiderius, whom Charlemagne repudiated sine aliquo crimine.
+Pope Stephen IV. had most furiously opposed the alliance of a
+noble Frank - cum perfida, horrida nec dicenda, foetentissima
+natione Longobardorum - to whom he imputes the first stain of
+leprosy, (Cod. Carolin. epist. 45, p. 178, 179.) Another reason
+against the marriage was the existence of a first wife,
+(Muratori, Annali d'Italia, tom. vi. p. 232, 233, 236, 237.) But
+Charlemagne indulged himself in the freedom of polygamy or
+concubinage.]
+
+[Footnote *: Of fifteen months.  James, Life of Charlemagne, p.
+187. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 54: See the Annali d'Italia of Muratori, tom. vi., and
+the three first Dissertations of his Antiquitates Italiae Medii
+Aevi, tom. i.]
+
+
+
+Chapter XLIX: Conquest Of Italy By The Franks.
+
+Part III.
+
+The mutual obligations of the popes and the Carlovingian
+family form the important link of ancient and modern, of civil
+and ecclesiastical, history. In the conquest of Italy, the
+champions of the Roman church obtained a favorable occasion, a
+specious title, the wishes of the people, the prayers and
+intrigues of the clergy.  But the most essential gifts of the
+popes to the Carlovingian race were the dignities of king of
+France, ^55 and of patrician of Rome.  I.  Under the sacerdotal
+monarchy of St. Peter, the nations began to resume the practice
+of seeking, on the banks of the Tyber, their kings, their laws,
+and the oracles of their fate.  The Franks were perplexed between
+the name and substance of their government. All the powers of
+royalty were exercised by Pepin, mayor of the palace; and
+nothing, except the regal title, was wanting to his ambition.
+His enemies were crushed by his valor; his friends were
+multiplied by his liberality; his father had been the savior of
+Christendom; and the claims of personal merit were repeated and
+ennobled in a descent of four generations.  The name and image of
+royalty was still preserved in the last descendant of Clovis, the
+feeble Childeric; but his obsolete right could only be used as an
+instrument of sedition: the nation was desirous of restoring the
+simplicity of the constitution; and Pepin, a subject and a
+prince, was ambitious to ascertain his own rank and the fortune
+of his family.  The mayor and the nobles were bound, by an oath
+of fidelity, to the royal phantom: the blood of Clovis was pure
+and sacred in their eyes; and their common ambassadors addressed
+the Roman pontiff, to dispel their scruples, or to absolve their
+promise.  The interest of Pope Zachary, the successor of the two
+Gregories, prompted him to decide, and to decide in their favor:
+he pronounced that the nation might lawfully unite in the same
+person the title and authority of king; and that the unfortunate
+Childeric, a victim of the public safety, should be degraded,
+shaved, and confined in a monastery for the remainder of his
+days.  An answer so agreeable to their wishes was accepted by the
+Franks as the opinion of a casuist, the sentence of a judge, or
+the oracle of a prophet: the Merovingian race disappeared from
+the earth; and Pepin was exalted on a buckler by the suffrage of
+a free people, accustomed to obey his laws and to march under his
+standard. His coronation was twice performed, with the sanction
+of the popes, by their most faithful servant St. Boniface, the
+apostle of Germany, and by the grateful hands of Stephen the
+Third, who, in the monastery of St. Denys placed the diadem on
+the head of his benefactor.  The royal unction of the kings of
+Israel was dexterously applied: ^56 the successor of St. Peter
+assumed the character of a divine ambassador: a German chieftain
+was transformed into the Lord's anointed; and this Jewish rite
+has been diffused and maintained by the superstition and vanity
+of modern Europe. The Franks were absolved from their ancient
+oath; but a dire anathema was thundered against them and their
+posterity, if they should dare to renew the same freedom of
+choice, or to elect a king, except in the holy and meritorious
+race of the Carlovingian princes.  Without apprehending the
+future danger, these princes gloried in their present security:
+the secretary of Charlemagne affirms, that the French sceptre was
+transferred by the authority of the popes; ^57 and in their
+boldest enterprises, they insist, with confidence, on this signal
+and successful act of temporal jurisdiction.
+
+[Footnote 55: Besides the common historians, three French
+critics, Launoy, (Opera, tom. v. pars ii. l. vii. epist. 9, p.
+477-487,) Pagi, (Critica, A.D. 751, No. 1-6, A.D. 752, No. 1-10,)
+and Natalis Alexander, (Hist. Novi Testamenti, dissertat, ii. p.
+96-107,) have treated this subject of the deposition of Childeric
+with learning and attention, but with a strong bias to save the
+independence of the crown.  Yet they are hard pressed by the
+texts which they produce of Eginhard, Theophanes, and the old
+annals, Laureshamenses, Fuldenses, Loisielani]
+
+[Footnote 56: Not absolutely for the first time.  On a less
+conspicuous theatre it had been used, in the vith and viith
+centuries, by the provincial bishops of Britain and Spain.  The
+royal unction of Constantinople was borrowed from the Latins in
+the last age of the empire. Constantine Manasses mentions that of
+Charlemagne as a foreign, Jewish, incomprehensible ceremony. See
+Selden's Titles of Honor, in his Works, vol. iii. part i. p.
+234-249.]
+
+[Footnote 57: See Eginhard, in Vita Caroli Magni, c. i. p. 9,
+&c., c. iii. p. 24.  Childeric was deposed - jussu, the
+Carlovingians were established - auctoritate, Pontificis Romani.
+Launoy, &c., pretend that these strong words are susceptible of a
+very soft interpretation.  Be it so; yet Eginhard understood the
+world, the court, and the Latin language.]
+
+II.  In the change of manners and language the patricians of
+Rome ^58 were far removed from the senate of Romulus, on the
+palace of Constantine, from the free nobles of the republic, or
+the fictitious parents of the emperor.  After the recovery of
+Italy and Africa by the arms of Justinian, the importance and
+danger of those remote provinces required the presence of a
+supreme magistrate; he was indifferently styled the exarch or the
+patrician; and these governors of Ravenna, who fill their place
+in the chronology of princes, extended their jurisdiction over
+the Roman city. Since the revolt of Italy and the loss of the
+Exarchate, the distress of the Romans had exacted some sacrifice
+of their independence.  Yet, even in this act, they exercised the
+right of disposing of themselves; and the decrees of the senate
+and people successively invested Charles Martel and his posterity
+with the honors of patrician of Rome.  The leaders of a powerful
+nation would have disdained a servile title and subordinate
+office; but the reign of the Greek emperors was suspended; and,
+in the vacancy of the empire, they derived a more glorious
+commission from the pope and the republic.  The Roman ambassadors
+presented these patricians with the keys of the shrine of St.
+Peter, as a pledge and symbol of sovereignty; with a holy banner
+which it was their right and duty to unfurl in the defence of the
+church and city. ^59 In the time of Charles Martel and of Pepin,
+the interposition of the Lombard kingdom covered the freedom,
+while it threatened the safety, of Rome; and the patriciate
+represented only the title, the service, the alliance, of these
+distant protectors. The power and policy of Charlemagne
+annihilated an enemy, and imposed a master.  In his first visit
+to the capital, he was received with all the honors which had
+formerly been paid to the exarch, the representative of the
+emperor; and these honors obtained some new decorations from the
+joy and gratitude of Pope Adrian the First. ^60 No sooner was he
+informed of the sudden approach of the monarch, than he
+despatched the magistrates and nobles of Rome to meet him, with
+the banner, about thirty miles from the city.  At the distance of
+one mile, the Flaminian way was lined with the schools, or
+national communities, of Greeks, Lombards, Saxons, &c.: the Roman
+youth were under arms; and the children of a more tender age,
+with palms and olive branches in their hands, chanted the praises
+of their great deliverer.  At the aspect of the holy crosses, and
+ensigns of the saints, he dismounted from his horse, led the
+procession of his nobles to the Vatican, and, as he ascended the
+stairs, devoutly kissed each step of the threshold of the
+apostles.  In the portico, Adrian expected him at the head of his
+clergy: they embraced, as friends and equals; but in their march
+to the altar, the king or patrician assumed the right hand of the
+pope.  Nor was the Frank content with these vain and empty
+demonstrations of respect. In the twenty-six years that elapsed
+between the conquest of Lombardy and his Imperial coronation,
+Rome, which had been delivered by the sword, was subject, as his
+own, to the sceptre of Charlemagne.  The people swore allegiance
+to his person and family: in his name money was coined, and
+justice was administered; and the election of the popes was
+examined and confirmed by his authority.  Except an original and
+self-inherent claim of sovereignty, there was not any prerogative
+remaining, which the title of emperor could add to the patrician
+of Rome. ^61
+
+[Footnote 58: For the title and powers of patrician of Rome, see
+Ducange, (Gloss. Latin. tom. v. p. 149-151,) Pagi, (Critica, A.D.
+740, No. 6-11,) Muratori, (Annali d'Italia, tom. vi. p. 308-329,)
+and St. Marc, (Abrege Chronologique d'Italie, tom. i. p.
+379-382.) Of these the Franciscan Pagi is the most disposed to
+make the patrician a lieutenant of the church, rather than of the
+empire.]
+
+[Footnote 59: The papal advocates can soften the symbolic meaning
+of the banner and the keys; but the style of ad regnum dimisimus,
+or direximus, (Codex Carolin. epist. i. tom. iii. pars ii. p.
+76,) seems to allow of no palliation or escape.  In the Ms. of
+the Vienna library, they read, instead of regnum, rogum, prayer
+or request (see Ducange;) and the royalty of Charles Martel is
+subverted by this important correction, (Catalani, in his
+Critical Prefaces, Annali d'Italia, tom. xvii. p. 95-99.)]
+
+[Footnote 60: In the authentic narrative of this reception, the
+Liber Pontificalis observes - obviam illi ejus sanctitas dirigens
+venerabiles cruces, id est signa; sicut mos est ad exarchum, aut
+patricium suscipiendum, sum cum ingenti honore suscipi fecit,
+(tom. iii. pars i. p. 185.)]
+
+[Footnote 61: Paulus Diaconus, who wrote before the empire of
+Charlemagne describes Rome as his subject city - vestrae
+civitates (ad Pompeium Festum) suis addidit sceptris, (de
+Metensis Ecclesiae Episcopis.) Some Carlovingian medals, struck
+at Rome, have engaged Le Blanc to write an elaborate, though
+partial, dissertation on their authority at Rome, both as
+patricians and emperors, (Amsterdam, 1692, in 4to.)]
+
+The gratitude of the Carlovingians was adequate to these
+obligations, and their names are consecrated, as the saviors and
+benefactors of the Roman church.  Her ancient patrimony of farms
+and houses was transformed by their bounty into the temporal
+dominion of cities and provinces; and the donation of the
+Exarchate was the first-fruits of the conquests of Pepin. ^62
+Astolphus with a sigh relinquished his prey; the keys and the
+hostages of the principal cities were delivered to the French
+ambassador; and, in his master's name, he presented them before
+the tomb of St. Peter.  The ample measure of the Exarchate ^63
+might comprise all the provinces of Italy which had obeyed the
+emperor and his vicegerent; but its strict and proper limits were
+included in the territories of Ravenna, Bologna, and Ferrara: its
+inseparable dependency was the Pentapolis, which stretched along
+the Adriatic from Rimini to Ancona, and advanced into the
+midland- country as far as the ridges of the Apennine. In this
+transaction, the ambition and avarice of the popes have been
+severely condemned.  Perhaps the humility of a Christian priest
+should have rejected an earthly kingdom, which it was not easy
+for him to govern without renouncing the virtues of his
+profession.  Perhaps a faithful subject, or even a generous
+enemy, would have been less impatient to divide the spoils of the
+Barbarian; and if the emperor had intrusted Stephen to solicit in
+his name the restitution of the Exarchate, I will not absolve the
+pope from the reproach of treachery and falsehood.  But in the
+rigid interpretation of the laws, every one may accept, without
+injury, whatever his benefactor can bestow without injustice.
+The Greek emperor had abdicated, or forfeited, his right to the
+Exarchate; and the sword of Astolphus was broken by the stronger
+sword of the Carlovingian.  It was not in the cause of the
+Iconoclast that Pepin has exposed his person and army in a double
+expedition beyond the Alps: he possessed, and might lawfully
+alienate, his conquests: and to the importunities of the Greeks
+he piously replied that no human consideration should tempt him
+to resume the gift which he had conferred on the Roman Pontiff
+for the remission of his sins, and the salvation of his soul.
+The splendid donation was granted in supreme and absolute
+dominion, and the world beheld for the first time a Christian
+bishop invested with the prerogatives of a temporal prince; the
+choice of magistrates, the exercise of justice, the imposition of
+taxes, and the wealth of the palace of Ravenna.  In the
+dissolution of the Lombard kingdom, the inhabitants of the duchy
+of Spoleto ^64 sought a refuge from the storm, shaved their heads
+after the Roman fashion, declared themselves the servants and
+subjects of St. Peter, and completed, by this voluntary
+surrender, the present circle of the ecclesiastical state.  That
+mysterious circle was enlarged to an indefinite extent, by the
+verbal or written donation of Charlemagne, ^65 who, in the first
+transports of his victory, despoiled himself and the Greek
+emperor of the cities and islands which had formerly been annexed
+to the Exarchate.  But, in the cooler moments of absence and
+reflection, he viewed, with an eye of jealousy and envy, the
+recent greatness of his ecclesiastical ally.  The execution of
+his own and his father's promises was respectfully eluded: the
+king of the Franks and Lombards asserted the inalienable rights
+of the empire; and, in his life and death, Ravenna, ^66 as well
+as Rome, was numbered in the list of his metropolitan cities.
+The sovereignty of the Exarchate melted away in the hands of the
+popes; they found in the archbishops of Ravenna a dangerous and
+domestic rival: ^67 the nobles and people disdained the yoke of a
+priest; and in the disorders of the times, they could only retain
+the memory of an ancient claim, which, in a more prosperous age,
+they have revived and realized.
+
+[Footnote 62: Mosheim (Institution, Hist. Eccles. p. 263) weighs
+this donation with fair and deliberate prudence.  The original
+act has never been produced; but the Liber Pontificalis
+represents, (p. 171,) and the Codex Carolinus supposes, this
+ample gift.  Both are contemporary records and the latter is the
+more authentic, since it has been preserved, not in the Papal,
+but the Imperial, library.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Between the exorbitant claims, and narrow
+concessions, of interest and prejudice, from which even Muratori
+(Antiquitat. tom. i. p. 63-68) is not exempt, I have been guided,
+in the limits of the Exarchate and Pentapolis, by the Dissertatio
+Chorographica Italiae Medii Aevi, tom. x. p. 160-180.]
+
+[Footnote 64: Spoletini deprecati sunt, ut eos in servitio B.
+Petri receperet et more Romanorum tonsurari faceret, (Anastasius,
+p. 185.) Yet it may be a question whether they gave their own
+persons or their country.]
+
+[Footnote 65: The policy and donations of Charlemagne are
+carefully examined by St. Marc, (Abrege, tom. i. p. 390-408,) who
+has well studied the Codex Carolinus.  I believe, with him, that
+they were only verbal.  The most ancient act of donation that
+pretends to be extant, is that of the emperor Lewis the Pious,
+(Sigonius, de Regno Italiae, l. iv. Opera, tom. ii. p. 267-270.)
+Its authenticity, or at least its integrity, are much questioned,
+(Pagi, A.D. 817, No. 7, &c.  Muratori, Annali, tom. vi. p. 432,
+&c.  Dissertat. Chorographica, p. 33, 34;) but I see no
+reasonable objection to these princes so freely disposing of what
+was not their own.]
+
+[Footnote 66: Charlemagne solicited and obtained from the
+proprietor, Hadrian I., the mosaics of the palace of Ravenna, for
+the decoration of Aix-la-Chapelle, (Cod. Carolin. epist. 67, p.
+223.)]
+
+[Footnote 67: The popes often complain of the usurpations of Leo
+of Ravenna, (Codex Carolin, epist. 51, 52, 53, p. 200-205.) Sir
+corpus St. Andreae fratris germani St. Petri hic humasset,
+nequaquam nos Romani pontifices sic subjugassent, (Agnellus,
+Liber Pontificalis, in Scriptores Rerum Ital. tom. ii. pars. i.
+p. 107.)]
+
+Fraud is the resource of weakness and cunning; and the
+strong, though ignorant, Barbarian was often entangled in the net
+of sacerdotal policy. The Vatican and Lateran were an arsenal and
+manufacture, which, according to the occasion, have produced or
+concealed a various collection of false or genuine, of corrupt or
+suspicious, acts, as they tended to promote the interest of the
+Roman church.  Before the end of the eighth century, some
+apostolic scribe, perhaps the notorious Isidore, composed the
+decretals, and the donation of Constantine, the two magic pillars
+of the spiritual and temporal monarchy of the popes.  This
+memorable donation was introduced to the world by an epistle of
+Adrian the First, who exhorts Charlemagne to imitate the
+liberality, and revive the name, of the great Constantine. ^68
+According to the legend, the first of the Christian emperors was
+healed of the leprosy, and purified in the waters of baptism, by
+St. Silvester, the Roman bishop; and never was physician more
+gloriously recompensed.  His royal proselyte withdrew from the
+seat and patrimony of St. Peter; declared his resolution of
+founding a new capital in the East; and resigned to the popes the
+free and perpetual sovereignty of Rome, Italy, and the provinces
+of the West. ^69 This fiction was productive of the most
+beneficial effects.  The Greek princes were convicted of the
+guilt of usurpation; and the revolt of Gregory was the claim of
+his lawful inheritance. The popes were delivered from their debt
+of gratitude; and the nominal gifts of the Carlovingians were no
+more than the just and irrevocable restitution of a scanty
+portion of the ecclesiastical state.  The sovereignty of Rome no
+longer depended on the choice of a fickle people; and the
+successors of St. Peter and Constantine were invested with the
+purple and prerogatives of the Caesars.  So deep was the
+ignorance and credulity of the times, that the most absurd of
+fables was received, with equal reverence, in Greece and in
+France, and is still enrolled among the decrees of the canon law.
+^70 The emperors, and the Romans, were incapable of discerning a
+forgery, that subverted their rights and freedom; and the only
+opposition proceeded from a Sabine monastery, which, in the
+beginning of the twelfth century, disputed the truth and validity
+of the donation of Constantine. ^71 In the revival of letters and
+liberty, this fictitious deed was transpierced by the pen of
+Laurentius Valla, the pen of an eloquent critic and a Roman
+patriot. ^72 His contemporaries of the fifteenth century were
+astonished at his sacrilegious boldness; yet such is the silent
+and irresistible progress of reason, that, before the end of the
+next age, the fable was rejected by the contempt of historians
+^73 and poets, ^74 and the tacit or modest censure of the
+advocates of the Roman church. ^75 The popes themselves have
+indulged a smile at the credulity of the vulgar; ^76 but a false
+and obsolete title still sanctifies their reign; and, by the same
+fortune which has attended the decretals and the Sibylline
+oracles, the edifice has subsisted after the foundations have
+been undermined.
+
+[Footnote 68: Piissimo Constantino magno, per ejus largitatem S.
+R. Ecclesia elevata et exaltata est, et potestatem in his
+Hesperiae partibus largiri olignatus est .... Quia ecce novus
+Constantinus his temporibus, &c., (Codex Carolin. epist. 49, in
+tom. iii. part ii. p. 195.) Pagi (Critica, A.D. 324, No. 16)
+ascribes them to an impostor of the viiith century, who borrowed
+the name of St. Isidore: his humble title of Peccator was
+ignorantly, but aptly, turned into Mercator: his merchandise was
+indeed profitable, and a few sheets of paper were sold for much
+wealth and power.]
+
+[Footnote 69: Fabricius (Bibliot. Graec. tom. vi. p. 4-7) has
+enumerated the several editions of this Act, in Greek and Latin.
+The copy which Laurentius Valla recites and refutes, appears to
+be taken either from the spurious Acts of St. Silvester or from
+Gratian's Decree, to which, according to him and others, it has
+been surreptitiously tacked.]
+
+[Footnote 70: In the year 1059, it was believed (was it
+believed?) by Pope Leo IX. Cardinal Peter Damianus, &c.  Muratori
+places (Annali d'Italia, tom. ix. p. 23, 24) the fictitious
+donations of Lewis the Pious, the Othos, &c., de Donatione
+Constantini.  See a Dissertation of Natalis Alexander, seculum
+iv. diss. 25, p. 335-350.]
+
+[Footnote 71: See a large account of the controversy (A.D. 1105)
+which arose from a private lawsuit, in the Chronicon Farsense,
+(Script. Rerum Italicarum, tom. ii. pars ii. p. 637, &c.,) a
+copious extract from the archives of that Benedictine abbey.
+They were formerly accessible to curious foreigners, (Le Blanc
+and Mabillon,) and would have enriched the first volume of the
+Historia Monastica Italiae of Quirini.  But they are now
+imprisoned (Muratori, Scriptores R. I. tom. ii. pars ii. p. 269)
+by the timid policy of the court of Rome; and the future cardinal
+yielded to the voice of authority and the whispers of ambition,
+(Quirini, Comment. pars ii. p. 123-136.)]
+
+[Footnote 72: I have read in the collection of Schardius (de
+Potestate Imperiali Ecclesiastica, p. 734-780) this animated
+discourse, which was composed by the author, A.D. 1440, six years
+after the flight of Pope Eugenius IV.  It is a most vehement
+party pamphlet: Valla justifies and animates the revolt of the
+Romans, and would even approve the use of a dagger against their
+sacerdotal tyrant.  Such a critic might expect the persecution of
+the clergy; yet he made his peace, and is buried in the Lateran,
+(Bayle, Dictionnaire Critique, Valla; Vossius, de Historicis
+Latinis, p. 580.)]
+
+[Footnote 73: See Guicciardini, a servant of the popes, in that
+long and valuable digression, which has resumed its place in the
+last edition, correctly published from the author's Ms. and
+printed in four volumes in quarto, under the name of Friburgo,
+1775, (Istoria d'Italia, tom. i. p. 385-395.)]
+
+[Footnote 74: The Paladin Astolpho found it in the moon, among
+the things that were lost upon earth, (Orlando Furioso, xxxiv.
+80.)
+
+Di vari fiore ad un grand monte passa,
+Ch'ebbe gia buono odore, or puzza forte:
+Questo era il dono (se pero dir lece)
+Che Constantino al buon Silvestro fece.
+
+Yet this incomparable poem has been approved by a bull of Leo X.]
+
+[Footnote 75: See Baronius, A.D. 324, No. 117-123, A.D. 1191, No.
+51, &c. The cardinal wishes to suppose that Rome was offered by
+Constantine, and refused by Silvester.  The act of donation he
+considers strangely enough, as a forgery of the Greeks.]
+
+[Footnote 76: Baronius n'en dit guerres contre; encore en a-t'il
+trop dit, et l'on vouloit sans moi, (Cardinal du Perron,) qui
+l'empechai, censurer cette partie de son histoire.  J'en devisai
+un jour avec le Pape, et il ne me repondit autre chose "che
+volete?  i Canonici la tengono," il le disoit en riant,
+(Perroniana, p. 77.)]
+
+While the popes established in Italy their freedom and
+dominion, the images, the first cause of their revolt, were
+restored in the Eastern empire. ^77 Under the reign of
+Constantine the Fifth, the union of civil and ecclesiastical
+power had overthrown the tree, without extirpating the root, of
+superstition.  The idols (for such they were now held) were
+secretly cherished by the order and the sex most prone to
+devotion; and the fond alliance of the monks and females obtained
+a final victory over the reason and authority of man.  Leo the
+Fourth maintained with less rigor the religion of his father and
+grandfather; but his wife, the fair and ambitious Irene, had
+imbibed the zeal of the Athenians, the heirs of the Idolatry,
+rather than the philosophy, of their ancestors.  During the life
+of her husband, these sentiments were inflamed by danger and
+dissimulation, and she could only labor to protect and promote
+some favorite monks whom she drew from their caverns, and seated
+on the metropolitan thrones of the East.  But as soon as she
+reigned in her own name and that of her son, Irene more seriously
+undertook the ruin of the Iconoclasts; and the first step of her
+future persecution was a general edict for liberty of conscience.
+
+In the restoration of the monks, a thousand images were exposed
+to the public veneration; a thousand legends were inverted of
+their sufferings and miracles.  By the opportunities of death or
+removal, the episcopal seats were judiciously filled the most
+eager competitors for earthly or celestial favor anticipated and
+flattered the judgment of their sovereign; and the promotion of
+her secretary Tarasius gave Irene the patriarch of
+Constantinople, and the command of the Oriental church.  But the
+decrees of a general council could only be repealed by a similar
+assembly: ^78 the Iconoclasts whom she convened were bold in
+possession, and averse to debate; and the feeble voice of the
+bishops was reechoed by the more formidable clamor of the
+soldiers and people of Constantinople. The delay and intrigues of
+a year, the separation of the disaffected troops, and the choice
+of Nice for a second orthodox synod, removed these obstacles; and
+the episcopal conscience was again, after the Greek fashion, in
+the hands of the prince.  No more than eighteen days were allowed
+for the consummation of this important work: the Iconoclasts
+appeared, not as judges, but as criminals or penitents: the scene
+was decorated by the legates of Pope Adrian and the Eastern
+patriarchs, ^79 the decrees were framed by the president
+Taracius, and ratified by the acclamations and subscriptions of
+three hundred and fifty bishops.  They unanimously pronounced,
+that the worship of images is agreeable to Scripture and reason,
+to the fathers and councils of the church: but they hesitate
+whether that worship be relative or direct; whether the Godhead,
+and the figure of Christ, be entitled to the same mode of
+adoration.  Of this second Nicene council the acts are still
+extant; a curious monument of superstition and ignorance, of
+falsehood and folly.  I shall only notice the judgment of the
+bishops on the comparative merit of image-worship and morality.
+A monk had concluded a truce with the daemon of fornication, on
+condition of interrupting his daily prayers to a picture that
+hung in his cell.  His scruples prompted him to consult the
+abbot.  "Rather than abstain from adoring Christ and his Mother
+in their holy images, it would be better for you," replied the
+casuist, "to enter every brothel, and visit every prostitute, in
+the city." ^80 For the honor of orthodoxy, at least the orthodoxy
+of the Roman church, it is somewhat unfortunate, that the two
+princes who convened the two councils of Nice are both stained
+with the blood of their sons.  The second of these assemblies was
+approved and rigorously executed by the despotism of Irene, and
+she refused her adversaries the toleration which at first she had
+granted to her friends. During the five succeeding reigns, a
+period of thirty-eight years, the contest was maintained, with
+unabated rage and various success, between the worshippers and
+the breakers of the images; but I am not inclined to pursue with
+minute diligence the repetition of the same events. Nicephorus
+allowed a general liberty of speech and practice; and the only
+virtue of his reign is accused by the monks as the cause of his
+temporal and eternal perdition.  Superstition and weakness formed
+the character of Michael the First, but the saints and images
+were incapable of supporting their votary on the throne.  In the
+purple, Leo the Fifth asserted the name and religion of an
+Armenian; and the idols, with their seditious adherents, were
+condemned to a second exile.  Their applause would have
+sanctified the murder of an impious tyrant, but his assassin and
+successor, the second Michael, was tainted from his birth with
+the Phrygian heresies: he attempted to mediate between the
+contending parties; and the intractable spirit of the Catholics
+insensibly cast him into the opposite scale.  His moderation was
+guarded by timidity; but his son Theophilus, alike ignorant of
+fear and pity, was the last and most cruel of the Iconoclasts.
+The enthusiasm of the times ran strongly against them; and the
+emperors who stemmed the torrent were exasperated and punished by
+the public hatred. After the death of Theophilus, the final
+victory of the images was achieved by a second female, his widow
+Theodora, whom he left the guardian of the empire.  Her measures
+were bold and decisive.  The fiction of a tardy repentance
+absolved the fame and the soul of her deceased husband; the
+sentence of the Iconoclast patriarch was commuted from the loss
+of his eyes to a whipping of two hundred lashes: the bishops
+trembled, the monks shouted, and the festival of orthodoxy
+preserves the annual memory of the triumph of the images.  A
+single question yet remained, whether they are endowed with any
+proper and inherent sanctity; it was agitated by the Greeks of
+the eleventh century; ^81 and as this opinion has the strongest
+recommendation of absurdity, I am surprised that it was not more
+explicitly decided in the affirmative.  In the West, Pope Adrian
+the First accepted and announced the decrees of the Nicene
+assembly, which is now revered by the Catholics as the seventh in
+rank of the general councils.  Rome and Italy were docile to the
+voice of their father; but the greatest part of the Latin
+Christians were far behind in the race of superstition.  The
+churches of France, Germany, England, and Spain, steered a middle
+course between the adoration and the destruction of images, which
+they admitted into their temples, not as objects of worship, but
+as lively and useful memorials of faith and history.  An angry
+book of controversy was composed and published in the name of
+Charlemagne: ^82 under his authority a synod of three hundred
+bishops was assembled at Frankfort: ^83 they blamed the fury of
+the Iconoclasts, but they pronounced a more severe censure
+against the superstition of the Greeks, and the decrees of their
+pretended council, which was long despised by the Barbarians of
+the West. ^84 Among them the worship of images advanced with a
+silent and insensible progress; but a large atonement is made for
+their hesitation and delay, by the gross idolatry of the ages
+which precede the reformation, and of the countries, both in
+Europe and America, which are still immersed in the gloom of
+superstition.
+
+[Footnote 77: The remaining history of images, from Irene to
+Theodora, is collected, for the Catholics, by Baronius and Pagi,
+(A.D. 780-840.) Natalis Alexander, (Hist. N. T. seculum viii.
+Panoplia adversus Haereticos p. 118- 178,) and Dupin, (Bibliot.
+Eccles. tom. vi. p. 136-154;) for the Protestants, by Spanheim,
+(Hist. Imag. p. 305-639.) Basnage, (Hist. de l'Eglise, tom. i. p.
+556-572, tom. ii. p. 1362-1385,) and Mosheim, (Institut. Hist.
+Eccles. secul. viii. et ix.) The Protestants, except Mosheim, are
+soured with controversy; but the Catholics, except Dupin, are
+inflamed by the fury and superstition of the monks; and even Le
+Beau, (Hist. du Bas Empire,) a gentleman and a scholar, is
+infected by the odious contagion.]
+
+[Footnote 78: See the Acts, in Greek and Latin, of the second
+Council of Nice, with a number of relative pieces, in the viiith
+volume of the Councils, p. 645-1600.  A faithful version, with
+some critical notes, would provoke, in different readers, a sigh
+or a smile.]
+
+[Footnote 79: The pope's legates were casual messengers, two
+priests without any special commission, and who were disavowed on
+their return. Some vagabond monks were persuaded by the Catholics
+to represent the Oriental patriarchs. This curious anecdote is
+revealed by Theodore Studites, (epist. i. 38, in Sirmond. Opp.
+tom. v. p. 1319,) one of the warmest Iconoclasts of the age.]
+
+[Footnote 80: These visits could not be innocent since the daemon
+of fornication, &c. Actio iv. p. 901, Actio v. p. 1081]
+
+[Footnote 81: See an account of this controversy in the Alexius
+of Anna Compena, (l. v. p. 129,) and Mosheim, (Institut. Hist.
+Eccles. p. 371, 372.)]
+
+[Footnote 82: The Libri Carolini, (Spanheim, p. 443 - 529,)
+composed in the palace or winter quarters of Charlemagne, at
+Worms, A.D. 790, and sent by Engebert to Pope Hadrian I., who
+answered them by a grandis et verbosa epistola, (Concil. tom.
+vii. p. 1553.) The Carolines propose 120 objections against the
+Nicene synod and such words as these are the flowers of their
+rhetoric - Dementiam .... priscae Gentilitatis obsoletum errorem
+.... argumenta insanissima et absurdissima .... derisione dignas
+naenias, &c., &c.]
+
+[Footnote 83: The assemblies of Charlemagne were political, as
+well as ecclesiastical; and the three hundred members, (Nat.
+Alexander, sec. viii. p. 53,) who sat and voted at Frankfort,
+must include not only the bishops, but the abbots, and even the
+principal laymen.]
+
+[Footnote 84: Qui supra sanctissima patres nostri (episcopi et
+sacerdotes) omnimodis servitium et adorationem imaginum renuentes
+contempserunt, atque consentientes condemnaverunt, (Concil. tom.
+ix. p. 101, Canon. ii. Franckfurd.) A polemic must be
+hard-hearted indeed, who does not pity the efforts of Baronius,
+Pagi, Alexander, Maimbourg, &c., to elude this unlucky sentence.]
+
+
+
+Chapter XLIX: Conquest Of Italy By The Franks.
+
+Part IV.
+
+It was after the Nycene synod, and under the reign of the
+pious Irene, that the popes consummated the separation of Rome
+and Italy, by the translation of the empire to the less orthodox
+Charlemagne.  They were compelled to choose between the rival
+nations: religion was not the sole motive of their choice; and
+while they dissembled the failings of their friends, they beheld,
+with reluctance and suspicion, the Catholic virtues of their
+foes.  The difference of language and manners had perpetuated the
+enmity of the two capitals; and they were alienated from each
+other by the hostile opposition of seventy years.  In that schism
+the Romans had tasted of freedom, and the popes of sovereignty:
+their submission would have exposed them to the revenge of a
+jealous tyrant; and the revolution of Italy had betrayed the
+impotence, as well as the tyranny, of the Byzantine court.  The
+Greek emperors had restored the images, but they had not restored
+the Calabrian estates ^85 and the Illyrian diocese, ^86 which the
+Iconociasts had torn away from the successors of St. Peter; and
+Pope Adrian threatens them with a sentence of excommunication
+unless they speedily abjure this practical heresy. ^87 The Greeks
+were now orthodox; but their religion might be tainted by the
+breath of the reigning monarch: the Franks were now contumacious;
+but a discerning eye might discern their approaching conversion,
+from the use, to the adoration, of images.  The name of
+Charlemagne was stained by the polemic acrimony of his scribes;
+but the conqueror himself conformed, with the temper of a
+statesman, to the various practice of France and Italy.  In his
+four pilgrimages or visits to the Vatican, he embraced the popes
+in the communion of friendship and piety; knelt before the tomb,
+and consequently before the image, of the apostle; and joined,
+without scruple, in all the prayers and processions of the Roman
+liturgy.  Would prudence or gratitude allow the pontiffs to
+renounce their benefactor?  Had they a right to alienate his gift
+of the Exarchate? Had they power to abolish his government of
+Rome?  The title of patrician was below the merit and greatness
+of Charlemagne; and it was only by reviving the Western empire
+that they could pay their obligations or secure their
+establishment.  By this decisive measure they would finally
+eradicate the claims of the Greeks; from the debasement of a
+provincial town, the majesty of Rome would be restored: the Latin
+Christians would be united, under a supreme head, in their
+ancient metropolis; and the conquerors of the West would receive
+their crown from the successors of St. Peter.  The Roman church
+would acquire a zealous and respectable advocate; and, under the
+shadow of the Carlovingian power, the bishop might exercise, with
+honor and safety, the government of the city. ^88
+
+[Footnote 85: Theophanes (p. 343) specifies those of Sicily and
+Calabria, which yielded an annual rent of three talents and a
+half of gold, (perhaps 7000l. sterling.) Liutprand more pompously
+enumerates the patrimonies of the Roman church in Greece, Judaea,
+Persia, Mesopotamia Babylonia, Egypt, and Libya, which were
+detained by the injustice of the Greek emperor, (Legat. ad
+Nicephorum, in Script. Rerum Italica rum, tom. ii. pars i. p.
+481.)]
+
+[Footnote 86: The great diocese of the Eastern Illyricum, with
+Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily, (Thomassin, Discipline de l'Eglise,
+tom. i. p. 145: ) by the confession of the Greeks, the patriarch
+of Constantinople had detached from Rome the metropolitans of
+Thessalonica, Athens Corinth, Nicopolis, and Patrae, (Luc.
+Holsten. Geograph. Sacra, p. 22) and his spiritual conquests
+extended to Naples and Amalphi (Istoria Civile di Napoli, tom. i.
+p. 517-524, Pagi, A. D 780, No. 11.)]
+
+[Footnote 87: In hoc ostenditur, quia ex uno capitulo ab errore
+reversis, in aliis duobus, in eodem (was it the same?) permaneant
+errore .... de diocessi S. R. E. seu de patrimoniis iterum
+increpantes commonemus, ut si ea restituere noluerit hereticum
+eum pro hujusmodi errore perseverantia decernemus, (Epist.
+Hadrian.  Papae ad Carolum Magnum, in Concil. tom. viii. p.
+1598;) to which he adds a reason, most directly opposite to his
+conduct, that he preferred the salvation of souls and rule of
+faith to the goods of this transitory world.]
+
+[Footnote 88: Fontanini considers the emperors as no more than
+the advocates of the church, (advocatus et defensor S. R. E.  See
+Ducange, Gloss Lat. tom. i. p. 297.) His antagonist Muratori
+reduces the popes to be no more than the exarchs of the emperor.
+In the more equitable view of Mosheim, (Institut. Hist. Eccles.
+p. 264, 265,) they held Rome under the empire as the most
+honorable species of fief or benefice - premuntur nocte
+caliginosa!]
+
+Before the ruin of Paganism in Rome, the competition for a
+wealthy bishopric had often been productive of tumult and
+bloodshed.  The people was less numerous, but the times were more
+savage, the prize more important, and the chair of St. Peter was
+fiercely disputed by the leading ecclesiastics who aspired to the
+rank of sovereign.  The reign of Adrian the First ^89 surpasses
+the measure of past or succeeding ages; ^90 the walls of Rome,
+the sacred patrimony, the ruin of the Lombards, and the
+friendship of Charlemagne, were the trophies of his fame: he
+secretly edified the throne of his successors, and displayed in a
+narrow space the virtues of a great prince.  His memory was
+revered; but in the next election, a priest of the Lateran, Leo
+the Third, was preferred to the nephew and the favorite of
+Adrian, whom he had promoted to the first dignities of the
+church.  Their acquiescence or repentance disguised, above four
+years, the blackest intention of revenge, till the day of a
+procession, when a furious band of conspirators dispersed the
+unarmed multitude, and assaulted with blows and wounds the sacred
+person of the pope. But their enterprise on his life or liberty
+was disappointed, perhaps by their own confusion and remorse.
+Leo was left for dead on the ground: on his revival from the
+swoon, the effect of his loss of blood, he recovered his speech
+and sight; and this natural event was improved to the miraculous
+restoration of his eyes and tongue, of which he had been
+deprived, twice deprived, by the knife of the assassins. ^91 From
+his prison he escaped to the Vatican: the duke of Spoleto
+hastened to his rescue, Charlemagne sympathized in his injury,
+and in his camp of Paderborn in Westphalia accepted, or
+solicited, a visit from the Roman pontiff.  Leo repassed the Alps
+with a commission of counts and bishops, the guards of his safety
+and the judges of his innocence; and it was not without
+reluctance, that the conqueror of the Saxons delayed till the
+ensuing year the personal discharge of this pious office.  In his
+fourth and last pilgrimage, he was received at Rome with the due
+honors of king and patrician: Leo was permitted to purge himself
+by oath of the crimes imputed to his charge: his enemies were
+silenced, and the sacrilegious attempt against his life was
+punished by the mild and insufficient penalty of exile.  On the
+festival of Christmas, the last year of the eighth century,
+Charlemagne appeared in the church of St. Peter; and, to gratify
+the vanity of Rome, he had exchanged the simple dress of his
+country for the habit of a patrician. ^92 After the celebration
+of the holy mysteries, Leo suddenly placed a precious crown on
+his head, ^93 and the dome resounded with the acclamations of the
+people, "Long life and victory to Charles, the most pious
+Augustus, crowned by God the great and pacific emperor of the
+Romans!" The head and body of Charlemagne were consecrated by the
+royal unction: after the example of the Caesars, he was saluted
+or adored by the pontiff: his coronation oath represents a
+promise to maintain the faith and privileges of the church; and
+the first-fruits were paid in his rich offerings to the shrine of
+his apostle.  In his familiar conversation, the emperor protested
+the ignorance of the intentions of Leo, which he would have
+disappointed by his absence on that memorable day.  But the
+preparations of the ceremony must have disclosed the secret; and
+the journey of Charlemagne reveals his knowledge and expectation:
+he had acknowledged that the Imperial title was the object of his
+ambition, and a Roman synod had pronounced, that it was the only
+adequate reward of his merit and services. ^94
+
+[Footnote 89: His merits and hopes are summed up in an epitaph of
+thirty-eight-verses, of which Charlemagne declares himself the
+author, (Concil. tom. viii. p. 520.)
+
+Post patrem lacrymans Carolus haec carmina scripsi.
+Tu mihi dulcis amor, te modo plango pater ...
+Nomina jungo simul titulis, clarissime, nostra
+Adrianus, Carolus, rex ego, tuque pater.
+
+The poetry might be supplied by Alcuin; but the tears, the most
+glorious tribute, can only belong to Charlemagne.]
+
+[Footnote 90: Every new pope is admonished - "Sancte Pater, non
+videbis annos Petri," twenty-five years.  On the whole series the
+average is about eight years - a short hope for an ambitious
+cardinal.]
+
+[Footnote 91: The assurance of Anastasius (tom. iii. pars i. p.
+197, 198) is supported by the credulity of some French annalists;
+but Eginhard, and other writers of the same age, are more natural
+and sincere.  "Unus ei oculus paullulum est laesus," says John
+the deacon of Naples, (Vit. Episcop. Napol. in Scriptores
+Muratori, tom. i. pars ii. p. 312.) Theodolphus, a contemporary
+bishop of Orleans, observes with prudence (l. iii. carm. 3.)
+
+Reddita sunt?  mirum est: mirum est auferre nequtsse.
+
+Est tamen in dubio, hinc mirer an inde magis.]
+
+[Footnote 92: Twice, at the request of Hadrian and Leo, he
+appeared at Rome, - longa tunica et chlamyde amictus, et
+calceamentis quoque Romano more formatis. Eginhard (c. xxiii. p.
+109 - 113) describes, like Suetonius the simplicity of his dress,
+so popular in the nation, that when Charles the Bald returned to
+France in a foreign habit, the patriotic dogs barked at the
+apostate, (Gaillard, Vie de Charlemagne, tom. iv. p. 109.)]
+
+[Footnote 93: See Anastasius (p. 199) and Eginhard, (c.xxviii. p.
+124 - 128.) The unction is mentioned by Theophanes, (p. 399,) the
+oath by Sigonius, (from the Ordo Romanus,) and the Pope's
+adoration more antiquorum principum, by the Annales Bertiniani,
+(Script. Murator. tom. ii. pars ii. p. 505.)]
+
+[Footnote 94: This great event of the translation or restoration
+of the empire is related and discussed by Natalis Alexander,
+(secul. ix. dissert. i. p. 390 - 397,) Pagi, (tom. iii. p. 418,)
+Muratori, (Annali d'Italia, tom. vi. p. 339 - 352,) Sigonius, (de
+Regno Italiae, l. iv. Opp. tom. ii. p. 247 - 251,) Spanheim, (de
+ficta Translatione Imperii,) Giannone, (tom. i. p. 395 - 405,)
+St. Marc, (Abrege Chronologique, tom. i. p. 438 - 450,) Gaillard,
+(Hist. de Charlemagne, tom. ii. p. 386 - 446.) Almost all these
+moderns have some religious or national bias.]
+
+The appellation of great has been often bestowed, and
+sometimes deserved; but Charlemagne is the only prince in whose
+favor the title has been indissolubly blended with the name.
+That name, with the addition of saint, is inserted in the Roman
+calendar; and the saint, by a rare felicity, is crowned with the
+praises of the historians and philosophers of an enlightened age.
+^95 His real merit is doubtless enhanced by the barbarism of the
+nation and the times from which he emerged: but the apparent
+magnitude of an object is likewise enlarged by an unequal
+comparison; and the ruins of Palmyra derive a casual splendor
+from the nakedness of the surrounding desert.  Without injustice
+to his fame, I may discern some blemishes in the sanctity and
+greatness of the restorer of the Western empire.  Of his moral
+virtues, chastity is not the most conspicuous: ^96 but the public
+happiness could not be materially injured by his nine wives or
+concubines, the various indulgence of meaner or more transient
+amours, the multitude of his bastards whom he bestowed on the
+church, and the long celibacy and licentious manners of his
+daughters, ^97 whom the father was suspected of loving with too
+fond a passion. ^* I shall be scarcely permitted to accuse the
+ambition of a conqueror; but in a day of equal retribution, the
+sons of his brother Carloman, the Merovingian princes of
+Aquitain, and the four thousand five hundred Saxons who were
+beheaded on the same spot, would have something to allege against
+the justice and humanity of Charlemagne.  His treatment of the
+vanquished Saxons ^98 was an abuse of the right of conquest; his
+laws were not less sanguinary than his arms, and in the
+discussion of his motives, whatever is subtracted from bigotry
+must be imputed to temper.  The sedentary reader is amazed by his
+incessant activity of mind and body; and his subjects and enemies
+were not less astonished at his sudden presence, at the moment
+when they believed him at the most distant extremity of the
+empire; neither peace nor war, nor summer nor winter, were a
+season of repose; and our fancy cannot easily reconcile the
+annals of his reign with the geography of his expeditions. ^! But
+this activity was a national, rather than a personal, virtue; the
+vagrant life of a Frank was spent in the chase, in pilgrimage, in
+military adventures; and the journeys of Charlemagne were
+distinguished only by a more numerous train and a more important
+purpose. His military renown must be tried by the scrutiny of his
+troops, his enemies, and his actions. Alexander conquered with
+the arms of Philip, but the two heroes who preceded Charlemagne
+bequeathed him their name, their examples, and the companions of
+their victories.  At the head of his veteran and superior armies,
+he oppressed the savage or degenerate nations, who were incapable
+of confederating for their common safety: nor did he ever
+encounter an equal antagonist in numbers, in discipline, or in
+arms The science of war has been lost and revived with the arts
+of peace; but his campaigns are not illustrated by any siege or
+battle of singular difficulty and success; and he might behold,
+with envy, the Saracen trophies of his grandfather.  After the
+Spanish expedition, his rear-guard was defeated in the Pyrenaean
+mountains; and the soldiers, whose situation was irretrievable,
+and whose valor was useless, might accuse, with their last
+breath, the want of skill or caution of their general. ^99 I
+touch with reverence the laws of Charlemagne, so highly applauded
+by a respectable judge.  They compose not a system, but a series,
+of occasional and minute edicts, for the correction of abuses,
+the reformation of manners, the economy of his farms, the care of
+his poultry, and even the sale of his eggs.  He wished to improve
+the laws and the character of the Franks; and his attempts,
+however feeble and imperfect, are deserving of praise: the
+inveterate evils of the times were suspended or mollified by his
+government; ^100 but in his institutions I can seldom discover
+the general views and the immortal spirit of a legislator, who
+survives himself for the benefit of posterity.  The union and
+stability of his empire depended on the life of a single man: he
+imitated the dangerous practice of dividing his kingdoms among
+his sons; and after his numerous diets, the whole constitution
+was left to fluctuate between the disorders of anarchy and
+despotism.  His esteem for the piety and knowledge of the clergy
+tempted him to intrust that aspiring order with temporal dominion
+and civil jurisdiction; and his son Lewis, when he was stripped
+and degraded by the bishops, might accuse, in some measure, the
+imprudence of his father. His laws enforced the imposition of
+tithes, because the daemons had proclaimed in the air that the
+default of payment had been the cause of the last scarcity. ^101
+The literary merits of Charlemagne are attested by the foundation
+of schools, the introduction of arts, the works which were
+published in his name, and his familiar connection with the
+subjects and strangers whom he invited to his court to educate
+both the prince and people. His own studies were tardy,
+laborious, and imperfect; if he spoke Latin, and understood
+Greek, he derived the rudiments of knowledge from conversation,
+rather than from books; and, in his mature age, the emperor
+strove to acquire the practice of writing, which every peasant
+now learns in his infancy. ^102 The grammar and logic, the music
+and astronomy, of the times, were only cultivated as the
+handmaids of superstition; but the curiosity of the human mind
+must ultimately tend to its improvement, and the encouragement of
+learning reflects the purest and most pleasing lustre on the
+character of Charlemagne. ^103 The dignity of his person, ^104
+the length of his reign, the prosperity of his arms, the vigor of
+his government, and the reverence of distant nations, distinguish
+him from the royal crowd; and Europe dates a new aera from his
+restoration of the Western empire.
+
+[Footnote 95: By Mably, (Observations sur l'Histoire de France,)
+Voltaire, (Histoire Generale,) Robertson, (History of Charles
+V.,) and Montesquieu, (Esprit des Loix, l. xxxi. c. 18.) In the
+year 1782, M. Gaillard published his Histoire de Charlemagne, (in
+4 vols. in 12mo.,) which I have freely and profitably used.  The
+author is a man of sense and humanity; and his work is labored
+with industry and elegance.  But I have likewise examined the
+original monuments of the reigns of Pepin and Charlemagne, in the
+5th volume of the Historians of France.]
+
+[Footnote 96: The vision of Weltin, composed by a monk, eleven
+years after the death of Charlemagne, shows him in purgatory,
+with a vulture, who is perpetually gnawing the guilty member,
+while the rest of his body, the emblem of his virtues, is sound
+and perfect, (see Gaillard tom. ii. p. 317 - 360.)]
+
+[Footnote 97: The marriage of Eginhard with Imma, daughter of
+Charlemagne, is, in my opinion, sufficiently refuted by the
+probum and suspicio that sullied these fair damsels, without
+excepting his own wife, (c. xix. p. 98 - 100, cum Notis
+Schmincke.) The husband must have been too strong for the
+historian.]
+
+[Footnote *: This charge of incest, as Mr. Hallam justly
+observes, "seems to have originated in a misinterpreted passage
+of Eginhard." Hallam's Middle Ages, vol.i. p. 16. - M.
+
+[Footnote 98: Besides the massacres and transmigrations, the pain
+of death was pronounced against the following crimes: 1. The
+refusal of baptism.  2. The false pretence of baptism.  3. A
+relapse to idolatry.  4. The murder of a priest or bishop.  5.
+Human sacrifices.  6. Eating meat in Lent.  But every crime might
+be expiated by baptism or penance, (Gaillard, tom. ii. p. 241 -
+247;) and the Christian Saxons became the friends and equals of
+the Franks, (Struv. Corpus Hist. Germanicae, p.133.)]
+
+[Footnote !: M. Guizot (Cours d'Histoire Moderne, p. 270, 273)
+has compiled the following statement of Charlemagne's military
+campaigns: -
+
+1. Against the Aquitanians.
+
+18.   "    the Saxons.
+
+5.    "    the Lombards.
+
+7.    "    the Arabs in Spain.
+
+1.    "    the Thuringians.
+
+4.    "    the Avars.
+
+2.    "    the Bretons.
+
+1.    "    the Bavarians.
+
+4.    "    the Slaves beyond the Elbe
+
+5.    "    the Saracens in Italy.
+
+3.    "    the Danes.
+
+2.    "    the Greeks.
+    ___
+
+53 total. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 99: In this action the famous Rutland, Rolando,
+Orlando, was slain - cum compluribus aliis.  See the truth in
+Eginhard, (c. 9, p. 51 - 56,) and the fable in an ingenious
+Supplement of M. Gaillard, (tom. iii. p. 474.) The Spaniards are
+too proud of a victory, which history ascribes to the Gascons,
+and romance to the Saracens.
+
+Note: In fact, it was a sudden onset of the Gascons,
+assisted by the Beaure mountaineers, and possibly a few
+Navarrese. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 100: Yet Schmidt, from the best authorities, represents
+the interior disorders and oppression of his reign, (Hist. des
+Allemands, tom. ii. p. 45 - 49.)]
+
+[Footnote 101: Omnis homo ex sua proprietate legitimam decimam ad
+ecclesiam conferat.  Experimento enim didicimus, in anno, quo
+illa valida fames irrepsit, ebullire vacuas annonas a daemonibus
+devoratas, et voces exprobationis auditas.  Such is the decree
+and assertion of the great Council of Frankfort, (canon xxv. tom.
+ix. p. 105.) Both Selden (Hist. of Tithes; Works, vol. iii. part
+ii. p. 1146) and Montesquieu (Esprit des Loix, l. xxxi. c. 12)
+represent Charlemagne as the first legal author of tithes.  Such
+obligations have country gentlemen to his memory!]
+
+[Footnote 102: Eginhard (c. 25, p. 119) clearly affirms, tentabat
+et scribere ... sed parum prospere successit labor praeposterus
+et sero inchoatus.  The moderns have perverted and corrected this
+obvious meaning, and the title of M. Gaillard's dissertation
+(tom. iii. p. 247 - 260) betrays his partiality.
+
+Note: This point has been contested; but Mr. Hallam and
+Monsieur Sismondl concur with Gibbon.  See Middle Ages, iii. 330
+Histoire de Francais, tom. ii. p. 318.  The sensible observations
+of the latter are quoted in the Quarterly Review, vol. xlviii. p.
+451.  Fleury, I may add, quotes from Mabillon a remarkable
+evidence that Charlemagne "had a mark to himself like an honest,
+plain-dealing man." Ibid. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 103: See Gaillard, tom. iii. p. 138 - 176, and Schmidt,
+tom. ii. p. 121 - 129.]
+
+[Footnote 104: M. Gaillard (tom. iii. p. 372) fixes the true
+stature of Charlemagne (see a Dissertation of Marquard Freher ad
+calcem Eginhart, p. 220, &c.) at five feet nine inches of French,
+about six feet one inch and a fourth English, measure.  The
+romance writers have increased it to eight feet, and the giant
+was endowed with matchless strength and appetite: at a single
+stroke of his good sword Joyeuse, he cut asunder a horseman and
+his horse; at a single repast, he devoured a goose, two fowls, a
+quarter of mutton, &c.]
+
+That empire was not unworthy of its title; ^105 and some of
+the fairest kingdoms of Europe were the patrimony or conquest of
+a prince, who reigned at the same time in France, Spain, Italy,
+Germany, and Hungary. ^106 I.  The Roman province of Gaul had
+been transformed into the name and monarchy of France; but, in
+the decay of the Merovingian line, its limits were contracted by
+the independence of the Britons and the revolt of Aquitain.
+Charlemagne pursued, and confined, the Britons on the shores of
+the ocean; and that ferocious tribe, whose origin and language
+are so different from the French, was chastised by the imposition
+of tribute, hostages, and peace.  After a long and evasive
+contest, the rebellion of the dukes of Aquitain was punished by
+the forfeiture of their province, their liberty, and their lives.
+
+Harsh and rigorous would have been such treatment of ambitious
+governors, who had too faithfully copied the mayors of the
+palace.  But a recent discovery ^107 has proved that these
+unhappy princes were the last and lawful heirs of the blood and
+sceptre of Clovis, and younger branch, from the brother of
+Dagobert, of the Merovingian house. Their ancient kingdom was
+reduced to the duchy of Gascogne, to the counties of Fesenzac and
+Armagnac, at the foot of the Pyrenees: their race was propagated
+till the beginning of the sixteenth century; and after surviving
+their Carlovingian tyrants, they were reserved to feel the
+injustice, or the favors, of a third dynasty.  By the reunion of
+Aquitain, France was enlarged to its present boundaries, with the
+additions of the Netherlands and Spain, as far as the Rhine.  II.
+
+The Saracens had been expelled from France by the grandfather and
+father of Charlemagne; but they still possessed the greatest part
+of Spain, from the rock of Gibraltar to the Pyrenees.  Amidst
+their civil divisions, an Arabian emir of Saragossa implored his
+protection in the diet of Paderborn.  Charlemagne undertook the
+expedition, restored the emir, and, without distinction of faith,
+impartially crushed the resistance of the Christians, and
+rewarded the obedience and services of the Mahometans.  In his
+absence he instituted the Spanish march, ^108 which extended from
+the Pyrenees to the River Ebro: Barcelona was the residence of
+the French governor: he possessed the counties of Rousillon and
+Catalonia; and the infant kingdoms of Navarre and Arragon were
+subject to his jurisdiction.  III.  As king of the Lombards, and
+patrician of Rome, he reigned over the greatest part of Italy,
+^109 a tract of a thousand miles from the Alps to the borders of
+Calabria.  The duchy of Beneventum, a Lombard fief, had spread,
+at the expense of the Greeks, over the modern kingdom of Naples.
+But Arrechis, the reigning duke, refused to be included in the
+slavery of his country; assumed the independent title of prince;
+and opposed his sword to the Carlovingian monarchy.  His defence
+was firm, his submission was not inglorious, and the emperor was
+content with an easy tribute, the demolition of his fortresses,
+and the acknowledgement, on his coins, of a supreme lord. The
+artful flattery of his son Grimoald added the appellation of
+father, but he asserted his dignity with prudence, and Benventum
+insensibly escaped from the French yoke. ^110 IV.  Charlemagne
+was the first who united Germany under the same sceptre.  The
+name of Oriental France is preserved in the circle of Franconia;
+and the people of Hesse and Thuringia were recently incorporated
+with the victors, by the conformity of religion and government.
+The Alemanni, so formidable to the Romans, were the faithful
+vassals and confederates of the Franks; and their country was
+inscribed within the modern limits of Alsace, Swabia, and
+Switzerland.  The Bavarians, with a similar indulgence of their
+laws and manners, were less patient of a master: the repeated
+treasons of Tasillo justified the abolition of their hereditary
+dukes; and their power was shared among the counts, who judged
+and guarded that important frontier.  But the north of Germany,
+from the Rhine and beyond the Elbe, was still hostile and Pagan;
+nor was it till after a war of thirty-three years that the Saxons
+bowed under the yoke of Christ and of Charlemagne.  The idols and
+their votaries were extirpated: the foundation of eight
+bishoprics, of Munster, Osnaburgh, Paderborn, and Minden, of
+Bremen, Verden, Hildesheim, and Halberstadt, define, on either
+side of the Weser, the bounds of ancient Saxony these episcopal
+seats were the first schools and cities of that savage land; and
+the religion and humanity of the children atoned, in some degree,
+for the massacre of the parents.  Beyond the Elbe, the Slavi, or
+Sclavonians, of similar manners and various denominations,
+overspread the modern dominions of Prussia, Poland, and Bohemia,
+and some transient marks of obedience have tempted the French
+historian to extend the empire to the Baltic and the Vistula.
+The conquest or conversion of those countries is of a more recent
+age; but the first union of Bohemia with the Germanic body may be
+justly ascribed to the arms of Charlemagne.  V.  He retaliated on
+the Avars, or Huns of Pannonia, the same calamities which they
+had inflicted on the nations. Their rings, the wooden
+fortifications which encircled their districts and villages, were
+broken down by the triple effort of a French army, that was
+poured into their country by land and water, through the
+Carpathian mountains and along the plain of the Danube.  After a
+bloody conflict of eight years, the loss of some French generals
+was avenged by the slaughter of the most noble Huns: the relics
+of the nation submitted the royal residence of the chagan was
+left desolate and unknown; and the treasures, the rapine of two
+hundred and fifty years, enriched the victorious troops, or
+decorated the churches of Italy and Gaul. ^111 After the
+reduction of Pannonia, the empire of Charlemagne was bounded only
+by the conflux of the Danube with the Teyss and the Save: the
+provinces of Istria, Liburnia, and Dalmatia, were an easy, though
+unprofitable, accession; and it was an effect of his moderation,
+that he left the maritime cities under the real or nominal
+sovereignty of the Greeks.  But these distant possessions added
+more to the reputation than to the power of the Latin emperor;
+nor did he risk any ecclesiastical foundations to reclaim the
+Barbarians from their vagrant life and idolatrous worship. Some
+canals of communication between the rivers, the Saone and the
+Meuse, the Rhine and the Danube, were faintly attempted. ^112
+Their execution would have vivified the empire; and more cost and
+labor were often wasted in the structure of a cathedral. ^*
+
+[Footnote 105: See the concise, but correct and original, work of
+D'Anville, (Etats Formes en Europe apres la Chute de l'Empire
+Romain en Occident, Paris, 1771, in 4to.,) whose map includes the
+empire of Charlemagne; the different parts are illustrated, by
+Valesius (Notitia Galliacum) for France, Beretti (Dissertatio
+Chorographica) for Italy, De Marca (Marca Hispanica) for Spain.
+For the middle geography of Germany, I confess myself poor and
+destitute.]
+
+[Footnote 106: After a brief relation of his wars and conquests,
+(Vit. Carol. c. 5 - 14,) Eginhard recapitulates, in a few words,
+(c. 15,) the countries subject to his empire.  Struvius, (Corpus
+Hist. German. p. 118 - 149) was inserted in his Notes the texts
+of the old Chronicles.]
+
+[Footnote 107: On a charter granted to the monastery of Alaon
+(A.D. 845) by Charles the Bald, which deduces this royal
+pedigree.  I doubt whether some subsequent links of the ixth and
+xth centuries are equally firm; yet the whole is approved and
+defended by M. Gaillard, (tom. ii. p.60 - 81, 203 - 206,) who
+affirms that the family of Montesquiou (not of the President de
+Montesquieu) is descended, in the female line, from Clotaire and
+Clovis - an innocent pretension!]
+
+[Footnote 108: The governors or counts of the Spanish march
+revolted from Charles the Simple about the year 900; and a poor
+pittance, the Rousillon, has been recovered in 1642 by the kings
+of France, (Longuerue, Description de la France, tom i. p. 220 -
+222.) Yet the Rousillon contains 188,900 subjects, and annually
+pays 2,600,000 livres, (Necker, Administration des Finances, tom.
+i. p. 278, 279;) more people, perhaps, and doubtless more money
+than the march of Charlemagne.]
+
+[Footnote 109: Schmidt, Hist. des Allemands, tom. ii. p. 200,
+&c.]
+
+[Footnote 110: See Giannone, tom. i. p 374, 375, and the Annals
+of Muratori.]
+
+[Footnote 111: Quot praelia in eo gesta!  quantum sanguinis
+effusum sit! Testatur vacua omni habitatione Pannonia, et locus
+in quo regia Cagani fuit ita desertus, ut ne vestigium quidem
+humanae habitationis appareat.  Tota in hoc bello Hunnorum
+nobilitas periit, tota gloria decidit, omnis pecunia et congesti
+ex longo tempore thesauri direpti sunt.  Eginhard, cxiii.]
+
+[Footnote 112: The junction of the Rhine and Danube was
+undertaken only for the service of the Pannonian war, (Gaillard,
+Vie de Charlemagne, tom. ii. p. 312-315.) The canal, which would
+have been only two leagues in length, and of which some traces
+are still extant in Swabia, was interrupted by excessive rains,
+military avocations, and superstitious fears, (Schaepflin, Hist.
+de l'Academie des Inscriptions, tom. xviii. p. 256.  Molimina
+fluviorum, &c., jungendorum, p. 59-62.)]
+
+[Footnote *: I should doubt this in the time of Charlemagne, even
+if the term "expended" were substituted for "wasted." - M.]
+
+
+
+Chapter XLIX: Conquest Of Italy By The Franks.
+
+Part V.
+
+If we retrace the outlines of this geographical picture, it
+will be seen that the empire of the Franks extended, between east
+and west, from the Ebro to the Elbe or Vistula; between the north
+and south, from the duchy of Beneventum to the River Eyder, the
+perpetual boundary of Germany and Denmark. The personal and
+political importance of Charlemagne was magnified by the distress
+and division of the rest of Europe.  The islands of Great Britain
+and Ireland were disputed by a crowd of princes of Saxon or
+Scottish origin: and, after the loss of Spain, the Christian and
+Gothic kingdom of Alphonso the Chaste was confined to the narrow
+range of the Asturian mountains.  These petty sovereigns revered
+the power or virtue of the Carlovingian monarch, implored the
+honor and support of his alliance, and styled him their common
+parent, the sole and supreme emperor of the West. ^113 He
+maintained a more equal intercourse with the caliph Harun al
+Rashid, ^114 whose dominion stretched from Africa to India, and
+accepted from his ambassadors a tent, a water-clock, an elephant,
+and the keys of the Holy Sepulchre.  It is not easy to conceive
+the private friendship of a Frank and an Arab, who were strangers
+to each other's person, and language, and religion: but their
+public correspondence was founded on vanity, and their remote
+situation left no room for a competition of interest.  Two thirds
+of the Western empire of Rome were subject to Charlemagne, and
+the deficiency was amply supplied by his command of the
+inaccessible or invincible nations of Germany.  But in the choice
+of his enemies, ^* we may be reasonably surprised that he so
+often preferred the poverty of the north to the riches of the
+south.  The three-and-thirty campaigns laboriously consumed in
+the woods and morasses of Germany would have sufficed to assert
+the amplitude of his title by the expulsion of the Greeks from
+Italy and the Saracens from Spain.  The weakness of the Greeks
+would have insured an easy victory; and the holy crusade against
+the Saracens would have been prompted by glory and revenge, and
+loudly justified by religion and policy. Perhaps, in his
+expeditions beyond the Rhine and the Elbe, he aspired to save his
+monarchy from the fate of the Roman empire, to disarm the enemies
+of civilized society, and to eradicate the seed of future
+emigrations.  But it has been wisely observed, that, in a light
+of precaution, all conquest must be ineffectual, unless it could
+be universal, since the increasing circle must be involved in a
+larger sphere of hostility. ^115 The subjugation of Germany
+withdrew the veil which had so long concealed the continent or
+islands of Scandinavia from the knowledge of Europe, and awakened
+the torpid courage of their barbarous natives.  The fiercest of
+the Saxon idolaters escaped from the Christian tyrant to their
+brethren of the North; the Ocean and Mediterranean were covered
+with their piratical fleets; and Charlemagne beheld with a sigh
+the destructive progress of the Normans, who, in less than
+seventy years, precipitated the fall of his race and monarchy.
+
+[Footnote 113: See Eginhard, c. 16, and Gaillard, tom. ii. p. 361
+- 385, who mentions, with a loose reference, the intercourse of
+Charlemagne and Egbert, the emperor's gift of his own sword, and
+the modest answer of his Saxon disciple.  The anecdote, if
+genuine, would have adorned our English histories.]
+
+[Footnote 114: The correspondence is mentioned only in the French
+annals, and the Orientals are ignorant of the caliph's friendship
+for the Christian dog - a polite appellation, which Harun bestows
+on the emperor of the Greeks.]
+
+[Footnote *: Had he the choice?  M. Guizot has eloquently
+described the position of Charlemagne towards the Saxons.  Il y
+fit face par le conquete; la guerre defensive prit la forme
+offensive: il transporta la lutte sur le territoire des peuples
+qui voulaient envahir le sien: il travailla a asservir les races
+etrangeres, et extirper les croyances ennemies.  De la son mode
+de gouvernement et la fondation de son empire: la guerre
+offensive et la conquete voulaient cette vaste et redoutable
+unite.  Compare observations in the Quarterly Review, vol.
+xlviii., and James's Life of Charlemagne. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 115: Gaillard, tom. ii. p. 361 - 365, 471 - 476, 492.
+I have borrowed his judicious remarks on Charlemagne's plan of
+conquest, and the judicious distinction of his enemies of the
+first and the second enceinte, (tom. ii. p. 184, 509, &c.)]
+
+Had the pope and the Romans revived the primitive
+constitution, the titles of emperor and Augustus were conferred
+on Charlemagne for the term of his life; and his successors, on
+each vacancy, must have ascended the throne by a formal or tacit
+election.  But the association of his son Lewis the Pious asserts
+the independent right of monarchy and conquest, and the emperor
+seems on this occasion to have foreseen and prevented the latent
+claims of the clergy.  The royal youth was commanded to take the
+crown from the altar, and with his own hands to place it on his
+head, as a gift which he held from God, his father, and the
+nation. ^116 The same ceremony was repeated, though with less
+energy, in the subsequent associations of Lothaire and Lewis the
+Second: the Carlovingian sceptre was transmitted from father to
+son in a lineal descent of four generations; and the ambition of
+the popes was reduced to the empty honor of crowning and
+anointing these hereditary princes, who were already invested
+with their power and dominions.  The pious Lewis survived his
+brothers, and embraced the whole empire of Charlemagne; but the
+nations and the nobles, his bishops and his children, quickly
+discerned that this mighty mass was no longer inspired by the
+same soul; and the foundations were undermined to the centre,
+while the external surface was yet fair and entire. After a war,
+or battle, which consumed one hundred thousand Franks, the empire
+was divided by treaty between his three sons, who had violated
+every filial and fraternal duty.  The kingdoms of Germany and
+France were forever separated; the provinces of Gaul, between the
+Rhone and the Alps, the Meuse and the Rhine, were assigned, with
+Italy, to the Imperial dignity of Lothaire. In the partition of
+his share, Lorraine and Arles, two recent and transitory
+kingdoms, were bestowed on the younger children; and Lewis the
+Second, his eldest son, was content with the realm of Italy, the
+proper and sufficient patrimony of a Roman emperor.  On his death
+without any male issue, the vacant throne was disputed by his
+uncles and cousins, and the popes most dexterously seized the
+occasion of judging the claims and merits of the candidates, and
+of bestowing on the most obsequious, or most liberal, the
+Imperial office of advocate of the Roman church.  The dregs of
+the Carlovingian race no longer exhibited any symptoms of virtue
+or power, and the ridiculous epithets of the bard, the stammerer,
+the fat, and the simple, distinguished the tame and uniform
+features of a crowd of kings alike deserving of oblivion.  By the
+failure of the collateral branches, the whole inheritance
+devolved to Charles the Fat, the last emperor of his family: his
+insanity authorized the desertion of Germany, Italy, and France:
+he was deposed in a diet, and solicited his daily bread from the
+rebels by whose contempt his life and liberty had been spared.
+According to the measure of their force, the governors, the
+bishops, and the lords, usurped the fragments of the falling
+empire; and some preference was shown to the female or
+illegitimate blood of Charlemagne.  Of the greater part, the
+title and possession were alike doubtful, and the merit was
+adequate to the contracted scale of their dominions.  Those who
+could appear with an army at the gates of Rome were crowned
+emperors in the Vatican; but their modesty was more frequently
+satisfied with the appellation of kings of Italy: and the whole
+term of seventy-four years may be deemed a vacancy, from the
+abdication of Charles the Fat to the establishment of Otho the
+First.
+
+[Footnote 116: Thegan, the biographer of Lewis, relates this
+coronation: and Baronius has honestly transcribed it, (A.D. 813,
+No. 13, &c.  See Gaillard, tom. ii. p. 506, 507, 508,) howsoever
+adverse to the claims of the popes.  For the series of the
+Carlovingians, see the historians of France, Italy, and Germany;
+Pfeffel, Schmidt, Velly, Muratori, and even Voltaire, whose
+pictures are sometimes just, and always pleasing.]
+
+Otho ^117 was of the noble race of the dukes of Saxony; and
+if he truly descended from Witikind, the adversary and proselyte
+of Charlemagne, the posterity of a vanquished people was exalted
+to reign over their conquerors. His father, Henry the Fowler, was
+elected, by the suffrage of the nation, to save and institute the
+kingdom of Germany.  Its limits ^118 were enlarged on every side
+by his son, the first and greatest of the Othos.  A portion of
+Gaul, to the west of the Rhine, along the banks of the Meuse and
+the Moselle, was assigned to the Germans, by whose blood and
+language it has been tinged since the time of Caesar and Tacitus.
+
+Between the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Alps, the successors of
+Otho acquired a vain supremacy over the broken kingdoms of
+Burgundy and Arles.  In the North, Christianity was propagated by
+the sword of Otho, the conqueror and apostle of the Slavic
+nations of the Elbe and Oder: the marches of Brandenburgh and
+Sleswick were fortified with German colonies; and the king of
+Denmark, the dukes of Poland and Bohemia, confessed themselves
+his tributary vassals. At the head of a victorious army, he
+passed the Alps, subdued the kingdom of Italy, delivered the
+pope, and forever fixed the Imperial crown in the name and nation
+of Germany.  From that memorable aera, two maxims of public
+jurisprudence were introduced by force and ratified by time.  I.
+That the prince, who was elected in the German diet, acquired,
+from that instant, the subject kingdoms of Italy and Rome.  II.
+But that he might not legally assume the titles of emperor and
+Augustus, till he had received the crown from the hands of the
+Roman pontiff. ^119
+
+[Footnote 117: He was the son of Otho, the son of Ludolph, in
+whose favor the Duchy of Saxony had been instituted, A.D. 858.
+Ruotgerus, the biographer of a St. Bruno, (Bibliot. Bunavianae
+Catalog. tom. iii. vol. ii. p. 679,) gives a splendid character
+of his family.  Atavorum atavi usque ad hominum memoriam omnes
+nobilissimi; nullus in eorum stirpe ignotus, nullus degener
+facile reperitur, (apud Struvium, Corp. Hist. German. p. 216.)
+Yet Gundling (in Henrico Aucupe) is not satisfied of his descent
+from Witikind.]
+
+[Footnote 118: See the treatise of Conringius, (de Finibus
+Imperii Germanici, Francofurt. 1680, in 4to.: ) he rejects the
+extravagant and improper scale of the Roman and Carlovingian
+empires, and discusses with moderation the rights of Germany, her
+vassals, and her neighbors.]
+
+[Footnote 119: The power of custom forces me to number Conrad I.
+and Henry I., the Fowler, in the list of emperors, a title which
+was never assumed by those kings of Germany.  The Italians,
+Muratori for instance, are more scrupulous and correct, and only
+reckon the princes who have been crowned at Rome.]
+
+The Imperial dignity of Charlemagne was announced to the
+East by the alteration of his style; and instead of saluting his
+fathers, the Greek emperors, he presumed to adopt the more equal
+and familiar appellation of brother. ^120 Perhaps in his
+connection with Irene he aspired to the name of husband: his
+embassy to Constantinople spoke the language of peace and
+friendship, and might conceal a treaty of marriage with that
+ambitious princess, who had renounced the most sacred duties of a
+mother.  The nature, the duration, the probable consequences of
+such a union between two distant and dissonant empires, it is
+impossible to conjecture; but the unanimous silence of the Latins
+may teach us to suspect, that the report was invented by the
+enemies of Irene, to charge her with the guilt of betraying the
+church and state to the strangers of the West. ^121 The French
+ambassadors were the spectators, and had nearly been the victims,
+of the conspiracy of Nicephorus, and the national hatred.
+Constantinople was exasperated by the treason and sacrilege of
+ancient Rome: a proverb, "That the Franks were good friends and
+bad neighbors," was in every one's mouth; but it was dangerous to
+provoke a neighbor who might be tempted to reiterate, in the
+church of St. Sophia, the ceremony of his Imperial coronation.
+After a tedious journey of circuit and delay, the ambassadors of
+Nicephorus found him in his camp, on the banks of the River Sala;
+and Charlemagne affected to confound their vanity by displaying,
+in a Franconian village, the pomp, or at least the pride, of the
+Byzantine palace. ^122 The Greeks were successively led through
+four halls of audience: in the first they were ready to fall
+prostrate before a splendid personage in a chair of state, till
+he informed them that he was only a servant, the constable, or
+master of the horse, of the emperor.  The same mistake, and the
+same answer, were repeated in the apartments of the count
+palatine, the steward, and the chamberlain; and their impatience
+was gradually heightened, till the doors of the presence-chamber
+were thrown open, and they beheld the genuine monarch, on his
+throne, enriched with the foreign luxury which he despised, and
+encircled with the love and reverence of his victorious chiefs.
+A treaty of peace and alliance was concluded between the two
+empires, and the limits of the East and West were defined by the
+right of present possession.  But the Greeks ^123 soon forgot
+this humiliating equality, or remembered it only to hate the
+Barbarians by whom it was extorted.  During the short union of
+virtue and power, they respectfully saluted the august
+Charlemagne, with the acclamations of basileus, and emperor of
+the Romans.  As soon as these qualities were separated in the
+person of his pious son, the Byzantine letters were inscribed,
+"To the king, or, as he styles himself, the emperor of the Franks
+and Lombards." When both power and virtue were extinct, they
+despoiled Lewis the Second of his hereditary title, and with the
+barbarous appellation of rex or rega, degraded him among the
+crowd of Latin princes. His reply ^124 is expressive of his
+weakness: he proves, with some learning, that, both in sacred and
+profane history, the name of king is synonymous with the Greek
+word basileus: if, at Constantinople, it were assumed in a more
+exclusive and imperial sense, he claims from his ancestors, and
+from the popes, a just participation of the honors of the Roman
+purple. The same controversy was revived in the reign of the
+Othos; and their ambassador describes, in lively colors, the
+insolence of the Byzantine court. ^125 The Greeks affected to
+despise the poverty and ignorance of the Franks and Saxons; and
+in their last decline refused to prostitute to the kings of
+Germany the title of Roman emperors.
+
+[Footnote 120: Invidiam tamen suscepti nominis (C. P.
+imperatoribus super hoc indignantibus) magna tulit patientia,
+vicitque eorum contumaciam ... mittendo ad eos crebras
+legationes, et in epistolis fratres eos appellando. Eginhard, c.
+28, p. 128.  Perhaps it was on their account that, like Augustus,
+he affected some reluctance to receive the empire.]
+
+[Footnote 121: Theophanes speaks of the coronation and unction of
+Charles (Chronograph. p. 399,) and of his treaty of marriage with
+Irene, (p. 402,) which is unknown to the Latins.  Gaillard
+relates his transactions with the Greek empire, (tom. ii. p. 446
+- 468.)]
+
+[Footnote 122: Gaillard very properly observes, that this pageant
+was a farce suitable to children only; but that it was indeed
+represented in the presence, and for the benefit, of children of
+a larger growth.]
+
+[Footnote 123: Compare, in the original texts collected by Pagi,
+(tom. iii. A.D. 812, No. 7, A.D. 824, No. 10, &c.,) the contrast
+of Charlemagne and his son; to the former the ambassadors of
+Michael (who were indeed disavowed) more suo, id est lingua
+Graeca laudes dixerunt, imperatorem eum et appellantes; to the
+latter, Vocato imperatori Francorum, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 124: See the epistle, in Paralipomena, of the anonymous
+writer of Salerno, (Script. Ital. tom. ii. pars ii. p. 243 - 254,
+c. 93 - 107,) whom Baronius (A.D. 871, No. 51 - 71) mistook for
+Erchempert, when he transcribed it in his Annals.]
+
+[Footnote 125: Ipse enim vos, non imperatorem, id est sua lingua,
+sed ob indignationem, id est regem nostra vocabat, Liutprand, in
+Legat. in Script. Ital. tom. ii. pars i. p. 479.  The pope had
+exhorted Nicephorus, emperor of the Greeks, to make peace with
+Otho, the august emperor of the Romans - quae inscriptio secundum
+Graecos peccatoria et temeraria ... imperatorem inquiunt,
+universalem, Romanorum, Augustum, magnum, solum, Nicephorum, (p.
+486.)]
+
+These emperors, in the election of the popes, continued to
+exercise the powers which had been assumed by the Gothic and
+Grecian princes; and the importance of this prerogative increased
+with the temporal estate and spiritual jurisdiction of the Roman
+church.  In the Christian aristocracy, the principal members of
+the clergy still formed a senate to assist the administration,
+and to supply the vacancy, of the bishop.  Rome was divided into
+twenty-eight parishes, and each parish was governed by a cardinal
+priest, or presbyter, a title which, however common or modest in
+its origin, has aspired to emulate the purple of kings.  Their
+number was enlarged by the association of the seven deacons of
+the most considerable hospitals, the seven palatine judges of the
+Lateran, and some dignitaries of the church.  This ecclesiastical
+senate was directed by the seven cardinal-bishops of the Roman
+province, who were less occupied in the suburb dioceses of Ostia,
+Porto, Velitrae, Tusculum, Praeneste, Tibur, and the Sabines,
+than by their weekly service in the Lateran, and their superior
+share in the honors and authority of the apostolic see.  On the
+death of the pope, these bishops recommended a successor to the
+suffrage of the college of cardinals, ^126 and their choice was
+ratified or rejected by the applause or clamor of the Roman
+people.  But the election was imperfect; nor could the pontiff be
+legally consecrated till the emperor, the advocate of the church,
+had graciously signified his approbation and consent.  The royal
+commissioner examined, on the spot, the form and freedom of the
+proceedings; nor was it till after a previous scrutiny into the
+qualifications of the candidates, that he accepted an oath of
+fidelity, and confirmed the donations which had successively
+enriched the patrimony of St. Peter.  In the frequent schisms,
+the rival claims were submitted to the sentence of the emperor;
+and in a synod of bishops he presumed to judge, to condemn, and
+to punish, the crimes of a guilty pontiff. Otho the First imposed
+a treaty on the senate and people, who engaged to prefer the
+candidate most acceptable to his majesty: ^127 his successors
+anticipated or prevented their choice: they bestowed the Roman
+benefice, like the bishoprics of Cologne or Bamberg, on their
+chancellors or preceptors; and whatever might be the merit of a
+Frank or Saxon, his name sufficiently attests the interposition
+of foreign power.  These acts of prerogative were most speciously
+excused by the vices of a popular election.  The competitor who
+had been excluded by the cardinals appealed to the passions or
+avarice of the multitude; the Vatican and the Lateran were
+stained with blood; and the most powerful senators, the marquises
+of Tuscany and the counts of Tusculum, held the apostolic see in
+a long and disgraceful servitude.  The Roman pontiffs, of the
+ninth and tenth centuries, were insulted, imprisoned, and
+murdered, by their tyrants; and such was their indigence, after
+the loss and usurpation of the ecclesiastical patrimonies, that
+they could neither support the state of a prince, nor exercise
+the charity of a priest. ^128 The influence of two sister
+prostitutes, Marozia and Theodora, was founded on their wealth
+and beauty, their political and amorous intrigues: the most
+strenuous of their lovers were rewarded with the Roman mitre, and
+their reign ^129 may have suggested to the darker ages ^130 the
+fable ^131 of a female pope. ^132 The bastard son, the grandson,
+and the great-grandson of Marozia, a rare genealogy, were seated
+in the chair of St. Peter, and it was at the age of nineteen
+years that the second of these became the head of the Latin
+church. ^* His youth and manhood were of a suitable complexion;
+and the nations of pilgrims could bear testimony to the charges
+that were urged against him in a Roman synod, and in the presence
+of Otho the Great.  As John XII. had renounced the dress and
+decencies of his profession, the soldier may not perhaps be
+dishonored by the wine which he drank, the blood that he spilt,
+the flames that he kindled, or the licentious pursuits of gaming
+and hunting.  His open simony might be the consequence of
+distress; and his blasphemous invocation of Jupiter and Venus, if
+it be true, could not possibly be serious.  But we read, with
+some surprise, that the worthy grandson of Marozia lived in
+public adultery with the matrons of Rome; that the Lateran palace
+was turned into a school for prostitution, and that his rapes of
+virgins and widows had deterred the female pilgrims from visiting
+the tomb of St. Peter, lest, in the devout act, they should be
+violated by his successor. ^133 The Protestants have dwelt with
+malicious pleasure on these characters of Antichrist; but to a
+philosophic eye, the vices of the clergy are far less dangerous
+than their virtues.  After a long series of scandal, the
+apostolic see was reformed and exalted by the austerity and zeal
+of Gregory VII.  That ambitious monk devoted his life to the
+execution of two projects.  I.  To fix in the college of
+cardinals the freedom and independence of election, and forever
+to abolish the right or usurpation of the emperors and the Roman
+people.  II.  To bestow and resume the Western empire as a fief
+or benefice ^134 of the church, and to extend his temporal
+dominion over the kings and kingdoms of the earth.  After a
+contest of fifty years, the first of these designs was
+accomplished by the firm support of the ecclesiastical order,
+whose liberty was connected with that of their chief.  But the
+second attempt, though it was crowned with some partial and
+apparent success, has been vigorously resisted by the secular
+power, and finally extinguished by the improvement of human
+reason.
+
+[Footnote 126: The origin and progress of the title of cardinal
+may be found in Themassin, (Discipline de l'Eglise, tom. i. p.
+1261 - 1298,) Muratori, (Antiquitat. Italiae Medii Aevi, tom. vi.
+Dissert. lxi. p. 159 - 182,) and Mosheim, (Institut. Hist.
+Eccles. p. 345 - 347,) who accurately remarks the form and
+changes of the election.  The cardinal-bishops so highly exalted
+by Peter Damianus, are sunk to a level with the rest of the
+sacred college.]
+
+[Footnote 127: Firmiter jurantes, nunquam se papam electuros aut
+audinaturos, praeter consensum et electionem Othonis et filii
+sui. (Liutprand, l. vi. c. 6, p. 472.) This important concession
+may either supply or confirm the decree of the clergy and people
+of Rome, so fiercely rejected by Baronius, Pagi, and Muratori,
+(A.D. 964,) and so well defended and explained by St. Marc,
+(Abrege, tom. ii. p. 808 - 816, tom. iv. p. 1167 - 1185.) Consult
+the historical critic, and the Annals of Muratori, for for the
+election and confirmation of each pope.]
+
+[Footnote 128: The oppression and vices of the Roman church, in
+the xth century, are strongly painted in the history and legation
+of Liutprand, (see p. 440, 450, 471 - 476, 479, &c.;) and it is
+whimsical enough to observe Muratori tempering the invectives of
+Baronius against the popes. But these popes had been chosen, not
+by the cardinals, but by lay-patrons.]
+
+[Footnote 129: The time of Pope Joan (papissa Joanna) is placed
+somewhat earlier than Theodora or Marozia; and the two years of
+her imaginary reign are forcibly inserted between Leo IV. and
+Benedict III.  But the contemporary Anastasius indissolubly links
+the death of Leo and the elevation of Benedict, (illico, mox, p.
+247;) and the accurate chronology of Pagi, Muratori, and
+Leibnitz, fixes both events to the year 857.]
+
+[Footnote 130: The advocates for Pope Joan produce one hundred
+and fifty witnesses, or rather echoes, of the xivth, xvth, and
+xvith centuries.  They bear testimony against themselves and the
+legend, by multiplying the proof that so curious a story must
+have been repeated by writers of every description to whom it was
+known.  On those of the ixth and xth centuries, the recent event
+would have flashed with a double force.  Would Photius have
+spared such a reproach?  Could Liutprand have missed such
+scandal?  It is scarcely worth while to discuss the various
+readings of Martinus Polonus, Sigeber of Gamblours, or even
+Marianus Scotus; but a most palpable forgery is the passage of
+Pope Joan, which has been foisted into some Mss. and editions of
+the Roman Anastasius.]
+
+[Footnote 131: As false, it deserves that name; but I would not
+pronounce it incredible.  Suppose a famous French chevalier of
+our own times to have been born in Italy, and educated in the
+church, instead of the army: her merit or fortune might have
+raised her to St. Peter's chair; her amours would have been
+natural: her delivery in the streets unlucky, but not
+improbable.]
+
+[Footnote 132: Till the reformation the tale was repeated and
+believed without offence: and Joan's female statue long occupied
+her place among the popes in the cathedral of Sienna, (Pagi,
+Critica, tom. iii. p. 624 - 626.) She has been annihilated by two
+learned Protestants, Blondel and Bayle, (Dictionnaire Critique,
+Papesse, Polonus, Blondel;) but their brethren were scandalized
+by this equitable and generous criticism.  Spanheim and Lenfant
+attempt to save this poor engine of controversy, and even Mosheim
+condescends to cherish some doubt and suspicion, (p. 289.)]
+
+[Footnote *: John XI. was the son of her husband Alberic, not of
+her lover, Pope Sergius III., as Muratori has distinctly proved,
+Ann. ad ann. 911, tom. p. 268.  Her grandson Octavian, otherwise
+called John XII., was pope; but a great-grandson cannot be
+discovered in any of the succeeding popes; nor does our historian
+himself, in his subsequent narration, (p. 202,) seem to know of
+one.  Hobhouse, Illustrations of Childe Harold, p. 309. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 133: Lateranense palatium ... prostibulum meretricum
+... Testis omnium gentium, praeterquam Romanorum, absentia
+mulierum, quae sanctorum apostolorum limina orandi gratia timent
+visere, cum nonnullas ante dies paucos, hunc audierint
+conjugatas, viduas, virgines vi oppressisse, (Liutprand, Hist. l.
+vi. c. 6, p. 471.  See the whole affair of John XII., p. 471 -
+476.)]
+
+[Footnote 134: A new example of the mischief of equivocation is
+the beneficium (Ducange, tom. i. p. 617, &c.,) which the pope
+conferred on the emperor Frederic I., since the Latin word may
+signify either a legal fief, or a simple favor, an obligation,
+(we want the word bienfait.) (See Schmidt, Hist. des Allemands,
+tom. iii. p. 393 - 408.  Pfeffel, Abrege Chronologique, tom. i.
+p. 229, 296, 317, 324, 420, 430, 500, 505, 509, &c.)]
+
+In the revival of the empire of empire of Rome, neither the
+bishop nor the people could bestow on Charlemagne or Otho the
+provinces which were lost, as they had been won, by the chance of
+arms.  But the Romans were free to choose a master for
+themselves; and the powers which had been delegated to the
+patrician, were irrevocably granted to the French and Saxon
+emperors of the West.  The broken records of the times ^135
+preserve some remembrance of their palace, their mint, their
+tribunal, their edicts, and the sword of justice, which, as late
+as the thirteenth century, was derived from Caesar to the
+praefect of the city. ^136 Between the arts of the popes and the
+violence of the people, this supremacy was crushed and
+annihilated.  Content with the titles of emperor and Augustus,
+the successors of Charlemagne neglected to assert this local
+jurisdiction.  In the hour of prosperity, their ambition was
+diverted by more alluring objects; and in the decay and division
+of the empire, they were oppressed by the defence of their
+hereditary provinces. Amidst the ruins of Italy, the famous
+Marozia invited one of the usurpers to assume the character of
+her third husband; and Hugh, king of Burgundy was introduced by
+her faction into the mole of Hadrian or Castle of St. Angelo,
+which commands the principal bridge and entrance of Rome.  Her
+son by the first marriage, Alberic, was compelled to attend at
+the nuptial banquet; but his reluctant and ungraceful service was
+chastised with a blow by his new father.  The blow was productive
+of a revolution.  "Romans," exclaimed the youth, "once you were
+the masters of the world, and these Burgundians the most abject
+of your slaves.  They now reign, these voracious and brutal
+savages, and my injury is the commencement of your servitude."
+^137 The alarum bell rang to arms in every quarter of the city:
+the Burgundians retreated with haste and shame; Marozia was
+imprisoned by her victorious son, and his brother, Pope John XI.,
+was reduced to the exercise of his spiritual functions.  With the
+title of prince, Alberic possessed above twenty years the
+government of Rome; and he is said to have gratified the popular
+prejudice, by restoring the office, or at least the title, of
+consuls and tribunes.  His son and heir Octavian assumed, with
+the pontificate, the name of John XII.: like his predecessor, he
+was provoked by the Lombard princes to seek a deliverer for the
+church and republic; and the services of Otho were rewarded with
+the Imperial dignity.  But the Saxon was imperious, the Romans
+were impatient, the festival of the coronation was disturbed by
+the secret conflict of prerogative and freedom, and Otho
+commanded his sword-bearer not to stir from his person, lest he
+should be assaulted and murdered at the foot of the altar. ^138
+Before he repassed the Alps, the emperor chastised the revolt of
+the people and the ingratitude of John XII.  The pope was
+degraded in a synod; the praefect was mounted on an ass, whipped
+through the city, and cast into a dungeon; thirteen of the most
+guilty were hanged, others were mutilated or banished; and this
+severe process was justified by the ancient laws of Theodosius
+and Justinian. The voice of fame has accused the second Otho of a
+perfidious and bloody act, the massacre of the senators, whom he
+had invited to his table under the fair semblance of hospitality
+and friendship. ^139 In the minority of his son Otho the Third,
+Rome made a bold attempt to shake off the Saxon yoke, and the
+consul Crescentius was the Brutus of the republic.  From the
+condition of a subject and an exile, he twice rose to the command
+of the city, oppressed, expelled, and created the popes, and
+formed a conspiracy for restoring the authority of the Greek
+emperors. ^* In the fortress of St. Angelo, he maintained an
+obstinate siege, till the unfortunate consul was betrayed by a
+promise of safety: his body was suspended on a gibbet, and his
+head was exposed on the battlements of the castle.  By a reverse
+of fortune, Otho, after separating his troops, was besieged three
+days, without food, in his palace; and a disgraceful escape saved
+him from the justice or fury of the Romans.  The senator Ptolemy
+was the leader of the people, and the widow of Crescentius
+enjoyed the pleasure or the fame of revenging her husband, by a
+poison which she administered to her Imperial lover.  It was the
+design of Otho the Third to abandon the ruder countries of the
+North, to erect his throne in Italy, and to revive the
+institutions of the Roman monarchy.  But his successors only once
+in their lives appeared on the banks of the Tyber, to receive
+their crown in the Vatican. ^140 Their absence was contemptible,
+their presence odious and formidable. They descended from the
+Alps, at the head of their barbarians, who were strangers and
+enemies to the country; and their transient visit was a scene of
+tumult and bloodshed. ^141 A faint remembrance of their ancestors
+still tormented the Romans; and they beheld with pious
+indignation the succession of Saxons, Franks, Swabians, and
+Bohemians, who usurped the purple and prerogatives of the
+Caesars.
+
+[Footnote 135: For the history of the emperors in Rome and Italy,
+see Sigonius, de Regno Italiae, Opp. tom. ii., with the Notes of
+Saxius, and the Annals of Muratori, who might refer more
+distinctly to the authors of his great collection.]
+
+[Footnote 136: See the Dissertations of Le Blanc at the end of
+his treatise des Monnoyes de France, in which he produces some
+Roman coins of the French emperors.]
+
+[Footnote 137: Romanorum aliquando servi, scilicet Burgundiones,
+Romanis imperent? .... Romanae urbis dignitas ad tantam est
+stultitiam ducta, ut meretricum etiam imperio pareat?
+(Liutprand, l. iii. c. 12, p. 450.) Sigonius (l. vi. p. 400)
+positively affirms the renovation of the consulship; but in the
+old writers Albericus is more frequently styled princeps
+Romanorum.]
+
+[Footnote 138: Ditmar, p. 354, apud Schmidt, tom. iii. p. 439.]
+
+[Footnote 139: This bloody feast is described in Leonine verse in
+the Pantheon of Godfrey of Viterbo, (Script. Ital. tom. vii. p.
+436, 437,) who flourished towards the end of the xiith century,
+(Fabricius Bibliot. Latin. Med. et Infimi Aevi, tom. iii. p. 69,
+edit. Mansi;) but his evidence, which imposed on Sigonius, is
+reasonably suspected by Muratori (Annali, tom. viii. p. 177.)]
+
+[Footnote *: The Marquis Maffei's gallery contained a medal with
+Imp. Caes August. P. P. Crescentius.  Hence Hobhouse infers that
+he affected the empire. Hobhouse, Illustrations of Childe Harold,
+p. 252. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 140: The coronation of the emperor, and some original
+ceremonies of the xth century are preserved in the Panegyric on
+Berengarius, (Script. Ital. tom. ii. pars i. p. 405 - 414,)
+illustrated by the Notes of Hadrian Valesius and Leibnitz.
+Sigonius has related the whole process of the Roman expedition,
+in good Latin, but with some errors of time and fact, (l. vii. p.
+441 - 446.)]
+
+[Footnote 141: In a quarrel at the coronation of Conrad II.
+Muratori takes leave to observe - doveano ben essere allora,
+indisciplinati, Barbari, e bestials Tedeschi.  Annal. tom. viii.
+p. 368.]
+
+
+
+Chapter XLIX: Conquest Of Italy By The Franks.
+
+Part VI.
+
+There is nothing perhaps more adverse to nature and reason
+than to hold in obedience remote countries and foreign nations,
+in opposition to their inclination and interest.  A torrent of
+Barbarians may pass over the earth, but an extensive empire must
+be supported by a refined system of policy and oppression; in the
+centre, an absolute power, prompt in action and rich in
+resources; a swift and easy communication with the extreme parts;
+fortifications to check the first effort of rebellion; a regular
+administration to protect and punish; and a well-disciplined army
+to inspire fear, without provoking discontent and despair.  Far
+different was the situation of the German Caesars, who were
+ambitious to enslave the kingdom of Italy.  Their patrimonial
+estates were stretched along the Rhine, or scattered in the
+provinces; but this ample domain was alienated by the imprudence
+or distress of successive princes; and their revenue, from minute
+and vexatious prerogative, was scarcely sufficient for the
+maintenance of their household. Their troops were formed by the
+legal or voluntary service of their feudal vassals, who passed
+the Alps with reluctance, assumed the license of rapine and
+disorder, and capriciously deserted before the end of the
+campaign.  Whole armies were swept away by the pestilential
+influence of the climate: the survivors brought back the bones of
+their princes and nobles, ^142 and the effects of their own
+intemperance were often imputed to the treachery and malice of
+the Italians, who rejoiced at least in the calamities of the
+Barbarians.  This irregular tyranny might contend on equal terms
+with the petty tyrants of Italy; nor can the people, or the
+reader, be much interested in the event of the quarrel.  But in
+the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the Lombards rekindled the
+flame of industry and freedom; and the generous example was at
+length imitated by the republics of Tuscany. ^* In the Italian
+cities a municipal government had never been totally abolished;
+and their first privileges were granted by the favor and policy
+of the emperors, who were desirous of erecting a plebeian barrier
+against the independence of the nobles.  But their rapid
+progress, the daily extension of their power and pretensions,
+were founded on the numbers and spirit of these rising
+communities. ^143 Each city filled the measure of her diocese or
+district: the jurisdiction of the counts and bishops, of the
+marquises and counts, was banished from the land; and the
+proudest nobles were persuaded or compelled to desert their
+solitary castles, and to embrace the more honorable character of
+freemen and magistrates.  The legislative authority was inherent
+in the general assembly; but the executive powers were intrusted
+to three consuls, annually chosen from the three orders of
+captains, valvassors, ^144 and commons, into which the republic
+was divided.  Under the protection of equal law, the labors of
+agriculture and commerce were gradually revived; but the martial
+spirit of the Lombards was nourished by the presence of danger;
+and as often as the bell was rung, or the standard ^145 erected,
+the gates of the city poured forth a numerous and intrepid band,
+whose zeal in their own cause was soon guided by the use and
+discipline of arms.  At the foot of these popular ramparts, the
+pride of the Caesars was overthrown; and the invincible genius of
+liberty prevailed over the two Frederics, the greatest princes of
+the middle age; the first, superior perhaps in military prowess;
+the second, who undoubtedly excelled in the softer
+accomplishments of peace and learning.
+
+[Footnote 142: After boiling away the flesh.  The caldrons for
+that purpose were a necessary piece of travelling furniture; and
+a German who was using it for his brother, promised it to a
+friend, after it should have been employed for himself, (Schmidt,
+tom. iii. p. 423, 424.) The same author observes that the whole
+Saxon line was extinguished in Italy, (tom. ii. p. 440.)]
+
+[Footnote *: Compare Sismondi, Histoire des Republiques
+Italiannes.  Hallam Middle Ages.  Raumer, Geschichte der
+Hohenstauffen.  Savigny, Geschichte des Romischen Rechts, vol.
+iii. p. 19 with the authors quoted. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 143: Otho, bishop of Frisingen, has left an important
+passage on the Italian cities, (l. ii. c. 13, in Script. Ital.
+tom. vi. p. 707 - 710: ) and the rise, progress, and government
+of these republics are perfectly illustrated by Muratori,
+(Antiquitat. Ital. Medii Aevi, tom. iv. dissert xlv. - lii. p. 1
+- 675.  Annal. tom. viii. ix. x.)]
+
+[Footnote 144: For these titles, see Selden, (Titles of Honor,
+vol. iii. part 1 p. 488.) Ducange, (Gloss. Latin. tom. ii. p.
+140, tom. vi. p. 776,) and St. Marc, (Abrege Chronologique, tom.
+ii. p. 719.)]
+
+[Footnote 145: The Lombards invented and used the carocium, a
+standard planted on a car or wagon, drawn by a team of oxen,
+(Ducange, tom. ii. p. 194, 195. Muratori Antiquitat tom. ii. dis.
+xxvi. p. 489 - 493.)]
+
+Ambitious of restoring the splendor of the purple, Frederic
+the First invaded the republics of Lombardy, with the arts of a
+statesman, the valor of a soldier, and the cruelty of a tyrant.
+The recent discovery of the Pandects had renewed a science most
+favorable to despotism; and his venal advocates proclaimed the
+emperor the absolute master of the lives and properties of his
+subjects.  His royal prerogatives, in a less odious sense, were
+acknowledged in the diet of Roncaglia; and the revenue of Italy
+was fixed at thirty thousand pounds of silver, ^146 which were
+multiplied to an indefinite demand by the rapine of the fiscal
+officers.  The obstinate cities were reduced by the terror or the
+force of his arms: his captives were delivered to the
+executioner, or shot from his military engines; and. after the
+siege and surrender of Milan, the buildings of that stately
+capital were razed to the ground, three hundred hostages were
+sent into Germany, and the inhabitants were dispersed in four
+villages, under the yoke of the inflexible conqueror. ^147 But
+Milan soon rose from her ashes; and the league of Lombardy was
+cemented by distress: their cause was espoused by Venice, Pope
+Alexander the Third, and the Greek emperor: the fabric of
+oppression was overturned in a day; and in the treaty of
+Constance, Frederic subscribed, with some reservations, the
+freedom of four-and-twenty cities.  His grandson contended with
+their vigor and maturity; but Frederic the Second ^148 was
+endowed with some personal and peculiar advantages.  His birth
+and education recommended him to the Italians; and in the
+implacable discord of the two factions, the Ghibelins were
+attached to the emperor, while the Guelfs displayed the banner of
+liberty and the church.  The court of Rome had slumbered, when
+his father Henry the Sixth was permitted to unite with the empire
+the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily; and from these hereditary
+realms the son derived an ample and ready supply of troops and
+treasure.  Yet Frederic the Second was finally oppressed by the
+arms of the Lombards and the thunders of the Vatican: his kingdom
+was given to a stranger, and the last of his family was beheaded
+at Naples on a public scaffold.  During sixty years, no emperor
+appeared in Italy, and the name was remembered only by the
+ignominious sale of the last relics of sovereignty.
+
+[Footnote 146: Gunther Ligurinus, l. viii. 584, et seq., apud
+Schmidt, tom. iii. p. 399.]
+
+[Footnote 147: Solus imperator faciem suam firmavit ut petram,
+(Burcard. de Excidio Mediolani, Script. Ital. tom. vi. p. 917.)
+This volume of Muratori contains the originals of the history of
+Frederic the First, which must be compared with due regard to the
+circumstances and prejudices of each German or Lombard writer.
+
+Note: Von Raumer has traced the fortunes of the Swabian
+house in one of the ablest historical works of modern times.  He
+may be compared with the spirited and independent Sismondi. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 148: For the history of Frederic II. and the house of
+Swabia at Naples, see Giannone, Istoria Civile, tom. ii. l. xiv.
+- xix.]
+
+The Barbarian conquerors of the West were pleased to
+decorate their chief with the title of emperor; but it was not
+their design to invest him with the despotism of Constantine and
+Justinian.  The persons of the Germans were free, their conquests
+were their own, and their national character was animated by a
+spirit which scorned the servile jurisprudence of the new or the
+ancient Rome. It would have been a vain and dangerous attempt to
+impose a monarch on the armed freemen, who were impatient of a
+magistrate; on the bold, who refused to obey; on the powerful,
+who aspired to command.  The empire of Charlemagne and Otho was
+distributed among the dukes of the nations or provinces, the
+counts of the smaller districts, and the margraves of the marches
+or frontiers, who all united the civil and military authority as
+it had been delegated to the lieutenants of the first Caesars.
+The Roman governors, who, for the most part, were soldiers of
+fortune, seduced their mercenary legions, assumed the Imperial
+purple, and either failed or succeeded in their revolt, without
+wounding the power and unity of government.  If the dukes,
+margraves, and counts of Germany, were less audacious in their
+claims, the consequences of their success were more lasting and
+pernicious to the state.  Instead of aiming at the supreme rank,
+they silently labored to establish and appropriate their
+provincial independence.  Their ambition was seconded by the
+weight of their estates and vassals, their mutual example and
+support, the common interest of the subordinate nobility, the
+change of princes and families, the minorities of Otho the Third
+and Henry the Fourth, the ambition of the popes, and the vain
+pursuit of the fugitive crowns of Italy and Rome.  All the
+attributes of regal and territorial jurisdiction were gradually
+usurped by the commanders of the provinces; the right of peace
+and war, of life and death, of coinage and taxation, of foreign
+alliance and domestic economy. Whatever had been seized by
+violence, was ratified by favor or distress, was granted as the
+price of a doubtful vote or a voluntary service; whatever had
+been granted to one could not, without injury, be denied to his
+successor or equal; and every act of local or temporary
+possession was insensibly moulded into the constitution of the
+Germanic kingdom.  In every province, the visible presence of the
+duke or count was interposed between the throne and the nobles;
+the subjects of the law became the vassals of a private chief;
+and the standard which he received from his sovereign, was often
+raised against him in the field.  The temporal power of the
+clergy was cherished and exalted by the superstition or policy of
+the Carlovingian and Saxon dynasties, who blindly depended on
+their moderation and fidelity; and the bishoprics of Germany were
+made equal in extent and privilege, superior in wealth and
+population, to the most ample states of the military order.  As
+long as the emperors retained the prerogative of bestowing on
+every vacancy these ecclesiastic and secular benefices, their
+cause was maintained by the gratitude or ambition of their
+friends and favorites. But in the quarrel of the investitures,
+they were deprived of their influence over the episcopal
+chapters; the freedom of election was restored, and the sovereign
+was reduced, by a solemn mockery, to his first prayers, the
+recommendation, once in his reign, to a single prebend in each
+church.  The secular governors, instead of being recalled at the
+will of a superior, could be degraded only by the sentence of
+their peers.  In the first age of the monarchy, the appointment
+of the son to the duchy or county of his father, was solicited as
+a favor; it was gradually obtained as a custom, and extorted as a
+right: the lineal succession was often extended to the collateral
+or female branches; the states of the empire (their popular, and
+at length their legal, appellation) were divided and alienated by
+testament and sale; and all idea of a public trust was lost in
+that of a private and perpetual inheritance.  The emperor could
+not even be enriched by the casualties of forfeiture and
+extinction: within the term of a year, he was obliged to dispose
+of the vacant fief; and, in the choice of the candidate, it was
+his duty to consult either the general or the provincial diet.
+
+After the death of Frederic the Second, Germany was left a
+monster with a hundred heads.  A crowd of princes and prelates
+disputed the ruins of the empire: the lords of innumerable
+castles were less prone to obey, than to imitate, their
+superiors; and, according to the measure of their strength, their
+incessant hostilities received the names of conquest or robbery.
+Such anarchy was the inevitable consequence of the laws and
+manners of Europe; and the kingdoms of France and Italy were
+shivered into fragments by the violence of the same tempest.  But
+the Italian cities and the French vassals were divided and
+destroyed, while the union of the Germans has produced, under the
+name of an empire, a great system of a federative republic.  In
+the frequent and at last the perpetual institution of diets, a
+national spirit was kept alive, and the powers of a common
+legislature are still exercised by the three branches or colleges
+of the electors, the princes, and the free and Imperial cities of
+Germany.  I. Seven of the most powerful feudatories were
+permitted to assume, with a distinguished name and rank, the
+exclusive privilege of choosing the Roman emperor; and these
+electors were the king of Bohemia, the duke of Saxony, the
+margrave of Brandenburgh, the count palatine of the Rhine, and
+the three archbishops of Mentz, of Treves, and of Cologne.  II.
+The college of princes and prelates purged themselves of a
+promiscuous multitude: they reduced to four representative votes
+the long series of independent counts, and excluded the nobles or
+equestrian order, sixty thousand of whom, as in the Polish diets,
+had appeared on horseback in the field of election. III. The
+pride of birth and dominion, of the sword and the mitre, wisely
+adopted the commons as the third branch of the legislature, and,
+in the progress of society, they were introduced about the same
+aera into the national assemblies of France England, and Germany.
+
+The Hanseatic League commanded the trade and navigation of the
+north: the confederates of the Rhine secured the peace and
+intercourse of the inland country; the influence of the cities
+has been adequate to their wealth and policy, and their negative
+still invalidates the acts of the two superior colleges of
+electors and princes. ^149
+
+[Footnote 149: In the immense labyrinth of the jus publicum of
+Germany, I must either quote one writer or a thousand; and I had
+rather trust to one faithful guide, than transcribe, on credit, a
+multitude of names and passages.  That guide is M. Pfeffel, the
+author of the best legal and constitutional history that I know
+of any country, (Nouvel Abrege Chronologique de l'Histoire et du
+Droit public Allemagne; Paris, 1776, 2 vols. in 4to.) His
+learning and judgment have discerned the most interesting facts;
+his simple brevity comprises them in a narrow space. His
+chronological order distributes them under the proper dates; and
+an elaborate index collects them under their respective heads.
+To this work, in a less perfect state, Dr. Robertson was
+gratefully indebted for that masterly sketch which traces even
+the modern changes of the Germanic body. The Corpus Historiae
+Germanicae of Struvius has been likewise consulted, the more
+usefully, as that huge compilation is fortified in every page
+with the original texts.
+
+Note: For the rise and progress of the Hanseatic League,
+consult the authoritative history by Sartorius; Geschichte des
+Hanseatischen Bandes & Theile, Gottingen, 1802.  New and improved
+edition by Lappenberg Elamburg, 1830.  The original Hanseatic
+League comprehended Cologne and many of the great cities in the
+Netherlands and on the Rhine. - M.]
+
+It is in the fourteenth century that we may view in the
+strongest light the state and contrast of the Roman empire of
+Germany, which no longer held, except on the borders of the Rhine
+and Danube, a single province of Trajan or Constantine.  Their
+unworthy successors were the counts of Hapsburgh, of Nassau, of
+Luxemburgh, and Schwartzenburgh: the emperor Henry the Seventh
+procured for his son the crown of Bohemia, and his grandson
+Charles the Fourth was born among a people strange and barbarous
+in the estimation of the Germans themselves. ^150 After the
+excommunication of Lewis of Bavaria, he received the gift or
+promise of the vacant empire from the Roman pontiffs, who, in the
+exile and captivity of Avignon, affected the dominion of the
+earth.  The death of his competitors united the electoral
+college, and Charles was unanimously saluted king of the Romans,
+and future emperor; a title which, in the same age, was
+prostituted to the Caesars of Germany and Greece.  The German
+emperor was no more than the elective and impotent magistrate of
+an aristocracy of princes, who had not left him a village that he
+might call his own.  His best prerogative was the right of
+presiding and proposing in the national senate, which was
+convened at his summons; and his native kingdom of Bohemia, less
+opulent than the adjacent city of Nuremberg, was the firmest seat
+of his power and the richest source of his revenue.  The army
+with which he passed the Alps consisted of three hundred horse.
+In the cathedral of St. Ambrose, Charles was crowned with the
+iron crown, which tradition ascribed to the Lombard monarchy; but
+he was admitted only with a peaceful train; the gates of the city
+were shut upon him; and the king of Italy was held a captive by
+the arms of the Visconti, whom he confirmed in the sovereignty of
+Milan.  In the Vatican he was again crowned with the golden crown
+of the empire; but, in obedience to a secret treaty, the Roman
+emperor immediately withdrew, without reposing a single night
+within the walls of Rome.  The eloquent Petrarch, ^151 whose
+fancy revived the visionary glories of the Capitol, deplores and
+upbraids the ignominious flight of the Bohemian; and even his
+contemporaries could observe, that the sole exercise of his
+authority was in the lucrative sale of privileges and titles.
+The gold of Italy secured the election of his son; but such was
+the shameful poverty of the Roman emperor, that his person was
+arrested by a butcher in the streets of Worms, and was detained
+in the public inn, as a pledge or hostage for the payment of his
+expenses.
+
+[Footnote 150: Yet, personally, Charles IV. must not be
+considered as a Barbarian.  After his education at Paris, he
+recovered the use of the Bohemian, his native, idiom; and the
+emperor conversed and wrote with equal facility in French, Latin,
+Italian, and German, (Struvius, p. 615, 616.) Petrarch always
+represents him as a polite and learned prince.]
+
+[Footnote 151: Besides the German and Italian historians, the
+expedition of Charles IV. is painted in lively and original
+colors in the curious Memoires sur la Vie de Petrarque, tom. iii.
+p. 376 - 430, by the Abbe de Sade, whose prolixity has never been
+blamed by any reader of taste and curiosity.]
+
+From this humiliating scene, let us turn to the apparent
+majesty of the same Charles in the diets of the empire.  The
+golden bull, which fixes the Germanic constitution, is
+promulgated in the style of a sovereign and legislator.  A
+hundred princes bowed before his throne, and exalted their own
+dignity by the voluntary honors which they yielded to their chief
+or minister. At the royal banquet, the hereditary great officers,
+the seven electors, who in rank and title were equal to kings,
+performed their solemn and domestic service of the palace.  The
+seals of the triple kingdom were borne in state by the
+archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and Treves, the perpetual
+arch-chancellors of Germany, Italy, and Arles.  The great
+marshal, on horseback, exercised his function with a silver
+measure of oats, which he emptied on the ground, and immediately
+dismounted to regulate the order of the guests The great steward,
+the count palatine of the Rhine, place the dishes on the table.
+The great chamberlain, the margrave of Brandenburgh, presented,
+after the repast, the golden ewer and basin, to wash.  The king
+of Bohemia, as great cup-bearer, was represented by the emperor's
+brother, the duke of Luxemburgh and Brabant; and the procession
+was closed by the great huntsmen, who introduced a boar and a
+stag, with a loud chorus of horns and hounds. ^152 Nor was the
+supremacy of the emperor confined to Germany alone: the
+hereditary monarchs of Europe confessed the preeminence of his
+rank and dignity: he was the first of the Christian princes, the
+temporal head of the great republic of the West: ^153 to his
+person the title of majesty was long appropriated; and he
+disputed with the pope the sublime prerogative of creating kings
+and assembling councils. The oracle of the civil law, the learned
+Bartolus, was a pensioner of Charles the Fourth; and his school
+resounded with the doctrine, that the Roman emperor was the
+rightful sovereign of the earth, from the rising to the setting
+sun. The contrary opinion was condemned, not as an error, but as
+a heresy, since even the gospel had pronounced, "And there went
+forth a decree from Caesar Augustus, that all the world should be
+taxed." ^154
+
+[Footnote 152: See the whole ceremony in Struvius, p. 629]
+
+[Footnote 153: The republic of Europe, with the pope and emperor
+at its head, was never represented with more dignity than in the
+council of Constance.  See Lenfant's History of that assembly.]
+
+[Footnote 154: Gravina, Origines Juris Civilis, p. 108.]
+
+If we annihilate the interval of time and space between
+Augustus and Charles, strong and striking will be the contrast
+between the two Caesars; the Bohemian who concealed his weakness
+under the mask of ostentation, and the Roman, who disguised his
+strength under the semblance of modesty.  At the head of his
+victorious legions, in his reign over the sea and land, from the
+Nile and Euphrates to the Atlantic Ocean, Augustus professed
+himself the servant of the state and the equal of his
+fellow-citizens.  The conqueror of Rome and her provinces assumed
+a popular and legal form of a censor, a consul, and a tribune.
+His will was the law of mankind, but in the declaration of his
+laws he borrowed the voice of the senate and people; and from
+their decrees their master accepted and renewed his temporary
+commission to administer the republic.  In his dress, his
+domestics, ^155 his titles, in all the offices of social life,
+Augustus maintained the character of a private Roman; and his
+most artful flatterers respected the secret of his absolute and
+perpetual monarchy.
+
+[Footnote 155: Six thousand urns have been discovered of the
+slaves and freedmen of Augustus and Livia.  So minute was the
+division of office, that one slave was appointed to weigh the
+wool which was spun by the empress's maids, another for the care
+of her lap-dog, &c., (Camera Sepolchrale, by Bianchini.  Extract
+of his work in the Bibliotheque Italique, tom. iv. p. 175. His
+Eloge, by Fontenelle, tom. vi. p. 356.) But these servants were
+of the same rank, and possibly not more numerous than those of
+Pollio or Lentulus. They only prove the general riches of the
+city.]
+
+
+
+Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.
+
+Part I.
+
+Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants. - Birth,
+Character, And Doctrine Of Mahomet. - He Preaches At Mecca. -
+Flies To Medina. - Propagates His Religion By The Sword. -
+Voluntary Or Reluctant Submission Of The Arabs. - His Death And
+Successors. - The Claims And Fortunes Of All And His Descendants.
+
+After pursuing above six hundred years the fleeting Caesars
+of Constantinople and Germany, I now descend, in the reign of
+Heraclius, on the eastern borders of the Greek monarchy.  While
+the state was exhausted by the Persian war, and the church was
+distracted by the Nestorian and Monophysite sects, Mahomet, with
+the sword in one hand and the Koran in the other, erected his
+throne on the ruins of Christianity and of Rome.  The genius of
+the Arabian prophet, the manners of his nation, and the spirit of
+his religion, involve the causes of the decline and fall of the
+Eastern empire; and our eyes are curiously intent on one of the
+most memorable revolutions, which have impressed a new and
+lasting character on the nations of the globe. ^1
+
+[Footnote 1: As in this and the following chapter I shall display
+much Arabic learning, I must profess my total ignorance of the
+Oriental tongues, and my gratitude to the learned interpreters,
+who have transfused their science into the Latin, French, and
+English languages.  Their collections, versions, and histories, I
+shall occasionally notice.]
+
+In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and
+Aethiopia, the Arabian peninsula ^2 may be conceived as a
+triangle of spacious but irregular dimensions.  From the northern
+point of Beles ^3 on the Euphrates, a line of fifteen hundred
+miles is terminated by the Straits of Bebelmandel and the land of
+frankincense.  About half this length may be allowed for the
+middle breadth, from east to west, from Bassora to Suez, from the
+Persian Gulf to the Red Sea. ^4 The sides of the triangle are
+gradually enlarged, and the southern basis presents a front of a
+thousand miles to the Indian Ocean.  The entire surface of the
+peninsula exceeds in a fourfold proportion that of Germany or
+France; but the far greater part has been justly stigmatized with
+the epithets of the stony and the sandy. Even the wilds of
+Tartary are decked, by the hand of nature, with lofty trees and
+luxuriant herbage; and the lonesome traveller derives a sort of
+comfort and society from the presence of vegetable life. But in
+the dreary waste of Arabia, a boundless level of sand is
+intersected by sharp and naked mountains; and the face of the
+desert, without shade or shelter, is scorched by the direct and
+intense rays of a tropical sun. Instead of refreshing breezes,
+the winds, particularly from the south-west, diffuse a noxious
+and even deadly vapor; the hillocks of sand which they
+alternately raise and scatter, are compared to the billows of the
+ocean, and whole caravans, whole armies, have been lost and
+buried in the whirlwind.  The common benefits of water are an
+object of desire and contest; and such is the scarcity of wood,
+that some art is requisite to preserve and propagate the element
+of fire.  Arabia is destitute of navigable rivers, which
+fertilize the soil, and convey its produce to the adjacent
+regions: the torrents that fall from the hills are imbibed by the
+thirsty earth: the rare and hardy plants, the tamarind or the
+acacia, that strike their roots into the clefts of the rocks, are
+nourished by the dews of the night: a scanty supply of rain is
+collected in cisterns and aqueducts: the wells and springs are
+the secret treasure of the desert; and the pilgrim of Mecca, ^5
+after many a dry and sultry march, is disgusted by the taste of
+the waters which have rolled over a bed of sulphur or salt.  Such
+is the general and genuine picture of the climate of Arabia.  The
+experience of evil enhances the value of any local or partial
+enjoyments.  A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh
+water, are sufficient to attract a colony of sedentary Arabs to
+the fortunate spots which can afford food and refreshment to
+themselves and their cattle, and which encourage their industry
+in the cultivation of the palmtree and the vine.  The high lands
+that border on the Indian Ocean are distinguished by their
+superior plenty of wood and water; the air is more temperate, the
+fruits are more delicious, the animals and the human race more
+numerous: the fertility of the soil invites and rewards the toil
+of the husbandman; and the peculiar gifts of frankincense ^6 and
+coffee have attracted in different ages the merchants of the
+world.  If it be compared with the rest of the peninsula, this
+sequestered region may truly deserve the appellation of the
+happy; and the splendid coloring of fancy and fiction has been
+suggested by contrast, and countenanced by distance.  It was for
+this earthly paradise that Nature had reserved her choicest
+favors and her most curious workmanship: the incompatible
+blessings of luxury and innocence were ascribed to the natives:
+the soil was impregnated with gold ^7 and gems, and both the land
+and sea were taught to exhale the odors of aromatic sweets.  This
+division of the sandy, the stony, and the happy, so familiar to
+the Greeks and Latins, is unknown to the Arabians themselves; and
+it is singular enough, that a country, whose language and
+inhabitants have ever been the same, should scarcely retain a
+vestige of its ancient geography.  The maritime districts of
+Bahrein and Oman are opposite to the realm of Persia.  The
+kingdom of Yemen displays the limits, or at least the situation,
+of Arabia Felix: the name of Neged is extended over the inland
+space; and the birth of Mahomet has illustrated the province of
+Hejaz along the coast of the Red Sea. ^8
+
+[Footnote 2: The geographers of Arabia may be divided into three
+classes: 1. The Greeks and Latins, whose progressive knowledge
+may be traced in Agatharcides, (de Mari Rubro, in Hudson,
+Geograph. Minor. tom. i.,) Diodorus Siculus, (tom. i. l. ii. p.
+159 - 167, l. iii. p. 211 - 216, edit. Wesseling,) Strabo, (l.
+xvi. p. 1112 - 1114, from Eratosthenes, p. 1122 - 1132, from
+Artemidorus,) Dionysius, (Periegesis, 927 - 969,) Pliny, (Hist.
+Natur. v. 12, vi. 32,) and Ptolemy, (Descript. et Tabulae Urbium,
+in Hudson, tom. iii.) 2. The Arabic writers, who have treated the
+subject with the zeal of patriotism or devotion: the extracts of
+Pocock (Specimen Hist. Arabum, p. 125 - 128) from the Geography
+of the Sherif al Edrissi, render us still more dissatisfied with
+the version or abridgment (p. 24 - 27, 44 - 56, 108, &c., 119,
+&c.) which the Maronites have published under the absurd title of
+Geographia Nubiensis, (Paris, 1619;) but the Latin and French
+translators, Greaves (in Hudson, tom. iii.) and Galland, (Voyage
+de la Palestine par La Roque, p. 265 - 346,) have opened to us
+the Arabia of Abulfeda, the most copious and correct account of
+the peninsula, which may be enriched, however, from the
+Bibliotheque Orientale of D'Herbelot, p. 120, et alibi passim.
+3. The European travellers; among whom Shaw (p. 438 - 455) and
+Niebuhr (Description, 1773; Voyages, tom. i. 1776) deserve an
+honorable distinction: Busching (Geographie par Berenger, tom.
+viii. p. 416 - 510) has compiled with judgment, and D'Anville's
+Maps (Orbis Veteribus Notus, and 1re Partie de l'Asie) should lie
+before the reader, with his Geographie Ancienne, tom. ii. p. 208
+- 231.
+
+Note: Of modern travellers may be mentioned the adventurer
+who called himself Ali Bey; but above all, the intelligent, the
+enterprising the accurate Burckhardt. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Abulfed. Descript. Arabiae, p. 1.  D'Anville,
+l'Euphrate et le Tigre, p. 19, 20.  It was in this place, the
+paradise or garden of a satrap, that Xenophon and the Greeks
+first passed the Euphrates, (Anabasis, l. i. c. 10, p. 29, edit.
+Wells.)]
+
+[Footnote 4: Reland has proved, with much superfluous learning,
+
+1. That our Red Sea (the Arabian Gulf) is no more than a
+part of the Mare Rubrum, which was extended to the indefinite
+space of the Indian Ocean.
+
+2. That the synonymous words, allude to the color of the
+blacks or negroes, (Dissert Miscell. tom. i. p. 59 - 117.)]
+
+[Footnote 5: In the thirty days, or stations, between Cairo and
+Mecca, there are fifteen destitute of good water.  See the route
+of the Hadjees, in Shaw's Travels, p. 477.]
+
+[Footnote 6: The aromatics, especially the thus, or frankincense,
+of Arabia, occupy the xiith book of Pliny.  Our great poet
+(Paradise Lost, l. iv.) introduces, in a simile, the spicy odors
+that are blown by the north- east wind from the Sabaean coast: -
+
+ - Many a league,
+Pleased with the grateful scent, old Ocean smiles.
+(Plin. Hist. Natur. xii. 42.)]
+
+[Footnote 7: Agatharcides affirms, that lumps of pure gold were
+found, from the size of an olive to that of a nut; that iron was
+twice, and silver ten times, the value of gold, (de Mari Rubro,
+p. 60.) These real or imaginary treasures are vanished; and no
+gold mines are at present known in Arabia, (Niebuhr, Description,
+p. 124.)
+
+Note: A brilliant passage in the geographical poem of
+Dionysius Periegetes embodies the notions of the ancients on the
+wealth and fertility of Yemen.  Greek mythology, and the
+traditions of the "gorgeous east," of India as well as Arabia,
+are mingled together in indiscriminate splendor. Compare on the
+southern coast of Arabia, the recent travels of Lieut. Wellsted -
+M.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Consult, peruse, and study the Specimen Hostoriae
+Arabum of Pocock, (Oxon. 1650, in 4to.) The thirty pages of text
+and version are extracted from the Dynasties of Gregory
+Abulpharagius, which Pocock afterwards translated, (Oxon. 1663,
+in 4to.;) the three hundred and fifty- eight notes form a classic
+and original work on the Arabian antiquities.]
+
+The measure of population is regulated by the means of
+subsistence; and the inhabitants of this vast peninsula might be
+outnumbered by the subjects of a fertile and industrious
+province. Along the shores of the Persian Gulf, of the ocean, and
+even of the Red Sea, the Icthyophagi, ^9 or fish eaters,
+continued to wander in quest of their precarious food.  In this
+primitive and abject state, which ill deserves the name of
+society, the human brute, without arts or laws, almost without
+sense or language, is poorly distinguished from the rest of the
+animal creation.  Generations and ages might roll away in silent
+oblivion, and the helpless savage was restrained from multiplying
+his race by the wants and pursuits which confined his existence
+to the narrow margin of the seacoast.  But in an early period of
+antiquity the great body of the Arabs had emerged from this scene
+of misery; and as the naked wilderness could not maintain a
+people of hunters, they rose at once to the more secure and
+plentiful condition of the pastoral life.  The same life is
+uniformly pursued by the roving tribes of the desert; and in the
+portrait of the modern Bedoweens, we may trace the features of
+their ancestors, ^10 who, in the age of Moses or Mahomet, dwelt
+under similar tents, and conducted their horses, and camels, and
+sheep, to the same springs and the same pastures.  Our toil is
+lessened, and our wealth is increased, by our dominion over the
+useful animals; and the Arabian shepherd had acquired the
+absolute possession of a faithful friend and a laborious slave.
+^11 Arabia, in the opinion of the naturalist, is the genuine and
+original country of the horse; the climate most propitious, not
+indeed to the size, but to the spirit and swiftness, of that
+generous animal.  The merit of the Barb, the Spanish, and the
+English breed, is derived from a mixture of Arabian blood: ^12
+the Bedoweens preserve, with superstitious care, the honors and
+the memory of the purest race: the males are sold at a high
+price, but the females are seldom alienated; and the birth of a
+noble foal was esteemed among the tribes, as a subject of joy and
+mutual congratulation.  These horses are educated in the tents,
+among the children of the Arabs, with a tender familiarity, which
+trains them in the habits of gentleness and attachment.  They are
+accustomed only to walk and to gallop: their sensations are not
+blunted by the incessant abuse of the spur and the whip: their
+powers are reserved for the moments of flight and pursuit: but no
+sooner do they feel the touch of the hand or the stirrup, than
+they dart away with the swiftness of the wind; and if their
+friend be dismounted in the rapid career, they instantly stop
+till he has recovered his seat.  In the sands of Africa and
+Arabia, the camel is a sacred and precious gift.  That strong and
+patient beast of burden can perform, without eating or drinking,
+a journey of several days; and a reservoir of fresh water is
+preserved in a large bag, a fifth stomach of the animal, whose
+body is imprinted with the marks of servitude: the larger breed
+is capable of transporting a weight of a thousand pounds; and the
+dromedary, of a lighter and more active frame, outstrips the
+fleetest courser in the race.  Alive or dead, almost every part
+of the camel is serviceable to man: her milk is plentiful and
+nutritious: the young and tender flesh has the taste of veal: ^13
+a valuable salt is extracted from the urine: the dung supplies
+the deficiency of fuel; and the long hair, which falls each year
+and is renewed, is coarsely manufactured into the garments, the
+furniture, and the tents of the Bedoweens.  In the rainy seasons,
+they consume the rare and insufficient herbage of the desert:
+during the heats of summer and the scarcity of winter, they
+remove their encampments to the sea-coast, the hills of Yemen, or
+the neighborhood of the Euphrates, and have often extorted the
+dangerous license of visiting the banks of the Nile, and the
+villages of Syria and Palestine.  The life of a wandering Arab is
+a life of danger and distress; and though sometimes, by rapine or
+exchange, he may appropriate the fruits of industry, a private
+citizen in Europe is in the possession of more solid and pleasing
+luxury than the proudest emir, who marches in the field at the
+head of ten thousand horse.
+
+[Footnote 9: Arrian remarks the Icthyophagi of the coast of
+Hejez, (Periplus Maris Erythraei, p. 12,) and beyond Aden, (p.
+15.) It seems probable that the shores of the Red Sea (in the
+largest sense) were occupied by these savages in the time,
+perhaps, of Cyrus; but I can hardly believe that any cannibals
+were left among the savages in the reign of Justinian.  (Procop.
+de Bell. Persic. l. i. c. 19.)]
+
+[Footnote 10: See the Specimen Historiae Arabum of Pocock, p. 2,
+5, 86, &c. The journey of M. d'Arvieux, in 1664, to the camp of
+the emir of Mount Carmel, (Voyage de la Palestine, Amsterdam,
+1718,) exhibits a pleasing and original picture of the life of
+the Bedoweens, which may be illustrated from Niebuhr (Description
+de l'Arabie, p. 327 - 344) and Volney, (tom. i. p. 343 - 385,)
+the last and most judicious of our Syrian travellers.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Read (it is no unpleasing task) the incomparable
+articles of the Horse and the Camel, in the Natural History of M.
+de Buffon.]
+
+[Footnote 12: For the Arabian horses, see D'Arvieux (p. 159 -
+173) and Niebuhr, (p. 142 - 144.) At the end of the xiiith
+century, the horses of Neged were esteemed sure-footed, those of
+Yemen strong and serviceable, those of Hejaz most noble.  The
+horses of Europe, the tenth and last class, were generally
+despised as having too much body and too little spirit,
+(D'Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 339: ) their strength was
+requisite to bear the weight of the knight and his armor]
+
+[Footnote 13: Qui carnibus camelorum vesci solent odii tenaces
+sunt, was the opinion of an Arabian physician, (Pocock, Specimen,
+p. 88.) Mahomet himself, who was fond of milk, prefers the cow,
+and does not even mention the camel; but the diet of Mecca and
+Medina was already more luxurious, (Gagnier Vie de Mahomet, tom.
+iii. p. 404.)]
+
+Yet an essential difference may be found between the hordes
+of Scythia and the Arabian tribes; since many of the latter were
+collected into towns, and employed in the labors of trade and
+agriculture.  A part of their time and industry was still devoted
+to the management of their cattle: they mingled, in peace and
+war, with their brethren of the desert; and the Bedoweens derived
+from their useful intercourse some supply of their wants, and
+some rudiments of art and knowledge.  Among the forty-two cities
+of Arabia, ^14 enumerated by Abulfeda, the most ancient and
+populous were situate in the happy Yemen: the towers of Saana,
+^15 and the marvellous reservoir of Merab, ^16 were constructed
+by the kings of the Homerites; but their profane lustre was
+eclipsed by the prophetic glories of Medina ^17 and Mecca, ^18
+near the Red Sea, and at the distance from each other of two
+hundred and seventy miles. The last of these holy places was
+known to the Greeks under the name of Macoraba; and the
+termination of the word is expressive of its greatness, which has
+not, indeed, in the most flourishing period, exceeded the size
+and populousness of Marseilles.  Some latent motive, perhaps of
+superstition, must have impelled the founders, in the choice of a
+most unpromising situation. They erected their habitations of mud
+or stone, in a plain about two miles long and one mile broad, at
+the foot of three barren mountains: the soil is a rock; the water
+even of the holy well of Zemzem is bitter or brackish; the
+pastures are remote from the city; and grapes are transported
+above seventy miles from the gardens of Tayef.  The fame and
+spirit of the Koreishites, who reigned in Mecca, were conspicuous
+among the Arabian tribes; but their ungrateful soil refused the
+labors of agriculture, and their position was favorable to the
+enterprises of trade.  By the seaport of Gedda, at the distance
+only of forty miles, they maintained an easy correspondence with
+Abyssinia; and that Christian kingdom afforded the first refuge
+to the disciples of Mahomet.  The treasures of Africa were
+conveyed over the Peninsula to Gerrha or Katif, in the province
+of Bahrein, a city built, as it is said, of rock-salt, by the
+Chaldaean exiles; ^19 and from thence with the native pearls of
+the Persian Gulf, they were floated on rafts to the mouth of the
+Euphrates.  Mecca is placed almost at an equal distance, a
+month's journey, between Yemen on the right, and Syria on the
+left hand.  The former was the winter, the latter the summer,
+station of her caravans; and their seasonable arrival relieved
+the ships of India from the tedious and troublesome navigation of
+the Red Sea.  In the markets of Saana and Merab, in the harbors
+of Oman and Aden, the camels of the Koreishites were laden with a
+precious cargo of aromatics; a supply of corn and manufactures
+was purchased in the fairs of Bostra and Damascus; the lucrative
+exchange diffused plenty and riches in the streets of Mecca; and
+the noblest of her sons united the love of arms with the
+profession of merchandise. ^20
+
+[Footnote 14: Yet Marcian of Heraclea (in Periplo, p. 16, in tom.
+i. Hudson, Minor. Geograph.) reckons one hundred and sixty-four
+towns in Arabia Felix. The size of the towns might be small - the
+faith of the writer might be large.]
+
+[Footnote 15: It is compared by Abulfeda (in Hudson, tom. ii. p.
+54) to Damascus, and is still the residence of the Iman of Yemen,
+(Voyages de Niebuhr, tom. i. p. 331 - 342.) Saana is twenty-four
+parasangs from Dafar, (Abulfeda, p. 51,) and sixty-eight from
+Aden, (p. 53.)]
+
+[Footnote 16: Pocock, Specimen, p. 57.  Geograph. Nubiensis, p.
+52. Meriaba, or Merab, six miles in circumference, was destroyed
+by the legions of Augustus, (Plin. Hist. Nat. vi. 32,) and had
+not revived in the xivth century, (Abulfed. Descript. Arab. p.
+58.)
+
+Note: See note 2 to chap. i.  The destruction of Meriaba by
+the Romans is doubtful.  The town never recovered the inundation
+which took place from the bursting of a large reservoir of water
+- an event of great importance in the Arabian annals, and
+discussed at considerable length by modern Orientalists. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 17: The name of city, Medina, was appropriated, to
+Yatreb. (the Iatrippa of the Greeks,) the seat of the prophet.
+The distances from Medina are reckoned by Abulfeda in stations,
+or days' journey of a caravan, (p. 15: ) to Bahrein, xv.; to
+Bassora, xviii.; to Cufah, xx.; to Damascus or Palestine, xx.; to
+Cairo, xxv.; to Mecca. x.; from Mecca to Saana, (p. 52,) or Aden,
+xxx.; to Cairo, xxxi. days, or 412 hours, (Shaw's Travels, p.
+477;) which, according to the estimate of D'Anville, (Mesures
+Itineraires, p. 99,) allows about twenty-five English miles for a
+day's journey.  From the land of frankincense (Hadramaut, in
+Yemen, between Aden and Cape Fartasch) to Gaza in Syria, Pliny
+(Hist. Nat. xii. 32) computes lxv. mansions of camels.  These
+measures may assist fancy and elucidate facts.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Our notions of Mecca must be drawn from the
+Arabians, (D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 368 - 371.
+Pocock, Specimen, p. 125 - 128.  Abulfeda, p. 11 - 40.) As no
+unbeliever is permitted to enter the city, our travellers are
+silent; and the short hints of Thevenot (Voyages du Levant, part
+i. p. 490) are taken from the suspicious mouth of an African
+renegado. Some Persians counted 6000 houses, (Chardin. tom. iv.
+p. 167.)
+
+Note: Even in the time of Gibbon, Mecca had not been so
+inaccessible to Europeans.  It had been visited by Ludovico
+Barthema, and by one Joseph Pitts, of Exeter, who was taken
+prisoner by the Moors, and forcibly converted to Mahometanism.
+His volume is a curious, though plain, account of his sufferings
+and travels.  Since that time Mecca has been entered, and the
+ceremonies witnessed, by Dr. Seetzen, whose papers were
+unfortunately lost; by the Spaniard, who called himself Ali Bey;
+and, lastly, by Burckhardt, whose description leaves nothing
+wanting to satisfy the curiosity. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Strabo, l. xvi. p. 1110.  See one of these salt
+houses near Bassora, in D'Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 6.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Mirum dictu ex innumeris populis pars aequa in
+commerciis aut in latrociniis degit, (Plin. Hist. Nat. vi. 32.)
+See Sale's Koran, Sura. cvi. p. 503.  Pocock, Specimen, p. 2.
+D'Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 361. Prideaux's Life of Mahomet,
+p. 5.  Gagnier, Vie de Mahomet, tom. i. p. 72, 120, 126, &c.]
+
+The perpetual independence of the Arabs has been the theme
+of praise among strangers and natives; and the arts of
+controversy transform this singular event into a prophecy and a
+miracle, in favor of the posterity of Ismael. ^21 Some
+exceptions, that can neither be dismissed nor eluded, render this
+mode of reasoning as indiscreet as it is superfluous; the kingdom
+of Yemen has been successively subdued by the Abyssinians, the
+Persians, the sultans of Egypt, ^22 and the Turks; ^23 the holy
+cities of Mecca and Medina have repeatedly bowed under a Scythian
+tyrant; and the Roman province of Arabia ^24 embraced the
+peculiar wilderness in which Ismael and his sons must have
+pitched their tents in the face of their brethren.  Yet these
+exceptions are temporary or local; the body of the nation has
+escaped the yoke of the most powerful monarchies: the arms of
+Sesostris and Cyrus, of Pompey and Trajan, could never achieve
+the conquest of Arabia; the present sovereign of the Turks ^25
+may exercise a shadow of jurisdiction, but his pride is reduced
+to solicit the friendship of a people, whom it is dangerous to
+provoke, and fruitless to attack.  The obvious causes of their
+freedom are inscribed on the character and country of the Arabs.
+Many ages before Mahomet, ^26 their intrepid valor had been
+severely felt by their neighbors in offensive and defensive war.
+The patient and active virtues of a soldier are insensibly nursed
+in the habits and discipline of a pastoral life.  The care of the
+sheep and camels is abandoned to the women of the tribe; but the
+martial youth, under the banner of the emir, is ever on
+horseback, and in the field, to practise the exercise of the bow,
+the javelin, and the cimeter.  The long memory of their
+independence is the firmest pledge of its perpetuity and
+succeeding generations are animated to prove their descent, and
+to maintain their inheritance.  Their domestic feuds are
+suspended on the approach of a common enemy; and in their last
+hostilities against the Turks, the caravan of Mecca was attacked
+and pillaged by fourscore thousand of the confederates. When they
+advance to battle, the hope of victory is in the front; in the
+rear, the assurance of a retreat.  Their horses and camels, who,
+in eight or ten days, can perform a march of four or five hundred
+miles, disappear before the conqueror; the secret waters of the
+desert elude his search, and his victorious troops are consumed
+with thirst, hunger, and fatigue, in the pursuit of an invisible
+foe, who scorns his efforts, and safely reposes in the heart of
+the burning solitude.  The arms and deserts of the Bedoweens are
+not only the safeguards of their own freedom, but the barriers
+also of the happy Arabia, whose inhabitants, remote from war, are
+enervated by the luxury of the soil and climate.  The legions of
+Augustus melted away in disease and lassitude; ^27 and it is only
+by a naval power that the reduction of Yemen has been
+successfully attempted.  When Mahomet erected his holy standard,
+^28 that kingdom was a province of the Persian empire; yet seven
+princes of the Homerites still reigned in the mountains; and the
+vicegerent of Chosroes was tempted to forget his distant country
+and his unfortunate master.  The historians of the age of
+Justinian represent the state of the independent Arabs, who were
+divided by interest or affection in the long quarrel of the East:
+the tribe of Gassan was allowed to encamp on the Syrian
+territory: the princes of Hira were permitted to form a city
+about forty miles to the southward of the ruins of Babylon.
+Their service in the field was speedy and vigorous; but their
+friendship was venal, their faith inconstant, their enmity
+capricious: it was an easier task to excite than to disarm these
+roving barbarians; and, in the familiar intercourse of war, they
+learned to see, and to despise, the splendid weakness both of
+Rome and of Persia.  From Mecca to the Euphrates, the Arabian
+tribes ^29 were confounded by the Greeks and Latins, under the
+general appellation of Saracens, ^30 a name which every Christian
+mouth has been taught to pronounce with terror and abhorrence.
+
+[Footnote 21: A nameless doctor (Universal Hist. vol. xx. octavo
+edition) has formally demonstrated the truth of Christianity by
+the independence of the Arabs.  A critic, besides the exceptions
+of fact, might dispute the meaning of the text (Gen. xvi. 12,)
+the extent of the application, and the foundation of the
+pedigree.
+
+Note: See note 3 to chap. xlvi.  The atter point is probably
+the least contestable of the three. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 22: It was subdued, A.D. 1173, by a brother of the
+great Saladin, who founded a dynasty of Curds or Ayoubites,
+(Guignes, Hist. des Huns, tom. i. p. 425.  D'Herbelot, p. 477.)]
+
+[Footnote 23: By the lieutenant of Soliman I. (A.D. 1538) and
+Selim II., (1568.) See Cantemir's Hist. of the Othman Empire, p.
+201, 221.  The pacha, who resided at Saana, commanded twenty-one
+beys; but no revenue was ever remitted to the Porte, (Marsigli,
+Stato Militare dell' Imperio Ottomanno, p. 124,) and the Turks
+were expelled about the year 1630, (Niebuhr, p. 167, 168.)]
+
+[Footnote 24: Of the Roman province, under the name of Arabia and
+the third Palestine, the principal cities were Bostra and Petra,
+which dated their aera from the year 105, when they were subdued
+by Palma, a lieutenant of Trajan, (Dion. Cassius, l. lxviii.)
+Petra was the capital of the Nabathaeans; whose name is derived
+from the eldest of the sons of Ismael, (Gen. xxv. 12, &c., with
+the Commentaries of Jerom, Le Clerc, and Calmet.) Justinian
+relinquished a palm country of ten days' journey to the south of
+Aelah, (Procop. de Bell. Persic. l. i. c. 19,) and the Romans
+maintained a centurion and a custom-house, (Arrian in Periplo
+Maris Erythraei, p. 11, in Hudson, tom. i.,) at a place (Pagus
+Albus, Hawara) in the territory of Medina, (D'Anville, Memoire
+sur l'Egypte, p. 243.) These real possessions, and some naval
+inroads of Trajan, (Peripl. p. 14, 15,) are magnified by history
+and medals into the Roman conquest of Arabia.
+
+Note: On the ruins of Petra, see the travels of Messrs. Irby
+and Mangles, and of Leon de Laborde. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Niebuhr (Description de l'Arabie, p. 302, 303, 329
+- 331) affords the most recent and authentic intelligence of the
+Turkish empire in Arabia.
+
+Note: Niebuhr's, notwithstanding the multitude of later
+travellers, maintains its ground, as the classical work on
+Arabia. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Diodorus Siculus (tom. ii. l. xix. p. 390 - 393,
+edit. Wesseling) has clearly exposed the freedom of the
+Nabathaean Arabs, who resisted the arms of Antigonus and his
+son.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Strabo, l. xvi. p. 1127 - 1129.  Plin. Hist. Natur.
+vi. 32. Aelius Gallus landed near Medina, and marched near a
+thousand miles into the part of Yemen between Mareb and the
+Ocean.  The non ante devictis Sabeae regibus, (Od. i. 29,) and
+the intacti Arabum thesanri (Od. iii. 24) of Horace, attest the
+virgin purity of Arabia.]
+
+[Footnote 28: See the imperfect history of Yemen in Pocock,
+Specimen, p. 55 - 66, of Hira, p. 66 - 74, of Gassan, p. 75 - 78,
+as far as it could be known or preserved in the time of
+ignorance.
+
+Note: Compare the Hist. Yemanae, published by Johannsen at
+Bonn 1880 particularly the translator's preface. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 29: They are described by Menander, (Excerpt. Legation
+p. 149,) Procopius, (de Bell. Persic. l. i. c. 17, 19, l. ii. c.
+10,) and, in the most lively colors, by Ammianus Marcellinus, (l.
+xiv. c. 4,) who had spoken of them as early as the reign of
+Marcus.]
+
+[Footnote 30: The name which, used by Ptolemy and Pliny in a more
+confined, by Ammianus and Procopius in a larger, sense, has been
+derived, ridiculously, from Sarah, the wife of Abraham, obscurely
+from the village of Saraka, (Stephan. de Urbibus,) more plausibly
+from the Arabic words, which signify a thievish character, or
+Oriental situation, (Hottinger, Hist. Oriental. l. i. c. i. p. 7,
+8.  Pocock, Specimen, p. 33, 35.  Asseman. Bibliot. Orient. tom.
+iv. p. 567.) Yet the last and most popular of these etymologies
+is refuted by Ptolemy, (Arabia, p. 2, 18, in Hudson, tom. iv.,)
+who expressly remarks the western and southern position of the
+Saracens, then an obscure tribe on the borders of Egypt.  The
+appellation cannot therefore allude to any national character;
+and, since it was imposed by strangers, it must be found, not in
+the Arabic, but in a foreign language.
+
+Note: Dr. Clarke, (Travels, vol. ii. p. 491,) after
+expressing contemptuous pity for Gibbon's ignorance, derives the
+word from Zara, Zaara, Sara, the Desert, whence Saraceni, the
+children of the Desert.  De Marles adopts the derivation from
+Sarrik, a robber, (Hist. des Arabes, vol. i. p. 36, S.L. Martin
+from Scharkioun, or Sharkun, Eastern, vol. xi. p. 55. - M.]
+
+
+
+Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.
+
+Part II.
+
+The slaves of domestic tyranny may vainly exult in their
+national independence: but the Arab is personally free; and he
+enjoys, in some degree, the benefits of society, without
+forfeiting the prerogatives of nature.  In every tribe,
+superstition, or gratitude, or fortune, has exalted a particular
+family above the heads of their equals.  The dignities of sheick
+and emir invariably descend in this chosen race; but the order of
+succession is loose and precarious; and the most worthy or aged
+of the noble kinsmen are preferred to the simple, though
+important, office of composing disputes by their advice, and
+guiding valor by their example. Even a female of sense and spirit
+has been permitted to command the countrymen of Zenobia. ^31 The
+momentary junction of several tribes produces an army: their more
+lasting union constitutes a nation; and the supreme chief, the
+emir of emirs, whose banner is displayed at their head, may
+deserve, in the eyes of strangers, the honors of the kingly name.
+
+If the Arabian princes abuse their power, they are quickly
+punished by the desertion of their subjects, who had been
+accustomed to a mild and parental jurisdiction.  Their spirit is
+free, their steps are unconfined, the desert is open, and the
+tribes and families are held together by a mutual and voluntary
+compact.  The softer natives of Yemen supported the pomp and
+majesty of a monarch; but if he could not leave his palace
+without endangering his life, ^32 the active powers of government
+must have been devolved on his nobles and magistrates.  The
+cities of Mecca and Medina present, in the heart of Asia, the
+form, or rather the substance, of a commonwealth.  The
+grandfather of Mahomet, and his lineal ancestors, appear in
+foreign and domestic transactions as the princes of their
+country; but they reigned, like Pericles at Athens, or the Medici
+at Florence, by the opinion of their wisdom and integrity; their
+influence was divided with their patrimony; and the sceptre was
+transferred from the uncles of the prophet to a younger branch of
+the tribe of Koreish.  On solemn occasions they convened the
+assembly of the people; and, since mankind must be either
+compelled or persuaded to obey, the use and reputation of oratory
+among the ancient Arabs is the clearest evidence of public
+freedom. ^33 But their simple freedom was of a very different
+cast from the nice and artificial machinery of the Greek and
+Roman republics, in which each member possessed an undivided
+share of the civil and political rights of the community.  In the
+more simple state of the Arabs, the nation is free, because each
+of her sons disdains a base submission to the will of a master.
+His breast is fortified by the austere virtues of courage,
+patience, and sobriety; the love of independence prompts him to
+exercise the habits of self-command; and the fear of dishonor
+guards him from the meaner apprehension of pain, of danger, and
+of death.  The gravity and firmness of the mind is conspicuous in
+his outward demeanor; his speech is low, weighty, and concise; he
+is seldom provoked to laughter; his only gesture is that of
+stroking his beard, the venerable symbol of manhood; and the
+sense of his own importance teaches him to accost his equals
+without levity, and his superiors without awe. ^34 The liberty of
+the Saracens survived their conquests: the first caliphs indulged
+the bold and familiar language of their subjects; they ascended
+the pulpit to persuade and edify the congregation; nor was it
+before the seat of empire was removed to the Tigris, that the
+Abbasides adopted the proud and pompous ceremonial of the Persian
+and Byzantine courts.
+
+[Footnote 31: Saraceni ... mulieres aiunt in eos regnare,
+(Expositio totius Mundi, p. 3, in Hudson, tom. iii.) The reign of
+Mavia is famous in ecclesiastical story Pocock, Specimen, p. 69,
+83.]
+
+[Footnote 32: The report of Agatharcides, (de Mari Rubro, p. 63,
+64, in Hudson, tom. i.) Diodorus Siculus, (tom. i. l. iii. c. 47,
+p. 215,) and Strabo, (l. xvi. p. 1124.) But I much suspect that
+this is one of the popular tales, or extraordinary accidents,
+which the credulity of travellers so often transforms into a
+fact, a custom, and a law.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Non gloriabantur antiquitus Arabes, nisi gladio,
+hospite, et eloquentia (Sephadius apud Pocock, Specimen, p. 161,
+162.) This gift of speech they shared only with the Persians; and
+the sententious Arabs would probably have disdained the simple
+and sublime logic of Demosthenes.]
+
+[Footnote 34: I must remind the reader that D'Arvieux,
+D'Herbelot, and Niebuhr, represent, in the most lively colors,
+the manners and government of the Arabs, which are illustrated by
+many incidental passages in the Life of Mahomet.
+
+Note: See, likewise the curious romance of Antar, the most
+vivid and authentic picture of Arabian manners. - M.]
+
+In the study of nations and men, we may observe the causes
+that render them hostile or friendly to each other, that tend to
+narrow or enlarge, to mollify or exasperate, the social
+character.  The separation of the Arabs from the rest of mankind
+has accustomed them to confound the ideas of stranger and enemy;
+and the poverty of the land has introduced a maxim of
+jurisprudence, which they believe and practise to the present
+hour.  They pretend, that, in the division of the earth, the rich
+and fertile climates were assigned to the other branches of the
+human family; and that the posterity of the outlaw Ismael might
+recover, by fraud or force, the portion of inheritance of which
+he had been unjustly deprived.  According to the remark of Pliny,
+the Arabian tribes are equally addicted to theft and merchandise;
+the caravans that traverse the desert are ransomed or pillaged;
+and their neighbors, since the remote times of Job and Sesostris,
+^35 have been the victims of their rapacious spirit.  If a
+Bedoween discovers from afar a solitary traveller, he rides
+furiously against him, crying, with a loud voice, "Undress
+thyself, thy aunt (my wife) is without a garment." A ready
+submission entitles him to mercy; resistance will provoke the
+aggressor, and his own blood must expiate the blood which he
+presumes to shed in legitimate defence.  A single robber, or a
+few associates, are branded with their genuine name; but the
+exploits of a numerous band assume the character of lawful and
+honorable war.  The temper of a people thus armed against mankind
+was doubly inflamed by the domestic license of rapine, murder,
+and revenge.  In the constitution of Europe, the right of peace
+and war is now confined to a small, and the actual exercise to a
+much smaller, list of respectable potentates; but each Arab, with
+impunity and renown, might point his javelin against the life of
+his countrymen.  The union of the nation consisted only in a
+vague resemblance of language and manners; and in each community,
+the jurisdiction of the magistrate was mute and impotent.  Of the
+time of ignorance which preceded Mahomet, seventeen hundred
+battles ^36 are recorded by tradition: hostility was imbittered
+with the rancor of civil faction; and the recital, in prose or
+verse, of an obsolete feud, was sufficient to rekindle the same
+passions among the descendants of the hostile tribes.  In private
+life every man, at least every family, was the judge and avenger
+of his own cause.  The nice sensibility of honor, which weighs
+the insult rather than the injury, sheds its deadly venom on the
+quarrels of the Arabs: the honor of their women, and of their
+beards, is most easily wounded; an indecent action, a
+contemptuous word, can be expiated only by the blood of the
+offender; and such is their patient inveteracy, that they expect
+whole months and years the opportunity of revenge.  A fine or
+compensation for murder is familiar to the Barbarians of every
+age: but in Arabia the kinsmen of the dead are at liberty to
+accept the atonement, or to exercise with their own hands the law
+of retaliation.  The refined malice of the Arabs refuses even the
+head of the murderer, substitutes an innocent for the guilty
+person, and transfers the penalty to the best and most
+considerable of the race by whom they have been injured.  If he
+falls by their hands, they are exposed, in their turn, to the
+danger of reprisals, the interest and principal of the bloody
+debt are accumulated: the individuals of either family lead a
+life of malice and suspicion, and fifty years may sometimes
+elapse before the account of vengeance be finally settled. ^37
+This sanguinary spirit, ignorant of pity or forgiveness, has been
+moderated, however, by the maxims of honor, which require in
+every private encounter some decent equality of age and strength,
+of numbers and weapons.  An annual festival of two, perhaps of
+four, months, was observed by the Arabs before the time of
+Mahomet, during which their swords were religiously sheathed both
+in foreign and domestic hostility; and this partial truce is more
+strongly expressive of the habits of anarchy and warfare. ^38
+
+[Footnote 35: Observe the first chapter of Job, and the long wall
+of 1500 stadia which Sesostris built from Pelusium to Heliopolis,
+(Diodor. Sicul. tom. i. l. i. p. 67.) Under the name of Hycsos,
+the shepherd kings, they had formerly subdued Egypt, (Marsham,
+Canon. Chron. p. 98 - 163) &c.)
+
+Note: This origin of the Hycsos, though probable, is by no
+means so certain here is some reason for supposing them
+Scythians. - M]
+
+[Footnote 36: Or, according to another account, 1200,
+(D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 75: ) the two historians
+who wrote of the Ayam al Arab, the battles of the Arabs, lived in
+the 9th and 10th century.  The famous war of Dahes and Gabrah was
+occasioned by two horses, lasted forty years, and ended in a
+proverb, (Pocock, Specimen, p. 48.)]
+
+[Footnote 37: The modern theory and practice of the Arabs in the
+revenge of murder are described by Niebuhr, (Description, p. 26 -
+31.) The harsher features of antiquity may be traced in the
+Koran, c. 2, p. 20, c. 17, p. 230, with Sale's Observations.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Procopius (de Bell. Persic. l. i. c. 16) places the
+two holy months about the summer solstice.  The Arabians
+consecrate four months of the year - the first, seventh,
+eleventh, and twelfth; and pretend, that in a long series of ages
+the truce was infringed only four or six times, (Sale's
+Preliminary Discourse, p. 147 - 150, and Notes on the ixth
+chapter of the Koran, p. 154, &c.  Casiri, Bibliot.
+Hispano-Arabica, tom. ii. p. 20, 21.)]
+
+But the spirit of rapine and revenge was attempered by the
+milder influence of trade and literature.  The solitary peninsula
+is encompassed by the most civilized nations of the ancient
+world; the merchant is the friend of mankind; and the annual
+caravans imported the first seeds of knowledge and politeness
+into the cities, and even the camps of the desert. Whatever may
+be the pedigree of the Arabs, their language is derived from the
+same original stock with the Hebrew, the Syriac, and the
+Chaldaean tongues; the independence of the tribes was marked by
+their peculiar dialects; ^39 but each, after their own, allowed a
+just preference to the pure and perspicuous idiom of Mecca.  In
+Arabia, as well as in Greece, the perfection of language
+outstripped the refinement of manners; and her speech could
+diversify the fourscore names of honey, the two hundred of a
+serpent, the five hundred of a lion, the thousand of a sword, at
+a time when this copious dictionary was intrusted to the memory
+of an illiterate people.  The monuments of the Homerites were
+inscribed with an obsolete and mysterious character; but the
+Cufic letters, the groundwork of the present alphabet, were
+invented on the banks of the Euphrates; and the recent invention
+was taught at Mecca by a stranger who settled in that city after
+the birth of Mahomet.  The arts of grammar, of metre, and of
+rhetoric, were unknown to the freeborn eloquence of the Arabians;
+but their penetration was sharp, their fancy luxuriant, their wit
+strong and sententious, ^40 and their more elaborate compositions
+were addressed with energy and effect to the minds of their
+hearers.  The genius and merit of a rising poet was celebrated by
+the applause of his own and the kindred tribes.  A solemn banquet
+was prepared, and a chorus of women, striking their tymbals, and
+displaying the pomp of their nuptials, sung in the presence of
+their sons and husbands the felicity of their native tribe; that
+a champion had now appeared to vindicate their rights; that a
+herald had raised his voice to immortalize their renown. The
+distant or hostile tribes resorted to an annual fair, which was
+abolished by the fanaticism of the first Moslems; a national
+assembly that must have contributed to refine and harmonize the
+Barbarians.  Thirty days were employed in the exchange, not only
+of corn and wine, but of eloquence and poetry.  The prize was
+disputed by the generous emulation of the bards; the victorious
+performance was deposited in the archives of princes and emirs;
+and we may read in our own language, the seven original poems
+which were inscribed in letters of gold, and suspended in the
+temple of Mecca. ^41 The Arabian poets were the historians and
+moralists of the age; and if they sympathized with the
+prejudices, they inspired and crowned the virtues, of their
+countrymen.  The indissoluble union of generosity and valor was
+the darling theme of their song; and when they pointed their
+keenest satire against a despicable race, they affirmed, in the
+bitterness of reproach, that the men knew not how to give, nor
+the women to deny. ^42 The same hospitality, which was practised
+by Abraham, and celebrated by Homer, is still renewed in the
+camps of the Arabs. The ferocious Bedoweens, the terror of the
+desert, embrace, without inquiry or hesitation, the stranger who
+dares to confide in their honor and to enter their tent.  His
+treatment is kind and respectful: he shares the wealth, or the
+poverty, of his host; and, after a needful repose, he is
+dismissed on his way, with thanks, with blessings, and perhaps
+with gifts.  The heart and hand are more largely expanded by the
+wants of a brother or a friend; but the heroic acts that could
+deserve the public applause, must have surpassed the narrow
+measure of discretion and experience.  A dispute had arisen, who,
+among the citizens of Mecca, was entitled to the prize of
+generosity; and a successive application was made to the three
+who were deemed most worthy of the trial.  Abdallah, the son of
+Abbas, had undertaken a distant journey, and his foot was in the
+stirrup when he heard the voice of a suppliant, "O son of the
+uncle of the apostle of God, I am a traveller, and in distress!"
+He instantly dismounted to present the pilgrim with his camel,
+her rich caparison, and a purse of four thousand pieces of gold,
+excepting only the sword, either for its intrinsic value, or as
+the gift of an honored kinsman. The servant of Kais informed the
+second suppliant that his master was asleep: but he immediately
+added, "Here is a purse of seven thousand pieces of gold, (it is
+all we have in the house,) and here is an order, that will
+entitle you to a camel and a slave;" the master, as soon as he
+awoke, praised and enfranchised his faithful steward, with a
+gentle reproof, that by respecting his slumbers he had stinted
+his bounty.  The third of these heroes, the blind Arabah, at the
+hour of prayer, was supporting his steps on the shoulders of two
+slaves.  "Alas!" he replied, "my coffers are empty!  but these
+you may sell; if you refuse, I renounce them." At these words,
+pushing away the youths, he groped along the wall with his staff.
+
+The character of Hatem is the perfect model of Arabian virtue:
+^43 he was brave and liberal, an eloquent poet, and a successful
+robber; forty camels were roasted at his hospitable feast; and at
+the prayer of a suppliant enemy he restored both the captives and
+the spoil.  The freedom of his countrymen disdained the laws of
+justice; they proudly indulged the spontaneous impulse of pity
+and benevolence.
+
+[Footnote 39: Arrian, in the second century, remarks (in Periplo
+Maris Erythraei, p. 12) the partial or total difference of the
+dialects of the Arabs.  Their language and letters are copiously
+treated by Pocock, (Specimen, p. 150 - 154,) Casiri, (Bibliot.
+Hispano-Arabica, tom. i. p. 1, 83, 292, tom. ii. p. 25, &c.,) and
+Niebuhr, (Description de l'Arabie, p. 72 - 36) I pass slightly; I
+am not fond of repeating words like a parrot.]
+
+[Footnote 40: A familiar tale in Voltaire's Zadig (le Chien et le
+Cheval) is related, to prove the natural sagacity of the Arabs,
+(D'Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 120, 121.  Gagnier, Vie de
+Mahomet, tom. i. p. 37 - 46: ) but D'Arvieux, or rather La Roque,
+(Voyage de Palestine, p. 92,) denies the boasted superiority of
+the Bedoweens.  The one hundred and sixty-nine sentences of Ali
+(translated by Ockley, London, 1718) afford a just and favorable
+specimen of Arabian wit.
+
+Note: Compare the Arabic proverbs translated by Burckhardt.
+London. 1830 - M.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Pocock (Specimen, p. 158 - 161) and Casiri
+(Bibliot. Hispano- Arabica, tom. i. p. 48, 84, &c., 119, tom. ii.
+p. 17, &c.) speak of the Arabian poets before Mahomet; the seven
+poems of the Caaba have been published in English by Sir William
+Jones; but his honorable mission to India has deprived us of his
+own notes, far more interesting than the obscure and obsolete
+text.]
+
+[Footnote 42: Sale's Preliminary Discourse, p. 29, 30]
+
+[Footnote 43: D'Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 458.  Gagnier, Vie
+de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. 118.  Caab and Hesnus (Pocock, Specimen,
+p. 43, 46, 48) were likewise conspicuous for their liberality;
+and the latter is elegantly praised by an Arabian poet: "Videbis
+eum cum accesseris exultantem, ac si dares illi quod ab illo
+petis."
+
+Note: See the translation of the amusing Persian romance of
+Hatim Tai, by Duncan Forbes, Esq., among the works published by
+the Oriental Translation Fund. - M.]
+
+The religion of the Arabs, ^44 as well as of the Indians,
+consisted in the worship of the sun, the moon, and the fixed
+stars; a primitive and specious mode of superstition.  The bright
+luminaries of the sky display the visible image of a Deity: their
+number and distance convey to a philosophic, or even a vulgar,
+eye, the idea of boundless space: the character of eternity is
+marked on these solid globes, that seem incapable of corruption
+or decay: the regularity of their motions may be ascribed to a
+principle of reason or instinct; and their real, or imaginary,
+influence encourages the vain belief that the earth and its
+inhabitants are the object of their peculiar care.  The science
+of astronomy was cultivated at Babylon; but the school of the
+Arabs was a clear firmament and a naked plain.  In their
+nocturnal marches, they steered by the guidance of the stars:
+their names, and order, and daily station, were familiar to the
+curiosity and devotion of the Bedoween; and he was taught by
+experience to divide, in twenty-eight parts, the zodiac of the
+moon, and to bless the constellations who refreshed, with
+salutary rains, the thirst of the desert.  The reign of the
+heavenly orbs could not be extended beyond the visible sphere;
+and some metaphysical powers were necessary to sustain the
+transmigration of souls and the resurrection of bodies: a camel
+was left to perish on the grave, that he might serve his master
+in another life; and the invocation of departed spirits implies
+that they were still endowed with consciousness and power.  I am
+ignorant, and I am careless, of the blind mythology of the
+Barbarians; of the local deities, of the stars, the air, and the
+earth, of their sex or titles, their attributes or subordination.
+Each tribe, each family, each independent warrior, created and
+changed the rites and the object of his fantastic worship; but
+the nation, in every age, has bowed to the religion, as well as
+to the language, of Mecca.  The genuine antiquity of the Caaba
+ascends beyond the Christian aera; in describing the coast of the
+Red Sea, the Greek historian Diodorus ^45 has remarked, between
+the Thamudites and the Sabaeans, a famous temple, whose superior
+sanctity was revered by all the Arabians; the linen or silken
+veil, which is annually renewed by the Turkish emperor, was first
+offered by a pious king of the Homerites, who reigned seven
+hundred years before the time of Mahomet. ^46 A tent, or a
+cavern, might suffice for the worship of the savages, but an
+edifice of stone and clay has been erected in its place; and the
+art and power of the monarchs of the East have been confined to
+the simplicity of the original model. ^47 A spacious portico
+encloses the quadrangle of the Caaba; a square chapel,
+twenty-four cubits long, twenty-three broad, and twenty-seven
+high: a door and a window admit the light; the double roof is
+supported by three pillars of wood; a spout (now of gold)
+discharges the rain-water, and the well Zemzen is protected by a
+dome from accidental pollution.  The tribe of Koreish, by fraud
+and force, had acquired the custody of the Caaba: the sacerdotal
+office devolved through four lineal descents to the grandfather
+of Mahomet; and the family of the Hashemites, from whence he
+sprung, was the most respectable and sacred in the eyes of their
+country. ^48 The precincts of Mecca enjoyed the rights of
+sanctuary; and, in the last month of each year, the city and the
+temple were crowded with a long train of pilgrims, who presented
+their vows and offerings in the house of God.  The same rites
+which are now accomplished by the faithful Mussulman, were
+invented and practised by the superstition of the idolaters.  At
+an awful distance they cast away their garments: seven times,
+with hasty steps, they encircled the Caaba, and kissed the black
+stone: seven times they visited and adored the adjacent
+mountains; seven times they threw stones into the valley of Mina;
+and the pilgrimage was achieved, as at the present hour, by a
+sacrifice of sheep and camels, and the burial of their hair and
+nails in the consecrated ground.  Each tribe either found or
+introduced in the Caaba their domestic worship: the temple was
+adorned, or defiled, with three hundred and sixty idols of men,
+eagles, lions, and antelopes; and most conspicuous was the statue
+of Hebal, of red agate, holding in his hand seven arrows, without
+heads or feathers, the instruments and symbols of profane
+divination.  But this statue was a monument of Syrian arts: the
+devotion of the ruder ages was content with a pillar or a tablet;
+and the rocks of the desert were hewn into gods or altars, in
+imitation of the black stone ^49 of Mecca, which is deeply
+tainted with the reproach of an idolatrous origin.  From Japan to
+Peru, the use of sacrifice has universally prevailed; and the
+votary has expressed his gratitude, or fear, by destroying or
+consuming, in honor of the gods, the dearest and most precious of
+their gifts.  The life of a man ^50 is the most precious oblation
+to deprecate a public calamity: the altars of Phoenicia and
+Egypt, of Rome and Carthage, have been polluted with human gore:
+the cruel practice was long preserved among the Arabs; in the
+third century, a boy was annually sacrificed by the tribe of the
+Dumatians; ^51 and a royal captive was piously slaughtered by the
+prince of the Saracens, the ally and soldier of the emperor
+Justinian. ^52 A parent who drags his son to the altar, exhibits
+the most painful and sublime effort of fanaticism: the deed, or
+the intention, was sanctified by the example of saints and
+heroes; and the father of Mahomet himself was devoted by a rash
+vow, and hardly ransomed for the equivalent of a hundred camels.
+In the time of ignorance, the Arabs, like the Jews and Egyptians,
+abstained from the taste of swine's flesh; ^53 they circumcised
+^54 their children at the age of puberty: the same customs,
+without the censure or the precept of the Koran, have been
+silently transmitted to their posterity and proselytes.  It has
+been sagaciously conjectured, that the artful legislator indulged
+the stubborn prejudices of his countrymen.  It is more simple to
+believe that he adhered to the habits and opinions of his youth,
+without foreseeing that a practice congenial to the climate of
+Mecca might become useless or inconvenient on the banks of the
+Danube or the Volga.
+
+[Footnote 44: Whatever can now be known of the idolatry of the
+ancient Arabians may be found in Pocock, (Specimen, p. 89 - 136,
+163, 164.) His profound erudition is more clearly and concisely
+interpreted by Sale, (Preliminary Discourse, p. 14 - 24;) and
+Assemanni (Bibliot. Orient tom. iv. p. 580 - 590) has added some
+valuable remarks.]
+
+[Footnote 45: (Diodor. Sicul. tom. i. l. iii. p. 211.) The
+character and position are so correctly apposite, that I am
+surprised how this curious passage should have been read without
+notice or application. Yet this famous temple had been overlooked
+by Agatharcides, (de Mari Rubro, p. 58, in Hudson, tom. i.,) whom
+Diodorus copies in the rest of the description.  Was the Sicilian
+more knowing than the Egyptian?  Or was the Caaba built between
+the years of Rome 650 and 746, the dates of their respective
+histories?  (Dodwell, in Dissert. ad tom. i. Hudson, p. 72.
+Fabricius, Bibliot. Graec. tom. ii. p. 770.)
+
+Note: Mr. Forster (Geography of Arabia, vol. ii. p. 118, et
+seq.) has raised an objection, as I think, fatal to this
+hypothesis of Gibbon.  The temple, situated in the country of the
+Banizomeneis, was not between the Thamudites and the Sabaeans,
+but higher up than the coast inhabited by the former.  Mr.
+Forster would place it as far north as Moiiah.  I am not quite
+satisfied that this will agree with the whole description of
+Diodorus - M. 1845.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Pocock, Specimen, p. 60, 61.  From the death of
+Mahomet we ascend to 68, from his birth to 129, years before the
+Christian aera.  The veil or curtain, which is now of silk and
+gold, was no more than a piece of Egyptian linen, (Abulfeda, in
+Vit. Mohammed. c. 6, p. 14.)]
+
+[Footnote 47: The original plan of the Caaba (which is servilely
+copied in Sale, the Universal History, &c.) was a Turkish
+draught, which Reland (de Religione Mohammedica, p. 113 - 123)
+has corrected and explained from the best authorities.  For the
+description and legend of the Caaba, consult Pocock, (Specimen,
+p. 115 - 122,) the Bibliotheque Orientale of D'Herbelot, (Caaba,
+Hagir, Zemzem, &c.,) and Sale (Preliminary Discourse, p. 114 -
+122.)]
+
+[Footnote 48: Cosa, the fifth ancestor of Mahomet, must have
+usurped the Caaba A.D. 440; but the story is differently told by
+Jannabi, (Gagnier, Vie de Mahomet, tom. i. p. 65 - 69,) and by
+Abulfeda, (in Vit. Moham. c. 6, p. 13.)]
+
+[Footnote 49: In the second century, Maximus of Tyre attributes
+to the Arabs the worship of a stone, (Dissert. viii. tom. i. p.
+142, edit. Reiske;) and the reproach is furiously reechoed by the
+Christians, (Clemens Alex. in Protreptico, p. 40.  Arnobius
+contra Gentes, l. vi. p. 246.) Yet these stones were no other
+than of Syria and Greece, so renowned in sacred and profane
+antiquity, (Euseb. Praep. Evangel. l. i. p. 37. Marsham, Canon.
+Chron. p. 54 - 56.)]
+
+[Footnote 50: The two horrid subjects are accurately discussed by
+the learned Sir John Marsham, (Canon. Chron. p. 76 - 78, 301 -
+304.) Sanchoniatho derives the Phoenician sacrifices from the
+example of Chronus; but we are ignorant whether Chronus lived
+before, or after, Abraham, or indeed whether he lived at all.]
+
+[Footnote 51: The reproach of Porphyry; but he likewise imputes
+to the Roman the same barbarous custom, which, A. U. C. 657, had
+been finally abolished. Dumaetha, Daumat al Gendai, is noticed by
+Ptolemy (Tabul. p. 37, Arabia, p. 9 - 29) and Abulfeda, (p. 57,)
+and may be found in D'Anville's maps, in the mid-desert between
+Chaibar and Tadmor.]
+
+[Footnote 52: Prcoopius, (de Bell. Persico, l. i. c. 28,)
+Evagrius, (l. vi. c. 21,) and Pocock, (Specimen, p. 72, 86,)
+attest the human sacrifices of the Arabs in the vith century.
+The danger and escape of Abdallah is a tradition rather than a
+fact, (Gagnier, Vie de Mahomet, tom. i. p. 82 - 84.)]
+
+[Footnote 53: Suillis carnibus abstinent, says Solinus,
+(Polyhistor. c. 33,) who copies Pliny (l. viii. c. 68) in the
+strange supposition, that hogs can not live in Arabia.  The
+Egyptians were actuated by a natural and superstitious horror for
+that unclean beast, (Marsham, Canon. p. 205.) The old Arabians
+likewise practised, post coitum, the rite of ablution, (Herodot.
+l. i. c. 80,) which is sanctified by the Mahometan law, (Reland,
+p. 75, &c., Chardin, or rather the Mollah of Shah Abbas, tom. iv.
+p. 71, &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 54: The Mahometan doctors are not fond of the subject;
+yet they hold circumcision necessary to salvation, and even
+pretend that Mahomet was miraculously born without a foreskin,
+(Pocock, Specimen, p. 319, 320. Sale's Preliminary Discourse, p.
+106, 107.)]
+
+
+
+Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.
+
+Part III.
+
+Arabia was free: the adjacent kingdoms were shaken by the
+storms of conquest and tyranny, and the persecuted sects fled to
+the happy land where they might profess what they thought, and
+practise what they professed. The religions of the Sabians and
+Magians, of the Jews and Christians, were disseminated from the
+Persian Gulf to the Red Sea.  In a remote period of antiquity,
+Sabianism was diffused over Asia by the science of the Chaldaeans
+^55 and the arms of the Assyrians.  From the observations of two
+thousand years, the priests and astronomers of Babylon ^56
+deduced the eternal laws of nature and providence.  They adored
+the seven gods or angels, who directed the course of the seven
+planets, and shed their irresistible influence on the earth.  The
+attributes of the seven planets, with the twelve signs of the
+zodiac, and the twenty-four constellations of the northern and
+southern hemisphere, were represented by images and talismans;
+the seven days of the week were dedicated to their respective
+deities; the Sabians prayed thrice each day; and the temple of
+the moon at Haran was the term of their pilgrimage. ^57 But the
+flexible genius of their faith was always ready either to teach
+or to learn: in the tradition of the creation, the deluge, and
+the patriarchs, they held a singular agreement with their Jewish
+captives; they appealed to the secret books of Adam, Seth, and
+Enoch; and a slight infusion of the gospel has transformed the
+last remnant of the Polytheists into the Christians of St. John,
+in the territory of Bassora. ^58 The altars of Babylon were
+overturned by the Magians; but the injuries of the Sabians were
+revenged by the sword of Alexander; Persia groaned above five
+hundred years under a foreign yoke; and the purest disciples of
+Zoroaster escaped from the contagion of idolatry, and breathed
+with their adversaries the freedom of the desert. ^59 Seven
+hundred years before the death of Mahomet, the Jews were settled
+in Arabia; and a far greater multitude was expelled from the Holy
+Land in the wars of Titus and Hadrian.  The industrious exiles
+aspired to liberty and power: they erected synagogues in the
+cities, and castles in the wilderness, and their Gentile converts
+were confounded with the children of Israel, whom they resembled
+in the outward mark of circumcision.  The Christian missionaries
+were still more active and successful: the Catholics asserted
+their universal reign; the sects whom they oppressed,
+successively retired beyond the limits of the Roman empire; the
+Marcionites and Manichaeans dispersed their fantastic opinions
+and apocryphal gospels; the churches of Yemen, and the princes of
+Hira and Gassan, were instructed in a purer creed by the Jacobite
+and Nestorian bishops. ^60 The liberty of choice was presented to
+the tribes: each Arab was free to elect or to compose his private
+religion: and the rude superstition of his house was mingled with
+the sublime theology of saints and philosophers.  A fundamental
+article of faith was inculcated by the consent of the learned
+strangers; the existence of one supreme God who is exalted above
+the powers of heaven and earth, but who has often revealed
+himself to mankind by the ministry of his angels and prophets,
+and whose grace or justice has interrupted, by seasonable
+miracles, the order of nature.  The most rational of the Arabs
+acknowledged his power, though they neglected his worship; ^61
+and it was habit rather than conviction that still attached them
+to the relics of idolatry.  The Jews and Christians were the
+people of the Book; the Bible was already translated into the
+Arabic language, ^62 and the volume of the Old Testament was
+accepted by the concord of these implacable enemies.  In the
+story of the Hebrew patriarchs, the Arabs were pleased to
+discover the fathers of their nation.  They applauded the birth
+and promises of Ismael; revered the faith and virtue of Abraham;
+traced his pedigree and their own to the creation of the first
+man, and imbibed, with equal credulity, the prodigies of the holy
+text, and the dreams and traditions of the Jewish rabbis.
+
+[Footnote 55: Diodorus Siculus (tom. i. l. ii. p. 142 - 145) has
+cast on their religion the curious but superficial glance of a
+Greek.  Their astronomy would be far more valuable: they had
+looked through the telescope of reason, since they could doubt
+whether the sun were in the number of the planets or of the fixed
+stars.]
+
+[Footnote 56: Simplicius, (who quotes Porphyry,) de Coelo, l. ii.
+com. xlvi p. 123, lin. 18, apud Marsham, Canon. Chron. p. 474,
+who doubts the fact, because it is adverse to his systems.  The
+earliest date of the Chaldaean observations is the year 2234
+before Christ.  After the conquest of Babylon by Alexander, they
+were communicated at the request of Aristotle, to the astronomer
+Hipparchus.  What a moment in the annals of science!]
+
+[Footnote 57: Pocock, (Specimen, p. 138 - 146,) Hottinger, (Hist.
+Orient. p. 162 - 203,) Hyde, (de Religione Vet. Persarum, p. 124,
+128, &c.,) D'Herbelot, (Sabi, p. 725, 726,) and Sale,
+(Preliminary Discourse, p. 14, 15,) rather excite than gratify
+our curiosity; and the last of these writers confounds Sabianism
+with the primitive religion of the Arabs.]
+
+[Footnote 58: D'Anville (l'Euphrate et le Tigre, p. 130 - 137)
+will fix the position of these ambiguous Christians; Assemannus
+(Bibliot. Oriental. tom. iv. p. 607 - 614) may explain their
+tenets.  But it is a slippery task to ascertain the creed of an
+ignorant people afraid and ashamed to disclose their secret
+traditions.
+
+Note: The Codex Nasiraeus, their sacred book, has been
+published by Norberg whose researches contain almost all that is
+known of this singular people.  But their origin is almost as
+obscure as ever: if ancient, their creed has been so corrupted
+with mysticism and Mahometanism, that its native lineaments are
+very indistinct. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 59: The Magi were fixed in the province of B hrein,
+(Gagnier, Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. 114,) and mingled with the
+old Arabians, (Pocock, Specimen, p. 146 - 150.)]
+
+[Footnote 60: The state of the Jews and Christians in Arabia is
+described by Pocock from Sharestani, &c., (Specimen, p. 60, 134,
+&c.,) Hottinger, (Hist. Orient. p. 212 - 238,) D'Herbelot,
+(Bibliot. Orient. p. 474 - 476,) Basnage, (Hist. des Juifs, tom.
+vii. p. 185, tom. viii. p. 280,) and Sale, (Preliminary
+Discourse, p. 22, &c., 33, &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 61: In their offerings, it was a maxim to defraud God
+for the profit of the idol, not a more potent, but a more
+irritable, patron, (Pocock, Specimen, p. 108, 109.)]
+
+[Footnote 62: Our versions now extant, whether Jewish or
+Christian, appear more recent than the Koran; but the existence
+of a prior translation may be fairly inferred, - 1. From the
+perpetual practice of the synagogue of expounding the Hebrew
+lesson by a paraphrase in the vulgar tongue of the country; 2.
+From the analogy of the Armenian, Persian, Aethiopic versions,
+expressly quoted by the fathers of the fifth century, who assert
+that the Scriptures were translated into all the Barbaric
+languages, (Walton, Prolegomena ad Biblia Polyglot, p. 34, 93 -
+97.  Simon, Hist. Critique du V. et du N. Testament, tom. i. p.
+180, 181, 282 - 286, 293, 305, 306, tom. iv. p. 206.)]
+
+The base and plebeian origin of Mahomet is an unskilful
+calumny of the Christians, ^63 who exalt instead of degrading the
+merit of their adversary. His descent from Ismael was a national
+privilege or fable; but if the first steps of the pedigree ^64
+are dark and doubtful, he could produce many generations of pure
+and genuine nobility: he sprung from the tribe of Koreish and the
+family of Hashem, the most illustrious of the Arabs, the princes
+of Mecca, and the hereditary guardians of the Caaba. The
+grandfather of Mahomet was Abdol Motalleb, the son of Hashem, a
+wealthy and generous citizen, who relieved the distress of famine
+with the supplies of commerce.  Mecca, which had been fed by the
+liberality of the father, was saved by the courage of the son.
+The kingdom of Yemen was subject to the Christian princes of
+Abyssinia; their vassal Abrahah was provoked by an insult to
+avenge the honor of the cross; and the holy city was invested by
+a train of elephants and an army of Africans.  A treaty was
+proposed; and, in the first audience, the grandfather of Mahomet
+demanded the restitution of his cattle.  "And why," said Abrahah,
+"do you not rather implore my clemency in favor of your temple,
+which I have threatened to destroy?" "Because," replied the
+intrepid chief, "the cattle is my own; the Caaba belongs to the
+gods, and they will defend their house from injury and
+sacrilege." The want of provisions, or the valor of the Koreish,
+compelled the Abyssinians to a disgraceful retreat: their
+discomfiture has been adorned with a miraculous flight of birds,
+who showered down stones on the heads of the infidels; and the
+deliverance was long commemorated by the aera of the elephant.
+^65 The glory of Abdol Motalleb was crowned with domestic
+happiness; his life was prolonged to the age of one hundred and
+ten years; and he became the father of six daughters and thirteen
+sons. His best beloved Abdallah was the most beautiful and modest
+of the Arabian youth; and in the first night, when he consummated
+his marriage with Amina, ^! of the noble race of the Zahrites,
+two hundred virgins are said to have expired of jealousy and
+despair.  Mahomet, or more properly Mohammed, the only son of
+Abdallah and Amina, was born at Mecca, four years after the death
+of Justinian, and two months after the defeat of the Abyssinians,
+^66 whose victory would have introduced into the Caaba the
+religion of the Christians. In his early infancy, he was deprived
+of his father, his mother, and his grandfather; his uncles were
+strong and numerous; and, in the division of the inheritance, the
+orphan's share was reduced to five camels and an Aethiopian
+maid-servant.  At home and abroad, in peace and war, Abu Taleb,
+the most respectable of his uncles, was the guide and guardian of
+his youth; in his twenty-fifth year, he entered into the service
+of Cadijah, a rich and noble widow of Mecca, who soon rewarded
+his fidelity with the gift of her hand and fortune.  The marriage
+contract, in the simple style of antiquity, recites the mutual
+love of Mahomet and Cadijah; describes him as the most
+accomplished of the tribe of Koreish; and stipulates a dowry of
+twelve ounces of gold and twenty camels, which was supplied by
+the liberality of his uncle. ^67 By this alliance, the son of
+Abdallah was restored to the station of his ancestors; and the
+judicious matron was content with his domestic virtues, till, in
+the fortieth year of his age, ^68 he assumed the title of a
+prophet, and proclaimed the religion of the Koran.
+
+[Footnote 63: In eo conveniunt omnes, ut plebeio vilique genere
+ortum, &c, (Hottinger, Hist. Orient. p. 136.) Yet Theophanes, the
+most ancient of the Greeks, and the father of many a lie,
+confesses that Mahomet was of the race of Ismael,  (Chronograph.
+p. 277.)]
+
+[Footnote 64: Abulfeda (in Vit. Mohammed. c. 1, 2) and Gagnier
+(Vie de Mahomet, p. 25 - 97) describe the popular and approved
+genealogy of the prophet.  At Mecca, I would not dispute its
+authenticity: at Lausanne, I will venture to observe, 1. That
+from Ismael to Mahomet, a period of 2500 years, they reckon
+thirty, instead of seventy five, generations: 2. That the modern
+Bedoweens are ignorant of their history, and careless of their
+pedigree, (Voyage de D'Arvieux p. 100, 103.)
+
+Note: The most orthodox Mahometans only reckon back the
+ancestry of the prophet for twenty generations, to Adnan.  Weil,
+Mohammed der Prophet, p. 1. - M.  1845.]
+
+[Footnote 65: The seed of this history, or fable, is contained in
+the cvth chapter of the Koran; and Gagnier (in Praefat. ad Vit.
+Moham. p. 18, &c.) has translated the historical narrative of
+Abulfeda, which may be illustrated from D'Herbelot (Bibliot.
+Orientale, p. 12) and Pocock, (Specimen, p. 64.) Prideaux (Life
+of Mahomet, p. 48) calls it a lie of the coinage of Mahomet; but
+Sale, (Koran, p. 501 - 503,) who is half a Mussulman, attacks the
+inconsistent faith of the Doctor for believing the miracles of
+the Delphic Apollo.  Maracci (Alcoran, tom. i. part ii. p. 14,
+tom. ii. p. 823) ascribes the miracle to the devil, and extorts
+from the Mahometans the confession, that God would not have
+defended against the Christians the idols of the Caaba.
+
+Note: Dr. Weil says that the small-pox broke out in the army
+of Abrahah, but he does not give his authority, p. 10. - M.
+1845.]
+
+[Footnote !: Amina, or Emina, was of Jewish birth.  V. Hammer,
+Geschichte der Assass. p. 10. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 66: The safest aeras of Abulfeda, (in Vit. c. i. p. 2,)
+of Alexander, or the Greeks, 882, of Bocht Naser, or Nabonassar,
+1316, equally lead us to the year 569.  The old Arabian calendar
+is too dark and uncertain to support the Benedictines, (Art. de
+Verifer les Dates, p. 15,) who, from the day of the month and
+week, deduce a new mode of calculation, and remove the birth of
+Mahomet to the year of Christ 570, the 10th of November.  Yet
+this date would agree with the year 882 of the Greeks, which is
+assigned by Elmacin (Hist. Saracen. p. 5) and Abulpharagius,
+(Dynast. p. 101, and Errata, Pocock's version.) While we refine
+our chronology, it is possible that the illiterate prophet was
+ignorant of his own age.
+
+Note: The date of the birth of Mahomet is not yet fixed with
+precision. It is only known from Oriental authors that he was
+born on a Monday, the 10th Reby 1st, the third month of the
+Mahometan year; the year 40 or 42 of Chosroes Nushirvan, king of
+Persia; the year 881 of the Seleucidan aera; the year 1316 of the
+aera of Nabonassar.  This leaves the point undecided between the
+years 569, 570, 571, of J. C.  See the Memoir of M. Silv. de
+Sacy, on divers events in the history of the Arabs before
+Mahomet, Mem. Acad. des Loscript. vol. xlvii. p. 527, 531.  St.
+Martin, vol. xi. p. 59. - M.
+
+Dr. Weil decides on A.D. 571.  Mahomet died in 632, aged 63;
+but the Arabs reckoned his life by lunar years, which reduces his
+life nearly to 61 (p. 21.) - M.  1845]
+
+[Footnote 67: I copy the honorable testimony of Abu Taleb to his
+family and nephew.  Laus Dei, qui nos a stirpe Abrahami et semine
+Ismaelis constituit, et nobis regionem sacram dedit, et nos
+judices hominibus statuit.  Porro Mohammed filius Abdollahi
+nepotis mei (nepos meus) quo cum ex aequo librabitur e
+Koraishidis quispiam cui non praeponderaturus est, bonitate et
+excellentia, et intellectu et gloria, et acumine etsi opum inops
+fuerit, (et certe opes umbra transiens sunt et depositum quod
+reddi debet,) desiderio Chadijae filiae Chowailedi tenetur, et
+illa vicissim ipsius, quicquid autem dotis vice petieritis, ego
+in me suscipiam, (Pocock, Specimen, e septima parte libri Ebn
+Hamduni.)]
+
+[Footnote 68: The private life of Mahomet, from his birth to his
+mission, is preserved by Abulfeda, (in Vit. c. 3 - 7,) and the
+Arabian writers of genuine or apocryphal note, who are alleged by
+Hottinger, (Hist. Orient. p. 204 - 211) Maracci, (tom. i. p. 10 -
+14,) and Gagnier, (Vie de Mahomet, tom. i. p. 97 - 134.)]
+
+According to the tradition of his companions, Mahomet ^69
+was distinguished by the beauty of his person, an outward gift
+which is seldom despised, except by those to whom it has been
+refused.  Before he spoke, the orator engaged on his side the
+affections of a public or private audience. They applauded his
+commanding presence, his majestic aspect, his piercing eye, his
+gracious smile, his flowing beard, his countenance that painted
+every sensation of the soul, and his gestures that enforced each
+expression of the tongue.  In the familiar offices of life he
+scrupulously adhered to the grave and ceremonious politeness of
+his country: his respectful attention to the rich and powerful
+was dignified by his condescension and affability to the poorest
+citizens of Mecca: the frankness of his manner concealed the
+artifice of his views; and the habits of courtesy were imputed to
+personal friendship or universal benevolence. His memory was
+capacious and retentive; his wit easy and social; his imagination
+sublime; his judgment clear, rapid, and decisive. He possessed
+the courage both of thought and action; and, although his designs
+might gradually expand with his success, the first idea which he
+entertained of his divine mission bears the stamp of an original
+and superior genius.  The son of Abdallah was educated in the
+bosom of the noblest race, in the use of the purest dialect of
+Arabia; and the fluency of his speech was corrected and enhanced
+by the practice of discreet and seasonable silence. With these
+powers of eloquence, Mahomet was an illiterate Barbarian: his
+youth had never been instructed in the arts of reading and
+writing; ^70 the common ignorance exempted him from shame or
+reproach, but he was reduced to a narrow circle of existence, and
+deprived of those faithful mirrors, which reflect to our mind the
+minds of sages and heroes.  Yet the book of nature and of man was
+open to his view; and some fancy has been indulged in the
+political and philosophical observations which are ascribed to
+the Arabian traveller. ^71 He compares the nations and the
+regions of the earth; discovers the weakness of the Persian and
+Roman monarchies; beholds, with pity and indignation, the
+degeneracy of the times; and resolves to unite under one God and
+one king the invincible spirit and primitive virtues of the
+Arabs.  Our more accurate inquiry will suggest, that, instead of
+visiting the courts, the camps, the temples, of the East, the two
+journeys of Mahomet into Syria were confined to the fairs of
+Bostra and Damascus; that he was only thirteen years of age when
+he accompanied the caravan of his uncle; and that his duty
+compelled him to return as soon as he had disposed of the
+merchandise of Cadijah.  In these hasty and superficial
+excursions, the eye of genius might discern some objects
+invisible to his grosser companions; some seeds of knowledge
+might be cast upon a fruitful soil; but his ignorance of the
+Syriac language must have checked his curiosity; and I cannot
+perceive, in the life or writings of Mahomet, that his prospect
+was far extended beyond the limits of the Arabian world.  From
+every region of that solitary world, the pilgrims of Mecca were
+annually assembled, by the calls of devotion and commerce: in the
+free concourse of multitudes, a simple citizen, in his native
+tongue, might study the political state and character of the
+tribes, the theory and practice of the Jews and Christians.  Some
+useful strangers might be tempted, or forced, to implore the
+rights of hospitality; and the enemies of Mahomet have named the
+Jew, the Persian, and the Syrian monk, whom they accuse of
+lending their secret aid to the composition of the Koran. ^72
+Conversation enriches the understanding, but solitude is the
+school of genius; and the uniformity of a work denotes the hand
+of a single artist.  From his earliest youth Mahomet was addicted
+to religious contemplation; each year, during the month of
+Ramadan, he withdrew from the world, and from the arms of
+Cadijah: in the cave of Hera, three miles from Mecca, ^73 he
+consulted the spirit of fraud or enthusiasm, whose abode is not
+in the heavens, but in the mind of the prophet.  The faith which,
+under the name of Islam, he preached to his family and nation, is
+compounded of an eternal truth, and a necessary fiction, That
+there is only one God, and that Mahomet is the apostle of God.
+
+[Footnote 69: Abulfeda, in Vit. c. lxv. lxvi. Gagnier, Vie de
+Mahomet, tom. iii. p. 272 - 289.  The best traditions of the
+person and conversation of the prophet are derived from Ayesha,
+Ali, and Abu Horaira, (Gagnier, tom. ii. p. 267.  Ockley's Hist.
+of the Saracens, vol. ii. p. 149,) surnamed the Father of a Cat,
+who died in the year 59 of the Hegira.
+
+Note: Compare, likewise, the new Life of Mahomet (Mohammed
+der prophet) by Dr. Weil, (Stuttgart, 1843.) Dr. Weil has a new
+tradition, that Mahomet was at one time a shepherd.  This
+assimilation to the life of Moses, instead of giving probability
+to the story, as Dr. Weil suggests, makes it more suspicious.
+Note, p. 34. - M. 1845.]
+
+[Footnote 70: Those who believe that Mahomet could read or write
+are incapable of reading what is written with another pen, in the
+Suras, or chapters of the Koran, vii. xxix. xcvi.  These texts,
+and the tradition of the Sonna, are admitted, without doubt, by
+Abulfeda, (in Vit. vii.,) Gagnier, (Not. ad Abulfed. p. 15,)
+Pocock, (Specimen, p. 151,) Reland, (de Religione Mohammedica, p.
+236,) and Sale, (Preliminary Discourse, p. 42.) Mr. White, almost
+alone, denies the ignorance, to accuse the imposture, of the
+prophet. His arguments are far from satisfactory. Two short
+trading journeys to the fairs of Syria were surely not sufficient
+to infuse a science so rare among the citizens of Mecca: it was
+not in the cool, deliberate act of treaty, that Mahomet would
+have dropped the mask; nor can any conclusion be drawn from the
+words of disease and delirium. The lettered youth, before he
+aspired to the prophetic character, must have often exercised, in
+private life, the arts of reading and writing; and his first
+converts, of his own family, would have been the first to detect
+and upbraid his scandalous hypocrisy, (White's Sermons, p. 203,
+204, Notes, p. xxxvi. - xxxviii.)
+
+Note: (Academ. des Inscript. I. p. 295) has observed that
+the text of the seveth Sura implies that Mahomet could read, the
+tradition alone denies it, and, according to Dr. Weil, (p. 46,)
+there is another reading of the tradition, that "he could not
+read well." Dr. Weil is not quite so successful in explaining
+away Sura xxix.  It means, he thinks that he had not read any
+books, from which he could have borrowed. - M. 1845.]
+
+[Footnote 71: The count de Boulainvilliers (Vie de Mahomet, p.
+202 - 228) leads his Arabian pupil, like the Telemachus of
+Fenelon, or the Cyrus of Ramsay.  His journey to the court of
+Persia is probably a fiction nor can I trace the origin of his
+exclamation, "Les Grecs sont pour tant des hommes." The two
+Syrian journeys are expressed by almost all the Arabian writers,
+both Mahometans and Christians, (Gagnier Abulfed. p. 10.)]
+
+[Footnote 72: I am not at leisure to pursue the fables or
+conjectures which name the strangers accused or suspected by the
+infidels of Mecca, (Koran, c. 16, p. 223, c. 35, p. 297, with
+Sale's Remarks.  Prideaux's Life of Mahomet, p. 22 - 27.
+Gagnier, Not. ad Abulfed. p. 11, 74.  Maracci, tom. ii. p. 400.)
+Even Prideaux has observed, that the transaction must have been
+secret, and that the scene lay in the heart of Arabia.]
+
+[Footnote 73: Abulfeda in Vit. c. 7, p. 15.  Gagnier, tom. i. p.
+133, 135. The situation of Mount Hera is remarked by Abulfeda
+(Geograph. Arab p. 4.) Yet Mahomet had never read of the cave of
+Egeria, ubi nocturnae Numa constituebat amicae, of the Idaean
+Mount, where Minos conversed with Jove, &c.]
+
+It is the boast of the Jewish apologists, that while the
+learned nations of antiquity were deluded by the fables of
+polytheism, their simple ancestors of Palestine preserved the
+knowledge and worship of the true God. The moral attributes of
+Jehovah may not easily be reconciled with the standard of human
+virtue: his metaphysical qualities are darkly expressed; but each
+page of the Pentateuch and the Prophets is an evidence of his
+power: the unity of his name is inscribed on the first table of
+the law; and his sanctuary was never defiled by any visible image
+of the invisible essence.  After the ruin of the temple, the
+faith of the Hebrew exiles was purified, fixed, and enlightened,
+by the spiritual devotion of the synagogue; and the authority of
+Mahomet will not justify his perpetual reproach, that the Jews of
+Mecca or Medina adored Ezra as the son of God. ^74 But the
+children of Israel had ceased to be a people; and the religions
+of the world were guilty, at least in the eyes of the prophet, of
+giving sons, or daughters, or companions, to the supreme God. In
+the rude idolatry of the Arabs, the crime is manifest and
+audacious: the Sabians are poorly excused by the preeminence of
+the first planet, or intelligence, in their celestial hierarchy;
+and in the Magian system the conflict of the two principles
+betrays the imperfection of the conqueror.  The Christians of the
+seventh century had insensibly relapsed into a semblance of
+Paganism: their public and private vows were addressed to the
+relics and images that disgraced the temples of the East: the
+throne of the Almighty was darkened by a cloud of martyrs, and
+saints, and angels, the objects of popular veneration; and the
+Collyridian heretics, who flourished in the fruitful soil of
+Arabia, invested the Virgin Mary with the name and honors of a
+goddess. ^75 The mysteries of the Trinity and Incarnation appear
+to contradict the principle of the divine unity.  In their
+obvious sense, they introduce three equal deities, and transform
+the man Jesus into the substance of the Son of God: ^76 an
+orthodox commentary will satisfy only a believing mind:
+intemperate curiosity and zeal had torn the veil of the
+sanctuary; and each of the Oriental sects was eager to confess
+that all, except themselves, deserved the reproach of idolatry
+and polytheism.  The creed of Mahomet is free from suspicion or
+ambiguity; and the Koran is a glorious testimony to the unity of
+God.  The prophet of Mecca rejected the worship of idols and men,
+of stars and planets, on the rational principle that whatever
+rises must set, that whatever is born must die, that whatever is
+corruptible must decay and perish. ^77 In the Author of the
+universe, his rational enthusiasm confessed and adored an
+infinite and eternal being, without form or place, without issue
+or similitude, present to our most secret thoughts, existing by
+the necessity of his own nature, and deriving from himself all
+moral and intellectual perfection.  These sublime truths, thus
+announced in the language of the prophet, ^78 are firmly held by
+his disciples, and defined with metaphysical precision by the
+interpreters of the Koran.  A philosophic theist might subscribe
+the popular creed of the Mahometans; ^79 a creed too sublime,
+perhaps, for our present faculties. What object remains for the
+fancy, or even the understanding, when we have abstracted from
+the unknown substance all ideas of time and space, of motion and
+matter, of sensation and reflection? The first principle of
+reason and revolution was confirmed by the voice of Mahomet: his
+proselytes, from India to Morocco, are distinguished by the name
+of Unitarians; and the danger of idolatry has been prevented by
+the interdiction of images.  The doctrine of eternal decrees and
+absolute predestination is strictly embraced by the Mahometans;
+and they struggle, with the common difficulties, how to reconcile
+the prescience of God with the freedom and responsibility of man;
+how to explain the permission of evil under the reign of infinite
+power and infinite goodness.
+
+[Footnote 74: Koran, c. 9, p. 153.  Al Beidawi, and the other
+commentators quoted by Sale, adhere to the charge; but I do not
+understand that it is colored by the most obscure or absurd
+tradition of the Talmud.]
+
+[Footnote 75: Hottinger, Hist. Orient. p. 225 - 228.  The
+Collyridian heresy was carried from Thrace to Arabia by some
+women, and the name was borrowed from the cake, which they
+offered to the goddess. This example, that of Beryllus bishop of
+Bostra, (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. l. vi. c. 33,) and several others,
+may excuse the reproach, Arabia haerese haersewn ferax.]
+
+[Footnote 76: The three gods in the Koran (c. 4, p. 81, c. 5, p.
+92) are obviously directed against our Catholic mystery: but the
+Arabic commentators understand them of the Father, the Son, and
+the Virgin Mary, an heretical Trinity, maintained, as it is said,
+by some Barbarians at the Council of Nice, (Eutych. Annal. tom.
+i. p. 440.) But the existence of the Marianites is denied by the
+candid Beausobre, (Hist. de Manicheisme, tom. i. p. 532;) and he
+derives the mistake from the word Roxah, the Holy Ghost, which in
+some Oriental tongues is of the feminine gender, and is
+figuratively styled the mother of Christ in the Gospel of the
+Nazarenes.]
+
+[Footnote 77: This train of thought is philosophically
+exemplified in the character of Abraham, who opposed in Chaldaea
+the first introduction of idolatry, (Koran, c. 6, p. 106.
+D'Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 13.)]
+
+[Footnote 78: See the Koran, particularly the second, (p. 30,)
+the fifty-seventh, (p. 437,) the fifty-eighth (p. 441) chapters,
+which proclaim the omnipotence of the Creator.]
+
+[Footnote 79: The most orthodox creeds are translated by Pocock,
+(Specimen, p. 274, 284 - 292,) Ockley, (Hist. of the Saracens,
+vol. ii. p. lxxxii. - xcv.,) Reland, (de Religion. Moham. l. i.
+p. 7 - 13,) and Chardin, (Voyages en Perse, tom. iv. p. 4 - 28.)
+The great truth, that God is without similitude, is foolishly
+criticized by Maracci, (Alcoran, tom. i. part iii. p. 87 - 94,)
+because he made man after his own image.]
+
+The God of nature has written his existence on all his
+works, and his law in the heart of man.  To restore the knowledge
+of the one, and the practice of the other, has been the real or
+pretended aim of the prophets of every age: the liberality of
+Mahomet allowed to his predecessors the same credit which he
+claimed for himself; and the chain of inspiration was prolonged
+from the fall of Adam to the promulgation of the Koran. ^80
+During that period, some rays of prophetic light had been
+imparted to one hundred and twenty-four thousand of the elect,
+discriminated by their respective measure of virtue and grace;
+three hundred and thirteen apostles were sent with a special
+commission to recall their country from idolatry and vice; one
+hundred and four volumes have been dictated by the Holy Spirit;
+and six legislators of transcendent brightness have announced to
+mankind the six successive revelations of various rites, but of
+one immutable religion.  The authority and station of Adam, Noah,
+Abraham, Moses, Christ, and Mahomet, rise in just gradation above
+each other; but whosoever hates or rejects any one of the
+prophets is numbered with the infidels.  The writings of the
+patriarchs were extant only in the apocryphal copies of the
+Greeks and Syrians: ^81 the conduct of Adam had not entitled him
+to the gratitude or respect of his children; the seven precepts
+of Noah were observed by an inferior and imperfect class of the
+proselytes of the synagogue; ^82 and the memory of Abraham was
+obscurely revered by the Sabians in his native land of Chaldaea:
+of the myriads of prophets, Moses and Christ alone lived and
+reigned; and the remnant of the inspired writings was comprised
+in the books of the Old and the New Testament.  The miraculous
+story of Moses is consecrated and embellished in the Koran; ^83
+and the captive Jews enjoy the secret revenge of imposing their
+own belief on the nations whose recent creeds they deride.  For
+the author of Christianity, the Mahometans are taught by the
+prophet to entertain a high and mysterious reverence. ^84
+"Verily, Christ Jesus, the son of Mary, is the apostle of God,
+and his word, which he conveyed unto Mary, and a Spirit
+proceeding from him; honorable in this world, and in the world to
+come, and one of those who approach near to the presence of God."
+^85 The wonders of the genuine and apocryphal gospels ^86 are
+profusely heaped on his head; and the Latin church has not
+disdained to borrow from the Koran the immaculate conception ^87
+of his virgin mother. Yet Jesus was a mere mortal; and, at the
+day of judgment, his testimony will serve to condemn both the
+Jews, who reject him as a prophet, and the Christians, who adore
+him as the Son of God.  The malice of his enemies aspersed his
+reputation, and conspired against his life; but their intention
+only was guilty; a phantom or a criminal was substituted on the
+cross; and the innocent saint was translated to the seventh
+heaven. ^88 During six hundred years the gospel was the way of
+truth and salvation; but the Christians insensibly forgot both
+the laws and example of their founder; and Mahomet was instructed
+by the Gnostics to accuse the church, as well as the synagogue,
+of corrupting the integrity of the sacred text. ^89 The piety of
+Moses and of Christ rejoiced in the assurance of a future
+prophet, more illustrious than themselves: the evangelical
+promise of the Paraclete, or Holy Ghost, was prefigured in the
+name, and accomplished in the person, of Mahomet, ^90 the
+greatest and the last of the apostles of God.
+
+[Footnote 80: Reland, de Relig. Moham. l. i. p. 17 - 47.  Sale's
+Preliminary Discourse, p. 73 - 76.  Voyage de Chardin, tom. iv.
+p. 28 - 37, and 37 - 47, for the Persian addition, "Ali is the
+vicar of God!" Yet the precise number of the prophets is not an
+article of faith.]
+
+[Footnote 81: For the apocryphal books of Adam, see Fabricius,
+Codex Pseudepigraphus V. T. p. 27 - 29; of Seth, p. 154 - 157; of
+Enoch, p. 160 - 219.  But the book of Enoch is consecrated, in
+some measure, by the quotation of the apostle St. Jude; and a
+long legendary fragment is alleged by Syncellus and Scaliger.
+
+Note: The whole book has since been recovered in the
+Ethiopic language, - and has been edited and translated by
+Archbishop Lawrence, Oxford, 1881 - M.]
+
+[Footnote 82: The seven precepts of Noah are explained by
+Marsham, (Canon Chronicus, p. 154 - 180,) who adopts, on this
+occasion, the learning and credulity of Selden.]
+
+[Footnote 83: The articles of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, &c., in
+the Bibliotheque of D'Herbelot, are gayly bedecked with the
+fanciful legends of the Mahometans, who have built on the
+groundwork of Scripture and the Talmud.]
+
+[Footnote 84: Koran, c. 7, p. 128, &c., c. 10, p. 173, &c.
+D'Herbelot, p. 647, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 85: Koran, c. 3, p. 40, c. 4. p. 80.  D'Herbelot, p.
+399, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 86: See the Gospel of St. Thomas, or of the Infancy, in
+the Codex Apocryphus N. T. of Fabricius, who collects the various
+testimonies concerning it, (p. 128 - 158.) It was published in
+Greek by Cotelier, and in Arabic by Sike, who thinks our present
+copy more recent than Mahomet. Yet his quotations agree with the
+original about the speech of Christ in his cradle, his living
+birds of clay, &c. (Sike, c. i. p. 168, 169, c. 36, p. 198, 199,
+c. 46, p. 206.  Cotelier, c. 2, p. 160, 161.)]
+
+[Footnote 87: It is darkly hinted in the Koran, (c. 3, p. 39,)
+and more clearly explained by the tradition of the Sonnites,
+(Sale's Note, and Maracci, tom. ii. p. 112.) In the xiith
+century, the immaculate conception was condemned by St. Bernard
+as a presumptuous novelty, (Fra Paolo, Istoria del Concilio di
+Trento, l. ii.)]
+
+[Footnote 88: See the Koran, c. 3, v. 53, and c. 4, v. 156, of
+Maracci's edition.  Deus est praestantissimus dolose agentium (an
+odd praise) ... nec crucifixerunt eum, sed objecta est eis
+similitudo; an expression that may suit with the system of the
+Docetes; but the commentators believe (Maracci, tom. ii. p. 113 -
+115, 173.  Sale, p. 42, 43, 79) that another man, a friend or an
+enemy, was crucified in the likeness of Jesus; a fable which they
+had read in the Gospel of St. Barnabus, and which had been
+started as early as the time of Irenaeus, by some Ebionite
+heretics, (Beausobre, Hist. du Manicheisme, tom. ii. p. 25,
+Mosheim. de Reb. Christ. p. 353.)]
+
+[Footnote 89: This charge is obscurely urged in the Koran, (c. 3,
+p. 45;) but neither Mahomet, nor his followers, are sufficiently
+versed in languages and criticism to give any weight or color to
+their suspicions. Yet the Arians and Nestorians could relate some
+stories, and the illiterate prophet might listen to the bold
+assertions of the Manichaeans.  See Beausobre, tom. i. p. 291 -
+305.]
+
+[Footnote 90: Among the prophecies of the Old and New Testament,
+which are perverted by the fraud or ignorance of the Mussulmans,
+they apply to the prophet the promise of the Paraclete, or
+Comforter, which had been already usurped by the Montanists and
+Manichaeans, (Beausobre, Hist. Critique du Manicheisme, tom. i.
+p. 263, &c.;) and the easy change of letters affords the
+etymology of the name of Mohammed, (Maracci, tom. i. part i. p.
+15 - 28.)]
+
+
+
+Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.
+
+Part IV.
+
+The communication of ideas requires a similitude of thought
+and language: the discourse of a philosopher would vibrate
+without effect on the ear of a peasant; yet how minute is the
+distance of their understandings, if it be compared with the
+contact of an infinite and a finite mind, with the word of God
+expressed by the tongue or the pen of a mortal!  The inspiration
+of the Hebrew prophets, of the apostles and evangelists of
+Christ, might not be incompatible with the exercise of their
+reason and memory; and the diversity of their genius is strongly
+marked in the style and composition of the books of the Old and
+New Testament.  But Mahomet was content with a character, more
+humble, yet more sublime, of a simple editor; the substance of
+the Koran, ^91 according to himself or his disciples, is
+uncreated and eternal; subsisting in the essence of the Deity,
+and inscribed with a pen of light on the table of his everlasting
+decrees.  A paper copy, in a volume of silk and gems, was brought
+down to the lowest heaven by the angel Gabriel, who, under the
+Jewish economy, had indeed been despatched on the most important
+errands; and this trusty messenger successively revealed the
+chapters and verses to the Arabian prophet.  Instead of a
+perpetual and perfect measure of the divine will, the fragments
+of the Koran were produced at the discretion of Mahomet; each
+revelation is suited to the emergencies of his policy or passion;
+and all contradiction is removed by the saving maxim, that any
+text of Scripture is abrogated or modified by any subsequent
+passage.  The word of God, and of the apostle, was diligently
+recorded by his disciples on palm-leaves and the shoulder-bones
+of mutton; and the pages, without order or connection, were cast
+into a domestic chest, in the custody of one of his wives.  Two
+years after the death of Mahomet, the sacred volume was collected
+and published by his friend and successor Abubeker: the work was
+revised by the caliph Othman, in the thirtieth year of the
+Hegira; and the various editions of the Koran assert the same
+miraculous privilege of a uniform and incorruptible text.  In the
+spirit of enthusiasm or vanity, the prophet rests the truth of
+his mission on the merit of his book; audaciously challenges both
+men and angels to imitate the beauties of a single page; and
+presumes to assert that God alone could dictate this incomparable
+performance. ^92 This argument is most powerfully addressed to a
+devout Arabian, whose mind is attuned to faith and rapture; whose
+ear is delighted by the music of sounds; and whose ignorance is
+incapable of comparing the productions of human genius. ^93 The
+harmony and copiousness of style will not reach, in a version,
+the European infidel: he will peruse with impatience the endless
+incoherent rhapsody of fable, and precept, and declamation, which
+seldom excites a sentiment or an idea, which sometimes crawls in
+the dust, and is sometimes lost in the clouds.  The divine
+attributes exalt the fancy of the Arabian missionary; but his
+loftiest strains must yield to the sublime simplicity of the book
+of Job, composed in a remote age, in the same country, and in the
+same language. ^94 If the composition of the Koran exceed the
+faculties of a man to what superior intelligence should we
+ascribe the Iliad of Homer, or the Philippics of Demosthenes?  In
+all religions, the life of the founder supplies the silence of
+his written revelation: the sayings of Mahomet were so many
+lessons of truth; his actions so many examples of virtue; and the
+public and private memorials were preserved by his wives and
+companions.  At the end of two hundred years, the Sonna, or oral
+law, was fixed and consecrated by the labors of Al Bochari, who
+discriminated seven thousand two hundred and seventy-five genuine
+traditions, from a mass of three hundred thousand reports, of a
+more doubtful or spurious character.  Each day the pious author
+prayed in the temple of Mecca, and performed his ablutions with
+the water of Zemzem: the pages were successively deposited on the
+pulpit and the sepulchre of the apostle; and the work has been
+approved by the four orthodox sects of the Sonnites. ^95
+
+[Footnote 91: For the Koran, see D'Herbelot, p. 85 - 88.
+Maracci, tom. i. in Vit. Mohammed. p. 32 - 45.  Sale, Preliminary
+Discourse, p. 58 - 70.]
+
+[Footnote 92: Koran, c. 17, v. 89.  In Sale, p. 235, 236.  In
+Maracci, p. 410.
+
+Note: Compare Von Hammer Geschichte der Assassinen p. 11. -
+M.]
+
+[Footnote 93: Yet a sect of Arabians was persuaded, that it might
+be equalled or surpassed by a human pen, (Pocock, Specimen, p.
+221, &c.;) and Maracci (the polemic is too hard for the
+translator) derides the rhyming affectation of the most applauded
+passage, (tom. i. part ii. p. 69 - 75.)]
+
+[Footnote 94: Colloquia (whether real or fabulous) in media
+Arabia atque ab Arabibus habita, (Lowth, de Poesi Hebraeorum.
+Praelect. xxxii. xxxiii. xxxiv, with his German editor,
+Michaelis, Epimetron iv.) Yet Michaelis (p. 671 - 673) has
+detected many Egyptian images, the elephantiasis, papyrus, Nile,
+crocodile, &c.  The language is ambiguously styled
+Arabico-Hebraea. The resemblance of the sister dialects was much
+more visible in their childhood, than in their mature age,
+(Michaelis, p. 682.  Schultens, in Praefat. Job.)
+
+Note: The age of the book of Job is still and probably will
+still be disputed.  Rosenmuller thus states his own opinion:
+"Certe serioribus reipublicae temporibus assignandum esse librum,
+suadere videtur ad Chaldaismum vergens sermo." Yet the
+observations of Kosegarten, which Rosenmuller has given in a
+note, and common reason, suggest that this Chaldaism may be the
+native form of a much earlier dialect; or the Chaldaic may have
+adopted the poetical archaisms of a dialect, differing from, but
+not less ancient than, the Hebrew.  See Rosenmuller, Proleg. on
+Job, p. 41. The poetry appears to me to belong to a much earlier
+period. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Ali Bochari died A. H. 224.  See D'Herbelot, p.
+208, 416, 827. Gagnier, Not. ad Abulfed. c. 19, p. 33.]
+
+The mission of the ancient prophets, of Moses and of Jesus
+had been confirmed by many splendid prodigies; and Mahomet was
+repeatedly urged, by the inhabitants of Mecca and Medina, to
+produce a similar evidence of his divine legation; to call down
+from heaven the angel or the volume of his revelation, to create
+a garden in the desert, or to kindle a conflagration in the
+unbelieving city.  As often as he is pressed by the demands of
+the Koreish, he involves himself in the obscure boast of vision
+and prophecy, appeals to the internal proofs of his doctrine, and
+shields himself behind the providence of God, who refuses those
+signs and wonders that would depreciate the merit of faith, and
+aggravate the guilt of infidelity But the modest or angry tone of
+his apologies betrays his weakness and vexation; and these
+passages of scandal established, beyond suspicion, the integrity
+of the Koran. ^96 The votaries of Mahomet are more assured than
+himself of his miraculous gifts; and their confidence and
+credulity increase as they are farther removed from the time and
+place of his spiritual exploits.  They believe or affirm that
+trees went forth to meet him; that he was saluted by stones; that
+water gushed from his fingers; that he fed the hungry, cured the
+sick, and raised the dead; that a beam groaned to him; that a
+camel complained to him; that a shoulder of mutton informed him
+of its being poisoned; and that both animate and inanimate nature
+were equally subject to the apostle of God. ^97 His dream of a
+nocturnal journey is seriously described as a real and corporeal
+transaction.  A mysterious animal, the Borak, conveyed him from
+the temple of Mecca to that of Jerusalem: with his companion
+Gabriel he successively ascended the seven heavens, and received
+and repaid the salutations of the patriarchs, the prophets, and
+the angels, in their respective mansions. Beyond the seventh
+heaven, Mahomet alone was permitted to proceed; he passed the
+veil of unity, approached within two bow-shots of the throne, and
+felt a cold that pierced him to the heart, when his shoulder was
+touched by the hand of God.  After this familiar, though
+important conversation, he again descended to Jerusalem,
+remounted the Borak, returned to Mecca, and performed in the
+tenth part of a night the journey of many thousand years. ^98
+According to another legend, the apostle confounded in a national
+assembly the malicious challenge of the Koreish. His resistless
+word split asunder the orb of the moon: the obedient planet
+stooped from her station in the sky, accomplished the seven
+revolutions round the Caaba, saluted Mahomet in the Arabian
+tongue, and, suddenly contracting her dimensions, entered at the
+collar, and issued forth through the sleeve, of his shirt. ^99
+The vulgar are amused with these marvellous tales; but the
+gravest of the Mussulman doctors imitate the modesty of their
+master, and indulge a latitude of faith or interpretation. ^100
+They might speciously allege, that in preaching the religion it
+was needless to violate the harmony of nature; that a creed
+unclouded with mystery may be excused from miracles; and that the
+sword of Mahomet was not less potent than the rod of Moses.
+
+[Footnote 96: See, more remarkably, Koran, c. 2, 6, 12, 13, 17.
+Prideaux (Life of Mahomet, p. 18, 19) has confounded the
+impostor.  Maracci, with a more learned apparatus, has shown that
+the passages which deny his miracles are clear and positive,
+(Alcoran, tom. i. part ii. p. 7 - 12,) and those which seem to
+assert them are ambiguous and insufficient, (p. 12 - 22.)]
+
+[Footnote 97: See the Specimen Hist. Arabum, the text of
+Abulpharagius, p. 17, the notes of Pocock, p. 187 - 190.
+D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 76, 77.  Voyages de
+Chardin, tom. iv. p. 200 - 203.  Maracci (Alcoran, tom. i. p. 22
+- 64) has most laboriously collected and confuted the miracles
+and prophecies of Mahomet, which, according to some writers,
+amount to three thousand.]
+
+[Footnote 98: The nocturnal journey is circumstantially related
+by Abulfeda (in Vit. Mohammed, c. 19, p. 33,) who wishes to think
+it a vision; by Prideaux, (p. 31 - 40,) who aggravates the
+absurdities; and by Gagnier (tom. i. p. 252 - 343,) who declares,
+from the zealous Al Jannabi, that to deny this journey, is to
+disbelieve the Koran.  Yet the Koran without naming either
+heaven, or Jerusalem, or Mecca, has only dropped a mysterious
+hint: Laus illi qui transtulit servum suum ab oratorio Haram ad
+oratorium remotissimum, (Koran, c. 17, v. 1; in Maracci, tom. ii.
+p. 407; for Sale's version is more licentious.) A slender basis
+for the aerial structure of tradition.]
+
+[Footnote 99: In the prophetic style, which uses the present or
+past for the future, Mahomet had said, Appropinquavit hora, et
+scissa est luna, (Koran, c. 54, v. 1; in Maracci, tom. ii. p.
+688.) This figure of rhetoric has been converted into a fact,
+which is said to be attested by the most respectable
+eye-witnesses, (Maracci, tom. ii. p. 690.) The festival is still
+celebrated by the Persians, (Chardin, tom. iv. p. 201;) and the
+legend is tediously spun out by Gagnier, (Vie de Mahomet, tom. i.
+p. 183 - 234,) on the faith, as it should seem, of the credulous
+Al Jannabi.  Yet a Mahometan doctor has arraigned the credit of
+the principal witness, (apud Pocock, Specimen, p. 187;) the best
+interpreters are content with the simple sense of the Koran.  (Al
+Beidawi, apud Hottinger, Hist. Orient. l. ii. p. 302;) and the
+silence of Abulfeda is worthy of a prince and a philosopher.
+
+Note: Compare Hamaker Notes to Inc. Auct. Lib. de Exped.
+Memphides, p. 62 - M.]
+
+[Footnote 100: Abulpharagius, in Specimen Hist. Arab. p. 17; and
+his scepticism is justified in the notes of Pocock, p. 190 - 194,
+from the purest authorities.]
+
+The polytheist is oppressed and distracted by the variety of
+superstition: a thousand rites of Egyptian origin were interwoven
+with the essence of the Mosaic law; and the spirit of the gospel
+had evaporated in the pageantry of the church.  The prophet of
+Mecca was tempted by prejudice, or policy, or patriotism, to
+sanctify the rites of the Arabians, and the custom of visiting
+the holy stone of the Caaba.  But the precepts of Mahomet himself
+inculcates a more simple and rational piety: prayer, fasting, and
+alms, are the religious duties of a Mussulman; and he is
+encouraged to hope, that prayer will carry him half way to God,
+fasting will bring him to the door of his palace, and alms will
+gain him admittance. ^101 I.  According to the tradition of the
+nocturnal journey, the apostle, in his personal conference with
+the Deity, was commanded to impose on his disciples the daily
+obligation of fifty prayers.  By the advice of Moses, he applied
+for an alleviation of this intolerable burden; the number was
+gradually reduced to five; without any dispensation of business
+or pleasure, or time or place: the devotion of the faithful is
+repeated at daybreak, at noon, in the afternoon, in the evening,
+and at the first watch of the night; and in the present decay of
+religious fervor, our travellers are edified by the profound
+humility and attention of the Turks and Persians.  Cleanliness is
+the key of prayer: the frequent lustration of the hands, the
+face, and the body, which was practised of old by the Arabs, is
+solemnly enjoined by the Koran; and a permission is formally
+granted to supply with sand the scarcity of water.  The words and
+attitudes of supplication, as it is performed either sitting, or
+standing, or prostrate on the ground, are prescribed by custom or
+authority; but the prayer is poured forth in short and fervent
+ejaculations; the measure of zeal is not exhausted by a tedious
+liturgy; and each Mussulman for his own person is invested with
+the character of a priest.  Among the theists, who reject the use
+of images, it has been found necessary to restrain the wanderings
+of the fancy, by directing the eye and the thought towards a
+kebla, or visible point of the horizon.  The prophet was at first
+inclined to gratify the Jews by the choice of Jerusalem; but he
+soon returned to a more natural partiality; and five times every
+day the eyes of the nations at Astracan, at Fez, at Delhi, are
+devoutly turned to the holy temple of Mecca.  Yet every spot for
+the service of God is equally pure: the Mahometans indifferently
+pray in their chamber or in the street.  As a distinction from
+the Jews and Christians, the Friday in each week is set apart for
+the useful institution of public worship: the people is assembled
+in the mosch; and the imam, some respectable elder, ascends the
+pulpit, to begin the prayer and pronounce the sermon.  But the
+Mahometan religion is destitute of priesthood or sacrifice; and
+the independent spirit of fanaticism looks down with contempt on
+the ministers and the slaves of superstition. ^* II. The
+voluntary ^102 penance of the ascetics, the torment and glory of
+their lives, was odious to a prophet who censured in his
+companions a rash vow of abstaining from flesh, and women, and
+sleep; and firmly declared, that he would suffer no monks in his
+religion. ^103 Yet he instituted, in each year, a fast of thirty
+days; and strenuously recommended the observance as a discipline
+which purifies the soul and subdues the body, as a salutary
+exercise of obedience to the will of God and his apostle. During
+the month of Ramadan, from the rising to the setting of the sun,
+the Mussulman abstains from eating, and drinking, and women, and
+baths, and perfumes; from all nourishment that can restore his
+strength, from all pleasure that can gratify his senses.  In the
+revolution of the lunar year, the Ramadan coincides, by turns,
+with the winter cold and the summer heat; and the patient martyr,
+without assuaging his thirst with a drop of water, must expect
+the close of a tedious and sultry day.  The interdiction of wine,
+peculiar to some orders of priests or hermits, is converted by
+Mahomet alone into a positive and general law; ^104 and a
+considerable portion of the globe has abjured, at his command,
+the use of that salutary, though dangerous, liquor.  These
+painful restraints are, doubtless, infringed by the libertine,
+and eluded by the hypocrite; but the legislator, by whom they are
+enacted, cannot surely be accused of alluring his proselytes by
+the indulgence of their sensual appetites.  III.  The charity of
+the Mahometans descends to the animal creation; and the Koran
+repeatedly inculcates, not as a merit, but as a strict and
+indispensable duty, the relief of the indigent and unfortunate.
+Mahomet, perhaps, is the only lawgiver who has defined the
+precise measure of charity: the standard may vary with the degree
+and nature of property, as it consists either in money, in corn
+or cattle, in fruits or merchandise; but the Mussulman does not
+accomplish the law, unless he bestows a tenth of his revenue; and
+if his conscience accuses him of fraud or extortion, the tenth,
+under the idea of restitution, is enlarged to a fifth. ^105
+Benevolence is the foundation of justice, since we are forbid to
+injure those whom we are bound to assist.  A prophet may reveal
+the secrets of heaven and of futurity; but in his moral precepts
+he can only repeat the lessons of our own hearts.
+
+[Footnote 101: The most authentic account of these precepts,
+pilgrimage, prayer, fasting, alms, and ablutions, is extracted
+from the Persian and Arabian theologians by Maracci, (Prodrom.
+part iv. p. 9 - 24,) Reland, (in his excellent treatise de
+Religione Mohammedica, Utrecht, 1717, p. 67 - 123,) and Chardin,
+(Voyages in Perse, tom. iv. p. 47 - 195.) Marace is a partial
+accuser; but the jeweller, Chardin, had the eyes of a
+philosopher; and Reland, a judicious student, had travelled over
+the East in his closet at Utrecht. The xivth letter of Tournefort
+(Voyage du Levont, tom. ii. p. 325 - 360, in octavo) describes
+what he had seen of the religion of the Turks.]
+
+[Footnote *: Such is Mahometanism beyond the precincts of the
+Holy City. But Mahomet retained, and the Koran sanctions, (Sale's
+Koran, c. 5, in inlt. c. 22, vol. ii. p. 171, 172,) the sacrifice
+of sheep and camels (probably according to the old Arabian rites)
+at Mecca; and the pilgrims complete their ceremonial with
+sacrifices, sometimes as numerous and costly as those of King
+Solomon.  Compare note, vol. iv. c. xxiii. p. 96, and Forster's
+Mahometanism Unveiled, vol. i. p. 420.  This author quotes the
+questionable authority of Benjamin of Tudela, for the sacrifice
+of a camel by the caliph at Bosra; but sacrifice undoubtedly
+forms no part of the ordinary Mahometan ritual; nor will the
+sanctity of the caliph, as the earthly representative of the
+prophet, bear any close analogy to the priesthood of the Mosaic
+or Gentila religions. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 102: Mahomet (Sale's Koran, c. 9, p. 153) reproaches
+the Christians with taking their priests and monks for their
+lords, besides God.  Yet Maracci (Prodromus, part iii. p. 69, 70)
+excuses the worship, especially of the pope, and quotes, from the
+Koran itself, the case of Eblis, or Satan, who was cast from
+heaven for refusing to adore Adam.]
+
+[Footnote 103: Koran, c. 5, p. 94, and Sale's note, which refers
+to the authority of Jallaloddin and Al Beidawi.  D'Herbelot
+declares, that Mahomet condemned la vie religieuse; and that the
+first swarms of fakirs, dervises, &c., did not appear till after
+the year 300 of the Hegira, (Bibliot. Orient. p. 292, 718.)]
+
+[Footnote 104: See the double prohibition, (Koran, c. 2, p. 25,
+c. 5, p. 94;) the one in the style of a legislator, the other in
+that of a fanatic. The public and private motives of Mahomet are
+investigated by Prideaux (Life of Mahomet, p. 62 - 64) and Sale,
+(Preliminary Discourse, p. 124.)]
+
+[Footnote 105: The jealousy of Maracci (Prodromus, part iv. p.
+33) prompts him to enumerate the more liberal alms of the
+Catholics of Rome.  Fifteen great hospitals are open to many
+thousand patients and pilgrims; fifteen hundred maidens are
+annually portioned; fifty-six charity schools are founded for
+both sexes; one hundred and twenty confraternities relieve the
+wants of their brethren, &c.  The benevolence of London is still
+more extensive; but I am afraid that much more is to be ascribed
+to the humanity, than to the religion, of the people.]
+
+The two articles of belief, and the four practical duties,
+of Islam, are guarded by rewards and punishments; and the faith
+of the Mussulman is devoutly fixed on the event of the judgment
+and the last day.  The prophet has not presumed to determine the
+moment of that awful catastrophe, though he darkly announces the
+signs, both in heaven and earth, which will precede the universal
+dissolution, when life shall be destroyed, and the order of
+creation shall be confounded in the primitive chaos.  At the
+blast of the trumpet, new worlds will start into being: angels,
+genii, and men will arise from the dead, and the human soul will
+again be united to the body. The doctrine of the resurrection was
+first entertained by the Egyptians; ^106 and their mummies were
+embalmed, their pyramids were constructed, to preserve the
+ancient mansion of the soul, during a period of three thousand
+years.  But the attempt is partial and unavailing; and it is with
+a more philosophic spirit that Mahomet relies on the omnipotence
+of the Creator, whose word can reanimate the breathless clay, and
+collect the innumerable atoms, that no longer retain their form
+or substance. ^107 The intermediate state of the soul it is hard
+to decide; and those who most firmly believe her immaterial
+nature, are at a loss to understand how she can think or act
+without the agency of the organs of sense.
+
+[Footnote 106: See Herodotus (l. ii. c. 123) and our learned
+countryman Sir John Marsham, (Canon. Chronicus, p. 46.) The same
+writer (p. 254 - 274) is an elaborate sketch of the infernal
+regions, as they were painted by the fancy of the Egyptians and
+Greeks, of the poets and philosophers of antiquity.]
+
+[Footnote 107: The Koran (c. 2, p. 259, &c.; of Sale, p. 32; of
+Maracci, p. 97) relates an ingenious miracle, which satisfied the
+curiosity, and confirmed the faith, of Abraham.]
+
+The reunion of the soul and body will be followed by the
+final judgment of mankind; and in his copy of the Magian picture,
+the prophet has too faithfully represented the forms of
+proceeding, and even the slow and successive operations, of an
+earthly tribunal.  By his intolerant adversaries he is upbraided
+for extending, even to themselves, the hope of salvation, for
+asserting the blackest heresy, that every man who believes in
+God, and accomplishes good works, may expect in the last day a
+favorable sentence. Such rational indifference is ill adapted to
+the character of a fanatic; nor is it probable that a messenger
+from heaven should depreciate the value and necessity of his own
+revelation.  In the idiom of the Koran, ^108 the belief of God is
+inseparable from that of Mahomet: the good works are those which
+he has enjoined, and the two qualifications imply the profession
+of Islam, to which all nations and all sects are equally invited.
+
+Their spiritual blindness, though excused by ignorance and
+crowned with virtue, will be scourged with everlasting torments;
+and the tears which Mahomet shed over the tomb of his mother for
+whom he was forbidden to pray, display a striking contrast of
+humanity and enthusiasm. ^109 The doom of the infidels is common:
+the measure of their guilt and punishment is determined by the
+degree of evidence which they have rejected, by the magnitude of
+the errors which they have entertained: the eternal mansions of
+the Christians, the Jews, the Sabians, the Magians, and
+idolaters, are sunk below each other in the abyss; and the lowest
+hell is reserved for the faithless hypocrites who have assumed
+the mask of religion.  After the greater part of mankind has been
+condemned for their opinions, the true believers only will be
+judged by their actions. The good and evil of each Mussulman will
+be accurately weighed in a real or allegorical balance; and a
+singular mode of compensation will be allowed for the payment of
+injuries: the aggressor will refund an equivalent of his own good
+actions, for the benefit of the person whom he has wronged; and
+if he should be destitute of any moral property, the weight of
+his sins will be loaded with an adequate share of the demerits of
+the sufferer. According as the shares of guilt or virtue shall
+preponderate, the sentence will be pronounced, and all, without
+distinction, will pass over the sharp and perilous bridge of the
+abyss; but the innocent, treading in the footsteps of Mahomet,
+will gloriously enter the gates of paradise, while the guilty
+will fall into the first and mildest of the seven hells.  The
+term of expiation will vary from nine hundred to seven thousand
+years; but the prophet has judiciously promised, that all his
+disciples, whatever may be their sins, shall be saved, by their
+own faith and his intercession from eternal damnation.  It is not
+surprising that superstition should act most powerfully on the
+fears of her votaries, since the human fancy can paint with more
+energy the misery than the bliss of a future life.  With the two
+simple elements of darkness and fire, we create a sensation of
+pain, which may be aggravated to an infinite degree by the idea
+of endless duration. But the same idea operates with an opposite
+effect on the continuity of pleasure; and too much of our present
+enjoyments is obtained from the relief, or the comparison, of
+evil. It is natural enough that an Arabian prophet should dwell
+with rapture on the groves, the fountains, and the rivers of
+paradise; but instead of inspiring the blessed inhabitants with a
+liberal taste for harmony and science, conversation and
+friendship, he idly celebrates the pearls and diamonds, the robes
+of silk, palaces of marble, dishes of gold, rich wines,
+artificial dainties, numerous attendants, and the whole train of
+sensual and costly luxury, which becomes insipid to the owner,
+even in the short period of this mortal life.  Seventy-two
+Houris, or black-eyed girls, of resplendent beauty, blooming
+youth, virgin purity, and exquisite sensibility, will be created
+for the use of the meanest believer; a moment of pleasure will be
+prolonged to a thousand years; and his faculties will be
+increased a hundred fold, to render him worthy of his felicity.
+Notwithstanding a vulgar prejudice, the gates of heaven will be
+open to both sexes; but Mahomet has not specified the male
+companions of the female elect, lest he should either alarm the
+jealousy of their former husbands, or disturb their felicity, by
+the suspicion of an everlasting marriage.  This image of a carnal
+paradise has provoked the indignation, perhaps the envy, of the
+monks: they declaim against the impure religion of Mahomet; and
+his modest apologists are driven to the poor excuse of figures
+and allegories.  But the sounder and more consistent party adhere
+without shame, to the literal interpretation of the Koran:
+useless would be the resurrection of the body, unless it were
+restored to the possession and exercise of its worthiest
+faculties; and the union of sensual and intellectual enjoyment is
+requisite to complete the happiness of the double animal, the
+perfect man.  Yet the joys of the Mahometan paradise will not be
+confined to the indulgence of luxury and appetite; and the
+prophet has expressly declared that all meaner happiness will be
+forgotten and despised by the saints and martyrs, who shall be
+admitted to the beatitude of the divine vision. ^110
+
+[Footnote 108: The candid Reland has demonstrated, that Mahomet
+damns all unbelievers, (de Religion. Moham. p. 128 - 142;) that
+devils will not be finally saved, (p. 196 - 199;) that paradise
+will not solely consist of corporeal delights, (p. 199 - 205;)
+and that women's souls are immortal. (p. 205 - 209.)]
+
+[Footnote 109: A Beidawi, apud Sale.  Koran, c. 9, p. 164.  The
+refusal to pray for an unbelieving kindred is justified,
+according to Mahomet, by the duty of a prophet, and the example
+of Abraham, who reprobated his own father as an enemy of God.
+Yet Abraham (he adds, c. 9, v. 116.  Maracci, tom. ii. p. 317)
+fuit sane pius, mitis.]
+
+[Footnote 110: For the day of judgment, hell, paradise, &c.,
+consult the Koran, (c. 2, v. 25, c. 56, 78, &c.;) with Maracci's
+virulent, but learned, refutation, (in his notes, and in the
+Prodromus, part iv. p. 78, 120, 122, &c.;) D'Herbelot,
+(Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 368, 375;) Reland, (p. 47 - 61;) and
+Sale, (p. 76 - 103.) The original ideas of the Magi are darkly
+and doubtfully explored by their apologist, Dr. Hyde, (Hist.
+Religionis Persarum, c. 33, p. 402 - 412, Oxon. 1760.) In the
+article of Mahomet, Bayle has shown how indifferently wit and
+philosophy supply the absence of genuine information.]
+
+The first and most arduous conquests of Mahomet ^111 were
+those of his wife, his servant, his pupil, and his friend; ^112
+since he presented himself as a prophet to those who were most
+conversant with his infirmities as a man. Yet Cadijah believed
+the words, and cherished the glory, of her husband; the
+obsequious and affectionate Zeid was tempted by the prospect of
+freedom; the illustrious Ali, the son of Abu Taleb, embraced the
+sentiments of his cousin with the spirit of a youthful hero; and
+the wealth, the moderation, the veracity of Abubeker confirmed
+the religion of the prophet whom he was destined to succeed.  By
+his persuasion, ten of the most respectable citizens of Mecca
+were introduced to the private lessons of Islam; they yielded to
+the voice of reason and enthusiasm; they repeated the fundamental
+creed, "There is but one God, and Mahomet is the apostle of God;"
+and their faith, even in this life, was rewarded with riches and
+honors, with the command of armies and the government of
+kingdoms.  Three years were silently employed in the conversion
+of fourteen proselytes, the first-fruits of his mission; but in
+the fourth year he assumed the prophetic office, and resolving to
+impart to his family the light of divine truth, he prepared a
+banquet, a lamb, as it is said, and a bowl of milk, for the
+entertainment of forty guests of the race of Hashem. "Friends and
+kinsmen," said Mahomet to the assembly, "I offer you, and I alone
+can offer, the most precious of gifts, the treasures of this
+world and of the world to come.  God has commanded me to call you
+to his service.  Who among you will support my burden?  Who among
+you will be my companion and my vizier?" ^113 No answer was
+returned, till the silence of astonishment, and doubt, and
+contempt, was at length broken by the impatient courage of Ali, a
+youth in the fourteenth year of his age.  "O prophet, I am the
+man: whosoever rises against thee, I will dash out his teeth,
+tear out his eyes, break his legs, rip up his belly.  O prophet,
+I will be thy vizier over them." Mahomet accepted his offer with
+transport, and Abu Taled was ironically exhorted to respect the
+superior dignity of his son.  In a more serious tone, the father
+of Ali advised his nephew to relinquish his impracticable design.
+
+"Spare your remonstrances," replied the intrepid fanatic to his
+uncle and benefactor; "if they should place the sun on my right
+hand, and the moon on my left, they should not divert me from my
+course." He persevered ten years in the exercise of his mission;
+and the religion which has overspread the East and the West
+advanced with a slow and painful progress within the walls of
+Mecca.  Yet Mahomet enjoyed the satisfaction of beholding the
+increase of his infant congregation of Unitarians, who revered
+him as a prophet, and to whom he seasonably dispensed the
+spiritual nourishment of the Koran.  The number of proselytes may
+be esteemed by the absence of eighty-three men and eighteen
+women, who retired to Aethiopia in the seventh year of his
+mission; and his party was fortified by the timely conversion of
+his uncle Hamza, and of the fierce and inflexible Omar, who
+signalized in the cause of Islam the same zeal, which he had
+exerted for its destruction.  Nor was the charity of Mahomet
+confined to the tribe of Koreish, or the precincts of Mecca: on
+solemn festivals, in the days of pilgrimage, he frequented the
+Caaba, accosted the strangers of every tribe, and urged, both in
+private converse and public discourse, the belief and worship of
+a sole Deity.  Conscious of his reason and of his weakness, he
+asserted the liberty of conscience, and disclaimed the use of
+religious violence: ^114 but he called the Arabs to repentance,
+and conjured them to remember the ancient idolaters of Ad and
+Thamud, whom the divine justice had swept away from the face of
+the earth. ^115
+
+[Footnote 111: Before I enter on the history of the prophet, it
+is incumbent on me to produce my evidence.  The Latin, French,
+and English versions of the Koran are preceded by historical
+discourses, and the three translators, Maracci, (tom. i. p. 10 -
+32,) Savary, (tom. i. p. 1 - 248,) and Sale, (Preliminary
+Discourse, p. 33 - 56,) had accurately studied the language and
+character of their author.  Two professed Lives of Mahomet have
+been composed by Dr. Prideaux (Life of Mahomet, seventh edition,
+London, 1718, in octavo) and the count de Boulainvilliers, (Vie
+de Mahomed, Londres, 1730, in octavo: ) but the adverse wish of
+finding an impostor or a hero, has too often corrupted the
+learning of the doctor and the ingenuity of the count.  The
+article in D'Herbelot (Bibliot. Orient. p. 598 - 603) is chiefly
+drawn from Novairi and Mirkond; but the best and most authentic
+of our guides is M. Gagnier, a Frenchman by birth, and professor
+at Oxford of the Oriental tongues.  In two elaborate works,
+(Ismael Abulfeda de Vita et Rebus gestis Mohammedis, &c. Latine
+vertit, Praefatione et Notis illustravit Johannes Gagnier, Oxon.
+1723, in folio. La Vie de Mahomet traduite et compilee de
+l'Alcoran, des Traditions Authentiques de la Sonna et des
+meilleurs Auteurs Arabes; Amsterdam, 1748, 3 vols. in 12mo.,) he
+has interpreted, illustrated, and supplied the Arabic text of
+Abulfeda and Al Jannabi; the first, an enlightened prince who
+reigned at Hamah, in Syria, A.D. 1310 - 1332, (see Gagnier
+Praefat. ad Abulfed.;) the second, a credulous doctor, who
+visited Mecca A.D. 1556. (D'Herbelot, p. 397. Gagnier, tom. iii.
+p. 209, 210.) These are my general vouchers, and the inquisitive
+reader may follow the order of time, and the division of
+chapters. Yet I must observe that both Abulfeda and Al Jannabi
+are modern historians, and that they cannot appeal to any writers
+of the first century of the Hegira.
+
+Note: A new Life, by Dr. Weil, (Stuttgart. 1843,) has added
+some few traditions unknown in Europe.  Of Dr. Weil's Arabic
+scholarship, which professes to correct many errors in Gagnier,
+in Maracci, and in M. von Hammer, I am no judge.  But it is
+remarkable that he does not seem acquainted with the passage of
+Tabari, translated by Colonel Vans Kennedy, in the Bombay
+Transactions, (vol. iii.,) the earliest and most important
+addition made to the traditionary Life of Mahomet.  I am inclined
+to think Colonel Vans Kennedy's appreciation of the prophet's
+character, which may be overlooked in a criticism on Voltaire's
+Mahomet, the most just which I have ever read.  The work of Dr.
+Weil appears to me most valuable in its dissection and
+chronological view of the Koran. - M. 1845]
+
+[Footnote 112: After the Greeks, Prideaux (p. 8) discloses the
+secret doubts of the wife of Mahomet.  As if he had been a privy
+counsellor of the prophet, Boulainvilliers (p. 272, &c.) unfolds
+the sublime and patriotic views of Cadijah and the first
+disciples.]
+
+[Footnote 113: Vezirus, portitor, bajulus, onus ferens; and this
+plebeian name was transferred by an apt metaphor to the pillars
+of the state, (Gagnier, Not. ad Abulfed. p. 19.) I endeavor to
+preserve the Arabian idiom, as far as I can feel it myself in a
+Latin or French translation.]
+
+[Footnote 114: The passages of the Koran in behalf of toleration
+are strong and numerous: c. 2, v. 257, c. 16, 129, c. 17, 54, c.
+45, 15, c. 50, 39, c. 88, 21, &c., with the notes of Maracci and
+Sale.  This character alone may generally decide the doubts of
+the learned, whether a chapter was revealed at Mecca or Medina.]
+
+[Footnote 115: See the Koran, (passim, and especially c. 7, p.
+123, 124, &c.,) and the tradition of the Arabs, (Pocock,
+Specimen, p. 35 - 37.) The caverns of the tribe of Thamud, fit
+for men of the ordinary stature, were shown in the midway between
+Medina and Damascus. (Abulfed Arabiae Descript. p. 43, 44,) and
+may be probably ascribed to the Throglodytes of the primitive
+world, (Michaelis, ad Lowth de Poesi Hebraeor. p. 131 - 134.
+Recherches sur les Egyptiens, tom. ii. p. 48, &c.)]
+
+
+
+Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.
+
+Part V.
+
+The people of Mecca were hardened in their unbelief by
+superstition and envy.  The elders of the city, the uncles of the
+prophet, affected to despise the presumption of an orphan, the
+reformer of his country: the pious orations of Mahomet in the
+Caaba were answered by the clamors of Abu Taleb.  "Citizens and
+pilgrims, listen not to the tempter, hearken not to his impious
+novelties. Stand fast in the worship of Al Lata and Al Uzzah."
+Yet the son of Abdallah was ever dear to the aged chief: and he
+protected the fame and person of his nephew against the assaults
+of the Koreishites, who had long been jealous of the preeminence
+of the family of Hashem. Their malice was colored with the
+pretence of religion: in the age of Job, the crime of impiety was
+punished by the Arabian magistrate; ^116 and Mahomet was guilty
+of deserting and denying the national deities.  But so loose was
+the policy of Mecca, that the leaders of the Koreish, instead of
+accusing a criminal, were compelled to employ the measures of
+persuasion or violence.  They repeatedly addressed Abu Taleb in
+the style of reproach and menace.  "Thy nephew reviles our
+religion; he accuses our wise forefathers of ignorance and folly;
+silence him quickly, lest he kindle tumult and discord in the
+city.  If he persevere, we shall draw our swords against him and
+his adherents, and thou wilt be responsible for the blood of thy
+fellow-citizens." The weight and moderation of Abu Taleb eluded
+the violence of religious faction; the most helpless or timid of
+the disciples retired to Aethiopia, and the prophet withdrew
+himself to various places of strength in the town and country.
+As he was still supported by his family, the rest of the tribe of
+Koreish engaged themselves to renounce all intercourse with the
+children of Hashem, neither to buy nor sell, neither to marry not
+to give in marriage, but to pursue them with implacable enmity,
+till they should deliver the person of Mahomet to the justice of
+the gods.  The decree was suspended in the Caaba before the eyes
+of the nation; the messengers of the Koreish pursued the
+Mussulman exiles in the heart of Africa: they besieged the
+prophet and his most faithful followers, intercepted their water,
+and inflamed their mutual animosity by the retaliation of
+injuries and insults.  A doubtful truce restored the appearances
+of concord till the death of Abu Taleb abandoned Mahomet to the
+power of his enemies, at the moment when he was deprived of his
+domestic comforts by the loss of his faithful and generous
+Cadijah.  Abu Sophian, the chief of the branch of Ommiyah,
+succeeded to the principality of the republic of Mecca.  A
+zealous votary of the idols, a mortal foe of the line of Hashem,
+he convened an assembly of the Koreishites and their allies, to
+decide the fate of the apostle.  His imprisonment might provoke
+the despair of his enthusiasm; and the exile of an eloquent and
+popular fanatic would diffuse the mischief through the provinces
+of Arabia. His death was resolved; and they agreed that a sword
+from each tribe should be buried in his heart, to divide the
+guilt of his blood, and baffle the vengeance of the Hashemites.
+An angel or a spy revealed their conspiracy; and flight was the
+only resource of Mahomet. ^117 At the dead of night, accompanied
+by his friend Abubeker, he silently escaped from his house: the
+assassins watched at the door; but they were deceived by the
+figure of Ali, who reposed on the bed, and was covered with the
+green vestment of the apostle. The Koreish respected the piety of
+the heroic youth; but some verses of Ali, which are still extant,
+exhibit an interesting picture of his anxiety, his tenderness,
+and his religious confidence.  Three days Mahomet and his
+companion were concealed in the cave of Thor, at the distance of
+a league from Mecca; and in the close of each evening, they
+received from the son and daughter of Abubeker a secret supply of
+intelligence and food.  The diligence of the Koreish explored
+every haunt in the neighborhood of the city: they arrived at the
+entrance of the cavern; but the providential deceit of a spider's
+web and a pigeon's nest is supposed to convince them that the
+place was solitary and inviolate.  "We are only two," said the
+trembling Abubeker. "There is a third," replied the prophet; "it
+is God himself." No sooner was the pursuit abated than the two
+fugitives issued from the rock, and mounted their camels: on the
+road to Medina, they were overtaken by the emissaries of the
+Koreish; they redeemed themselves with prayers and promises from
+their hands.  In this eventful moment, the lance of an Arab might
+have changed the history of the world.  The flight of the prophet
+from Mecca to Medina has fixed the memorable aera of the Hegira,
+^118 which, at the end of twelve centuries, still discriminates
+the lunar years of the Mahometan nations. ^119
+
+[Footnote 116: In the time of Job, the crime of impiety was
+punished by the Arabian magistrate, (c. 21, v. 26, 27, 28.) I
+blush for a respectable prelate (de Poesi Hebraeorum, p. 650,
+651, edit. Michaelis; and letter of a late professor in the
+university of Oxford, p. 15 - 53,) who justifies and applauds
+this patriarchal inquisition.]
+
+[Footnote 117: D'Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 445.  He quotes a
+particular history of the flight of Mahomet.]
+
+[Footnote 118: The Hegira was instituted by Omar, the second
+caliph, in imitation of the aera of the martyrs of the
+Christians, (D'Herbelot, p. 444;) and properly commenced
+sixty-eight days before the flight of Mahomet, with the first of
+Moharren, or first day of that Arabian year which coincides with
+Friday, July 16th, A.D. 622, (Abulfeda, Vit Moham, c. 22, 23, p.
+45 - 50; and Greaves's edition of Ullug Beg's Epochae Arabum,
+&c., c. 1, p. 8, 10, &c.)
+
+Note: Chronologists dispute between the 15th and 16th of
+July. St. Martin inclines to the 8th, ch. xi. p. 70. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Mahomet's life, from his mission to the Hegira,
+may be found in Abulfeda (p. 14 - 45) and Gagnier, (tom. i. p.
+134 - 251, 342 - 383.) The legend from p. 187 - 234 is vouched by
+Al Jannabi, and disdained by Abulfeda.]
+
+The religion of the Koran might have perished in its cradle,
+had not Medina embraced with faith and reverence the holy
+outcasts of Mecca. Medina, or the city, known under the name of
+Yathreb, before it was sanctified by the throne of the prophet,
+was divided between the tribes of the Charegites and the Awsites,
+whose hereditary feud was rekindled by the slightest
+provocations: two colonies of Jews, who boasted a sacerdotal
+race, were their humble allies, and without converting the Arabs,
+they introduced the taste of science and religion, which
+distinguished Medina as the city of the Book. Some of her noblest
+citizens, in a pilgrimage to the Canaba, were converted by the
+preaching of Mahomet; on their return, they diffused the belief
+of God and his prophet, and the new alliance was ratified by
+their deputies in two secret and nocturnal interviews on a hill
+in the suburbs of Mecca.  In the first, ten Charegites and two
+Awsites united in faith and love, protested, in the name of their
+wives, their children, and their absent brethren, that they would
+forever profess the creed, and observe the precepts, of the
+Koran.  The second was a political association, the first vital
+spark of the empire of the Saracens. ^120 Seventy-three men and
+two women of Medina held a solemn conference with Mahomet, his
+kinsman, and his disciples; and pledged themselves to each other
+by a mutual oath of fidelity.  They promised, in the name of the
+city, that if he should be banished, they would receive him as a
+confederate, obey him as a leader, and defend him to the last
+extremity, like their wives and children.  "But if you are
+recalled by your country," they asked with a flattering anxiety,
+"will you not abandon your new allies?" "All things," replied
+Mahomet with a smile, "are now common between us your blood is as
+my blood, your ruin as my ruin.  We are bound to each other by
+the ties of honor and interest.  I am your friend, and the enemy
+of your foes." "But if we are killed in your service, what,"
+exclaimed the deputies of Medina, "will be our reward?"
+"Paradise," replied the prophet.  "Stretch forth thy hand." He
+stretched it forth, and they reiterated the oath of allegiance
+and fidelity. Their treaty was ratified by the people, who
+unanimously embraced the profession of Islam; they rejoiced in
+the exile of the apostle, but they trembled for his safety, and
+impatiently expected his arrival.  After a perilous and rapid
+journey along the sea-coast, he halted at Koba, two miles from
+the city, and made his public entry into Medina, sixteen days
+after his flight from Mecca.  Five hundred of the citizens
+advanced to meet him; he was hailed with acclamations of loyalty
+and devotion; Mahomet was mounted on a she-camel, an umbrella
+shaded his head, and a turban was unfurled before him to supply
+the deficiency of a standard.  His bravest disciples, who had
+been scattered by the storm, assembled round his person; and the
+equal, though various, merit of the Moslems was distinguished by
+the names of Mohagerians and Ansars, the fugitives of Mecca, and
+the auxiliaries of Medina.  To eradicate the seeds of jealousy,
+Mahomet judiciously coupled his principal followers with the
+rights and obligations of brethren; and when Ali found himself
+without a peer, the prophet tenderly declared, that he would be
+the companion and brother of the noble youth.  The expedient was
+crowned with success; the holy fraternity was respected in peace
+and war, and the two parties vied with each other in a generous
+emulation of courage and fidelity. Once only the concord was
+slightly ruffled by an accidental quarrel: a patriot of Medina
+arraigned the insolence of the strangers, but the hint of their
+expulsion was heard with abhorrence; and his own son most eagerly
+offered to lay at the apostle's feet the head of his father.
+
+[Footnote 120: The triple inauguration of Mahomet is described by
+Abulfeda (p. 30, 33, 40, 86) and Gagnier, (tom. i. p. 342, &c.,
+349, &c., tom. ii. p. 223 &c.)]
+
+From his establishment at Medina, Mahomet assumed the
+exercise of the regal and sacerdotal office; and it was impious
+to appeal from a judge whose decrees were inspired by the divine
+wisdom.  A small portion of ground, the patrimony of two orphans,
+was acquired by gift or purchase; ^121 on that chosen spot he
+built a house and a mosch, more venerable in their rude
+simplicity than the palaces and temples of the Assyrian caliphs.
+His seal of gold, or silver, was inscribed with the apostolic
+title; when he prayed and preached in the weekly assembly, he
+leaned against the trunk of a palm-tree; and it was long before
+he indulged himself in the use of a chair or pulpit of rough
+timber. ^122 After a reign of six years, fifteen hundred Moslems,
+in arms and in the field, renewed their oath of allegiance; and
+their chief repeated the assurance of protection till the death
+of the last member, or the final dissolution of the party.  It
+was in the same camp that the deputy of Mecca was astonished by
+the attention of the faithful to the words and looks of the
+prophet, by the eagerness with which they collected his spittle,
+a hair that dropped on the ground, the refuse water of his
+lustrations, as if they participated in some degree of the
+prophetic virtue.  "I have seen," said he, "the Chosroes of
+Persia and the Caesar of Rome, but never did I behold a king
+among his subjects like Mahomet among his companions." The devout
+fervor of enthusiasm acts with more energy and truth than the
+cold and formal servility of courts.
+
+[Footnote 121: Prideaux (Life of Mahomet, p. 44) reviles the
+wickedness of the impostor, who despoiled two poor orphans, the
+sons of a carpenter; a reproach which he drew from the Disputatio
+contra Saracenos, composed in Arabic before the year 1130; but
+the honest Gagnier (ad Abulfed. p. 53) has shown that they were
+deceived by the word Al Nagjar, which signifies, in this place,
+not an obscure trade, but a noble tribe of Arabs.  The desolate
+state of the ground is described by Abulfeda; and his worthy
+interpreter has proved, from Al Bochari, the offer of a price;
+from Al Jannabi, the fair purchase; and from Ahmeq Ben Joseph,
+the payment of the money by the generous Abubeker On these
+grounds the prophet must be honorably acquitted.]
+
+[Footnote 122: Al Jannabi (apud Gagnier, tom. ii. p. 246, 324)
+describes the seal and pulpit, as two venerable relics of the
+apostle of God; and the portrait of his court is taken from
+Abulfeda, (c. 44, p. 85.)]
+
+In the state of nature, every man has a right to defend, by
+force of arms, his person and his possessions; to repel, or even
+to prevent, the violence of his enemies, and to extend his
+hostilities to a reasonable measure of satisfaction and
+retaliation.  In the free society of the Arabs, the duties of
+subject and citizen imposed a feeble restraint; and Mahomet, in
+the exercise of a peaceful and benevolent mission, had been
+despoiled and banished by the injustice of his countrymen.  The
+choice of an independent people had exalted the fugitive of Mecca
+to the rank of a sovereign; and he was invested with the just
+prerogative of forming alliances, and of waging offensive or
+defensive war.  The imperfection of human rights was supplied and
+armed by the plenitude of divine power: the prophet of Medina
+assumed, in his new revelations, a fiercer and more sanguinary
+tone, which proves that his former moderation was the effect of
+weakness: ^123 the means of persuasion had been tried, the season
+of forbearance was elapsed, and he was now commanded to propagate
+his religion by the sword, to destroy the monuments of idolatry,
+and, without regarding the sanctity of days or months, to pursue
+the unbelieving nations of the earth.  The same bloody precepts,
+so repeatedly inculcated in the Koran, are ascribed by the author
+to the Pentateuch and the Gospel.  But the mild tenor of the
+evangelic style may explain an ambiguous text, that Jesus did not
+bring peace on the earth, but a sword: his patient and humble
+virtues should not be confounded with the intolerant zeal of
+princes and bishops, who have disgraced the name of his
+disciples.  In the prosecution of religious war, Mahomet might
+appeal with more propriety to the example of Moses, of the
+Judges, and the kings of Israel.  The military laws of the
+Hebrews are still more rigid than those of the Arabian
+legislator. ^124 The Lord of hosts marched in person before the
+Jews: if a city resisted their summons, the males, without
+distinction, were put to the sword: the seven nations of Canaan
+were devoted to destruction; and neither repentance nor
+conversion, could shield them from the inevitable doom, that no
+creature within their precincts should be left alive. ^* The fair
+option of friendship, or submission, or battle, was proposed to
+the enemies of Mahomet.  If they professed the creed of Islam,
+they were admitted to all the temporal and spiritual benefits of
+his primitive disciples, and marched under the same banner to
+extend the religion which they had embraced.  The clemency of the
+prophet was decided by his interest: yet he seldom trampled on a
+prostrate enemy; and he seems to promise, that on the payment of
+a tribute, the least guilty of his unbelieving subjects might be
+indulged in their worship, or at least in their imperfect faith.
+In the first months of his reign he practised the lessons of holy
+warfare, and displayed his white banner before the gates of
+Medina: the martial apostle fought in person at nine battles or
+sieges; ^125 and fifty enterprises of war were achieved in ten
+years by himself or his lieutenants.  The Arab continued to unite
+the professions of a merchant and a robber; and his petty
+excursions for the defence or the attack of a caravan insensibly
+prepared his troops for the conquest of Arabia.  The distribution
+of the spoil was regulated by a divine law: ^126 the whole was
+faithfully collected in one common mass: a fifth of the gold and
+silver, the prisoners and cattle, the movables and immovables,
+was reserved by the prophet for pious and charitable uses; the
+remainder was shared in adequate portions by the soldiers who had
+obtained the victory or guarded the camp: the rewards of the
+slain devolved to their widows and orphans; and the increase of
+cavalry was encouraged by the allotment of a double share to the
+horse and to the man. From all sides the roving Arabs were
+allured to the standard of religion and plunder: the apostle
+sanctified the license of embracing the female captives as their
+wives or concubines, and the enjoyment of wealth and beauty was a
+feeble type of the joys of paradise prepared for the valiant
+martyrs of the faith. "The sword," says Mahomet, "is the key of
+heaven and of hell; a drop of blood shed in the cause of God, a
+night spent in arms, is of more avail than two months of fasting
+or prayer: whosoever falls in battle, his sins are forgiven: at
+the day of judgment his wounds shall be resplendent as vermilion,
+and odoriferous as musk; and the loss of his limbs shall be
+supplied by the wings of angels and cherubim." The intrepid souls
+of the Arabs were fired with enthusiasm: the picture of the
+invisible world was strongly painted on their imagination; and
+the death which they had always despised became an object of hope
+and desire.  The Koran inculcates, in the most absolute sense,
+the tenets of fate and predestination, which would extinguish
+both industry and virtue, if the actions of man were governed by
+his speculative belief.  Yet their influence in every age has
+exalted the courage of the Saracens and Turks.  The first
+companions of Mahomet advanced to battle with a fearless
+confidence: there is no danger where there is no chance: they
+were ordained to perish in their beds; or they were safe and
+invulnerable amidst the darts of the enemy. ^127
+
+[Footnote 123: The viiith and ixth chapters of the Koran are the
+loudest and most vehement; and Maracci (Prodromus, part iv. p. 59
+- 64) has inveighed with more justice than discretion against the
+double dealing of the impostor.]
+
+[Footnote 124: The xth and xxth chapters of Deuteronomy, with the
+practical comments of Joshua, David, &c., are read with more awe
+than satisfaction by the pious Christians of the present age.
+But the bishops, as well as the rabbis of former times, have beat
+the drum-ecclesiastic with pleasure and success.  (Sale's
+Preliminary Discourse, p. 142, 143.)]
+
+[Footnote *: The editor's opinions on this subject may be read in
+the History of the Jews vol. i. p. 137. - M]
+
+[Footnote 125: Abulfeda, in Vit. Moham. p. 156.  The private
+arsenal of the apostle consisted of nine swords, three lances,
+seven pikes or half-pikes, a quiver and three bows, seven
+cuirasses, three shields, and two helmets, (Gagnier, tom. iii. p.
+328 - 334,) with a large white standard, a black banner, (p.
+335,) twenty horses, (p. 322, &c.) Two of his martial sayings are
+recorded by tradition, (Gagnier, tom. ii. p. 88, 334.)]
+
+[Footnote 126: The whole subject de jure belli Mohammedanorum is
+exhausted in a separate dissertation by the learned Reland,
+(Dissertationes Miscellaneae, tom. iii. Dissertat. x. p. 3 -
+53.)]
+
+[Footnote 127: The doctrine of absolute predestination, on which
+few religions can reproach each other, is sternly exposed in the
+Koran, (c. 3, p. 52, 53, c. 4, p. 70, &c., with the notes of
+Sale, and c. 17, p. 413, with those of Maracci.) Reland (de
+Relig. Moham. p. 61 - 64) and Sale (Prelim. Discourse, p. 103)
+represent the opinions of the doctors, and our modern travellers
+the confidence, the fading confidence, of the Turks]
+
+Perhaps the Koreish would have been content with the dight
+of Mahomet, had they not been provoked and alarmed by the
+vengeance of an enemy, who could intercept their Syrian trade as
+it passed and repassed through the territory of Medina.  Abu
+Sophian himself, with only thirty or forty followers, conducted a
+wealthy caravan of a thousand camels; the fortune or dexterity of
+his march escaped the vigilance of Mahomet; but the chief of the
+Koreish was informed that the holy robbers were placed in ambush
+to await his return.  He despatched a messenger to his brethren
+of Mecca, and they were roused, by the fear of losing their
+merchandise and their provisions, unless they hastened to his
+relief with the military force of the city.  The sacred band of
+Mahomet was formed of three hundred and thirteen Moslems, of whom
+seventy-seven were fugitives, and the rest auxiliaries; they
+mounted by turns a train of seventy camels, (the camels of
+Yathreb were formidable in war;) but such was the poverty of his
+first disciples, that only two could appear on horseback in the
+field. ^128 In the fertile and famous vale of Beder, ^129 three
+stations from Medina, he was informed by his scouts of the
+caravan that approached on one side; of the Koreish, one hundred
+horse, eight hundred and fifty foot, who advanced on the other.
+After a short debate, he sacrificed the prospect of wealth to the
+pursuit of glory and revenge, and a slight intrenchment was
+formed, to cover his troops, and a stream of fresh water, that
+glided through the valley.  "O God," he exclaimed, as the numbers
+of the Koreish descended from the hills, "O God, if these are
+destroyed, by whom wilt thou be worshipped on the earth? -
+Courage, my children; close your ranks; discharge your arrows,
+and the day is your own." At these words he placed himself, with
+Abubeker, on a throne or pulpit, ^130 and instantly demanded the
+succor of Gabriel and three thousand angels.  His eye was fixed
+on the field of battle: the Mussulmans fainted and were pressed:
+in that decisive moment the prophet started from his throne,
+mounted his horse, and cast a handful of sand into the air: "Let
+their faces be covered with confusion." Both armies heard the
+thunder of his voice: their fancy beheld the angelic warriors:
+^131 the Koreish trembled and fled: seventy of the bravest were
+slain; and seventy captives adorned the first victory of the
+faithful.  The dead bodies of the Koreish were despoiled and
+insulted: two of the most obnoxious prisoners were punished with
+death; and the ransom of the others, four thousand drams of
+silver, compensated in some degree the escape of the caravan.
+But it was in vain that the camels of Abu Sophian explored a new
+road through the desert and along the Euphrates: they were
+overtaken by the diligence of the Mussulmans; and wealthy must
+have been the prize, if twenty thousand drams could be set apart
+for the fifth of the apostle.  The resentment of the public and
+private loss stimulated Abu Sophian to collect a body of three
+thousand men, seven hundred of whom were armed with cuirasses,
+and two hundred were mounted on horseback; three thousand camels
+attended his march; and his wife Henda, with fifteen matrons of
+Mecca, incessantly sounded their timbrels to animate the troops,
+and to magnify the greatness of Hobal, the most popular deity of
+the Caaba.  The standard of God and Mahomet was upheld by nine
+hundred and fifty believers: the disproportion of numbers was not
+more alarming than in the field of Beder; and their presumption
+of victory prevailed against the divine and human sense of the
+apostle.  The second battle was fought on Mount Ohud, six miles
+to the north of Medina; ^132 the Koreish advanced in the form of
+a crescent; and the right wing of cavalry was led by Caled, the
+fiercest and most successful of the Arabian warriors.  The troops
+of Mahomet were skilfully posted on the declivity of the hill;
+and their rear was guarded by a detachment of fifty archers.  The
+weight of their charge impelled and broke the centre of the
+idolaters: but in the pursuit they lost the advantage of their
+ground: the archers deserted their station: the Mussulmans were
+tempted by the spoil, disobeyed their general, and disordered
+their ranks.  The intrepid Caled, wheeling his cavalry on their
+flank and rear, exclaimed, with a loud voice, that Mahomet was
+slain.  He was indeed wounded in the face with a javelin: two of
+his teeth were shattered with a stone; yet, in the midst of
+tumult and dismay, he reproached the infidels with the murder of
+a prophet; and blessed the friendly hand that stanched his blood,
+and conveyed him to a place of safety Seventy martyrs died for
+the sins of the people; they fell, said the apostle, in pairs,
+each brother embracing his lifeless companion; ^133 their bodies
+were mangled by the inhuman females of Mecca; and the wife of Abu
+Sophian tasted the entrails of Hamza, the uncle of Mahomet.  They
+might applaud their superstition, and satiate their fury; but the
+Mussulmans soon rallied in the field, and the Koreish wanted
+strength or courage to undertake the siege of Medina.  It was
+attacked the ensuing year by an army of ten thousand enemies; and
+this third expedition is variously named from the nations, which
+marched under the banner of Abu Sophian, from the ditch which was
+drawn before the city, and a camp of three thousand Mussulmans.
+The prudence of Mahomet declined a general engagement: the valor
+of Ali was signalized in single combat; and the war was
+protracted twenty days, till the final separation of the
+confederates.  A tempest of wind, rain, and hail, overturned
+their tents: their private quarrels were fomented by an insidious
+adversary; and the Koreish, deserted by their allies, no longer
+hoped to subvert the throne, or to check the conquests, of their
+invincible exile. ^134
+
+[Footnote 128: Al Jannabi (apud Gagnier, tom. ii. p. 9) allows
+him seventy or eighty horse; and on two other occasions, prior to
+the battle of Ohud, he enlists a body of thirty (p. 10) and of
+500 (p. 66) troopers.  Yet the Mussulmans, in the field of Ohud,
+had no more than two horses, according to the better sense of
+Abulfeda, (in Vit. Moham. c. xxxi. p. 65.) In the Stony province,
+the camels were numerous; but the horse appears to have been less
+numerous than in the Happy or the Desert Arabia.]
+
+[Footnote 129: Bedder Houneene, twenty miles from Medina, and
+forty from Mecca, is on the high road of the caravan of Egypt;
+and the pilgrims annually commemorate the prophet's victory by
+illuminations, rockets, &c. Shaw's Travels, p. 477.]
+
+[Footnote 130: The place to which Mahomet retired during the
+action is styled by Gagnier (in Abulfeda, c. 27, p. 58.  Vie de
+Mahomet, tom. ii. p. 30, 33) Umbraculum, une loge de bois avec
+une porte.  The same Arabic word is rendered by Reiske (Annales
+Moslemici Abulfedae, p. 23) by Solium, Suggestus editior; and the
+difference is of the utmost moment for the honor both of the
+interpreter and of the hero.  I am sorry to observe the pride and
+acrimony with which Reiske chastises his fellow-laborer.  Saepi
+sic vertit, ut integrae paginae nequeant nisi una litura corrigi
+Arabice non satis callebat, et carebat judicio critico.  J. J.
+Reiske, Prodidagmata ad Hagji Chalisae Tabulas, p. 228, ad
+calcero Abulfedae Syriae Tabulae; Lipsiae, 1766, in 4to.]
+
+[Footnote 131: The loose expressions of the Koran (c. 3, p. 124,
+125, c. 8, p. 9) allow the commentators to fluctuate between the
+numbers of 1000, 3000, or 9000 angels; and the smallest of these
+might suffice for the slaughter of seventy of the Koreish,
+(Maracci, Alcoran, tom. ii. p. 131.) Yet the same scholiasts
+confess that this angelic band was not visible to any mortal eye,
+(Maracci, p. 297.) They refine on the words (c. 8, 16) "not thou,
+but God," &c.  (D'Herbelot. Bibliot. Orientale p. 600, 601.)]
+
+[Footnote 132: Geograph. Nubiensis, p. 47.]
+
+[Footnote 133: In the iiid chapter of the Koran, (p. 50 - 53,
+with Sale's notes, the prophet alleges some poor excuses for the
+defeat of Ohud.
+
+Note: Dr. Weil has added some curious circumstances, which
+he gives as on good traditional authority, on the rescue of
+Mahomet.  The prophet was attacked by Ubeijj Ibn Challaf, whom he
+struck on the neck with a mortal wound.  This was the only time,
+it is added, that Mahomet personally engaged in battle.  (p.
+128.) - M. 1845.]
+
+[Footnote 134: For the detail of the three Koreish wars, of
+Beder, of Ohud, and of the ditch, peruse Abulfeda, (p. 56 - 61,
+64 - 69, 73 - 77,) Gagnier (tom. i. p. 23 - 45, 70 - 96, 120 -
+139,) with the proper articles of D'Herbelot, and the abridgments
+of Elmacin (Hist. Saracen. p. 6, 7) and Abulpharagius, (Dynast.
+p. 102.)]
+
+
+
+Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.
+
+Part VI.
+
+The choice of Jerusalem for the first kebla of prayer
+discovers the early propensity of Mahomet in favor of the Jews;
+and happy would it have been for their temporal interest, had
+they recognized, in the Arabian prophet, the hope of Israel and
+the promised Messiah.  Their obstinacy converted his friendship
+into implacable hatred, with which he pursued that unfortunate
+people to the last moment of his life; and in the double
+character of an apostle and a conqueror, his persecution was
+extended to both worlds. ^135 The Kainoka dwelt at Medina under
+the protection of the city; he seized the occasion of an
+accidental tumult, and summoned them to embrace his religion, or
+contend with him in battle.  "Alas!" replied the trembling Jews,
+"we are ignorant of the use of arms, but we persevere in the
+faith and worship of our fathers; why wilt thou reduce us to the
+necessity of a just defence?" The unequal conflict was terminated
+in fifteen days; and it was with extreme reluctance that Mahomet
+yielded to the importunity of his allies, and consented to spare
+the lives of the captives.  But their riches were confiscated,
+their arms became more effectual in the hands of the Mussulmans;
+and a wretched colony of seven hundred exiles was driven, with
+their wives and children, to implore a refuge on the confines of
+Syria.  The Nadhirites were more guilty, since they conspired, in
+a friendly interview, to assassinate the prophet.  He besieged
+their castle, three miles from Medina; but their resolute defence
+obtained an honorable capitulation; and the garrison, sounding
+their trumpets and beating their drums, was permitted to depart
+with the honors of war.  The Jews had excited and joined the war
+of the Koreish: no sooner had the nations retired from the ditch,
+than Mahomet, without laying aside his armor, marched on the same
+day to extirpate the hostile race of the children of Koraidha.
+After a resistance of twenty-five days, they surrendered at
+discretion.  They trusted to the intercession of their old allies
+of Medina; they could not be ignorant that fanaticism obliterates
+the feelings of humanity.  A venerable elder, to whose judgment
+they appealed, pronounced the sentence of their death; seven
+hundred Jews were dragged in chains to the market-place of the
+city; they descended alive into the grave prepared for their
+execution and burial; and the apostle beheld with an inflexible
+eye the slaughter of his helpless enemies.  Their sheep and
+camels were inherited by the Mussulmans: three hundred cuirasses,
+five hundred piles, a thousand lances, composed the most useful
+portion of the spoil.  Six days' journey to the north-east of
+Medina, the ancient and wealthy town of Chaibar was the seat of
+the Jewish power in Arabia: the territory, a fertile spot in the
+desert, was covered with plantations and cattle, and protected by
+eight castles, some of which were esteemed of impregnable
+strength.  The forces of Mahomet consisted of two hundred horse
+and fourteen hundred foot: in the succession of eight regular and
+painful sieges they were exposed to danger, and fatigue, and
+hunger; and the most undaunted chiefs despaired of the event.
+The apostle revived their faith and courage by the example of
+Ali, on whom he bestowed the surname of the Lion of God: perhaps
+we may believe that a Hebrew champion of gigantic stature was
+cloven to the chest by his irresistible cimeter; but we cannot
+praise the modesty of romance, which represents him as tearing
+from its hinges the gate of a fortress and wielding the ponderous
+buckler in his left hand. ^136 After the reduction of the
+castles, the town of Chaibar submitted to the yoke.  The chief of
+the tribe was tortured, in the presence of Mahomet, to force a
+confession of his hidden treasure: the industry of the shepherds
+and husbandmen was rewarded with a precarious toleration: they
+were permitted, so long as it should please the conqueror, to
+improve their patrimony, in equal shares, for his emolument and
+their own.  Under the reign of Omar, the Jews of Chaibar were
+transported to Syria; and the caliph alleged the injunction of
+his dying master; that one and the true religion should be
+professed in his native land of Arabia. ^137
+
+[Footnote 135: The wars of Mahomet against the Jewish tribes of
+Kainoka, the Nadhirites, Koraidha, and Chaibar, are related by
+Abulfeda (p. 61, 71, 77, 87, &c.) and Gagnier, (tom. ii. p. 61 -
+65, 107 - 112, 139 - 148, 268 - 294.)]
+
+[Footnote 136: Abu Rafe, the servant of Mahomet, is said to
+affirm that he himself, and seven other men, afterwards tried,
+without success, to move the same gate from the ground,
+(Abulfeda, p. 90.) Abu Rafe was an eye- witness, but who will be
+witness for Abu Rafe?]
+
+[Footnote 137: The banishment of the Jews is attested by Elmacin
+(Hist. Saracen, p. 9) and the great Al Zabari, (Gagnier, tom. ii.
+p. 285.) Yet Niebuhr (Description de l'Arabie, (p. 324) believes
+that the Jewish religion, and Karaite sect, are still professed
+by the tribe of Chaibar; and that, in the plunder of the
+caravans, the disciples of Moses are the confederates of those of
+Mahomet.]
+
+Five times each day the eyes of Mahomet were turned towards
+Mecca, ^138 and he was urged by the most sacred and powerful
+motives to revisit, as a conqueror, the city and the temple from
+whence he had been driven as an exile. The Caaba was present to
+his waking and sleeping fancy: an idle dream was translated into
+vision and prophecy; he unfurled the holy banner; and a rash
+promise of success too hastily dropped from the lips of the
+apostle.  His march from Medina to Mecca displayed the peaceful
+and solemn pomp of a pilgrimage: seventy camels, chosen and
+bedecked for sacrifice, preceded the van; the sacred territory
+was respected; and the captives were dismissed without ransom to
+proclaim his clemency and devotion.  But no sooner did Mahomet
+descend into the plain, within a day's journey of the city, than
+he exclaimed, "They have clothed themselves with the skins of
+tigers: " the numbers and resolution of the Koreish opposed his
+progress; and the roving Arabs of the desert might desert or
+betray a leader whom they had followed for the hopes of spoil.
+The intrepid fanatic sunk into a cool and cautious politician: he
+waived in the treaty his title of apostle of God; concluded with
+the Koreish and their allies a truce of ten years; engaged to
+restore the fugitives of Mecca who should embrace his religion;
+and stipulated only, for the ensuing year, the humble privilege
+of entering the city as a friend, and of remaining three days to
+accomplish the rites of the pilgrimage.  A cloud of shame and
+sorrow hung on the retreat of the Mussulmans, and their
+disappointment might justly accuse the failure of a prophet who
+had so often appealed to the evidence of success.  The faith and
+hope of the pilgrims were rekindled by the prospect of Mecca:
+their swords were sheathed; ^* seven times in the footsteps of
+the apostle they encompassed the Caaba: the Koreish had retired
+to the hills, and Mahomet, after the customary sacrifice,
+evacuated the city on the fourth day.  The people was edified by
+his devotion; the hostile chiefs were awed, or divided, or
+seduced; and both Kaled and Amrou, the future conquerors of Syria
+and Egypt, most seasonably deserted the sinking cause of
+idolatry. The power of Mahomet was increased by the submission of
+the Arabian tribes; ten thousand soldiers were assembled for the
+conquest of Mecca; and the idolaters, the weaker party, were
+easily convicted of violating the truce. Enthusiasm and
+discipline impelled the march, and preserved the secret till the
+blaze of ten thousand fires proclaimed to the astonished Koreish
+the design, the approach, and the irresistible force of the
+enemy. The haughty Abu Sophian presented the keys of the city,
+admired the variety of arms and ensigns that passed before him in
+review; observed that the son of Abdallah had acquired a mighty
+kingdom, and confessed, under the cimeter of Omar, that he was
+the apostle of the true God.  The return of Marius and Scylla was
+stained with the blood of the Romans: the revenge of Mahomet was
+stimulated by religious zeal, and his injured followers were
+eager to execute or to prevent the order of a massacre.  Instead
+of indulging their passions and his own, ^139 the victorious
+exile forgave the guilt, and united the factions, of Mecca.  His
+troops, in three divisions, marched into the city:
+eight-and-twenty of the inhabitants were slain by the sword of
+Caled; eleven men and six women were proscribed by the sentence
+of Mahomet; but he blamed the cruelty of his lieutenant; and
+several of the most obnoxious victims were indebted for their
+lives to his clemency or contempt.  The chiefs of the Koreish
+were prostrate at his feet.  "What mercy can you expect from the
+man whom you have wronged?" "We confide in the generosity of our
+kinsman." "And you shall not confide in vain: begone! you are
+safe, you are free" The people of Mecca deserved their pardon by
+the profession of Islam; and after an exile of seven years, the
+fugitive missionary was enthroned as the prince and prophet of
+his native country. ^140 But the three hundred and sixty idols of
+the Caaba were ignominiously broken: the house of God was
+purified and adorned: as an example to future times, the apostle
+again fulfilled the duties of a pilgrim; and a perpetual law was
+enacted that no unbeliever should dare to set his foot on the
+territory of the holy city. ^141
+
+[Footnote 138: The successive steps of the reduction of Mecca are
+related by Abulfeda (p. 84 - 87, 97 - 100, 102 - 111) and
+Gagnier, (tom. ii. p. 202 - 245, 309 - 322, tom. iii. p. 1 - 58,)
+Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 8, 9, 10,) Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p.
+103.)]
+
+[Footnote *: This peaceful entrance into Mecca took place,
+according to the treaty the following year.  Weil, p. 202 - M.
+1845.]
+
+[Footnote 139: After the conquest of Mecca, the Mahomet of
+Voltaire imagines and perpetuates the most horrid crimes.  The
+poet confesses, that he is not supported by the truth of history,
+and can only allege, que celui qui fait la guerre a sa patrie au
+nom de Dieu, est capable de tout, (Oeuvres de Voltaire, tom. xv.
+p. 282.) The maxim is neither charitable nor philosophic; and
+some reverence is surely due to the fame of heroes and the
+religion of nations.  I am informed that a Turkish ambassador at
+Paris was much scandalized at the representation of this
+tragedy.]
+
+[Footnote 140: The Mahometan doctors still dispute, whether Mecca
+was reduced by force or consent, (Abulfeda, p. 107, et Gagnier ad
+locum;) and this verbal controversy is of as much moment as our
+own about William the Conqueror.]
+
+[Footnote 141: In excluding the Christians from the peninsula of
+Arabia, the province of Hejaz, or the navigation of the Red Sea,
+Chardin (Voyages en Perse, tom. iv. p. 166) and Reland
+(Dissertat. Miscell. tom. iii. p. 61) are more rigid than the
+Mussulmans themselves.  The Christians are received without
+scruple into the ports of Mocha, and even of Gedda; and it is
+only the city and precincts of Mecca that are inaccessible to the
+profane, (Niebuhr, Description de l'Arabie, p. 308, 309, Voyage
+en Arabie, tom. i. p. 205, 248, &c.)]
+
+The conquest of Mecca determined the faith and obedience of
+the Arabian tribes; ^142 who, according to the vicissitudes of
+fortune, had obeyed, or disregarded, the eloquence or the arms of
+the prophet. Indifference for rites and opinions still marks the
+character of the Bedoweens; and they might accept, as loosely as
+they hold, the doctrine of the Koran.  Yet an obstinate remnant
+still adhered to the religion and liberty of their ancestors, and
+the war of Honain derived a proper appellation from the idols,
+whom Mahomet had vowed to destroy, and whom the confederates of
+Tayef had sworn to defend. ^143 Four thousand Pagans advanced
+with secrecy and speed to surprise the conqueror: they pitied and
+despised the supine negligence of the Koreish, but they depended
+on the wishes, and perhaps the aid, of a people who had so lately
+renounced their gods, and bowed beneath the yoke of their enemy.
+The banners of Medina and Mecca were displayed by the prophet; a
+crowd of Bedoweens increased the strength or numbers of the army,
+and twelve thousand Mussulmans entertained a rash and sinful
+presumption of their invincible strength.  They descended without
+precaution into the valley of Honain: the heights had been
+occupied by the archers and slingers of the confederates; their
+numbers were oppressed, their discipline was confounded, their
+courage was appalled, and the Koreish smiled at their impending
+destruction.  The prophet, on his white mule, was encompassed by
+the enemies: he attempted to rush against their spears in search
+of a glorious death: ten of his faithful companions interposed
+their weapons and their breasts; three of these fell dead at his
+feet: "O my brethren," he repeatedly cried, with sorrow and
+indignation, "I am the son of Abdallah, I am the apostle of
+truth!  O man, stand fast in the faith!  O God, send down thy
+succor!" His uncle Abbas, who, like the heroes of Homer, excelled
+in the loudness of his voice, made the valley resound with the
+recital of the gifts and promises of God: the flying Moslems
+returned from all sides to the holy standard; and Mahomet
+observed with pleasure that the furnace was again rekindled: his
+conduct and example restored the battle, and he animated his
+victorious troops to inflict a merciless revenge on the authors
+of their shame.  From the field of Honain, he marched without
+delay to the siege of Tayef, sixty miles to the south- east of
+Mecca, a fortress of strength, whose fertile lands produce the
+fruits of Syria in the midst of the Arabian desert.  A friendly
+tribe, instructed (I know not how) in the art of sieges, supplied
+him with a train of battering-rams and military engines, with a
+body of five hundred artificers.  But it was in vain that he
+offered freedom to the slaves of Tayef; that he violated his own
+laws by the extirpation of the fruit-trees; that the ground was
+opened by the miners; that the breach was assaulted by the
+troops.  After a siege of twenty-days, the prophet sounded a
+retreat; but he retreated with a song of devout triumph, and
+affected to pray for the repentance and safety of the unbelieving
+city.  The spoils of this fortunate expedition amounted to six
+thousand captives, twenty-four thousand camels, forty thousand
+sheep, and four thousand ounces of silver: a tribe who had fought
+at Hoinan redeemed their prisoners by the sacrifice of their
+idols; but Mahomet compensated the loss, by resigning to the
+soldiers his fifth of the plunder, and wished, for their sake,
+that he possessed as many head of cattle as there were trees in
+the province of Tehama.  Instead of chastising the disaffection
+of the Koreish, he endeavored to cut out their tongues, (his own
+expression,) and to secure their attachment by a superior measure
+of liberality: Abu Sophian alone was presented with three hundred
+camels and twenty ounces of silver; and Mecca was sincerely
+converted to the profitable religion of the Koran.
+
+[Footnote 142: Abulfeda, p. 112 - 115.  Gagnier, tom. iii. p. 67
+- 88. D'Herbelot, Mohammed.]
+
+[Footnote 143: The siege of Tayef, division of the spoil, &c.,
+are related by Abulfeda (p. 117 - 123) and Gagnier, (tom. iii. p.
+88 - 111.) It is Al Jannabi who mentions the engines and
+engineers of the tribe of Daws.  The fertile spot of Tayef was
+supposed to be a piece of the land of Syria detached and dropped
+in the general deluge]
+
+The fugitives and auxiliaries complained, that they who had
+borne the burden were neglected in the season of victory "Alas!"
+replied their artful leader, "suffer me to conciliate these
+recent enemies, these doubtful proselytes, by the gift of some
+perishable goods.  To your guard I intrust my life and fortunes.
+You are the companions of my exile, of my kingdom, of my
+paradise." He was followed by the deputies of Tayef, who dreaded
+the repetition of a siege.  "Grant us, O apostle of God!  a truce
+of three years, with the toleration of our ancient worship." "Not
+a month, not an hour." "Excuse us at least from the obligation of
+prayer." "Without prayer religion is of no avail." They submitted
+in silence: their temples were demolished, and the same sentence
+of destruction was executed on all the idols of Arabia.  His
+lieutenants, on the shores of the Red Sea, the Ocean, and the
+Gulf of Persia, were saluted by the acclamations of a faithful
+people; and the ambassadors, who knelt before the throne of
+Medina, were as numerous (says the Arabian proverb) as the dates
+that fall from the maturity of a palm-tree.  The nation submitted
+to the God and the sceptre of Mahomet: the opprobrious name of
+tribute was abolished: the spontaneous or reluctant oblations of
+arms and tithes were applied to the service of religion; and one
+hundred and fourteen thousand Moslems accompanied the last
+pilgrimage of the apostle. ^144
+
+[Footnote 144: The last conquests and pilgrimage of Mahomet are
+contained in Abulfeda, (p. 121, 133,) Gagnier, (tom. iii. p. 119
+- 219,) Elmacin, (p. 10, 11,) Abulpharagius, (p. 103.) The ixth
+of the Hegira was styled the Year of Embassies, (Gagnier, Not. ad
+Abulfed. p. 121.)]
+
+When Heraclius returned in triumph from the Persian war, he
+entertained, at Emesa, one of the ambassadors of Mahomet, who
+invited the princes and nations of the earth to the profession of
+Islam.  On this foundation the zeal of the Arabians has supposed
+the secret conversion of the Christian emperor: the vanity of the
+Greeks has feigned a personal visit of the prince of Medina, who
+accepted from the royal bounty a rich domain, and a secure
+retreat, in the province of Syria. ^145 But the friendship of
+Heraclius and Mahomet was of short continuance: the new religion
+had inflamed rather than assuaged the rapacious spirit of the
+Saracens, and the murder of an envoy afforded a decent pretence
+for invading, with three thousand soldiers, the territory of
+Palestine, that extends to the eastward of the Jordan.  The holy
+banner was intrusted to Zeid; and such was the discipline or
+enthusiasm of the rising sect, that the noblest chiefs served
+without reluctance under the slave of the prophet.  On the event
+of his decease, Jaafar and Abdallah were successively substituted
+to the command; and if the three should perish in the war, the
+troops were authorized to elect their general.  The three leaders
+were slain in the battle of Muta, ^146 the first military action,
+which tried the valor of the Moslems against a foreign enemy.
+Zeid fell, like a soldier, in the foremost ranks: the death of
+Jaafar was heroic and memorable: he lost his right hand: he
+shifted the standard to his left: the left was severed from his
+body: he embraced the standard with his bleeding stumps, till he
+was transfixed to the ground with fifty honorable wounds. ^*
+"Advance," cried Abdallah, who stepped into the vacant place,
+"advance with confidence: either victory or paradise is our own."
+The lance of a Roman decided the alternative; but the falling
+standard was rescued by Caled, the proselyte of Mecca: nine
+swords were broken in his hand; and his valor withstood and
+repulsed the superior numbers of the Christians.  In the
+nocturnal council of the camp he was chosen to command: his
+skilful evolutions of the ensuing day secured either the victory
+or the retreat of the Saracens; and Caled is renowned among his
+brethren and his enemies by the glorious appellation of the Sword
+of God. In the pulpit, Mahomet described, with prophetic rapture,
+the crowns of the blessed martyrs; but in private he betrayed the
+feelings of human nature: he was surprised as he wept over the
+daughter of Zeid: "What do I see?" said the astonished votary.
+"You see," replied the apostle, "a friend who is deploring the
+loss of his most faithful friend." After the conquest of Mecca,
+the sovereign of Arabia affected to prevent the hostile
+preparations of Heraclius; and solemnly proclaimed war against
+the Romans, without attempting to disguise the hardships and
+dangers of the enterprise. ^147 The Moslems were discouraged:
+they alleged the want of money, or horses, or provisions; the
+season of harvest, and the intolerable heat of the summer: "Hell
+is much hotter," said the indignant prophet.  He disdained to
+compel their service: but on his return he admonished the most
+guilty, by an excommunication of fifty days.  Their desertion
+enhanced the merit of Abubeker, Othman, and the faithful
+companions who devoted their lives and fortunes; and Mahomet
+displayed his banner at the head of ten thousand horse and twenty
+thousand foot.  Painful indeed was the distress of the march:
+lassitude and thirst were aggravated by the scorching and
+pestilential winds of the desert: ten men rode by turns on one
+camel; and they were reduced to the shameful necessity of
+drinking the water from the belly of that useful animal.  In the
+mid-way, ten days' journey from Medina and Damascus, they reposed
+near the grove and fountain of Tabuc.  Beyond that place Mahomet
+declined the prosecution of the war: he declared himself
+satisfied with the peaceful intentions, he was more probably
+daunted by the martial array, of the emperor of the East.  But
+the active and intrepid Caled spread around the terror of his
+name; and the prophet received the submission of the tribes and
+cities, from the Euphrates to Ailah, at the head of the Red Sea.
+To his Christian subjects, Mahomet readily granted the security
+of their persons, the freedom of their trade, the property of
+their goods, and the toleration of their worship. ^148 The
+weakness of their Arabian brethren had restrained them from
+opposing his ambition; the disciples of Jesus were endeared to
+the enemy of the Jews; and it was the interest of a conqueror to
+propose a fair capitulation to the most powerful religion of the
+earth.
+
+[Footnote 145: Compare the bigoted Al Jannabi (apud Gagnier, tom.
+ii. p. 232 - 255) with the no less bigoted Greeks, Theophanes,
+(p. 276 - 227,) Zonaras (tom. ii. l. xiv. p. 86,) and Cedrenus,
+(p. 421.)]
+
+[Footnote 146: For the battle of Muta, and its consequences, see
+Abulfeda (p 100 - 102) and Gagnier, (tom. ii. p. 327 - 343.).]
+
+[Footnote *: To console the afflicted relatives of his kinsman
+Jauffer, he (Mahomet) represented that, in Paradise, in exchange
+for the arms which he had lost, he had been furnished with a pair
+of wings, resplendent with the blushing glories of the ruby, and
+with which he was become the inseparable companion of the
+archangal Gabriel, in his volitations through the regions of
+eternal bliss.  Hence, in the catalogue of the martyrs, he has
+been denominated Jauffer teyaur, the winged Jauffer.  Price,
+Chronological Retrospect of Mohammedan History, vol. i. p. 5. -
+M.]
+
+[Footnote 147: The expedition of Tabuc is recorded by our
+ordinary historians Abulfeda (Vit. Moham. p. 123 - 127) and
+Gagnier, (Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. 147 - 163: ) but we have
+the advantage of appealing to the original evidence of the Koran,
+(c. 9, p. 154, 165,) with Sale's learned and rational notes.]
+
+[Footnote 148: The Diploma securitatis Ailensibus is attested by
+Ahmed Ben Joseph, and the author Libri Splendorum, (Gagnier, Not.
+ad Abulfe dam, p. 125;) but Abulfeda himself, as well as Elmacin,
+(Hist. Saracen. p. 11,) though he owns Mahomet's regard for the
+Christians, (p 13,) only mentions peace and tribute.  In the year
+1630, Sionita published at Paris the text and version of
+Mahomet's patent in favor of the Christians; which was admitted
+and reprobated by the opposite taste of Salmasius and Grotius,
+(Bayle, Mahomet, Rem. Aa.) Hottinger doubts of its authenticity,
+(Hist. Orient. p. 237;) Renaudot urges the consent of the
+Mohametans, (Hist. Patriarch. Alex. p. 169;) but Mosheim (Hist.
+Eccles. p. 244) shows the futility of their opinion and inclines
+to believe it spurious.  Yet Abulpharagius quotes the impostor's
+treaty with the Nestorian patriarch, (Asseman. Bibliot. Orient.
+tom. ii. p. 418;) but Abulpharagius was primate of the
+Jacobites.]
+
+Till the age of sixty-three years, the strength of Mahomet
+was equal to the temporal and spiritual fatigues of his mission.
+His epileptic fits, an absurd calumny of the Greeks, would be an
+object of pity rather than abhorrence; ^149 but he seriously
+believed that he was poisoned at Chaibar by the revenge of a
+Jewish female. ^150 During four years, the health of the prophet
+declined; his infirmities increased; but his mortal disease was a
+fever of fourteen days, which deprived him by intervals of the
+use of reason. As soon as he was conscious of his danger, he
+edified his brethren by the humility of his virtue or penitence.
+"If there be any man," said the apostle from the pulpit, "whom I
+have unjustly scourged, I submit my own back to the lash of
+retaliation.  Have I aspersed the reputation of a Mussulman?  let
+him proclaim my thoughts in the face of the congregation. Has any
+one been despoiled of his goods?  the little that I possess shall
+compensate the principal and the interest of the debt." "Yes,"
+replied a voice from the crowd, "I am entitled to three drams of
+silver." Mahomet heard the complaint, satisfied the demand, and
+thanked his creditor for accusing him in this world rather than
+at the day of judgment.  He beheld with temperate firmness the
+approach of death; enfranchised his slaves (seventeen men, as
+they are named, and eleven women;) minutely directed the order of
+his funeral, and moderated the lamentations of his weeping
+friends, on whom he bestowed the benediction of peace.  Till the
+third day before his death, he regularly performed the function
+of public prayer: the choice of Abubeker to supply his place,
+appeared to mark that ancient and faithful friend as his
+successor in the sacerdotal and regal office; but he prudently
+declined the risk and envy of a more explicit nomination.  At a
+moment when his faculties were visibly impaired, he called for
+pen and ink to write, or, more properly, to dictate, a divine
+book, the sum and accomplishment of all his revelations: a
+dispute arose in the chamber, whether he should be allowed to
+supersede the authority of the Koran; and the prophet was forced
+to reprove the indecent vehemence of his disciples. If the
+slightest credit may be afforded to the traditions of his wives
+and companions, he maintained, in the bosom of his family, and to
+the last moments of his life, the dignity ^* of an apostle, and
+the faith of an enthusiast; described the visits of Gabriel, who
+bade an everlasting farewell to the earth, and expressed his
+lively confidence, not only of the mercy, but of the favor, of
+the Supreme Being.  In a familiar discourse he had mentioned his
+special prerogative, that the angel of death was not allowed to
+take his soul till he had respectfully asked the permission of
+the prophet. The request was granted; and Mahomet immediately
+fell into the agony of his dissolution: his head was reclined on
+the lap of Ayesha, the best beloved of all his wives; he fainted
+with the violence of pain; recovering his spirits, he raised his
+eyes towards the roof of the house, and, with a steady look,
+though a faltering voice, uttered the last broken, though
+articulate, words: "O God! ..... pardon my sins....... Yes,
+...... I come, ...... among my fellow-citizens on high;" and thus
+peaceably expired on a carpet spread upon the floor.  An
+expedition for the conquest of Syria was stopped by this mournful
+event; the army halted at the gates of Medina; the chiefs were
+assembled round their dying master.  The city, more especially
+the house, of the prophet, was a scene of clamorous sorrow of
+silent despair: fanaticism alone could suggest a ray of hope and
+consolation.  "How can he be dead, our witness, our intercessor,
+our mediator, with God?  By God he is not dead: like Moses and
+Jesus, he is wrapped in a holy trance, and speedily will he
+return to his faithful people." The evidence of sense was
+disregarded; and Omar, unsheathing his cimeter, threatened to
+strike off the heads of the infidels, who should dare to affirm
+that the prophet was no more.  The tumult was appeased by the
+weight and moderation of Abubeker.  "Is it Mahomet," said he to
+Omar and the multitude, "or the God of Mahomet, whom you worship?
+
+The God of Mahomet liveth forever; but the apostle was a mortal
+like ourselves, and according to his own prediction, he has
+experienced the common fate of mortality." He was piously
+interred by the hands of his nearest kinsman, on the same spot on
+which he expired: ^151 Medina has been sanctified by the death
+and burial of Mahomet; and the innumerable pilgrims of Mecca
+often turn aside from the way, to bow, in voluntary devotion,
+^152 before the simple tomb of the prophet. ^153
+
+[Footnote 149: The epilepsy, or falling-sickness, of Mahomet is
+asserted by Theophanes, Zonaras, and the rest of the Greeks; and
+is greedily swallowed by the gross bigotry of Hottinger, (Hist.
+Orient. p. 10, 11,) Prideaux, (Life of Mahomet, p. 12,) and
+Maracci, (tom. ii. Alcoran, p. 762, 763.) The titles (the
+wrapped-up, the covered) of two chapters of the Koran, (73, 74)
+can hardly be strained to such an interpretation: the silence,
+the ignorance of the Mahometan commentators, is more conclusive
+than the most peremptory denial; and the charitable side is
+espoused by Ockley, (Hist. of the Saracens, tom. i. p. 301,)
+Gagnier, (ad Abulfedam, p. 9.  Vie de Mahomet, tom. i. p. 118,)
+and Sale, (Koran, p. 469 - 474.)
+
+Note: Dr Weil believes in the epilepsy, and adduces strong
+evidence for it; and surely it may be believed, in perfect
+charity; and that the prophet's visions were connected, as they
+appear to have been, with these fits.  I have little doubt that
+he saw and believed these visions, and visions they were. Weil,
+p. 43. - M. 1845.]
+
+[Footnote 150: This poison (more ignominious since it was offered
+as a test of his prophetic knowledge) is frankly confessed by his
+zealous votaries, Abulfeda (p. 92) and Al Jannabi, (apud Gagnier,
+tom. ii. p. 286 - 288.)]
+
+[Footnote *: Major Price, who writes with the authority of one
+widely conversant with the original sources of Eastern knowledge,
+and in a very candid tone, takes a very different view of the
+prophet's death.  "In tracing the circumstances of Mahommed's
+illness, we look in vain for any proofs of that meek and heroic
+firmness which might be expected to dignify and embellish the
+last moments of the apostle of God.  On some occasions he
+betrayed such want of fortitude, such marks of childish
+impatience, as are in general to be found in men only of the most
+ordinary stamp; and such as extorted from his wife Ayesha, in
+particular, the sarcastic remark, that in herself, or any of her
+family, a similar demeanor would long since have incurred his
+severe displeasure.  * * * He said that the acuteness and
+violence of his sufferings were necessarily in the proportion of
+those honors with which it had ever pleased the hand of
+Omnipotence to distinguish its peculiar favorites Price, vol. i.
+p. 13. - M]
+
+[Footnote 151: The Greeks and Latins have invented and propagated
+the vulgar and ridiculous story, that Mahomet's iron tomb is
+suspended in the air at Mecca, (Laonicus Chalcondyles, de Rebus
+Turcicis, l. iii. p. 66,) by the action of equal and potent
+loadstones, (Dictionnaire de Bayle, Mahomet, Rem. Ee. Ff.)
+Without any philosophical inquiries, it may suffice, that, 1. The
+prophet was not buried at Mecca; and, 2. That his tomb at Medina,
+which has been visited by millions, is placed on the ground,
+(Reland, de Relig. Moham. l. ii. c. 19, p. 209 - 211.  Gagnier,
+Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. 263 - 268.)
+
+Note: According to the testimony of all the Eastern authors,
+Mahomet died on Monday the 12th Reby 1st, in the year 11 of the
+Hegira, which answers in reality to the 8th June, 632, of J. C.
+We find in Ockley (Hist. of Saracens) that it was on Monday the
+6th June, 632.  This is a mistake; for the 6th June of that year
+was a Saturday, not a Monday; the 8th June, therefore, was a
+Monday.  It is easy to discover that the lunar year, in this
+calculation has been confounded with the solar.  St. Martin vol.
+xi. p. 186. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 152: Al Jannabi enumerates (Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii.
+p. 372 - 391) the multifarious duties of a pilgrim who visits the
+tombs of the prophet and his companions; and the learned casuist
+decides, that this act of devotion is nearest in obligation and
+merit to a divine precept.  The doctors are divided which, of
+Mecca or Medina, be the most excellent, (p. 391 - 394.)]
+
+[Footnote 153: The last sickness, death, and burial of Mahomet,
+are described by Abulfeda and Gagnier, (Vit. Moham. p. 133 - 142.
+
+Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. 220 - 271.) The most private and
+interesting circumstances were originally received from Ayesha,
+Ali, the sons of Abbas, &c.; and as they dwelt at Medina, and
+survived the prophet many years, they might repeat the pious tale
+to a second or third generation of pilgrims.]
+
+At the conclusion of the life of Mahomet, it may perhaps be
+expected, that I should balance his faults and virtues, that I
+should decide whether the title of enthusiast or impostor more
+properly belongs to that extraordinary man.  Had I been
+intimately conversant with the son of Abdallah, the task would
+still be difficult, and the success uncertain: at the distance of
+twelve centuries, I darkly contemplate his shade through a cloud
+of religious incense; and could I truly delineate the portrait of
+an hour, the fleeting resemblance would not equally apply to the
+solitary of Mount Hera, to the preacher of Mecca, and to the
+conqueror of Arabia.  The author of a mighty revolution appears
+to have been endowed with a pious and contemplative disposition:
+so soon as marriage had raised him above the pressure of want, he
+avoided the paths of ambition and avarice; and till the age of
+forty he lived with innocence, and would have died without a
+name.  The unity of God is an idea most congenial to nature and
+reason; and a slight conversation with the Jews and Christians
+would teach him to despise and detest the idolatry of Mecca.  It
+was the duty of a man and a citizen to impart the doctrine of
+salvation, to rescue his country from the dominion of sin and
+error.  The energy of a mind incessantly bent on the same object,
+would convert a general obligation into a particular call; the
+warm suggestions of the understanding or the fancy would be felt
+as the inspirations of Heaven; the labor of thought would expire
+in rapture and vision; and the inward sensation, the invisible
+monitor, would be described with the form and attributes of an
+angel of God. ^154 From enthusiasm to imposture, the step is
+perilous and slippery: the daemon of Socrates ^155 affords a
+memorable instance, how a wise man may deceive himself, how a
+good man may deceive others, how the conscience may slumber in a
+mixed and middle state between self-illusion and voluntary fraud.
+Charity may believe that the original motives of Mahomet were
+those of pure and genuine benevolence; but a human missionary is
+incapable of cherishing the obstinate unbelievers who reject his
+claims despise his arguments, and persecute his life; he might
+forgive his personal adversaries, he may lawfully hate the
+enemies of God; the stern passions of pride and revenge were
+kindled in the bosom of Mahomet, and he sighed, like the prophet
+of Nineveh, for the destruction of the rebels whom he had
+condemned.  The injustice of Mecca and the choice of Medina,
+transformed the citizen into a prince, the humble preacher into
+the leader of armies; but his sword was consecrated by the
+example of the saints; and the same God who afflicts a sinful
+world with pestilence and earthquakes, might inspire for their
+conversion or chastisement the valor of his servants.  In the
+exercise of political government, he was compelled to abate of
+the stern rigor of fanaticism, to comply in some measure with the
+prejudices and passions of his followers, and to employ even the
+vices of mankind as the instruments of their salvation.  The use
+of fraud and perfidy, of cruelty and injustice, were often
+subservient to the propagation of the faith; and Mahomet
+commanded or approved the assassination of the Jews and idolaters
+who had escaped from the field of battle.  By the repetition of
+such acts, the character of Mahomet must have been gradually
+stained; and the influence of such pernicious habits would be
+poorly compensated by the practice of the personal and social
+virtues which are necessary to maintain the reputation of a
+prophet among his sectaries and friends.  Of his last years,
+ambition was the ruling passion; and a politician will suspect,
+that he secretly smiled (the victorious impostor!) at the
+enthusiasm of his youth, and the credulity of his proselytes.
+^156 A philosopher will observe, that their credulity and his
+success would tend more strongly to fortify the assurance of his
+divine mission, that his interest and religion were inseparably
+connected, and that his conscience would be soothed by the
+persuasion, that he alone was absolved by the Deity from the
+obligation of positive and moral laws.  If he retained any
+vestige of his native innocence, the sins of Mahomet may be
+allowed as an evidence of his sincerity.  In the support of
+truth, the arts of fraud and fiction may be deemed less criminal;
+and he would have started at the foulness of the means, had he
+not been satisfied of the importance and justice of the end. Even
+in a conqueror or a priest, I can surprise a word or action of
+unaffected humanity; and the decree of Mahomet, that, in the sale
+of captives, the mothers should never be separated from their
+children, may suspend, or moderate, the censure of the historian.
+^157
+
+[Footnote 154: The Christians, rashly enough, have assigned to
+Mahomet a tame pigeon, that seemed to descend from heaven and
+whisper in his ear.  As this pretended miracle is urged by
+Grotius, (de Veritate Religionis Christianae,) his Arabic
+translator, the learned Pocock, inquired of him the names of his
+authors; and Grotius confessed, that it is unknown to the
+Mahometans themselves.  Lest it should provoke their indignation
+and laughter, the pious lie is suppressed in the Arabic version;
+but it has maintained an edifying place in the numerous editions
+of the Latin text, (Pocock, Specimen, Hist. Arabum, p. 186, 187.
+Reland, de Religion.  Moham. l. ii. c. 39, p. 259 - 262.)]
+
+[Footnote 155: (Plato, in Apolog. Socrat. c. 19, p. 121, 122,
+edit. Fischer.) The familiar examples, which Socrates urges in
+his Dialogue with Theages, (Platon. Opera, tom. i. p. 128, 129,
+edit. Hen. Stephan.) are beyond the reach of human foresight; and
+the divine inspiration of the philosopher is clearly taught in
+the Memorabilia of Xenophon.  The ideas of the most rational
+Platonists are expressed by Cicero, (de Divinat. i. 54,) and in
+the xivth and xvth Dissertations of Maximus of Tyre, (p. 153 -
+172, edit. Davis.)]
+
+[Footnote 156: In some passage of his voluminous writings,
+Voltaire compares the prophet, in his old age, to a fakir, "qui
+detache la chaine de son cou pour en donner sur les oreilles a
+ses confreres."]
+
+[Footnote 157: Gagnier relates, with the same impartial pen, this
+humane law of the prophet, and the murders of Caab, and Sophian,
+which he prompted and approved, (Vie de Mahomet, tom. ii. p. 69,
+97, 208.)]
+
+
+
+Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.
+
+Part VII.
+
+The good sense of Mahomet ^158 despised the pomp of royalty:
+the apostle of God submitted to the menial offices of the family:
+he kindled the fire, swept the floor, milked the ewes, and mended
+with his own hands his shoes and his woollen garment.  Disdaining
+the penance and merit of a hermit, he observed, without effort or
+vanity, the abstemious diet of an Arab and a soldier.  On solemn
+occasions he feasted his companions with rustic and hospitable
+plenty; but in his domestic life, many weeks would elapse without
+a tire being kindled on the hearth of the prophet.  The
+interdiction of wine was confirmed by his example; his hunger was
+appeased with a sparing allowance of barley-bread: he delighted
+in the taste of milk and honey; but his ordinary food consisted
+of dates and water.  Perfumes and women were the two sensual
+enjoyments which his nature required, and his religion did not
+forbid; and Mahomet affirmed, that the fervor of his devotion was
+increased by these innocent pleasures.  The heat of the climate
+inflames the blood of the Arabs; and their libidinous complexion
+has been noticed by the writers of antiquity. ^159 Their
+incontinence was regulated by the civil and religious laws of the
+Koran: their incestuous alliances were blamed; the boundless
+license of polygamy was reduced to four legitimate wives or
+concubines; their rights both of bed and of dowry were equitably
+determined; the freedom of divorce was discouraged, adultery was
+condemned as a capital offence; and fornication, in either sex,
+was punished with a hundred stripes. ^160 Such were the calm and
+rational precepts of the legislator: but in his private conduct,
+Mahomet indulged the appetites of a man, and abused the claims of
+a prophet.  A special revelation dispensed him from the laws
+which he had imposed on his nation: the female sex, without
+reserve, was abandoned to his desires; and this singular
+prerogative excited the envy, rather than the scandal, the
+veneration, rather than the envy, of the devout Mussulmans.  If
+we remember the seven hundred wives and three hundred concubines
+of the wise Solomon, we shall applaud the modesty of the Arabian,
+who espoused no more than seventeen or fifteen wives; eleven are
+enumerated who occupied at Medina their separate apartments round
+the house of the apostle, and enjoyed in their turns the favor of
+his conjugal society.  What is singular enough, they were all
+widows, excepting only Ayesha, the daughter of Abubeker.  She was
+doubtless a virgin, since Mahomet consummated his nuptials (such
+is the premature ripeness of the climate) when she was only nine
+years of age. The youth, the beauty, the spirit of Ayesha, gave
+her a superior ascendant: she was beloved and trusted by the
+prophet; and, after his death, the daughter of Abubeker was long
+revered as the mother of the faithful.  Her behavior had been
+ambiguous and indiscreet: in a nocturnal march she was
+accidentally left behind; and in the morning Ayesha returned to
+the camp with a man.  The temper of Mahomet was inclined to
+jealousy; but a divine revelation assured him of her innocence:
+he chastised her accusers, and published a law of domestic peace,
+that no woman should be condemned unless four male witnesses had
+seen her in the act of adultery. ^161 In his adventures with
+Zeineb, the wife of Zeid, and with Mary, an Egyptian captive, the
+amorous prophet forgot the interest of his reputation.  At the
+house of Zeid, his freedman and adopted son, he beheld, in a
+loose undress, the beauty of Zeineb, and burst forth into an
+ejaculation of devotion and desire.  The servile, or grateful,
+freedman understood the hint, and yielded without hesitation to
+the love of his benefactor.  But as the filial relation had
+excited some doubt and scandal, the angel Gabriel descended from
+heaven to ratify the deed, to annul the adoption, and gently to
+reprove the apostle for distrusting the indulgence of his God.
+One of his wives, Hafna, the daughter of Omar, surprised him on
+her own bed, in the embraces of his Egyptian captive: she
+promised secrecy and forgiveness, he swore that he would renounce
+the possession of Mary.  Both parties forgot their engagements;
+and Gabriel again descended with a chapter of the Koran, to
+absolve him from his oath, and to exhort him freely to enjoy his
+captives and concubines, without listening to the clamors of his
+wives.  In a solitary retreat of thirty days, he labored, alone
+with Mary, to fulfil the commands of the angel.  When his love
+and revenge were satiated, he summoned to his presence his eleven
+wives, reproached their disobedience and indiscretion, and
+threatened them with a sentence of divorce, both in this world
+and in the next; a dreadful sentence, since those who had
+ascended the bed of the prophet were forever excluded from the
+hope of a second marriage.  Perhaps the incontinence of Mahomet
+may be palliated by the tradition of his natural or preternatural
+gifts; ^162 he united the manly virtue of thirty of the children
+of Adam: and the apostle might rival the thirteenth labor ^163 of
+the Grecian Hercules. ^164 A more serious and decent excuse may
+be drawn from his fidelity to Cadijah.  During the twenty-four
+years of their marriage, her youthful husband abstained from the
+right of polygamy, and the pride or tenderness of the venerable
+matron was never insulted by the society of a rival.  After her
+death, he placed her in the rank of the four perfect women, with
+the sister of Moses, the mother of Jesus, and Fatima, the best
+beloved of his daughters. "Was she not old?" said Ayesha, with
+the insolence of a blooming beauty; "has not God given you a
+better in her place?" "No, by God," said Mahomet, with an
+effusion of honest gratitude, "there never can be a better!  She
+believed in me when men despised me; she relieved my wants, when
+I was poor and persecuted by the world." ^165
+
+[Footnote 158: For the domestic life of Mahomet, consult Gagnier,
+and the corresponding chapters of Abulfeda; for his diet, (tom.
+iii. p. 285 - 288;) his children, (p. 189, 289;) his wives, (p.
+290 - 303;) his marriage with Zeineb, (tom. ii. p. 152 - 160;)
+his amour with Mary, (p. 303 - 309;) the false accusation of
+Ayesha, (p. 186 - 199.) The most original evidence of the three
+last transactions is contained in the xxivth, xxxiiid, and lxvith
+chapters of the Koran, with Sale's Commentary.  Prideaux (Life of
+Mahomet, p. 80 - 90) and Maracci (Prodrom. Alcoran, part iv. p.
+49 - 59) have maliciously exaggerated the frailties of Mahomet.]
+
+[Footnote 159: Incredibile est quo ardore apud eos in Venerem
+uterque solvitur sexus, (Ammian. Marcellin. l. xiv. c. 4.)]
+
+[Footnote 160: Sale (Preliminary Discourse, p. 133 - 137) has
+recapitulated the laws of marriage, divorce, &c.; and the curious
+reader of Selden's Uror Hebraica will recognize many Jewish
+ordinances.]
+
+[Footnote 161: In a memorable case, the Caliph Omar decided that
+all presumptive evidence was of no avail; and that all the four
+witnesses must have actually seen stylum in pyxide, (Abulfedae
+Annales Moslemici, p. 71, vers. Reiske.)]
+
+[Footnote 162: Sibi robur ad generationem, quantum triginta viri
+habent, inesse jacteret: ita ut unica hora posset undecim
+foeminis satisfacere, ut ex Arabum libris refert Stus.  Petrus
+Paschasius, c. 2., (Maracci, Prodromus Alcoran, p. iv. p. 55.
+See likewise Observations de Belon, l. iii. c. 10, fol. 179,
+recto.) Al Jannabi (Gagnier, tom. iii. p. 287) records his own
+testimony, that he surpassed all men in conjugal vigor; and
+Abulfeda mentions the exclamation of Ali, who washed the body
+after his death, "O propheta, certe penis tuus coelum versus
+erectus est," in Vit. Mohammed, p. 140.]
+
+[Footnote 163: I borrow the style of a father of the church,
+(Greg. Nazianzen, Orat. iii. p. 108.)]
+
+[Footnote 164: The common and most glorious legend includes, in a
+single night the fifty victories of Hercules over the virgin
+daughters of Thestius, (Diodor. Sicul. tom. i. l. iv. p. 274.
+Pausanias, l. ix. p. 763. Statius Sylv. l. i. eleg. iii. v. 42.)
+But Athenaeus allows seven nights, (Deipnosophist, l. xiii. p.
+556,) and Apollodorus fifty, for this arduous achievement of
+Hercules, who was then no more than eighteen years of age,
+(Bibliot. l. ii. c. 4, p. 111, cum notis Heyne, part i. p. 332.)]
+
+[Footnote 165: Abulfeda in Vit. Moham. p. 12, 13, 16, 17, cum
+Notis Gagnier]
+
+In the largest indulgence of polygamy, the founder of a
+religion and empire might aspire to multiply the chances of a
+numerous posterity and a lineal succession.  The hopes of Mahomet
+were fatally disappointed.  The virgin Ayesha, and his ten widows
+of mature age and approved fertility, were barren in his potent
+embraces.  The four sons of Cadijah died in their infancy.  Mary,
+his Egyptian concubine, was endeared to him by the birth of
+Ibrahim.  At the end of fifteen months the prophet wept over his
+grave; but he sustained with firmness the raillery of his
+enemies, and checked the adulation or credulity of the Moslems,
+by the assurance that an eclipse of the sun was not occasioned by
+the death of the infant.  Cadijah had likewise given him four
+daughters, who were married to the most faithful of his
+disciples: the three eldest died before their father; but Fatima,
+who possessed his confidence and love, became the wife of her
+cousin Ali, and the mother of an illustrious progeny.  The merit
+and misfortunes of Ali and his descendants will lead me to
+anticipate, in this place, the series of the Saracen caliphs, a
+title which describes the commanders of the faithful as the
+vicars and successors of the apostle of God. ^166
+
+[Footnote 166: This outline of the Arabian history is drawn from
+the Bibliotheque Orientale of D'Herbelot, (under the names of
+Aboubecre, Omar Othman, Ali, &c.;) from the Annals of Abulfeda,
+Abulpharagius, and Elmacin, (under the proper years of the
+Hegira,) and especially from Ockley's History of the Saracens,
+(vol. i. p. 1 - 10, 115 - 122, 229, 249, 363 - 372, 378 - 391,
+and almost the whole of the second volume.) Yet we should weigh
+with caution the traditions of the hostile sects; a stream which
+becomes still more muddy as it flows farther from the source.
+Sir John Chardin has too faithfully copied the fables and errors
+of the modern Persians, (Voyages, tom. ii. p. 235 - 250, &c.)]
+
+The birth, the alliance, the character of Ali, which exalted
+him above the rest of his countrymen, might justify his claim to
+the vacant throne of Arabia.  The son of Abu Taleb was, in his
+own right, the chief of the family of Hashem, and the hereditary
+prince or guardian of the city and temple of Mecca.  The light of
+prophecy was extinct; but the husband of Fatima might expect the
+inheritance and blessing of her father: the Arabs had sometimes
+been patient of a female reign; and the two grandsons of the
+prophet had often been fondled in his lap, and shown in his
+pulpit as the hope of his age, and the chief of the youth of
+paradise.  The first of the true believers might aspire to march
+before them in this world and in the next; and if some were of a
+graver and more rigid cast, the zeal and virtue of Ali were never
+outstripped by any recent proselyte.  He united the
+qualifications of a poet, a soldier, and a saint: his wisdom
+still breathes in a collection of moral and religious sayings;
+^167 and every antagonist, in the combats of the tongue or of the
+sword, was subdued by his eloquence and valor.  From the first
+hour of his mission to the last rites of his funeral, the apostle
+was never forsaken by a generous friend, whom he delighted to
+name his brother, his vicegerent, and the faithful Aaron of a
+second Moses.  The son of Abu Taleb was afterwards reproached for
+neglecting to secure his interest by a solemn declaration of his
+right, which would have silenced all competition, and sealed his
+succession by the decrees of Heaven.  But the unsuspecting hero
+confided in himself: the jealousy of empire, and perhaps the fear
+of opposition, might suspend the resolutions of Mahomet; and the
+bed of sickness was besieged by the artful Ayesha, the daughter
+of Abubeker, and the enemy of Ali. ^*
+
+[Footnote 167: Ockley (at the end of his second volume) has given
+an English version of 169 sentences, which he ascribes, with some
+hesitation, to Ali, the son of Abu Taleb.  His preface is colored
+by the enthusiasm of a translator; yet these sentences delineate
+a characteristic, though dark, picture of human life.]
+
+[Footnote *: Gibbon wrote chiefly from the Arabic or Sunnite
+account of these transactions, the only sources accessible at the
+time when he composed his History.  Major Price, writing from
+Persian authorities, affords us the advantage of comparing
+throughout what may be fairly considered the Shiite Version.  The
+glory of Ali is the constant burden of their strain.  He was
+destined, and, according to some accounts, designated, for the
+caliphate by the prophet; but while the others were fiercely
+pushing their own interests, Ali was watching the remains of
+Mahomet with pious fidelity.  His disinterested magnanimity, on
+each separate occasion, declined the sceptre, and gave the noble
+example of obedience to the appointed caliph.  He is described,
+in retirement, on the throne, and in the field of battle, as
+transcendently pious, magnanimous, valiant, and humane.  He lost
+his empire through his excess of virtue and love for the faithful
+his life through his confidence in God, and submission to the
+decrees of fate.
+
+Compare the curious account of this apathy in Price, chapter
+ii.  It is to be regretted, I must add, that Major Price has
+contented himself with quoting the names of the Persian works
+which he follows, without any account of their character, age,
+and authority. - M.]
+
+The silence and death of the prophet restored the liberty of
+the people; and his companions convened an assembly to deliberate
+on the choice of his successor.  The hereditary claim and lofty
+spirit of Ali were offensive to an aristocracy of elders,
+desirous of bestowing and resuming the sceptre by a free and
+frequent election: the Koreish could never be reconciled to the
+proud preeminence of the line of Hashem; the ancient discord of
+the tribes was rekindled, the fugitives of Mecca and the
+auxiliaries of Medina asserted their respective merits; and the
+rash proposal of choosing two independent caliphs would have
+crushed in their infancy the religion and empire of the Saracens.
+The tumult was appeased by the disinterested resolution of Omar,
+who, suddenly renouncing his own pretensions, stretched forth his
+hand, and declared himself the first subject of the mild and
+venerable Abubeker. ^* The urgency of the moment, and the
+acquiescence of the people, might excuse this illegal and
+precipitate measure; but Omar himself confessed from the pulpit,
+that if any Mulsulman should hereafter presume to anticipate the
+suffrage of his brethren, both the elector and the elected would
+be worthy of death. ^168 After the simple inauguration of
+Abubeker, he was obeyed in Medina, Mecca, and the provinces of
+Arabia: the Hashemites alone declined the oath of fidelity; and
+their chief, in his own house, maintained, above six months, a
+sullen and independent reserve; without listening to the threats
+of Omar, who attempted to consume with fire the habitation of the
+daughter of the apostle.  The death of Fatima, and the decline of
+his party, subdued the indignant spirit of Ali: he condescended
+to salute the commander of the faithful, accepted his excuse of
+the necessity of preventing their common enemies, and wisely
+rejected his courteous offer of abdicating the government of the
+Arabians.  After a reign of two years, the aged caliph was
+summoned by the angel of death.  In his testament, with the tacit
+approbation of his companions, he bequeathed the sceptre to the
+firm and intrepid virtue of Omar.  "I have no occasion," said the
+modest candidate, "for the place." "But the place has occasion
+for you," replied Abubeker; who expired with a fervent prayer,
+that the God of Mahomet would ratify his choice, and direct the
+Mussulmans in the way of concord and obedience.  The prayer was
+not ineffectual, since Ali himself, in a life of privacy and
+prayer, professed to revere the superior worth and dignity of his
+rival; who comforted him for the loss of empire, by the most
+flattering marks of confidence and esteem.  In the twelfth year
+of his reign, Omar received a mortal wound from the hand of an
+assassin: he rejected with equal impartiality the names of his
+son and of Ali, refused to load his conscience with the sins of
+his successor, and devolved on six of the most respectable
+companions the arduous task of electing a commander of the
+faithful.  On this occasion, Ali was again blamed by his friends
+^169 for submitting his right to the judgment of men, for
+recognizing their jurisdiction by accepting a place among the six
+electors.  He might have obtained their suffrage, had he deigned
+to promise a strict and servile conformity, not only to the Koran
+and tradition, but likewise to the determinations of two seniors.
+^170 With these limitations, Othman, the secretary of Mahomet,
+accepted the government; nor was it till after the third caliph,
+twenty-four years after the death of the prophet, that Ali was
+invested, by the popular choice, with the regal and sacerdotal
+office. The manners of the Arabians retained their primitive
+simplicity, and the son of Abu Taleb despised the pomp and vanity
+of this world.  At the hour of prayer, he repaired to the mosch
+of Medina, clothed in a thin cotton gown, a coarse turban on his
+head, his slippers in one hand, and his bow in the other, instead
+of a walking-staff.  The companions of the prophet, and the
+chiefs of the tribes, saluted their new sovereign, and gave him
+their right hands as a sign of fealty and allegiance.
+
+[Footnote *: Abubeker, the father of the virgin Ayesha.  St.
+Martin, vol. XL, p. 88 - M.]
+
+[Footnote 168: Ockley, (Hist. of the Saracens, vol. i. p. 5, 6,)
+from an Arabian Ms., represents Ayesha as adverse to the
+substitution of her father in the place of the apostle.  This
+fact, so improbable in itself, is unnoticed by Abulfeda, Al
+Jannabi, and Al Bochari, the last of whom quotes the tradition of
+Ayesha herself, (Vit. Mohammed, p. 136 Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii.
+p. 236.)]
+
+[Footnote 169: Particularly by his friend and cousin Abdallah,
+the son of Abbas, who died A.D. 687, with the title of grand
+doctor of the Moslems. In Abulfeda he recapitulates the important
+occasions in which Ali had neglected his salutary advice, (p. 76,
+vers. Reiske;) and concludes, (p. 85,) O princeps fidelium,
+absque controversia tu quidem vere fortis es, at inops boni
+consilii, et rerum gerendarum parum callens.]
+
+[Footnote 170: I suspect that the two seniors (Abulpharagius, p.
+115. Ockley, tom. i. p. 371,) may signify not two actual
+counsellors, but his two predecessors, Abubeker and Omar.]
+
+The mischiefs that flow from the contests of ambition are
+usually confined to the times and countries in which they have
+been agitated.  But the religious discord of the friends and
+enemies of Ali has been renewed in every age of the Hegira, and
+is still maintained in the immortal hatred of the Persians and
+Turks. ^171 The former, who are branded with the appellation of
+Shiites or sectaries, have enriched the Mahometan creed with a
+new article of faith; and if Mahomet be the apostle, his
+companion Ali is the vicar, of God. In their private converse, in
+their public worship, they bitterly execrate the three usurpers
+who intercepted his indefeasible right to the dignity of Imam and
+Caliph; and the name of Omar expresses in their tongue the
+perfect accomplishment of wickedness and impiety. ^172 The
+Sonnites, who are supported by the general consent and orthodox
+tradition of the Mussulmans, entertain a more impartial, or at
+least a more decent, opinion.  They respect the memory of
+Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and Ali, the holy and legitimate
+successors of the prophet.  But they assign the last and most
+humble place to the husband of Fatima, in the persuasion that the
+order of succession was determined by the decrees of sanctity.
+^173 An historian who balances the four caliphs with a hand
+unshaken by superstition, will calmly pronounce that their
+manners were alike pure and exemplary; that their zeal was
+fervent, and probably sincere; and that, in the midst of riches
+and power, their lives were devoted to the practice of moral and
+religious duties.  But the public virtues of Abubeker and Omar,
+the prudence of the first, the severity of the second, maintained
+the peace and prosperity of their reigns.  The feeble temper and
+declining age of Othman were incapable of sustaining the weight
+of conquest and empire.  He chose, and he was deceived; he
+trusted, and he was betrayed: the most deserving of the faithful
+became useless or hostile to his government, and his lavish
+bounty was productive only of ingratitude and discontent.  The
+spirit of discord went forth in the provinces: their deputies
+assembled at Medina; and the Charegites, the desperate fanatics
+who disclaimed the yoke of subordination and reason, were
+confounded among the free-born Arabs, who demanded the redress of
+their wrongs and the punishment of their oppressors. From Cufa,
+from Bassora, from Egypt, from the tribes of the desert, they
+rose in arms, encamped about a league from Medina, and despatched
+a haughty mandate to their sovereign, requiring him to execute
+justice, or to descend from the throne.  His repentance began to
+disarm and disperse the insurgents; but their fury was rekindled
+by the arts of his enemies; and the forgery of a perfidious
+secretary was contrived to blast his reputation and precipitate
+his fall.  The caliph had lost the only guard of his
+predecessors, the esteem and confidence of the Moslems: during a
+siege of six weeks his water and provisions were intercepted, and
+the feeble gates of the palace were protected only by the
+scruples of the more timorous rebels.  Forsaken by those who had
+abused his simplicity, the hopeless and venerable caliph expected
+the approach of death: the brother of Ayesha marched at the head
+of the assassins; and Othman, with the Koran in his lap, was
+pierced with a multitude of wounds. ^* A tumultuous anarchy of
+five days was appeased by the inauguration of Ali: his refusal
+would have provoked a general massacre.  In this painful
+situation he supported the becoming pride of the chief of the
+Hashemites; declared that he had rather serve than reign; rebuked
+the presumption of the strangers; and required the formal, if not
+the voluntary, assent of the chiefs of the nation. He has never
+been accused of prompting the assassin of Omar; though Persia
+indiscreetly celebrates the festival of that holy martyr. The
+quarrel between Othman and his subjects was assuaged by the early
+mediation of Ali; and Hassan, the eldest of his sons, was
+insulted and wounded in the defence of the caliph.  Yet it is
+doubtful whether the father of Hassan was strenuous and sincere
+in his opposition to the rebels; and it is certain that he
+enjoyed the benefit of their crime.  The temptation was indeed of
+such magnitude as might stagger and corrupt the most obdurate
+virtue.  The ambitious candidate no longer aspired to the barren
+sceptre of Arabia; the Saracens had been victorious in the East
+and West; and the wealthy kingdoms of Persia, Syria, and Egypt
+were the patrimony of the commander of the faithful.
+
+[Footnote 171: The schism of the Persians is explained by all our
+travellers of the last century, especially in the iid and ivth
+volumes of their master, Chardin.  Niebuhr, though of inferior
+merit, has the advantage of writing so late as the year 1764,
+(Voyages en Arabie, &c., tom. ii. p. 208 - 233,) since the
+ineffectual attempt of Nadir Shah to change the religion of the
+nation, (see his Persian History translated into French by Sir
+William Jones, tom. ii. p. 5, 6, 47, 48, 144 - 155.)]
+
+[Footnote 172: Omar is the name of the devil; his murderer is a
+saint. When the Persians shoot with the bow, they frequently cry,
+"May this arrow go to the heart of Omar!" (Voyages de Chardin,
+tom. ii. p 239, 240, 259, &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 173: This gradation of merit is distinctly marked in a
+creed illustrated by Reland, (de Relig. Mohamm. l. i. p. 37;) and
+a Sonnite argument inserted by Ockley, (Hist. of the Saracens,
+tom. ii. p. 230.) The practice of cursing the memory of Ali was
+abolished, after forty years, by the Ommiades themselves,
+(D'Herbelot, p. 690;) and there are few among the Turks who
+presume to revile him as an infidel, (Voyages de Chardin, tom.
+iv. p. 46.)]
+
+[Footnote *: Compare Price, p. 180. - M.]
+
+
+
+Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.
+
+Part VIII.
+
+A life of prayer and contemplation had not chilled the
+martial activity of Ali; but in a mature age, after a long
+experience of mankind, he still betrayed in his conduct the
+rashness and indiscretion of youth. ^* In the first days of his
+reign, he neglected to secure, either by gifts or fetters, the
+doubtful allegiance of Telha and Zobeir, two of the most powerful
+of the Arabian chiefs.  They escaped from Medina to Mecca, and
+from thence to Bassora; erected the standard of revolt; and
+usurped the government of Irak, or Assyria, which they had vainly
+solicited as the reward of their services. The mask of patriotism
+is allowed to cover the most glaring inconsistencies; and the
+enemies, perhaps the assassins, of Othman now demanded vengeance
+for his blood.  They were accompanied in their flight by Ayesha,
+the widow of the prophet, who cherished, to the last hour of her
+life, an implacable hatred against the husband and the posterity
+of Fatima.  The most reasonable Moslems were scandalized, that
+the mother of the faithful should expose in a camp her person and
+character; ^! but the superstitious crowd was confident that her
+presence would sanctify the justice, and assure the success, of
+their cause. At the head of twenty thousand of his loyal Arabs,
+and nine thousand valiant auxiliaries of Cufa, the caliph
+encountered and defeated the superior numbers of the rebels under
+the walls of Bassora. ^!! Their leaders, Telha and Zobeir, ^@
+were slain in the first battle that stained with civil blood the
+arms of the Moslems. ^@@ After passing through the ranks to
+animate the troops, Ayesha had chosen her post amidst the dangers
+of the field.  In the heat of the action, seventy men, who held
+the bridle of her camel, were successively killed or wounded; and
+the cage or litter, in which she sat, was stuck with javelins and
+darts like the quills of a porcupine.  The venerable captive
+sustained with firmness the reproaches of the conqueror, and was
+speedily dismissed to her proper station at the tomb of Mahomet,
+with the respect and tenderness that was still due to the widow
+of the apostle. ^* After this victory, which was styled the Day
+of the Camel, Ali marched against a more formidable adversary;
+against Moawiyah, the son of Abu Sophian, who had assumed the
+title of caliph, and whose claim was supported by the forces of
+Syria and the interest of the house of Ommiyah.  From the passage
+of Thapsacus, the plain of Siffin ^174 extends along the western
+bank of the Euphrates.  On this spacious and level theatre, the
+two competitors waged a desultory war of one hundred and ten
+days.  In the course of ninety actions or skirmishes, the loss of
+Ali was estimated at twenty-five, that of Moawiyah at forty-five,
+thousand soldiers; and the list of the slain was dignified with
+the names of five-and-twenty veterans who had fought at Beder
+under the standard of Mahomet.  In this sanguinary contest the
+lawful caliph displayed a superior character of valor and
+humanity. ^!!! His troops were strictly enjoined to await the
+first onset of the enemy, to spare their flying brethren, and to
+respect the bodies of the dead, and the chastity of the female
+captives.  He generously proposed to save the blood of the
+Moslems by a single combat; but his trembling rival declined the
+challenge as a sentence of inevitable death.  The ranks of the
+Syrians were broken by the charge of a hero who was mounted on a
+piebald horse, and wielded with irresistible force his ponderous
+and two-edged sword.  As often as he smote a rebel, he shouted
+the Allah Acbar, "God is victorious!" and in the tumult of a
+nocturnal battle, he was heard to repeat four hundred times that
+tremendous exclamation.  The prince of Damascus already meditated
+his flight; but the certain victory was snatched from the grasp
+of Ali by the disobedience and enthusiasm of his troops.  Their
+conscience was awed by the solemn appeal to the books of the
+Koran which Moawiyah exposed on the foremost lances; and Ali was
+compelled to yield to a disgraceful truce and an insidious
+compromise.  He retreated with sorrow and indignation to Cufa;
+his party was discouraged; the distant provinces of Persia, of
+Yemen, and of Egypt, were subdued or seduced by his crafty rival;
+and the stroke of fanaticism, which was aimed against the three
+chiefs of the nation, was fatal only to the cousin of Mahomet.
+In the temple of Mecca, three Charegites or enthusiasts
+discoursed of the disorders of the church and state: they soon
+agreed, that the deaths of Ali, of Moawiyah, and of his friend
+Amrou, the viceroy of Egypt, would restore the peace and unity of
+religion.  Each of the assassins chose his victim, poisoned his
+dagger, devoted his life, and secretly repaired to the scene of
+action.  Their resolution was equally desperate: but the first
+mistook the person of Amrou, and stabbed the deputy who occupied
+his seat; the prince of Damascus was dangerously hurt by the
+second; the lawful caliph, in the mosch of Cufa, received a
+mortal wound from the hand of the third.  He expired in the
+sixty-third year of his age, and mercifully recommended to his
+children, that they would despatch the murderer by a single
+stroke. ^* The sepulchre of Ali ^175 was concealed from the
+tyrants of the house of Ommiyah; ^176 but in the fourth age of
+the Hegira, a tomb, a temple, a city, arose near the ruins of
+Cufa. ^177 Many thousands of the Shiites repose in holy ground at
+the feet of the vicar of God; and the desert is vivified by the
+numerous and annual visits of the Persians, who esteem their
+devotion not less meritorious than the pilgrimage of Mecca.
+
+[Footnote *: Ali had determined to supersede all the lieutenants
+in the different provinces.  Price, p. 191.  Compare, on the
+conduct of Telha and Zobeir, p. 193 - M.]
+
+[Footnote !: See the very curious circumstances which took place
+before and during her flight.  Price, p. 196. - M.]
+
+[Footnote !!: The reluctance of Ali to shed the blood of true
+believers is strikingly described by Major Price's Persian
+historians. Price, p. 222. - M.]
+
+[Footnote @: See (in Price) the singular adventures of Zobeir.
+He was murdered after having abandoned the army of the
+insurgents.  Telha was about to do the same, when his leg was
+pierced with an arrow by one of his own party The wound was
+mortal.  Price, p. 222. - M.]
+
+[Footnote @@: According to Price, two hundred and eighty of the
+Benni Beianziel alone lost a right hand in this service, (p.
+225.) - M]
+
+[Footnote *: She was escorted by a guard of females disguised as
+soldiers. When she discovered this, Ayesha was as much gratified
+by the delicacy of the arrangement, as she had been offended by
+the familiar approach of so many men. Price, p. 229. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 174: The plain of Siffin is determined by D'Anville
+(l'Euphrate et le Tigre, p. 29) to be the Campus Barbaricus of
+Procopius.]
+
+[Footnote !!!: The Shiite authors have preserved a noble instance
+of Ali's magnanimity.  The superior generalship of Moawiyah had
+cut off the army of Ali from the Euphrates; his soldiers were
+perishing from want of water.  Ali sent a message to his rival to
+request free access to the river, declaring that under the same
+circumstances he would not allow any of the faithful, though his
+adversaries, to perish from thirst.  After some debate, Moawiyah
+determined to avail himself of the advantage of his situation,
+and to reject the demand of Ali.  The soldiers of Ali became
+desperate; forced their way through that part of the hostile army
+which commanded the river, and in their turn entirely cut off the
+troops of Moawiyah from the water.  Moawiyah was reduced to make
+the same supplication to Ali.  The generous caliph instantly
+complied; and both armies, with their cattle enjoyed free and
+unmolested access to the river. Price, vol. i. p. 268, 272 - M.]
+
+[Footnote *: His son Hassan was recognized as caliph in Arabia
+and Irak; but voluntarily abdicated the throne, after six or
+seven months, in favor of Moawiyah St. Martin, vol. xi. p 375. -
+M.]
+
+[Footnote 175: Abulfeda, a moderate Sonnite, relates the
+different opinions concerning the burial of Ali, but adopts the
+sepulchre of Cufa, hodie fama numeroque religiose frequentantium
+celebratum.  This number is reckoned by Niebuhr to amount
+annually to 2000 of the dead, and 5000 of the living, (tom. ii.
+p. 208, 209.)]
+
+[Footnote 176: All the tyrants of Persia, from Adhad el Dowlat
+(A.D. 977, D'Herbelot, p. 58, 59, 95) to Nadir Shah, (A.D. 1743,
+Hist. de Nadir Shah, tom. ii. p. 155,) have enriched the tomb of
+Ali with the spoils of the people. The dome is copper, with a
+bright and massy gilding, which glitters to the sun at the
+distance of many a mile.]
+
+[Footnote 177: The city of Meshed Ali, five or six miles from the
+ruins of Cufa, and one hundred and twenty to the south of Bagdad,
+is of the size and form of the modern Jerusalem.  Meshed Hosein,
+larger and more populous, is at the distance of thirty miles.]
+
+The persecutors of Mahomet usurped the inheritance of his
+children; and the champions of idolatry became the supreme heads
+of his religion and empire. The opposition of Abu Sophian had
+been fierce and obstinate; his conversion was tardy and
+reluctant; his new faith was fortified by necessity and interest;
+he served, he fought, perhaps he believed; and the sins of the
+time of ignorance were expiated by the recent merits of the
+family of Ommiyah. Moawiyah, the son of Abu Sophian, and of the
+cruel Henda, was dignified, in his early youth, with the office
+or title of secretary of the prophet: the judgment of Omar
+intrusted him with the government of Syria; and he administered
+that important province above forty years, either in a
+subordinate or supreme rank.  Without renouncing the fame of
+valor and liberality, he affected the reputation of humanity and
+moderation: a grateful people was attached to their benefactor;
+and the victorious Moslems were enriched with the spoils of
+Cyprus and Rhodes.  The sacred duty of pursuing the assassins of
+Othman was the engine and pretence of his ambition.  The bloody
+shirt of the martyr was exposed in the mosch of Damascus: the
+emir deplored the fate of his injured kinsman; and sixty thousand
+Syrians were engaged in his service by an oath of fidelity and
+revenge.  Amrou, the conqueror of Egypt, himself an army, was the
+first who saluted the new monarch, and divulged the dangerous
+secret, that the Arabian caliphs might be created elsewhere than
+in the city of the prophet. ^178 The policy of Moawiyah eluded
+the valor of his rival; and, after the death of Ali, he
+negotiated the abdication of his son Hassan, whose mind was
+either above or below the government of the world, and who
+retired without a sigh from the palace of Cufa to an humble cell
+near the tomb of his grandfather.  The aspiring wishes of the
+caliph were finally crowned by the important change of an
+elective to an hereditary kingdom.  Some murmurs of freedom or
+fanaticism attested the reluctance of the Arabs, and four
+citizens of Medina refused the oath of fidelity; but the designs
+of Moawiyah were conducted with vigor and address; and his son
+Yezid, a feeble and dissolute youth, was proclaimed as the
+commander of the faithful and the successor on the apostle of
+God.
+
+[Footnote 178: I borrow, on this occasion, the strong sense and
+expression of Tacitus, (Hist. i. 4: ) Evulgato imperii arcano
+posse imperatorem alni quam Romae fieri.]
+
+A familiar story is related of the benevolence of one of the
+sons of Ali. In serving at table, a slave had inadvertently
+dropped a dish of scalding broth on his master: the heedless
+wretch fell prostrate, to deprecate his punishment, and repeated
+a verse of the Koran: "Paradise is for those who command their
+anger: " - "I am not angry: " - "and for those who pardon
+offences: " - "I pardon your offence: " - "and for those who
+return good for evil: " - "I give you your liberty and four
+hundred pieces of silver." With an equal measure of piety,
+Hosein, the younger brother of Hassan, inherited a remnant of his
+father's spirit, and served with honor against the Christians in
+the siege of Constantinople.  The primogeniture of the line of
+Hashem, and the holy character of grandson of the apostle, had
+centred in his person, and he was at liberty to prosecute his
+claim against Yezid, the tyrant of Damascus, whose vices he
+despised, and whose title he had never deigned to acknowledge.  A
+list was secretly transmitted from Cufa to Medina, of one hundred
+and forty thousand Moslems, who professed their attachment to his
+cause, and who were eager to draw their swords so soon as he
+should appear on the banks of the Euphrates.  Against the advice
+of his wisest friends, he resolved to trust his person and family
+in the hands of a perfidious people. He traversed the desert of
+Arabia with a timorous retinue of women and children; but as he
+approached the confines of Irak he was alarmed by the solitary or
+hostile face of the country, and suspected either the defection
+or ruin of his party.  His fears were just: Obeidollah, the
+governor of Cufa, had extinguished the first sparks of an
+insurrection; and Hosein, in the plain of Kerbela, was
+encompassed by a body of five thousand horse, who intercepted his
+communication with the city and the river.  He might still have
+escaped to a fortress in the desert, that had defied the power of
+Caesar and Chosroes, and confided in the fidelity of the tribe of
+Tai, which would have armed ten thousand warriors in his defence.
+
+In a conference with the chief of the enemy, he proposed the
+option of three honorable conditions: that he should be allowed
+to return to Medina, or be stationed in a frontier garrison
+against the Turks, or safely conducted to the presence of Yezid.
+But the commands of the caliph, or his lieutenant, were stern and
+absolute; and Hosein was informed that he must either submit as a
+captive and a criminal to the commander of the faithful, or
+expect the consequences of his rebellion.  "Do you think,"
+replied he, "to terrify me with death?" And, during the short
+respite of a night, ^* he prepared with calm and solemn
+resignation to encounter his fate.  He checked the lamentations
+of his sister Fatima, who deplored the impending ruin of his
+house.  "Our trust," said Hosein, "is in God alone.  All things,
+both in heaven and earth, must perish and return to their
+Creator.  My brother, my father, my mother, were better than me,
+and every Mussulman has an example in the prophet." He pressed
+his friends to consult their safety by a timely flight: they
+unanimously refused to desert or survive their beloved master:
+and their courage was fortified by a fervent prayer and the
+assurance of paradise.  On the morning of the fatal day, he
+mounted on horseback, with his sword in one hand and the Koran in
+the other: his generous band of martyrs consisted only of
+thirty-two horse and forty foot; but their flanks and rear were
+secured by the tent-ropes, and by a deep trench which they had
+filled with lighted fagots, according to the practice of the
+Arabs. The enemy advanced with reluctance, and one of their
+chiefs deserted, with thirty followers, to claim the partnership
+of inevitable death. In every close onset, or single combat, the
+despair of the Fatimites was invincible; but the surrounding
+multitudes galled them from a distance with a cloud of arrows,
+and the horses and men were successively slain; a truce was
+allowed on both sides for the hour of prayer; and the battle at
+length expired by the death of the last companions of Hosein.
+Alone, weary, and wounded, he seated himself at the door of his
+tent.  As he tasted a drop of water, he was pierced in the mouth
+with a dart; and his son and nephew, two beautiful youths, were
+killed in his arms.  He lifted his hands to heaven; they were
+full of blood; and he uttered a funeral prayer for the living and
+the dead. In a transport of despair his sister issued from the
+tent, and adjured the general of the Cufians, that he would not
+suffer Hosein to be murdered before his eyes: a tear trickled
+down his venerable beard; and the boldest of his soldiers fell
+back on every side as the dying hero threw himself among them.
+The remorseless Shamer, a name detested by the faithful,
+reproached their cowardice; and the grandson of Mahomet was slain
+with three-and-thirty strokes of lances and swords.  After they
+had trampled on his body, they carried his head to the castle of
+Cufa, and the inhuman Obeidollah struck him on the mouth with a
+cane: "Alas," exclaimed an aged Mussulman, "on these lips have I
+seen the lips of the apostle of God!" In a distant age and
+climate, the tragic scene of the death of Hosein will awaken the
+sympathy of the coldest reader. ^179 ^* On the annual festival of
+his martyrdom, in the devout pilgrimage to his sepulchre, his
+Persian votaries abandon their souls to the religious frenzy of
+sorrow and indignation. ^180
+
+[Footnote *: According to Major Price's authorities a much longer
+time elapsed (p. 198 &c.) - M.]
+
+[Footnote 179: I have abridged the interesting narrative of
+Ockley, (tom. ii. p. 170 - 231.) It is long and minute: but the
+pathetic, almost always, consists in the detail of little
+circumstances.]
+
+[Footnote *: The account of Hosein's death, in the Persian Tarikh
+Tebry, is much longer; in some circumstances, more pathetic, than
+that of Ockley, followed by Gibbon.  His family, after his
+defenders were all slain, perished in succession before his eyes.
+
+They had been cut off from the water, and suffered all the
+agonies of thirst.  His eldest son, Ally Akbar, after ten
+different assaults on the enemy, in each of which he slew two or
+three, complained bitterly of his sufferings from heat and
+thirst.  "His father arose, and introducing his own tongue within
+the parched lips of his favorite child, thus endeavored to
+alleviate his sufferings by the only means of which his enemies
+had not yet been able to deprive him." Ally was slain and cut to
+pieces in his sight: this wrung from him his first and only cry;
+then it was that his sister Zeyneb rushed from the tent.  The
+rest, including his nephew, fell in succession.  Hosein's horse
+was wounded - he fell to the ground.  The hour of prayer, between
+noon and sunset, had arrived; the Imaun began the religious
+duties: - as Hosein prayed, he heard the cries of his infant
+child Abdallah, only twelve months old.  The child was, at his
+desire, placed on his bosom: as he wept over it, it was
+transfixed by an arrow.  Hosein dragged himself to the Euphrates:
+as he slaked his burning thirst, his mouth was pierced by an
+arrow: he drank his own blood.  Wounded in four-and-thirty
+places, he still gallantly resisted. A soldier named Zeraiah gave
+the fatal wound: his head was cut off by Ziliousheng.  Price, p.
+402, 410. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 180: Niebuhr the Dane (Voyages en Arabie, &c., tom. ii.
+p. 208, &c.) is, perhaps, the only European traveller who has
+dared to visit Meshed Ali and Meshed Hosein.  The two sepulchres
+are in the hands of the Turks, who tolerate and tax the devotion
+of the Persian heretics.  The festival of the death of Hosein is
+amply described by Sir John Chardin, a traveller whom I have
+often praised.]
+
+When the sisters and children of Ali were brought in chains
+to the throne of Damascus, the caliph was advised to extirpate
+the enmity of a popular and hostile race, whom he had injured
+beyond the hope of reconciliation.  But Yezid preferred the
+councils of mercy; and the mourning family was honorably
+dismissed to mingle their tears with their kindred at Medina.
+The glory of martyrdom superseded the right of primogeniture; and
+the twelve imams, ^181 or pontiffs, of the Persian creed, are
+Ali, Hassan, Hosein, and the lineal descendants of Hosein to the
+ninth generation.  Without arms, or treasures, or subjects, they
+successively enjoyed the veneration of the people, and provoked
+the jealousy of the reigning caliphs: their tombs, at Mecca or
+Medina, on the banks of the Euphrates, or in the province of
+Chorasan, are still visited by the devotion of their sect.  Their
+names were often the pretence of sedition and civil war; but
+these royal saints despised the pomp of the world: submitted to
+the will of God and the injustice of man; and devoted their
+innocent lives to the study and practice of religion.  The
+twelfth and last of the Imams, conspicuous by the title of
+Mahadi, or the Guide, surpassed the solitude and sanctity of his
+predecessors.  He concealed himself in a cavern near Bagdad: the
+time and place of his death are unknown; and his votaries pretend
+that he still lives, and will appear before the day of judgment
+to overthrow the tyranny of Dejal, or the Antichrist. ^182 In the
+lapse of two or three centuries, the posterity of Abbas, the
+uncle of Mahomet, had multiplied to the number of thirty-three
+thousand: ^183 the race of Ali might be equally prolific: the
+meanest individual was above the first and greatest of princes;
+and the most eminent were supposed to excel the perfection of
+angels.  But their adverse fortune, and the wide extent of the
+Mussulman empire, allowed an ample scope for every bold and
+artful imposture, who claimed affinity with the holy seed: the
+sceptre of the Almohades, in Spain and Africa; of the Fatimites,
+in Egypt and Syria; ^184 of the Sultans of Yemen; and of the
+Sophis of Persia; ^185 has been consecrated by this vague and
+ambiguous title.  Under their reigns it might be dangerous to
+dispute the legitimacy of their birth; and one of the Fatimite
+caliphs silenced an indiscreet question by drawing his cimeter:
+"This," said Moez, "is my pedigree; and these," casting a handful
+of gold to his soldiers, - "and these are my kindred and my
+children." In the various conditions of princes, or doctors, or
+nobles, or merchants, or beggars, a swarm of the genuine or
+fictitious descendants of Mahomet and Ali is honored with the
+appellation of sheiks, or sherifs, or emirs.  In the Ottoman
+empire they are distinguished by a green turban; receive a
+stipend from the treasury; are judged only by their chief; and,
+however debased by fortune or character, still assert the proud
+preeminence of their birth.  A family of three hundred persons,
+the pure and orthodox branch of the caliph Hassan, is preserved
+without taint or suspicion in the holy cities of Mecca and
+Medina, and still retains, after the revolutions of twelve
+centuries, the custody of the temple, and the sovereignty of
+their native land.  The fame and merit of Mahomet would ennoble a
+plebeian race, and the ancient blood of the Koreish transcends
+the recent majesty of the kings of the earth. ^186
+
+[Footnote 181: The general article of Imam, in D'Herbelot's
+Bibliotheque, will indicate the succession; and the lives of the
+twelve are given under their respective names.]
+
+[Footnote 182: The name of Antichrist may seem ridiculous, but
+the Mahometans have liberally borrowed the fables of every
+religion, (Sale's Preliminary Discourse, p. 80, 82.) In the royal
+stable of Ispahan, two horses were always kept saddled, one for
+the Mahadi himself, the other for his lieutenant, Jesus the son
+of Mary.]
+
+[Footnote 183: In the year of the Hegira 200, (A.D. 815.) See
+D'Herbelot, p. 146]
+
+[Footnote 184: D'Herbelot, p. 342.  The enemies of the Fatimites
+disgraced them by a Jewish origin.  Yet they accurately deduced
+their genealogy from Jaafar, the sixth Imam; and the impartial
+Abulfeda allows (Annal. Moslem. p. 230) that they were owned by
+many, qui absque controversia genuini sunt Alidarum, homines
+propaginum suae gentis exacte callentes.  He quotes some lines
+from the celebrated Scherif or Rahdi, Egone humilitatem induam in
+terris hostium?  (I suspect him to be an Edrissite of Sicily,)
+cum in Aegypto sit Chalifa de gente Alii, quocum ego communem
+habeo patrem et vindicem.]
+
+[Footnote 185: The kings of Persia in the last century are
+descended from Sheik Sefi, a saint of the xivth century, and
+through him, from Moussa Cassem, the son of Hosein, the son of
+Ali, (Olearius, p. 957.  Chardin, tom. iii. p. 288.) But I cannot
+trace the intermediate degrees in any genuine or fabulous
+pedigree.  If they were truly Fatimites, they might draw their
+origin from the princes of Mazanderan, who reigned in the ixth
+century, (D'Herbelot, p. 96.)]
+
+[Footnote 186: The present state of the family of Mahomet and Ali
+is most accurately described by Demetrius Cantemir (Hist. of the
+Othmae Empire, p. 94) and Niebuhr, (Description de l'Arabie, p. 9
+- 16, 317 &c.) It is much to be lamented, that the Danish
+traveller was unable to purchase the chronicles of Arabia.]
+
+The talents of Mahomet are entitled to our applause; but his
+success has, perhaps, too strongly attracted our admiration.  Are
+we surprised that a multitude of proselytes should embrace the
+doctrine and the passions of an eloquent fanatic?  In the
+heresies of the church, the same seduction has been tried and
+repeated from the time of the apostles to that of the reformers.
+Does it seem incredible that a private citizen should grasp the
+sword and the sceptre, subdue his native country, and erect a
+monarchy by his victorious arms?  In the moving picture of the
+dynasties of the East, a hundred fortunate usurpers have arisen
+from a baser origin, surmounted more formidable obstacles, and
+filled a larger scope of empire and conquest. Mahomet was alike
+instructed to preach and to fight; and the union of these
+opposite qualities, while it enhanced his merit, contributed to
+his success: the operation of force and persuasion, of enthusiasm
+and fear, continually acted on each other, till every barrier
+yielded to their irresistible power.  His voice invited the Arabs
+to freedom and victory, to arms and rapine, to the indulgence of
+their darling passions in this world and the other: the
+restraints which he imposed were requisite to establish the
+credit of the prophet, and to exercise the obedience of the
+people; and the only objection to his success was his rational
+creed of the unity and perfections of God.  It is not the
+propagation, but the permanency, of his religion, that deserves
+our wonder: the same pure and perfect impression which he
+engraved at Mecca and Medina, is preserved, after the revolutions
+of twelve centuries, by the Indian, the African, and the Turkish
+proselytes of the Koran.  If the Christian apostles, St. Peter or
+St. Paul, could return to the Vatican, they might possibly
+inquire the name of the Deity who is worshipped with such
+mysterious rites in that magnificent temple: at Oxford or Geneva,
+they would experience less surprise; but it might still be
+incumbent on them to peruse the catechism of the church, and to
+study the orthodox commentators on their own writings and the
+words of their Master.  But the Turkish dome of St. Sophia, with
+an increase of splendor and size, represents the humble
+tabernacle erected at Medina by the hands of Mahomet.  The
+Mahometans have uniformly withstood the temptation of reducing
+the object of their faith and devotion to a level with the senses
+and imagination of man.  "I believe in one God, and Mahomet the
+apostle of God," is the simple and invariable profession of
+Islam.  The intellectual image of the Deity has never been
+degraded by any visible idol; the honors of the prophet have
+never transgressed the measure of human virtue; and his living
+precepts have restrained the gratitude of his disciples within
+the bounds of reason and religion.  The votaries of Ali have,
+indeed, consecrated the memory of their hero, his wife, and his
+children; and some of the Persian doctors pretend that the divine
+essence was incarnate in the person of the Imams; but their
+superstition is universally condemned by the Sonnites; and their
+impiety has afforded a seasonable warning against the worship of
+saints and martyrs.  The metaphysical questions on the attributes
+of God, and the liberty of man, have been agitated in the schools
+of the Mahometans, as well as in those of the Christians; but
+among the former they have never engaged the passions of the
+people, or disturbed the tranquillity of the state.  The cause of
+this important difference may be found in the separation or union
+of the regal and sacerdotal characters. It was the interest of
+the caliphs, the successors of the prophet and commanders of the
+faithful, to repress and discourage all religious innovations:
+the order, the discipline, the temporal and spiritual ambition of
+the clergy, are unknown to the Moslems; and the sages of the law
+are the guides of their conscience and the oracles of their
+faith.  From the Atlantic to the Ganges, the Koran is
+acknowledged as the fundamental code, not only of theology, but
+of civil and criminal jurisprudence; and the laws which regulate
+the actions and the property of mankind are guarded by the
+infallible and immutable sanction of the will of God.  This
+religious servitude is attended with some practical disadvantage;
+the illiterate legislator had been often misled by his own
+prejudices and those of his country; and the institutions of the
+Arabian desert may be ill adapted to the wealth and numbers of
+Ispahan and Constantinople.  On these occasions, the Cadhi
+respectfully places on his head the holy volume, and substitutes
+a dexterous interpretation more apposite to the principles of
+equity, and the manners and policy of the times.
+
+His beneficial or pernicious influence on the public
+happiness is the last consideration in the character of Mahomet.
+The most bitter or most bigoted of his Christian or Jewish foes
+will surely allow that he assumed a false commission to inculcate
+a salutary doctrine, less perfect only than their own.  He
+piously supposed, as the basis of his religion, the truth and
+sanctity of their prior revolutions, the virtues and miracles of
+their founders.  The idols of Arabia were broken before the
+throne of God; the blood of human victims was expiated by prayer,
+and fasting, and alms, the laudable or innocent arts of devotion;
+and his rewards and punishments of a future life were painted by
+the images most congenial to an ignorant and carnal generation.
+Mahomet was, perhaps, incapable of dictating a moral and
+political system for the use of his countrymen: but he breathed
+among the faithful a spirit of charity and friendship;
+recommended the practice of the social virtues; and checked, by
+his laws and precepts, the thirst of revenge, and the oppression
+of widows and orphans.  The hostile tribes were united in faith
+and obedience, and the valor which had been idly spent in
+domestic quarrels was vigorously directed against a foreign
+enemy.  Had the impulse been less powerful, Arabia, free at home
+and formidable abroad, might have flourished under a succession
+of her native monarchs.  Her sovereignty was lost by the extent
+and rapidity of conquest.  The colonies of the nation were
+scattered over the East and West, and their blood was mingled
+with the blood of their converts and captives.  After the reign
+of three caliphs, the throne was transported from Medina to the
+valley of Damascus and the banks of the Tigris; the holy cities
+were violated by impious war; Arabia was ruled by the rod of a
+subject, perhaps of a stranger; and the Bedoweens of the desert,
+awakening from their dream of dominion, resumed their old and
+solitary independence. ^187
+
+[Footnote 187: The writers of the Modern Universal History (vols.
+i. and ii.) have compiled, in 850 folio pages, the life of
+Mahomet and the annals of the caliphs.  They enjoyed the
+advantage of reading, and sometimes correcting, the Arabic text;
+yet, notwithstanding their high-sounding boasts, I cannot find,
+after the conclusion of my work, that they have afforded me much
+(if any) additional information.  The dull mass is not quickened
+by a spark of philosophy or taste; and the compilers indulge the
+criticism of acrimonious bigotry against Boulainvilliers, Sale,
+Gagnier, and all who have treated Mahomet with favor, or even
+justice.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.
+
+Part I.
+
+The Conquest Of Persia, Syria, Egypt, Africa, And Spain, By
+The Arabs Or Saracens. - Empire Of The Caliphs, Or Successors Of
+Mahomet. - State Of The Christians, &c., Under Their Government.
+
+The revolution of Arabia had not changed the character of
+the Arabs: the death of Mahomet was the signal of independence;
+and the hasty structure of his power and religion tottered to its
+foundations.  A small and faithful band of his primitive
+disciples had listened to his eloquence, and shared his distress;
+had fled with the apostle from the persecution of Mecca, or had
+received the fugitive in the walls of Medina.  The increasing
+myriads, who acknowledged Mahomet as their king and prophet, had
+been compelled by his arms, or allured by his prosperity.  The
+polytheists were confounded by the simple idea of a solitary and
+invisible God; the pride of the Christians and Jews disdained the
+yoke of a mortal and contemporary legislator.  The habits of
+faith and obedience were not sufficiently confirmed; and many of
+the new converts regretted the venerable antiquity of the law of
+Moses, or the rites and mysteries of the Catholic church; or the
+idols, the sacrifices, the joyous festivals, of their Pagan
+ancestors. The jarring interests and hereditary feuds of the
+Arabian tribes had not yet coalesced in a system of union and
+subordination; and the Barbarians were impatient of the mildest
+and most salutary laws that curbed their passions, or violated
+their customs.  They submitted with reluctance to the religious
+precepts of the Koran, the abstinence from wine, the fast of the
+Ramadan, and the daily repetition of five prayers; and the alms
+and tithes, which were collected for the treasury of Medina,
+could be distinguished only by a name from the payment of a
+perpetual and ignominious tribute. The example of Mahomet had
+excited a spirit of fanaticism or imposture, and several of his
+rivals presumed to imitate the conduct, and defy the authority,
+of the living prophet.  At the head of the fugitives and
+auxiliaries, the first caliph was reduced to the cities of Mecca,
+Medina, and Tayef; and perhaps the Koreish would have restored
+the idols of the Caaba, if their levity had not been checked by a
+seasonable reproof.  "Ye men of Mecca, will ye be the last to
+embrace, and the first to abandon, the religion of Islam?" After
+exhorting the Moslems to confide in the aid of God and his
+apostle, Abubeker resolved, by a vigorous attack, to prevent the
+junction of the rebels.  The women and children were safely
+lodged in the cavities of the mountains: the warriors, marching
+under eleven banners, diffused the terror of their arms; and the
+appearance of a military force revived and confirmed the loyalty
+of the faithful.  The inconstant tribes accepted, with humble
+repentance, the duties of prayer, and fasting, and alms; and,
+after some examples of success and severity, the most daring
+apostates fell prostrate before the sword of the Lord and of
+Caled.  In the fertile province of Yemanah, ^1 between the Red
+Sea and the Gulf of Persia, in a city not inferior to Medina
+itself, a powerful chief (his name was Moseilama) had assumed the
+character of a prophet, and the tribe of Hanifa listened to his
+voice.  A female prophetess ^* was attracted by his reputation;
+the decencies of words and actions were spurned by these
+favorites of Heaven; ^2 and they employed several days in mystic
+and amorous converse.  An obscure sentence of his Koran, or book,
+is yet extant; ^3 and in the pride of his mission, Moseilama
+condescended to offer a partition of the earth.  The proposal was
+answered by Mahomet with contempt; but the rapid progress of the
+impostor awakened the fears of his successor: forty thousand
+Moslems were assembled under the standard of Caled; and the
+existence of their faith was resigned to the event of a decisive
+battle. ^* In the first action they were repulsed by the loss of
+twelve hundred men; but the skill and perseverance of their
+general prevailed; their defeat was avenged by the slaughter of
+ten thousand infidels; and Moseilama himself was pierced by an
+Aethiopian slave with the same javelin which had mortally wounded
+the uncle of Mahomet.  The various rebels of Arabia without a
+chief or a cause, were speedily suppressed by the power and
+discipline of the rising monarchy; and the whole nation again
+professed, and more steadfastly held, the religion of the Koran.
+The ambition of the caliphs provided an immediate exercise for
+the restless spirit of the Saracens: their valor was united in
+the prosecution of a holy war; and their enthusiasm was equally
+confirmed by opposition and victory.
+
+[Footnote 1: See the description of the city and country of Al
+Yamanah, in Abulfeda, Descript.  Arabiae, p. 60, 61.  In the
+xiiith century, there were some ruins, and a few palms; but in
+the present century, the same ground is occupied by the visions
+and arms of a modern prophet, whose tenets are imperfectly known,
+(Niebuhr, Description de l'Arabie, p. 296 - 302.)]
+
+[Footnote *: This extraordinary woman was a Christian; she was at
+the head of a numerous and flourishing sect; Moseilama professed
+to recognize her inspiration.  In a personal interview he
+proposed their marriage and the union of their sects.  The
+handsome person, the impassioned eloquence, and the arts of
+Moseilama, triumphed over the virtue of the prophetesa who was
+rejected with scorn by her lover, and by her notorious unchastity
+ost her influence with her own followers.  Gibbon, with that
+propensity too common, especially in his later volumes, has
+selected only the grosser part of this singular adventure. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The first salutation may be transcribed, but cannot
+be translated.  It was thus that Moseilama said or sung: -
+
+Surge tandem itaque strenue permolenda; nam stratus tibi thorus est.
+Aut in propatulo tentorio si velis, aut in abditiore cubiculo si malis;
+Aut supinam te humi exporrectam fustigabo, si velis,
+Aut si malis manibus pedibusque nixam.
+Aut si velis ejus (Priapi) gemino triente aut si malis totus veniam.
+Imo, totus venito, O Apostole Dei, clamabat foemina.
+Id ipsum, dicebat
+Moseilama, mihi quoque suggessit Deus.
+
+The prophetess Segjah, after the fall of her lover, returned to
+idolatry; but under the reign of Moawiyah, she became a
+Mussulman, and died at Bassora, (Abulfeda, Annal. vers. Reiske,
+p. 63.)]
+
+[Footnote 3: See this text, which demonstrates a God from the
+work of generation, in Abulpharagius (Specimen Hist. Arabum, p.
+13, and Dynast. p. 103) and Abulfeda, (Annal. p. 63.)]
+
+[Footnote *: Compare a long account of this battle in Price, p.
+42. - M.]
+
+From the rapid conquests of the Saracens a presumption will
+naturally arise, that the caliphs ^! commanded in person the
+armies of the faithful, and sought the crown of martyrdom in the
+foremost ranks of the battle.  The courage of Abubeker, ^4 Omar,
+^5 and Othman, ^6 had indeed been tried in the persecution and
+wars of the prophet; and the personal assurance of paradise must
+have taught them to despise the pleasures and dangers of the
+present world.  But they ascended the throne in a venerable or
+mature age; and esteemed the domestic cares of religion and
+justice the most important duties of a sovereign.  Except the
+presence of Omar at the siege of Jerusalem, their longest
+expeditions were the frequent pilgrimage from Medina to Mecca;
+and they calmly received the tidings of victory as they prayed or
+preached before the sepulchre of the prophet.  The austere and
+frugal measure of their lives was the effect of virtue or habit,
+and the pride of their simplicity insulted the vain magnificence
+of the kings of the earth.  When Abubeker assumed the office of
+caliph, he enjoined his daughter Ayesha to take a strict account
+of his private patrimony, that it might be evident whether he
+were enriched or impoverished by the service of the state.  He
+thought himself entitled to a stipend of three pieces of gold,
+with the sufficient maintenance of a single camel and a black
+slave; but on the Friday of each week he distributed the residue
+of his own and the public money, first to the most worthy, and
+then to the most indigent, of the Moslems.  The remains of his
+wealth, a coarse garment, and five pieces of gold, were delivered
+to his successor, who lamented with a modest sigh his own
+inability to equal such an admirable model.  Yet the abstinence
+and humility of Omar were not inferior to the virtues of
+Abubeker: his food consisted of barley bread or dates; his drink
+was water; he preached in a gown that was torn or tattered in
+twelve places; and the Persian satrap, who paid his homage to the
+conqueror, found him asleep among the beggars on the steps of the
+mosch of Medina.  Oeeconomy is the source of liberality, and the
+increase of the revenue enabled Omar to establish a just and
+perpetual reward for the past and present services of the
+faithful.  Careless of his own emolument, he assigned to Abbas,
+the uncle of the prophet, the first and most ample allowance of
+twenty-five thousand drachms or pieces of silver.  Five thousand
+were allotted to each of the aged warriors, the relics of the
+field of Beder; and the last and meanest of the companions of
+Mahomet was distinguished by the annual reward of three thousand
+pieces.  One thousand was the stipend of the veterans who had
+fought in the first battles against the Greeks and Persians; and
+the decreasing pay, as low as fifty pieces of silver, was adapted
+to the respective merit and seniority of the soldiers of Omar.
+Under his reign, and that of his predecessor, the conquerors of
+the East were the trusty servants of God and the people; the mass
+of the public treasure was consecrated to the expenses of peace
+and war; a prudent mixture of justice and bounty maintained the
+discipline of the Saracens, and they united, by a rare felicity,
+the despatch and execution of despotism with the equal and frugal
+maxims of a republican government.  The heroic courage of Ali, ^7
+the consummate prudence of Moawiyah, ^8 excited the emulation of
+their subjects; and the talents which had been exercised in the
+school of civil discord were more usefully applied to propagate
+the faith and dominion of the prophet.  In the sloth and vanity
+of the palace of Damascus, the succeeding princes of the house of
+Ommiyah were alike destitute of the qualifications of statesmen
+and of saints. ^9 Yet the spoils of unknown nations were
+continually laid at the foot of their throne, and the uniform
+ascent of the Arabian greatness must be ascribed to the spirit of
+the nation rather than the abilities of their chiefs.  A large
+deduction must be allowed for the weakness of their enemies.  The
+birth of Mahomet was fortunately placed in the most degenerate
+and disorderly period of the Persians, the Romans, and the
+Barbarians of Europe: the empires of Trajan, or even of
+Constantine or Charlemagne, would have repelled the assault of
+the naked Saracens, and the torrent of fanaticism might have been
+obscurely lost in the sands of Arabia.
+
+[Footnote !: In Arabic, "successors." V. Hammer Geschichte der
+Assas. p. 14 - M.]
+
+[Footnote 4: His reign in Eutychius, tom. ii. p. 251.  Elmacin,
+p. 18. Abulpharagius, p. 108.  Abulfeda, p. 60.  D'Herbelot, p.
+58.]
+
+[Footnote 5: His reign in Eutychius, p. 264.  Elmacin, p. 24.
+Abulpharagius, p. 110.  Abulfeda, p. 66.  D'Herbelot, p. 686.]
+
+[Footnote 6: His reign in Eutychius, p. 323.  Elmacin, p. 36.
+Abulpharagius, p. 115.  Abulfeda, p. 75.  D'Herbelot, p. 695.]
+
+[Footnote 7: His reign in Eutychius, p. 343.  Elmacin, p. 51.
+Abulpharagius, p. 117.  Abulfeda, p. 83.  D'Herbelot, p. 89.]
+
+[Footnote 8: His reign in Eutychius, p. 344.  Elmacin, p. 54.
+Abulpharagius, p. 123.  Abulfeda, p. 101.  D'Herbelot, p. 586.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Their reigns in Eutychius, tom. ii. p. 360 - 395.
+Elmacin, p. 59 - 108.  Abulpharagius, Dynast. ix. p. 124 - 139.
+Abulfeda, p. 111 - 141. D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p.
+691, and the particular articles of the Ommiades.]
+
+In the victorious days of the Roman republic, it had been
+the aim of the senate to confine their councils and legions to a
+single war, and completely to suppress a first enemy before they
+provoked the hostilities of a second. These timid maxims of
+policy were disdained by the magnanimity or enthusiasm of the
+Arabian caliphs.  With the same vigor and success they invaded
+the successors of Augustus and those of Artaxerxes; and the rival
+monarchies at the same instant became the prey of an enemy whom
+they had been so long accustomed to despise.  In the ten years of
+the administration of Omar, the Saracens reduced to his obedience
+thirty-six thousand cities or castles, destroyed four thousand
+churches or temples of the unbelievers, and edified fourteen
+hundred moschs for the exercise of the religion of Mahomet.  One
+hundred years after his flight from Mecca, the arms and the reign
+of his successors extended from India to the Atlantic Ocean, over
+the various and distant provinces, which may be comprised under
+the names of, I.  Persia; II. Syria; III.  Egypt; IV. Africa;
+and, V.  Spain.  Under this general division, I shall proceed to
+unfold these memorable transactions; despatching with brevity the
+remote and less interesting conquests of the East, and reserving
+a fuller narrative for those domestic countries which had been
+included within the pale of the Roman empire.  Yet I must excuse
+my own defects by a just complaint of the blindness and
+insufficiency of my guides.  The Greeks, so loquacious in
+controversy, have not been anxious to celebrate the triumphs of
+their enemies. ^10 After a century of ignorance, the first annals
+of the Mussulmans were collected in a great measure from the
+voice of tradition. ^11 Among the numerous productions of Arabic
+and Persian literature, ^12 our interpreters have selected the
+imperfect sketches of a more recent age. ^13 The art and genius
+of history have ever been unknown to the Asiatics; ^14 they are
+ignorant of the laws of criticism; and our monkish chronicle of
+the same period may be compared to their most popular works,
+which are never vivified by the spirit of philosophy and freedom.
+
+The Oriental library of a Frenchman ^15 would instruct the most
+learned mufti of the East; and perhaps the Arabs might not find
+in a single historian so clear and comprehensive a narrative of
+their own exploits as that which will be deduced in the ensuing
+sheets.
+
+[Footnote 10: For the viith and viiith century, we have scarcely
+any original evidence of the Byzantine historians, except the
+chronicles of Theophanes (Theophanis Confessoris Chronographia,
+Gr. et Lat. cum notis Jacobi Goar. Paris, 1665, in folio) and the
+Abridgment of Nicephorus, (Nicephori Patriarchae C. P. Breviarium
+Historicum, Gr. et Lat. Paris, 1648, in folio,) who both lived in
+the beginning of the ixth century, (see Hanckius de Scriptor.
+Byzant. p. 200 - 246.) Their contemporary, Photius, does not seem
+to be more opulent.  After praising the style of Nicephorus, he
+adds, and only complains of his extreme brevity, (Phot. Bibliot.
+Cod. lxvi. p. 100.) Some additions may be gleaned from the more
+recent histories of Cedrenus and Zonaras of the xiith century.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Tabari, or Al Tabari, a native of Taborestan, a
+famous Imam of Bagdad, and the Livy of the Arabians, finished his
+general history in the year of the Hegira 302, (A.D. 914.) At the
+request of his friends, he reduced a work of 30,000 sheets to a
+more reasonable size.  But his Arabic original is known only by
+the Persian and Turkish versions.  The Saracenic history of Ebn
+Amid, or Elmacin, is said to be an abridgment of the great
+Tabari, (Ockley's Hist. of the Saracens, vol. ii. preface, p.
+xxxix. and list of authors, D'Herbelot, p. 866, 870, 1014.)]
+
+[Footnote 12: Besides the list of authors framed by Prideaux,
+(Life of Mahomet, p. 179 - 189,) Ockley, (at the end of his
+second volume,) and Petit de la Croix, (Hist. de Gengiscan, p.
+525 - 550,) we find in the Bibliotheque Orientale Tarikh, a
+catalogue of two or three hundred histories or chronicles of the
+East, of which not more than three or four are older than Tabari.
+
+A lively sketch of Oriental literature is given by Reiske, (in
+his Prodidagmata ad Hagji Chalifae librum memorialem ad calcem
+Abulfedae Tabulae Syriae, Lipsiae, 1776;) but his project and the
+French version of Petit de la Croix (Hist. de Timur Bec, tom. i.
+preface, p. xlv.) have fallen to the ground.]
+
+[Footnote 13: The particular historians and geographers will be
+occasionally introduced.  The four following titles represent the
+Annals which have guided me in this general narrative.  1.
+Annales Eutychii, Patriarchoe Alexandrini, ab Edwardo Pocockio,
+Oxon. 1656, 2 vols. in 4to. A pompous edition of an indifferent
+author, translated by Pocock to gratify the Presbyterian
+prejudices of his friend Selden.  2. Historia Saracenica Georgii
+Elmacini, opera et studio Thomae Erpenii, in 4to., Lugd.
+Batavorum, 1625.  He is said to have hastily translated a corrupt
+Ms., and his version is often deficient in style and sense.  3.
+Historia compendiosa Dynastiarum a Gregorio Abulpharagio,
+interprete Edwardo Pocockio, in 4to., Oxon. 1663. More useful for
+the literary than the civil history of the East.  4. Abulfedoe
+Annales Moslemici ad Ann. Hegiroe ccccvi. a Jo. Jac. Reiske, in
+4to., Lipsioe, 1754.  The best of our chronicles, both for the
+original and version, yet how far below the name of Abulfeda!  We
+know that he wrote at Hamah in the xivth century.  The three
+former were Christians of the xth, xiith, and xiiith centuries;
+the two first, natives of Egypt; a Melchite patriarch, and a
+Jacobite scribe.]
+
+[Footnote 14: M. D. Guignes (Hist. des Huns, tom. i. pref. p.
+xix. xx.) has characterized, with truth and knowledge, the two
+sorts of Arabian historians - the dry annalist, and the tumid and
+flowery orator.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Bibliotheque Orientale, par M. D'Herbelot, in
+folio, Paris, 1697.  For the character of the respectable author,
+consult his friend Thevenot, (Voyages du Levant, part i. chap.
+1.) His work is an agreeable miscellany, which must gratify every
+taste; but I never can digest the alphabetical order; and I find
+him more satisfactory in the Persian than the Arabic history.
+The recent supplement from the papers of Mm. Visdelou, and
+Galland, (in folio, La Haye, 1779,) is of a different cast, a
+medley of tales, proverbs, and Chinese antiquities.]
+
+I.  In the first year of the first caliph, his lieutenant
+Caled, the Sword of God, and the scourge of the infidels,
+advanced to the banks of the Euphrates, and reduced the cities of
+Anbar and Hira.  Westward of the ruins of Babylon, a tribe of
+sedentary Arabs had fixed themselves on the verge of the desert;
+and Hira was the seat of a race of kings who had embraced the
+Christian religion, and reigned above six hundred years under the
+shadow of the throne of Persia. ^16 The last of the Mondars ^*
+was defeated and slain by Caled; his son was sent a captive to
+Medina; his nobles bowed before the successor of the prophet; the
+people was tempted by the example and success of their
+countrymen; and the caliph accepted as the first-fruits of
+foreign conquest an annual tribute of seventy thousand pieces of
+gold.  The conquerors, and even their historians, were astonished
+by the dawn of their future greatness: "In the same year," says
+Elmacin, "Caled fought many signal battles: an immense multitude
+of the infidels was slaughtered; and spoils infinite and
+innumerable were acquired by the victorious Moslems." ^17 But the
+invincible Caled was soon transferred to the Syrian war: the
+invasion of the Persian frontier was conducted by less active or
+less prudent commanders: the Saracens were repulsed with loss in
+the passage of the Euphrates; and, though they chastised the
+insolent pursuit of the Magians, their remaining forces still
+hovered in the desert of Babylon. ^!
+
+[Footnote 16: Pocock will explain the chronology, (Specimen Hist.
+Arabum, p. 66 - 74,) and D'Anville the geography, (l'Euphrate, et
+le Tigre, p. 125,) of the dynasty of the Almondars.  The English
+scholar understood more Arabic than the mufti of Aleppo, (Ockley,
+vol. ii. p. 34: ) the French geographer is equally at home in
+every age and every climate of the world.]
+
+[Footnote *: Eichhorn and Silvestre de Sacy have written on the
+obscure history of the Mondars. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Fecit et Chaled plurima in hoc anno praelia, in
+quibus vicerunt Muslimi, et infidelium immensa multitudine occisa
+spolia infinita et innumera sunt nacti, (Hist. Saracenica, p.
+20.) The Christian annalist slides into the national and
+compendious term of infidels, and I often adopt (I hope without
+scandal) this characteristic mode of expression.]
+
+[Footnote !: Compare throughout Malcolm, vol. ii. p. 136. - M.]
+
+The indignation and fears of the Persians suspended for a
+moment their intestine divisions.  By the unanimous sentence of
+the priests and nobles, their queen Arzema was deposed; the sixth
+of the transient usurpers, who had arisen and vanished in three
+or four years since the death of Chosroes, and the retreat of
+Heraclius.  Her tiara was placed on the head of Yezdegerd, the
+grandson of Chosroes; and the same aera, which coincides with an
+astronomical period, ^18 has recorded the fall of the Sassanian
+dynasty and the religion of Zoroaster. ^19 The youth and
+inexperience of the prince (he was only fifteen years of age)
+declined a perilous encounter: the royal standard was delivered
+into the hands of his general Rustam; and a remnant of thirty
+thousand regular troops was swelled in truth, or in opinion, to
+one hundred and twenty thousand subjects, or allies, of the great
+king.  The Moslems, whose numbers were reenforced from twelve to
+thirty thousand, had pitched their camp in the plains of Cadesia:
+^20 and their line, though it consisted of fewer men, could
+produce more soldiers, than the unwieldy host of the infidels.  I
+shall here observe, what I must often repeat, that the charge of
+the Arabs was not, like that of the Greeks and Romans, the effort
+of a firm and compact infantry: their military force was chiefly
+formed of cavalry and archers; and the engagement, which was
+often interrupted and often renewed by single combats and flying
+skirmishes, might be protracted without any decisive event to the
+continuance of several days.  The periods of the battle of
+Cadesia were distinguished by their peculiar appellations.  The
+first, from the well- timed appearance of six thousand of the
+Syrian brethren, was denominated the day of succor.  The day of
+concussion might express the disorder of one, or perhaps of both,
+of the contending armies.  The third, a nocturnal tumult,
+received the whimsical name of the night of barking, from the
+discordant clamors, which were compared to the inarticulate
+sounds of the fiercest animals.  The morning of the succeeding
+day ^* determined the fate of Persia; and a seasonable whirlwind
+drove a cloud of dust against the faces of the unbelievers.  The
+clangor of arms was reechoed to the tent of Rustam, who, far
+unlike the ancient hero of his name, was gently reclining in a
+cool and tranquil shade, amidst the baggage of his camp, and the
+train of mules that were laden with gold and silver.  On the
+sound of danger he started from his couch; but his flight was
+overtaken by a valiant Arab, who caught him by the foot, struck
+off his head, hoisted it on a lance, and instantly returning to
+the field of battle, carried slaughter and dismay among the
+thickest ranks of the Persians. The Saracens confess a loss of
+seven thousand five hundred men; ^! and the battle of Cadesia is
+justly described by the epithets of obstinate and atrocious. ^21
+The standard of the monarchy was overthrown and captured in the
+field - a leathern apron of a blacksmith, who in ancient times
+had arisen the deliverer of Persia; but this badge of heroic
+poverty was disguised, and almost concealed, by a profusion of
+precious gems. ^22 After this victory, the wealthy province of
+Irak, or Assyria, submitted to the caliph, and his conquests were
+firmly established by the speedy foundation of Bassora, ^23 a
+place which ever commands the trade and navigation of the
+Persians.  As the distance of fourscore miles from the Gulf, the
+Euphrates and Tigris unite in a broad and direct current, which
+is aptly styled the river of the Arabs.  In the midway, between
+the junction and the mouth of these famous streams, the new
+settlement was planted on the western bank: the first colony was
+composed of eight hundred Moslems; but the influence of the
+situation soon reared a flourishing and populous capital.  The
+air, though excessively hot, is pure and healthy: the meadows are
+filled with palm- trees and cattle; and one of the adjacent
+valleys has been celebrated among the four paradises or gardens
+of Asia.  Under the first caliphs the jurisdiction of this
+Arabian colony extended over the southern provinces of Persia:
+the city has been sanctified by the tombs of the companions and
+martyrs; and the vessels of Europe still frequent the port of
+Bassora, as a convenient station and passage of the Indian trade.
+
+[Footnote 18: A cycle of 120 years, the end of which an
+intercalary month of 30 days supplied the use of our Bissextile,
+and restored the integrity of the solar year.  In a great
+revolution of 1440 years this intercalation was successively
+removed from the first to the twelfth month; but Hyde and Freret
+are involved in a profound controversy, whether the twelve, or
+only eight of these changes were accomplished before the aera of
+Yezdegerd, which is unanimously fixed to the 16th of June, A.D.
+632.  How laboriously does the curious spirit of Europe explore
+the darkest and most distant antiquities! (Hyde de Religione
+Persarum, c. 14 - 18, p. 181 - 211. Freret in the Mem. de
+l'Academie des Inscriptions, tom. xvi. p. 233 - 267.)]
+
+[Footnote 19: Nine days after the death of Mahomet (7th June,
+A.D. 632) we find the aera of Yezdegerd, (16th June, A.D. 632,)
+and his accession cannot be postponed beyond the end of the first
+year.  His predecessors could not therefore resist the arms of
+the caliph Omar; and these unquestionable dates overthrow the
+thoughtless chronology of Abulpharagius.  See Ockley's Hist. of
+the Saracens, vol. i. p. 130.
+
+Note: The Rezont Uzzuffa (Price, p. 105) has a strange
+account of an embassy to Yezdegerd.  The Oriental historians take
+great delight in these embassies, which give them an opportunity
+of displaying their Asiatic eloquence - M.]
+
+[Footnote 20: Cadesia, says the Nubian geographer, (p. 121,) is
+in margine solitudinis, 61 leagues from Bagdad, and two stations
+from Cufa.  Otter (Voyage, tom. i. p. 163) reckons 15 leagues,
+and observes, that the place is supplied with dates and water.]
+
+[Footnote *: The day of cormorants, or according to another
+reading the day of reinforcements.  It was the night which was
+called the night of snarling. Price, p. 114. - M.]
+
+[Footnote !: According to Malcolm's authorities, only three
+thousand; but he adds "This is the report of Mahomedan
+historians, who have a great disposition of the wonderful, in
+relating the first actions of the faithful" Vol. i. p. 39. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Atrox, contumax, plus semel renovatum, are the
+well-chosen expressions of the translator of Abulfeda, (Reiske,
+p. 69.)]
+
+[Footnote 22: D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 297, 348.]
+
+[Footnote 23: The reader may satisfy himself on the subject of
+Bassora by consulting the following writers: Geograph, Nubiens.
+p. 121.  D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 192.  D'Anville,
+l'Euphrate et le Tigre, p. 130, 133, 145.  Raynal, Hist.
+Philosophique des deux Indes, tom. ii. p. 92 - 100. Voyages di
+Pietro della Valle, tom. iv. p. 370 - 391.  De Tavernier, tom. i.
+p. 240 - 247.  De Thevenot, tom. ii. p. 545 - 584.  D Otter, tom.
+ii. p. 45 - 78.  De Niebuhr, tom. ii. p. 172 - 199.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.
+
+Part II.
+
+After the defeat of Cadesia, a country intersected by rivers
+and canals might have opposed an insuperable barrier to the
+victorious cavalry; and the walls of Ctesiphon or Madayn, which
+had resisted the battering-rams of the Romans, would not have
+yielded to the darts of the Saracens.  But the flying Persians
+were overcome by the belief, that the last day of their religion
+and empire was at hand; the strongest posts were abandoned by
+treachery or cowardice; and the king, with a part of his family
+and treasures, escaped to Holwan at the foot of the Median hills.
+
+In the third month after the battle, Said, the lieutenant of
+Omar, passed the Tigris without opposition; the capital was taken
+by assault; and the disorderly resistance of the people gave a
+keener edge to the sabres of the Moslems, who shouted with
+religious transport, "This is the white palace of Chosroes; this
+is the promise of the apostle of God!" The naked robbers of the
+desert were suddenly enriched beyond the measure of their hope or
+knowledge.  Each chamber revealed a new treasure secreted with
+art, or ostentatiously displayed; the gold and silver, the
+various wardrobes and precious furniture, surpassed (says
+Abulfeda) the estimate of fancy or numbers; and another historian
+defines the untold and almost infinite mass, by the fabulous
+computation of three thousands of thousands of thousands of
+pieces of gold. ^24 Some minute though curious facts represent
+the contrast of riches and ignorance.  From the remote islands of
+the Indian Ocean a large provision of camphire ^25 had been
+imported, which is employed with a mixture of wax to illuminate
+the palaces of the East. Strangers to the name and properties of
+that odoriferous gum, the Saracens, mistaking it for salt,
+mingled the camphire in their bread, and were astonished at the
+bitterness of the taste.  One of the apartments of the palace was
+decorated with a carpet of silk, sixty cubits in length, and as
+many in breadth: a paradise or garden was depictured on the
+ground: the flowers, fruits, and shrubs, were imitated by the
+figures of the gold embroidery, and the colors of the precious
+stones; and the ample square was encircled by a variegated and
+verdant border. ^! The Arabian general persuaded his soldiers to
+relinquish their claim, in the reasonable hope that the eyes of
+the caliph would be delighted with the splendid workmanship of
+nature and industry. Regardless of the merit of art, and the pomp
+of royalty, the rigid Omar divided the prize among his brethren
+of Medina: the picture was destroyed; but such was the intrinsic
+value of the materials, that the share of Ali alone was sold for
+twenty thousand drams.  A mule that carried away the tiara and
+cuirass, the belt and bracelets of Chosroes, was overtaken by the
+pursuers; the gorgeous trophy was presented to the commander of
+the faithful; and the gravest of the companions condescended to
+smile when they beheld the white beard, the hairy arms, and
+uncouth figure of the veteran, who was invested with the spoils
+of the Great King. ^26 The sack of Ctesiphon was followed by its
+desertion and gradual decay.  The Saracens disliked the air and
+situation of the place, and Omar was advised by his general to
+remove the seat of government to the western side of the
+Euphrates.  In every age, the foundation and ruin of the Assyrian
+cities has been easy and rapid: the country is destitute of stone
+and timber; and the most solid structures ^27 are composed of
+bricks baked in the sun, and joined by a cement of the native
+bitumen.  The name of Cufa ^28 describes a habitation of reeds
+and earth; but the importance of the new capital was supported by
+the numbers, wealth, and spirit, of a colony of veterans; and
+their licentiousness was indulged by the wisest caliphs, who were
+apprehensive of provoking the revolt of a hundred thousand
+swords: "Ye men of Cufa," said Ali, who solicited their aid, "you
+have been always conspicuous by your valor.  You conquered the
+Persian king, and scattered his forces, till you had taken
+possession of his inheritance." This mighty conquest was achieved
+by the battles of Jalula and Nehavend. After the loss of the
+former, Yezdegerd fled from Holwan, and concealed his shame and
+despair in the mountains of Farsistan, from whence Cyrus had
+descended with his equal and valiant companions.  The courage of
+the nation survived that of the monarch: among the hills to the
+south of Ecbatana or Hamadan, one hundred and fifty thousand
+Persians made a third and final stand for their religion and
+country; and the decisive battle of Nehavend was styled by the
+Arabs the victory of victories.  If it be true that the flying
+general of the Persians was stopped and overtaken in a crowd of
+mules and camels laden with honey, the incident, however slight
+and singular, will denote the luxurious impediments of an
+Oriental army. ^29
+
+[Footnote 24: Mente vix potest numerove comprehendi quanta spolia
+nostris cesserint.  Abulfeda, p. 69.  Yet I still suspect, that
+the extravagant numbers of Elmacin may be the error, not of the
+text, but of the version. The best translators from the Greek,
+for instance, I find to be very poor arithmeticians.
+
+Note: Ockley (Hist. of Saracens, vol. i. p. 230) translates
+in the same manner three thousand million of ducats.  See
+Forster's Mahometanism Unveiled, vol. ii. p. 462; who makes this
+innocent doubt of Gibbon, in which, is to the amount of the
+plunder, I venture to concur, a grave charge of inaccuracy and
+disrespect to the memory of Erpenius.
+
+The Persian authorities of Price (p. 122) make the booty
+worth three hundred and thirty millions sterling! - M]
+
+[Footnote 25: The camphire-tree grows in China and Japan; but
+many hundred weight of those meaner sorts are exchanged for a
+single pound of the more precious gum of Borneo and Sumatra,
+(Raynal, Hist. Philosoph. tom. i. p. 362 - 365.  Dictionnaire
+d'Hist. Naturelle par Bomare Miller's Gardener's Dictionary.)
+These may be the islands of the first climate from whence the
+Arabians imported their camphire (Geograph. Nub. p. 34, 35.
+D'Herbelot, p. 232.)]
+
+[Footnote !: Compare Price, p. 122. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 26: See Gagnier, Vie de Mahomet, tom. i. p. 376, 377.
+I may credit the fact, without believing the prophecy.]
+
+[Footnote 27: The most considerable ruins of Assyria are the
+tower of Belus, at Babylon, and the hall of Chosroes, at
+Ctesiphon: they have been visited by that vain and curious
+traveller Pietro della Valle, (tom. i. p. 713 - 718, 731 - 735.)
+
+Note: The best modern account is that of Claudius Rich Esq.
+Two Memoirs of Babylon.  London, 1818. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Consult the article of Coufah in the Bibliotheque
+of D'Herbelot ( p. 277, 278,) and the second volume of Ockley's
+History, particularly p. 40 and 153.]
+
+[Footnote 29: See the article of Nehavend, in D'Herbelot, p. 667,
+668; and Voyages en Turquie et en Perse, par Otter, tom. i. 191.
+
+Note: Malcolm vol. i. p. 141. - M.]
+
+The geography of Persia is darkly delineated by the Greeks
+and Latins; but the most illustrious of her cities appear to be
+more ancient than the invasion of the Arabs.  By the reduction of
+Hamadan and Ispahan, of Caswin, Tauris, and Rei, they gradually
+approached the shores of the Caspian Sea: and the orators of
+Mecca might applaud the success and spirit of the faithful, who
+had already lost sight of the northern bear, and had almost
+transcended the bounds of the habitable world. ^30 Again, turning
+towards the West and the Roman empire, they repassed the Tigris
+over the bridge of Mosul, and, in the captive provinces of
+Armenia and Mesopotamia, embraced their victorious brethren of
+the Syrian army.  From the palace of Madayn their Eastern
+progress was not less rapid or extensive.  They advanced along
+the Tigris and the Gulf; penetrated through the passes of the
+mountains into the valley of Estachar or Persepolis, and profaned
+the last sanctuary of the Magian empire.  The grandson of
+Chosroes was nearly surprised among the falling columns and
+mutilated figures; a sad emblem of the past and present fortune
+of Persia: ^31 he fled with accelerated haste over the desert of
+Kirman, implored the aid of the warlike Segestans, and sought an
+humble refuge on the verge of the Turkish and Chinese power.  But
+a victorious army is insensible of fatigue: the Arabs divided
+their forces in the pursuit of a timorous enemy; and the caliph
+Othman promised the government of Chorasan to the first general
+who should enter that large and populous country, the kingdom of
+the ancient Bactrians.  The condition was accepted; the prize was
+deserved; the standard of Mahomet was planted on the walls of
+Herat, Merou, and Balch; and the successful leader neither halted
+nor reposed till his foaming cavalry had tasted the waters of the
+Oxus.  In the public anarchy, the independent governors of the
+cities and castles obtained their separate capitulations: the
+terms were granted or imposed by the esteem, the prudence, or the
+compassion, of the victors; and a simple profession of faith
+established the distinction between a brother and a slave.  After
+a noble defence, Harmozan, the prince or satrap of Ahwaz and
+Susa, was compelled to surrender his person and his state to the
+discretion of the caliph; and their interview exhibits a portrait
+of the Arabian manners. In the presence, and by the command, of
+Omar, the gay Barbarian was despoiled of his silken robes
+embroidered with gold, and of his tiara bedecked with rubies and
+emeralds: "Are you now sensible," said the conqueror to his naked
+captive - "are you now sensible of the judgment of God, and of
+the different rewards of infidelity and obedience?" "Alas!"
+replied Harmozan, "I feel them too deeply.  In the days of our
+common ignorance, we fought with the weapons of the flesh, and my
+nation was superior.  God was then neuter: since he has espoused
+your quarrel, you have subverted our kingdom and religion."
+Oppressed by this painful dialogue, the Persian complained of
+intolerable thirst, but discovered some apprehension lest he
+should be killed whilst he was drinking a cup of water.  "Be of
+good courage," said the caliph; "your life is safe till you have
+drunk this water: " the crafty satrap accepted the assurance, and
+instantly dashed the vase against the ground.  Omar would have
+avenged the deceit, but his companions represented the sanctity
+of an oath; and the speedy conversion of Harmozan entitled him
+not only to a free pardon, but even to a stipend of two thousand
+pieces of gold.  The administration of Persia was regulated by an
+actual survey of the people, the cattle, and the fruits of the
+earth; ^32 and this monument, which attests the vigilance of the
+caliphs, might have instructed the philosophers of every age. ^33
+
+[Footnote 30: It is in such a style of ignorance and wonder that
+the Athenian orator describes the Arctic conquests of Alexander,
+who never advanced beyond the shores of the Caspian.  Aeschines
+contra Ctesiphontem, tom. iii. p. 554, edit.  Graec. Orator.
+Reiske.  This memorable cause was pleaded at Athens, Olymp. cxii.
+3, (before Christ 330,) in the autumn, (Taylor, praefat. p. 370,
+&c.,) about a year after the battle of Arbela; and Alexander, in
+the pursuit of Darius, was marching towards Hyrcania and
+Bactriana.]
+
+[Footnote 31: We are indebted for this curious particular to the
+Dynasties of Abulpharagius, p. 116; but it is needless to prove
+the identity of Estachar and Persepolis, (D'Herbelot, p. 327;)
+and still more needless to copy the drawings and descriptions of
+Sir John Chardin, or Corneillo le Bruyn.]
+
+[Footnote 32: After the conquest of Persia, Theophanes adds,
+(Chronograph p. 283.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Amidst our meagre relations, I must regret that
+D'Herbelot has not found and used a Persian translation of
+Tabari, enriched, as he says, with many extracts from the native
+historians of the Ghebers or Magi, (Bibliotheque Orientale, p.
+1014.)]
+
+The flight of Yezdegerd had carried him beyond the Oxus, and
+as far as the Jaxartes, two rivers ^34 of ancient and modern
+renown, which descend from the mountains of India towards the
+Caspian Sea.  He was hospitably entertained by Takhan, prince of
+Fargana, ^35 a fertile province on the Jaxartes: the king of
+Samarcand, with the Turkish tribes of Sogdiana and Scythia, were
+moved by the lamentations and promises of the fallen monarch; and
+he solicited, by a suppliant embassy, the more solid and powerful
+friendship of the emperor of China. ^36 The virtuous Taitsong,
+^37 the first of the dynasty of the Tang may be justly compared
+with the Antonines of Rome: his people enjoyed the blessings of
+prosperity and peace; and his dominion was acknowledged by
+forty-four hordes of the Barbarians of Tartary.  His last
+garrisons of Cashgar and Khoten maintained a frequent intercourse
+with their neighbors of the Jaxartes and Oxus; a recent colony of
+Persians had introduced into China the astronomy of the Magi; and
+Taitsong might be alarmed by the rapid progress and dangerous
+vicinity of the Arabs.  The influence, and perhaps the supplies,
+of China revived the hopes of Yezdegerd and the zeal of the
+worshippers of fire; and he returned with an army of Turks to
+conquer the inheritance of his fathers.  The fortunate Moslems,
+without unsheathing their swords, were the spectators of his ruin
+and death.  The grandson of Chosroes was betrayed by his servant,
+insulted by the seditious inhabitants of Merou, and oppressed,
+defeated, and pursued by his Barbarian allies.  He reached the
+banks of a river, and offered his rings and bracelets for an
+instant passage in a miller's boat. Ignorant or insensible of
+royal distress, the rustic replied, that four drams of silver
+were the daily profit of his mill, and that he would not suspend
+his work unless the loss were repaid.  In this moment of
+hesitation and delay, the last of the Sassanian kings was
+overtaken and slaughtered by the Turkish cavalry, in the
+nineteenth year of his unhappy reign. ^38 ^* His son Firuz, an
+humble client of the Chinese emperor, accepted the station of
+captain of his guards; and the Magian worship was long preserved
+by a colony of loyal exiles in the province of Bucharia. ^! His
+grandson inherited the regal name; but after a faint and
+fruitless enterprise, he returned to China, and ended his days in
+the palace of Sigan.  The male line of the Sassanides was
+extinct; but the female captives, the daughters of Persia, were
+given to the conquerors in servitude, or marriage; and the race
+of the caliphs and imams was ennobled by the blood of their royal
+mothers. ^39
+
+[Footnote 34: The most authentic accounts of the two rivers, the
+Sihon (Jaxartes) and the Gihon, (Oxus,) may be found in Sherif al
+Edrisi (Geograph. Nubiens. p. 138,) Abulfeda, (Descript.
+Chorasan. in Hudson, tom. iii. p. 23,) Abulghazi Khan, who
+reigned on their banks, (Hist. Genealogique des Tatars, p. 32,
+57, 766,) and the Turkish Geographer, a MS. in the king of
+France's library, (Examen Critique des Historiens d'Alexandre, p.
+194 - 360.)]
+
+[Footnote 35: The territory of Fergana is described by Abulfeda,
+p. 76, 77.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Eo redegit angustiarum eundem regem exsulem, ut
+Turcici regis, et Sogdiani, et Sinensis, auxilia missis literis
+imploraret, (Abulfed. Annal. p. 74) The connection of the Persian
+and Chinese history is illustrated by Freret (Mem. de l'Academie,
+tom. xvi. p. 245 - 255) and De Guignes, (Hist. des Huns, tom. i.
+p. 54 - 59,) and for the geography of the borders, tom. ii. p. 1
+- 43.]
+
+[Footnote 37: Hist. Sinica, p. 41 - 46, in the iiid part of the
+Relations Curieuses of Thevenot.]
+
+[Footnote 38: I have endeavored to harmonize the various
+narratives of Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 37,) Abulpharagius,
+(Dynast. p. 116,) Abulfeda, (Annal. p. 74, 79,) and D'Herbelot,
+(p. 485.) The end of Yezdegerd, was not only unfortunate but
+obscure.]
+
+[Footnote *: The account of Yezdegerd's death in the Habeib
+'usseyr and Rouzut uzzuffa (Price, p. 162) is much more probable.
+
+On the demand of the few dhirems, he offered to the miller his
+sword, and royal girdle, of inesturable value.  This awoke the
+cupidity of the miller, who murdered him, and threw the body into
+the stream. - M.]
+
+[Footnote !: Firouz died leaving a son called Ni-ni-cha by the
+Chinese, probably Narses.  Yezdegerd had two sons, Firouz and
+Bahram St. Martin, vol. xi. p. 318. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 39: The two daughters of Yezdegerd married Hassan, the
+son of Ali, and Mohammed, the son of Abubeker; and the first of
+these was the father of a numerous progeny.  The daughter of
+Phirouz became the wife of the caliph Walid, and their son Yezid
+derived his genuine or fabulous descent from the Chosroes of
+Persia, the Caesars of Rome, and the Chagans of the Turks or
+Avars, (D'Herbelot, Bibliot.  Orientale, p. 96, 487.)]
+
+After the fall of the Persian kingdom, the River Oxus
+divided the territories of the Saracens and of the Turks.  This
+narrow boundary was soon overleaped by the spirit of the Arabs;
+the governors of Chorasan extended their successive inroads; and
+one of their triumphs was adorned with the buskin of a Turkish
+queen, which she dropped in her precipitate flight beyond the
+hills of Bochara. ^40 But the final conquest of Transoxiana, ^41
+as well as of Spain, was reserved for the glorious reign of the
+inactive Walid; and the name of Catibah, the camel driver,
+declares the origin and merit of his successful lieutenant.
+While one of his colleagues displayed the first Mahometan banner
+on the banks of the Indus, the spacious regions between the Oxus,
+the Jaxartes, and the Caspian Sea, were reduced by the arms of
+Catibah to the obedience of the prophet and of the caliph. ^42 A
+tribute of two millions of pieces of gold was imposed on the
+infidels; their idols were burnt or broken; the Mussulman chief
+pronounced a sermon in the new mosch of Carizme; after several
+battles, the Turkish hordes were driven back to the desert; and
+the emperors of China solicited the friendship of the victorious
+Arabs.  To their industry, the prosperity of the province, the
+Sogdiana of the ancients, may in a great measure be ascribed; but
+the advantages of the soil and climate had been understood and
+cultivated since the reign of the Macedonian kings.  Before the
+invasion of the Saracens, Carizme, Bochara, and Samarcand were
+rich and populous under the yoke of the shepherds of the north.
+^* These cities were surrounded with a double wall; and the
+exterior fortification, of a larger circumference, enclosed the
+fields and gardens of the adjacent district. The mutual wants of
+India and Europe were supplied by the diligence of the Sogdian
+merchants; and the inestimable art of transforming linen into
+paper has been diffused from the manufacture of Samarcand over
+the western world. ^43
+
+[Footnote 40: It was valued at 2000 pieces of gold, and was the
+prize of Obeidollah, the son of Ziyad, a name afterwards infamous
+by the murder of Hosein, (Ockley's History of the Saracens, vol.
+ii. p. 142, 143,) His brother Salem was accompanied by his wife,
+the first Arabian woman (A.D. 680) who passed the Oxus: she
+borrowed, or rather stole, the crown and jewels of the princess
+of the Sogdians, (p. 231, 232.)]
+
+[Footnote 41: A part of Abulfeda's geography is translated by
+Greaves, inserted in Hudson's collection of the minor
+geographers, (tom. iii.,) and entitled Descriptio Chorasmiae et
+Mawaralnahroe, id est, regionum extra fluvium, Oxum, p. 80.  The
+name of Transoxiana, softer in sound, equivalent in sense, is
+aptly used by Petit de la Croix, (Hist. de Gengiscan, &c.,) and
+some modern Orientalists, but they are mistaken in ascribing it
+to the writers of antiquity.]
+
+[Footnote 42: The conquests of Catibah are faintly marked by
+Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 84,) D'Herbelot, (Bibliot. Orient.
+Catbah, Samarcand Valid.,) and De Guignes, (Hist. des Huns, tom.
+i. p. 58, 59.)]
+
+[Footnote *: The manuscripts Arabian and Persian writers in the
+royal library contain very circumstantial details on the contest
+between the Persians and Arabians.  M. St. Martin declined this
+addition to the work of Le Beau, as extending to too great a
+length.  St. Martin vol. xi. p. 320. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 43: A curious description of Samarcand is inserted in
+the Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana, tom. i. p. 208, &c.  The
+librarian Casiri (tom. ii. 9) relates, from credible testimony,
+that paper was first imported from China to Samarcand, A. H. 30,
+and invented, or rather introduced, at Mecca, A. H. 88.  The
+Escurial library contains paper Mss. as old as the ivth or vth
+century of the Hegira.]
+
+II.  No sooner had Abubeker restored the unity of faith and
+government, than he despatched a circular letter to the Arabian
+tribes. "In the name of the most merciful God, to the rest of the
+true believers. Health and happiness, and the mercy and blessing
+of God, be upon you.  I praise the most high God, and I pray for
+his prophet Mahomet.  This is to acquaint you, that I intend to
+send the true believers into Syria ^44 to take it out of the
+hands of the infidels.  And I would have you know, that the
+fighting for religion is an act of obedience to God." His
+messengers returned with the tidings of pious and martial ardor
+which they had kindled in every province; and the camp of Medina
+was successively filled with the intrepid bands of the Saracens,
+who panted for action, complained of the heat of the season and
+the scarcity of provisions, and accused with impatient murmurs
+the delays of the caliph.  As soon as their numbers were
+complete, Abubeker ascended the hill, reviewed the men, the
+horses, and the arms, and poured forth a fervent prayer for the
+success of their undertaking.  In person, and on foot, he
+accompanied the first day's march; and when the blushing leaders
+attempted to dismount, the caliph removed their scruples by a
+declaration, that those who rode, and those who walked, in the
+service of religion, were equally meritorious.  His instructions
+^45 to the chiefs of the Syrian army were inspired by the warlike
+fanaticism which advances to seize, and affects to despise, the
+objects of earthly ambition.  "Remember," said the successor of
+the prophet, "that you are always in the presence of God, on the
+verge of death, in the assurance of judgment, and the hope of
+paradise.  Avoid injustice and oppression; consult with your
+brethren, and study to preserve the love and confidence of your
+troops.  When you fight the battles of the Lord, acquit
+yourselves like men, without turning your backs; but let not your
+victory be stained with the blood of women or children.  Destroy
+no palm-trees, nor burn any fields of corn. Cut down no
+fruit-trees, nor do any mischief to cattle, only such as you kill
+to eat.  When you make any covenant or article, stand to it, and
+be as good as your word.  As you go on, you will find some
+religious persons who live retired in monasteries, and propose to
+themselves to serve God that way: let them alone, and neither
+kill them nor destroy their monasteries: ^46 And you will find
+another sort of people, that belong to the synagogue of Satan,
+who have shaven crowns; ^47 be sure you cleave their skulls, and
+give them no quarter till they either turn Mahometans or pay
+"tribute." All profane or frivolous conversation, all dangerous
+recollection of ancient quarrels, was severely prohibited among
+the Arabs: in the tumult of a camp, the exercises of religion
+were assiduously practised; and the intervals of action were
+employed in prayer, meditation, and the study of the Koran.  The
+abuse, or even the use, of wine was chastised by fourscore
+strokes on the soles of the feet, and in the fervor of their
+primitive zeal, many secret sinners revealed their fault, and
+solicited their punishment.  After some hesitation, the command
+of the Syrian army was delegated to Abu Obeidah, one of the
+fugitives of Mecca, and companions of Mahomet; whose zeal and
+devotion was assuaged, without being abated, by the singular
+mildness and benevolence of his temper.  But in all the
+emergencies of war, the soldiers demanded the superior genius of
+Caled; and whoever might be the choice of the prince, the Sword
+of God was both in fact and fame the foremost leader of the
+Saracens.  He obeyed without reluctance; ^* he was consulted
+without jealousy; and such was the spirit of the man, or rather
+of the times, that Caled professed his readiness to serve under
+the banner of the faith, though it were in the hands of a child
+or an enemy.  Glory, and riches, and dominion, were indeed
+promised to the victorious Mussulman; but he was carefully
+instructed, that if the goods of this life were his only
+incitement, they likewise would be his only reward.
+
+[Footnote 44: A separate history of the conquest of Syria has
+been composed by Al Wakidi, cadi of Bagdad, who was born A.D.
+748, and died A.D. 822; he likewise wrote the conquest of Egypt,
+of Diarbekir, &c.  Above the meagre and recent chronicles of the
+Arabians, Al Wakidi has the double merit of antiquity and
+copiousness.  His tales and traditions afford an artless picture
+of the men and the times.  Yet his narrative is too often
+defective, trifling, and improbable.  Till something better shall
+be found, his learned and spiritual interpreter (Ockley, in his
+History of the Saracens, vol. i. p. 21 - 342) will not deserve
+the petulant animadversion of Reiske, (Prodidagmata ad Magji
+Chalifae Tabulas, p. 236.) I am sorry to think that the labors of
+Ockley were consummated in a jail, (see his two prefaces to the
+1st A.D. 1708, to the 2d, 1718, with the list of authors at the
+end.)
+
+Note: M. Hamaker has clearly shown that neither of these
+works can be inscribed to Al Wakidi: they are not older than the
+end of the xith century or later than the middle of the xivth.
+Praefat. in Inc. Auct. LIb. de Expugnatione Memphidis, c. ix. x.
+- M.]
+
+[Footnote 45: The instructions, &c., of the Syrian war are
+described by Al Wakidi and Ockley, tom. i. p. 22 - 27, &c.  In
+the sequel it is necessary to contract, and needless to quote,
+their circumstantial narrative.  My obligations to others shall
+be noticed.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Notwithstanding this precept, M. Pauw (Recherches
+sur les Egyptiens, tom. ii. p. 192, edit. Lausanne) represents
+the Bedoweens as the implacable enemies of the Christian monks.
+For my own part, I am more inclined to suspect the avarice of the
+Arabian robbers, and the prejudices of the German philosopher.
+
+Note: Several modern travellers (Mr. Fazakerley, in
+Walpole's Travels in the East, vol. xi. 371) give very amusing
+accounts of the terms on which the monks of Mount Sinai live with
+the neighboring Bedoweens. Such, probably, was their relative
+state in older times, wherever the Arab retained his Bedoween
+habits. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Even in the seventh century, the monks were
+generally laymen: 'hey wore their hair long and dishevelled, and
+shaved their heads when they were ordained priests.  The circular
+tonsure was sacred and mysterious; it was the crown of thorns;
+but it was likewise a royal diadem, and every priest was a king,
+&c., (Thomassin, Discipline de l'Eglise, tom. i. p. 721 - 758,
+especially p. 737, 738.)]
+
+[Footnote *: Compare Price, p. 90. - M.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.
+
+Part IV.
+
+Another expedition of the conquerors of Damascus will
+equally display their avidity and their contempt for the riches
+of the present world.  They were informed that the produce and
+manufactures of the country were annually collected in the fair
+of Abyla, ^64 about thirty miles from the city; that the cell of
+a devout hermit was visited at the same time by a multitude of
+pilgrims; and that the festival of trade and superstition would
+be ennobled by the nuptials of the daughter of the governor of
+Tripoli.  Abdallah, the son of Jaafar, a glorious and holy
+martyr, undertook, with a banner of five hundred horse, the pious
+and profitable commission of despoiling the infidels.  As he
+approached the fair of Abyla, he was astonished by the report of
+this mighty concourse of Jews and Christians, Greeks, and
+Armenians, of natives of Syria and of strangers of Egypt, to the
+number of ten thousand, besides a guard of five thousand horse
+that attended the person of the bride.  The Saracens paused: "For
+my own part," said Abdallah, "I dare not go back: our foes are
+many, our danger is great, but our reward is splendid and secure,
+either in this life or in the life to come.  Let every man,
+according to his inclination, advance or retire." Not a Mussulman
+deserted his standard.  "Lead the way," said Abdallah to his
+Christian guide, "and you shall see what the companions of the
+prophet can perform." They charged in five squadrons; but after
+the first advantage of the surprise, they were encompassed and
+almost overwhelmed by the multitude of their enemies; and their
+valiant band is fancifully compared to a white spot in the skin
+of a black camel. ^65 About the hour of sunset, when their
+weapons dropped from their hands, when they panted on the verge
+of eternity, they discovered an approaching cloud of dust; they
+heard the welcome sound of the tecbir, ^66 and they soon
+perceived the standard of Caled, who flew to their relief with
+the utmost speed of his cavalry.  The Christians were broken by
+his attack, and slaughtered in their flight, as far as the river
+of Tripoli.  They left behind them the various riches of the
+fair; the merchandises that were exposed for sale, the money that
+was brought for purchase, the gay decorations of the nuptials,
+and the governor's daughter, with forty of her female attendants.
+
+The fruits, provisions, and furniture, the money, plate, and
+jewels, were diligently laden on the backs of horses, asses, and
+mules; and the holy robbers returned in triumph to Damascus.  The
+hermit, after a short and angry controversy with Caled, declined
+the crown of martyrdom, and was left alive in the solitary scene
+of blood and devastation.
+
+[Footnote 64: Dair Abil Kodos.  After retrenching the last word,
+the epithet, holy, I discover the Abila of Lysanias between
+Damascus and Heliopolis: the name (Abil signifies a vineyard)
+concurs with the situation to justify my conjecture, (Reland,
+Palestin. tom. i. p 317, tom. ii. p. 526, 527.)]
+
+[Footnote 65: I am bolder than Mr. Ockley, (vol. i. p. 164,) who
+dares not insert this figurative expression in the text, though
+he observes in a marginal note, that the Arabians often borrow
+their similes from that useful and familiar animal.  The reindeer
+may be equally famous in the songs of the Laplanders.]
+
+[Footnote 66:  We hear the tecbir; so the Arabs call
+
+Their shout of onset, when with loud appeal
+They challenge heaven, as if demanding conquest.
+
+This word, so formidable in their holy wars, is a verb active,
+(says Ockley in his index,) of the second conjugation, from
+Kabbara, which signifies saying Alla Acbar, God is most mighty!]
+
+
+
+Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.
+
+Part V.
+
+Syria, ^67 one of the countries that have been improved by
+the most early cultivation, is not unworthy of the preference.
+^68 The heat of the climate is tempered by the vicinity of the
+sea and mountains, by the plenty of wood and water; and the
+produce of a fertile soil affords the subsistence, and encourages
+the propagation, of men and animals.  From the age of David to
+that of Heraclius, the country was overspread with ancient and
+flourishing cities: the inhabitants were numerous and wealthy;
+and, after the slow ravage of despotism and superstition, after
+the recent calamities of the Persian war, Syria could still
+attract and reward the rapacious tribes of the desert.  A plain,
+of ten days' journey, from Damascus to Aleppo and Antioch, is
+watered, on the western side, by the winding course of the
+Orontes.  The hills of Libanus and Anti-Libanus are planted from
+north to south, between the Orontes and the Mediterranean; and
+the epithet of hollow (Coelesyria) was applied to a long and
+fruitful valley, which is confined in the same direction, by the
+two ridges of snowy mountains. ^69 Among the cities, which are
+enumerated by Greek and Oriental names in the geography and
+conquest of Syria, we may distinguish Emesa or Hems, Heliopolis
+or Baalbec, the former as the metropolis of the plain, the latter
+as the capital of the valley.  Under the last of the Caesars,
+they were strong and populous; the turrets glittered from afar:
+an ample space was covered with public and private buildings; and
+the citizens were illustrious by their spirit, or at least by
+their pride; by their riches, or at least by their luxury.  In
+the days of Paganism, both Emesa and Heliopolis were addicted to
+the worship of Baal, or the sun; but the decline of their
+superstition and splendor has been marked by a singular variety
+of fortune.  Not a vestige remains of the temple of Emesa, which
+was equalled in poetic style to the summits of Mount Libanus, ^70
+while the ruins of Baalbec, invisible to the writers of
+antiquity, excite the curiosity and wonder of the European
+traveller. ^71 The measure of the temple is two hundred feet in
+length, and one hundred in breadth: the front is adorned with a
+double portico of eight columns; fourteen may be counted on
+either side; and each column, forty-five feet in height, is
+composed of three massy blocks of stone or marble.  The
+proportions and ornaments of the Corinthian order express the
+architecture of the Greeks: but as Baalbec has never been the
+seat of a monarch, we are at a loss to conceive how the expense
+of these magnificent structures could be supplied by private or
+municipal liberality. ^72 From the conquest of Damascus the
+Saracens proceeded to Heliopolis and Emesa: but I shall decline
+the repetition of the sallies and combats which have been already
+shown on a larger scale. In the prosecution of the war, their
+policy was not less effectual than their sword.  By short and
+separate truces they dissolved the union of the enemy; accustomed
+the Syrians to compare their friendship with their enmity;
+familiarized the idea of their language, religion, and manners;
+and exhausted, by clandestine purchase, the magazines and
+arsenals of the cities which they returned to besiege.  They
+aggravated the ransom of the more wealthy, or the more obstinate;
+and Chalcis alone was taxed at five thousand ounces of gold, five
+thousand ounces of silver, two thousand robes of silk, and as
+many figs and olives as would load five thousand asses. But the
+terms of truce or capitulation were faithfully observed; and the
+lieutenant of the caliph, who had promised not to enter the walls
+of the captive Baalbec, remained tranquil and immovable in his
+tent till the jarring factions solicited the interposition of a
+foreign master.  The conquest of the plain and valley of Syria
+was achieved in less than two years. Yet the commander of the
+faithful reproved the slowness of their progress; and the
+Saracens, bewailing their fault with tears of rage and
+repentance, called aloud on their chiefs to lead them forth to
+fight the battles of the Lord.  In a recent action, under the
+walls of Emesa, an Arabian youth, the cousin of Caled, was heard
+aloud to exclaim, "Methinks I see the black-eyed girls looking
+upon me; one of whom, should she appear in this world, all
+mankind would die for love of her.  And I see in the hand of one
+of them a handkerchief of green silk, and a cap of precious
+stones, and she beckons me, and calls out, Come hither quickly,
+for I love thee." With these words, charging the Christians, he
+made havoc wherever he went, till, observed at length by the
+governor of Hems, he was struck through with a javelin.
+
+[Footnote 67: In the Geography of Abulfeda, the description of
+Syria, his native country, is the most interesting and authentic
+portion.  It was published in Arabic and Latin, Lipsiae, 1766, in
+quarto, with the learned notes of Kochler and Reiske, and some
+extracts of geography and natural history from Ibn Ol Wardii.
+Among the modern travels, Pocock's Description of the East (of
+Syria and Mesopotamia, vol. ii. p. 88 - 209) is a work of
+superior learning and dignity; but the author too often confounds
+what he had seen and what he had read.]
+
+[Footnote 68: The praises of Dionysius are just and lively.
+Syria, (in Periegesi, v. 902, in tom. iv. Geograph. Minor.
+Hudson.) In another place he styles the country differently, (v.
+898.)
+
+This poetical geographer lived in the age of Augustus, and
+his description of the world is illustrated by the Greek
+commentary of Eustathius, who paid the same compliment to Homer
+and Dionysius, (Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. l. iv. c. 2, tom. iii. p.
+21, &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 69: The topography of the Libanus and Anti-Libanus is
+excellently described by the learning and sense of Reland,
+(Palestin. tom. i. p. 311 - 326)]
+
+[Footnote 70: - Emesae fastigia celsa renident.
+           Nam diffusa solo latus explicat; ac subit auras
+           Turribus in coelum nitentibus: incola claris
+           Cor studiis acuit ...
+           Denique flammicomo devoti pectora soli
+           Vitam agitant.  Libanus frondosa cacumina turget.
+           Et tamen his certant celsi fastigia templi.
+
+These verses of the Latin version of Rufus Avienus are wanting in
+the Greek original of Dionysius; and since they are likewise
+unnoticed by Eustathius, I must, with Fabricius, (Bibliot. Latin.
+tom. iii. p. 153, edit. Ernesti,) and against Salmasius, (ad
+Vopiscum, p. 366, 367, in Hist. August.,) ascribed them to the
+fancy, rather than the Mss., of Avienus.]
+
+[Footnote 71: I am much better satisfied with Maundrell's slight
+octavo, (Journey, p. 134 - 139), than with the pompous folio of
+Dr. Pocock, (Description of the East, vol. ii. p. 106 - 113;) but
+every preceding account is eclipsed by the magnificent
+description and drawings of Mm. Dawkins and Wood, who have
+transported into England the ruins of Pamyra and Baalbec.]
+
+[Footnote 72: The Orientals explain the prodigy by a
+never-failing expedient. The edifices of Baalbec were constructed
+by the fairies or the genii, Hist. de Timour Bec, tom. iii. l. v.
+c. 23, p. 311, 312.  Voyage d'Otter, tom. i. p. 83.) With less
+absurdity, but with equal ignorance, Abulfeda and Ibn Chaukel
+ascribe them to the Sabaeans or Aadites Non sunt in omni Syria
+aedificia magnificentiora his, (Tabula Syria p. 108.)]
+
+It was incumbent on the Saracens to exert the full powers of
+their valor and enthusiasm against the forces of the emperor, who
+was taught, by repeated losses, that the rovers of the desert had
+undertaken, and would speedily achieve, a regular and permanent
+conquest.  From the provinces of Europe and Asia, fourscore
+thousand soldiers were transported by sea and land to Antioch and
+Caesarea: the light troops of the army consisted of sixty
+thousand Christian Arabs of the tribe of Gassan.  Under the
+banner of Jabalah, the last of their princes, they marched in the
+van; and it was a maxim of the Greeks, that for the purpose of
+cutting diamond, a diamond was the most effectual. Heraclius
+withheld his person from the dangers of the field; but his
+presumption, or perhaps his despondency, suggested a peremptory
+order, that the fate of the province and the war should be
+decided by a single battle. The Syrians were attached to the
+standard of Rome and of the cross: but the noble, the citizen,
+the peasant, were exasperated by the injustice and cruelty of a
+licentious host, who oppressed them as subjects, and despised
+them as strangers and aliens. ^73 A report of these mighty
+preparations was conveyed to the Saracens in their camp of Emesa,
+and the chiefs, though resolved to fight, assembled a council:
+the faith of Abu Obeidah would have expected on the same spot the
+glory of martyrdom; the wisdom of Caled advised an honorable
+retreat to the skirts of Palestine and Arabia, where they might
+await the succors of their friends, and the attack of the
+unbelievers.  A speedy messenger soon returned from the throne of
+Medina, with the blessings of Omar and Ali, the prayers of the
+widows of the prophet, and a reenforcement of eight thousand
+Moslems.  In their way they overturned a detachment of Greeks,
+and when they joined at Yermuk the camp of their brethren, they
+found the pleasing intelligence, that Caled had already defeated
+and scattered the Christian Arabs of the tribe of Gassan.  In the
+neighborhood of Bosra, the springs of Mount Hermon descend in a
+torrent to the plain of Decapolis, or ten cities; and the
+Hieromax, a name which has been corrupted to Yermuk, is lost,
+after a short course, in the Lake of Tiberias. ^74 The banks of
+this obscure stream were illustrated by a long and bloody
+encounter. ^* On this momentous occasion, the public voice, and
+the modesty of Abu Obeidah, restored the command to the most
+deserving of the Moslems.  Caled assumed his station in the
+front, his colleague was posted in the rear, that the disorder of
+the fugitive might be checked by his venerable aspect, and the
+sight of the yellow banner which Mahomet had displayed before the
+walls of Chaibar.  The last line was occupied by the sister of
+Derar, with the Arabian women who had enlisted in this holy war,
+who were accustomed to wield the bow and the lance, and who in a
+moment of captivity had defended, against the uncircumcised
+ravishers, their chastity and religion. ^75 The exhortation of
+the generals was brief and forcible: "Paradise is before you, the
+devil and hell-fire in your rear." Yet such was the weight of the
+Roman cavalry, that the right wing of the Arabs was broken and
+separated from the main body.  Thrice did they retreat in
+disorder, and thrice were they driven back to the charge by the
+reproaches and blows of the women. In the intervals of action,
+Abu Obeidah visited the tents of his brethren, prolonged their
+repose by repeating at once the prayers of two different hours,
+bound up their wounds with his own hands, and administered the
+comfortable reflection, that the infidels partook of their
+sufferings without partaking of their reward.  Four thousand and
+thirty of the Moslems were buried in the field of battle; and the
+skill of the Armenian archers enabled seven hundred to boast that
+they had lost an eye in that meritorious service.  The veterans
+of the Syrian war acknowledged that it was the hardest and most
+doubtful of the days which they had seen.  But it was likewise
+the most decisive: many thousands of the Greeks and Syrians fell
+by the swords of the Arabs; many were slaughtered, after the
+defeat, in the woods and mountains; many, by mistaking the ford,
+were drowned in the waters of the Yermuk; and however the loss
+may be magnified, ^76 the Christian writers confess and bewail
+the bloody punishment of their sins. ^77 Manuel, the Roman
+general, was either killed at Damascus, or took refuge in the
+monastery of Mount Sinai.  An exile in the Byzantine court,
+Jabalah lamented the manners of Arabia, and his unlucky
+preference of the Christian cause. ^78 He had once inclined to
+the profession of Islam; but in the pilgrimage of Mecca, Jabalah
+was provoked to strike one of his brethren, and fled with
+amazement from the stern and equal justice of the caliph These
+victorious Saracens enjoyed at Damascus a month of pleasure and
+repose: the spoil was divided by the discretion of Abu Obeidah:
+an equal share was allotted to a soldier and to his horse, and a
+double portion was reserved for the noble coursers of the Arabian
+breed.
+
+[Footnote 73: I have read somewhere in Tacitus, or Grotius,
+Subjectos habent tanquam suos, viles tanquam alienos.  Some Greek
+officers ravished the wife, and murdered the child, of their
+Syrian landlord; and Manuel smiled at his undutiful complaint.]
+
+[Footnote 74: See Reland, Palestin. tom. i. p. 272, 283, tom. ii.
+p. 773, 775. This learned professor was equal to the task of
+describing the Holy Land, since he was alike conversant with
+Greek and Latin, with Hebrew and Arabian literature.  The Yermuk,
+or Hieromax, is noticed by Cellarius (Geograph. Antiq. tom. ii.
+p. 392) and D'Anville, (Geographie Ancienne, tom. ii. p. 185.)
+The Arabs, and even Abulfeda himself, do not seem to recognize
+the scene of their victory.]
+
+[Footnote *: Compare Price, p. 79.  The army of the Romans is
+swoller to 400,000 men of which 70,000 perished. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 75: These women were of the tribe of the Hamyarites,
+who derived their origin from the ancient Amalekites.  Their
+females were accustomed to ride on horseback, and to fight like
+the Amazons of old, (Ockley, vol. i. p. 67.)]
+
+[Footnote 76: We killed of them, says Abu Obeidah to the caliph,
+one hundred and fifty thousand, and made prisoners forty
+thousand, (Ockley vol. i. p. 241.) As I cannot doubt his
+veracity, nor believe his computation, I must suspect that the
+Arabic historians indulge themselves in the practice of comparing
+speeches and letters for their heroes.]
+
+[Footnote 77: After deploring the sins of the Christians,
+Theophanes, adds, (Chronograph. p. 276,) does he mean Aiznadin?
+His account is brief and obscure, but he accuses the numbers of
+the enemy, the adverse wind, and the cloud of dust.
+(Chronograph. p. 280.)]
+
+[Footnote 78: See Abulfeda, (Annal. Moslem. p. 70, 71,) who
+transcribes the poetical complaint of Jabalah himself, and some
+panegyrical strains of an Arabian poet, to whom the chief of
+Gassan sent from Constantinople a gift of five hundred pieces of
+gold by the hands of the ambassador of Omar.]
+
+After the battle of Yermuk, the Roman army no longer
+appeared in the field; and the Saracens might securely choose,
+among the fortified towns of Syria, the first object of their
+attack.  They consulted the caliph whether they should march to
+Caesarea or Jerusalem; and the advice of Ali determined the
+immediate siege of the latter.  To a profane eye, Jerusalem was
+the first or second capital of Palestine; but after Mecca and
+Medina, it was revered and visited by the devout Moslems, as the
+temple of the Holy Land which had been sanctified by the
+revelation of Moses, of Jesus, and of Mahomet himself.  The son
+of Abu Sophian was sent with five thousand Arabs to try the first
+experiment of surprise or treaty; but on the eleventh day, the
+town was invested by the whole force of Abu Obeidah.  He
+addressed the customary summons to the chief commanders and
+people of Aelia. ^79
+
+[Footnote 79: In the name of the city, the profane prevailed over
+the sacred Jerusalem was known to the devout Christians, (Euseb.
+de Martyr Palest. c xi.;) but the legal and popular appellation
+of Aelia (the colony of Aelius Hadrianus) has passed from the
+Romans to the Arabs.  (Reland, Palestin. tom. i. p. 207, tom. ii.
+p. 835. D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, Cods, p. 269, Ilia,
+p. 420.) The epithet of Al Cods, the Holy, is used as the proper
+name of Jerusalem.]
+
+"Health and happiness to every one that follows the right
+way!  We require of you to testify that there is but one God, and
+that Mahomet is his apostle.  If you refuse this, consent to pay
+tribute, and be under us forthwith.  Otherwise I shall bring men
+against you who love death better than you do the drinking of
+wine or eating hog's flesh.  Nor will I ever stir from you, if it
+please God, till I have destroyed those that fight for you, and
+made slaves of your children." But the city was defended on every
+side by deep valleys and steep ascents; since the invasion of
+Syria, the walls and towers had been anxiously restored; the
+bravest of the fugitives of Yermuk had stopped in the nearest
+place of refuge; and in the defence of the sepulchre of Christ,
+the natives and strangers might feel some sparks of the
+enthusiasm, which so fiercely glowed in the bosoms of the
+Saracens. The siege of Jerusalem lasted four months; not a day
+was lost without some action of sally or assault; the military
+engines incessantly played from the ramparts; and the inclemency
+of the winter was still more painful and destructive to the
+Arabs. The Christians yielded at length to the perseverance of
+the besiegers.  The patriarch Sophronius appeared on the walls,
+and by the voice of an interpreter demanded a conference. ^*
+After a vain attempt to dissuade the lieutenant of the caliph
+from his impious enterprise, he proposed, in the name of the
+people, a fair capitulation, with this extraordinary clause, that
+the articles of security should be ratified by the authority and
+presence of Omar himself. The question was debated in the council
+of Medina; the sanctity of the place, and the advice of Ali,
+persuaded the caliph to gratify the wishes of his soldiers and
+enemies; and the simplicity of his journey is more illustrious
+than the royal pageants of vanity and oppression.  The conqueror
+of Persia and Syria was mounted on a red camel, which carried,
+besides his person, a bag of corn, a bag of dates, a wooden dish,
+and a leathern bottle of water. Wherever he halted, the company,
+without distinction, was invited to partake of his homely fare,
+and the repast was consecrated by the prayer and exhortation of
+the commander of the faithful. ^80 But in this expedition or
+pilgrimage, his power was exercised in the administration of
+justice: he reformed the licentious polygamy of the Arabs,
+relieved the tributaries from extortion and cruelty, and
+chastised the luxury of the Saracens, by despoiling them of their
+rich silks, and dragging them on their faces in the dirt.  When
+he came within sight of Jerusalem, the caliph cried with a loud
+voice, "God is victorious.  O Lord, give us an easy conquest!"
+and, pitching his tent of coarse hair, calmly seated himself on
+the ground.  After signing the capitulation, he entered the city
+without fear or precaution; and courteously discoursed with the
+patriarch concerning its religious antiquities. ^81 Sophronius
+bowed before his new master, and secretly muttered, in the words
+of Daniel, "The abomination of desolation is in the holy place."
+^82 At the hour of prayer they stood together in the church of
+the resurrection; but the caliph refused to perform his
+devotions, and contented himself with praying on the steps of the
+church of Constantine.  To the patriarch he disclosed his prudent
+and honorable motive.  "Had I yielded," said Omar, "to your
+request, the Moslems of a future age would have infringed the
+treaty under color of imitating my example." By his command the
+ground of the temple of Solomon was prepared for the foundation
+of a mosch; ^83 and, during a residence of ten days, he regulated
+the present and future state of his Syrian conquests.  Medina
+might be jealous, lest the caliph should be detained by the
+sanctity of Jerusalem or the beauty of Damascus; her
+apprehensions were dispelled by his prompt and voluntary return
+to the tomb of the apostle. ^84
+
+[Footnote *: See the explanation of this in Price, with the
+prophecy which was hereby fulfilled, p 85. - M]
+
+[Footnote 80: The singular journey and equipage of Omar are
+described (besides Ockley, vol. i. p. 250) by Murtadi,
+(Merveilles de l'Egypte, p. 200 - 202.)]
+
+[Footnote 81: The Arabs boast of an old prophecy preserved at
+Jerusalem, and describing the name, the religion, and the person
+of Omar, the future conqueror.  By such arts the Jews are said to
+have soothed the pride of their foreign masters, Cyrus and
+Alexander, (Joseph. Ant. Jud. l. xi c. 1, 8, p. 447, 579 - 582.)]
+
+[Footnote 82: Theophan. Chronograph. p. 281.  This prediction,
+which had already served for Antiochus and the Romans, was again
+refitted for the present occasion, by the economy of Sophronius,
+one of the deepest theologians of the Monothelite controversy.]
+
+[Footnote 83: According to the accurate survey of D'Anville,
+(Dissertation sun l'ancienne Jerusalem, p. 42 - 54,) the mosch of
+Omar, enlarged and embellished by succeeding caliphs, covered the
+ground of the ancient temple, (says Phocas,) a length of 215, a
+breadth of 172, toises. The Nubian geographer declares, that this
+magnificent structure was second only in size and beauty to the
+great mosch of Cordova, (p. 113,) whose present state Mr.
+Swinburne has so elegantly represented, (Travels into Spain, p.
+296 - 302.)]
+
+[Footnote 84: Of the many Arabic tarikhs or chronicles of
+Jerusalem, (D'Herbelot, p. 867,) Ockley found one among the
+Pocock Mss. of Oxford, (vol. i. p. 257,) which he has used to
+supply the defective narrative of Al Wakidi.]
+
+To achieve what yet remained of the Syrian war the caliph
+had formed two separate armies; a chosen detachment, under Amrou
+and Yezid, was left in the camp of Palestine; while the larger
+division, under the standard of Abu Obeidah and Caled, marched
+away to the north against Antioch and Aleppo.  The latter of
+these, the Beraea of the Greeks, was not yet illustrious as the
+capital of a province or a kingdom; and the inhabitants, by
+anticipating their submission and pleading their poverty,
+obtained a moderate composition for their lives and religion.
+But the castle of Aleppo, ^85 distinct from the city, stood erect
+on a lofty artificial mound the sides were sharpened to a
+precipice, and faced with free-stone; and the breadth of the
+ditch might be filled with water from the neighboring springs.
+After the loss of three thousand men, the garrison was still
+equal to the defence; and Youkinna, their valiant and hereditary
+chief, had murdered his brother, a holy monk, for daring to
+pronounce the name of peace.  In a siege of four or five months,
+the hardest of the Syrian war, great numbers of the Saracens were
+killed and wounded: their removal to the distance of a mile could
+not seduce the vigilance of Youkinna; nor could the Christians be
+terrified by the execution of three hundred captives, whom they
+beheaded before the castle wall.  The silence, and at length the
+complaints, of Abu Obeidah informed the caliph that their hope
+and patience were consumed at the foot of this impregnable
+fortress.  "I am variously affected," replied Omar, "by the
+difference of your success; but I charge you by no means to raise
+the siege of the castle.  Your retreat would diminish the
+reputation of our arms, and encourage the infidels to fall upon
+you on all sides.  Remain before Aleppo till God shall determine
+the event, and forage with your horse round the adjacent
+country." The exhortation of the commander of the faithful was
+fortified by a supply of volunteers from all the tribes of
+Arabia, who arrived in the camp on horses or camels.  Among these
+was Dames, of a servile birth, but of gigantic size and intrepid
+resolution.  The forty-seventh day of his service he proposed,
+with only thirty men, to make an attempt on the castle.  The
+experience and testimony of Caled recommended his offer; and Abu
+Obeidah admonished his brethren not to despise the baser origin
+of Dames, since he himself, could he relinquish the public care,
+would cheerfully serve under the banner of the slave.  His design
+was covered by the appearance of a retreat; and the camp of the
+Saracens was pitched about a league from Aleppo.  The thirty
+adventurers lay in ambush at the foot of the hill; and Dames at
+length succeeded in his inquiries, though he was provoked by the
+ignorance of his Greek captives. "God curse these dogs," said the
+illiterate Arab; "what a strange barbarous language they speak!"
+At the darkest hour of the night, he scaled the most accessible
+height, which he had diligently surveyed, a place where the
+stones were less entire, or the slope less perpendicular, or the
+guard less vigilant. Seven of the stoutest Saracens mounted on
+each other's shoulders, and the weight of the column was
+sustained on the broad and sinewy back of the gigantic slave.
+The foremost in this painful ascent could grasp and climb the
+lowest part of the battlements; they silently stabbed and cast
+down the sentinels; and the thirty brethren, repeating a pious
+ejaculation, "O apostle of God, help and deliver us!" were
+successively drawn up by the long folds of their turbans.  With
+bold and cautious footsteps, Dames explored the palace of the
+governor, who celebrated, in riotous merriment, the festival of
+his deliverance.  From thence, returning to his companions, he
+assaulted on the inside the entrance of the castle.  They
+overpowered the guard, unbolted the gate, let down the
+drawbridge, and defended the narrow pass, till the arrival of
+Caled, with the dawn of day, relieved their danger and assured
+their conquest.  Youkinna, a formidable foe, became an active and
+useful proselyte; and the general of the Saracens expressed his
+regard for the most humble merit, by detaining the army at Aleppo
+till Dames was cured of his honorable wounds.  The capital of
+Syria was still covered by the castle of Aazaz and the iron
+bridge of the Orontes.  After the loss of those important posts,
+and the defeat of the last of the Roman armies, the luxury of
+Antioch ^86 trembled and obeyed.  Her safety was ransomed with
+three hundred thousand pieces of gold; but the throne of the
+successors of Alexander, the seat of the Roman government of the
+East, which had been decorated by Caesar with the titles of free,
+and holy, and inviolate was degraded under the yoke of the
+caliphs to the secondary rank of a provincial town. ^87
+
+[Footnote 85: The Persian historian of Timur (tom. iii. l. v. c.
+21, p. 300) describes the castle of Aleppo as founded on a rock
+one hundred cubits in height; a proof, says the French
+translator, that he had never visited the place.  It is now in
+the midst of the city, of no strength with a single gate; the
+circuit is about 500 or 600 paces, and the ditch half full of
+stagnant water, (Voyages de Tavernier, tom. i. p. 149 Pocock,
+vol. ii. part i. p. 150.) The fortresses of the East are
+contemptible to a European eye.]
+
+[Footnote 86: The date of the conquest of Antioch by the Arabs is
+of some importance.  By comparing the years of the world in the
+chronography of Theophanes with the years of the Hegira in the
+history of Elmacin, we shall determine, that it was taken between
+January 23d and September 1st of the year of Christ 638, (Pagi,
+Critica, in Baron. Annal. tom. ii. p. 812, 813.) Al Wakidi
+(Ockley, vol. i. p. 314) assigns that event to Tuesday, August
+21st, an inconsistent date; since Easter fell that year on April
+5th, the 21st of August must have been a Friday, (see the Tables
+of the Art de Verifier les Dates.)]
+
+[Footnote 87: His bounteous edict, which tempted the grateful
+city to assume the victory of Pharsalia for a perpetual aera, is
+given. John Malala, in Chron. p. 91, edit. Venet.  We may
+distinguish his authentic information of domestic facts from his
+gross ignorance of general history.]
+
+In the life of Heraclius, the glories of the Persian war are
+clouded on either hand by the disgrace and weakness of his more
+early and his later days. When the successors of Mahomet
+unsheathed the sword of war and religion, he was astonished at
+the boundless prospect of toil and danger; his nature was
+indolent, nor could the infirm and frigid age of the emperor be
+kindled to a second effort.  The sense of shame, and the
+importunities of the Syrians, prevented the hasty departure from
+the scene of action; but the hero was no more; and the loss of
+Damascus and Jerusalem, the bloody fields of Aiznadin and Yermuk,
+may be imputed in some degree to the absence or misconduct of the
+sovereign.  Instead of defending the sepulchre of Christ, he
+involved the church and state in a metaphysical controversy for
+the unity of his will; and while Heraclius crowned the offspring
+of his second nuptials, he was tamely stripped of the most
+valuable part of their inheritance.  In the cathedral of Antioch,
+in the presence of the bishops, at the foot of the crucifix, he
+bewailed the sins of the prince and people; but his confession
+instructed the world, that it was vain, and perhaps impious, to
+resist the judgment of God. The Saracens were invincible in fact,
+since they were invincible in opinion; and the desertion of
+Youkinna, his false repentance and repeated perfidy, might
+justify the suspicion of the emperor, that he was encompassed by
+traitors and apostates, who conspired to betray his person and
+their country to the enemies of Christ. In the hour of adversity,
+his superstition was agitated by the omens and dreams of a
+falling crown; and after bidding an eternal farewell to Syria, he
+secretly embarked with a few attendants, and absolved the faith
+of his subjects. ^88 Constantine, his eldest son, had been
+stationed with forty thousand men at Caesarea, the civil
+metropolis of the three provinces of Palestine.  But his private
+interest recalled him to the Byzantine court; and, after the
+flight of his father, he felt himself an unequal champion to the
+united force of the caliph.  His vanguard was boldly attacked by
+three hundred Arabs and a thousand black slaves, who, in the
+depth of winter, had climbed the snowy mountains of Libanus, and
+who were speedily followed by the victorious squadrons of Caled
+himself.  From the north and south the troops of Antioch and
+Jerusalem advanced along the sea-shore till their banners were
+joined under the walls of the Phoenician cities: Tripoli and Tyre
+were betrayed; and a fleet of fifty transports, which entered
+without distrust the captive harbors, brought a seasonable supply
+of arms and provisions to the camp of the Saracens.  Their labors
+were terminated by the unexpected surrender of Caesarea: the
+Roman prince had embarked in the night; ^89 and the defenceless
+citizens solicited their pardon with an offering of two hundred
+thousand pieces of gold.  The remainder of the province, Ramlah,
+Ptolemais or Acre, Sichem or Neapolis, Gaza, Ascalon, Berytus,
+Sidon, Gabala, Laodicea, Apamea, Hierapolis, no longer presumed
+to dispute the will of the conqueror; and Syria bowed under the
+sceptre of the caliphs seven hundred years after Pompey had
+despoiled the last of the Macedonian kings. ^90
+
+[Footnote 88: See Ockley, (vol. i. p. 308, 312,) who laughs at
+the credulity of his author.  When Heraclius bade farewell to
+Syria, Vale Syria et ultimum vale, he prophesied that the Romans
+should never reenter the province till the birth of an
+inauspicious child, the future scourge of the empire.  Abulfeda,
+p. 68.  I am perfectly ignorant of the mystic sense, or nonsense,
+of this prediction.]
+
+[Footnote 89: In the loose and obscure chronology of the times, I
+am guided by an authentic record, (in the book of ceremonies of
+Constantine Porphyrogenitus,) which certifies that, June 4, A.D.
+638, the emperor crowned his younger son Heraclius, in the
+presence of his eldest, Constantine, and in the palace of
+Constantinople; that January 1, A.D. 639, the royal procession
+visited the great church, and on the 4th of the same month, the
+hippodrome.]
+
+[Footnote 90: Sixty-five years before Christ, Syria Pontusque
+monumenta sunt Cn. Pompeii virtutis, (Vell. Patercul. ii. 38,)
+rather of his fortune and power: he adjudged Syria to be a Roman
+province, and the last of the Seleucides were incapable of
+drawing a sword in the defence of their patrimony (see the
+original texts collected by Usher, Annal. p. 420)]
+
+
+
+Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.
+
+Part VI.
+
+The sieges and battles of six campaigns had consumed many
+thousands of the Moslems.  They died with the reputation and the
+cheerfulness of martyrs; and the simplicity of their faith may be
+expressed in the words of an Arabian youth, when he embraced, for
+the last time, his sister and mother: "It is not," said he, "the
+delicacies of Syria, or the fading delights of this world, that
+have prompted me to devote my life in the cause of religion.  But
+I seek the favor of God and his apostle; and I have heard, from
+one of the companions of the prophet, that the spirits of the
+martyrs will be lodged in the crops of green birds, who shall
+taste the fruits, and drink of the rivers, of paradise. Farewell,
+we shall meet again among the groves and fountains which God has
+provided for his elect." The faithful captives might exercise a
+passive and more arduous resolution; and a cousin of Mahomet is
+celebrated for refusing, after an abstinence of three days, the
+wine and pork, the only nourishment that was allowed by the
+malice of the infidels.  The frailty of some weaker brethren
+exasperated the implacable spirit of fanaticism; and the father
+of Amer deplored, in pathetic strains, the apostasy and damnation
+of a son, who had renounced the promises of God, and the
+intercession of the prophet, to occupy, with the priests and
+deacons, the lowest mansions of hell.  The more fortunate Arabs,
+who survived the war and persevered in the faith, were restrained
+by their abstemious leader from the abuse of prosperity.  After a
+refreshment of three days, Abu Obeidah withdrew his troops from
+the pernicious contagion of the luxury of Antioch, and assured
+the caliph that their religion and virtue could only be preserved
+by the hard discipline of poverty and labor.  But the virtue of
+Omar, however rigorous to himself, was kind and liberal to his
+brethren.  After a just tribute of praise and thanksgiving, he
+dropped a tear of compassion; and sitting down on the ground,
+wrote an answer, in which he mildly censured the severity of his
+lieutenant: "God," said the successor of the prophet, "has not
+forbidden the use of the good things of this worl to faithful
+men, and such as have performed good works.  Therefore you ought
+to have given them leave to rest themselves, and partake freely
+of those good things which the country affordeth.  If any of the
+Saracens have no family in Arabia, they may marry in Syria; and
+whosoever of them wants any female slaves, he may purchase as
+many as he hath occasion for." The conquerors prepared to use, or
+to abuse, this gracious permission; but the year of their triumph
+was marked by a mortality of men and cattle; and twenty-five
+thousand Saracens were snatched away from the possession of
+Syria. The death of Abu Obeidah might be lamented by the
+Christians; but his brethren recollected that he was one of the
+ten elect whom the prophet had named as the heirs of paradise.
+^91 Caled survived his brethren about three years: and the tomb
+of the Sword of God is shown in the neighborhood of Emesa.  His
+valor, which founded in Arabia and Syria the empire of the
+caliphs, was fortified by the opinion of a special providence;
+and as long as he wore a cap, which had been blessed by Mahomet,
+he deemed himself invulnerable amidst the darts of the infidels.
+^*
+
+[Footnote 91: Abulfeda, Annal. Moslem. p. 73.  Mahomet could
+artfully vary the praises of his disciples.  Of Omar he was
+accustomed to say, that if a prophet could arise after himself,
+it would be Omar; and that in a general calamity, Omar would be
+accepted by the divine justice, (Ockley, vol. i. p. 221.)]
+
+[Footnote *: Khaled, according to the Rouzont Uzzuffa, (Price, p.
+90,) after having been deprived of his ample share of the plunder
+of Syria by the jealousy of Omar, died, possessed only of his
+horse, his arms, and a single slave.  Yet Omar was obliged to
+acknowledge to his lamenting parent. that never mother had
+produced a son like Khaled. - M.]
+
+The place of the first conquerors was supplied by a new
+generation of their children and countrymen: Syria became the
+seat and support of the house of Ommiyah; and the revenue, the
+soldiers, the ships of that powerful kingdom were consecrated to
+enlarge on every side the empire of the caliphs.  But the
+Saracens despise a superfluity of fame; and their historians
+scarcely condescend to mention the subordinate conquests which
+are lost in the splendor and rapidity of their victorious career.
+
+To the north of Syria, they passed Mount Taurus, and reduced to
+their obedience the province of Cilicia, with its capital Tarsus,
+the ancient monument of the Assyrian kings.  Beyond a second
+ridge of the same mountains, they spread the flame of war, rather
+than the light of religion, as far as the shores of the Euxine,
+and the neighborhood of Constantinople.  To the east they
+advanced to the banks and sources of the Euphrates and Tigris:
+^92 the long disputed barrier of Rome and Persia was forever
+confounded the walls of Edessa and Amida, of Dara and Nisibis,
+which had resisted the arms and engines of Sapor or Nushirvan,
+were levelled in the dust; and the holy city of Abgarus might
+vainly produce the epistle or the image of Christ to an
+unbelieving conqueror.  To the west the Syrian kingdom is bounded
+by the sea: and the ruin of Aradus, a small island or peninsula
+on the coast, was postponed during ten years.  But the hills of
+Libanus abounded in timber; the trade of Phoenicia was populous
+in mariners; and a fleet of seventeen hundred barks was equipped
+and manned by the natives of the desert. The Imperial navy of the
+Romans fled before them from the Pamphylian rocks to the
+Hellespont; but the spirit of the emperor, a grandson of
+Heraclius, had been subdued before the combat by a dream and a
+pun. ^93 The Saracens rode masters of the sea; and the islands of
+Cyprus, Rhodes, and the Cyclades, were successively exposed to
+their rapacious visits.  Three hundred years before the Christian
+aera, the memorable though fruitless siege of Rhodes ^94 by
+Demetrius had furnished that maritime republic with the materials
+and the subject of a trophy.  A gigantic statue of Apollo, or the
+sun, seventy cubits in height, was erected at the entrance of the
+harbor, a monument of the freedom and the arts of Greece.  After
+standing fifty-six years, the colossus of Rhodes was overthrown
+by an earthquake; but the massy trunk, and huge fragments, lay
+scattered eight centuries on the ground, and are often described
+as one of the wonders of the ancient world. They were collected
+by the diligence of the Saracens, and sold to a Jewish merchant
+of Edessa, who is said to have laden nine hundred camels with the
+weight of the brass metal; an enormous weight, though we should
+include the hundred colossal figures, ^95 and the three thousand
+statues, which adorned the prosperity of the city of the sun.
+
+[Footnote 92: Al Wakidi had likewise written a history of the
+conquest of Diarbekir, or Mesopotamia, (Ockley, at the end of the
+iid vol.,) which our interpreters do not appear to have seen.
+The Chronicle of Dionysius of Telmar, the Jacobite patriarch,
+records the taking of Edessa A.D. 637, and of Dara A.D. 641,
+(Asseman. Bibliot. Orient. tom. ii. p. 103;) and the attentive
+may glean some doubtful information from the Chronography of
+Theophanes, (p. 285 - 287.) Most of the towns of Mesopotamia
+yielded by surrender, (Abulpharag. p. 112.)
+
+Note: It has been published in Arabic by M. Ewald St.
+Martin, vol. xi p 248; but its authenticity is doubted. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 93: He dreamt that he was at Thessalonica, a harmless
+and unmeaning vision; but his soothsayer, or his cowardice,
+understood the sure omen of a defeat concealed in that
+inauspicious word, Give to another the victory, (Theoph. p. 286.
+Zonaras, tom. ii. l. xiv. p. 88.)]
+
+[Footnote 94: Every passage and every fact that relates to the
+isle, the city, and the colossus of Rhodes, are compiled in the
+laborious treatise of Meursius, who has bestowed the same
+diligence on the two larger islands of the Crete and Cyprus.
+See, in the iiid vol. of his works, the Rhodus of Meursius, (l.
+i. c. 15, p. 715 - 719.) The Byzantine writers, Theophanes and
+Constantine, have ignorantly prolonged the term to 1360 years,
+and ridiculously divide the weight among 30,000 camels.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Centum colossi alium nobilitaturi locum, says
+Pliny, with his usual spirit.  Hist. Natur. xxxiv. 18.]
+
+II.  The conquest of Egypt may be explained by the character
+of the victorious Saracen, one of the first of his nation, in an
+age when the meanest of the brethren was exalted above his nature
+by the spirit of enthusiasm.  The birth of Amrou was at once base
+and illustrious; his mother, a notorious prostitute, was unable
+to decide among five of the Koreish; but the proof of resemblance
+adjudged the child to Aasi, the oldest of her lovers. ^96 The
+youth of Amrou was impelled by the passions and prejudices of his
+kindred: his poetic genius was exercised in satirical verses
+against the person and doctrine of Mahomet; his dexterity was
+employed by the reigning faction to pursue the religious exiles
+who had taken refuge in the court of the Aethiopian king. ^97 Yet
+he returned from this embassy a secret proselyte; his reason or
+his interest determined him to renounce the worship of idols; he
+escaped from Mecca with his friend Caled; and the prophet of
+Medina enjoyed at the same moment the satisfaction of embracing
+the two firmest champions of his cause.  The impatience of Amrou
+to lead the armies of the faithful was checked by the reproof of
+Omar, who advised him not to seek power and dominion, since he
+who is a subject to-day, may be a prince to-morrow.  Yet his
+merit was not overlooked by the two first successors of Mahomet;
+they were indebted to his arms for the conquest of Palestine; and
+in all the battles and sieges of Syria, he united with the temper
+of a chief the valor of an adventurous soldier.  In a visit to
+Medina, the caliph expressed a wish to survey the sword which had
+cut down so many Christian warriors; the son of Aasi unsheathed a
+short and ordinary cimeter; and as he perceived the surprise of
+Omar, "Alas," said the modest Saracen, "the sword itself, without
+the arm of its master, is neither sharper nor more weighty than
+the sword of Pharezdak the poet." ^98 After the conquest of
+Egypt, he was recalled by the jealousy of the caliph Othman; but
+in the subsequent troubles, the ambition of a soldier, a
+statesman, and an orator, emerged from a private station.  His
+powerful support, both in council and in the field, established
+the throne of the Ommiades; the administration and revenue of
+Egypt were restored by the gratitude of Moawiyah to a faithful
+friend who had raised himself above the rank of a subject; and
+Amrou ended his days in the palace and city which he had founded
+on the banks of the Nile.  His dying speech to his children is
+celebrated by the Arabians as a model of eloquence and wisdom: he
+deplored the errors of his youth but if the penitent was still
+infected by the vanity of a poet, he might exaggerate the venom
+and mischief of his impious compositions. ^99
+
+[Footnote 96: We learn this anecdote from a spirited old woman,
+who reviled to their faces, the caliph and his friend.  She was
+encouraged by the silence of Amrou and the liberality of
+Moawiyah, (Abulfeda, Annal Moslem. p. 111.)]
+
+[Footnote 97: Gagnier, Vie de Mahomet, tom. ii. p. 46, &c., who
+quotes the Abyssinian history, or romance of Abdel Balcides.  Yet
+the fact of the embassy and ambassador may be allowed.]
+
+[Footnote 98: This saying is preserved by Pocock, (Not. ad Carmen
+Tograi, p 184,) and justly applauded by Mr. Harris,
+(Philosophical Arrangements, p. 850.)]
+
+[Footnote 99: For the life and character of Amrou, see Ockley
+(Hist. of the Saracens, vol. i. p. 28, 63, 94, 328, 342, 344, and
+to the end of the volume; vol. ii. p. 51, 55, 57, 74, 110 - 112,
+162) and Otter, (Mem. de l'Academie des Inscriptions, tom. xxi.
+p. 131, 132.) The readers of Tacitus may aptly compare Vespasian
+and Mucianus with Moawiyah and Amrou.  Yet the resemblance is
+still more in the situation, than in the characters, of the men.]
+
+From his camp in Palestine, Amrou had surprised or
+anticipated the caliph's leave for the invasion of Egypt. ^100
+The magnanimous Omar trusted in his God and his sword, which had
+shaken the thrones of Chosroes and Caesar: but when he compared
+the slender force of the Moslems with the greatness of the
+enterprise, he condemned his own rashness, and listened to his
+timid companions.  The pride and the greatness of Pharaoh were
+familiar to the readers of the Koran; and a tenfold repetition of
+prodigies had been scarcely sufficient to effect, not the
+victory, but the flight, of six hundred thousand of the children
+of Israel: the cities of Egypt were many and populous; their
+architecture was strong and solid; the Nile, with its numerous
+branches, was alone an insuperable barrier; and the granary of
+the Imperial city would be obstinately defended by the Roman
+powers.  In this perplexity, the commander of the faithful
+resigned himself to the decision of chance, or, in his opinion,
+of Providence.  At the head of only four thousand Arabs, the
+intrepid Amrou had marched away from his station of Gaza when he
+was overtaken by the messenger of Omar.  "If you are still in
+Syria," said the ambiguous mandate, "retreat without delay; but
+if, at the receipt of this epistle, you have already reached the
+frontiers of Egypt, advance with confidence, and depend on the
+succor of God and of your brethren." The experience, perhaps the
+secret intelligence, of Amrou had taught him to suspect the
+mutability of courts; and he continued his march till his tents
+were unquestionably pitched on Egyptian ground.  He there
+assembled his officers, broke the seal, perused the epistle,
+gravely inquired the name and situation of the place, and
+declared his ready obedience to the commands of the caliph.
+After a siege of thirty days, he took possession of Farmah or
+Pelusium; and that key of Egypt, as it has been justly named,
+unlocked the entrance of the country as far as the ruins of
+Heliopolis and the neighborhood of the modern Cairo.
+
+[Footnote 100: Al Wakidi had likewise composed a separate history
+of the conquest of Egypt, which Mr. Ockley could never procure;
+and his own inquiries (vol. i. 344 - 362) have added very little
+to the original text of Eutychius, (Annal. tom. ii. p. 296 - 323,
+vers. Pocock,) the Melchite patriarch of Alexandria, who lived
+three hundred years after the revolution.]
+
+On the Western side of the Nile, at a small distance to the
+east of the Pyramids, at a small distance to the south of the
+Delta, Memphis, one hundred and fifty furlongs in circumference,
+displayed the magnificence of ancient kings.  Under the reign of
+the Ptolemies and Caesars, the seat of government was removed to
+the sea-coast; the ancient capital was eclipsed by the arts and
+opulence of Alexandria; the palaces, and at length the temples,
+were reduced to a desolate and ruinous condition: yet, in the age
+of Augustus, and even in that of Constantine, Memphis was still
+numbered among the greatest and most populous of the provincial
+cities. ^101 The banks of the Nile, in this place of the breadth
+of three thousand feet, were united by two bridges of sixty and
+of thirty boats, connected in the middle stream by the small
+island of Rouda, which was covered with gardens and habitations.
+^102 The eastern extremity of the bridge was terminated by the
+town of Babylon and the camp of a Roman legion, which protected
+the passage of the river and the second capital of Egypt.  This
+important fortress, which might fairly be described as a part of
+Memphis or Misrah, was invested by the arms of the lieutenant of
+Omar: a reenforcement of four thousand Saracens soon arrived in
+his camp; and the military engines, which battered the walls, may
+be imputed to the art and labor of his Syrian allies.  Yet the
+siege was protracted to seven months; and the rash invaders were
+encompassed and threatened by the inundation of the Nile. ^103
+Their last assault was bold and successful: they passed the
+ditch, which had been fortified with iron spikes, applied their
+scaling ladders, entered the fortress with the shout of "God is
+victorious!" and drove the remnant of the Greeks to their boats
+and the Isle of Rouda.  The spot was afterwards recommended to
+the conqueror by the easy communication with the gulf and the
+peninsula of Arabia; the remains of Memphis were deserted; the
+tents of the Arabs were converted into permanent habitations; and
+the first mosch was blessed by the presence of fourscore
+companions of Mahomet. ^104 A new city arose in their camp, on
+the eastward bank of the Nile; and the contiguous quarters of
+Babylon and Fostat are confounded in their present decay by the
+appellation of old Misrah, or Cairo, of which they form an
+extensive suburb.  But the name of Cairo, the town of victory,
+more strictly belongs to the modern capital, which was founded in
+the tenth century by the Fatimite caliphs. ^105 It has gradually
+receded from the river; but the continuity of buildings may be
+traced by an attentive eye from the monuments of Sesostris to
+those of Saladin. ^106
+
+[Footnote 101: Strabo, an accurate and attentive spectator,
+observes of Heliopolis, (Geograph. l. xvii. p. 1158;) but of
+Memphis he notices, however, the mixture of inhabitants, and the
+ruin of the palaces.  In the proper Egypt, Ammianus enumerates
+Memphis among the four cities, maximis urbibus quibus provincia
+nitet, (xxii. 16;) and the name of Memphis appears with
+distinction in the Roman Itinerary and episcopal lists.]
+
+[Footnote 102: These rare and curious facts, the breadth (2946
+feet) and the bridge of the Nile, are only to be found in the
+Danish traveller and the Nubian geographer, (p. 98.)]
+
+[Footnote 103: From the month of April, the Nile begins
+imperceptibly to rise; the swell becomes strong and visible in
+the moon after the summer solstice, (Plin. Hist. Nat. v. 10,) and
+is usually proclaimed at Cairo on St. Peter's day, (June 29.) A
+register of thirty successive years marks the greatest height of
+the waters between July 25 and August 18, (Maillet, Description
+de l'Egypte, lettre xi. p. 67, &c. Pocock's Description of the
+East, vol. i. p. 200.  Shaw's Travels, p. 383.)]
+
+[Footnote 104: Murtadi, Merveilles de l'Egypte, 243, 259.  He
+expatiates on the subject with the zeal and minuteness of a
+citizen and a bigot, and his local traditions have a strong air
+of truth and accuracy.]
+
+[Footnote 105: D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 233.]
+
+[Footnote 106: The position of New and of Old Cairo is well
+known, and has been often described.  Two writers, who were
+intimately acquainted with ancient and modern Egypt, have fixed,
+after a learned inquiry, the city of Memphis at Gizeh, directly
+opposite the Old Cairo, (Sicard, Nouveaux Memoires des Missions
+du Levant, tom. vi. p. 5, 6.  Shaw's Observations and Travels, p.
+296 - 304.) Yet we may not disregard the authority or the
+arguments of Pocock, (vol. i. p. 25 - 41,) Niebuhr, (Voyage, tom.
+i. p. 77 - 106,) and above all, of D'Anville, (Description de
+l'Egypte, p. 111, 112, 130 - 149,) who have removed Memphis
+towards the village of Mohannah, some miles farther to the south.
+
+In their heat, the disputants have forgot that the ample space of
+a metropolis covers and annihilates the far greater part of the
+controversy.]
+
+Yet the Arabs, after a glorious and profitable enterprise,
+must have retreated to the desert, had they not found a powerful
+alliance in the heart of the country.  The rapid conquest of
+Alexander was assisted by the superstition and revolt of the
+natives: they abhorred their Persian oppressors, the disciples of
+the Magi, who had burnt the temples of Egypt, and feasted with
+sacrilegious appetite on the flesh of the god Apis. ^107 After a
+period of ten centuries, the same revolution was renewed by a
+similar cause; and in the support of an incomprehensible creed,
+the zeal of the Coptic Christians was equally ardent.  I have
+already explained the origin and progress of the Monophysite
+controversy, and the persecution of the emperors, which converted
+a sect into a nation, and alienated Egypt from their religion and
+government.  The Saracens were received as the deliverers of the
+Jacobite church; and a secret and effectual treaty was opened
+during the siege of Memphis between a victorious army and a
+people of slaves.  A rich and noble Egyptian, of the name of
+Mokawkas, had dissembled his faith to obtain the administration
+of his province: in the disorders of the Persian war he aspired
+to independence: the embassy of Mahomet ranked him among princes;
+but he declined, with rich gifts and ambiguous compliments, the
+proposal of a new religion. ^108 The abuse of his trust exposed
+him to the resentment of Heraclius: his submission was delayed by
+arrogance and fear; and his conscience was prompted by interest
+to throw himself on the favor of the nation and the support of
+the Saracens.  In his first conference with Amrou, he heard
+without indignation the usual option of the Koran, the tribute,
+or the sword.  "The Greeks," replied Mokawkas, "are determined to
+abide the determination of the sword; but with the Greeks I
+desire no communion, either in this world or in the next, and I
+abjure forever the Byzantine tyrant, his synod of Chalcedon, and
+his Melchite slaves.  For myself and my brethren, we are resolved
+to live and die in the profession of the gospel and unity of
+Christ.  It is impossible for us to embrace the revelations of
+your prophet; but we are desirous of peace, and cheerfully submit
+to pay tribute and obedience to his temporal successors." The
+tribute was ascertained at two pieces of gold for the head of
+every Christian; but old men, monks, women, and children, of both
+sexes, under sixteen years of age, were exempted from this
+personal assessment: the Copts above and below Memphis swore
+allegiance to the caliph, and promised a hospitable entertainment
+of three days to every Mussulman who should travel through their
+country.  By this charter of security, the ecclesiastical and
+civil tyranny of the Melchites was destroyed: ^109 the anathemas
+of St. Cyril were thundered from every pulpit; and the sacred
+edifices, with the patrimony of the church, were restored to the
+national communion of the Jacobites, who enjoyed without
+moderation the moment of triumph and revenge.  At the pressing
+summons of Amrou, their patriarch Benjamin emerged from his
+desert; and after the first interview, the courteous Arab
+affected to declare that he had never conversed with a Christian
+priest of more innocent manners and a more venerable aspect. ^110
+In the march from Memphis to Alexandria, the lieutenant of Omar
+intrusted his safety to the zeal and gratitude of the Egyptians:
+the roads and bridges were diligently repaired; and in every step
+of his progress, he could depend on a constant supply of
+provisions and intelligence.  The Greeks of Egypt, whose numbers
+could scarcely equal a tenth of the natives, were overwhelmed by
+the universal defection: they had ever been hated, they were no
+longer feared: the magistrate fled from his tribunal, the bishop
+from his altar; and the distant garrisons were surprised or
+starved by the surrounding multitudes.  Had not the Nile afforded
+a safe and ready conveyance to the sea, not an individual could
+have escaped, who by birth, or language, or office, or religion,
+was connected with their odious name.
+
+[Footnote 107: See Herodotus, l. iii. c. 27, 28, 29.  Aelian,
+Hist. Var. l. iv. c. 8. Suidas in, tom. ii. p. 774.  Diodor.
+Sicul. tom. ii. l. xvii. p. 197, edit. Wesseling.  Says the last
+of these historians.]
+
+[Footnote 108: Mokawkas sent the prophet two Coptic damsels, with
+two maids and one eunuch, an alabaster vase, an ingot of pure
+gold, oil, honey, and the finest white linen of Egypt, with a
+horse, a mule, and an ass, distinguished by their respective
+qualifications.  The embassy of Mahomet was despatched from
+Medina in the seventh year of the Hegira, (A.D. 628.) See
+Gagnier, (Vie de Mahomet, tom. ii. p. 255, 256, 303,) from Al
+Jannabi.]
+
+[Footnote 109: The praefecture of Egypt, and the conduct of the
+war, had been trusted by Heraclius to the patriarch Cyrus,
+(Theophan. p. 280, 281.) "In Spain," said James II., "do you not
+consult your priests?" "We do," replied the Catholic ambassador,
+"and our affairs succeed accordingly." I know not how to relate
+the plans of Cyrus, of paying tribute without impairing the
+revenue, and of converting Omar by his marriage with the
+Emperor's daughter, (Nicephor. Breviar. p. 17, 18.)]
+
+[Footnote 110: See the life of Benjamin, in Renaudot, (Hist.
+Patriarch. Alexandrin. p. 156 - 172,) who has enriched the
+conquest of Egypt with some facts from the Arabic text of Severus
+the Jacobite historian]
+
+By the retreat of the Greeks from the provinces of Upper
+Egypt, a considerable force was collected in the Island of Delta;
+the natural and artificial channels of the Nile afforded a
+succession of strong and defensible posts; and the road to
+Alexandria was laboriously cleared by the victory of the Saracens
+in two-and-twenty days of general or partial combat.  In their
+annals of conquest, the siege of Alexandria ^111 is perhaps the
+most arduous and important enterprise.  The first trading city in
+the world was abundantly replenished with the means of
+subsistence and defence.  Her numerous inhabitants fought for the
+dearest of human rights, religion and property; and the enmity of
+the natives seemed to exclude them from the common benefit of
+peace and toleration.  The sea was continually open; and if
+Heraclius had been awake to the public distress, fresh armies of
+Romans and Barbarians might have been poured into the harbor to
+save the second capital of the empire.  A circumference of ten
+miles would have scattered the forces of the Greeks, and favored
+the stratagems of an active enemy; but the two sides of an oblong
+square were covered by the sea and the Lake Maraeotis, and each
+of the narrow ends exposed a front of no more than ten furlongs.
+The efforts of the Arabs were not inadequate to the difficulty of
+the attempt and the value of the prize.  From the throne of
+Medina, the eyes of Omar were fixed on the camp and city: his
+voice excited to arms the Arabian tribes and the veterans of
+Syria; and the merit of a holy war was recommended by the
+peculiar fame and fertility of Egypt. Anxious for the ruin or
+expulsion of their tyrants, the faithful natives devoted their
+labors to the service of Amrou: some sparks of martial spirit
+were perhaps rekindled by the example of their allies; and the
+sanguine hopes of Mokawkas had fixed his sepulchre in the church
+of St. John of Alexandria.  Eutychius the patriarch observes,
+that the Saracens fought with the courage of lions: they repulsed
+the frequent and almost daily sallies of the besieged, and soon
+assaulted in their turn the walls and towers of the city.  In
+every attack, the sword, the banner of Amrou, glittered in the
+van of the Moslems.  On a memorable day, he was betrayed by his
+imprudent valor: his followers who had entered the citadel were
+driven back; and the general, with a friend and slave, remained a
+prisoner in the hands of the Christians. When Amrou was conducted
+before the praefect, he remembered his dignity, and forgot his
+situation: a lofty demeanor, and resolute language, revealed the
+lieutenant of the caliph, and the battle-axe of a soldier was
+already raised to strike off the head of the audacious captive.
+His life was saved by the readiness of his slave, who instantly
+gave his master a blow on the face, and commanded him, with an
+angry tone, to be silent in the presence of his superiors.  The
+credulous Greek was deceived: he listened to the offer of a
+treaty, and his prisoners were dismissed in the hope of a more
+respectable embassy, till the joyful acclamations of the camp
+announced the return of their general, and insulted the folly of
+the infidels.  At length, after a siege of fourteen months, ^112
+and the loss of three-and-twenty thousand men, the Saracens
+prevailed: the Greeks embarked their dispirited and diminished
+numbers, and the standard of Mahomet was planted on the walls of
+the capital of Egypt.  "I have taken," said Amrou to the caliph,
+"the great city of the West.  It is impossible for me to
+enumerate the variety of its riches and beauty; and I shall
+content myself with observing, that it contains four thousand
+palaces, four thousand baths, four hundred theatres or places of
+amusement, twelve thousand shops for the sale of vegetable food,
+and forty thousand tributary Jews.  The town has been subdued by
+force of arms, without treaty or capitulation, and the Moslems
+are impatient to seize the fruits of their victory." ^113 The
+commander of the faithful rejected with firmness the idea of
+pillage, and directed his lieutenant to reserve the wealth and
+revenue of Alexandria for the public service and the propagation
+of the faith: the inhabitants were numbered; a tribute was
+imposed, the zeal and resentment of the Jacobites were curbed,
+and the Melchites who submitted to the Arabian yoke were indulged
+in the obscure but tranquil exercise of their worship.  The
+intelligence of this disgraceful and calamitous event afflicted
+the declining health of the emperor; and Heraclius died of a
+dropsy about seven weeks after the loss of Alexandria. ^114 Under
+the minority of his grandson, the clamors of a people, deprived
+of their daily sustenance, compelled the Byzantine court to
+undertake the recovery of the capital of Egypt.  In the space of
+four years, the harbor and fortifications of Alexandria were
+twice occupied by a fleet and army of Romans.  They were twice
+expelled by the valor of Amrou, who was recalled by the domestic
+peril from the distant wars of Tripoli and Nubia. But the
+facility of the attempt, the repetition of the insult, and the
+obstinacy of the resistance, provoked him to swear, that if a
+third time he drove the infidels into the sea, he would render
+Alexandria as accessible on all sides as the house of a
+prostitute.  Faithful to his promise, he dismantled several parts
+of the walls and towers; but the people was spared in the
+chastisement of the city, and the mosch of Mercy was erected on
+the spot where the victorious general had stopped the fury of his
+troops.
+
+[Footnote 111: The local description of Alexandria is perfectly
+ascertained by the master hand of the first of geographers,
+(D'Anville, Memoire sur l'Egypte, p. 52 - 63;) but we may borrow
+the eyes of the modern travellers, more especially of Thevenot,
+(Voyage au Levant, part i. p. 381 - 395,) Pocock, (vol. i. p. 2 -
+13,) and Niebuhr, (Voyage en Arabie, tom. i. p. 34 - 43.) Of the
+two modern rivals, Savary and Volmey, the one may amuse, the
+other will instruct.]
+
+[Footnote 112: Both Eutychius (Annal. tom. ii. p. 319) and
+Elmacin (Hist. Saracen. p. 28) concur in fixing the taking of
+Alexandria to Friday of the new moon of Moharram of the twentieth
+year of the Hegira, (December 22, A.D. 640.) In reckoning
+backwards fourteen months spent before Alexandria, seven months
+before Babylon, &c., Amrou might have invaded Egypt about the end
+of the year 638; but we are assured that he entered the country
+the 12th of Bayni, 6th of June, (Murtadi, Merveilles de l'Egypte,
+p. 164. Severus, apud Renaudot, p. 162.) The Saracen, and
+afterwards Lewis IX. of France, halted at Pelusium, or Damietta,
+during the season of the inundation of the Nile.]
+
+[Footnote 113: Eutych. Annal. tom. ii. p. 316, 319.]
+
+[Footnote 114: Notwithstanding some inconsistencies of Theophanes
+and Cedrenus, the accuracy of Pagi (Critica, tom. ii. p. 824) has
+extracted from Nicephorus and the Chronicon Orientale the true
+date of the death of Heraclius, February 11th, A.D. 641, fifty
+days after the loss of Alexandria. A fourth of that time was
+sufficient to convey the intelligence.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.
+
+Part VII.
+
+I should deceive the expectation of the reader, if I passed
+in silence the fate of the Alexandrian library, as it is
+described by the learned Abulpharagius.  The spirit of Amrou was
+more curious and liberal than that of his brethren, and in his
+leisure hours, the Arabian chief was pleased with the
+conversation of John, the last disciple of Ammonius, and who
+derived the surname of Philoponus from his laborious studies of
+grammar and philosophy. ^115 Emboldened by this familiar
+intercourse, Philoponus presumed to solicit a gift, inestimable
+in his opinion, contemptible in that of the Barbarians - the
+royal library, which alone, among the spoils of Alexandria, had
+not been appropriated by the visit and the seal of the conqueror.
+
+Amrou was inclined to gratify the wish of the grammarian, but his
+rigid integrity refused to alienate the minutest object without
+the consent of the caliph; and the well-known answer of Omar was
+inspired by the ignorance of a fanatic.  "If these writings of
+the Greeks agree with the book of God, they are useless, and need
+not be preserved: if they disagree, they are pernicious, and
+ought to be destroyed." The sentence was executed with blind
+obedience: the volumes of paper or parchment were distributed to
+the four thousand baths of the city; and such was their
+incredible multitude, that six months were barely sufficient for
+the consumption of this precious fuel.  Since the Dynasties of
+Abulpharagius ^116 have been given to the world in a Latin
+version, the tale has been repeatedly transcribed; and every
+scholar, with pious indignation, has deplored the irreparable
+shipwreck of the learning, the arts, and the genius, of
+antiquity.  For my own part, I am strongly tempted to deny both
+the fact and the consequences. ^* The fact is indeed marvellous.
+"Read and wonder!" says the historian himself: and the solitary
+report of a stranger who wrote at the end of six hundred years on
+the confines of Media, is overbalanced by the silence of two
+annalist of a more early date, both Christians, both natives of
+Egypt, and the most ancient of whom, the patriarch Eutychius, has
+amply described the conquest of Alexandria. ^117 The rigid
+sentence of Omar is repugnant to the sound and orthodox precept
+of the Mahometan casuists they expressly declare, that the
+religious books of the Jews and Christians, which are acquired by
+the right of war, should never be committed to the flames; and
+that the works of profane science, historians or poets,
+physicians or philosophers, may be lawfully applied to the use of
+the faithful. ^118 A more destructive zeal may perhaps be
+attributed to the first successors of Mahomet; yet in this
+instance, the conflagration would have speedily expired in the
+deficiency of materials. I should not recapitulate the disasters
+of the Alexandrian library, the involuntary flame that was
+kindled by Caesar in his own defence, ^119 or the mischievous
+bigotry of the Christians, who studied to destroy the monuments
+of idolatry. ^120 But if we gradually descend from the age of the
+Antonines to that of Theodosius, we shall learn from a chain of
+contemporary witnesses, that the royal palace and the temple of
+Serapis no longer contained the four, or the seven, hundred
+thousand volumes, which had been assembled by the curiosity and
+magnificence of the Ptolemies. ^121 Perhaps the church and seat
+of the patriarchs might be enriched with a repository of books;
+but if the ponderous mass of Arian and Monophysite controversy
+were indeed consumed in the public baths, ^122 a philosopher may
+allow, with a smile, that it was ultimately devoted to the
+benefit of mankind.  I sincerely regret the more valuable
+libraries which have been involved in the ruin of the Roman
+empire; but when I seriously compute the lapse of ages, the waste
+of ignorance, and the calamities of war, our treasures, rather
+than our losses, are the objects of my surprise.  Many curious
+and interesting facts are buried in oblivion: the three great
+historians of Rome have been transmitted to our hands in a
+mutilated state, and we are deprived of many pleasing
+compositions of the lyric, iambic, and dramatic poetry of the
+Greeks.  Yet we should gratefully remember, that the mischances
+of time and accident have spared the classic works to which the
+suffrage of antiquity ^123 had adjudged the first place of genius
+and glory: the teachers of ancient knowledge, who are still
+extant, had perused and compared the writings of their
+predecessors; ^124 nor can it fairly be presumed that any
+important truth, any useful discovery in art or nature, has been
+snatched away from the curiosity of modern ages.
+
+[Footnote 115: Many treatises of this lover of labor are still
+extant, but for readers of the present age, the printed and
+unpublished are nearly in the same predicament.  Moses and
+Aristotle are the chief objects of his verbose commentaries, one
+of which is dated as early as May 10th, A.D. 617, (Fabric.
+Bibliot. Graec. tom. ix. p. 458 - 468.) A modern, (John Le
+Clerc,) who sometimes assumed the same name was equal to old
+Philoponus in diligence, and far superior in good sense and real
+knowledge.]
+
+[Footnote 116: Abulpharag. Dynast. p. 114, vers. Pocock.  Audi
+quid factum sit et mirare.  It would be endless to enumerate the
+moderns who have wondered and believed, but I may distinguish
+with honor the rational scepticism of Renaudot, (Hist. Alex.
+Patriarch, p. 170: ) historia ... habet aliquid ut Arabibus
+familiare est.]
+
+[Footnote *: Since this period several new Mahometan authorities
+have been adduced to support the authority of Abulpharagius.
+That of, I. Abdollatiph by Professor White: II.  Of Makrizi; I
+have seen a Ms. extract from this writer: III.  Of Ibn Chaledun:
+and after them Hadschi Chalfa. See Von Hammer, Geschichte der
+Assassinen, p. 17.  Reinhard, in a German Dissertation, printed
+at Gottingen, 1792, and St. Croix, (Magasin Encyclop. tom. iv. p.
+433,) have examined the question.  Among Oriental scholars,
+Professor White, M. St. Martin, Von Hammer. and Silv. de Sacy,
+consider the fact of the burning the library, by the command of
+Omar, beyond question. Compare St. Martin's note. vol. xi. p.
+296.  A Mahometan writer brings a similar charge against the
+Crusaders.  The library of Tripoli is said to have contained the
+incredible number of three millions of volumes.  On the capture
+of the city, Count Bertram of St. Giles, entering the first room,
+which contained nothing but the Koran, ordered the whole to be
+burnt, as the works of the false prophet of Arabia.  See Wilken.
+Gesch der Kreux zuge, vol. ii. p. 211. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 117: This curious anecdote will be vainly sought in the
+annals of Eutychius, and the Saracenic history of Elmacin.  The
+silence of Abulfeda, Murtadi, and a crowd of Moslems, is less
+conclusive from their ignorance of Christian literature.]
+
+[Footnote 118: See Reland, de Jure Militari Mohammedanorum, in
+his iiid volume of Dissertations, p. 37.  The reason for not
+burning the religious books of the Jews or Christians, is derived
+from the respect that is due to the name of God.]
+
+[Footnote 119: Consult the collections of Frensheim (Supplement.
+Livian, c. 12, 43) and Usher, (Anal. p. 469.) Livy himself had
+styled the Alexandrian library, elegantiae regum curaeque
+egregium opus; a liberal encomium, for which he is pertly
+criticized by the narrow stoicism of Seneca, (De Tranquillitate
+Animi, c. 9,) whose wisdom, on this occasion, deviates into
+nonsense.]
+
+[Footnote 120: See this History, vol. iii. p. 146.]
+
+[Footnote 121: Aulus Gellius, (Noctes Atticae, vi. 17,) Ammianus
+Marcellinua, (xxii. 16,) and Orosius, (l. vi. c. 15.) They all
+speak in the past tense, and the words of Ammianus are remarkably
+strong: fuerunt Bibliothecae innumerabiles; et loquitum
+monumentorum veterum concinens fides, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 122: Renaudot answers for versions of the Bible,
+Hexapla, Catenoe Patrum, Commentaries, &c., (p. 170.) Our
+Alexandrian Ms., if it came from Egypt, and not from
+Constantinople or Mount Athos, (Wetstein, Prolegom. ad N. T. p.
+8, &c.,) might possibly be among them.]
+
+[Footnote 123: I have often perused with pleasure a chapter of
+Quintilian, (Institut. Orator. x. i.,) in which that judicious
+critic enumerates and appreciates the series of Greek and Latin
+classics.]
+
+[Footnote 124: Such as Galen, Pliny, Aristotle, &c.  On this
+subject Wotton (Reflections on Ancient and Modern Learning, p. 85
+- 95) argues, with solid sense, against the lively exotic fancies
+of Sir William Temple.  The contempt of the Greeks for Barbaric
+science would scarcely admit the Indian or Aethiopic books into
+the library of Alexandria; nor is it proved that philosophy has
+sustained any real loss from their exclusion.]
+
+In the administration of Egypt, ^125 Amrou balanced the
+demands of justice and policy; the interest of the people of the
+law, who were defended by God; and of the people of the alliance,
+who were protected by man.  In the recent tumult of conquest and
+deliverance, the tongue of the Copts and the sword of the Arabs
+were most adverse to the tranquillity of the province.  To the
+former, Amrou declared, that faction and falsehood would be
+doubly chastised; by the punishment of the accusers, whom he
+should detest as his personal enemies, and by the promotion of
+their innocent brethren, whom their envy had labored to injure
+and supplant.  He excited the latter by the motives of religion
+and honor to sustain the dignity of their character, to endear
+themselves by a modest and temperate conduct to God and the
+caliph, to spare and protect a people who had trusted to their
+faith, and to content themselves with the legitimate and splendid
+rewards of their victory.  In the management of the revenue, he
+disapproved the simple but oppressive mode of a capitation, and
+preferred with reason a proportion of taxes deducted on every
+branch from the clear profits of agriculture and commerce.  A
+third part of the tribute was appropriated to the annual repairs
+of the dikes and canals, so essential to the public welfare.
+Under his administration, the fertility of Egypt supplied the
+dearth of Arabia; and a string of camels, laden with corn and
+provisions, covered almost without an interval the long road from
+Memphis to Medina. ^126 But the genius of Amrou soon renewed the
+maritime communication which had been attempted or achieved by
+the Pharaohs the Ptolemies, or the Caesars; and a canal, at least
+eighty miles in length, was opened from the Nile to the Red Sea.
+^* This inland navigation, which would have joined the
+Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean, was soon discontinued as
+useless and dangerous: the throne was removed from Medina to
+Damascus, and the Grecian fleets might have explored a passage to
+the holy cities of Arabia. ^127
+
+[Footnote 125: This curious and authentic intelligence of Murtadi
+(p. 284 - 289) has not been discovered either by Mr. Ockley, or
+by the self- sufficient compilers of the Modern Universal
+History.]
+
+[Footnote 126: Eutychius, Annal. tom. ii. p. 320.  Elmacin, Hist.
+Saracen. p. 35.]
+
+[Footnote *: Many learned men have doubted the existence of a
+communication by water between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean
+by the Nile.  Yet the fact is positively asserted by the
+ancients.  Diodorus Siculus (l. i. p. 33) speaks of it in the
+most distinct manner as existing in his time.  So, also, Strabo,
+(l. xvii. p. 805.) Pliny (vol. vi. p. 29) says that the canal
+which united the two seas was navigable, (alveus navigabilis.)
+The indications furnished by Ptolemy and by the Arabic historian,
+Makrisi, show that works were executed under the reign of Hadrian
+to repair the canal and extend the navigation; it then received
+the name of the River of Trajan Lucian, (in his Pseudomantis, p.
+44,) says that he went by water from Alexandria to Clysma, on the
+Red Sea. Testimonies of the 6th and of the 8th century show that
+the communication was not interrupted at that time. See the
+French translation of Strabo, vol. v. p. 382.  St. Martin vol.
+xi. p. 299. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 127: On these obscure canals, the reader may try to
+satisfy himself from D'Anville, (Mem. sur l'Egypte, p. 108 - 110,
+124, 132,) and a learned thesis, maintained and printed at
+Strasburg in the year 1770, (Jungendorum marium fluviorumque
+molimina, p. 39 - 47, 68 - 70.) Even the supine Turks have
+agitated the old project of joining the two seas. (Memoires du
+Baron de Tott, tom. iv.)]
+
+Of his new conquest, the caliph Omar had an imperfect
+knowledge from the voice of fame and the legends of the Koran.
+He requested that his lieutenant would place before his eyes the
+realm of Pharaoh and the Amalekites; and the answer of Amrou
+exhibits a lively and not unfaithful picture of that singular
+country. ^128 "O commander of the faithful, Egypt is a compound
+of black earth and green plants, between a pulverized mountain
+and a red sand.  The distance from Syene to the sea is a month's
+journey for a horseman.  Along the valley descends a river, on
+which the blessing of the Most High reposes both in the evening
+and morning, and which rises and falls with the revolutions of
+the sun and moon.  When the annual dispensation of Providence
+unlocks the springs and fountains that nourish the earth, the
+Nile rolls his swelling and sounding waters through the realm of
+Egypt: the fields are overspread by the salutary flood; and the
+villages communicate with each other in their painted barks. The
+retreat of the inundation deposits a fertilizing mud for the
+reception of the various seeds: the crowds of husbandmen who
+blacken the land may be compared to a swarm of industrious ants;
+and their native indolence is quickened by the lash of the
+task-master, and the promise of the flowers and fruits of a
+plentiful increase.  Their hope is seldom deceived; but the
+riches which they extract from the wheat, the barley, and the
+rice, the legumes, the fruit-trees, and the cattle, are unequally
+shared between those who labor and those who possess.  According
+to the vicissitudes of the seasons, the face of the country is
+adorned with a silver wave, a verdant emerald, and the deep
+yellow of a golden harvest." ^129 Yet this beneficial order is
+sometimes interrupted; and the long delay and sudden swell of the
+river in the first year of the conquest might afford some color
+to an edifying fable.  It is said, that the annual sacrifice of a
+virgin ^130 had been interdicted by the piety of Omar; and that
+the Nile lay sullen and inactive in his shallow bed, till the
+mandate of the caliph was cast into the obedient stream, which
+rose in a single night to the height of sixteen cubits.  The
+admiration of the Arabs for their new conquest encouraged the
+license of their romantic spirit. We may read, in the gravest
+authors, that Egypt was crowded with twenty thousand cities or
+villages: ^131 that, exclusive of the Greeks and Arabs, the Copts
+alone were found, on the assessment, six millions of tributary
+subjects, ^132 or twenty millions of either sex, and of every
+age: that three hundred millions of gold or silver were annually
+paid to the treasury of the caliphs. ^133 Our reason must be
+startled by these extravagant assertions; and they will become
+more palpable, if we assume the compass and measure the extent of
+habitable ground: a valley from the tropic to Memphis seldom
+broader than twelve miles, and the triangle of the Delta, a flat
+surface of two thousand one hundred square leagues, compose a
+twelfth part of the magnitude of France. ^134 A more accurate
+research will justify a more reasonable estimate.  The three
+hundred millions, created by the error of a scribe, are reduced
+to the decent revenue of four millions three hundred thousand
+pieces of gold, of which nine hundred thousand were consumed by
+the pay of the soldiers. ^135 Two authentic lists, of the present
+and of the twelfth century, are circumscribed within the
+respectable number of two thousand seven hundred villages and
+towns. ^136 After a long residence at Cairo, a French consul has
+ventured to assign about four millions of Mahometans, Christians,
+and Jews, for the ample, though not incredible, scope of the
+population of Egypt. ^137
+
+[Footnote 128: A small volume, des Merveilles, &c., de l'Egypte,
+composed in the xiiith century by Murtadi of Cairo, and
+translated from an Arabic Ms. of Cardinal Mazarin, was published
+by Pierre Vatier, Paris, 1666.  The antiquities of Egypt are wild
+and legendary; but the writer deserves credit and esteem for his
+account of the conquest and geography of his native country, (see
+the correspondence of Amrou and Omar, p. 279 - 289.)]
+
+[Footnote 129: In a twenty years' residence at Cairo, the consul
+Maillet had contemplated that varying scene, the Nile, (lettre
+ii. particularly p. 70, 75;) the fertility of the land, (lettre
+ix.) From a college at Cambridge, the poetic eye of Gray had seen
+the same objects with a keener glance: -
+
+What wonder in the sultry climes that spread,
+
+Where Nile, redundant o'er his summer bed,
+
+From his broad bosom life and verdure flings,
+
+And broods o'er Egypt with his watery wings:
+
+If with adventurous oar, and ready sail,
+
+The dusky people drive before the gale:
+
+Or on frail floats to neighboring cities ride.
+
+That rise and glitter o'er the ambient tide.
+
+(Mason's Works and Memoirs of Gray, p. 199, 200.)]
+
+[Footnote 130: Murtadi, p. 164 - 167.  The reader will not easily
+credit a human sacrifice under the Christian emperors, or a
+miracle of the successors of Mahomet.]
+
+[Footnote 131: Maillet, Description de l'Egypte, p. 22.  He
+mentions this number as the common opinion; and adds, that the
+generality of these villages contain two or three thousand
+persons, and that many of them are more populous than our large
+cities.]
+
+[Footnote 132: Eutych. Annal. tom. ii. p. 308, 311.  The twenty
+millions are computed from the following data: one twelfth of
+mankind above sixty, one third below sixteen, the proportion of
+men to women as seventeen or sixteen, (Recherches sur la
+Population de la France, p. 71, 72.) The president Goguet
+(Origine des Arts, &c., tom. iii. p. 26, &c.) Bestows
+twenty-seven millions on ancient Egypt, because the seventeen
+hundred companions of Sesostris were born on the same day.]
+
+[Footnote 133: Elmacin, Hist. Saracen. p. 218; and this gross
+lump is swallowed without scruple by D'Herbelot, (Bibliot.
+Orient. p. 1031,) Ar. buthnot, (Tables of Ancient Coins, p. 262,)
+and De Guignes, (Hist. des Huns, tom. iii. p. 135.) They might
+allege the not less extravagant liberality of Appian in favor of
+the Ptolemies (in praefat.) of seventy four myriads, 740,000
+talents, an annual income of 185, or near 300 millions of pounds
+sterling, according as we reckon by the Egyptian or the
+Alexandrian talent, (Bernard, de Ponderibus Antiq. p. 186.)]
+
+[Footnote 134: See the measurement of D'Anville, (Mem. sur
+l'Egypte, p. 23, &c.) After some peevish cavils, M. Pauw
+(Recherches sur les Egyptiens, tom. i. p. 118 - 121) can only
+enlarge his reckoning to 2250 square leagues.]
+
+[Footnote 135: Renaudot, Hist. Patriarch. Alexand. p. 334, who
+calls the common reading or version of Elmacin, error librarii.
+His own emendation, of 4,300,000 pieces, in the ixth century,
+maintains a probable medium between the 3,000,000 which the Arabs
+acquired by the conquest of Egypt, idem, p. 168.) and the
+2,400,000 which the sultan of Constantinople levied in the last
+century, (Pietro della Valle, tom. i. p. 352 Thevenot, part i. p.
+824.) Pauw (Recherches, tom. ii. p. 365 - 373) gradually raises
+the revenue of the Pharaohs, the Ptolemies, and the Caesars, from
+six to fifteen millions of German crowns.]
+
+[Footnote 136: The list of Schultens (Index Geograph. ad calcem
+Vit. Saladin. p. 5) contains 2396 places; that of D'Anville,
+(Mem. sur l'Egypte, p. 29,) from the divan of Cairo, enumerates
+2696.]
+
+[Footnote 137: See Maillet, (Description de l'Egypte, p. 28,) who
+seems to argue with candor and judgment.  I am much better
+satisfied with the observations than with the reading of the
+French consul.  He was ignorant of Greek and Latin literature,
+and his fancy is too much delighted with the fictions of the
+Arabs.  Their best knowledge is collected by Abulfeda, (Descript.
+Aegypt. Arab. et Lat. a Joh. David Michaelis, Gottingae, in 4to.,
+1776;) and in two recent voyages into Egypt, we are amused by
+Savary, and instructed by Volney.  I wish the latter could travel
+over the globe.]
+
+IV.  The conquest of Africa, from the Nile to the Atlantic
+Ocean, ^138 was first attempted by the arms of the caliph Othman.
+
+The pious design was approved by the companions of Mahomet and
+the chiefs of the tribes; and twenty thousand Arabs marched from
+Medina, with the gifts and the blessing of the commander of the
+faithful.  They were joined in the camp of Memphis by twenty
+thousand of their countrymen; and the conduct of the war was
+intrusted to Abdallah, ^139 the son of Said and the
+foster-brother of the caliph, who had lately supplanted the
+conqueror and lieutenant of Egypt. Yet the favor of the prince,
+and the merit of his favorite, could not obliterate the guilt of
+his apostasy.  The early conversion of Abdallah, and his skilful
+pen, had recommended him to the important office of transcribing
+the sheets of the Koran: he betrayed his trust, corrupted the
+text, derided the errors which he had made, and fled to Mecca to
+escape the justice, and expose the ignorance, of the apostle.
+After the conquest of Mecca, he fell prostrate at the feet of
+Mahomet; his tears, and the entreaties of Othman, extorted a
+reluctant pardon; out the prophet declared that he had so long
+hesitated, to allow time for some zealous disciple to avenge his
+injury in the blood of the apostate.  With apparent fidelity and
+effective merit, he served the religion which it was no longer
+his interest to desert: his birth and talents gave him an
+honorable rank among the Koreish; and, in a nation of cavalry,
+Abdallah was renowned as the boldest and most dexterous horseman
+of Arabia.  At the head of forty thousand Moslems, he advanced
+from Egypt into the unknown countries of the West. The sands of
+Barca might be impervious to a Roman legion but the Arabs were
+attended by their faithful camels; and the natives of the desert
+beheld without terror the familiar aspect of the soil and
+climate.  After a painful march, they pitched their tents before
+the walls of Tripoli, ^140 a maritime city in which the name, the
+wealth, and the inhabitants of the province had gradually
+centred, and which now maintains the third rank among the states
+of Barbary.  A reenforcement of Greeks was surprised and cut in
+pieces on the sea-shore; but the fortifications of Tripoli
+resisted the first assaults; and the Saracens were tempted by the
+approach of the praefect Gregory ^141 to relinquish the labors of
+the siege for the perils and the hopes of a decisive action.  If
+his standard was followed by one hundred and twenty thousand men,
+the regular bands of the empire must have been lost in the naked
+and disorderly crowd of Africans and Moors, who formed the
+strength, or rather the numbers, of his host.  He rejected with
+indignation the option of the Koran or the tribute; and during
+several days the two armies were fiercely engaged from the dawn
+of light to the hour of noon, when their fatigue and the
+excessive heat compelled them to seek shelter and refreshment in
+their respective camps. The daughter of Gregory, a maid of
+incomparable beauty and spirit, is said to have fought by his
+side: from her earliest youth she was trained to mount on
+horseback, to draw the bow, and to wield the cimeter; and the
+richness of her arms and apparel were conspicuous in the foremost
+ranks of the battle.  Her hand, with a hundred thousand pieces of
+gold, was offered for the head of the Arabian general, and the
+youths of Africa were excited by the prospect of the glorious
+prize.  At the pressing solicitation of his brethren, Abdallah
+withdrew his person from the field; but the Saracens were
+discouraged by the retreat of their leader, and the repetition of
+these equal or unsuccessful conflicts.
+
+[Footnote 138: My conquest of Africa is drawn from two French
+interpreters of Arabic literature, Cardonne (Hist. de l'Afrique
+et de l'Espagne sous la Domination des Arabes, tom. i. p. 8 - 55)
+and Otter, (Hist. de l'Academie des Inscriptions, tom. xxi. p.
+111 - 125, and 136.) They derive their principal information from
+Novairi, who composed, A.D. 1331 an Encyclopaedia in more than
+twenty volumes.  The five general parts successively treat of, 1.
+Physics; 2. Man; 3. Animals; 4. Plants; and, 5. History; and the
+African affairs are discussed in the vith chapter of the vth
+section of this last part, (Reiske, Prodidagmata ad Hagji
+Chalifae Tabulas, p. 232 - 234.) Among the older historians who
+are quoted by Navairi we may distinguish the original narrative
+of a soldier who led the van of the Moslems.]
+
+[Footnote 139: See the history of Abdallah, in Abulfeda (Vit.
+Mohammed. p. 108) and Gagnier, (Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. 45 -
+48.)]
+
+[Footnote 140: The province and city of Tripoli are described by
+Leo Africanus (in Navigatione et Viaggi di Ramusio, tom. i.
+Venetia, 1550, fol. 76, verso) and Marmol, (Description de
+l'Afrique, tom. ii. p. 562.) The first of these writers was a
+Moor, a scholar, and a traveller, who composed or translated his
+African geography in a state of captivity at Rome, where he had
+assumed the name and religion of Pope Leo X.  In a similar
+captivity among the Moors, the Spaniard Marmol, a soldier of
+Charles V., compiled his Description of Africa, translated by
+D'Ablancourt into French, (Paris, 1667, 3 vols. in 4to.) Marmol
+had read and seen, but he is destitute of the curious and
+extensive observation which abounds in the original work of Leo
+the African.]
+
+[Footnote 141: Theophanes, who mentions the defeat, rather than
+the death, of Gregory.  He brands the praefect with the name: he
+had probably assumed the purple, (Chronograph. p. 285.)]
+
+A noble Arabian, who afterwards became the adversary of Ali,
+and the father of a caliph, had signalized his valor in Egypt,
+and Zobeir ^142 was the first who planted the scaling-ladder
+against the walls of Babylon.  In the African war he was detached
+from the standard of Abdallah.  On the news of the battle,
+Zobeir, with twelve companions, cut his way through the camp of
+the Greeks, and pressed forwards, without tasting either food or
+repose, to partake of the dangers of his brethren.  He cast his
+eyes round the field: "Where," said he, "is our general?" "In his
+tent." "Is the tent a station for the general of the Moslems?"
+Abdallah represented with a blush the importance of his own life,
+and the temptation that was held forth by the Roman praefect.
+"Retort," said Zobeir, "on the infidels their ungenerous attempt.
+
+Proclaim through the ranks that the head of Gregory shall be
+repaid with his captive daughter, and the equal sum of one
+hundred thousand pieces of gold." To the courage and discretion
+of Zobeir the lieutenant of the caliph intrusted the execution of
+his own stratagem, which inclined the long-disputed balance in
+favor of the Saracens. Supplying by activity and artifice the
+deficiency of numbers, a part of their forces lay concealed in
+their tents, while the remainder prolonged an irregular skirmish
+with the enemy till the sun was high in the heavens.  On both
+sides they retired with fainting steps: their horses were
+unbridled, their armor was laid aside, and the hostile nations
+prepared, or seemed to prepare, for the refreshment of the
+evening, and the encounter of the ensuing day.  On a sudden the
+charge was sounded; the Arabian camp poured forth a swarm of
+fresh and intrepid warriors; and the long line of the Greeks and
+Africans was surprised, assaulted, overturned, by new squadrons
+of the faithful, who, to the eye of fanaticism, might appear as a
+band of angels descending from the sky.  The praefect himself was
+slain by the hand of Zobeir: his daughter, who sought revenge and
+death, was surrounded and made prisoner; and the fugitives
+involved in their disaster the town of Sufetula, to which they
+escaped from the sabres and lances of the Arabs. Sufetula was
+built one hundred and fifty miles to the south of Carthage: a
+gentle declivity is watered by a running stream, and shaded by a
+grove of juniper-trees; and, in the ruins of a triumpha arch, a
+portico, and three temples of the Corinthian order, curiosity may
+yet admire the magnificence of the Romans. ^143 After the fall of
+this opulent city, the provincials and Barbarians implored on all
+sides the mercy of the conqueror.  His vanity or his zeal might
+be flattered by offers of tribute or professions of faith: but
+his losses, his fatigues, and the progress of an epidemical
+disease, prevented a solid establishment; and the Saracens, after
+a campaign of fifteen months, retreated to the confines of Egypt,
+with the captives and the wealth of their African expedition.
+The caliph's fifth was granted to a favorite, on the nominal
+payment of five hundred thousand pieces of gold; ^144 but the
+state was doubly injured by this fallacious transaction, if each
+foot-soldier had shared one thousand, and each horseman three
+thousand, pieces, in the real division of the plunder.  The
+author of the death of Gregory was expected to have claimed the
+most precious reward of the victory: from his silence it might be
+presumed that he had fallen in the battle, till the tears and
+exclamations of the praefect's daughter at the sight of Zobeir
+revealed the valor and modesty of that gallant soldier.  The
+unfortunate virgin was offered, and almost rejected as a slave,
+by her father's murderer, who coolly declared that his sword was
+consecrated to the service of religion; and that he labored for a
+recompense far above the charms of mortal beauty, or the riches
+of this transitory life.  A reward congenial to his temper was
+the honorable commission of announcing to the caliph Othman the
+success of his arms.  The companions the chiefs, and the people,
+were assembled in the mosch of Medina, to hear the interesting
+narrative of Zobeir; and as the orator forgot nothing except the
+merit of his own counsels and actions, the name of Abdallah was
+joined by the Arabians with the heroic names of Caled and Amrou.
+^145
+
+[Footnote 142: See in Ockley (Hist. of the Saracens, vol. ii. p.
+45) the death of Zobeir, which was honored with the tears of Ali,
+against whom he had rebelled.  His valor at the siege of Babylon,
+if indeed it be the same person, is mentioned by Eutychius,
+(Annal. tom. ii. p. 308)]
+
+[Footnote 143: Shaw's Travels, p. 118, 119.]
+
+[Footnote 144: Mimica emptio, says Abulfeda, erat haec, et mira
+donatio; quandoquidem Othman, ejus nomine nummos ex aerario prius
+ablatos aerario praestabat, (Annal. Moslem. p. 78.) Elmacin (in
+his cloudy version, p. 39) seems to report the same job.  When
+the Arabs be sieged the palace of Othman, it stood high in their
+catalogue of grievances.`]
+
+[Footnote 145: Theophan.  Chronograph. p. 235 edit. Paris.  His
+chronology is loose and inaccurate.]
+
+[A. D. 665-689.]  The western conquests of the Saracens were
+suspended near twenty years, till their dissensions were composed by
+the establishment of the house of Ommiyah; and the caliph Moawiyah
+was invited by the cries of the Africans themselves.  The successors
+of Heraclius had been informed of the tribute which they had been
+compelled to stipulate with the Arabs; but instead of being moved to
+pity and relieve their distress, they imposed, as an equivalent or a
+fine, a second tribute of a similar amount.  The ears of the zantine
+ministers were shut against the complaints of their poverty and ruin
+their despair was reduced to prefer the dominion of a single master;
+and the extortions of the patriarch of Carthage, who was invested
+with civil and military power, provoked the sectaries, and even the
+Catholics, of the Roman province to abjure the religion as well as
+the authority of their tyrants.  The first lieutenant of Moawiyah
+acquired a just renown, subdued an important city, defeated an army
+of thirty thousand Greeks, swept away fourscore thousand captives,
+and enriched with their spoils the bold adventurers of Syria and
+Egypt.^146  But the title of conqueror of Africa is more justly due
+to his successor Akbah.  He marched from Damascus at the head of ten
+thousand of the bravest Arabs; and the genuine force of the Moslems
+was enlarged by the doubtful aid and conversion of many thousand
+Barbarians.  It would be difficult, nor is it necessary, to trace the
+accurate line of the progress of Akbah.  The interior regions have
+been peopled by the Orientals with fictitious armies and imaginary
+citadels.  In the warlike province of Zab or Numidia, fourscore
+thousand of the natives might assemble in arms; but the number of
+three hundred and sixty towns is incompatible with the ignorance or
+decay of husbandry;^147 and a circumference of three leagues will not
+be justified by the ruins of Erbe or Lambesa, the ancient metropolis
+of that inland country.  As we approach the seacoast, the well-known
+titles of Bugia,^148 and Tangier^149 define the more certain limits
+of the Saracen victories.  A remnant of trade still adheres to the
+commodious harbour of Bugia, which, in a more prosperous age, is said
+to have contained about twenty thousand houses; and the plenty of
+iron which is dug from the adjacent mountains might have supplied a
+braver people with the instruments of defence.  The remote position
+and venerable antiquity of Tingi, or Tangier, have been decorated by
+the Greek and Arabian fables; but the figurative expressions of the
+latter, that the walls were constructed of brass, and that the roofs
+were covered with gold and silver, may be interpreted as the emblems
+of strength and opulence.
+
+[Footnote 146: Theophanes (in Chronograph.  p. 293.) inserts the vague
+rumours that might reach Constantinople, of the western conquests of the
+Arabs; and I learn from Paul Warnefrid, deacon of Aquileia (de Gestis
+Langobard.  1. v. c. 13), that at this time they sent a fleet from
+Alexandria into the Sicilian and African seas.]
+
+[Footnote 147: See Novairi (apud Otter, p. 118), Leo Africanus (fol.
+81, verso), who reckoned only cinque citta e infinite casal, Marmol
+(Description de l'Afrique, tom. iii.  p. 33,) and Shaw (Travels,
+p. 57, 65-68)]
+
+[Footnote 148: Leo African.  fol. 58, verso, 59, recto.  Marmol,
+tom. ii. p. 415.  Shaw, p. 43]
+
+[Footnote 149: Leo African.  fol. 52.  Marmol, tom. ii.  p. 228.]
+
+The province of Mauritania Tingitana,^150 which assumed the name of
+the capital had been imperfectly discovered and settled by the
+Romans; the five colonies were confined to a narrow pale, and the
+more southern parts were seldom explored except by the agents of
+luxury, who searched the forests for ivory and the citron wood,^151
+and the shores of the ocean for the purple shellfish.  The fearless
+Akbah plunged into the heart of the country, traversed the wilderness
+in which his successors erected the splendid capitals of Fez and
+Morocco,^152 and at length penetrated to the verge of the Atlantic
+and the great desert.  The river Suz descends from the western sides
+of mount Atlas, fertilizes, like the Nile, the adjacent soil, and
+falls into the sea at a moderate distance from the Canary, or
+adjacent  islands.  Its banks were inhabited by the last of the
+Moors, a race of savages, without laws, or discipline, or religion:
+they were astonished by the strange and irresistible terrors of the
+Oriental arms; and as they possessed neither gold nor silver, the
+richest spoil was the beauty of the female captives, some of whom
+were afterward sold for a thousand pieces of gold.  The career,
+though not the zeal, of Akbah was checked by the prospect of a
+boundless ocean.  He spurred his horse into the waves, and raising
+his eyes to heaven, exclaimed with the tone of a fanatic: "Great God!
+if my course were not stopped by this sea, I would still go on, to
+the unknown kingdoms of the West, preaching the unity of thy holy
+name, and putting to the sword the rebellious nations who worship
+another gods than thee."^153  Yet this Mahometan Alexander, who
+sighed for new worlds, was unable to preserve his recent conquests.
+By the universal defection of the Greeks and Africans he was recalled
+from the shores of the Atlantic, and the surrounding multitudes left
+him only the resource of an honourable death.  The last scene was
+dignified by an example of national virtue.  An ambitious chief, who
+had disputed the command and failed in the attempt, was led about as
+a prisoner in the camp of the Arabian general.  The insurgents had
+trusted to his discontent and revenge; he disdained their offers and
+revealed their designs.  In the hour of danger, the grateful Akbah
+unlocked his fetters, and advised him to retire; he chose to die
+under the banner of his rival.  Embracing as friends and martyrs,
+they unsheathed their scimeters, broke their scabbards, and
+maintained an obstinate combat, till they fell by each other's side
+on the last of their slaughtered countrymen.  The third general or
+governor of Africa, Zuheir, avenged and encountered the fate of his
+predecessor.  He vanquished the natives in many battles; he was
+overthrown by a powerful army, which Constantinople had sent to the
+relief of Carthage.
+
+[Footnote 150: Regio ignobilis, et vix quicquam illustre sortita,
+parvis oppidis habitatur, parva flumina emittit, solo quam viris
+meleor et segnitie gentis obscura.  Pomponius Mela, i. 5, iii. 10.
+Mela deserves the more credit, since his own Phoenician ancestors had
+migrated from Tingitana to Spain (see, in ii. 6, a passage of that
+geographer so cruelly tortured by Salmasius, Isaac Vossius, and the
+most virulent of critics, James Gronovius).  He lived at the time of
+the final reduction of that country by the emperor Claudius: yet
+almost thirty years afterward, Pliny (Hist. Nat. v. i.) complains of
+his authors, to lazy to inquire, too proud to confess their ignorance
+of that wild and remote province.]
+
+[Footnote 151: The foolish fashion of this citron wood prevailed at Rome
+among the men, as much as the taste for pearls among the women.  A round
+board or table, four or five feet in diameter, sold for the price of
+an estate (latefundii taxatione), eight, ten, or twelve thousand
+pounds sterling (Plin. Hist. Natur. xiii. 29).  I conceive that I
+must not confound the tree citrus, with that of the fruit citrum.
+But I am not botanist enough to define the former (it is like the
+wild cypress) by the vulgar or Linnaean name; nor will I decide
+whether the citrum be the orange or the lemon.  Salmasius appears to
+exhaust the subject, but he too often involves himself in the web of
+his disorderly erudition.  (Flinian. Exercitat.  tom. ii. p 666, &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 152: Leo African. fol. 16, verso.  Marmol, tom. ii. p. 28.
+This province, the first scene of the exploits and greatness of the
+cherifs  is often mentioned in the curious history of that dynasty at
+the end of the third volume of Marmol, Description de l'Afrique.  The
+third vol. of The Recherches Historiques sur les Maures (lately
+published at Paris) illustrates the history and geography of the
+kingdoms of Fez and Morocco.]
+
+[Footnote 153: Otter (p. 119,) has given the strong tone of fanaticism
+to this exclamation, which Cardonne (p. 37,) has softened to a pious
+wish of preaching the Koran.  Yet they had both the same text of
+Novairi before their eyes.]
+
+[A. D.  670-675.]  It had been the frequent practice of the Moorish
+tribes to join the invaders, to share the plunder, to profess the
+faith, and to revolt in their savage state of independence and
+idolatry, on the first retreat or misfortune of the Moslems.  The
+prudence of Akbah had proposed to found an Arabian colony in the
+heart of Africa; a citadel that might curb the levity of the
+Barbarians, a place of refuge to secure, against the accidents of
+war, the wealth and the families of the Saracens.  With this view,
+and under the modest title of the station of a caravan, he planted
+this colony in the fiftieth year of the Hegira.  In its present
+decay, Cairoan^154 still holds the second rank in the kingdom of
+Tunis, from which it is distant about fifty miles to the south;^155
+its inland situation, twelve miles westward of the sea, has protected
+the city from the Greek and Sicilian fleets.  When the wild beasts
+and serpents were extirpated, when the forest, or rather wilderness,
+was cleared, the vestiges of a Roman town were discovered in a sandy
+plain: the vegetable food of Cairoan is brought from afar; and the
+scarcity of springs constrains the inhabitants to collect in cisterns
+and reservoirs a precarious supply of rain water.  These obstacles
+were subdued by the industry of Akbah; he traced a circumference of
+three thousand and six hundred paces, which he encompassed with a
+brick wall; in the space of five years, the governor's palace was
+surrounded with a sufficient number of private habitations; a
+spacious mosque was supported by five hundred columns of granite,
+porphyry, and Numidian marble; and Cairoan became the seat of
+learning as well as of empire.  But these were the glories of a later
+age; the new colony was shaken by the successive defeats of Akbah and
+Zuheir, and the western expeditions were again interrupted by the
+civil discord of the Arabian monarchy.  The son of the valiant Zobeir
+maintained a war of twelve years, a siege of seven months against the
+house of Ommiyah.  Abdallah was said to unite the fierceness of the
+lion with the subtlety of the fox; but if he inherited the courage,
+he was devoid of the generosity, of his
+father.^156
+
+[A. D.  692-698.]  The return of domestic peace allowed the caliph
+Abdalmalek to resume the conquest of Africa; the standard was
+delivered to Hassan governor of Egypt, and the revenue of that
+kingdom, with an army of forty thousand men, was consecrated to the
+important service.  In the vicissitudes of war, the interior
+provinces had been alternately won and lost by the Saracens.  But the
+seacoast still remained in the hands of the Greeks; the predecessors
+of Hassan had respected the name and fortifications of Carthage; and
+the number of its defenders was recruited by the fugitives of Cabes
+and Tripoli.  The arms of Hassan were bolder and more fortunate: he
+reduced and pillaged the metropolis of Africa; and the mention of
+scaling-ladders may justify the suspicion, that he anticipated, by a
+sudden assault, the more tedious operations of a regular siege.  But
+the joy of the conquerors was soon disturbed by the appearance of the
+Christian succours.  The praefect and patrician John, a general of
+experience and renown, embarked at Constantinople the forces of the
+Eastern empire;^157 they were joined by the ships and soldiers of
+Sicily, and a powerful reinforcement of Goths^158 was obtained from
+the fears and religion of the Spanish monarch.
+
+[Footnote 154: The foundation of Cairoan is mentioned by Ockley (Hist.
+of the Saracens, vol. ii. p. 129, 130); and the situation, mosque, &c.
+of the city are described by Leo Africanus (fol. 75), Marmol (tom. ii.
+p. 532), and Shaw (p. 115).]
+
+[Footnote 155: A portentous, though frequent mistake, has been the
+confounding, from a slight similitude of name, the Cyrene of the
+Greeks, and the Cairoan of the Arabs, two cities which are separated
+by an interval of a thousand miles along the seacoast.  The great
+Thuanus has not escaped this fault, the less excusable as it is
+connected with a formal and elaborate description of Africa
+(Historiar. l. vii. c. 2, in tom. i. p. 240, edit. Buckley).]
+
+[Footnote 156: Besides the Arabic Chronicles of Abulfeda, Elmacin,
+and Abulpharagius, under the lxxiiid year of the Hegira, we may
+consult nd'Herbelot (Bibliot. Orient.  p. 7,) and Ockley (Hist. of the
+Saracens, vol. ii. p. 339-349).  The latter has given the last and
+pathetic dialogue between Abdallah and his mother; but he has forgot
+a physical effect of her grief for his death, the return, at the age
+of ninety, and fatal consequences of her menses.]
+
+[Footnote 157: The patriarch of Constantinople, with Theophanes
+(Chronograph. p. 309,) have slightly mentioned this last attempt for
+the relief or Africa.  Pagi (Critica, tom. iii. p. 129. 141,) has nicely
+ascertained the chronology by a strict comparison of the Arabic and
+Byzantine historians, who often disagree both in time and fact.  See
+likewise a note of Otter (p. 121).]
+
+[Footnote 158: Dove s'erano ridotti i nobili Romani e i Gotti; and
+afterward, i Romani suggirono e i Gotti lasciarono Carthagine.
+(Leo African. for. 72, recto)  I know not from what Arabic writer the
+African derived his Goths; but the fact, though new, is so interesting
+and so probable, that I will accept it on the slightest authority.]
+
+The weight of the confederate navy broke the chain that guarded the
+entrance of the harbour; the Arabs retired to Cairoan, or Tripoli;
+the Christians landed; the citizens hailed the ensign of the cross,
+and the winter was idly wasted in the dream of victory or
+deliverance.  But Africa was irrecoverably lost: the zeal and
+resentment of the commander of the faithful^159 prepared in the
+ensuing spring a more numerous armament by sea and land; and the
+patrician in his turn was compelled to evacuate the post and
+fortifications of Carthage.  A second battle was fought in the
+neighbourhood of Utica; and the Greeks and Goths were again defeated;
+and their timely embarkation saved them from the sword of Hassan, who
+had invested the slight and insufficient rampart of their camp.
+Whatever yet remained of Carthage was delivered to the flames, and
+the colony of Dido^160 and Cesar lay desolate above two hundred
+years, till a part, perhaps a twentieth, of the old circumference was
+repeopled by the first of the Fatimite caliphs.  In the beginning of
+the sixteenth century, the second capital of the West was represented
+by a mosque, a college without students, twenty-five or thirty shops,
+and the huts of five hundred peasants, who, in their abject poverty,
+displayed the arrogance of the Punic senators.  Even that paltry
+village was swept away by the Spaniards whom Charles the Fifth had
+stationed in the fortress of the Goletta.  The ruins of Carthage have
+perished; and the place might be unknown if some broken arches of an
+aqueduct did not guide the footsteps of the inquisitive
+traveller.^161
+
+[A. D.  698-709.]  The Greeks were expelled, but the Arabians were
+not yet masters of the country.  In the interior provinces the Moors
+or Berbers,^162 so feeble under the first Cesars, so formidable to
+the Byzantine princes, maintained a disorderly resistance to the
+religion and power of the successors of Mahomet.  Under the standard
+of their queen Cahina, the independent tribes acquired some degree of
+union and discipline; and as the Moors respected in their females the
+character of a prophetess, they attacked the invaders with an
+enthusiasm similar to their own.  The veteran bands of Hassan were
+inadequate to the defence of Africa: the conquests of an age were
+lost in a single day; and the Arabian chief, overwhelmed by the
+torrent, retired to the confines of Egypt, and expected, five years,
+the promised succours of the caliph.  After the retreat of the
+Saracens, the victorious prophetess assembled the Moorish chiefs, and
+recommended a measure of strange and savage policy.  "Our cities,"
+said she, "and the gold and silver which they contain, perpetually
+attract the arms of the Arabs.  These vile metals are not the objects
+of OUR ambition; we content ourselves with the simple productions of
+the earth.  Let us destroy these cities; let us bury in their ruins
+those pernicious treasures; and when the avarice of our foes shall be
+destitute of temptation, perhaps they will cease to disturb the
+tranquillity of a warlike people."  The proposal was accepted with
+unanimous applause.  From Tangier to Tripoli the buildings, or at
+least the fortifications, were demolished, the fruit-trees were cut
+down, the means of subsistence were extirpated, a fertile and
+populous garden was changed into a desert, and the historians of a
+more recent period could discern the frequent traces of the
+prosperity and devastation of their ancestors.
+
+[Footnote 159: This commander is styled by Nicephorus, --------
+a vague though not improper definition of the caliph.  Theophanes
+introduces the strange appellation of ----------, which his interpreter
+Goar explains by Vizir Azem.  They may approach the truth, in assigning
+the active part to the minister, rather than the prince; but they
+forget that the Ommiades had only a kaleb, or secretary, and that the
+office of Vizir was not revived or instituted till the 132d year of
+the Hegira (d'Herbelot, 912).]
+
+[Footnote 160: According to Solinus (1.27, p. 36, edit.  Salmas),
+the Carthage of Dido stood either 677 or 737 years; a various reading,
+which proceeds from the difference of MSS. or editions (Salmas, Plinian.
+Exercit tom i. p. 228)  The former of these accounts, which gives 823
+years before Christ, is more consistent with the well-weighed
+testimony of Velleius Paterculus: but the latter is preferred by our
+chronologists (Marsham, Canon.  Chron.  p. 398,) as more agreeable to
+the Hebrew and Syrian annals.]
+
+[Footnote 161: Leo African.  fo1. 71, verso; 72, recto.  Marmol,
+tom. ii. p.445-447.  Shaw, p.80.]
+
+[Footnote 162: The history of the word Barbar may be classed under four
+periods, 1. In the time of Homer, when the Greeks and Asiatics might
+probably use a common idiom, the imitative sound of Barbar was
+applied to the ruder tribes, whose pronunciation was most harsh,
+whose grammar was most defective.   2. From the time, at least, of
+Herodotus, it was extended to all the nations who were strangers to
+the language and manners of the Greeks.  3. In the age, of Plautus,
+the Romans submitted to the insult (Pompeius Festus, l. ii. p. 48,
+edit. Dacier), and freely gave themselves the name of Barbarians.
+They insensibly claimed an exemption for Italy, and her subject
+provinces; and at length removed the disgraceful appellation to the
+savage or hostile nations beyond the pale of the empire.  4. In every
+sense, it was due to the Moors; the familiar word was borrowed from
+the Latin Provincials by the Arabian conquerors, and has justly
+settled as a local denomination (Barbary) along the northern coast of
+Africa.]
+
+Such is the tale of the modern Arabians.  Yet I strongly suspect that
+their ignorance of antiquity, the love of the marvellous, and the
+fashion of extolling the philosophy of Barbarians, has induced them
+to describe, as one voluntary act, the calamities of three hundred
+years since the first fury of the Donatists and Vandals.  In the
+progress of the revolt, Cahina had most probably contributed her
+share of destruction; and the alarm of universal ruin might terrify
+and alienate the cities that had reluctantly yielded to her unworthy
+yoke.  They no longer hoped, perhaps they no longer wished, the
+return of their Byzantine sovereigns: their present servitude was not
+alleviated by the benefits of order and justice; and the most zealous
+Catholic must prefer the imperfect truths of the Koran to the blind
+and rude idolatry of the Moors.  The general of the Saracens was
+again received as the saviour of the province; the friends of civil
+society conspired against the savages of the land; and the royal
+prophetess was slain in the first battle which overturned the
+baseless fabric of her superstition and empire.  The same spirit
+revived under the successor of Hassan; it was finally quelled by the
+activity of Musa and his two sons; but the number of the rebels may
+be presumed from that of three hundred thousand captives; sixty
+thousand of whom, the caliph's fifth, were sold for the profit of
+thee public treasury.  Thirty thousand of the Barbarian youth were
+enlisted in the troops; and the pious labours of Musa to inculcate
+the knowledge and practice of the Koran, accustomed the Africans to
+obey the apostle of God and the commander of the faithful.  In their
+climate and government, their diet and habitation, the wandering
+Moors resembled the Bedoweens of the desert.  With the religion, they
+were proud to adopt the language, name, and origin of Arabs: the
+blood of the strangers and natives was insensibly mingled; and from
+the Euphrates to the Atlantic the same nation might seem to be
+diffused over the sandy plains of Asia and Africa.  Yet I will not
+deny that fifty thousand tents of pure Arabians might be transported
+over the Nile, and scattered through the Lybian desert: and I am not
+ignorant that five of the Moorish tribes still retain their barbarous
+idiom, with the appellation and character of white Africans.^163
+
+[A. D.  709.]  V.  In the progress of conquest from the north and
+south, the Goths and the Saracens encountered each other on the
+confines of Europe and Africa.  In the opinion of the latter, the
+difference of religion is a reasonable ground of enmity and
+warfare.^164  As early as the time of Othman^165 their piratical
+squadrons had ravaged the coast of Andalusia;^166 nor had they
+forgotten the relief of Carthage by the Gothic succours.  In that
+age, as well as in the present, the kings of Spain were possessed of
+the fortress of Ceuta; one of the columns of Hercules, which is
+divided by a narrow strait from the opposite pillar or point of
+Europe.  A small portion of Mauritania was still wanting to the
+African conquest; but Musa, in the pride of victory, was repulsed
+from the walls of Ceuta, by the vigilance and courage of count
+Julian, the general of the Goths.  From his disappointment and
+perplexity, Musa was relieved by an unexpected message of the
+Christian chief, who offered his place, his person, and his sword,
+to the successors of Mahomet, and solicited the disgraceful honour
+of introducing their arms into the heart of Spain.^167
+
+[Footnote 163: The first book of Leo Africanus, and the observations
+of Dr. Shaw (p. 220. 223. 227. 247, &c.) will throw some light on the
+roving tribes of Barbary, of Arabian or Moorish descent.  But Shaw
+had seen these savages with distant terror; and Leo, a captive in the
+Vatican, appears to have lost more of his Arabic, than he could
+acquire of Greek or Roman, learning.  Many of his gross mistakes
+might be detected in the first period of the Mahometan history.]
+
+[Footnote 164: In a conference with a prince of the Greeks, Amrou
+observed that their religion was different; upon which score it was
+lawful for brothers to quarrel.  Ockley's History of the Saracens,
+vol. i. p. 328.]
+
+[Footnote 165: Abulfeda, Annal.  Moslem.  p 78, vers.  Reiske.]
+
+[Footnote 166: The name of Andalusia is applied by the Arabs not only
+to the modern province, but to the whole peninsula of Spain (Geograph.
+Nub. p. 151, d'Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient.  p. 114, 115).  The etymology
+has been most improbably deduced from Vandalusia, country of the
+Vandals.  (d'Anville Etats de l'Europe, p. 146, 147, &c.)  But the
+Handalusia of Casiri, which signifies, in Arabic, the region of the
+evening, of the West, in a word, the Hesperia of the Greeks, is
+perfectly apposite.  (Bibliot. Arabico-Hispana, tom. ii.  p. 327,
+&c.)]
+
+[Footnote 167: The fall and resurrection of the Gothic monarchy are
+related by Mariana (tom. l.  p. 238-260, l. vi. c. 19--26, l. vii. c.
+1, 2). That historian has infused into his noble work (Historic de Rebus
+Hispaniae, libri xxx.  Hagae Comitum 1733, in four volumes, folio,
+with the continuation of Miniana), the style and spirit of a Roman
+classic; and after the twelfth century, his knowledge and judgment
+may be safely trusted.  But the Jesuit is not exempt from the
+prejudices of his order; he adopts and adorns, like his rival
+Buchanan, the most absurd of the national legends; he is too careless
+of criticism and chronology, and supplies, from a lively fancy, the
+chasms of historical evidence.  These chasms are large and frequent;
+Roderic archbishop of Toledo, the father of the Spanish history,
+lived five hundred years after the conquest of the Arabs; and the
+more early accounts are comprised in some meagre lines of the blind
+chronicles of Isidore of Badajoz (Pacensis,) and of Alphonso III.
+king of Leon, which I have seen only in the Annals of Pagi.]
+
+If we inquire into the cause of this treachery, the Spaniards will
+repeat the popular story of his daughter Cava;^168 of a virgin who
+was seduced, or ravished, by her sovereign; of a father who
+sacrificed his religion and country to the thirst of revenge.  The
+passions of princes have often been licentious and destructive; but
+this well-known tale, romantic in itself, is indifferently supported
+by external evidence; and the history of Spain will suggest some
+motives of interest and policy more congenial to the breast of a
+veteran statesman.^169  After the decease or deposition of Witiza,
+his two sons were supplanted by the ambition of Roderic, a noble
+Goth, whose father, the duke or governor of a province, had fallen a
+victim to the preceding tyranny.  The monarchy was still elective;
+but the sons of Witiza, educated on the steps of the throne, were
+impatient of a private station.  Their resentment was the more
+dangerous, as it was varnished with the dissimulation of courts:
+their followers were excited by the remembrance of favours and the
+promise of a revolution: and their uncle Oppas, archbishop of Toledo
+and Seville, was the first person in the church, and the second in
+the state.  It is probable that Julian was involved in the disgrace
+of the unsuccessful faction, that he had little to hope and much to
+fear from the new reign; and that the imprudent king could not forget
+or forgive the injuries which Roderic and his family had sustained.
+The merit and influence of the count rendered him a useful or
+formidable subject: his estates were ample, his followers bold and
+numerous, and it was too fatally shown that, by his Andalusian and
+Mauritanian commands, he held in his hands the keys of the Spanish
+monarchy.  Too feeble, however, to meet his sovereign in arms, he
+sought the aid of a foreign power; and his rash invitation of the
+Moors and Arabs produced the calamities of eight hundred years.  In
+his epistles, or in a personal interview, he revealed the wealth and
+nakedness of his country; the weakness of an unpopular prince; the
+degeneracy of an effeminate people.  The Goths were no longer the
+victorious Barbarians, who had humbled the pride of Rome, despoiled
+the queen of nations, and penetrated from the Danube to the Atlantic
+ocean.  Secluded from the world by the Pyrenean mountains, the
+successors of Alaric had slumbered in a long peace: the walls of the
+city were mouldered into dust: the youth had abandoned the exercise
+of arms; and the presumption of their ancient renown would expose
+them in a field of battle to the first assault of the invaders.  The
+ambitious Saracen was fired by the ease and importance of the
+attempt; but the execution was delayed till he had consulted the
+commander of the faithful; and his messenger returned with the
+permission of Walid to annex the unknown kingdoms of the West to the
+religion and throne of the caliphs.  In his residence of Tangier,
+Musa, with secrecy and caution, continued his correspondence and
+hastened his preparations.  But the remorse of the conspirators was
+soothed by the fallacious assurance that he should content himself
+with the glory and spoil, without aspiring to establish the Moslems
+beyond the sea that separates Africa from Europe.^170
+
+[Footnote 168: Le viol (says Voltaire) est aussi difficile a faire qu'a
+prouver.  Des Eveques se seroient ils lignes pour une fille?  (Hist.
+Generale, c. xxvi.)  His argument is not logically conclusive.]
+
+[Footnote 169: In the story of Cava, Mariana (I. vi. c. 21, p. 241,
+242,) seems to vie with the Lucretia of Livy.  Like the ancients, he
+seldom quotes; and the oldest testimony of Baronius (Annal. Eccles.
+A.D. 713, No. 19), that of Lucus Tudensis, a Gallician deacon of the
+thirteenth century, only says, Cava quam pro concubina utebatur.]
+
+[Footnote 170: The Orientals, Elmacin, Abulpharagins, Abolfeda, pass
+over the conquest of Spain in silence, or with a single word.  The text
+of Novairi, and the other Arabian writers, is represented, though with
+some foreign alloy, by M. de Cardonne (Hist. de l'Afrique et de
+l'Espagne sous la Domination des Arabes, Paris, 1765, 3 vols. 12mo.
+tom. i.  p. 55-114), and more concisely by M. de Guignes (Hist. des
+Hune. tom. i.  p. 347-350).  The librarian of the Escurial has not
+satisfied my hopes: yet he appears to have searched with diligence
+his broken materials; and the history of the conquest is illustrated
+by some valuable fragments of the genuine Razis (who wrote at.
+Corduba, A. H. 300), of Ben Hazil, &c.  See Bibliot.  Arabico-
+Hispana, tom. ii.  p. 32. 105, 106.  182.  252.  315--332.  On this
+occasion, the industry of Pagi has been aided by the Arabic learning
+of his friend the Abbe de Longuerue, and to their joint labours I am
+deeply indebted.]
+
+[A. D.  710.]  Before Musa would trust an army of the faithful to the
+traitors and infidels of a foreign land, he made a less dangerous
+trial of their strength and veracity.  One hundred Arabs and four
+hundred Africans, passed over, in four vessels, from Tangier or
+Ceuta; the place of their descent on the opposite shore of the
+strait, is marked by the name of Tarif their chief; and the date of
+this memorable event^171 is fixed to the month of Ramandan, of the
+ninety-first year of the Hegira, to the month of July, seven hundred
+and forty-eight years from the Spanish era of Cesar,^172 seven
+hundred and ten after the birth of Christ.  From their first station,
+they marched eighteen miles through a hilly country to the castle and
+town of Julian;^173 on which (it is still called Algezire) they
+bestowed the name of the Green Island, from a verdant cape that
+advances into the sea.  Their hospitable entertainment, the
+Christians who joined their standard, their inroad into a fertile and
+unguarded province, the richness of their spoil and the safety of
+their return, announced to their brethren the most favourable omens
+of victory.  In the ensuing spring, five thousand veterans and
+volunteers were embarked under the command of Tarik, a dauntless and
+skilful soldier, who surpassed the expectation of his chief; and the
+necessary transports were provided by the industry of their too
+faithful ally.  The Saracens landed^174 at the pillar or point of
+Europe; the corrupt and familiar appellation of Gibraltar (Gebel el
+Tarik) describes the mountain of Tarik; and the intrenchments of his
+camp were the first outline of those fortifications, which, in the
+hands of our countrymen, have resisted the art and power of the house
+of Bourbon.  The adjacent governors informed the court of Toledo of
+the descent and progress of the Arabs; and the defeat of his
+lieutenant Edeco, who had been commanded to seize and bind the
+presumptuous strangers, admonished Roderic of the magnitude of the
+danger.  At the royal summons, the dukes and counts, the bishops and
+nobles of the Gothic monarchy assembled at the head of their
+followers; and the title of king of the Romans, which is employed by
+an Arabic historian, may be excused by the close affinity of
+language, religion, and manners, between the nations of Spain.  His
+army consisted of ninety or a hundred thousand men: a formidable
+power, if their fidelity and discipline had been adequate to their
+numbers.  The troops of Tarik had been augmented to twelve thousand
+Saracens; but the Christian malecontents were attracted by the
+influence of Julian, and a crowd of Africans most greedily tasted the
+temporal blessings of the Koran.  In the neighbourhood of Cadiz, the
+town of Xeres^175 has been illustrated by the encounter which
+determined the fate of the kingdom; the stream of the Guadalete,
+which falls into the bay, divided the two camps, and marked the
+advancing and retreating skirmishes of three successive and bloody
+days.
+
+[Footnote 171: A mistake of Roderic of Toledo, in comparing the lunar
+years of the Hegira with the Julian years of the Era, has determined
+Baronius, Mariana, and the crowd of Spanish historians, to place the
+first invasion in the year 713, and the battle of Xeres in November,
+714. This anachronism of three years has been detected by the more
+correct industry of modern chronologists, above all, of Pagi (Critics,
+tom. iii.  p. 164. 171-174), who have restored the genuine state
+of the revolution.  At the present time, an Arabian scholar, like
+Cardonne, who adopts the ancient error (tom. i.  p. 75), is
+inexcusably ignorant or careless.]
+
+[Footnote 172: The Era of Cesar, which in Spain was in legal and popular
+use till the xivth century, begins thirty-eight years before the birth of
+Christ.  I would refer the origin to the general peace by sea and
+land, which confirmed the power and partition of the triumvirs.
+(Dion. Cassius, l. xlviii.  p. 547. 553.  Appian de Bell. Civil. l.
+v.  p. 1034, edit. fol.)  Spain was a province of Cesar Octavian; and
+Tarragona, which raised the first temple to Augustus (Tacit  Annal.
+i. 78), might borrow from the orientals this mode of flattery.]
+
+[Footnote 173: The road, the country, the old castle of count Julian,
+and the superstitious belief of the Spaniards of hidden treasures, &c.
+are described by Pere Labat (Voyages en Espagne et en Italie, tom i.
+p. 207-217), with his usual pleasantry.]
+
+[Footnote 174: The Nubian geographer (p. 154,) explains the topography
+of the war; but it is highly incredible that the lieutenant of Musa
+should execute the desperate and useless measure of burning his ships.]
+
+[Footnote 175: Xeres (the Roman colony of Asta Regia) is only two leagues
+from Cadiz.  In the xvith century It was a granary of corn; and the wine
+of Xeres is familiar to the nations of Europe (Lud. Nonii Hispania,
+c. 13, p. 54-56, a work of correct and concise knowledge; d'Anville,
+Etats de l'Europe &c p 154).]
+
+On the fourth day, the two armies joined a more serious and decisive
+issue; but Alaric would have blushed at the sight of his unworthy
+successor, sustaining on his head a diadem of pearls, encumbered with
+a flowing robe of gold and silken embroidery, and reclining on a
+litter, or car of ivory, drawn by two white mules.  Notwithstanding
+the valour of the Saracens, they fainted under the weight of
+multitudes, and the plain of Xeres was overspread with sixteen
+thousand of their dead bodies.  "My brethren," said Tarik to his
+surviving companions, "the enemy is before you, the sea is behind;
+whither would ye fly?  Follow your general I am resolved either to
+lose my life, or to trample on the prostrate king of the Romans."
+Besides the resource of despair, he confided in the secret
+correspondence and nocturnal interviews of count Julian, with the
+sons and the brother of Witiza.  The two princes and the archbishop
+of Toledo occupied the most important post; their well-timed
+defection broke the ranks of the Christians; each warrior was
+prompted by fear or suspicion to consult his personal safety; and the
+remains of the Gothic army were scattered or destroyed to the flight
+and pursuit of the three following days.  Amidst the general
+disorder, Roderic started from his car, and mounted Orelia, the
+fleetest of his Horses; but he escaped from a soldier's death to
+perish more ignobly in the waters of the Boetis or Guadalquiver.  His
+diadem, his robes, and his courser, were found on the bank; but as
+the body of the Gothic prince was lost in the waves, the pride and
+ignorance of the caliph must have been gratified with some meaner
+head, which was exposed in triumph before the palace of Damascus.
+"And such," continues a valiant historian of the Arabs, "is the fate
+of those kings who withdraw themselves from a field of battle."^176.
+
+[A. D.  711.]  Count Julian had plunged so deep into guilt and
+infamy, that his only hope was in the ruin of his country.  After the
+battle of Xeres he recommended the most effectual measures to the
+victorious Saracens.  "The king of the Goths is slain; their princes
+are fled before you, the army is routed, the nation is astonished.
+Secure with sufficient detachments the cities of Boetica; but in
+person and without delay, march to the royal city of Toledo, and
+allow not the distracted Christians either time or tranquillity for
+the election of a new monarch."  Tarik listened to his advice.  A
+Roman captive and proselyte, who had been enfranchised by the caliph
+himself, assaulted Cordova with seven hundred horse: he swam the
+river, surprised the town, and drove the Christians into the great
+church, where they defended themselves above three months.  Another
+detachment reduced the seacoast of Boetica, which in the last period
+of the Moorish power has comprised in a narrow space the populous
+kingdom of Grenada.  The march of Tarik from the Boetis to the
+Tagus,^177 was directed through the Sierra Morena, that separates
+Andalusia and Castille, till he appeared in arms under the walls of
+Toledo.^178  The most zealous of the Catholics had escaped with the
+relics of their saints; and if the gates were shut, it was only till
+the victor had subscribed a fair and reasonable capitulation.  The
+voluntary  exiles were allowed to depart with their effects; seven
+churches were appropriated to the Christian worship; the archbishop
+and his clergy were at liberty to exercise their functions, the monks
+to practise or neglect their penance; and the Goths and Romans were
+left in all civil or criminal cases to the subordinate jurisdiction
+of their own laws and magistrates.  But if the justice of Tarik
+protected the Christians, his gratitude and policy rewarded the Jews,
+to whose secret or open aid he was indebted for his most important
+acquisitions.  Persecuted by the kings and synods of Spain, who had
+often pressed the alternative of banishment or baptism, that outcast
+nation embraced the moment of revenge: the comparison of their past
+and present state was the pledge of their fidelity; and the alliance
+between the disciples of Moses and those of Mahomet, was maintained
+till the final era of their common expulsion.
+
+[Footnote 176: Id sane infortunii regibus pedem ex acie referentibus
+saepe contingit.  Den Hazil of Grenada, in Bibliot.  Arabico-Hispana.
+tom. ii.  p. 337.  Some credulous Spaniards believe that king Roderic,
+or Rodrigo, escaped to a hermit's cell; and others, that he was cast
+alive into a tub full of serpents, from whence he exclaimed with a
+lamentable voice, "they devour the part with which I have so
+grievously sinned."  (Don Quixote, part ii.  l. iii.  c. 1.)]
+
+[Footnote 177: The direct road from Corduba to Toledo was measured by
+Mr. Swinburne's mules in 72 1/2 hours: but a larger computation must
+be adopted for the slow and devious marches of an army.  The Arabs
+traversed the province of La Mancha, which the pen of Cervantes has
+transformed into classic ground to the reader of every nation.]
+
+[Footnote 178: The antiquities of Toledo, Urbs Parva in the Punic
+wars, Urbs Regia in the sixth century, are briefly described by Nonius
+(Hispania, c. 59, p. 181-136).  He borrows from Roderic the fatale
+palatium of Moorish portraits; but modestly insinuates, that it was
+no more than a Roman amphitheatre.]
+
+
+From the royal seat of Toledo, the Arabian leader spread his
+conquests to the north, over the modern realms of Castille and Leon;
+but it is heedless to enumerate the cities that yielded on his
+approach, or again to describe the table of emerald,^179 transported
+from the East by the Romans, acquired by the Goths among the spoils
+of Rome, and presented by the Arabs to the throne of Damascus.
+Beyond the Asturian mountains, the maritime town of Gijon was the
+term^180 of the lieutenant of Musa, who had performed with the speed
+of a traveller, his victorious march of seven hundred miles, from the
+rock of Gibraltar to the bay of Biscay.  The failure of land
+compelled him to retreat: and he was recalled to Toledo, to excuse
+his presumption of subduing a kingdom in the absence of his general.
+Spain, which in a more savage and disorderly state, had resisted, two
+hundred years, the arms of the Romans, was overrun in a few months by
+those of the Saracens; and such was the eagerness of submission and
+treaty, that the governor of Cordova is recorded as the only
+chief who fell, without conditions, a prisoner into their hands.  The
+cause of the Goths had been irrevocably judged in the field of Xeres;
+and in the national dismay, each part of the monarchy declined a
+contest with the antagonist who had vanquished the united strength of
+the whole.^181  That strength had been wasted by two successive
+seasons of famine and pestilence; and the governors, who were
+impatient to surrender, might exaggerate the difficulty of
+collecting the provisions of a siege.  To disarm the Christians,
+superstition likewise contributed her terrors: and the subtle Arab
+encouraged the report of dreams, omens, and prophecies, and of the
+portraits of the destined conquerors of Spain, that were discovered
+on the breaking open an apartment of the royal palace.  Yet a spark
+of the vital flame was still alive; some invincible fugitives
+preferred a life of poverty and freedom in the Asturian valleys; the
+hardy mountaineers repulsed the slaves of the caliph; and the sword
+of Pelagius has been transformed into the sceptre of the Catholic
+kings.^182
+
+[Footnote 179: In the Historia Arabum (c. 9, p. 17, ad calcem Elmacin),
+Roderic of Toledo describes the emerald tables, and inserts the name
+of Medinat Ahneyda in Arabic words and letters.  He appears to
+be conversant with the Mahometan writers; but I cannot agree with M.
+de Guignes (Hist. des Huns, tom. i.  p. 350) that he had read and
+transcribed Novairi; because he was dead a hundred years before
+Novairi composed his history.  This mistake is founded on a still
+grosser error.  M. de Guignes confounds the governed historian
+Roderic Ximines, archbishop of Toledo, in the xiiith century, with
+cardinal Ximines, who governed Spain in the beginning of the xvith,
+and was the subject, not the author, of historical compositions.]
+
+[Footnote 180: Tarik might have inscribed on the last rock, the boast
+of Regnard and his companions in their Lapland journey, "Hic tandem
+stetimus, nobis ubi defuit orbis."]
+
+[Footnote 181: Such was the argument of the traitor Oppas, and every
+chief to whom it was addressed did not answer with the spirit of
+Pelagius; Omnis Hispania dudum sub uno regimine Gothorum, omnis
+exercitus Hispaniae in uno congregatus Ismaelitarum non valuit
+sustinere impetum.  Chron.  Alphonsi Regis, apud Pagi, tom. iii.
+p. 177.]
+
+[Footnote 182: The revival of tire Gothic kingdom in the Asturias is
+distinctly though concisely noticed by d'Anville (Etats de l'Europe,
+p. 159)]
+
+
+
+Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.
+
+Part IX.
+
+On the intelligence of this rapid success, the applause of
+Musa degenerated into envy; and he began, not to complain, but to
+fear, that Tarik would leave him nothing to subdue.  At the head
+of ten thousand Arabs and eight thousand Africans, he passed over
+in person from Mauritania to Spain: the first of his companions
+were the noblest of the Koreish; his eldest son was left in the
+command of Africa; the three younger brethren were of an age and
+spirit to second the boldest enterprises of their father.  At his
+landing in Algezire, he was respectfully entertained by Count
+Julian, who stifled his inward remorse, and testified, both in
+words and actions, that the victory of the Arabs had not impaired
+his attachment to their cause.  Some enemies yet remained for the
+sword of Musa.  The tardy repentance of the Goths had compared
+their own numbers and those of the invaders; the cities from
+which the march of Tarik had declined considered themselves as
+impregnable; and the bravest patriots defended the fortifications
+of Seville and Merida.  They were successively besieged and
+reduced by the labor of Musa, who transported his camp from the
+Boetis to the Anas, from the Guadalquivir to the Guadiana.  When
+he beheld the works of Roman magnificence, the bridge, the
+aqueducts, the triumphal arches, and the theatre, of the ancient
+metropolis of Lusitania, "I should imagine," said he to his four
+companions, "that the human race must have united their art and
+power in the foundation of this city: happy is the man who shall
+become its master!" He aspired to that happiness, but the
+Emeritans sustained on this occasion the honor of their descent
+from the veteran legionaries of Augustus ^183 Disdaining the
+confinement of their walls, they gave battle to the Arabs on the
+plain; but an ambuscade rising from the shelter of a quarry, or a
+ruin, chastised their indiscretion, and intercepted their return.
+
+The wooden turrets of assault were rolled forwards to the foot of
+the rampart; but the defence of Merida was obstinate and long;
+and the castle of the martyrs was a perpetual testimony of the
+losses of the Moslems.  The constancy of the besieged was at
+length subdued by famine and despair; and the prudent victor
+disguised his impatience under the names of clemency and esteem.
+The alternative of exile or tribute was allowed; the churches
+were divided between the two religions; and the wealth of those
+who had fallen in the siege, or retired to Gallicia, was
+confiscated as the reward of the faithful.  In the midway between
+Merida and Toledo, the lieutenant of Musa saluted the vicegerent
+of the caliph, and conducted him to the palace of the Gothic
+kings.  Their first interview was cold and formal: a rigid
+account was exacted of the treasures of Spain: the character of
+Tarik was exposed to suspicion and obloquy; and the hero was
+imprisoned, reviled, and ignominiously scourged by the hand, or
+the command, of Musa.  Yet so strict was the discipline, so pure
+the zeal, or so tame the spirit, of the primitive Moslems, that,
+after this public indignity, Tarik could serve and be trusted in
+the reduction of the Tarragonest province.  A mosch was erected
+at Saragossa, by the liberality of the Koreish: the port of
+Barcelona was opened to the vessels of Syria; and the Goths were
+pursued beyond the Pyrenaean mountains into their Gallic province
+of Septimania or Languedoc. ^184 In the church of St. Mary at
+Carcassone, Musa found, but it is improbable that he left, seven
+equestrian statues of massy silver; and from his term or column
+of Narbonne, he returned on his footsteps to the Gallician and
+Lusitanian shores of the ocean.  During the absence of the
+father, his son Abdelaziz chastised the insurgents of Seville,
+and reduced, from Malaga to Valentia, the sea-coast of the
+Mediterranean: his original treaty with the discreet and valiant
+Theodemir ^185 will represent the manners and policy of the
+times.  "The conditions of peace agreed and sworn between
+Abdelaziz, the son of Musa, the son of Nassir, and Theodemir
+prince of the Goths.  In the name of the most merciful God,
+Abdelaziz makes peace on these conditions: that Theodemir shall
+not be disturbed in his principality; nor any injury be offered
+to the life or property, the wives and children, the religion and
+temples, of the Christians: that Theodemir shall freely deliver
+his seven ^* cities, Orihuela, Valentola, Alicanti Mola,
+Vacasora, Bigerra, (now Bejar,) Ora, (or Opta,) and Lorca: that
+he shall not assist or entertain the enemies of the caliph, but
+shall faithfully communicate his knowledge of their hostile
+designs: that himself, and each of the Gothic nobles, shall
+annually pay one piece of gold, four measures of wheat, as many
+of barley, with a certain proportion of honey, oil, and vinegar;
+and that each of their vassals shall be taxed at one moiety of
+the said imposition.  Given the fourth of Regeb, in the year of
+the Hegira ninety- four, and subscribed with the names of four
+Mussulman witnesses." ^186 Theodemir and his subjects were
+treated with uncommon lenity; but the rate of tribute appears to
+have fluctuated from a tenth to a fifth, according to the
+submission or obstinacy of the Christians. ^187 In this
+revolution, many partial calamities were inflicted by the carnal
+or religious passions of the enthusiasts: some churches were
+profaned by the new worship: some relics or images were
+confounded with idols: the rebels were put to the sword; and one
+town (an obscure place between Cordova and Seville) was razed to
+its foundations.  Yet if we compare the invasion of Spain by the
+Goths, or its recovery by the kings of Castile and Arragon, we
+must applaud the moderation and discipline of the Arabian
+conquerors.
+
+[Footnote 183: The honorable relics of the Cantabrian war (Dion
+Cassius, l. liii p. 720) were planted in this metropolis of
+Lusitania, perhaps of Spain, (submittit cui tota suos Hispania
+fasces.) Nonius (Hispania, c. 31, p. 106 - 110) enumerates the
+ancient structures, but concludes with a sigh: Urbs haec olim
+nobilissima ad magnam incolarum infrequentiam delapsa est, et
+praeter priscae claritatis ruinas nihil ostendit.]
+
+[Footnote 184: Both the interpreters of Novairi, De Guignes
+(Hist. des Huns, tom. i. p. 349) and Cardonne, (Hist. de
+l'Afrique et de l'Espagne, tom. i. p. 93, 94, 104, 135,) lead
+Musa into the Narbonnese Gaul.  But I find no mention of this
+enterprise, either in Roderic of Toledo, or the Mss. of the
+Escurial, and the invasion of the Saracens is postponed by a
+French chronicle till the ixth year after the conquest of Spain,
+A.D. 721, (Pagi, Critica, tom. iii. p. 177, 195.  Historians of
+France, tom. iii.) I much question whether Musa ever passed the
+Pyrenees.]
+
+[Footnote 185: Four hundred years after Theodemir, his
+territories of Murcia and Carthagena retain in the Nubian
+geographer Edrisi (p, 154, 161) the name of Tadmir, (D'Anville,
+Etats de l'Europe, p. 156.  Pagi, tom. iii. p. 174.) In the
+present decay of Spanish agriculture, Mr. Swinburne (Travels into
+Spain, p. 119) surveyed with pleasure the delicious valley from
+Murcia to Orihuela, four leagues and a half of the finest corn
+pulse, lucerne, oranges, &c.]
+
+[Footnote *: Gibbon has made eight cities: in Conde's translation
+Bigera does not appear. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 186: See the treaty in Arabic and Latin, in the
+Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana, tom. ii. p. 105, 106.  It is signed
+the 4th of the month of Regeb, A. H. 94, the 5th of April, A.D.
+713; a date which seems to prolong the resistance of Theodemir,
+and the government of Musa.]
+
+[Footnote 187: From the history of Sandoval, p. 87.  Fleury
+(Hist. Eccles. tom. ix. p. 261) has given the substance of
+another treaty concluded A Ae. C. 782, A.D. 734, between an
+Arabian chief and the Goths and Romans, of the territory of
+Conimbra in Portugal.  The tax of the churches is fixed at
+twenty-five pounds of gold; of the monasteries, fifty; of the
+cathedrals, one hundred; the Christians are judged by their
+count, but in capital cases he must consult the alcaide.  The
+church doors must be shut, and they must respect the name of
+Mahomet.  I have not the original before me; it would confirm or
+destroy a dark suspicion, that the piece has been forged to
+introduce the immunity of a neighboring convent.]
+
+The exploits of Musa were performed in the evening of life,
+though he affected to disguise his age by coloring with a red
+powder the whiteness of his beard.  But in the love of action and
+glory, his breast was still fired with the ardor of youth; and
+the possession of Spain was considered only as the first step to
+the monarchy of Europe.  With a powerful armament by sea and
+land, he was preparing to repass the Pyrenees, to extinguish in
+Gaul and Italy the declining kingdoms of the Franks and Lombards,
+and to preach the unity of God on the altar of the Vatican.  From
+thence, subduing the Barbarians of Germany, he proposed to follow
+the course of the Danube from its source to the Euxine Sea, to
+overthrow the Greek or Roman empire of Constantinople, and
+returning from Europe to Asia, to unite his new acquisitions with
+Antioch and the provinces of Syria. ^188 But his vast enterprise,
+perhaps of easy execution, must have seemed extravagant to vulgar
+minds; and the visionary conqueror was soon reminded of his
+dependence and servitude.  The friends of Tarik had effectually
+stated his services and wrongs: at the court of Damascus, the
+proceedings of Musa were blamed, his intentions were suspected,
+and his delay in complying with the first invitation was
+chastised by a harsher and more peremptory summons. An intrepid
+messenger of the caliph entered his camp at Lugo in Gallicia, and
+in the presence of the Saracens and Christians arrested the
+bridle of his horse.  His own loyalty, or that of his troops,
+inculcated the duty of obedience: and his disgrace was alleviated
+by the recall of his rival, and the permission of investing with
+his two governments his two sons, Abdallah and Abdelaziz.  His
+long triumph from Ceuta to Damascus displayed the spoils of
+Africa and the treasures of Spain: four hundred Gothic nobles,
+with gold coronets and girdles, were distinguished in his train;
+and the number of male and female captives, selected for their
+birth or beauty, was computed at eighteen, or even at thirty,
+thousand persons.  As soon as he reached Tiberias in Palestine,
+he was apprised of the sickness and danger of the caliph, by a
+private message from Soliman, his brother and presumptive heir;
+who wished to reserve for his own reign the spectacle of victory.
+
+Had Walid recovered, the delay of Musa would have been criminal:
+he pursued his march, and found an enemy on the throne.  In his
+trial before a partial judge against a popular antagonist, he was
+convicted of vanity and falsehood; and a fine of two hundred
+thousand pieces of gold either exhausted his poverty or proved
+his rapaciousness.  The unworthy treatment of Tarik was revenged
+by a similar indignity; and the veteran commander, after a public
+whipping, stood a whole day in the sun before the palace gate,
+till he obtained a decent exile, under the pious name of a
+pilgrimage to Mecca.  The resentment of the caliph might have
+been satiated with the ruin of Musa; but his fears demanded the
+extirpation of a potent and injured family.  A sentence of death
+was intimated with secrecy and speed to the trusty servants of
+the throne both in Africa and Spain; and the forms, if not the
+substance, of justice were superseded in this bloody execution.
+In the mosch or palace of Cordova, Abdelaziz was slain by the
+swords of the conspirators; they accused their governor of
+claiming the honors of royalty; and his scandalous marriage with
+Egilona, the widow of Roderic, offended the prejudices both of
+the Christians and Moslems.  By a refinement of cruelty, the head
+of the son was presented to the father, with an insulting
+question, whether he acknowledged the features of the rebel?  "I
+know his features," he exclaimed with indignation: "I assert his
+innocence; and I imprecate the same, a juster fate, against the
+authors of his death." The age and despair of Musa raised him
+above the power of kings; and he expired at Mecca of the anguish
+of a broken heart.  His rival was more favorably treated: his
+services were forgiven; and Tarik was permitted to mingle with
+the crowd of slaves. ^189 I am ignorant whether Count Julian was
+rewarded with the death which he deserved indeed, though not from
+the hands of the Saracens; but the tale of their ingratitude to
+the sons of Witiza is disproved by the most unquestionable
+evidence.  The two royal youths were reinstated in the private
+patrimony of their father; but on the decease of Eba, the elder,
+his daughter was unjustly despoiled of her portion by the
+violence of her uncle Sigebut.  The Gothic maid pleaded her cause
+before the caliph Hashem, and obtained the restitution of her
+inheritance; but she was given in marriage to a noble Arabian,
+and their two sons, Isaac and Ibrahim, were received in Spain
+with the consideration that was due to their origin and riches.
+
+[Footnote 188: This design, which is attested by several Arabian
+historians, (Cardonne, tom. i. p. 95, 96,) may be compared with
+that of Mithridates, to march from the Crimaea to Rome; or with
+that of Caesar, to conquer the East, and return home by the
+North; and all three are perhaps surpassed by the real and
+successful enterprise of Hannibal.]
+
+[Footnote 189: I much regret our loss, or my ignorance, of two
+Arabic works of the viiith century, a Life of Musa, and a poem on
+the exploits of Tarik. Of these authentic pieces, the former was
+composed by a grandson of Musa, who had escaped from the massacre
+of his kindred; the latter, by the vizier of the first
+Abdalrahman, caliph of Spain, who might have conversed with some
+of the veterans of the conqueror, (Bibliot. Arabico-Hispana, tom.
+ii. p. 36, 139.)]
+
+A province is assimilated to the victorious state by the
+introduction of strangers and the imitative spirit of the
+natives; and Spain, which had been successively tinctured with
+Punic, and Roman, and Gothic blood, imbibed, in a few
+generations, the name and manners of the Arabs.  The first
+conquerors, and the twenty successive lieutenants of the caliphs,
+were attended by a numerous train of civil and military
+followers, who preferred a distant fortune to a narrow home: the
+private and public interest was promoted by the establishment of
+faithful colonies; and the cities of Spain were proud to
+commemorate the tribe or country of their Eastern progenitors.
+The victorious though motley bands of Tarik and Musa asserted, by
+the name of Spaniards, their original claim of conquest; yet they
+allowed their brethren of Egypt to share their establishments of
+Murcia and Lisbon.  The royal legion of Damascus was planted at
+Cordova; that of Emesa at Seville; that of Kinnisrin or Chalcis
+at Jaen; that of Palestine at Algezire and Medina Sidonia.  The
+natives of Yemen and Persia were scattered round Toledo and the
+inland country, and the fertile seats of Grenada were bestowed on
+ten thousand horsemen of Syria and Irak, the children of the
+purest and most noble of the Arabian tribes. ^190 A spirit of
+emulation, sometimes beneficial, more frequently dangerous, was
+nourished by these hereditary factions.  Ten years after the
+conquest, a map of the province was presented to the caliph: the
+seas, the rivers, and the harbors, the inhabitants and cities,
+the climate, the soil, and the mineral productions of the earth.
+^191 In the space of two centuries, the gifts of nature were
+improved by the agriculture, ^192 the manufactures, and the
+commerce, of an industrious people; and the effects of their
+diligence have been magnified by the idleness of their fancy.
+The first of the Ommiades who reigned in Spain solicited the
+support of the Christians; and in his edict of peace and
+protection, he contents himself with a modest imposition of ten
+thousand ounces of gold, ten thousand pounds of silver, ten
+thousand horses, as many mules, one thousand cuirasses, with an
+equal number of helmets and lances. ^193 The most powerful of his
+successors derived from the same kingdom the annual tribute of
+twelve millions and forty-five thousand dinars or pieces of gold,
+about six millions of sterling money; ^194 a sum which, in the
+tenth century, most probably surpassed the united revenues of the
+Christians monarchs.  His royal seat of Cordova contained six
+hundred moschs, nine hundred baths, and two hundred thousand
+houses; he gave laws to eighty cities of the first, to three
+hundred of the second and third order; and the fertile banks of
+the Guadalquivir were adorned with twelve thousand villages and
+hamlets.  The Arabs might exaggerate the truth, but they created
+and they describe the most prosperous aera of the riches, the
+cultivation, and the populousness of Spain. ^195
+
+[Footnote 190: Bibliot. Arab. Hispana, tom. ii. p. 32, 252.  The
+former of these quotations is taken from a Biographia Hispanica,
+by an Arabian of Valentia, (see the copious Extracts of Casiri,
+tom. ii. p. 30 - 121;) and the latter from a general Chronology
+of the Caliphs, and of the African and Spanish Dynasties, with a
+particular History of the kingdom of Grenada, of which Casiri has
+given almost an entire version, (Bibliot. Arabico-Hispana, tom.
+ii. p. 177 - 319.) The author, Ebn Khateb, a native of Grenada,
+and a contemporary of Novairi and Abulfeda, (born A.D. 1313, died
+A.D. 1374,) was an historian, geographer, physician, poet, &c.,
+(tom. ii. p. 71, 72.)]
+
+[Footnote 191: Cardonne, Hist. de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne, tom.
+i. p. 116, 117.]
+
+[Footnote 192: A copious treatise of husbandry, by an Arabian of
+Seville, in the xiith century, is in the Escurial library, and
+Casiri had some thoughts of translating it.  He gives a list of
+the authors quoted, Arabs as well as Greeks, Latins, &c.; but it
+is much if the Andalusian saw these strangers through the medium
+of his countryman Columella, (Casiri, Bibliot. Arabico-Hispana,
+tom. i. p. 323 - 338.)]
+
+[Footnote 193: Bibliot. Arabico-Hispana, tom. ii. p. 104.  Casiri
+translates the original testimony of the historian Rasis, as it
+is alleged in the Arabic Biographia Hispanica, pars ix.  But I am
+most exceedingly surprised at the address, Principibus
+caeterisque Christianis, Hispanis suis Castellae.  The name of
+Castellae was unknown in the viiith century; the kingdom was not
+erected till the year 1022, a hundred years after the time of
+Rasis, (Bibliot. tom. ii. p. 330,) and the appellation was always
+expressive, not of a tributary province, but of a line of castles
+independent of the Moorish yoke, (D'Anville, Etats de l'Europe,
+p. 166 - 170.) Had Casiri been a critic, he would have cleared a
+difficulty, perhaps of his own making.]
+
+[Footnote 194: Cardonne, tom. i. p. 337, 338.  He computes the
+revenue at 130,000,000 of French livres.  The entire picture of
+peace and prosperity relieves the bloody uniformity of the
+Moorish annals.]
+
+[Footnote 195: I am happy enough to possess a splendid and
+interesting work which has only been distributed in presents by
+the court of Madrid Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis,
+opera et studio Michaelis Casiri, Syro Maronitoe.  Matriti, in
+folio, tomus prior, 1760, tomus posterior, 1770.  The execution
+of this work does honor to the Spanish press; the Mss., to the
+number of MDCCCLI., are judiciously classed by the editor, and
+his copious extracts throw some light on the Mahometan literature
+and history of Spain. These relics are now secure, but the task
+has been supinely delayed, till, in the year 1671, a fire
+consumed the greatest part of the Escurial library, rich in the
+spoils of Grenada and Morocco.
+
+Note: Compare the valuable work of Conde, Historia de la
+Dominacion de las Arabes en Espana.  Madrid, 1820. - M.]
+
+The wars of the Moslems were sanctified by the prophet; but
+among the various precepts and examples of his life, the caliphs
+selected the lessons of toleration that might tend to disarm the
+resistance of the unbelievers. Arabia was the temple and
+patrimony of the God of Mahomet; but he beheld with less jealousy
+and affection the nations of the earth.  The polytheists and
+idolaters, who were ignorant of his name, might be lawfully
+extirpated by his votaries; ^196 but a wise policy supplied the
+obligation of justice; and after some acts of intolerant zeal,
+the Mahometan conquerors of Hindostan have spared the pagods of
+that devout and populous country.  The disciples of Abraham, of
+Moses, and of Jesus, were solemnly invited to accept the more
+perfect revelation of Mahomet; but if they preferred the payment
+of a moderate tribute, they were entitled to the freedom of
+conscience and religious worship. ^197 In a field of battle the
+forfeit lives of the prisoners were redeemed by the profession of
+Islam; the females were bound to embrace the religion of their
+masters, and a race of sincere proselytes was gradually
+multiplied by the education of the infant captives.  But the
+millions of African and Asiatic converts, who swelled the native
+band of the faithful Arabs, must have been allured, rather than
+constrained, to declare their belief in one God and the apostle
+of God.  By the repetition of a sentence and the loss of a
+foreskin, the subject or the slave, the captive or the criminal,
+arose in a moment the free and equal companion of the victorious
+Moslems. Every sin was expiated, every engagement was dissolved:
+the vow of celibacy was superseded by the indulgence of nature;
+the active spirits who slept in the cloister were awakened by the
+trumpet of the Saracens; and in the convulsion of the world,
+every member of a new society ascended to the natural level of
+his capacity and courage.  The minds of the multitude were
+tempted by the invisible as well as temporal blessings of the
+Arabian prophet; and charity will hope that many of his
+proselytes entertained a serious conviction of the truth and
+sanctity of his revelation.  In the eyes of an inquisitive
+polytheist, it must appear worthy of the human and the divine
+nature.  More pure than the system of Zoroaster, more liberal
+than the law of Moses, the religion of Mahomet might seem less
+inconsistent with reason than the creed of mystery and
+superstition, which, in the seventh century, disgraced the
+simplicity of the gospel.
+
+[Footnote 196: The Harbii, as they are styled, qui tolerari
+nequeunt, are, 1. Those who, besides God, worship the sun, moon,
+or idols.  2. Atheists, Utrique, quamdiu princeps aliquis inter
+Mohammedanos superest, oppugnari debent donec religionem
+amplectantur, nec requies iis concedenda est, nec pretium
+acceptandum pro obtinenda conscientiae libertate, (Reland,
+Dissertat. x. de Jure Militari Mohammedan. tom. iii. p. 14;) a
+rigid theory!]
+
+[Footnote 197: The distinction between a proscribed and a
+tolerated sect, between the Harbii and the people of the Book,
+the believers in some divine revelation, is correctly defined in
+the conversation of the caliph Al Mamum with the idolaters or
+Sabaeans of Charrae, (Hottinger, Hist. Orient. p. 107, 108.)]
+
+In the extensive provinces of Persia and Africa, the
+national religion has been eradicated by the Mahometan faith.
+The ambiguous theology of the Magi stood alone among the sects of
+the East; but the profane writings of Zoroaster ^198 might, under
+the reverend name of Abraham, be dexterously connected with the
+chain of divine revelation.  Their evil principle, the daemon
+Ahriman, might be represented as the rival, or as the creature,
+of the God of light.  The temples of Persia were devoid of
+images; but the worship of the sun and of fire might be
+stigmatized as a gross and criminal idolatry. ^199 The milder
+sentiment was consecrated by the practice of Mahomet ^200 and the
+prudence of the caliphs; the Magians or Ghebers were ranked with
+the Jews and Christians among the people of the written law; ^201
+and as late as the third century of the Hegira, the city of Herat
+will afford a lively contrast of private zeal and public
+toleration. ^202 Under the payment of an annual tribute, the
+Mahometan law secured to the Ghebers of Herat their civil and
+religious liberties: but the recent and humble mosch was
+overshadowed by the antique splendor of the adjoining temple of
+fire.  A fanatic Iman deplored, in his sermons, the scandalous
+neighborhood, and accused the weakness or indifference of the
+faithful. Excited by his voice, the people assembled in tumult;
+the two houses of prayer were consumed by the flames, but the
+vacant ground was immediately occupied by the foundations of a
+new mosch.  The injured Magi appealed to the sovereign of
+Chorasan; he promised justice and relief; when, behold! four
+thousand citizens of Herat, of a grave character and mature age,
+unanimously swore that the idolatrous fane had never existed; the
+inquisition was silenced and their conscience was satisfied (says
+the historian Mirchond ^203) with this holy and meritorious
+perjury. ^204 But the greatest part of the temples of Persia were
+ruined by the insensible and general desertion of their votaries.
+
+It was insensible, since it is not accompanied with any memorial
+of time or place, of persecution or resistance. It was general,
+since the whole realm, from Shiraz to Samarcand, imbibed the
+faith of the Koran; and the preservation of the native tongue
+reveals the descent of the Mahometans of Persia. ^205 In the
+mountains and deserts, an obstinate race of unbelievers adhered
+to the superstition of their fathers; and a faint tradition of
+the Magian theology is kept alive in the province of Kirman,
+along the banks of the Indus, among the exiles of Surat, and in
+the colony which, in the last century, was planted by Shaw Abbas
+at the gates of Ispahan.  The chief pontiff has retired to Mount
+Elbourz, eighteen leagues from the city of Yezd: the perpetual
+fire (if it continues to burn) is inaccessible to the profane;
+but his residence is the school, the oracle, and the pilgrimage
+of the Ghebers, whose hard and uniform features attest the
+unmingled purity of their blood.  Under the jurisdiction of their
+elders, eighty thousand families maintain an innocent and
+industrious life: their subsistence is derived from some curious
+manufactures and mechanic trades; and they cultivate the earth
+with the fervor of a religious duty.  Their ignorance withstood
+the despotism of Shaw Abbas, who demanded with threats and
+tortures the prophetic books of Zoroaster; and this obscure
+remnant of the Magians is spared by the moderation or contempt of
+their present sovereigns. ^206
+
+[Footnote 198: The Zend or Pazend, the bible of the Ghebers, is
+reckoned by themselves, or at least by the Mahometans, among the
+ten books which Abraham received from heaven; and their religion
+is honorably styled the religion of Abraham, (D'Herblot, Bibliot.
+Orient. p. 701; Hyde, de Religione veterum Persarum, c, iii. p.
+27, 28, &c.) I much fear that we do not possess any pure and free
+description of the system of Zoroaster. ^* Dr. Prideaux
+(Connection, vol. i. p. 300, octavo) adopts the opinion, that he
+had been the slave and scholar of some Jewish prophet in the
+captivity of Babylon.  Perhaps the Persians, who have been the
+masters of the Jews, would assert the honor, a poor honor, of
+being their masters.
+
+[Footnote *: Whatever the real age of the Zendavesta,
+published by Anquetil du Perron, whether of the time of Ardeschir
+Babeghan, according to Mr. Erskine, or of much higher antiquity,
+it may be considered, I conceive, both a "pure and a free,"
+though imperfect, description of Zoroastrianism; particularly
+with the illustrations of the original translator, and of the
+German Kleuker - M.]
+
+[Footnote 199: The Arabian Nights, a faithful and amusing picture
+of the Oriental world, represent in the most odious colors of the
+Magians, or worshippers of fire, to whom they attribute the
+annual sacrifice of a Mussulman.  The religion of Zoroaster has
+not the least affinity with that of the Hindoos, yet they are
+often confounded by the Mahometans; and the sword of Timour was
+sharpened by this mistake, (Hist. de Timour Bec, par Cherefeddin
+Ali Yezdi, l. v.]
+
+[Footnote 200: Vie de Mahomet, par Gagnier, tom. iii. p. 114,
+115.)]
+
+[Footnote 201: Hae tres sectae, Judaei, Christiani, et qui inter
+Persas Magorum institutis addicti sunt, populi libri dicuntur,
+(Reland, Dissertat. tom. iii. p. 15.) The caliph Al Mamun
+confirms this honorable distinction in favor of the three sects,
+with the vague and equivocal religion of the Sabaeans, under
+which the ancient polytheists of Charrae were allowed to shelter
+their idolatrous worship, (Hottinger, Hist. Orient p. 167, 168.)]
+
+[Footnote 202: This singular story is related by D'Herbelot,
+(Bibliot. Orient. p 448, 449,) on the faith of Khondemir, and by
+Mirchond himself, (Hist priorum Regum Persarum, &c., p. 9, 10,
+not. p. 88, 89.)]
+
+[Footnote 203: Mirchond, (Mohammed Emir Khoondah Shah,) a native
+of Herat, composed in the Persian language a general history of
+the East, from the creation to the year of the Hegira 875, (A.D.
+1471.) In the year 904 (A.D. 1498) the historian obtained the
+command of a princely library, and his applauded work, in seven
+or twelve parts, was abbreviated in three volumes by his son
+Khondemir, A. H. 927, A.D. 1520.  The two writers, most
+accurately distinguished by Petit de la Croix, (Hist. de
+Genghizcan, p.537, 538, 544, 545,) are loosely confounded by
+D'Herbelot, (p. 358, 410, 994, 995: ) but his numerous extracts,
+under the improper name of Khondemir, belong to the father rather
+than the son.  The historian of Genghizcan refers to a Ms. of
+Mirchond, which he received from the hands of his friend
+D'Herbelot himself.  A curious fragment (the Taherian and
+Soffarian Dynasties) has been lately published in Persic and
+Latin, (Viennae, 1782, in 4to., cum notis Bernard de Jenisch;)
+and the editor allows us to hope for a continuation of Mirchond.]
+
+[Footnote 204: Quo testimonio boni se quidpiam praestitisse
+opinabantur. Yet Mirchond must have condemned their zeal, since
+he approved the legal toleration of the Magi, cui (the fire
+temple) peracto singulis annis censu uti sacra Mohammedis lege
+cautum, ab omnibus molestiis ac oneribus libero esse licuit.]
+
+[Footnote 205: The last Magian of name and power appears to be
+Mardavige the Dilemite, who, in the beginning of the 10th
+century, reigned in the northern provinces of Persia, near the
+Caspian Sea, (D'Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 355.) But his
+soldiers and successors, the Bowides either professed or embraced
+the Mahometan faith; and under their dynasty (A.D. 933 - 1020) I
+should say the fall of the religion of Zoroaster.]
+
+[Footnote 206: The present state of the Ghebers in Persia is
+taken from Sir John Chardin, not indeed the most learned, but the
+most judicious and inquisitive of our modern travellers, (Voyages
+en Perse, tom. ii. p. 109, 179 - 187, in 4to.) His brethren,
+Pietro della Valle, Olearius, Thevenot, Tavernier, &c., whom I
+have fruitlessly searched, had neither eyes nor attention for
+this interesting people.]
+
+The Northern coast of Africa is the only land in which the
+light of the gospel, after a long and perfect establishment, has
+been totally extinguished. The arts, which had been taught by
+Carthage and Rome, were involved in a cloud of ignorance; the
+doctrine of Cyprian and Augustin was no longer studied. Five
+hundred episcopal churches were overturned by the hostile fury of
+the Donatists, the Vandals, and the Moors.  The zeal and numbers
+of the clergy declined; and the people, without discipline, or
+knowledge, or hope, submissively sunk under the yoke of the
+Arabian prophet Within fifty years after the expulsion of the
+Greeks, a lieutenant of Africa informed the caliph that the
+tribute of the infidels was abolished by their conversion; ^207
+and, though he sought to disguise his fraud and rebellion, his
+specious pretence was drawn from the rapid and extensive progress
+of the Mahometan faith.  In the next age, an extraordinary
+mission of five bishops was detached from Alexandria to Cairoan.
+They were ordained by the Jacobite patriarch to cherish and
+revive the dying embers of Christianity: ^208 but the
+interposition of a foreign prelate, a stranger to the Latins, an
+enemy to the Catholics, supposes the decay and dissolution of the
+African hierarchy.  It was no longer the time when the successor
+of St. Cyprian, at the head of a numerous synod, could maintain
+an equal contest with the ambition of the Roman pontiff.  In the
+eleventh century, the unfortunate priest who was seated on the
+ruins of Carthage implored the arms and the protection of the
+Vatican; and he bitterly complains that his naked body had been
+scourged by the Saracens, and that his authority was disputed by
+the four suffragans, the tottering pillars of his throne.  Two
+epistles of Gregory the Seventh ^209 are destined to soothe the
+distress of the Catholics and the pride of a Moorish prince. The
+pope assures the sultan that they both worship the same God, and
+may hope to meet in the bosom of Abraham; but the complaint that
+three bishops could no longer be found to consecrate a brother,
+announces the speedy and inevitable ruin of the episcopal order.
+The Christians of Africa and Spain had long since submitted to
+the practice of circumcision and the legal abstinence from wine
+and pork; and the name of Mozarabes ^210 (adoptive Arabs) was
+applied to their civil or religious conformity. ^211 About the
+middle of the twelfth century, the worship of Christ and the
+succession of pastors were abolished along the coast of Barbary,
+and in the kingdoms of Cordova and Seville, of Valencia and
+Grenada. ^212 The throne of the Almohades, or Unitarians, was
+founded on the blindest fanaticism, and their extraordinary rigor
+might be provoked or justified by the recent victories and
+intolerant zeal of the princes of Sicily and Castille, of Arragon
+and Portugal.  The faith of the Mozarabes was occasionally
+revived by the papal missionaries; and, on the landing of Charles
+the Fifth, some families of Latin Christians were encouraged to
+rear their heads at Tunis and Algiers. But the seed of the gospel
+was quickly eradicated, and the long province from Tripoli to the
+Atlantic has lost all memory of the language and religion of
+Rome. ^213
+
+[Footnote 207: The letter of Abdoulrahman, governor or tyrant of
+Africa, to the caliph Aboul Abbas, the first of the Abbassides,
+is dated A. H. 132 Cardonne, Hist. de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne,
+tom. i. p. 168.)]
+
+[Footnote 208: Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 66.  Renaudot, Hist.
+Patriarch. Alex. p. 287, 288.]
+
+[Footnote 209: Among the Epistles of the Popes, see Leo IX.
+epist. 3; Gregor. VII. l. i. epist. 22, 23, l. iii. epist. 19,
+20, 21; and the criticisms of Pagi, (tom. iv. A.D. 1053, No. 14,
+A.D. 1073, No. 13,) who investigates the name and family of the
+Moorish prince, with whom the proudest of the Roman pontiffs so
+politely corresponds.]
+
+[Footnote 210: Mozarabes, or Mostarabes, adscititii, as it is
+interpreted in Latin, (Pocock, Specimen Hist. Arabum, p. 39, 40.
+Bibliot. Arabico- Hispana, tom. ii. p. 18.) The Mozarabic
+liturgy, the ancient ritual of the church of Toledo, has been
+attacked by the popes, and exposed to the doubtful trials of the
+sword and of fire, (Marian. Hist. Hispan. tom. i. l. ix. c. 18,
+p. 378.) It was, or rather it is, in the Latin tongue; yet in the
+xith century it was found necessary (A. Ae. C. 1687, A.D. 1039)
+to transcribe an Arabic version of the canons of the councils of
+Spain, (Bibliot. Arab. Hisp. tom. i. p. 547,) for the use of the
+bishops and clergy in the Moorish kingdoms.]
+
+[Footnote 211: About the middle of the xth century, the clergy of
+Cordova was reproached with this criminal compliance, by the
+intrepid envoy of the Emperor Otho I., (Vit. Johan. Gorz, in
+Secul. Benedict. V. No. 115, apud Fleury, Hist. Eccles. tom. xii.
+p. 91.)]
+
+[Footnote 212: Pagi, Critica, tom. iv. A.D. 1149, No. 8, 9.  He
+justly observes, that when Seville, &c., were retaken by
+Ferdinand of Castille, no Christians, except captives, were found
+in the place; and that the Mozarabic churches of Africa and
+Spain, described by James a Vitriaco, A.D. 1218, (Hist. Hierosol.
+c. 80, p. 1095, in Gest. Dei per Francos,) are copied from some
+older book.  I shall add, that the date of the Hegira 677 (A.D.
+1278) must apply to the copy, not the composition, of a treatise
+of a jurisprudence, which states the civil rights of the
+Christians of Cordova, (Bibliot. Arab. Hisp. tom. i. p. 471;) and
+that the Jews were the only dissenters whom Abul Waled, king of
+Grenada, (A.D. 1313,) could either discountenance or tolerate,
+(tom. ii. p. 288.)]
+
+[Footnote 213: Renaudot, Hist. Patriarch. Alex. p. 288.  Leo
+Africanus would have flattered his Roman masters, could he have
+discovered any latent relics of the Christianity of Africa.]
+
+After the revolution of eleven centuries, the Jews and
+Christians of the Turkish empire enjoy the liberty of conscience
+which was granted by the Arabian caliphs.  During the first age
+of the conquest, they suspected the loyalty of the Catholics,
+whose name of Melchites betrayed their secret attachment to the
+Greek emperor, while the Nestorians and Jacobites, his inveterate
+enemies, approved themselves the sincere and voluntary friends of
+the Mahometan government. ^214 Yet this partial jealousy was
+healed by time and submission; the churches of Egypt were shared
+with the Catholics; ^215 and all the Oriental sects were included
+in the common benefits of toleration. The rank, the immunities,
+the domestic jurisdiction of the patriarchs, the bishops, and the
+clergy, were protected by the civil magistrate: the learning of
+individuals recommended them to the employments of secretaries
+and physicians: they were enriched by the lucrative collection of
+the revenue; and their merit was sometimes raised to the command
+of cities and provinces.  A caliph of the house of Abbas was
+heard to declare that the Christians were most worthy of trust in
+the administration of Persia.  "The Moslems," said he, "will
+abuse their present fortune; the Magians regret their fallen
+greatness; and the Jews are impatient for their approaching
+deliverance." ^216 But the slaves of despotism are exposed to the
+alternatives of favor and disgrace. The captive churches of the
+East have been afflicted in every age by the avarice or bigotry
+of their rulers; and the ordinary and legal restraints must be
+offensive to the pride, or the zeal, of the Christians. ^217
+About two hundred years after Mahomet, they were separated from
+their fellow- subjects by a turban or girdle of a less honorable
+color; instead of horses or mules. they were condemned to ride on
+asses, in the attitude of women. Their public and private
+building were measured by a diminutive standard; in the streets
+or the baths it is their duty to give way or bow down before the
+meanest of the people; and their testimony is rejected, if it may
+tend to the prejudice of a true believer.  The pomp of
+processions, the sound of bells or of psalmody, is interdicted in
+their worship; a decent reverence for the national faith is
+imposed on their sermons and conversations; and the sacrilegious
+attempt to enter a mosch, or to seduce a Mussulman, will not be
+suffered to escape with impunity.  In a time, however, of
+tranquillity and justice, the Christians have never been
+compelled to renounce the Gospel, or to embrace the Koran; but
+the punishment of death is inflicted upon the apostates who have
+professed and deserted the law of Mahomet.  The martyrs of
+Cordova provoked the sentence of the cadhi, by the public
+confession of their inconstancy, or their passionate invectives
+against the person and religion of the prophet. ^218
+
+[Footnote 214: Absit (said the Catholic to the vizier of Bagdad)
+ut pari loco habeas Nestorianos, quorum praeter Arabas nullus
+alius rex est, et Graecos quorum reges amovendo Arabibus bello
+non desistunt, &c.  See in the Collections of Assemannus
+(Bibliot. Orient. tom. iv. p. 94 - 101) the state of the
+Nestorians under the caliphs.  That of the Jacobites is more
+concisely exposed in the Preliminary Dissertation of the second
+volume of Assemannus.]
+
+[Footnote 215: Eutych. Annal. tom. ii. p. 384, 387, 388.
+Renaudot, Hist. Patriarch. Alex. p. 205, 206, 257, 332.  A taint
+of the Monothelite heresy might render the first of these Greek
+patriarchs less loyal to the emperors and less obnoxious to the
+Arabs.]
+
+[Footnote 216: Motadhed, who reigned from A.D. 892 to 902.  The
+Magians still held their name and rank among the religions of the
+empire, (Assemanni, Bibliot. Orient. tom. iv. p. 97.)]
+
+[Footnote 217: Reland explains the general restraints of the
+Mahometan policy and jurisprudence, (Dissertat. tom. iii. p. 16 -
+20.) The oppressive edicts of the caliph Motawakkel, (A.D. 847 -
+861,) which are still in force, are noticed by Eutychius, (Annal.
+tom. ii. p. 448,) and D'Herbelot, (Bibliot. Orient. p. 640.) A
+persecution of the caliph Omar II. is related, and most probably
+magnified, by the Greek Theophanes (Chron p. 334.)]
+
+[Footnote 218: The martyrs of Cordova (A.D. 850, &c.) are
+commemorated and justified by St. Eulogius, who at length fell a
+victim himself.  A synod, convened by the caliph, ambiguously
+censured their rashness.  The moderate Fleury cannot reconcile
+their conduct with the discipline of antiquity, toutefois
+l'autorite de l'eglise, &c.  (Fleury, Hist. Eccles. tom. x. p.
+415 - 522, particularly p. 451, 508, 509.) Their authentic acts
+throw a strong, though transient, light on the Spanish church in
+the ixth century.]
+
+At the end of the first century of the Hegira, the caliphs
+were the most potent and absolute monarchs of the globe.  Their
+prerogative was not circumscribed, either in right or in fact, by
+the power of the nobles, the freedom of the commons, the
+privileges of the church, the votes of a senate, or the memory of
+a free constitution.  The authority of the companions of Mahomet
+expired with their lives; and the chiefs or emirs of the Arabian
+tribes left behind, in the desert, the spirit of equality and
+independence. The regal and sacerdotal characters were united in
+the successors of Mahomet; and if the Koran was the rule of their
+actions, they were the supreme judges and interpreters of that
+divine book.  They reigned by the right of conquest over the
+nations of the East, to whom the name of liberty was unknown, and
+who were accustomed to applaud in their tyrants the acts of
+violence and severity that were exercised at their own expense.
+Under the last of the Ommiades, the Arabian empire extended two
+hundred days' journey from east to west, from the confines of
+Tartary and India to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean.  And if we
+retrench the sleeve of the robe, as it is styled by their
+writers, the long and narrow province of Africa, the solid and
+compact dominion from Fargana to Aden, from Tarsus to Surat, will
+spread on every side to the measure of four or five months of the
+march of a caravan. ^219 We should vainly seek the indissoluble
+union and easy obedience that pervaded the government of Augustus
+and the Antonines; but the progress of the Mahometan religion
+diffused over this ample space a general resemblance of manners
+and opinions.  The language and laws of the Koran were studied
+with equal devotion at Samarcand and Seville: the Moor and the
+Indian embraced as countrymen and brothers in the pilgrimage of
+Mecca; and the Arabian language was adopted as the popular idiom
+in all the provinces to the westward of the Tigris. ^220
+
+[Footnote 219: See the article Eslamiah, (as we say Christendom,)
+in the Bibliotheque Orientale, (p. 325.) This chart of the
+Mahometan world is suited by the author, Ebn Alwardi, to the year
+of the Hegira 385 (A.D. 995.) Since that time, the losses in
+Spain have been overbalanced by the conquests in India, Tartary,
+and the European Turkey.]
+
+[Footnote 220: The Arabic of the Koran is taught as a dead
+language in the college of Mecca.  By the Danish traveller, this
+ancient idiom is compared to the Latin; the vulgar tongue of
+Hejaz and Yemen to the Italian; and the Arabian dialects of
+Syria, Egypt, Africa, &c., to the Provencal, Spanish, and
+Portuguese, (Niebuhr, Description de l'Arabie, p. 74, &c.)]
+
+
+
+Chapter LII: More Conquests By The Arabs.
+
+Part I.
+
+The Two Sieges Of Constantinople By The Arabs. - Their
+Invasion Of France, And Defeat By Charles Martel. - Civil War Of
+The Ommiades And Abbassides. - Learning Of The Arabs. - Luxury Of
+The Caliphs. - Naval Enterprises On Crete, Sicily, And Rome. -
+Decay And Division Of The Empire Of The Caliphs. - Defeats And
+Victories Of The Greek Emperors.
+
+When the Arabs first issued from the desert, they must have
+been surprised at the ease and rapidity of their own success.
+But when they advanced in the career of victory to the banks of
+the Indus and the summit of the Pyrenees; when they had
+repeatedly tried the edge of their cimeters and the energy of
+their faith, they might be equally astonished that any nation
+could resist their invincible arms; that any boundary should
+confine the dominion of the successor of the prophet.  The
+confidence of soldiers and fanatics may indeed be excused, since
+the calm historian of the present hour, who strives to follow the
+rapid course of the Saracens, must study to explain by what means
+the church and state were saved from this impending, and, as it
+should seem, from this inevitable, danger.  The deserts of
+Scythia and Sarmatia might be guarded by their extent, their
+climate, their poverty, and the courage of the northern
+shepherds; China was remote and inaccessible; but the greatest
+part of the temperate zone was subject to the Mahometan
+conquerors, the Greeks were exhausted by the calamities of war
+and the loss of their fairest provinces, and the Barbarians of
+Europe might justly tremble at the precipitate fall of the Gothic
+monarchy.  In this inquiry I shall unfold the events that rescued
+our ancestors of Britain, and our neighbors of Gaul, from the
+civil and religious yoke of the Koran; that protected the majesty
+of Rome, and delayed the servitude of Constantinople; that
+invigorated the defence of the Christians, and scattered among
+their enemies the seeds of division and decay.
+
+Forty-six years after the flight of Mahomet from Mecca, his
+disciples appeared in arms under the walls of Constantinople. ^1
+They were animated by a genuine or fictitious saying of the
+prophet, that, to the first army which besieged the city of the
+Caesars, their sins were forgiven: the long series of Roman
+triumphs would be meritoriously transferred to the conquerors of
+New Rome; and the wealth of nations was deposited in this
+well-chosen seat of royalty and commerce.  No sooner had the
+caliph Moawiyah suppressed his rivals and established his throne,
+than he aspired to expiate the guilt of civil blood, by the
+success and glory of this holy expedition; ^2 his preparations by
+sea and land were adequate to the importance of the object; his
+standard was intrusted to Sophian, a veteran warrior, but the
+troops were encouraged by the example and presence of Yezid, the
+son and presumptive heir of the commander of the faithful.  The
+Greeks had little to hope, nor had their enemies any reason of
+fear, from the courage and vigilance of the reigning emperor, who
+disgraced the name of Constantine, and imitated only the
+inglorious years of his grandfather Heraclius.  Without delay or
+opposition, the naval forces of the Saracens passed through the
+unguarded channel of the Hellespont, which even now, under the
+feeble and disorderly government of the Turks, is maintained as
+the natural bulwark of the capital. ^3 The Arabian fleet cast
+anchor, and the troops were disembarked near the palace of
+Hebdomon, seven miles from the city.  During many days, from the
+dawn of light to the evening, the line of assault was extended
+from the golden gate to the eastern promontory and the foremost
+warriors were impelled by the weight and effort of the succeeding
+columns.  But the besiegers had formed an insufficient estimate
+of the strength and resources of Constantinople.  The solid and
+lofty walls were guarded by numbers and discipline: the spirit of
+the Romans was rekindled by the last danger of their religion and
+empire: the fugitives from the conquered provinces more
+successfully renewed the defence of Damascus and Alexandria; and
+the Saracens were dismayed by the strange and prodigious effects
+of artificial fire.  This firm and effectual resistance diverted
+their arms to the more easy attempt of plundering the European
+and Asiatic coasts of the Propontis; and, after keeping the sea
+from the month of April to that of September, on the approach of
+winter they retreated fourscore miles from the capital, to the
+Isle of Cyzicus, in which they had established their magazine of
+spoil and provisions.  So patient was their perseverance, or so
+languid were their operations, that they repeated in the six
+following summers the same attack and retreat, with a gradual
+abatement of hope and vigor, till the mischances of shipwreck and
+disease, of the sword and of fire, compelled them to relinquish
+the fruitless enterprise.  They might bewail the loss, or
+commemorate the martyrdom, of thirty thousand Moslems, who fell
+in the siege of Constantinople; and the solemn funeral of Abu
+Ayub, or Job, excited the curiosity of the Christians themselves.
+
+That venerable Arab, one of the last of the companions of
+Mahomet, was numbered among the ansars, or auxiliaries, of
+Medina, who sheltered the head of the flying prophet.  In his
+youth he fought, at Beder and Ohud, under the holy standard: in
+his mature age he was the friend and follower of Ali; and the
+last remnant of his strength and life was consumed in a distant
+and dangerous war against the enemies of the Koran.  His memory
+was revered; but the place of his burial was neglected and
+unknown, during a period of seven hundred and eighty years, till
+the conquest of Constantinople by Mahomet the Second.  A
+seasonable vision (for such are the manufacture of every
+religion) revealed the holy spot at the foot of the walls and the
+bottom of the harbor; and the mosch of Ayub has been deservedly
+chosen for the simple and martial inauguration of the Turkish
+sultans. ^4
+
+[Footnote 1: Theophanes places the seven years of the siege of
+Constantinople in the year of our Christian aera, 673 (of the
+Alexandrian 665, Sept. 1,) and the peace of the Saracens, four
+years afterwards; a glaring inconsistency! which Petavius, Goar,
+and Pagi, (Critica, tom. iv. p. 63, 64,) have struggled to
+remove.  Of the Arabians, the Hegira 52 (A.D. 672, January 8) is
+assigned by Elmacin, the year 48 (A.D. 688, Feb. 20) by Abulfeda,
+whose testimony I esteem the most convenient and credible.]
+
+[Footnote 2: For this first siege of Constantinople, see
+Nicephorus, (Breviar. p. 21, 22;) Theophanes, (Chronograph. p.
+294;) Cedrenus, (Compend. p. 437;) Zonaras, (Hist. tom. ii. l.
+xiv. p. 89;) Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 56, 57;) Abulfeda,
+(Annal. Moslem. p. 107, 108, vers. Reiske;) D'Herbelot, (Bibliot.
+Orient. Constantinah;) Ockley's History of the Saracens, vol. ii.
+p. 127, 128.]
+
+[Footnote 3: The state and defence of the Dardanelles is exposed
+in the Memoirs of the Baron de Tott, (tom. iii. p. 39 - 97,) who
+was sent to fortify them against the Russians.  From a principal
+actor, I should have expected more accurate details; but he seems
+to write for the amusement, rather than the instruction, of his
+reader.  Perhaps, on the approach of the enemy, the minister of
+Constantine was occupied, like that of Mustapha, in finding two
+Canary birds who should sing precisely the same note.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Demetrius Cantemir's Hist. of the Othman Empire, p.
+105, 106. Rycaut's State of the Ottoman Empire, p. 10, 11.
+Voyages of Thevenot, part i. p. 189.  The Christians, who suppose
+that the martyr Abu Ayub is vulgarly confounded with the
+patriarch Job, betray their own ignorance rather than that of the
+Turks.]
+
+The event of the siege revived, both in the East and West,
+the reputation of the Roman arms, and cast a momentary shade over
+the glories of the Saracens.  The Greek ambassador was favorably
+received at Damascus, a general council of the emirs or Koreish:
+a peace, or truce, of thirty years was ratified between the two
+empires; and the stipulation of an annual tribute, fifty horses
+of a noble breed, fifty slaves, and three thousand pieces of
+gold, degraded the majesty of the commander of the faithful. ^5
+The aged caliph was desirous of possessing his dominions, and
+ending his days in tranquillity and repose: while the Moors and
+Indians trembled at his name, his palace and city of Damascus was
+insulted by the Mardaites, or Maronites, of Mount Libanus, the
+firmest barrier of the empire, till they were disarmed and
+transplanted by the suspicious policy of the Greeks. ^6 After the
+revolt of Arabia and Persia, the house of Ommiyah was reduced to
+the kingdoms of Syria and Egypt: their distress and fear enforced
+their compliance with the pressing demands of the Christians; and
+the tribute was increased to a slave, a horse, and a thousand
+pieces of gold, for each of the three hundred and sixty-five days
+of the solar year. But as soon as the empire was again united by
+the arms and policy of Abdalmalek, he disclaimed a badge of
+servitude not less injurious to his conscience than to his pride;
+he discontinued the payment of the tribute; and the resentment of
+the Greeks was disabled from action by the mad tyranny of the
+second Justinian, the just rebellion of his subjects, and the
+frequent change of his antagonists and successors.  Till the
+reign of Abdalmalek, the Saracens had been content with the free
+possession of the Persian and Roman treasures, in the coins of
+Chosroes and Caesar.  By the command of that caliph, a national
+mint was established, both for silver and gold, and the
+inscription of the Dinar, though it might be censured by some
+timorous casuists, proclaimed the unity of the God of Mahomet. ^8
+Under the reign of the caliph Walid, the Greek language and
+characters were excluded from the accounts of the public revenue.
+^9 If this change was productive of the invention or familiar use
+of our present numerals, the Arabic or Indian ciphers, as they
+are commonly styled, a regulation of office has promoted the most
+important discoveries of arithmetic, algebra, and the
+mathematical sciences. ^10
+
+[Footnote 5: Theophanes, though a Greek, deserves credit for
+these tributes, (Chronograph. p. 295, 296, 300, 301,) which are
+confirmed, with some variation, by the Arabic History of
+Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 128, vers. Pocock.)]
+
+[Footnote 6: The censure of Theophanes is just and pointed,
+(Chronograph. p. 302, 303.) The series of these events may be
+traced in the Annals of Theophanes, and in the Abridgment of the
+patriarch Nicephorus, p. 22, 24.]
+
+[Footnote 7: These domestic revolutions are related in a clear
+and natural style, in the second volume of Ockley's History of
+the Saracens, p. 253 - 370. Besides our printed authors, he draws
+his materials from the Arabic Mss. of Oxford, which he would have
+more deeply searched had he been confined to the Bodleian library
+instead of the city jail a fate how unworthy of the man and of
+his country!]
+
+[Footnote 8: Elmacin, who dates the first coinage A. H. 76, A.D.
+695, five or six years later than the Greek historians, has
+compared the weight of the best or common gold dinar to the
+drachm or dirhem of Egypt, (p. 77,) which may be equal to two
+pennies (48 grains) of our Troy weight, (Hooper's Inquiry into
+Ancient Measures, p. 24 - 36,) and equivalent to eight shillings
+of our sterling money.  From the same Elmacin and the Arabian
+physicians, some dinars as high as two dirhems, as low as half a
+dirhem, may be deduced.  The piece of silver was the dirhem, both
+in value and weight; but an old, though fair coin, struck at
+Waset, A. H. 88, and preserved in the Bodleian library, wants
+four grains of the Cairo standard, (see the Modern Universal
+History, tom. i. p. 548 of the French translation.)
+
+Note: Up to this time the Arabs had used the Roman or the
+Persian coins or had minted others which resembled them.
+Nevertheless, it has been admitted of late years, that the
+Arabians, before this epoch, had caused coin to be minted, on
+which, preserving the Roman or the Persian dies, they added
+Arabian names or inscriptions.  Some of these exist in different
+collections.  We learn from Makrizi, an Arabian author of great
+learning and judgment, that in the year 18 of the Hegira, under
+the caliphate of Omar, the Arabs had coined money of this
+description.  The same author informs us that the caliph
+Abdalmalek caused coins to be struck representing himself with a
+sword by his side.  These types, so contrary to the notions of
+the Arabs, were disapproved by the most influential persons of
+the time, and the caliph substituted for them, after the year 76
+of the Hegira, the Mahometan coins with which we are acquainted.
+Consult, on the question of Arabic numismatics, the works of
+Adler, of Fraehn, of Castiglione, and of Marsden, who have
+treated at length this interesting point of historic antiquities.
+
+See, also, in the Journal Asiatique, tom. ii. p. 257, et seq., a
+paper of M. Silvestre de Sacy, entitled Des Monnaies des Khalifes
+avant l'An 75 de l'Hegire.  See, also the translation of a German
+paper on the Arabic medals of the Chosroes, by M. Fraehn. in the
+same Journal Asiatique tom. iv. p. 331 - 347.  St. Martin, vol.
+xii. p. 19 - M.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Theophan.  Chronograph. p. 314.  This defect, if it
+really existed, must have stimulated the ingenuity of the Arabs
+to invent or borrow.]
+
+[Footnote 10: According to a new, though probable, notion,
+maintained by M de Villoison, (Anecdota Graeca, tom. ii. p. 152 -
+157,) our ciphers are not of Indian or Arabic invention.  They
+were used by the Greek and Latin arithmeticians long before the
+age of Boethius.  After the extinction of science in the West,
+they were adopted by the Arabic versions from the original Mss.,
+and restored to the Latins about the xith century.
+
+Note: Compare, on the Introduction of the Arabic numerals,
+Hallam's Introduction to the Literature of Europe, p. 150, note,
+and the authors quoted therein. - M.]
+
+Whilst the caliph Walid sat idle on the throne of Damascus,
+whilst his lieutenants achieved the conquest of Transoxiana and
+Spain, a third army of Saracens overspread the provinces of Asia
+Minor, and approached the borders of the Byzantine capital.  But
+the attempt and disgrace of the second siege was reserved for his
+brother Soliman, whose ambition appears to have been quickened by
+a more active and martial spirit.  In the revolutions of the
+Greek empire, after the tyrant Justinian had been punished and
+avenged, an humble secretary, Anastasius or Artemius, was
+promoted by chance or merit to the vacant purple.  He was alarmed
+by the sound of war; and his ambassador returned from Damascus
+with the tremendous news, that the Saracens were preparing an
+armament by sea and land, such as would transcend the experience
+of the past, or the belief of the present age. The precautions of
+Anastasius were not unworthy of his station, or of the impending
+danger.  He issued a peremptory mandate, that all persons who
+were not provided with the means of subsistence for a three
+years' siege should evacuate the city: the public granaries and
+arsenals were abundantly replenished; the walls were restored and
+strengthened; and the engines for casting stones, or darts, or
+fire, were stationed along the ramparts, or in the brigantines of
+war, of which an additional number was hastily constructed.  To
+prevent is safer, as well as more honorable, than to repel, an
+attack; and a design was meditated, above the usual spirit of the
+Greeks, of burning the naval stores of the enemy, the cypress
+timber that had been hewn in Mount Libanus, and was piled along
+the sea-shore of Phoenicia, for the service of the Egyptian
+fleet.  This generous enterprise was defeated by the cowardice or
+treachery of the troops, who, in the new language of the empire,
+were styled of the Obsequian Theme. ^11 They murdered their
+chief, deserted their standard in the Isle of Rhodes, dispersed
+themselves over the adjacent continent, and deserved pardon or
+reward by investing with the purple a simple officer of the
+revenue.  The name of Theodosius might recommend him to the
+senate and people; but, after some months, he sunk into a
+cloister, and resigned, to the firmer hand of Leo the Isaurian,
+the urgent defence of the capital and empire.  The most
+formidable of the Saracens, Moslemah, the brother of the caliph,
+was advancing at the head of one hundred and twenty thousand
+Arabs and Persians, the greater part mounted on horses or camels;
+and the successful sieges of Tyana, Amorium, and Pergamus, were
+of sufficient duration to exercise their skill and to elevate
+their hopes.  At the well-known passage of Abydus, on the
+Hellespont, the Mahometan arms were transported, for the first
+time, ^* from Asia to Europe. From thence, wheeling round the
+Thracian cities of the Propontis, Moslemah invested
+Constantinople on the land side, surrounded his camp with a ditch
+and rampart, prepared and planted his engines of assault, and
+declared, by words and actions, a patient resolution of expecting
+the return of seed-time and harvest, should the obstinacy of the
+besieged prove equal to his own. ^! The Greeks would gladly have
+ransomed their religion and empire, by a fine or assessment of a
+piece of gold on the head of each inhabitant of the city; but the
+liberal offer was rejected with disdain, and the presumption of
+Moslemah was exalted by the speedy approach and invincible force
+of the natives of Egypt and Syria.  They are said to have
+amounted to eighteen hundred ships: the number betrays their
+inconsiderable size; and of the twenty stout and capacious
+vessels, whose magnitude impeded their progress, each was manned
+with no more than one hundred heavy-armed soldiers.  This huge
+armada proceeded on a smooth sea, and with a gentle gale, towards
+the mouth of the Bosphorus; the surface of the strait was
+overshadowed, in the language of the Greeks, with a moving
+forest, and the same fatal night had been fixed by the Saracen
+chief for a general assault by sea and land.  To allure the
+confidence of the enemy, the emperor had thrown aside the chain
+that usually guarded the entrance of the harbor; but while they
+hesitated whether they should seize the opportunity, or apprehend
+the snare, the ministers of destruction were at hand.  The
+fire-ships of the Greeks were launched against them; the Arabs,
+their arms, and vessels, were involved in the same flames; the
+disorderly fugitives were dashed against each other or
+overwhelmed in the waves; and I no longer find a vestige of the
+fleet, that had threatened to extirpate the Roman name.  A still
+more fatal and irreparable loss was that of the caliph Soliman,
+who died of an indigestion, ^12 in his camp near Kinnisrin or
+Chalcis in Syria, as he was preparing to lead against
+Constantinople the remaining forces of the East. The brother of
+Moslemah was succeeded by a kinsman and an enemy; and the throne
+of an active and able prince was degraded by the useless and
+pernicious virtues of a bigot. ^!! While he started and satisfied
+the scruples of a blind conscience, the siege was continued
+through the winter by the neglect, rather than by the resolution
+of the caliph Omar. ^13 The winter proved uncommonly rigorous:
+above a hundred days the ground was covered with deep snow, and
+the natives of the sultry climes of Egypt and Arabia lay torpid
+and almost lifeless in their frozen camp.  They revived on the
+return of spring; a second effort had been made in their favor;
+and their distress was relieved by the arrival of two numerous
+fleets, laden with corn, and arms, and soldiers; the first from
+Alexandria, of four hundred transports and galleys; the second of
+three hundred and sixty vessels from the ports of Africa.  But
+the Greek fires were again kindled; and if the destruction was
+less complete, it was owing to the experience which had taught
+the Moslems to remain at a safe distance, or to the perfidy of
+the Egyptian mariners, who deserted with their ships to the
+emperor of the Christians.  The trade and navigation of the
+capital were restored; and the produce of the fisheries supplied
+the wants, and even the luxury, of the inhabitants.  But the
+calamities of famine and disease were soon felt by the troops of
+Moslemah, and as the former was miserably assuaged, so the latter
+was dreadfully propagated, by the pernicious nutriment which
+hunger compelled them to extract from the most unclean or
+unnatural food.  The spirit of conquest, and even of enthusiasm,
+was extinct: the Saracens could no longer struggle, beyond their
+lines, either single or in small parties, without exposing
+themselves to the merciless retaliation of the Thracian peasants.
+
+An army of Bulgarians was attracted from the Danube by the gifts
+and promises of Leo; and these savage auxiliaries made some
+atonement for the evils which they had inflicted on the empire,
+by the defeat and slaughter of twenty-two thousand Asiatics.  A
+report was dexterously scattered, that the Franks, the unknown
+nations of the Latin world, were arming by sea and land in the
+defence of the Christian cause, and their formidable aid was
+expected with far different sensations in the camp and city.  At
+length, after a siege of thirteen months, ^14 the hopeless
+Moslemah received from the caliph the welcome permission of
+retreat. ^* The march of the Arabian cavalry over the Hellespont
+and through the provinces of Asia, was executed without delay or
+molestation; but an army of their brethren had been cut in pieces
+on the side of Bithynia, and the remains of the fleet were so
+repeatedly damaged by tempest and fire, that only five galleys
+entered the port of Alexandria to relate the tale of their
+various and almost incredible disasters. ^15
+
+[Footnote 11: In the division of the Themes, or provinces
+described by Constantine Porphyrogenitus, (de Thematibus, l. i.
+p. 9, 10,) the Obsequium, a Latin appellation of the army and
+palace, was the fourth in the public order. Nice was the
+metropolis, and its jurisdiction extended from the Hellespont
+over the adjacent parts of Bithynia and Phrygia, (see the two
+maps prefixed by Delisle to the Imperium Orientale of Banduri.)]
+
+[Footnote *: Compare page 274.  It is singular that Gibbon should
+thus contradict himself in a few pages.  By his own account this
+was the second time. - M.]
+
+[Footnote !: The account of this siege in the Tarikh Tebry is a
+very unfavorable specimen of Asiatic history, full of absurd
+fables, and written with total ignorance of the circumstances of
+time and place.  Price, vol. i. p. 498 - M.]
+
+[Footnote 12: The caliph had emptied two baskets of eggs and of
+figs, which he swallowed alternately, and the repast was
+concluded with marrow and sugar.  In one of his pilgrimages to
+Mecca, Soliman ate, at a single meal, seventy pomegranates, a
+kid, six fowls, and a huge quantity of the grapes of Tayef. If
+the bill of fare be correct, we must admire the appetite, rather
+than the luxury, of the sovereign of Asia, (Abulfeda, Annal.
+Moslem. p. 126.)
+
+Note: The Tarikh Tebry ascribes the death of Soliman to a
+pleurisy.  The same gross gluttony in which Soliman indulged,
+though not fatal to the life, interfered with the military
+duties, of his brother Moslemah.  Price, vol. i. p. 511. - M.]
+
+[Footnote !!: Major Price's estimate of Omar's character is much
+more favorable.  Among a race of sanguinary tyrants, Omar was
+just and humane. His virtues as well as his bigotry were active.
+- M.]
+
+[Footnote 13: See the article of Omar Ben Abdalaziz, in the
+Bibliotheque Orientale, (p. 689, 690,) praeferens, says Elmacin,
+(p. 91,) religionem suam rebus suis mundanis.  He was so desirous
+of being with God, that he would not have anointed his ear (his
+own saying) to obtain a perfect cure of his last malady.  The
+caliph had only one shirt, and in an age of luxury, his annual
+expense was no more than two drachms, (Abulpharagius, p. 131.)
+Haud diu gavisus eo principe fuit urbis Muslemus, (Abulfeda, p.
+127.)]
+
+[Footnote 14: Both Nicephorus and Theophanes agree that the siege
+of Constantinople was raised the 15th of August, (A.D. 718;) but
+as the former, our best witness, affirms that it continued
+thirteen months, the latter must be mistaken in supposing that it
+began on the same day of the preceding year. I do not find that
+Pagi has remarked this inconsistency.]
+
+[Footnote *: The Tarikh Tebry embellishes the retreat of Moslemah
+with some extraordinary and incredible circumstances.  Price, p.
+514. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 15: In the second siege of Constantinople, I have
+followed Nicephorus, (Brev. p. 33 - 36,) Theophanes,
+(Chronograph, p. 324 - 334,) Cedrenus, (Compend. p. 449 - 452,)
+Zonaras, (tom. ii. p. 98 - 102,) Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen, p. 88,)
+Abulfeda, (Annal. Moslem. p. 126,) and Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p.
+130,) the most satisfactory of the Arabs.]
+
+In the two sieges, the deliverance of Constantinople may be
+chiefly ascribed to the novelty, the terrors, and the real
+efficacy of the Greek fire. ^16 The important secret of
+compounding and directing this artificial flame was imparted by
+Callinicus, a native of Heliopolis in Syria, who deserted from
+the service of the caliph to that of the emperor. ^17 The skill
+of a chemist and engineer was equivalent to the succor of fleets
+and armies; and this discovery or improvement of the military art
+was fortunately reserved for the distressful period, when the
+degenerate Romans of the East were incapable of contending with
+the warlike enthusiasm and youthful vigor of the Saracens. The
+historian who presumes to analyze this extraordinary composition
+should suspect his own ignorance and that of his Byzantine
+guides, so prone to the marvellous, so careless, and, in this
+instance, so jealous of the truth.  From their obscure, and
+perhaps fallacious, hints it should seem that the principal
+ingredient of the Greek fire was the naphtha, ^18 or liquid
+bitumen, a light, tenacious, and inflammable oil, ^19 which
+springs from the earth, and catches fire as soon as it comes in
+contact with the air.  The naphtha was mingled, I know not by
+what methods or in what proportions, with sulphur and with the
+pitch that is extracted from evergreen firs. ^20 From this
+mixture, which produced a thick smoke and a loud explosion,
+proceeded a fierce and obstinate flame, which not only rose in
+perpendicular ascent, but likewise burnt with equal vehemence in
+descent or lateral progress; instead of being extinguished, it
+was nourished and quickened by the element of water; and sand,
+urine, or vinegar, were the only remedies that could damp the
+fury of this powerful agent, which was justly denominated by the
+Greeks the liquid, or the maritime, fire.  For the annoyance of
+the enemy, it was employed with equal effect, by sea and land, in
+battles or in sieges.  It was either poured from the rampart in
+large boilers, or launched in red-hot balls of stone and iron, or
+darted in arrows and javelins, twisted round with flax and tow,
+which had deeply imbibed the inflammable oil; sometimes it was
+deposited in fire-ships, the victims and instruments of a more
+ample revenge, and was most commonly blown through long tubes of
+copper which were planted on the prow of a galley, and fancifully
+shaped into the mouths of savage monsters, that seemed to vomit a
+stream of liquid and consuming fire.  This important art was
+preserved at Constantinople, as the palladium of the state: the
+galleys and artillery might occasionally be lent to the allies of
+Rome; but the composition of the Greek fire was concealed with
+the most jealous scruple, and the terror of the enemies was
+increased and prolonged by their ignorance and surprise.  In the
+treaties of the administration of the empire, the royal author
+^21 suggests the answers and excuses that might best elude the
+indiscreet curiosity and importunate demands of the Barbarians.
+They should be told that the mystery of the Greek fire had been
+revealed by an angel to the first and greatest of the
+Constantines, with a sacred injunction, that this gift of Heaven,
+this peculiar blessing of the Romans, should never be
+communicated to any foreign nation; that the prince and the
+subject were alike bound to religious silence under the temporal
+and spiritual penalties of treason and sacrilege; and that the
+impious attempt would provoke the sudden and supernatural
+vengeance of the God of the Christians.  By these precautions,
+the secret was confined, above four hundred years, to the Romans
+of the East; and at the end of the eleventh century, the Pisans,
+to whom every sea and every art were familiar, suffered the
+effects, without understanding the composition, of the Greek
+fire.  It was at length either discovered or stolen by the
+Mahometans; and, in the holy wars of Syria and Egypt, they
+retorted an invention, contrived against themselves, on the heads
+of the Christians.  A knight, who despised the swords and lances
+of the Saracens, relates, with heartfelt sincerity, his own
+fears, and those of his companions, at the sight and sound of the
+mischievous engine that discharged a torrent of the Greek fire,
+the feu Gregeois, as it is styled by the more early of the French
+writers.  It came flying through the air, says Joinville, ^22
+like a winged long-tailed dragon, about the thickness of a
+hogshead, with the report of thunder and the velocity of
+lightning; and the darkness of the night was dispelled by this
+deadly illumination. The use of the Greek, or, as it might now be
+called, of the Saracen fire, was continued to the middle of the
+fourteenth century, ^23 when the scientific or casual compound of
+nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, effected a new revolution in the
+art of war and the history of mankind. ^24
+
+[Footnote 16: Our sure and indefatigable guide in the middle ages
+and Byzantine history, Charles du Fresne du Cange, has treated in
+several places of the Greek fire, and his collections leave few
+gleanings behind. See particularly Glossar. Med. et Infim.
+Graecitat. p. 1275, sub voce. Glossar. Med. et Infim.  Latinitat.
+
+Ignis Groecus.  Observations sur Villehardouin, p. 305, 306.
+Observations sur Joinville, p. 71, 72.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Theophanes styles him, (p. 295.) Cedrenus (p. 437)
+brings this artist from (the ruins of) Heliopolis in Egypt; and
+chemistry was indeed the peculiar science of the Egyptians.]
+
+[Footnote 18: The naphtha, the oleum incendiarium of the history
+of Jerusalem, (Gest. Dei per Francos, p. 1167,) the Oriental
+fountain of James de Vitry, (l. iii. c. 84,) is introduced on
+slight evidence and strong probability. Cinanmus (l. vi. p. 165)
+calls the Greek fire: and the naphtha is known to abound between
+the Tigris and the Caspian Sea. According to Pliny, (Hist. Natur.
+ii. 109,) it was subservient to the revenge of Medea, and in
+either etymology, (Procop. de Bell. Gothic. l. iv. c. 11,) may
+fairly signify this liquid bitumen.
+
+Note: It is remarkable that the Syrian historian Michel
+gives the name of naphtha to the newly-invented Greek fire, which
+seems to indicate that this substance formed the base of the
+destructive compound. St. Martin, tom. xi. p. 420. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 19: On the different sorts of oils and bitumens, see
+Dr. Watson's (the present bishop of Llandaff's) Chemical Essays,
+vol. iii. essay i., a classic book, the best adapted to infuse
+the taste and knowledge of chemistry. The less perfect ideas of
+the ancients may be found in Strabo (Geograph. l. xvi. p. 1078)
+and Pliny, (Hist. Natur. ii. 108, 109.) Huic (Naphthae) magna
+cognatio est ignium, transiliuntque protinus in eam undecunque
+visam.  Of our travellers I am best pleased with Otter, (tom. i.
+p. 153, 158.)]
+
+[Footnote 20: Anna Comnena has partly drawn aside the curtain.
+(Alexiad. l. xiii. p. 383.) Elsewhere (l. xi. p. 336) she
+mentions the property of burning. Leo, in the xixth chapter of
+his Tactics, (Opera Meursii, tom. vi. p. 843, edit. Lami,
+Florent. 1745,) speaks of the new invention.  These are genuine
+and Imperial testimonies.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Constantin. Porphyrogenit. de Administrat. Imperii,
+c. xiii. p. 64, 65.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Histoire de St. Louis, p. 39.  Paris, 1668, p. 44.
+Paris, de l'Imprimerie Royale, 1761.  The former of these
+editions is precious for the observations of Ducange; the latter
+for the pure and original text of Joinville.  We must have
+recourse to that text to discover, that the feu Gregeois was shot
+with a pile or javelin, from an engine that acted like a sling.]
+
+[Footnote 23: The vanity, or envy, of shaking the established
+property of Fame, has tempted some moderns to carry gunpowder
+above the xivth, (see Sir William Temple, Dutens, &c.,) and the
+Greek fire above the viith century, (see the Saluste du President
+des Brosses, tom. ii. p. 381.) But their evidence, which precedes
+the vulgar aera of the invention, is seldom clear or
+satisfactory, and subsequent writers may be suspected of fraud or
+credulity. In the earliest sieges, some combustibles of oil and
+sulphur have been used, and the Greek fire has some affinities
+with gunpowder both in its nature and effects: for the antiquity
+of the first, a passage of Procopius, (de Bell. Goth. l. iv. c.
+11,) for that of the second, some facts in the Arabic history of
+Spain, (A.D. 1249, 1312, 1332.  Bibliot. Arab. Hisp. tom. ii. p.
+6, 7, 8,) are the most difficult to elude.]
+
+[Footnote 24: That extraordinary man, Friar Bacon, reveals two of
+the ingredients, saltpetre and sulphur, and conceals the third in
+a sentence of mysterious gibberish, as if he dreaded the
+consequences of his own discovery, (Biog. Brit. vol. i. p. 430,
+new edition.)]
+
+
+
+Chapter LII: More Conquests By The Arabs.
+
+Part II.
+
+Constantinople and the Greek fire might exclude the Arabs
+from the eastern entrance of Europe; but in the West, on the side
+of the Pyrenees, the provinces of Gaul were threatened and
+invaded by the conquerors of Spain. ^25 The decline of the French
+monarchy invited the attack of these insatiate fanatics.  The
+descendants of Clovis had lost the inheritance of his martial and
+ferocious spirit; and their misfortune or demerit has affixed the
+epithet of lazy to the last kings of the Merovingian race. ^26
+They ascended the throne without power, and sunk into the grave
+without a name.  A country palace, in the neighborhood of
+Compiegne ^27 was allotted for their residence or prison: but
+each year, in the month of March or May, they were conducted in a
+wagon drawn by oxen to the assembly of the Franks, to give
+audience to foreign ambassadors, and to ratify the acts of the
+mayor of the palace.  That domestic officer was become the
+minister of the nation and the master of the prince.  A public
+employment was converted into the patrimony of a private family:
+the elder Pepin left a king of mature years under the
+guardianship of his own widow and her child; and these feeble
+regents were forcibly dispossessed by the most active of his
+bastards.  A government, half savage and half corrupt, was almost
+dissolved; and the tributary dukes, and provincial counts, and
+the territorial lords, were tempted to despise the weakness of
+the monarch, and to imitate the ambition of the mayor.  Among
+these independent chiefs, one of the boldest and most successful
+was Eudes, duke of Aquitain, who in the southern provinces of
+Gaul usurped the authority, and even the title of king.  The
+Goths, the Gascons, and the Franks, assembled under the standard
+of this Christian hero: he repelled the first invasion of the
+Saracens; and Zama, lieutenant of the caliph, lost his army and
+his life under the walls of Thoulouse.  The ambition of his
+successors was stimulated by revenge; they repassed the Pyrenees
+with the means and the resolution of conquest. The advantageous
+situation which had recommended Narbonne ^28 as the first Roman
+colony, was again chosen by the Moslems: they claimed the
+province of Septimania or Languedoc as a just dependence of the
+Spanish monarchy: the vineyards of Gascony and the city of
+Bourdeaux were possessed by the sovereign of Damascus and
+Samarcand; and the south of France, from the mouth of the Garonne
+to that of the Rhone, assumed the manners and religion of Arabia.
+
+[Footnote 25: For the invasion of France and the defeat of the
+Arabs by Charles Martel, see the Historia Arabum (c. 11, 12, 13,
+14) of Roderic Ximenes, archbishop of Toledo, who had before him
+the Christian chronicle of Isidore Pacensis, and the Mahometan
+history of Novairi.  The Moslems are silent or concise in the
+account of their losses; but M Cardonne (tom. i. p. 129, 130,
+131) has given a pure and simple account of all that he could
+collect from Ibn Halikan, Hidjazi, and an anonymous writer.  The
+texts of the chronicles of France, and lives of saints, are
+inserted in the Collection of Bouquet, (tom. iii.,) and the
+Annals of Pagi, who (tom. iii. under the proper years) has
+restored the chronology, which is anticipated six years in the
+Annals of Baronius.  The Dictionary of Bayle (Abderame and
+Munuza) has more merit for lively reflection than original
+research.]
+
+[Footnote 26: Eginhart, de Vita Caroli Magni, c. ii. p. 13 - 78,
+edit. Schmink, Utrecht, 1711.  Some modern critics accuse the
+minister of Charlemagne of exaggerating the weakness of the
+Merovingians; but the general outline is just, and the French
+reader will forever repeat the beautiful lines of Boileau's
+Lutrin.]
+
+[Footnote 27: Mamaccae, on the Oyse, between Compiegne and Noyon,
+which Eginhart calls perparvi reditus villam, (see the notes, and
+the map of ancient France for Dom.  Bouquet's Collection.)
+Compendium, or Compiegne, was a palace of more dignity, (Hadrian.
+Valesii Notitia Galliarum, p. 152,) and that laughing
+philosopher, the Abbe Galliani, (Dialogues sur le Commerce des
+Bleds,) may truly affirm, that it was the residence of the rois
+tres Chretiens en tres chevelus.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Even before that colony, A. U. C. 630, (Velleius
+Patercul. i. 15,) In the time of Polybius, (Hist. l. iii. p. 265,
+edit. Gronov.) Narbonne was a Celtic town of the first eminence,
+and one of the most northern places of the known world,
+(D'Anville, Notice de l'Ancienne Gaule, p. 473.)]
+
+But these narrow limits were scorned by the spirit of
+Abdalraman, or Abderame, who had been restored by the caliph
+Hashem to the wishes of the soldiers and people of Spain.  That
+veteran and daring commander adjudged to the obedience of the
+prophet whatever yet remained of France or of Europe; and
+prepared to execute the sentence, at the head of a formidable
+host, in the full confidence of surmounting all opposition either
+of nature or of man.  His first care was to suppress a domestic
+rebel, who commanded the most important passes of the Pyrenees:
+Manuza, a Moorish chief, had accepted the alliance of the duke of
+Aquitain; and Eudes, from a motive of private or public interest,
+devoted his beauteous daughter to the embraces of the African
+misbeliever. But the strongest fortresses of Cerdagne were
+invested by a superior force; the rebel was overtaken and slain
+in the mountains; and his widow was sent a captive to Damascus,
+to gratify the desires, or more probably the vanity, of the
+commander of the faithful. From the Pyrenees, Abderame proceeded
+without delay to the passage of the Rhone and the siege of Arles.
+
+An army of Christians attempted the relief of the city: the tombs
+of their leaders were yet visible in the thirteenth century; and
+many thousands of their dead bodies were carried down the rapid
+stream into the Mediterranean Sea.  The arms of Abderame were not
+less successful on the side of the ocean.  He passed without
+opposition the Garonne and Dordogne, which unite their waters in
+the Gulf of Bourdeaux; but he found, beyond those rivers, the
+camp of the intrepid Eudes, who had formed a second army and
+sustained a second defeat, so fatal to the Christians, that,
+according to their sad confession, God alone could reckon the
+number of the slain.  The victorious Saracen overran the
+provinces of Aquitain, whose Gallic names are disguised, rather
+than lost, in the modern appellations of Perigord, Saintonge, and
+Poitou: his standards were planted on the walls, or at least
+before the gates, of Tours and of Sens; and his detachments
+overspread the kingdom of Burgundy as far as the well-known
+cities of Lyons and Besancon.  The memory of these devastations
+(for Abderame did not spare the country or the people) was long
+preserved by tradition; and the invasion of France by the Moors
+or Mahometans affords the groundwork of those fables, which have
+been so wildly disfigured in the romances of chivalry, and so
+elegantly adorned by the Italian muse.  In the decline of society
+and art, the deserted cities could supply a slender booty to the
+Saracens; their richest spoil was found in the churches and
+monasteries, which they stripped of their ornaments and delivered
+to the flames: and the tutelar saints, both Hilary of Poitiers
+and Martin of Tours, forgot their miraculous powers in the
+defence of their own sepulchres. ^29 A victorious line of march
+had been prolonged above a thousand miles from the rock of
+Gibraltar to the banks of the Loire; the repetition of an equal
+space would have carried the Saracens to the confines of Poland
+and the Highlands of Scotland; the Rhine is not more impassable
+than the Nile or Euphrates, and the Arabian fleet might have
+sailed without a naval combat into the mouth of the Thames.
+Perhaps the interpretation of the Koran would now be taught in
+the schools of Oxford, and her pulpits might demonstrate to a
+circumcised people the sanctity and truth of the revelation of
+Mahomet. ^30
+
+[Footnote 29: With regard to the sanctuary of St. Martin of
+Tours, Roderic Ximenes accuses the Saracens of the deed.  Turonis
+civitatem, ecclesiam et palatia vastatione et incendio simili
+diruit et consumpsit.  The continuator of Fredegarius imputes to
+them no more than the intention.  Ad domum beatissimi Martini
+evertendam destinant.  At Carolus, &c.  The French annalist was
+more jealous of the honor of the saint.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Yet I sincerely doubt whether the Oxford mosch
+would have produced a volume of controversy so elegant and
+ingenious as the sermons lately preached by Mr. White, the Arabic
+professor, at Mr. Bampton's lecture. His observations on the
+character and religion of Mahomet are always adapted to his
+argument, and generally founded in truth and reason. He sustains
+the part of a lively and eloquent advocate; and sometimes rises
+to the merit of an historian and philosopher.]
+
+From such calamities was Christendom delivered by the genius
+and fortune of one man.  Charles, the illegitimate son of the
+elder Pepin, was content with the titles of mayor or duke of the
+Franks; but he deserved to become the father of a line of kings.
+In a laborious administration of twenty-four years, he restored
+and supported the dignity of the throne, and the rebels of
+Germany and Gaul were successively crushed by the activity of a
+warrior, who, in the same campaign, could display his banner on
+the Elbe, the Rhone, and the shores of the ocean.  In the public
+danger he was summoned by the voice of his country; and his
+rival, the duke of Aquitain, was reduced to appear among the
+fugitives and suppliants.  "Alas!" exclaimed the Franks, "what a
+misfortune! what an indignity!  We have long heard of the name
+and conquests of the Arabs: we were apprehensive of their attack
+from the East; they have now conquered Spain, and invade our
+country on the side of the West.  Yet their numbers, and (since
+they have no buckler) their arms, are inferior to our own." "If
+you follow my advice," replied the prudent mayor of the palace,
+"you will not interrupt their march, nor precipitate your attack.
+
+They are like a torrent, which it is dangerous to stem in its
+career.  The thirst of riches, and the consciousness of success,
+redouble their valor, and valor is of more avail than arms or
+numbers.  Be patient till they have loaded themselves with the
+encumbrance of wealth.  The possession of wealth will divide
+their councils and assure your victory." This subtile policy is
+perhaps a refinement of the Arabian writers; and the situation of
+Charles will suggest a more narrow and selfish motive of
+procrastination - the secret desire of humbling the pride and
+wasting the provinces of the rebel duke of Aquitain. It is yet
+more probable, that the delays of Charles were inevitable and
+reluctant.  A standing army was unknown under the first and
+second race; more than half the kingdom was now in the hands of
+the Saracens: according to their respective situation, the Franks
+of Neustria and Austrasia were to conscious or too careless of
+the impending danger; and the voluntary aids of the Gepidae and
+Germans were separated by a long interval from the standard of
+the Christian general.  No sooner had he collected his forces,
+than he sought and found the enemy in the centre of France,
+between Tours and Poitiers.  His well-conducted march was covered
+with a range of hills, and Abderame appears to have been
+surprised by his unexpected presence. The nations of Asia,
+Africa, and Europe, advanced with equal ardor to an encounter
+which would change the history of the world.  In the six first
+days of desultory combat, the horsemen and archers of the East
+maintained their advantage: but in the closer onset of the
+seventh day, the Orientals were oppressed by the strength and
+stature of the Germans, who, with stout hearts and iron hands,
+^31 asserted the civil and religious freedom of their posterity.
+The epithet of Martel. the Hammer, which has been added to the
+name of Charles, is expressive of his weighty and irresistible
+strokes: the valor of Eudes was excited by resentment and
+emulation; and their companions, in the eye of history, are the
+true Peers and Paladins of French chivalry.  After a bloody
+field, in which Abderame was slain, the Saracens, in the close of
+the evening, retired to their camp.  In the disorder and despair
+of the night, the various tribes of Yemen and Damascus, of Africa
+and Spain, were provoked to turn their arms against each other:
+the remains of their host were suddenly dissolved, and each emir
+consulted his safety by a hasty and separate retreat.  At the
+dawn of the day, the stillness of a hostile camp was suspected by
+the victorious Christians: on the report of their spies, they
+ventured to explore the riches of the vacant tents; but if we
+except some celebrated relics, a small portion of the spoil was
+restored to the innocent and lawful owners. The joyful tidings
+were soon diffused over the Catholic world, and the monks of
+Italy could affirm and believe that three hundred and fifty, or
+three hundred and seventy-five, thousand of the Mahometans had
+been crushed by the hammer of Charles, ^32 while no more than
+fifteen hundred Christians were slain in the field of Tours.  But
+this incredible tale is sufficiently disproved by the caution of
+the French general, who apprehended the snares and accidents of a
+pursuit, and dismissed his German allies to their native forests.
+
+The inactivity of a conqueror betrays the loss of strength and
+blood, and the most cruel execution is inflicted, not in the
+ranks of battle, but on the backs of a flying enemy. Yet the
+victory of the Franks was complete and final; Aquitain was
+recovered by the arms of Eudes; the Arabs never resumed the
+conquest of Gaul, and they were soon driven beyond the Pyrenees
+by Charles Martel and his valiant race. ^33 It might have been
+expected that the savior of Christendom would have been
+canonized, or at least applauded, by the gratitude of the clergy,
+who are indebted to his sword for their present existence.  But
+in the public distress, the mayor of the palace had been
+compelled to apply the riches, or at least the revenues, of the
+bishops and abbots, to the relief of the state and the reward of
+the soldiers.  His merits were forgotten, his sacrilege alone was
+remembered, and, in an epistle to a Carlovingian prince, a Gallic
+synod presumes to declare that his ancestor was damned; that on
+the opening of his tomb, the spectators were affrighted by a
+smell of fire and the aspect of a horrid dragon; and that a saint
+of the times was indulged with a pleasant vision of the soul and
+body of Charles Martel, burning, to all eternity, in the abyss of
+hell. ^34
+
+[Footnote 31: Gens Austriae membrorum pre-eminentia valida, et
+gens Germana corde et corpore praestantissima, quasi in ictu
+oculi, manu ferrea, et pectore arduo, Arabes extinxerunt,
+(Roderic. Toletan. c. xiv.)]
+
+[Footnote 32: These numbers are stated by Paul Warnefrid, the
+deacon of Aquileia, (de Gestis Langobard.  l. vi. p. 921, edit.
+Grot.,) and Anastasius, the librarian of the Roman church, (in
+Vit. Gregorii II.,) who tells a miraculous story of three
+consecrated sponges, which rendered invulnerable the French
+soldiers, among whom they had been shared It should seem, that in
+his letters to the pope, Eudes usurped the honor of the victory,
+from which he is chastised by the French annalists, who, with
+equal falsehood, accuse him of inviting the Saracens.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Narbonne, and the rest of Septimania, was recovered
+by Pepin the son of Charles Martel, A.D. 755, (Pagi, Critica,
+tom. iii. p. 300.) Thirty-seven years afterwards, it was pillaged
+by a sudden inroad of the Arabs, who employed the captives in the
+construction of the mosch of Cordova, (De Guignes, Hist. des
+Huns, tom. i. p. 354.)]
+
+[Footnote 34: This pastoral letter, addressed to Lewis the
+Germanic, the grandson of Charlemagne, and most probably composed
+by the pen of the artful Hincmar, is dated in the year 858, and
+signed by the bishops of the provinces of Rheims and Rouen,
+(Baronius, Annal. Eccles. A.D. 741.  Fleury, Hist. Eccles. tom.
+x. p. 514 - 516.) Yet Baronius himself, and the French critics,
+reject with contempt this episcopal fiction.]
+
+The loss of an army, or a province, in the Western world,
+was less painful to the court of Damascus, than the rise and
+progress of a domestic competitor.  Except among the Syrians, the
+caliphs of the house of Ommiyah had never been the objects of the
+public favor.  The life of Mahomet recorded their perseverance in
+idolatry and rebellion: their conversion had been reluctant,
+their elevation irregular and factious, and their throne was
+cemented with the most holy and noble blood of Arabia.  The best
+of their race, the pious Omar, was dissatisfied with his own
+title: their personal virtues were insufficient to justify a
+departure from the order of succession; and the eyes and wishes
+of the faithful were turned towards the line of Hashem, and the
+kindred of the apostle of God.  Of these the Fatimites were
+either rash or pusillanimous; but the descendants of Abbas
+cherished, with courage and discretion, the hopes of their rising
+fortunes. From an obscure residence in Syria, they secretly
+despatched their agents and missionaries, who preached in the
+Eastern provinces their hereditary indefeasible right; and
+Mohammed, the son of Ali, the son of Abdallah, the son of Abbas,
+the uncle of the prophet, gave audience to the deputies of
+Chorasan, and accepted their free gift of four hundred thousand
+pieces of gold.  After the death of Mohammed, the oath of
+allegiance was administered in the name of his son Ibrahim to a
+numerous band of votaries, who expected only a signal and a
+leader; and the governor of Chorasan continued to deplore his
+fruitless admonitions and the deadly slumber of the caliphs of
+Damascus, till he himself, with all his adherents, was driven
+from the city and palace of Meru, by the rebellious arms of Abu
+Moslem. ^35 That maker of kings, the author, as he is named, of
+the call of the Abbassides, was at length rewarded for his
+presumption of merit with the usual gratitude of courts.  A mean,
+perhaps a foreign, extraction could not repress the aspiring
+energy of Abu Moslem. Jealous of his wives, liberal of his
+wealth, prodigal of his own blood and of that of others, he could
+boast with pleasure, and possibly with truth, that he had
+destroyed six hundred thousand of his enemies; and such was the
+intrepid gravity of his mind and countenance, that he was never
+seen to smile except on a day of battle.  In the visible
+separation of parties, the green was consecrated to the
+Fatimites; the Ommiades were distinguished by the white; and the
+black, as the most adverse, was naturally adopted by the
+Abbassides. Their turbans and garments were stained with that
+gloomy color: two black standards, on pike staves nine cubits
+long, were borne aloft in the van of Abu Moslem; and their
+allegorical names of the night and the shadow obscurely
+represented the indissoluble union and perpetual succession of
+the line of Hashem.  From the Indus to the Euphrates, the East
+was convulsed by the quarrel of the white and the black factions:
+the Abbassides were most frequently victorious; but their public
+success was clouded by the personal misfortune of their chief.
+The court of Damascus, awakening from a long slumber, resolved to
+prevent the pilgrimage of Mecca, which Ibrahim had undertaken
+with a splendid retinue, to recommend himself at once to the
+favor of the prophet and of the people.  A detachment of cavalry
+intercepted his march and arrested his person; and the unhappy
+Ibrahim, snatched away from the promise of untasted royalty,
+expired in iron fetters in the dungeons of Haran. His two younger
+brothers, Saffah ^* and Almansor, eluded the search of the
+tyrant, and lay concealed at Cufa, till the zeal of the people
+and the approach of his Eastern friends allowed them to expose
+their persons to the impatient public.  On Friday, in the dress
+of a caliph, in the colors of the sect, Saffah proceeded with
+religious and military pomp to the mosch: ascending the pulpit,
+he prayed and preached as the lawful successor of Mahomet; and
+after his departure, his kinsmen bound a willing people by an
+oath of fidelity.  But it was on the banks of the Zab, and not in
+the mosch of Cufa, that this important controversy was
+determined.  Every advantage appeared to be on the side of the
+white faction: the authority of established government; an army
+of a hundred and twenty thousand soldiers, against a sixth part
+of that number; and the presence and merit of the caliph Mervan,
+the fourteenth and last of the house of Ommiyah.  Before his
+accession to the throne, he had deserved, by his Georgian
+warfare, the honorable epithet of the ass of Mesopotamia; ^36 and
+he might have been ranked amongst the greatest princes, had not,
+says Abulfeda, the eternal order decreed that moment for the ruin
+of his family; a decree against which all human fortitude and
+prudence must struggle in vain.  The orders of Mervan were
+mistaken, or disobeyed: the return of his horse, from which he
+had dismounted on a necessary occasion, impressed the belief of
+his death; and the enthusiasm of the black squadrons was ably
+conducted by Abdallah, the uncle of his competitor.  After an
+irretrievab defeat, the caliph escaped to Mosul; but the colors
+of the Abbassides were displayed from the rampart; he suddenly
+repassed the Tigris, cast a melancholy look on his palace of
+Haran, crossed the Euphrates, abandoned the fortifications of
+Damascus, and, without halting in Palestine, pitched his last and
+fatal camp at Busir, on the banks of the Nile. ^37 His speed was
+urged by the incessant diligence of Abdallah, who in every step
+of the pursuit acquired strength and reputation: the remains of
+the white faction were finally vanquished in Egypt; and the
+lance, which terminated the life and anxiety of Mervan, was not
+less welcome perhaps to the unfortunate than to the victorious
+chief.  The merciless inquisition of the conqueror eradicated the
+most distant branches of the hostile race: their bones were
+scattered, their memory was accursed, and the martyrdom of
+Hossein was abundantly revenged on the posterity of his tyrants.
+Fourscore of the Ommiades, who had yielded to the faith or
+clemency of their foes, were invited to a banquet at Damascus.
+The laws of hospitality were violated by a promiscuous massacre:
+the board was spread over their fallen bodies; and the festivity
+of the guests was enlivened by the music of their dying groans.
+By the event of the civil war, the dynasty of the Abbassides was
+firmly established; but the Christians only could triumph in the
+mutual hatred and common loss of the disciples of Mahomet. ^38
+
+[Footnote 35: The steed and the saddle which had carried any of
+his wives were instantly killed or burnt, lest they should
+afterwards be mounted by a male. Twelve hundred mules or camels
+were required for his kitchen furniture; and the daily
+consumption amounted to three thousand cakes, a hundred sheep,
+besides oxen, poultry, &c., (Abul pharagius, Hist. Dynast. p.
+140.)]
+
+[Footnote *: He is called Abdullah or Abul Abbas in the Tarikh
+Tebry. Price vol. i. p. 600.  Saffah or Saffauh (the Sanguinary)
+was a name which be required after his bloody reign, (vol. ii. p.
+1.) - M.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Al Hemar.  He had been governor of Mesopotamia, and
+the Arabic proverb praises the courage of that warlike breed of
+asses who never fly from an enemy.  The surname of Mervan may
+justify the comparison of Homer, (Iliad, A. 557, &c.,) and both
+will silence the moderns, who consider the ass as a stupid and
+ignoble emblem, (D'Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 558.)]
+
+[Footnote 37: Four several places, all in Egypt, bore the name of
+Busir, or Busiris, so famous in Greek fable.  The first, where
+Mervan was slain was to the west of the Nile, in the province of
+Fium, or Arsinoe; the second in the Delta, in the Sebennytic
+nome; the third near the pyramids; the fourth, which was
+destroyed by Dioclesian, (see above, vol. ii. p. 130,) in the
+Thebais.  I shall here transcribe a note of the learned and
+orthodox Michaelis: Videntur in pluribus Aegypti superioris
+urbibus Busiri Coptoque arma sumpsisse Christiani, libertatemque
+de religione sentiendi defendisse, sed succubuisse quo in bello
+Coptus et Busiris diruta, et circa Esnam magna strages edita.
+Bellum narrant sed causam belli ignorant scriptores Byzantini,
+alioqui Coptum et Busirim non rebellasse dicturi, sed causam
+Christianorum suscepturi, (Not. 211, p. 100.) For the geography
+of the four Busirs, see Abulfeda, (Descript. Aegypt. p. 9, vers.
+Michaelis, Gottingae, 1776, in 4to.,) Michaelis, (Not. 122 - 127,
+p. 58 - 63,) and D'Anville, (Memoire sua l'Egypte, p. 85, 147,
+205.)]
+
+[Footnote 38: See Abulfeda, (Annal. Moslem. p. 136 - 145,)
+Eutychius, (Annal. tom. ii. p. 392, vers. Pocock,) Elmacin,
+(Hist. Saracen. p. 109 - 121,) Abulpharagius, (Hist. Dynast. p.
+134 - 140,) Roderic of Toledo, (Hist. Arabum, c. xviii. p. 33,)
+Theophanes, (Chronograph. p. 356, 357, who speaks of the
+Abbassides) and the Bibliotheque of D'Herbelot, in the articles
+Ommiades, Abbassides, Moervan, Ibrahim, Saffah, Abou Moslem.]
+
+Yet the thousands who were swept away by the sword of war
+might have been speedily retrieved in the succeeding generation,
+if the consequences of the revolution had not tended to dissolve
+the power and unity of the empire of the Saracens.  In the
+proscription of the Ommiades, a royal youth of the name of
+Abdalrahman alone escaped the rage of his enemies, who hunted the
+wandering exile from the banks of the Euphrates to the valleys of
+Mount Atlas.  His presence in the neighborhood of Spain revived
+the zeal of the white faction. The name and cause of the
+Abbassides had been first vindicated by the Persians: the West
+had been pure from civil arms; and the servants of the abdicated
+family still held, by a precarious tenure, the inheritance of
+their lands and the offices of government.  Strongly prompted by
+gratitude, indignation, and fear, they invited the grandson of
+the caliph Hashem to ascend the throne of his ancestors; and, in
+his desperate condition, the extremes of rashness and prudence
+were almost the same.  The acclamations of the people saluted his
+landing on the coast of Andalusia: and, after a successful
+struggle, Abdalrahman established the throne of Cordova, and was
+the father of the Ommiades of Spain, who reigned above two
+hundred and fifty years from the Atlantic to the Pyrenees. ^39 He
+slew in battle a lieutenant of the Abbassides, who had invaded
+his dominions with a fleet and army: the head of Ala, in salt and
+camphire, was suspended by a daring messenger before the palace
+of Mecca; and the caliph Almansor rejoiced in his safety, that he
+was removed by seas and lands from such a formidable adversary.
+Their mutual designs or declarations of offensive war evaporated
+without effect; but instead of opening a door to the conquest of
+Europe, Spain was dissevered from the trunk of the monarchy,
+engaged in perpetual hostility with the East, and inclined to
+peace and friendship with the Christian sovereigns of
+Constantinople and France.  The example of the Ommiades was
+imitated by the real or fictitious progeny of Ali, the Edrissites
+of Mauritania, and the more powerful fatimites of Africa and
+Egypt.  In the tenth century, the chair of Mahomet was disputed
+by three caliphs or commanders of the faithful, who reigned at
+Bagdad, Cairoan, and Cordova, excommunicating each other, and
+agreed only in a principle of discord, that a sectary is more
+odious and criminal than an unbeliever. ^40
+
+[Footnote 39: For the revolution of Spain, consult Roderic of
+Toledo, (c. xviii. p. 34, &c.,) the Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana,
+(tom. ii. p. 30, 198,) and Cardonne, (Hist. de l'Afrique et de
+l'Espagne, tom. i. p. 180 - 197, 205, 272, 323, &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 40: I shall not stop to refute the strange errors and
+fancies of Sir William Temple (his Works, vol. iii. p. 371 - 374,
+octavo edition) and Voltaire (Histoire Generale, c. xxviii. tom.
+ii. p. 124, 125, edition de Lausanne) concerning the division of
+the Saracen empire.  The mistakes of Voltaire proceeded from the
+want of knowledge or reflection; but Sir William was deceived by
+a Spanish impostor, who has framed an apocryphal history of the
+conquest of Spain by the Arabs.]
+
+Mecca was the patrimony of the line of Hashem, yet the
+Abbassides were never tempted to reside either in the birthplace
+or the city of the prophet. Damascus was disgraced by the choice,
+and polluted with the blood, of the Ommiades; and, after some
+hesitation, Almansor, the brother and successor of Saffah, laid
+the foundations of Bagdad, ^41 the Imperial seat of his posterity
+during a reign of five hundred years. ^42 The chosen spot is on
+the eastern bank of the Tigris, about fifteen miles above the
+ruins of Modain: the double wall was of a circular form; and such
+was the rapid increase of a capital, now dwindled to a provincial
+town, that the funeral of a popular saint might be attended by
+eight hundred thousand men and sixty thousand women of Bagdad and
+the adjacent villages.  In this city of peace, ^43 amidst the
+riches of the East, the Abbassides soon disdained the abstinence
+and frugality of the first caliphs, and aspired to emulate the
+magnificence of the Persian kings.  After his wars and buildings,
+Almansor left behind him in gold and silver about thirty millions
+sterling: ^44 and this treasure was exhausted in a few years by
+the vices or virtues of his children.  His son Mahadi, in a
+single pilgrimage to Mecca, expended six millions of dinars of
+gold.  A pious and charitable motive may sanctify the foundation
+of cisterns and caravanseras, which he distributed along a
+measured road of seven hundred miles; but his train of camels,
+laden with snow, could serve only to astonish the natives of
+Arabia, and to refresh the fruits and liquors of the royal
+banquet. ^45 The courtiers would surely praise the liberality of
+his grandson Almamon, who gave away four fifths of the income of
+a province, a sum of two millions four hundred thousand gold
+dinars, before he drew his foot from the stirrup.  At the
+nuptials of the same prince, a thousand pearls of the largest
+size were showered on the head of the bride, ^46 and a lottery of
+lands and houses displayed the capricious bounty of fortune.  The
+glories of the court were brightened, rather than impaired, in
+the decline of the empire, and a Greek ambassador might admire,
+or pity, the magnificence of the feeble Moctader. "The caliph's
+whole army," says the historian Abulfeda, "both horse and foot,
+was under arms, which together made a body of one hundred and
+sixty thousand men.  His state officers, the favorite slaves,
+stood near him in splendid apparel, their belts glittering with
+gold and gems.  Near them were seven thousand eunuchs, four
+thousand of them white, the remainder black.  The porters or
+door-keepers were in number seven hundred.  Barges and boats,
+with the most superb decorations, were seen swimming upon the
+Tigris.  Nor was the palace itself less splendid, in which were
+hung up thirty-eight thousand pieces of tapestry, twelve thousand
+five hundred of which were of silk embroidered with gold.  The
+carpets on the floor were twenty-two thousand.  A hundred lions
+were brought out, with a keeper to each lion. ^47 Among the other
+spectacles of rare and stupendous luxury was a tree of gold and
+silver spreading into eighteen large branches, on which, and on
+the lesser boughs, sat a variety of birds made of the same
+precious metals, as well as the leaves of the tree.  While the
+machinery affected spontaneous motions, the several birds warbled
+their natural harmony. Through this scene of magnificence, the
+Greek ambassador was led by the vizier to the foot of the
+caliph's throne." ^48 In the West, the Ommiades of Spain
+supported, with equal pomp, the title of commander of the
+faithful.  Three miles from Cordova, in honor of his favorite
+sultana, the third and greatest of the Abdalrahmans constructed
+the city, palace, and gardens of Zehra.  Twenty-five years, and
+above three millions sterling, were employed by the founder: his
+liberal taste invited the artists of Constantinople, the most
+skilful sculptors and architects of the age; and the buildings
+were sustained or adorned by twelve hundred columns of Spanish
+and African, of Greek and Italian marble.  The hall of audience
+was incrusted with gold and pearls, and a great basin in the
+centre was surrounded with the curious and costly figures of
+birds and quadrupeds.  In a lofty pavilion of the gardens, one of
+these basins and fountains, so delightful in a sultry climate,
+was replenished not with water, but with the purest quicksilver.
+The seraglio of Abdalrahman, his wives, concubines, and black
+eunuchs, amounted to six thousand three hundred persons: and he
+was attended to the field by a guard of twelve thousand horse,
+whose belts and cimeters were studded with gold. ^49
+
+[Footnote 41: The geographer D'Anville, (l'Euphrate et le Tigre,
+p. 121 - 123,) and the Orientalist D'Herbelot, (Bibliotheque, p.
+167, 168,) may suffice for the knowledge of Bagdad.  Our
+travellers, Pietro della Valle, (tom. i. p. 688 - 698,)
+Tavernier, (tom. i. p. 230 - 238,) Thevenot, (part ii. p. 209 -
+212,) Otter, (tom. i. p. 162 - 168,) and Niebuhr, (Voyage en
+Arabie, tom. ii. p. 239 - 271,) have seen only its decay; and the
+Nubian geographer, (p. 204,) and the travelling Jew, Benjamin of
+Tuleda (Itinerarium, p. 112 - 123, a Const. l'Empereur, apud
+Elzevir, 1633,) are the only writers of my acquaintance, who have
+known Bagdad under the reign of the Abbassides.]
+
+[Footnote 42: The foundations of Bagdad were laid A. H. 145, A.D.
+762. Mostasem, the last of the Abbassides, was taken and put to
+death by the Tartars, A. H. 656, A.D. 1258, the 20th of
+February.]
+
+[Footnote 43: Medinat al Salem, Dar al Salem.  Urbs pacis, or, as
+it is more neatly compounded by the Byzantine writers,
+(Irenopolis.) There is some dispute concerning the etymology of
+Bagdad, but the first syllable is allowed to signify a garden in
+the Persian tongue; the garden of Dad, a Christian hermit, whose
+cell had been the only habitation on the spot.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Reliquit in aerario sexcenties millies mille
+stateres. et quater et vicies millies mille aureos aureos.
+Elmacin, Hist. Saracen. p. 126.  I have reckoned the gold pieces
+at eight shillings, and the proportion to the silver as twelve to
+one.  But I will never answer for the numbers of Erpenius; and
+the Latins are scarcely above the savages in the language of
+arithmetic.]
+
+[Footnote 45: D'Herbelot, p. 530.  Abulfeda, p. 154.  Nivem
+Meccam apportavit, rem ibi aut nunquam aut rarissime visam.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Abulfeda (p. 184, 189) describes the splendor and
+liberality of Almamon.  Milton has alluded to this Oriental
+custom: -
+
+Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand,
+
+Showers on her kings Barbaric pearls and gold.
+
+I have used the modern word lottery to express the word of the
+Roman emperors, which entitled to some prize the person who
+caught them, as they were thrown among the crowd.]
+
+[Footnote 47: When Bell of Antermony (Travels, vol. i. p. 99)
+accompanied the Russian ambassador to the audience of the
+unfortunate Shah Hussein of Persia, two lions were introduced, to
+denote the power of the king over the fiercest animals.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Abulfeda, p. 237.  D'Herbelot, p. 590.  This
+embassy was received at Bagdad, A. H. 305, A.D. 917.  In the
+passage of Abulfeda, I have used, with some variations, the
+English translation of the learned and amiable Mr. Harris of
+Salisbury, (Philological Enquiries p. 363, 364.)]
+
+[Footnote 49: Cardonne, Histoire de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne,
+tom. i. p. 330 - 336.  A just idea of the taste and architecture
+of the Arabians of Spain may be conceived from the description
+and plates of the Alhambra of Grenada, (Swinburne's Travels, p.
+171 - 188.)]
+
+
+
+Chapter LII: More Conquests By The Arabs.
+
+Part III.
+
+In a private condition, our desires are perpetually
+repressed by poverty and subordination; but the lives and labors
+of millions are devoted to the service of a despotic prince,
+whose laws are blindly obeyed, and whose wishes are instantly
+gratified.  Our imagination is dazzled by the splendid picture;
+and whatever may be the cool dictates of reason, there are few
+among us who would obstinately refuse a trial of the comforts and
+the cares of royalty.  It may therefore be of some use to borrow
+the experience of the same Abdalrahman, whose magnificence has
+perhaps excited our admiration and envy, and to transcribe an
+authentic memorial which was found in the closet of the deceased
+caliph.  "I have now reigned above fifty years in victory or
+peace; beloved by my subjects, dreaded by my enemies, and
+respected by my allies.  Riches and honors, power and pleasure,
+have waited on my call, nor does any earthly blessing appear to
+have been wanting to my felicity.  In this situation, I have
+diligently numbered the days of pure and genuine happiness which
+have fallen to my lot: they amount to Fourteen: - O man!  place
+not thy confidence in this present world!" ^50 The luxury of the
+caliphs, so useless to their private happiness, relaxed the
+nerves, and terminated the progress, of the Arabian empire.
+Temporal and spiritual conquest had been the sole occupation of
+the first successors of Mahomet; and after supplying themselves
+with the necessaries of life, the whole revenue was scrupulously
+devoted to that salutary work.  The Abbassides were impoverished
+by the multitude of their wants, and their contempt of oeconomy.
+Instead of pursuing the great object of ambition, their leisure,
+their affections, the powers of their mind, were diverted by pomp
+and pleasure: the rewards of valor were embezzled by women and
+eunuchs, and the royal camp was encumbered by the luxury of the
+palace.  A similar temper was diffused among the subjects of the
+caliph.  Their stern enthusiasm was softened by time and
+prosperity. they sought riches in the occupations of industry,
+fame in the pursuits of literature, and happiness in the
+tranquillity of domestic life.  War was no longer the passion of
+the Saracens; and the increase of pay, the repetition of
+donatives, were insufficient to allure the posterity of those
+voluntary champions who had crowded to the standard of Abubeker
+and Omar for the hopes of spoil and of paradise.
+
+[Footnote 50: Cardonne, tom. i. p. 329, 330.  This confession,
+the complaints of Solomon of the vanity of this world, (read
+Prior's verbose but eloquent poem,) and the happy ten days of the
+emperor Seghed, (Rambler, No. 204, 205,) will be triumphantly
+quoted by the detractors of human life. Their expectations are
+commonly immoderate, their estimates are seldom impartial. If I
+may speak of myself, (the only person of whom I can speak with
+certainty,) my happy hours have far exceeded, and far exceed, the
+scanty numbers of the caliph of Spain; and I shall not scruple to
+add, that many of them are due to the pleasing labor of the
+present composition.]
+
+Under the reign of the Ommiades, the studies of the Moslems
+were confined to the interpretation of the Koran, and the
+eloquence and poetry of their native tongue.  A people
+continually exposed to the dangers of the field must esteem the
+healing powers of medicine, or rather of surgery; but the
+starving physicians of Arabia murmured a complaint that exercise
+and temperance deprived them of the greatest part of their
+practice. ^51 After their civil and domestic wars, the subjects
+of the Abbassides, awakening from this mental lethargy, found
+leisure and felt curiosity for the acquisition of profane
+science.  This spirit was first encouraged by the caliph
+Almansor, who, besides his knowledge of the Mahometan law, had
+applied himself with success to the study of astronomy.  But when
+the sceptre devolved to Almamon, the seventh of the Abbassides,
+he completed the designs of his grandfather, and invited the
+muses from their ancient seats.  His ambassadors at
+Constantinople, his agents in Armenia, Syria, and Egypt,
+collected the volumes of Grecian science at his command they were
+translated by the most skilful interpreters into the Arabic
+language: his subjects were exhorted assiduously to peruse these
+instructive writings; and the successor of Mahomet assisted with
+pleasure and modesty at the assemblies and disputations of the
+learned. "He was not ignorant," says Abulpharagius, "that they
+are the elect of God, his best and most useful servants, whose
+lives are devoted to the improvement of their rational faculties.
+
+The mean ambition of the Chinese or the Turks may glory in the
+industry of their hands or the indulgence of their brutal
+appetites.  Yet these dexterous artists must view, with hopeless
+emulation, the hexagons and pyramids of the cells of a beehive:
+^52 these fortitudinous heroes are awed by the superior
+fierceness of the lions and tigers; and in their amorous
+enjoyments they are much inferior to the vigor of the grossest
+and most sordid quadrupeds.  The teachers of wisdom are the true
+luminaries and legislators of a world, which, without their aid,
+would again sink in ignorance and barbarism." ^53 The zeal and
+curiosity of Almamon were imitated by succeeding princes of the
+line of Abbas: their rivals, the Fatimites of Africa and the
+Ommiades of Spain, were the patrons of the learned, as well as
+the commanders of the faithful; the same royal prerogative was
+claimed by their independent emirs of the provinces; and their
+emulation diffused the taste and the rewards of science from
+Samarcand and Bochara to Fez and Cordova.  The vizier of a sultan
+consecrated a sum of two hundred thousand pieces of gold to the
+foundation of a college at Bagdad, which he endowed with an
+annual revenue of fifteen thousand dinars.  The fruits of
+instruction were communicated, perhaps at different times, to six
+thousand disciples of every degree, from the son of the noble to
+that of the mechanic: a sufficient allowance was provided for the
+indigent scholars; and the merit or industry of the professors
+was repaid with adequate stipends.  In every city the productions
+of Arabic literature were copied and collected by the curiosity
+of the studious and the vanity of the rich.  A private doctor
+refused the invitation of the sultan of Bochara, because the
+carriage of his books would have required four hundred camels.
+The royal library of the Fatimites consisted of one hundred
+thousand manuscripts, elegantly transcribed and splendidly bound,
+which were lent, without jealousy or avarice, to the students of
+Cairo. Yet this collection must appear moderate, if we can
+believe that the Ommiades of Spain had formed a library of six
+hundred thousand volumes, forty-four of which were employed in
+the mere catalogue.  Their capital, Cordova, with the adjacent
+towns of Malaga, Almeria, and Murcia, had given birth to more
+than three hundred writers, and above seventy public libraries
+were opened in the cities of the Andalusian kingdom.  The age of
+Arabian learning continued about five hundred years, till the
+great eruption of the Moguls, and was coeval with the darkest and
+most slothful period of European annals; but since the sun of
+science has arisen in the West, it should seem that the Oriental
+studies have languished and declined. ^54
+
+[Footnote 51: The Guliston (p. 29) relates the conversation of
+Mahomet and a physician, (Epistol. Renaudot. in Fabricius,
+Bibliot. Graec. tom. i. p. 814.) The prophet himself was skilled
+in the art of medicine; and Gagnier (Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p.
+394 - 405) has given an extract of the aphorisms which are extant
+under his name.]
+
+[Footnote 52: See their curious architecture in Reaumur (Hist.
+des Insectes, tom. v. Memoire viii.) These hexagons are closed by
+a pyramid; the angles of the three sides of a similar pyramid,
+such as would accomplish the given end with the smallest quantity
+possible of materials, were determined by a mathematician, at 109
+degrees 26 minutes for the larger, 70 degrees 34 minutes for the
+smaller.  The actual measure is 109 degrees 28 minutes, 70
+degrees 32 minutes.  Yet this perfect harmony raises the work at
+the expense of the artist he bees are not masters of transcendent
+geometry.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Saed Ebn Ahmed, cadhi of Toledo, who died A. H.
+462, A.D. 069, has furnished Abulpharagius (Dynast. p. 160) with
+this curious passage, as well as with the text of Pocock's
+Specimen Historiae Arabum.  A number of literary anecdotes of
+philosophers, physicians, &c., who have flourished under each
+caliph, form the principal merit of the Dynasties of
+Abulpharagius.]
+
+[Footnote 54: These literary anecdotes are borrowed from the
+Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana, (tom. ii. p. 38, 71, 201, 202,) Leo
+Africanus, (de Arab. Medicis et Philosophis, in Fabric. Bibliot.
+Graec. tom. xiii. p. 259 - 293, particularly p. 274,) and
+Renaudot, (Hist. Patriarch. Alex. p. 274, 275, 536, 537,) besides
+the chronological remarks of Abulpharagius.]
+
+In the libraries of the Arabians, as in those of Europe, the
+far greater part of the innumerable volumes were possessed only
+of local value or imaginary merit. ^55 The shelves were crowded
+with orators and poets, whose style was adapted to the taste and
+manners of their countrymen; with general and partial histories,
+which each revolving generation supplied with a new harvest of
+persons and events; with codes and commentaries of jurisprudence,
+which derived their authority from the law of the prophet; with
+the interpreters of the Koran, and orthodox tradition; and with
+the whole theological tribe, polemics, mystics, scholastics, and
+moralists, the first or the last of writers, according to the
+different estimates of sceptics or believers.  The works of
+speculation or science may be reduced to the four classes of
+philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and physic.  The sages of
+Greece were translated and illustrated in the Arabic language,
+and some treatises, now lost in the original, have been recovered
+in the versions of the East, ^56 which possessed and studied the
+writings of Aristotle and Plato, of Euclid and Apollonius, of
+Ptolemy, Hippocrates, and Galen. ^57 Among the ideal systems
+which have varied with the fashion of the times, the Arabians
+adopted the philosophy of the Stagirite, alike intelligible or
+alike obscure for the readers of every age.  Plato wrote for the
+Athenians, and his allegorical genius is too closely blended with
+the language and religion of Greece.  After the fall of that
+religion, the Peripatetics, emerging from their obscurity,
+prevailed in the controversies of the Oriental sects, and their
+founder was long afterwards restored by the Mahometans of Spain
+to the Latin schools. ^58 The physics, both of the Academy and
+the Lycaeum, as they are built, not on observation, but on
+argument, have retarded the progress of real knowledge.  The
+metaphysics of infinite, or finite, spirit, have too often been
+enlisted in the service of superstition.  But the human faculties
+are fortified by the art and practice of dialectics; the ten
+predicaments of Aristotle collect and methodize our ideas, ^59
+and his syllogism is the keenest weapon of dispute.  It was
+dexterously wielded in the schools of the Saracens, but as it is
+more effectual for the detection of error than for the
+investigation of truth, it is not surprising that new generations
+of masters and disciples should still revolve in the same circle
+of logical argument. The mathematics are distinguished by a
+peculiar privilege, that, in the course of ages, they may always
+advance, and can never recede.  But the ancient geometry, if I am
+not misinformed, was resumed in the same state by the Italians of
+the fifteenth century; and whatever may be the origin of the
+name, the science of algebra is ascribed to the Grecian
+Diophantus by the modest testimony of the Arabs themselves. ^60
+They cultivated with more success the sublime science of
+astronomy, which elevates the mind of man to disdain his
+diminutive planet and momentary existence.  The costly
+instruments of observation were supplied by the caliph Almamon,
+and the land of the Chaldaeans still afforded the same spacious
+level, the same unclouded horizon. In the plains of Sinaar, and a
+second time in those of Cufa, his mathematicians accurately
+measured a degree of the great circle of the earth, and
+determined at twenty-four thousand miles the entire circumference
+of our globe. ^61 From the reign of the Abbassides to that of the
+grandchildren of Tamerlane, the stars, without the aid of
+glasses, were diligently observed; and the astronomical tables of
+Bagdad, Spain, and Samarcand, ^62 correct some minute errors,
+without daring to renounce the hypothesis of Ptolemy, without
+advancing a step towards the discovery of the solar system.  In
+the Eastern courts, the truths of science could be recommended
+only by ignorance and folly, and the astronomer would have been
+disregarded, had he not debased his wisdom or honesty by the vain
+predictions of astrology. ^63 But in the science of medicine, the
+Arabians have been deservedly applauded.  The names of Mesua and
+Geber, of Razis and Avicenna, are ranked with the Grecian
+masters; in the city of Bagdad, eight hundred and sixty
+physicians were licensed to exercise their lucrative profession:
+^64 in Spain, the life of the Catholic princes was intrusted to
+the skill of the Saracens, ^65 and the school of Salerno, their
+legitimate offspring, revived in Italy and Europe the precepts of
+the healing art. ^66 The success of each professor must have been
+influenced by personal and accidental causes; but we may form a
+less fanciful estimate of their general knowledge of anatomy, ^67
+botany, ^68 and chemistry, ^69 the threefold basis of their
+theory and practice.  A superstitious reverence for the dead
+confined both the Greeks and the Arabians to the dissection of
+apes and quadrupeds; the more solid and visible parts were known
+in the time of Galen, and the finer scrutiny of the human frame
+was reserved for the microscope and the injections of modern
+artists.  Botany is an active science, and the discoveries of the
+torrid zone might enrich the herbal of Dioscorides with two
+thousand plants.  Some traditionary knowledge might be secreted
+in the temples and monasteries of Egypt; much useful experience
+had been acquired in the practice of arts and manufactures; but
+the science of chemistry owes its origin and improvement to the
+industry of the Saracens.  They first invented and named the
+alembic for the purposes of distillation, analyzed the substances
+of the three kingdoms of nature, tried the distinction and
+affinities of alcalis and acids, and converted the poisonous
+minerals into soft and salutary medicines.  But the most eager
+search of Arabian chemistry was the transmutation of metals, and
+the elixir of immortal health: the reason and the fortunes of
+thousands were evaporated in the crucibles of alchemy, and the
+consummation of the great work was promoted by the worthy aid of
+mystery, fable, and superstition.
+
+[Footnote 55: The Arabic catalogue of the Escurial will give a
+just idea of the proportion of the classes.  In the library of
+Cairo, the Mss of astronomy and medicine amounted to 6500, with
+two fair globes, the one of brass, the other of silver, (Bibliot.
+Arab. Hisp. tom. i. p. 417.)]
+
+[Footnote 56: As, for instance, the fifth, sixth, and seventh
+books (the eighth is still wanting) of the Conic Sections of
+Apollonius Pergaeus, which were printed from the Florence Ms.
+1661, (Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. tom. ii. p. 559.) Yet the fifth
+book had been previously restored by the mathematical divination
+of Viviani, (see his Eloge in Fontenelle, tom. v. p. 59, &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 57: The merit of these Arabic versions is freely
+discussed by Renaudot, (Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. tom. i. p. 812 -
+816,) and piously defended by Casiri, (Bibliot. Arab. Hispana,
+tom. i. p. 238 - 240.) Most of the versions of Plato, Aristotle,
+Hippocrates, Galen, &c., are ascribed to Honain, a physician of
+the Nestorian sect, who flourished at Bagdad in the court of the
+caliphs, and died A.D. 876.  He was at the head of a school or
+manufacture of translations, and the works of his sons and
+disciples were published under his name.  See Abulpharagius,
+(Dynast. p. 88, 115, 171 - 174, and apud Asseman. Bibliot.
+Orient. tom. ii. p. 438,) D'Herbelot, (Bibliot. Orientale, p.
+456,) Asseman.  (Bibliot. Orient. tom. iii. p. 164,) and Casiri,
+(Bibliot. Arab. Hispana, tom. i. p. 238, &c. 251, 286 - 290, 302,
+304, &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 58: See Mosheim, Institut. Hist. Eccles. p. 181, 214,
+236, 257, 315, 388, 396, 438, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 59: The most elegant commentary on the Categories or
+Predicaments of Aristotle may be found in the Philosophical
+Arrangements of Mr. James Harris, (London, 1775, in octavo,) who
+labored to revive the studies of Grecian literature and
+philosophy.]
+
+[Footnote 60: Abulpharagius, Dynast. p. 81, 222.  Bibliot. Arab.
+Hisp. tom. i. p. 370, 371.  In quem (says the primate of the
+Jacobites) si immiserit selector, oceanum hoc in genere
+(algebrae) inveniet.  The time of Diophantus of Alexandria is
+unknown; but his six books are still extant, and have been
+illustrated by the Greek Planudes and the Frenchman Meziriac,
+(Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. tom. iv. p. 12 - 15.)]
+
+[Footnote 61: Abulfeda (Annal. Moslem. p. 210, 211, vers. Reiske)
+describes this operation according to Ibn Challecan, and the best
+historians.  This degree most accurately contains 200,000 royal
+or Hashemite cubits which Arabia had derived from the sacred and
+legal practice both of Palestine and Egypt. This ancient cubit is
+repeated 400 times in each basis of the great pyramid, and seems
+to indicate the primitive and universal measures of the East.
+See the Metrologie of the laborions.  M. Paucton, p. 101 - 195.]
+
+[Footnote 62: See the Astronomical Tables of Ulugh Begh, with the
+preface of Dr. Hyde in the first volume of his Syntagma
+Dissertationum, Oxon. 1767.]
+
+[Footnote 63: The truth of astrology was allowed by Albumazar,
+and the best of the Arabian astronomers, who drew their most
+certain predictions, not from Venus and Mercury, but from Jupiter
+and the sun, (Abulpharag. Dynast. p. 161 - 163.) For the state
+and science of the Persian astronomers, see Chardin, (Voyages en
+Perse, tom. iii. p. 162 - 203.)]
+
+[Footnote 64: Bibliot. Arabico-Hispana, tom. i. p. 438.  The
+original relates a pleasant tale of an ignorant, but harmless,
+practitioner.]
+
+[Footnote 65: In the year 956, Sancho the Fat, king of Leon, was
+cured by the physicians of Cordova, (Mariana, l. viii. c. 7, tom.
+i. p. 318.)]
+
+[Footnote 66: The school of Salerno, and the introduction of the
+Arabian sciences into Italy, are discussed with learning and
+judgment by Muratori (Antiquitat. Italiae Medii Aevi, tom. iii.
+p. 932 - 940) and Giannone, (Istoria Civile di Napoli, tom. ii.
+p. 119 - 127.)]
+
+[Footnote 67: See a good view of the progress of anatomy in
+Wotton, (Reflections on Ancient and Modern Learning, p. 208 -
+256.) His reputation has been unworthily depreciated by the wits
+in the controversy of Boyle and Bentley.]
+
+[Footnote 68: Bibliot. Arab. Hispana, tom. i. p. 275.  Al
+Beithar, of Malaga, their greatest botanist, had travelled into
+Africa, Persia, and India.]
+
+[Footnote 69: Dr. Watson, (Elements of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 17,
+&c.) allows the original merit of the Arabians.  Yet he quotes
+the modest confession of the famous Geber of the ixth century,
+(D'Herbelot, p. 387,) that he had drawn most of his science,
+perhaps the transmutation of metals, from the ancient sages.
+Whatever might be the origin or extent of their knowledge, the
+arts of chemistry and alchemy appear to have been known in Egypt
+at least three hundred years before Mahomet, (Wotton's
+Reflections, p. 121 - 133.  Pauw, Recherches sur les Egyptiens et
+les Chinois, tom. i. p. 376 - 429.)
+
+Note: Mr. Whewell (Hist. of Inductive Sciences, vol. i. p.
+336) rejects the claim of the Arabians as inventors of the
+science of chemistry. "The formation and realization of the
+notions of analysis and affinity were important steps in chemical
+science; which, as I shall hereafter endeavor to show it remained
+for the chemists of Europe to make at a much later period." - M.]
+
+But the Moslems deprived themselves of the principal
+benefits of a familiar intercourse with Greece and Rome, the
+knowledge of antiquity, the purity of taste, and the freedom of
+thought.  Confident in the riches of their native tongue, the
+Arabians disdained the study of any foreign idiom. The Greek
+interpreters were chosen among their Christian subjects; they
+formed their translations, sometimes on the original text, more
+frequently perhaps on a Syriac version; and in the crowd of
+astronomers and physicians, there is no example of a poet, an
+orator, or even an historian, being taught to speak the language
+of the Saracens. ^70 The mythology of Homer would have provoked
+the abhorrence of those stern fanatics: they possessed in lazy
+ignorance the colonies of the Macedonians, and the provinces of
+Carthage and Rome: the heroes of Plutarch and Livy were buried in
+oblivion; and the history of the world before Mahomet was reduced
+to a short legend of the patriarchs, the prophets, and the
+Persian kings.  Our education in the Greek and Latin schools may
+have fixed in our minds a standard of exclusive taste; and I am
+not forward to condemn the literature and judgment of nations, of
+whose language I am ignorant.  Yet I know that the classics have
+much to teach, and I believe that the Orientals have much to
+learn; the temperate dignity of style, the graceful proportions
+of art, the forms of visible and intellectual beauty, the just
+delineation of character and passion, the rhetoric of narrative
+and argument, the regular fabric of epic and dramatic poetry. ^71
+The influence of truth and reason is of a less ambiguous
+complexion.  The philosophers of Athens and Rome enjoyed the
+blessings, and asserted the rights, of civil and religious
+freedom.  Their moral and political writings might have gradually
+unlocked the fetters of Eastern despotism, diffused a liberal
+spirit of inquiry and toleration, and encouraged the Arabian
+sages to suspect that their caliph was a tyrant, and their
+prophet an impostor. ^72 The instinct of superstition was alarmed
+by the introduction even of the abstract sciences; and the more
+rigid doctors of the law condemned the rash and pernicious
+curiosity of Almamon. ^73 To the thirst of martyrdom, the vision
+of paradise, and the belief of predestination, we must ascribe
+the invincible enthusiasm of the prince and people.  And the
+sword of the Saracens became less formidable when their youth was
+drawn away from the camp to the college, when the armies of the
+faithful presumed to read and to reflect. Yet the foolish vanity
+of the Greeks was jealous of their studies, and reluctantly
+imparted the sacred fire to the Barbarians of the East. ^74
+
+[Footnote 70: Abulpharagius (Dynast. p. 26, 148) mentions a
+Syriac version of Homer's two poems, by Theophilus, a Christian
+Maronite of Mount Libanus, who professed astronomy at Roha or
+Edessa towards the end of the viiith century. His work would be a
+literary curiosity.  I have read somewhere, but I do not believe,
+that Plutarch's Lives were translated into Turkish for the use of
+Mahomet the Second.]
+
+[Footnote 71: I have perused, with much pleasure, Sir William
+Jones's Latin Commentary on Asiatic Poetry, (London, 1774, in
+octavo,) which was composed in the youth of that wonderful
+linguist.  At present, in the maturity of his taste and judgment,
+he would perhaps abate of the fervent, and even partial, praise
+which he has bestowed on the Orientals.]
+
+[Footnote 72: Among the Arabian philosophers, Averroes has been
+accused of despising the religions of the Jews, the Christians,
+and the Mahometans, (see his article in Bayle's Dictionary.) Each
+of these sects would agree, that in two instances out of three,
+his contempt was reasonable.]
+
+[Footnote 73: D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque, Orientale, p. 546.]
+
+[Footnote 74: Cedrenus, p. 548, who relates how manfully the
+emperor refused a mathematician to the instances and offers of
+the caliph Almamon.  This absurd scruple is expressed almost in
+the same words by the continuator of Theophanes, (Scriptores post
+Theophanem, p. 118.)]
+
+In the bloody conflict of the Ommiades and Abbassides, the
+Greeks had stolen the opportunity of avenging their wrongs and
+enlarging their limits. But a severe retribution was exacted by
+Mohadi, the third caliph of the new dynasty, who seized, in his
+turn, the favorable opportunity, while a woman and a child, Irene
+and Constantine, were seated on the Byzantine throne. An army of
+ninety-five thousand Persians and Arabs was sent from the Tigris
+to the Thracian Bosphorus, under the command of Harun, ^75 or
+Aaron, the second son of the commander of the faithful.  His
+encampment on the opposite heights of Chrysopolis, or Scutari,
+informed Irene, in her palace of Constantinople, of the loss of
+her troops and provinces.  With the consent or connivance of
+their sovereign, her ministers subscribed an ignominious peace;
+and the exchange of some royal gifts could not disguise the
+annual tribute of seventy thousand dinars of gold, which was
+imposed on the Roman empire.  The Saracens had too rashly
+advanced into the midst of a distant and hostile land: their
+retreat was solicited by the promise of faithful guides and
+plentiful markets; and not a Greek had courage to whisper, that
+their weary forces might be surrounded and destroyed in their
+necessary passage between a slippery mountain and the River
+Sangarius. Five years after this expedition, Harun ascended the
+throne of his father and his elder brother; the most powerful and
+vigorous monarch of his race, illustrious in the West, as the
+ally of Charlemagne, and familiar to the most childish readers,
+as the perpetual hero of the Arabian tales.  His title to the
+name of Al Rashid (the Just) is sullied by the extirpation of the
+generous, perhaps the innocent, Barmecides; yet he could listen
+to the complaint of a poor widow who had been pillaged by his
+troops, and who dared, in a passage of the Koran, to threaten the
+inattentive despot with the judgment of God and posterity.  His
+court was adorned with luxury and science; but, in a reign of
+three-and-twenty years, Harun repeatedly visited his provinces
+from Chorasan to Egypt; nine times he performed the pilgrimage of
+Mecca; eight times he invaded the territories of the Romans; and
+as often as they declined the payment of the tribute, they were
+taught to feel that a month of depredation was more costly than a
+year of submission.  But when the unnatural mother of Constantine
+was deposed and banished, her successor, Nicephorus, resolved to
+obliterate this badge of servitude and disgrace.  The epistle of
+the emperor to the caliph was pointed with an allusion to the
+game of chess, which had already spread from Persia to Greece.
+"The queen (he spoke of Irene) considered you as a rook, and
+herself as a pawn.  That pusillanimous female submitted to pay a
+tribute, the double of which she ought to have exacted from the
+Barbarians. Restore therefore the fruits of your injustice, or
+abide the determination of the sword." At these words the
+ambassadors cast a bundle of swords before the foot of the
+throne.  The caliph smiled at the menace, and drawing his
+cimeter, samsamah, a weapon of historic or fabulous renown, he
+cut asunder the feeble arms of the Greeks, without turning the
+edge, or endangering the temper, of his blade.  He then dictated
+an epistle of tremendous brevity: "In the name of the most
+merciful God, Harun al Rashid, commander of the faithful, to
+Nicephorus, the Roman dog.  I have read thy letter, O thou son of
+an unbelieving mother.  Thou shalt not hear, thou shalt behold,
+my reply." It was written in characters of blood and fire on the
+plains of Phrygia; and the warlike celerity of the Arabs could
+only be checked by the arts of deceit and the show of repentance.
+
+The triumphant caliph retired, after the fatigues of the
+campaign, to his favorite palace of Racca on the Euphrates: ^76
+but the distance of five hundred miles, and the inclemency of the
+season, encouraged his adversary to violate the peace. Nicephorus
+was astonished by the bold and rapid march of the commander of
+the faithful, who repassed, in the depth of winter, the snows of
+Mount Taurus: his stratagems of policy and war were exhausted;
+and the perfidious Greek escaped with three wounds from a field
+of battle overspread with forty thousand of his subjects.  Yet
+the emperor was ashamed of submission, and the caliph was
+resolved on victory.  One hundred and thirty-five thousand
+regular soldiers received pay, and were inscribed in the military
+roll; and above three hundred thousand persons of every
+denomination marched under the black standard of the Abbassides.
+They swept the surface of Asia Minor far beyond Tyana and Ancyra,
+and invested the Pontic Heraclea, ^77 once a flourishing state,
+now a paltry town; at that time capable of sustaining, in her
+antique walls, a month's siege against the forces of the East.
+The ruin was complete, the spoil was ample; but if Harun had been
+conversant with Grecian story, he would have regretted the statue
+of Hercules, whose attributes, the club, the bow, the quiver, and
+the lion's hide, were sculptured in massy gold.  The progress of
+desolation by sea and land, from the Euxine to the Isle of
+Cyprus, compelled the emperor Nicephorus to retract his haughty
+defiance.  In the new treaty, the ruins of Heraclea were left
+forever as a lesson and a trophy; and the coin of the tribute was
+marked with the image and superscription of Harun and his three
+sons. ^78 Yet this plurality of lords might contribute to remove
+the dishonor of the Roman name.  After the death of their father,
+the heirs of the caliph were involved in civil discord, and the
+conqueror, the liberal Almamon, was sufficiently engaged in the
+restoration of domestic peace and the introduction of foreign
+science.
+
+[Footnote 75: See the reign and character of Harun Al Rashid, in
+the Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 431 - 433, under his proper title;
+and in the relative articles to which M. D'Herbelot refers.  That
+learned collector has shown much taste in stripping the Oriental
+chronicles of their instructive and amusing anecdotes.]
+
+[Footnote 76: For the situation of Racca, the old Nicephorium,
+consult D'Anville, (l'Euphrate et le Tigre, p. 24 - 27.) The
+Arabian Nights represent Harun al Rashid as almost stationary in
+Bagdad.  He respected the royal seat of the Abbassides: but the
+vices of the inhabitants had driven him from the city, (Abulfed.
+Annal. p. 167.)]
+
+[Footnote 77: M. de Tournefort, in his coasting voyage from
+Constantinople to Trebizond, passed a night at Heraclea or
+Eregri.  His eye surveyed the present state, his reading
+collected the antiquities, of the city (Voyage du Levant, tom.
+iii. lettre xvi. p. 23 - 35.) We have a separate history of
+Heraclea in the fragments of Memnon, which are preserved by
+Photius.]
+
+[Footnote 78: The wars of Harun al Rashid against the Roman
+empire are related by Theophanes, (p. 384, 385, 391, 396, 407,
+408.) Zonaras, (tom. iii. l. xv. p. 115, 124,) Cedrenus, (p. 477,
+478,) Eutycaius, (Annal. tom. ii. p. 407,) Elmacin, (Hist.
+Saracen. p. 136, 151, 152,) Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 147, 151,)
+and Abulfeda, (p. 156, 166 - 168.)]
+
+
+
+Chapter LII: More Conquests By The Arabs.
+
+Part IV.
+
+Under the reign of Almamon at Bagdad, of Michael the
+Stammerer at Constantinople, the islands of Crete ^79 and Sicily
+were subdued by the Arabs. The former of these conquests is
+disdained by their own writers, who were ignorant of the fame of
+Jupiter and Minos, but it has not been overlooked by the
+Byzantine historians, who now begin to cast a clearer light on
+the affairs of their own times. ^80 A band of Andalusian
+volunteers, discontented with the climate or government of Spain,
+explored the adventures of the sea; but as they sailed in no more
+than ten or twenty galleys, their warfare must be branded with
+the name of piracy.  As the subjects and sectaries of the white
+party, they might lawfully invade the dominions of the black
+caliphs.  A rebellious faction introduced them into Alexandria;
+^81 they cut in pieces both friends and foes, pillaged the
+churches and the moschs, sold above six thousand Christian
+captives, and maintained their station in the capital of Egypt,
+till they were oppressed by the forces and the presence of
+Almamon himself.  From the mouth of the Nile to the Hellespont,
+the islands and sea-coasts both of the Greeks and Moslems were
+exposed to their depredations; they saw, they envied, they tasted
+the fertility of Crete, and soon returned with forty galleys to a
+more serious attack.  The Andalusians wandered over the land
+fearless and unmolested; but when they descended with their
+plunder to the sea-shore, their vessels were in flames, and their
+chief, Abu Caab, confessed himself the author of the mischief.
+Their clamors accused his madness or treachery.  "Of what do you
+complain?" replied the crafty emir.  "I have brought you to a
+land flowing with milk and honey.  Here is your true country;
+repose from your toils, and forget the barren place of your
+nativity." "And our wives and children?" "Your beauteous captives
+will supply the place of your wives, and in their embraces you
+will soon become the fathers of a new progeny." The first
+habitation was their camp, with a ditch and rampart, in the Bay
+of Suda; but an apostate monk led them to a more desirable
+position in the eastern parts; and the name of Candax, their
+fortress and colony, has been extended to the whole island, under
+the corrupt and modern appellation of Candia.  The hundred cities
+of the age of Minos were diminished to thirty; and of these, only
+one, most probably Cydonia, had courage to retain the substance
+of freedom and the profession of Christianity. The Saracens of
+Crete soon repaired the loss of their navy; and the timbers of
+Mount Ida were launched into the main.  During a hostile period
+of one hundred and thirty-eight years, the princes of
+Constantinople attacked these licentious corsairs with fruitless
+curses and ineffectual arms.
+
+[Footnote 79: The authors from whom I have learned the most of
+the ancient and modern state of Crete, are Belon, (Observations,
+&c., c. 3 - 20, Paris, 1555,) Tournefort, (Voyage du Levant, tom.
+i. lettre ii. et iii.,) and Meursius, (Creta, in his works, tom.
+iii. p. 343 - 544.) Although Crete is styled by Homer, by
+Dionysius, I cannot conceive that mountainous island to surpass,
+or even to equal, in fertility the greater part of Spain.]
+
+[Footnote 80: The most authentic and circumstantial intelligence
+is obtained from the four books of the Continuation of
+Theophanes, compiled by the pen or the command of Constantine
+Porphyrogenitus, with the Life of his father Basil, the
+Macedonian, (Scriptores post Theophanem, p. 1 - 162, a Francisc.
+Combefis, Paris, 1685.) The loss of Crete and Sicily is related,
+l. ii. p. 46 - 52.  To these we may add the secondary evidence of
+Joseph Genesius, (l. ii. p. 21, Venet. 1733,) George Cedrenus,
+(Compend. p. 506 - 508,) and John Scylitzes Curopalata, (apud
+Baron. Annal. Eccles. A.D. 827, No. 24, &c.) But the modern
+Greeks are such notorious plagiaries, that I should only quote a
+plurality of names.]
+
+[Footnote 81: Renaudot (Hist. Patriarch. Alex. p. 251 - 256, 268
+- 270) had described the ravages of the Andalusian Arabs in
+Egypt, but has forgot to connect them with the conquest of
+Crete.]
+
+The loss of Sicily ^82 was occasioned by an act of
+superstitious rigor. An amorous youth, who had stolen a nun from
+her cloister, was sentenced by the emperor to the amputation of
+his tongue.  Euphemius appealed to the reason and policy of the
+Saracens of Africa; and soon returned with the Imperial purple, a
+fleet of one hundred ships, and an army of seven hundred horse
+and ten thousand foot.  They landed at Mazara near the ruins of
+the ancient Selinus; but after some partial victories, Syracuse
+^83 was delivered by the Greeks, the apostate was slain before
+her walls, and his African friends were reduced to the necessity
+of feeding on the flesh of their own horses.  In their turn they
+were relieved by a powerful reenforcement of their brethren of
+Andalusia; the largest and western part of the island was
+gradually reduced, and the commodious harbor of Palermo was
+chosen for the seat of the naval and military power of the
+Saracens.  Syracuse preserved about fifty years the faith which
+she had sworn to Christ and to Caesar.  In the last and fatal
+siege, her citizens displayed some remnant of the spirit which
+had formerly resisted the powers of Athens and Carthage.  They
+stood above twenty days against the battering-rams and
+catapultoe, the mines and tortoises of the besiegers; and the
+place might have been relieved, if the mariners of the Imperial
+fleet had not been detained at Constantinople in building a
+church to the Virgin Mary. The deacon Theodosius, with the bishop
+and clergy, was dragged in chains from the altar to Palermo, cast
+into a subterraneous dungeon, and exposed to the hourly peril of
+death or apostasy.  His pathetic, and not inelegant, complaint
+may be read as the epitaph of his country. ^84 From the Roman
+conquest to this final calamity, Syracuse, now dwindled to the
+primitive Isle of Ortygea, had insensibly declined.  Yet the
+relics were still precious; the plate of the cathedral weighed
+five thousand pounds of silver; the entire spoil was computed at
+one million of pieces of gold, (about four hundred thousand
+pounds sterling,) and the captives must outnumber the seventeen
+thousand Christians, who were transported from the sack of
+Tauromenium into African servitude.  In Sicily, the religion and
+language of the Greeks were eradicated; and such was the docility
+of the rising generation, that fifteen thousand boys were
+circumcised and clothed on the same day with the son of the
+Fatimite caliph. The Arabian squadrons issued from the harbors of
+Palermo, Biserta, and Tunis; a hundred and fifty towns of
+Calabria and Campania were attacked and pillaged; nor could the
+suburbs of Rome be defended by the name of the Caesars and
+apostles.  Had the Mahometans been united, Italy must have fallen
+an easy and glorious accession to the empire of the prophet.  But
+the caliphs of Bagdad had lost their authority in the West; the
+Aglabites and Fatimites usurped the provinces of Africa, their
+emirs of Sicily aspired to independence; and the design of
+conquest and dominion was degraded to a repetition of predatory
+inroads. ^85
+
+[Footnote 82: Theophanes, l. ii. p. 51.  This history of the loss
+of Sicily is no longer extant.  Muratori (Annali d' Italia, tom.
+vii. p. 719, 721, &c.) has added some circumstances from the
+Italian chronicles.]
+
+[Footnote 83: The splendid and interesting tragedy of Tancrede
+would adapt itself much better to this epoch, than to the date
+(A.D. 1005) which Voltaire himself has chosen.  But I must gently
+reproach the poet for infusing into the Greek subjects the spirit
+of modern knights and ancient republicans.]
+
+[Footnote 84: The narrative or lamentation of Theodosius is
+transcribed and illustrated by Pagi, (Critica, tom. iii. p. 719,
+&c.) Constantine Porphyrogenitus (in Vit. Basil, c. 69, 70, p.
+190 - 192) mentions the loss of Syracuse and the triumph of the
+demons.]
+
+[Footnote 85: The extracts from the Arabic histories of Sicily
+are given in Abulfeda, (Annal' Moslem. p. 271 - 273,) and in the
+first volume of Muratori's Scriptores Rerum Italicarum.  M. de
+Guignes (Hist. des Huns, tom. i. p. 363, 364) has added some
+important facts.]
+
+In the sufferings of prostrate Italy, the name of Rome
+awakens a solemn and mournful recollection.  A fleet of Saracens
+from the African coast presumed to enter the mouth of the Tyber,
+and to approach a city which even yet, in her fallen state, was
+revered as the metropolis of the Christian world.  The gates and
+ramparts were guarded by a trembling people; but the tombs and
+temples of St. Peter and St. Paul were left exposed in the
+suburbs of the Vatican and of the Ostian way.  Their invisible
+sanctity had protected them against the Goths, the Vandals, and
+the Lombards; but the Arabs disdained both the gospel and the
+legend; and their rapacious spirit was approved and animated by
+the precepts of the Koran.  The Christian idols were stripped of
+their costly offerings; a silver altar was torn away from the
+shrine of St. Peter; and if the bodies or the buildings were left
+entire, their deliverance must be imputed to the haste, rather
+than the scruples, of the Saracens.  In their course along the
+Appian way, they pillaged Fundi and besieged Gayeta; but they had
+turned aside from the walls of Rome, and by their divisions, the
+Capitol was saved from the yoke of the prophet of Mecca.  The
+same danger still impended on the heads of the Roman people; and
+their domestic force was unequal to the assault of an African
+emir.  They claimed the protection of their Latin sovereign; but
+the Carlovingian standard was overthrown by a detachment of the
+Barbarians: they meditated the restoration of the Greek emperors;
+but the attempt was treasonable, and the succor remote and
+precarious. ^86 Their distress appeared to receive some
+aggravation from the death of their spiritual and temporal chief;
+but the pressing emergency superseded the forms and intrigues of
+an election; and the unanimous choice of Pope Leo the Fourth ^87
+was the safety of the church and city.  This pontiff was born a
+Roman; the courage of the first ages of the republic glowed in
+his breast; and, amidst the ruins of his country, he stood erect,
+like one of the firm and lofty columns that rear their heads
+above the fragments of the Roman forum.  The first days of his
+reign were consecrated to the purification and removal of relics,
+to prayers and processions, and to all the solemn offices of
+religion, which served at least to heal the imagination, and
+restore the hopes, of the multitude.  The public defence had been
+long neglected, not from the presumption of peace, but from the
+distress and poverty of the times.  As far as the scantiness of
+his means and the shortness of his leisure would allow, the
+ancient walls were repaired by the command of Leo; fifteen
+towers, in the most accessible stations, were built or renewed;
+two of these commanded on either side of the Tyber; and an iron
+chain was drawn across the stream to impede the ascent of a
+hostile navy.  The Romans were assured of a short respite by the
+welcome news, that the siege of Gayeta had been raised, and that
+a part of the enemy, with their sacrilegious plunder, had
+perished in the waves.
+
+[Footnote 86: One of the most eminent Romans (Gratianus, magister
+militum et Romani palatii superista) was accused of declaring,
+Quia Franci nihil nobis boni faciunt, neque adjutorium praebent,
+sed magis quae nostra sunt violenter tollunt.  Quare non
+advocamus Graecos, et cum eis foedus pacis componentes, Francorum
+regem et gentem de nostro regno et dominatione expellimus?
+Anastasius in Leone IV. p. 199.]
+
+[Footnote 87: Voltaire (Hist. Generale, tom. ii. c. 38, p. 124)
+appears to be remarkably struck with the character of Pope Leo
+IV.  I have borrowed his general expression, but the sight of the
+forum has furnished me with a more distinct and lively image.]
+
+But the storm, which had been delayed, soon burst upon them
+with redoubled violence.  The Aglabite, ^88 who reigned in
+Africa, had inherited from his father a treasure and an army: a
+fleet of Arabs and Moors, after a short refreshment in the
+harbors of Sardinia, cast anchor before the mouth of the Tyber,
+sixteen miles from the city: and their discipline and numbers
+appeared to threaten, not a transient inroad, but a serious
+design of conquest and dominion.  But the vigilance of Leo had
+formed an alliance with the vassals of the Greek empire, the free
+and maritime states of Gayeta, Naples, and Amalfi; and in the
+hour of danger, their galleys appeared in the port of Ostia under
+the command of Caesarius, the son of the Neapolitan duke, a noble
+and valiant youth, who had already vanquished the fleets of the
+Saracens. With his principal companions, Caesarius was invited to
+the Lateran palace, and the dexterous pontiff affected to inquire
+their errand, and to accept with joy and surprise their
+providential succor.  The city bands, in arms, attended their
+father to Ostia, where he reviewed and blessed his generous
+deliverers. They kissed his feet, received the communion with
+martial devotion, and listened to the prayer of Leo, that the
+same God who had supported St. Peter and St. Paul on the waves of
+the sea, would strengthen the hands of his champions against the
+adversaries of his holy name.  After a similar prayer, and with
+equal resolution, the Moslems advanced to the attack of the
+Christian galleys, which preserved their advantageous station
+along the coast.  The victory inclined to the side of the allies,
+when it was less gloriously decided in their favor by a sudden
+tempest, which confounded the skill and courage of the stoutest
+mariners.  The Christians were sheltered in a friendly harbor,
+while the Africans were scattered and dashed in pieces among the
+rocks and islands of a hostile shore.  Those who escaped from
+shipwreck and hunger neither found, nor deserved, mercy at the
+hands of their implacable pursuers. The sword and the gibbet
+reduced the dangerous multitude of captives; and the remainder
+was more usefully employed, to restore the sacred edifices which
+they had attempted to subvert.  The pontiff, at the head of the
+citizens and allies, paid his grateful devotion at the shrines of
+the apostles; and, among the spoils of this naval victory,
+thirteen Arabian bows of pure and massy silver were suspended
+round the altar of the fishermen of Galilee.  The reign of Leo
+the Fourth was employed in the defence and ornament of the Roman
+state. The churches were renewed and embellished: near four
+thousand pounds of silver were consecrated to repair the losses
+of St. Peter; and his sanctuary was decorated with a plate of
+gold of the weight of two hundred and sixteen pounds, embossed
+with the portraits of the pope and emperor, and encircled with a
+string of pearls.  Yet this vain magnificence reflects less glory
+on the character of Leo than the paternal care with which he
+rebuilt the walls of Horta and Ameria; and transported the
+wandering inhabitants of Centumcellae to his new foundation of
+Leopolis, twelve miles from the sea- shore. ^89 By his
+liberality, a colony of Corsicans, with their wives and children,
+was planted in the station of Porto, at the mouth of the Tyber:
+the falling city was restored for their use, the fields and
+vineyards were divided among the new settlers: their first
+efforts were assisted by a gift of horses and cattle; and the
+hardy exiles, who breathed revenge against the Saracens, swore to
+live and die under the standard of St. Peter.  The nations of the
+West and North who visited the threshold of the apostles had
+gradually formed the large and populous suburb of the Vatican,
+and their various habitations were distinguished, in the language
+of the times, as the schools of the Greeks and Goths, of the
+Lombards and Saxons.  But this venerable spot was still open to
+sacrilegious insult: the design of enclosing it with walls and
+towers exhausted all that authority could command, or charity
+would supply: and the pious labor of four years was animated in
+every season, and at every hour, by the presence of the
+indefatigable pontiff.  The love of fame, a generous but worldly
+passion, may be detected in the name of the Leonine city, which
+he bestowed on the Vatican; yet the pride of the dedication was
+tempered with Christian penance and humility.  The boundary was
+trod by the bishop and his clergy, barefoot, in sackcloth and
+ashes; the songs of triumph were modulated to psalms and
+litanies; the walls were besprinkled with holy water; and the
+ceremony was concluded with a prayer, that, under the guardian
+care of the apostles and the angelic host, both the old and the
+new Rome might ever be preserved pure, prosperous, and
+impregnable. ^90
+
+[Footnote 88: De Guignes, Hist. Generale des Huns, tom. i. p.
+363, 364. Cardonne, Hist. de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne, sous la
+Domination des Arabs, tom. ii. p. 24, 25.  I observe, and cannot
+reconcile, the difference of these writers in the succession of
+the Aglabites.]
+
+[Footnote 89: Beretti (Chorographia Italiae Medii Evi, p. 106,
+108) has illustrated Centumcellae, Leopolis, Civitas Leonina, and
+the other places of the Roman duchy.]
+
+[Footnote 90: The Arabs and the Greeks are alike silent
+concerning the invasion of Rome by the Africans.  The Latin
+chronicles do not afford much instruction, (see the Annals of
+Baronius and Pagi.) Our authentic and contemporary guide for the
+popes of the ixth century is Anastasius, librarian of the Roman
+church.  His Life of Leo IV, contains twenty-four pages, (p. 175
+- 199, edit. Paris;) and if a great part consist of superstitious
+trifles, we must blame or command his hero, who was much oftener
+in a church than in a camp.]
+
+The emperor Theophilus, son of Michael the Stammerer, was
+one of the most active and high-spirited princes who reigned at
+Constantinople during the middle age.  In offensive or defensive
+war, he marched in person five times against the Saracens,
+formidable in his attack, esteemed by the enemy in his losses and
+defeats.  In the last of these expeditions he penetrated into
+Syria, and besieged the obscure town of Sozopetra; the casual
+birthplace of the caliph Motassem, whose father Harun was
+attended in peace or war by the most favored of his wives and
+concubines.  The revolt of a Persian impostor employed at that
+moment the arms of the Saracen, and he could only intercede in
+favor of a place for which he felt and acknowledged some degree
+of filial affection.  These solicitations determined the emperor
+to wound his pride in so sensible a part.  Sozopetra was levelled
+with the ground, the Syrian prisoners were marked or mutilated
+with ignominious cruelty, and a thousand female captives were
+forced away from the adjacent territory.  Among these a matron of
+the house of Abbas invoked, in an agony of despair, the name of
+Motassem; and the insults of the Greeks engaged the honor of her
+kinsman to avenge his indignity, and to answer her appeal.  Under
+the reign of the two elder brothers, the inheritance of the
+youngest had been confined to Anatolia, Armenia, Georgia, and
+Circassia; this frontier station had exercised his military
+talents; and among his accidental claims to the name of Octonary,
+^91 the most meritorious are the eight battles which he gained or
+fought against the enemies of the Koran.  In this personal
+quarrel, the troops of Irak, Syria, and Egypt, were recruited
+from the tribes of Arabia and the Turkish hordes; his cavalry
+might be numerous, though we should deduct some myriads from the
+hundred and thirty thousand horses of the royal stables; and the
+expense of the armament was computed at four millions sterling,
+or one hundred thousand pounds of gold.  From Tarsus, the place
+of assembly, the Saracens advanced in three divisions along the
+high road of Constantinople: Motassem himself commanded the
+centre, and the vanguard was given to his son Abbas, who, in the
+trial of the first adventures, might succeed with the more glory,
+or fail with the least reproach.  In the revenge of his injury,
+the caliph prepared to retaliate a similar affront.  The father
+of Theophilus was a native of Amorium ^92 in Phrygia: the
+original seat of the Imperial house had been adorned with
+privileges and monuments; and, whatever might be the indifference
+of the people, Constantinople itself was scarcely of more value
+in the eyes of the sovereign and his court.  The name of Amorium
+was inscribed on the shields of the Saracens; and their three
+armies were again united under the walls of the devoted city.  It
+had been proposed by the wisest counsellors, to evacuate Amorium,
+to remove the inhabitants, and to abandon the empty structures to
+the vain resentment of the Barbarians.  The emperor embraced the
+more generous resolution of defending, in a siege and battle, the
+country of his ancestors.  When the armies drew near, the front
+of the Mahometan line appeared to a Roman eye more closely
+planted with spears and javelins; but the event of the action was
+not glorious on either side to the national troops.  The Arabs
+were broken, but it was by the swords of thirty thousand
+Persians, who had obtained service and settlement in the
+Byzantine empire.  The Greeks were repulsed and vanquished, but
+it was by the arrows of the Turkish cavalry; and had not their
+bowstrings been damped and relaxed by the evening rain, very few
+of the Christians could have escaped with the emperor from the
+field of battle.  They breathed at Dorylaeum, at the distance of
+three days; and Theophilus, reviewing his trembling squadrons,
+forgave the common flight both of the prince and people.  After
+this discovery of his weakness, he vainly hoped to deprecate the
+fate of Amorium: the inexorable caliph rejected with contempt his
+prayers and promises; and detained the Roman ambassadors to be
+the witnesses of his great revenge.  They had nearly been the
+witnesses of his shame.  The vigorous assaults of fifty- five
+days were encountered by a faithful governor, a veteran garrison,
+and a desperate people; and the Saracens must have raised the
+siege, if a domestic traitor had not pointed to the weakest part
+of the wall, a place which was decorated with the statues of a
+lion and a bull.  The vow of Motassem was accomplished with
+unrelenting rigor: tired, rather than satiated, with destruction,
+he returned to his new palace of Samara, in the neighborhood of
+Bagdad, while the unfortunate ^93 Theophilus implored the tardy
+and doubtful aid of his Western rival the emperor of the Franks.
+Yet in the siege of Amorium about seventy thousand Moslems had
+perished: their loss had been revenged by the slaughter of thirty
+thousand Christians, and the sufferings of an equal number of
+captives, who were treated as the most atrocious criminals.
+Mutual necessity could sometimes extort the exchange or ransom of
+prisoners: ^94 but in the national and religious conflict of the
+two empires, peace was without confidence, and war without mercy.
+Quarter was seldom given in the field; those who escaped the edge
+of the sword were condemned to hopeless servitude, or exquisite
+torture; and a Catholic emperor relates, with visible
+satisfaction, the execution of the Saracens of Crete, who were
+flayed alive, or plunged into caldrons of boiling oil. ^95 To a
+point of honor Motassem had sacrificed a flourishing city, two
+hundred thousand lives, and the property of millions.  The same
+caliph descended from his horse, and dirtied his robe, to relieve
+the distress of a decrepit old man, who, with his laden ass, had
+tumbled into a ditch.  On which of these actions did he reflect
+with the most pleasure, when he was summoned by the angel of
+death? ^96
+
+[Footnote 91: The same number was applied to the following
+circumstance in the life of Motassem: he was the eight of the
+Abbassides; he reigned eight years, eight months, and eight days;
+left eight sons, eight daughters, eight thousand slaves, eight
+millions of gold.]
+
+[Footnote 92: Amorium is seldom mentioned by the old geographers,
+and to tally forgotten in the Roman Itineraries.  After the vith
+century, it became an episcopal see, and at length the metropolis
+of the new Galatia, (Carol. Scto. Paulo, Geograph. Sacra, p.
+234.) The city rose again from its ruins, if we should read
+Ammeria, not Anguria, in the text of the Nubian geographer. (p.
+236.)]
+
+[Footnote 93: In the East he was styled, (Continuator Theophan.
+l. iii. p. 84;) but such was the ignorance of the West, that his
+ambassadors, in public discourse, might boldly narrate, de
+victoriis, quas adversus exteras bellando gentes coelitus fuerat
+assecutus, (Annalist. Bertinian. apud Pagi, tom. iii. p. 720.)]
+
+[Footnote 94: Abulpharagius (Dynast. p. 167, 168) relates one of
+these singular transactions on the bridge of the River Lamus in
+Cilicia, the limit of the two empires, and one day's journey
+westward of Tarsus, (D'Anville, Geographie Ancienne, tom. ii. p.
+91.) Four thousand four hundred and sixty Moslems, eight hundred
+women and children, one hundred confederates, were exchanged for
+an equal number of Greeks.  They passed each other in the middle
+of the bridge, and when they reached their respective friends,
+they shouted Allah Acbar, and Kyrie Eleison.  Many of the
+prisoners of Amorium were probably among them, but in the same
+year, (A. H. 231,) the most illustrious of them, the forty two
+martyrs, were beheaded by the caliph's order.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Constantin. Porphyrogenitus, in Vit. Basil. c. 61,
+p. 186. These Saracens were indeed treated with peculiar severity
+as pirates and renegadoes.]
+
+[Footnote 96: For Theophilus, Motassem, and the Amorian war, see
+the Continuator of Theophanes, (l. iii. p. 77 - 84,) Genesius (l.
+iii. p. 24 - 34.) Cedrenus, (p. 528 - 532,) Elmacin, (Hist.
+Saracen, p. 180,) Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 165, 166,) Abulfeda,
+(Annal. Moslem. p. 191,) D'Herbelot, (Bibliot. Orientale, p. 639,
+640.)]
+
+With Motassem, the eighth of the Abbassides, the glory of
+his family and nation expired.  When the Arabian conquerors had
+spread themselves over the East, and were mingled with the
+servile crowds of Persia, Syria, and Egypt, they insensibly lost
+the freeborn and martial virtues of the desert. The courage of
+the South is the artificial fruit of discipline and prejudice;
+the active power of enthusiasm had decayed, and the mercenary
+forces of the caliphs were recruited in those climates of the
+North, of which valor is the hardy and spontaneous production.
+Of the Turks ^97 who dwelt beyond the Oxus and Jaxartes, the
+robust youths, either taken in war or purchased in trade, were
+educated in the exercises of the field, and the profession of the
+Mahometan faith.  The Turkish guards stood in arms round the
+throne of their benefactor, and their chiefs usurped the dominion
+of the palace and the provinces.  Motassem, the first author of
+this dangerous example, introduced into the capital above fifty
+thousand Turks: their licentious conduct provoked the public
+indignation, and the quarrels of the soldiers and people induced
+the caliph to retire from Bagdad, and establish his own residence
+and the camp of his Barbarian favorites at Samara on the Tigris,
+about twelve leagues above the city of Peace. ^98 His son
+Motawakkel was a jealous and cruel tyrant: odious to his
+subjects, he cast himself on the fidelity of the strangers, and
+these strangers, ambitious and apprehensive, were tempted by the
+rich promise of a revolution.  At the instigation, or at least in
+the cause of his son, they burst into his apartment at the hour
+of supper, and the caliph was cut into seven pieces by the same
+swords which he had recently distributed among the guards of his
+life and throne.  To this throne, yet streaming with a father's
+blood, Montasser was triumphantly led; but in a reign of six
+months, he found only the pangs of a guilty conscience.  If he
+wept at the sight of an old tapestry which represented the crime
+and punishment of the son of Chosroes, if his days were abridged
+by grief and remorse, we may allow some pity to a parricide, who
+exclaimed, in the bitterness of death, that he had lost both this
+world and the world to come.  After this act of treason, the
+ensigns of royalty, the garment and walking-staff of Mahomet,
+were given and torn away by the foreign mercenaries, who in four
+years created, deposed, and murdered, three commanders of the
+faithful.  As often as the Turks were inflamed by fear, or rage,
+or avarice, these caliphs were dragged by the feet, exposed naked
+to the scorching sun, beaten with iron clubs, and compelled to
+purchase, by the abdication of their dignity, a short reprieve of
+inevitable fate. ^99 At length, however, the fury of the tempest
+was spent or diverted: the Abbassides returned to the less
+turbulent residence of Bagdad; the insolence of the Turks was
+curbed with a firmer and more skilful hand, and their numbers
+were divided and destroyed in foreign warfare.  But the nations
+of the East had been taught to trample on the successors of the
+prophet; and the blessings of domestic peace were obtained by the
+relaxation of strength and discipline.  So uniform are the
+mischiefs of military despotism, that I seem to repeat the story
+of the praetorians of Rome. ^100
+
+[Footnote 97: M. de Guignes, who sometimes leaps, and sometimes
+stumbles, in the gulf between Chinese and Mahometan story, thinks
+he can see, that these Turks are the Hoei-ke, alias the Kao-tche,
+or high-wagons; that they were divided into fifteen hordes, from
+China and Siberia to the dominions of the caliphs and Samanides,
+&c., (Hist. des Huns, tom. iii. p. 1 - 33, 124 - 131.)]
+
+[Footnote 98: He changed the old name of Sumera, or Samara, into
+the fanciful title of Sermen-rai, that which gives pleasure at
+first sight, (D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 808.
+D'Anville, l'Euphrate et le Tigre p. 97, 98.)]
+
+[Footnote 99: Take a specimen, the death of the caliph Motaz:
+Correptum pedibus pertrahunt, et sudibus probe permulcant, et
+spoliatum laceris vestibus in sole collocant, prae cujus acerrimo
+aestu pedes alternos attollebat et demittebat.  Adstantium
+aliquis misero colaphos continuo ingerebat, quos ille objectis
+manibus avertere studebat ..... Quo facto traditus tortori fuit,
+totoque triduo cibo potuque prohibitus ..... Suffocatus, &c.
+(Abulfeda, p. 206.) Of the caliph Mohtadi, he says, services ipsi
+perpetuis ictibus contundebant, testiculosque pedibus
+conculcabant, (p. 208.)]
+
+[Footnote 100: See under the reigns of Motassem, Motawakkel,
+Montasser, Mostain, Motaz, Mohtadi, and Motamed, in the
+Bibliotheque of D'Herbelot, and the now familiar Annals of
+Elmacin, Abulpharagius, and Abulfeda.]
+
+While the flame of enthusiasm was damped by the business,
+the pleasure, and the knowledge, of the age, it burnt with
+concentrated heat in the breasts of the chosen few, the congenial
+spirits, who were ambitious of reigning either in this world or
+in the next.  How carefully soever the book of prophecy had been
+sealed by the apostle of Mecca, the wishes, and (if we may
+profane the word) even the reason, of fanaticism might believe
+that, after the successive missions of Adam, Noah, Abraham,
+Moses, Jesus, and Mahomet, the same God, in the fulness of time,
+would reveal a still more perfect and permanent law.  In the two
+hundred and seventy-seventh year of the Hegira, and in the
+neighborhood of Cufa, an Arabian preacher, of the name of
+Carmath, assumed the lofty and incomprehensible style of the
+Guide, the Director, the Demonstration, the Word, the Holy Ghost,
+the Camel, the Herald of the Messiah, who had conversed with him
+in a human shape, and the representative of Mohammed the son of
+Ali, of St. John the Baptist, and of the angel Gabriel. In his
+mystic volume, the precepts of the Koran were refined to a more
+spiritual sense: he relaxed the duties of ablution, fasting, and
+pilgrimage; allowed the indiscriminate use of wine and forbidden
+food; and nourished the fervor of his disciples by the daily
+repetition of fifty prayers.  The idleness and ferment of the
+rustic crowd awakened the attention of the magistrates of Cufa; a
+timid persecution assisted the progress of the new sect; and the
+name of the prophet became more revered after his person had been
+withdrawn from the world.  His twelve apostles dispersed
+themselves among the Bedoweens, "a race of men," says Abulfeda,
+"equally devoid of reason and of religion;" and the success of
+their preaching seemed to threaten Arabia with a new revolution.
+The Carmathians were ripe for rebellion, since they disclaimed
+the title of the house of Abbas, and abhorred the worldly pomp of
+the caliphs of Bagdad. They were susceptible of discipline, since
+they vowed a blind and absolute submission to their Imam, who was
+called to the prophetic office by the voice of God and the
+people.  Instead of the legal tithes, he claimed the fifth of
+their substance and spoil; the most flagitious sins were no more
+than the type of disobedience; and the brethren were united and
+concealed by an oath of secrecy.  After a bloody conflict, they
+prevailed in the province of Bahrein, along the Persian Gulf: far
+and wide, the tribes of the desert were subject to the sceptre,
+or rather to the sword of Abu Said and his son Abu Taher; and
+these rebellious imams could muster in the field a hundred and
+seven thousand fanatics.  The mercenaries of the caliph were
+dismayed at the approach of an enemy who neither asked nor
+accepted quarter; and the difference between, them in fortitude
+and patience, is expressive of the change which three centuries
+of prosperity had effected in the character of the Arabians.
+Such troops were discomfited in every action; the cities of Racca
+and Baalbec, of Cufa and Bassora, were taken and pillaged; Bagdad
+was filled with consternation; and the caliph trembled behind the
+veils of his palace.  In a daring inroad beyond the Tigris, Abu
+Taher advanced to the gates of the capital with no more than five
+hundred horse.  By the special order of Moctader, the bridges had
+been broken down, and the person or head of the rebel was
+expected every hour by the commander of the faithful.  His
+lieutenant, from a motive of fear or pity, apprised Abu Taher of
+his danger, and recommended a speedy escape.  "Your master," said
+the intrepid Carmathian to the messenger, "is at the head of
+thirty thousand soldiers: three such men as these are wanting in
+his host: " at the same instant, turning to three of his
+companions, he commanded the first to plunge a dagger into his
+breast, the second to leap into the Tigris, and the third to cast
+himself headlong down a precipice.  They obeyed without a murmur.
+
+"Relate," continued the imam, "what you have seen: before the
+evening your general shall be chained among my dogs." Before the
+evening, the camp was surprised, and the menace was executed. The
+rapine of the Carmathians was sanctified by their aversion to the
+worship of Mecca: they robbed a caravan of pilgrims, and twenty
+thousand devout Moslems were abandoned on the burning sands to a
+death of hunger and thirst.  Another year they suffered the
+pilgrims to proceed without interruption; but, in the festival of
+devotion, Abu Taher stormed the holy city, and trampled on the
+most venerable relics of the Mahometan faith. Thirty thousand
+citizens and strangers were put to the sword; the sacred
+precincts were polluted by the burial of three thousand dead
+bodies; the well of Zemzem overflowed with blood; the golden
+spout was forced from its place; the veil of the Caaba was
+divided among these impious sectaries; and the black stone, the
+first monument of the nation, was borne away in triumph to their
+capital. After this deed of sacrilege and cruelty, they continued
+to infest the confines of Irak, Syria, and Egypt: but the vital
+principle of enthusiasm had withered at the root.  Their
+scruples, or their avarice, again opened the pilgrimage of Mecca,
+and restored the black stone of the Caaba; and it is needless to
+inquire into what factions they were broken, or by whose swords
+they were finally extirpated.  The sect of the Carmathians may be
+considered as the second visible cause of the decline and fall of
+the empire of the caliphs. ^101
+
+[Footnote 101: For the sect of the Carmathians, consult Elmacin,
+(Hist. Sara cen, p. 219, 224, 229, 231, 238, 241, 243,)
+Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 179 - 182,) Abulfeda, (Annal. Moslem.
+p. 218, 219, &c., 245, 265, 274.) and D'Herbelot, (Bibliotheque
+Orientale, p. 256 - 258, 635.) I find some inconsistencies of
+theology and chronology, which it would not be easy nor of much
+importance to reconcile.
+
+Note: Compare Von Hammer, Geschichte der Assassinen, p. 44, &c.
+- M.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LII: More Conquests By The Arabs.
+
+Part V.
+
+The third and most obvious cause was the weight and
+magnitude of the empire itself.  The caliph Almamon might proudly
+assert, that it was easier for him to rule the East and the West,
+than to manage a chess-board of two feet square: ^102 yet I
+suspect that in both those games he was guilty of many fatal
+mistakes; and I perceive, that in the distant provinces the
+authority of the first and most powerful of the Abbassides was
+already impaired.  The analogy of despotism invests the
+representative with the full majesty of the prince; the division
+and balance of powers might relax the habits of obedience, might
+encourage the passive subject to inquire into the origin and
+administration of civil government.  He who is born in the purple
+is seldom worthy to reign; but the elevation of a private man, of
+a peasant, perhaps, or a slave, affords a strong presumption of
+his courage and capacity.  The viceroy of a remote kingdom
+aspires to secure the property and inheritance of his precarious
+trust; the nations must rejoice in the presence of their
+sovereign; and the command of armies and treasures are at once
+the object and the instrument of his ambition.  A change was
+scarcely visible as long as the lieutenants of the caliph were
+content with their vicarious title; while they solicited for
+themselves or their sons a renewal of the Imperial grant, and
+still maintained on the coin and in the public prayers the name
+and prerogative of the commander of the faithful.  But in the
+long and hereditary exercise of power, they assumed the pride and
+attributes of royalty; the alternative of peace or war, of reward
+or punishment, depended solely on their will; and the revenues of
+their government were reserved for local services or private
+magnificence.  Instead of a regular supply of men and money, the
+successors of the prophet were flattered with the ostentatious
+gift of an elephant, or a cast of hawks, a suit of silk hangings,
+or some pounds of musk and amber. ^103
+
+[Footnote 102: Hyde, Syntagma Dissertat. tom. ii. p. 57, in Hist.
+Shahiludii.]
+
+[Footnote 103: The dynasties of the Arabian empire may be studied
+in the Annals of Elmacin, Abulpharagius, and Abulfeda, under the
+proper years, in the dictionary of D'Herbelot, under the proper
+names.  The tables of M. de Guignes (Hist. des Huns, tom. i.)
+exhibit a general chronology of the East, interspersed with some
+historical anecdotes; but his attachment to national blood has
+sometimes confounded the order of time and place.]
+
+After the revolt of Spain from the temporal and spiritual
+supremacy of the Abbassides, the first symptoms of disobedience
+broke forth in the province of Africa.  Ibrahim, the son of
+Aglab, the lieutenant of the vigilant and rigid Harun, bequeathed
+to the dynasty of the Aglabites the inheritance of his name and
+power.  The indolence or policy of the caliphs dissembled the
+injury and loss, and pursued only with poison the founder of the
+Edrisites, ^104 who erected the kingdom and city of Fez on the
+shores of the Western ocean. ^105 In the East, the first dynasty
+was that of the Taherites; ^106 the posterity of the valiant
+Taher, who, in the civil wars of the sons of Harun, had served
+with too much zeal and success the cause of Almamon, the younger
+brother.  He was sent into honorable exile, to command on the
+banks of the Oxus; and the independence of his successors, who
+reigned in Chorasan till the fourth generation, was palliated by
+their modest and respectful demeanor, the happiness of their
+subjects and the security of their frontier.  They were
+supplanted by one of those adventures so frequent in the annals
+of the East, who left his trade of a brazier (from whence the
+name of Soffarides) for the profession of a robber.  In a
+nocturnal visit to the treasure of the prince of Sistan, Jacob,
+the son of Leith, stumbled over a lump of salt, which he unwarily
+tasted with his tongue.  Salt, among the Orientals, is the symbol
+of hospitality, and the pious robber immediately retired without
+spoil or damage. The discovery of this honorable behavior
+recommended Jacob to pardon and trust; he led an army at first
+for his benefactor, at last for himself, subdued Persia, and
+threatened the residence of the Abbassides. On his march towards
+Bagdad, the conqueror was arrested by a fever.  He gave audience
+in bed to the ambassador of the caliph; and beside him on a table
+were exposed a naked cimeter, a crust of brown bread, and a bunch
+of onions.  "If I die," said he, "your master is delivered from
+his fears.  If I live, this must determine between us.  If I am
+vanquished, I can return without reluctance to the homely fare of
+my youth." From the height where he stood, the descent would not
+have been so soft or harmless: a timely death secured his own
+repose and that of the caliph, who paid with the most lavish
+concessions the retreat of his brother Amrou to the palaces of
+Shiraz and Ispahan.  The Abbassides were too feeble to contend,
+too proud to forgive: they invited the powerful dynasty of the
+Samanides, who passed the Oxus with ten thousand horse so poor,
+that their stirrups were of wood: so brave, that they vanquished
+the Soffarian army, eight times more numerous than their own.
+The captive Amrou was sent in chains, a grateful offering to the
+court of Bagdad; and as the victor was content with the
+inheritance of Transoxiana and Chorasan, the realms of Persia
+returned for a while to the allegiance of the caliphs.  The
+provinces of Syria and Egypt were twice dismembered by their
+Turkish slaves of the race of Toulon and Ilkshid. ^107 These
+Barbarians, in religion and manners the countrymen of Mahomet,
+emerged from the bloody factions of the palace to a provincial
+command and an independent throne: their names became famous and
+formidable in their time; but the founders of these two potent
+dynasties confessed, either in words or actions, the vanity of
+ambition.  The first on his death-bed implored the mercy of God
+to a sinner, ignorant of the limits of his own power: the second,
+in the midst of four hundred thousand soldiers and eight thousand
+slaves, concealed from every human eye the chamber where he
+attempted to sleep.  Their sons were educated in the vices of
+kings; and both Egypt and Syria were recovered and possessed by
+the Abbassides during an interval of thirty years.  In the
+decline of their empire, Mesopotamia, with the important cities
+of Mosul and Aleppo, was occupied by the Arabian princes of the
+tribe of Hamadan.  The poets of their court could repeat without
+a blush, that nature had formed their countenances for beauty,
+their tongues for eloquence, and their hands for liberality and
+valor: but the genuine tale of the elevation and reign of the
+Hamadanites exhibits a scene of treachery, murder, and parricide.
+
+At the same fatal period, the Persian kingdom was again usurped
+by the dynasty of the Bowides, by the sword of three brothers,
+who, under various names, were styled the support and columns of
+the state, and who, from the Caspian Sea to the ocean, would
+suffer no tyrants but themselves.  Under their reign, the
+language and genius of Persia revived, and the Arabs, three
+hundred and four years after the death of Mahomet, were deprived
+of the sceptre of the East.
+
+[Footnote 104: The Aglabites and Edrisites are the professed
+subject of M. de Cardonne, (Hist. de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne
+sous la Domination des Arabes, tom. ii. p. 1 - 63.)]
+
+[Footnote 105: To escape the reproach of error, I must criticize
+the inaccuracies of M. de Guignes (tom. i. p. 359) concerning the
+Edrisites. 1. The dynasty and city of Fez could not be founded in
+the year of the Hegira 173, since the founder was a posthumous
+child of a descendant of Ali, who fled from Mecca in the year
+168.  2. This founder, Edris, the son of Edris, instead of living
+to the improbable age of 120 years, A. H. 313, died A. H. 214, in
+the prime of manhood.  3. The dynasty ended A. H. 307,
+twenty-three years sooner than it is fixed by the historian of
+the Huns. See the accurate Annals of Abulfeda p. 158, 159, 185,
+238.]
+
+[Footnote 106: The dynasties of the Taherites and Soffarides,
+with the rise of that of the Samanines, are described in the
+original history and Latin version of Mirchond: yet the most
+interesting facts had already been drained by the diligence of M.
+D'Herbelot.]
+
+[Footnote 107: M. de Guignes (Hist. des Huns, tom. iii. p. 124 -
+154) has exhausted the Toulunides and Ikshidites of Egypt, and
+thrown some light on the Carmathians and Hamadanites.]
+
+Rahadi, the twentieth of the Abbassides, and the
+thirty-ninth of the successors of Mahomet, was the last who
+deserved the title of commander of the faithful; ^108 the last
+(says Abulfeda) who spoke to the people, or conversed with the
+learned; the last who, in the expense of his household,
+represented the wealth and magnificence of the ancient caliphs.
+After him, the lords of the Eastern world were reduced to the
+most abject misery, and exposed to the blows and insults of a
+servile condition.  The revolt of the provinces circumscribed
+their dominions within the walls of Bagdad: but that capital
+still contained an innumerable multitude, vain of their past
+fortune, discontented with their present state, and oppressed by
+the demands of a treasury which had formerly been replenished by
+the spoil and tribute of nations.  Their idleness was exercised
+by faction and controversy.  Under the mask of piety, the rigid
+followers of Hanbal ^109 invaded the pleasures of domestic life,
+burst into the houses of plebeians and princes, the wine, broke
+the instruments, beat the musicians, and dishonored, with
+infamous suspicions, the associates of every handsome youth.  In
+each profession, which allowed room for two persons, the one was
+a votary, the other an antagonist, of Ali; and the Abbassides
+were awakened by the clamorous grief of the sectaries, who denied
+their title, and cursed their progenitors.  A turbulent people
+could only be repressed by a military force; but who could
+satisfy the avarice or assert the discipline of the mercenaries
+themselves?  The African and the Turkish guards drew their swords
+against each other, and the chief commanders, the emirs al Omra,
+^110 imprisoned or deposed their sovereigns, and violated the
+sanctuary of the mosch and harem.  If the caliphs escaped to the
+camp or court of any neighboring prince, their deliverance was a
+change of servitude, till they were prompted by despair to invite
+the Bowides, the sultans of Persia, who silenced the factions of
+Bagdad by their irresistible arms.  The civil and military powers
+were assumed by Moezaldowlat, the second of the three brothers,
+and a stipend of sixty thousand pounds sterling was assigned by
+his generosity for the private expense of the commander of the
+faithful. But on the fortieth day, at the audience of the
+ambassadors of Chorasan, and in the presence of a trembling
+multitude, the caliph was dragged from his throne to a dungeon,
+by the command of the stranger, and the rude hands of his
+Dilamites.  His palace was pillaged, his eyes were put out, and
+the mean ambition of the Abbassides aspired to the vacant station
+of danger and disgrace.  In the school of adversity, the
+luxurious caliphs resumed the grave and abstemious virtues of the
+primitive times.  Despoiled of their armor and silken robes, they
+fasted, they prayed, they studied the Koran and the tradition of
+the Sonnites: they performed, with zeal and knowledge, the
+functions of their ecclesiastical character.  The respect of
+nations still waited on the successors of the apostle, the
+oracles of the law and conscience of the faithful; and the
+weakness or division of their tyrants sometimes restored the
+Abbassides to the sovereignty of Bagdad.  But their misfortunes
+had been imbittered by the triumph of the Fatimites, the real or
+spurious progeny of Ali.  Arising from the extremity of Africa,
+these successful rivals extinguished, in Egypt and Syria, both
+the spiritual and temporal authority of the Abbassides; and the
+monarch of the Nile insulted the humble pontiff on the banks of
+the Tigris.
+
+[Footnote 108: Hic est ultimus chalifah qui multum atque saepius
+pro concione peroraret .... Fuit etiam ultimus qui otium cum
+eruditis et facetis hominibus fallere hilariterque agere soleret.
+
+Ultimus tandem chalifarum cui sumtus, stipendia, reditus, et
+thesauri, culinae, caeteraque omnis aulica pompa priorum
+chalifarum ad instar comparata fuerint. Videbimus enim paullo
+post quam indignis et servilibius ludibriis exagitati, quam ad
+humilem fortunam altimumque contemptum abjecti fuerint hi quondam
+potentissimi totius terrarum Orientalium orbis domini.  Abulfed.
+Annal. Moslem. p. 261.  I have given this passage as the manner
+and tone of Abulfeda, but the cast of Latin eloquence belongs
+more properly to Reiske. The Arabian historian (p. 255, 257, 261
+- 269, 283, &c.) has supplied me with the most interesting facts
+of this paragraph.]
+
+[Footnote 109: Their master, on a similar occasion, showed
+himself of a more indulgent and tolerating spirit.  Ahmed Ebn
+Hanbal, the head of one of the four orthodox sects, was born at
+Bagdad A. H. 164, and died there A. H. 241. He fought and
+suffered in the dispute concerning the creation of the Koran.]
+
+[Footnote 110: The office of vizier was superseded by the emir al
+Omra, Imperator Imperatorum, a title first instituted by Radhi,
+and which merged at length in the Bowides and Seljukides:
+vectigalibus, et tributis, et curiis per omnes regiones
+praefecit, jussitque in omnibus suggestis nominis ejus in
+concionibus mentionem fieri, (Abulpharagius, Dynart. p 199.) It
+is likewise mentioned by Elmacin, (p. 254, 255.)]
+
+In the declining age of the caliphs, in the century which
+elapsed after the war of Theophilus and Motassem, the hostile
+transactions of the two nations were confined to some inroads by
+sea and land, the fruits of their close vicinity and indelible
+hatred.  But when the Eastern world was convulsed and broken, the
+Greeks were roused from their lethargy by the hopes of conquest
+and revenge.  The Byzantine empire, since the accession of the
+Basilian race, had reposed in peace and dignity; and they might
+encounter with their entire strength the front of some petty
+emir, whose rear was assaulted and threatened by his national
+foes of the Mahometan faith.  The lofty titles of the morning
+star, and the death of the Saracens, ^111 were applied in the
+public acclamations to Nicephorus Phocas, a prince as renowned in
+the camp, as he was unpopular in the city. In the subordinate
+station of great domestic, or general of the East, he reduced the
+Island of Crete, and extirpated the nest of pirates who had so
+long defied, with impunity, the majesty of the empire. ^112 His
+military genius was displayed in the conduct and success of the
+enterprise, which had so often failed with loss and dishonor.
+The Saracens were confounded by the landing of his troops on safe
+and level bridges, which he cast from the vessels to the shore.
+Seven months were consumed in the siege of Candia; the despair of
+the native Cretans was stimulated by the frequent aid of their
+brethren of Africa and Spain; and after the massy wall and double
+ditch had been stormed by the Greeks a hopeless conflict was
+still maintained in the streets and houses of the city. ^* The
+whole island was subdued in the capital, and a submissive people
+accepted, without resistance, the baptism of the conqueror. ^113
+Constantinople applauded the long-forgotten pomp of a triumph;
+but the Imperial diadem was the sole reward that could repay the
+services, or satisfy the ambition, of Nicephorus.
+
+[Footnote 111: Liutprand, whose choleric temper was imbittered by
+his uneasy situation, suggests the names of reproach and contempt
+more applicable to Nicephorus than the vain titles of the Greeks,
+Ecce venit stella matutina, surgit Eous, reverberat obtutu solis
+radios, pallida Saracenorum mors, Nicephorus.]
+
+[Footnote 112: Notwithstanding the insinuation of Zonaras, &c.,
+(tom. ii. l. xvi. p. 197,) it is an undoubted fact, that Crete
+was completely and finally subdued by Nicephorus Phocas, (Pagi,
+Critica, tom. iii. p. 873 - 875. Meursius, Creta, l. iii. c. 7,
+tom. iii. p. 464, 465.)]
+
+[Footnote *: The Acroases of Theodorus, de expugnatione Cretae,
+miserable iambics, relate the whole campaign.  Whoever would
+fairly estimate the merit of the poetic deacon, may read the
+description of the slinging a jackass into the famishing city.
+The poet is in a transport at the wit of the general, and revels
+in the luxury of antithesis.  Theodori Acroases, lib. iii. 172,
+in Niebuhr's Byzant. Hist. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 113: A Greek Life of St. Nicon the Armenian was found
+in the Sforza library, and translated into Latin by the Jesuit
+Sirmond, for the use of Cardinal Baronius.  This contemporary
+legend casts a ray of light on Crete and Peloponnesus in the 10th
+century.  He found the newly-recovered island, foedis detestandae
+Agarenorum superstitionis vestigiis adhuc plenam ac refertam ....
+but the victorious missionary, perhaps with some carnal aid, ad
+baptismum omnes veraeque fidei disciplinam pepulit.  Ecclesiis
+per totam insulam aedificatis, &c., (Annal. Eccles. A.D. 961.)]
+
+After the death of the younger Romanus, the fourth in lineal
+descent of the Basilian race, his widow Theophania successively
+married Nicephorus Phocas and his assassin John Zimisces, the two
+heroes of the age.  They reigned as the guardians and colleagues
+of her infant sons; and the twelve years of their military
+command form the most splendid period of the Byzantine annals.
+The subjects and confederates, whom they led to war, appeared, at
+least in the eyes of an enemy, two hundred thousand strong; and
+of these about thirty thousand were armed with cuirasses: ^114 a
+train of four thousand mules attended their march; and their
+evening camp was regularly fortified with an enclosure of iron
+spikes.  A series of bloody and undecisive combats is nothing
+more than an anticipation of what would have been effected in a
+few years by the course of nature; but I shall briefly prosecute
+the conquests of the two emperors from the hills of Cappadocia to
+the desert of Bagdad.  The sieges of Mopsuestia and Tarsus, in
+Cilicia, first exercised the skill and perseverance of their
+troops, on whom, at this moment, I shall not hesitate to bestow
+the name of Romans. In the double city of Mopsuestia, which is
+divided by the River Sarus, two hundred thousand Moslems were
+predestined to death or slavery, ^115 a surprising degree of
+population, which must at least include the inhabitants of the
+dependent districts.  They were surrounded and taken by assault;
+but Tarsus was reduced by the slow progress of famine; and no
+sooner had the Saracens yielded on honorable terms than they were
+mortified by the distant and unprofitable view of the naval
+succors of Egypt.  They were dismissed with a safe-conduct to the
+confines of Syria: a part of the old Christians had quietly lived
+under their dominion; and the vacant habitations were replenished
+by a new colony.  But the mosch was converted into a stable; the
+pulpit was delivered to the flames; many rich crosses of gold and
+gems, the spoils of Asiatic churches, were made a grateful
+offering to the piety or avarice of the emperor; and he
+transported the gates of Mopsuestia and Tarsus, which were fixed
+in the walls of Constantinople, an eternal monument of his
+victory.  After they had forced and secured the narrow passes of
+Mount Amanus, the two Roman princes repeatedly carried their arms
+into the heart of Syria. Yet, instead of assaulting the walls of
+Antioch, the humanity or superstition of Nicephorus appeared to
+respect the ancient metropolis of the East: he contented himself
+with drawing round the city a line of circumvallation; left a
+stationary army; and instructed his lieutenant to expect, without
+impatience, the return of spring.  But in the depth of winter, in
+a dark and rainy night, an adventurous subaltern, with three
+hundred soldiers, approached the rampart, applied his
+scaling-ladders, occupied two adjacent towers, stood firm against
+the pressure of multitudes, and bravely maintained his post till
+he was relieved by the tardy, though effectual, support of his
+reluctant chief.  The first tumult of slaughter and rapine
+subsided; the reign of Caesar and of Christ was restored; and the
+efforts of a hundred thousand Saracens, of the armies of Syria
+and the fleets of Africa, were consumed without effect before the
+walls of Antioch.  The royal city of Aleppo was subject to
+Seifeddowlat, of the dynasty of Hamadan, who clouded his past
+glory by the precipitate retreat which abandoned his kingdom and
+capital to the Roman invaders.  In his stately palace, that stood
+without the walls of Aleppo, they joyfully seized a
+well-furnished magazine of arms, a stable of fourteen hundred
+mules, and three hundred bags of silver and gold.  But the walls
+of the city withstood the strokes of their battering-rams: and
+the besiegers pitched their tents on the neighboring mountain of
+Jaushan.  Their retreat exasperated the quarrel of the townsmen
+and mercenaries; the guard of the gates and ramparts was
+deserted; and while they furiously charged each other in the
+market-place, they were surprised and destroyed by the sword of a
+common enemy.  The male sex was exterminated by the sword; ten
+thousand youths were led into captivity; the weight of the
+precious spoil exceeded the strength and number of the beasts of
+burden; the superfluous remainder was burnt; and, after a
+licentious possession of ten days, the Romans marched away from
+the naked and bleeding city.  In their Syrian inroads they
+commanded the husbandmen to cultivate their lands, that they
+themselves, in the ensuing season, might reap the benefit; more
+than a hundred cities were reduced to obedience; and eighteen
+pulpits of the principal moschs were committed to the flames to
+expiate the sacrilege of the disciples of Mahomet.  The classic
+names of Hierapolis, Apamea, and Emesa, revive for a moment in
+the list of conquest: the emperor Zimisces encamped in the
+paradise of Damascus, and accepted the ransom of a submissive
+people; and the torrent was only stopped by the impregnable
+fortress of Tripoli, on the sea-coast of Phoenicia.  Since the
+days of Heraclius, the Euphrates, below the passage of Mount
+Taurus, had been impervious, and almost invisible, to the Greeks.
+
+The river yielded a free passage to the victorious Zimisces; and
+the historian may imitate the speed with which he overran the
+once famous cities of Samosata, Edessa, Martyropolis, Amida, ^116
+and Nisibis, the ancient limit of the empire in the neighborhood
+of the Tigris.  His ardor was quickened by the desire of grasping
+the virgin treasures of Ecbatana, ^117 a well-known name, under
+which the Byzantine writer has concealed the capital of the
+Abbassides.  The consternation of the fugitives had already
+diffused the terror of his name; but the fancied riches of Bagdad
+had already been dissipated by the avarice and prodigality of
+domestic tyrants.  The prayers of the people, and the stern
+demands of the lieutenant of the Bowides, required the caliph to
+provide for the defence of the city.  The helpless Mothi replied,
+that his arms, his revenues, and his provinces, had been torn
+from his hands, and that he was ready to abdicate a dignity which
+he was unable to support.  The emir was inexorable; the furniture
+of the palace was sold; and the paltry price of forty thousand
+pieces of gold was instantly consumed in private luxury. But the
+apprehensions of Bagdad were relieved by the retreat of the
+Greeks: thirst and hunger guarded the desert of Mesopotamia; and
+the emperor, satiated with glory, and laden with Oriental spoils,
+returned to Constantinople, and displayed, in his triumph, the
+silk, the aromatics, and three hundred myriads of gold and
+silver.  Yet the powers of the East had been bent, not broken, by
+this transient hurricane.  After the departure of the Greeks, the
+fugitive princes returned to their capitals; the subjects
+disclaimed their involuntary oaths of allegiance; the Moslems
+again purified their temples, and overturned the idols of the
+saints and martyrs; the Nestorians and Jacobites preferred a
+Saracen to an orthodox master; and the numbers and spirit of the
+Melchites were inadequate to the support of the church and state.
+
+Of these extensive conquests, Antioch, with the cities of Cilicia
+and the Isle of Cyprus, was alone restored, a permanent and
+useful accession to the Roman empire. ^118
+
+[Footnote 114: Elmacin, Hist. Saracen. p. 278, 279.  Liutprand
+was disposed to depreciate the Greek power, yet he owns that
+Nicephorus led against Assyria an army of eighty thousand men.]
+
+[Footnote 115: Ducenta fere millia hominum numerabat urbs
+(Abulfeda, Annal. Moslem. p. 231) of Mopsuestia, or Masifa,
+Mampsysta, Mansista, Mamista, as it is corruptly, or perhaps more
+correctly, styled in the middle ages, (Wesseling, Itinerar. p.
+580.) Yet I cannot credit this extreme populousness a few years
+after the testimony of the emperor Leo, (Tactica, c. xviii. in
+Meursii Oper. tom. vi. p. 817.)]
+
+[Footnote 116: The text of Leo the deacon, in the corrupt names
+of Emeta and Myctarsim, reveals the cities of Amida and
+Martyropolis, (Mia farekin. See Abulfeda, Geograph. p. 245, vers.
+Reiske.) Of the former, Leo observes, urbus munita et illustris;
+of the latter, clara atque conspicua opibusque et pecore,
+reliquis ejus provinciis urbibus atque oppidis longe praestans.]
+
+[Footnote 117: Ut et Ecbatana pergeret Agarenorumque regiam
+everteret .... aiunt enim urbium quae usquam sunt ac toto orbe
+existunt felicissimam esse auroque ditissimam, (Leo Diacon. apud
+Pagium, tom. iv. p. 34.) This splendid description suits only
+with Bagdad, and cannot possibly apply either to Hamadan, the
+true Ecbatana, (D'Anville, Geog. Ancienne, tom. ii. p. 237,) or
+Tauris, which has been commonly mistaken for that city.  The name
+of Ecbatana, in the same indefinite sense, is transferred by a
+more classic authority (Cicero pro Lego Manilia, c. 4) to the
+royal seat of Mithridates, king of Pontus.]
+
+[Footnote 118: See the Annals of Elmacin, Abulpharagius, and
+Abulfeda, from A. H. 351 to A. H. 361; and the reigns of
+Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces, in the Chronicles of Zonaras
+(tom. ii. l. xvi. p. 199 - l. xvii. 215) and Cedrenus, (Compend.
+p. 649 - 684.) Their manifold defects are partly supplied by the
+Ms. history of Leo the deacon, which Pagi obtained from the
+Benedictines, and has inserted almost entire, in a Latin version,
+(Critica, tom. iii. p. 873, tom. iv. 37.)
+
+Note: The whole original work of Leo the Deacon has been
+published by Hase, and is inserted in the new edition of the
+Byzantine historians.  M Lassen has added to the Arabian
+authorities of this period some extracts from Kemaleddin's
+account of the treaty for the surrender of Aleppo. - M.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LIII: Fate Of The Eastern Empire.
+
+Part I.
+
+Fate Of The Eastern Empire In The Tenth Century. - Extent
+And Division. - Wealth And Revenue. - Palace Of Constantinople. -
+Titles And Offices. - Pride And Power Of The Emperors. - Tactics
+Of The Greeks, Arabs, And Franks. - Loss Of The Latin Tongue. -
+Studies And Solitude Of The Greeks.
+
+A ray of historic light seems to beam from the darkness of
+the tenth century.  We open with curiosity and respect the royal
+volumes of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, ^1 which he composed at a
+mature age for the instruction of his son, and which promise to
+unfold the state of the eastern empire, both in peace and war,
+both at home and abroad.  In the first of these works he minutely
+describes the pompous ceremonies of the church and palace of
+Constantinople, according to his own practice, and that of his
+predecessors. ^2 In the second, he attempts an accurate survey of
+the provinces, the themes, as they were then denominated, both of
+Europe and Asia. ^3 The system of Roman tactics, the discipline
+and order of the troops, and the military operations by land and
+sea, are explained in the third of these didactic collections,
+which may be ascribed to Constantine or his father Leo. ^4 In the
+fourth, of the administration of the empire, he reveals the
+secrets of the Byzantine policy, in friendly or hostile
+intercourse with the nations of the earth.  The literary labors
+of the age, the practical systems of law, agriculture, and
+history, might redound to the benefit of the subject and the
+honor of the Macedonian princes.  The sixty books of the
+Basilics, ^5 the code and pandects of civil jurisprudence, were
+gradually framed in the three first reigns of that prosperous
+dynasty.  The art of agriculture had amused the leisure, and
+exercised the pens, of the best and wisest of the ancients; and
+their chosen precepts are comprised in the twenty books of the
+Geoponics ^6 of Constantine. At his command, the historical
+examples of vice and virtue were methodized in fifty-three books,
+^7 and every citizen might apply, to his contemporaries or
+himself, the lesson or the warning of past times. From the august
+character of a legislator, the sovereign of the East descends to
+the more humble office of a teacher and a scribe; and if his
+successors and subjects were regardless of his paternal cares, we
+may inherit and enjoy the everlasting legacy.
+
+[Footnote 1: The epithet of Porphyrogenitus, born in the purple,
+is elegantly defined by Claudian: -
+
+Ardua privatos nescit fortuna Penates;
+Et regnum cum luce dedit.  Cognata potestas
+Excepit Tyrio venerabile pignus in ostro.
+
+And Ducange, in his Greek and Latin Glossaries, produces many
+passages expressive of the same idea.]
+
+[Footnote 2: A splendid Ms. of Constantine, de Caeremoniis Aulae
+et Ecclesiae Byzantinae, wandered from Constantinople to Buda,
+Frankfort, and Leipsic, where it was published in a splendid
+edition by Leich and Reiske, (A.D. 1751, in folio,) with such
+lavish praise as editors never fail to bestow on the worthy or
+worthless object of their toil.]
+
+[Footnote 3: See, in the first volume of Banduri's Imperium
+Orientale, Constantinus de Thematibus, p. 1 - 24, de
+Administrando Imperio, p. 45 - 127, edit. Venet.  The text of the
+old edition of Meursius is corrected from a Ms. of the royal
+library of Paris, which Isaac Casaubon had formerly seen, (Epist.
+ad Polybium, p. 10,) and the sense is illustrated by two maps of
+William Deslisle, the prince of geographers till the appearance
+of the greater D'Anville.]
+
+[Footnote 4: The Tactics of Leo and Constantine are published
+with the aid of some new Mss. in the great edition of the works
+of Meursius, by the learned John Lami, (tom. vi. p. 531 - 920,
+1211 - 1417, Florent. 1745,) yet the text is still corrupt and
+mutilated, the version is still obscure and faulty.  The Imperial
+library of Vienna would afford some valuable materials to a new
+editor, (Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. tom. vi. p. 369, 370.)]
+
+[Footnote 5: On the subject of the Basilics, Fabricius, (Bibliot.
+Graec. tom. xii. p. 425 - 514,) and Heineccius, (Hist. Juris
+Romani, p. 396 - 399,) and Giannone, (Istoria Civile di Napoli,
+tom. i. p. 450 - 458,) as historical civilians, may be usefully
+consulted: xli. books of this Greek code have been published,
+with a Latin version, by Charles Annibal Frabrottus, (Paris,
+1647,) in seven tomes in folio; iv. other books have been since
+discovered, and are inserted in Gerard Meerman's Novus Thesaurus
+Juris Civ. et Canon. tom. v.  Of the whole work, the sixty books,
+John Leunclavius has printed, (Basil, 1575,) an eclogue or
+synopsis.  The cxiii. novels, or new laws, of Leo, may be found
+in the Corpus Juris Civilis.]
+
+[Footnote 6: I have used the last and best edition of the
+Geoponics, (by Nicolas Niclas, Leipsic, 1781, 2 vols. in octavo.)
+I read in the preface, that the same emperor restored the
+long-forgotten systems of rhetoric and philosophy; and his two
+books of Hippiatrica, or Horse-physic, were published at Paris,
+1530, in folio, (Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. tom. vi. p. 493 - 500.)]
+
+[Footnote 7: Of these LIII. books, or titles, only two have been
+preserved and printed, de Legationibus (by Fulvius Ursinus,
+Antwerp, 1582, and Daniel Hoeschelius, August. Vindel. 1603) and
+de Virtutibus et Vitiis, (by Henry Valesius, or de Valois, Paris,
+1634.)]
+
+A closer survey will indeed reduce the value of the gift,
+and the gratitude of posterity: in the possession of these
+Imperial treasures we may still deplore our poverty and
+ignorance; and the fading glories of their authors will be
+obliterated by indifference or contempt.  The Basilics will sink
+to a broken copy, a partial and mutilated version, in the Greek
+language, of the laws of Justinian; but the sense of the old
+civilians is often superseded by the influence of bigotry: and
+the absolute prohibition of divorce, concubinage, and interest
+for money, enslaves the freedom of trade and the happiness of
+private life.  In the historical book, a subject of Constantine
+might admire the inimitable virtues of Greece and Rome: he might
+learn to what a pitch of energy and elevation the human character
+had formerly aspired.  But a contrary effect must have been
+produced by a new edition of the lives of the saints, which the
+great logothete, or chancellor of the empire, was directed to
+prepare; and the dark fund of superstition was enriched by the
+fabulous and florid legends of Simon the Metaphrast. ^8 The
+merits and miracles of the whole calendar are of less account in
+the eyes of a sage, than the toil of a single husbandman, who
+multiplies the gifts of the Creator, and supplies the food of his
+brethren.  Yet the royal authors of the Geoponics were more
+seriously employed in expounding the precepts of the destroying
+art, which had been taught since the days of Xenophon, ^9 as the
+art of heroes and kings.  But the Tactics of Leo and Constantine
+are mingled with the baser alloy of the age in which they lived.
+It was destitute of original genius; they implicitly transcribe
+the rules and maxims which had been confirmed by victories.  It
+was unskilled in the propriety of style and method; they blindly
+confound the most distant and discordant institutions, the
+phalanx of Sparta and that of Macedon, the legions of Cato and
+Trajan, of Augustus and Theodosius.  Even the use, or at least
+the importance, of these military rudiments may be fairly
+questioned: their general theory is dictated by reason; but the
+merit, as well as difficulty, consists in the application. The
+discipline of a soldier is formed by exercise rather than by
+study: the talents of a commander are appropriated to those calm,
+though rapid, minds, which nature produces to decide the fate of
+armies and nations: the former is the habit of a life, the latter
+the glance of a moment; and the battles won by lessons of tactics
+may be numbered with the epic poems created from the rules of
+criticism.  The book of ceremonies is a recital, tedious yet
+imperfect, of the despicable pageantry which had infected the
+church and state since the gradual decay of the purity of the one
+and the power of the other.  A review of the themes or provinces
+might promise such authentic and useful information, as the
+curiosity of government only can obtain, instead of traditionary
+fables on the origin of the cities, and malicious epigrams on the
+vices of their inhabitants. ^10 Such information the historian
+would have been pleased to record; nor should his silence be
+condemned if the most interesting objects, the population of the
+capital and provinces, the amount of the taxes and revenues, the
+numbers of subjects and strangers who served under the Imperial
+standard, have been unnoticed by Leo the philosopher, and his son
+Constantine.  His treatise of the public administration is
+stained with the same blemishes; yet it is discriminated by
+peculiar merit; the antiquities of the nations may be doubtful or
+fabulous; but the geography and manners of the Barbaric world are
+delineated with curious accuracy.  Of these nations, the Franks
+alone were qualified to observe in their turn, and to describe,
+the metropolis of the East.  The ambassador of the great Otho, a
+bishop of Cremona, has painted the state of Constantinople about
+the middle of the tenth century: his style is glowing, his
+narrative lively, his observation keen; and even the prejudices
+and passions of Liutprand are stamped with an original character
+of freedom and genius. ^11 From this scanty fund of foreign and
+domestic materials, I shall investigate the form and substance of
+the Byzantine empire; the provinces and wealth, the civil
+government and military force, the character and literature, of
+the Greeks in a period of six hundred years, from the reign of
+Heraclius to his successful invasion of the Franks or Latins.
+
+[Footnote 8: The life and writings of Simon Metaphrastes are
+described by Hankius, (de Scriptoribus Byzant. p. 418 - 460.)
+This biographer of the saints indulged himself in a loose
+paraphrase of the sense or nonsense of more ancient acts.  His
+Greek rhetoric is again paraphrased in the Latin version of
+Surius, and scarcely a thread can be now visible of the original
+texture.]
+
+[Footnote 9: According to the first book of the Cyropaedia,
+professors of tactics, a small part of the science of war, were
+already instituted in Persia, by which Greece must be understood.
+
+A good edition of all the Scriptores Tactici would be a task not
+unworthy of a scholar.  His industry might discover some new
+Mss., and his learning might illustrate the military history of
+the ancients.  But this scholar should be likewise a soldier; and
+alas!  Quintus Icilius is no more.
+
+Note: M. Guichardt, author of Memoires Militaires sur les
+Grecs et sur les Romains.  See Gibbon's Extraits Raisonnees de
+mes Lectures, Misc. Works vol. v. p. 219. - M]
+
+[Footnote 10: After observing that the demerit of the
+Cappadocians rose in proportion to their rank and riches, he
+inserts a more pointed epigram, which is ascribed to Demodocus.
+
+The sting is precisely the same with the French epigram
+against Freron: Un serpent mordit Jean Freron - Eh bien?  Le
+serpent en mourut.  But as the Paris wits are seldom read in the
+Anthology, I should be curious to learn, through what channel it
+was conveyed for their imitation, (Constantin. Porphyrogen. de
+Themat. c. ii. Brunck Analect. Graec. tom. ii. p. 56. Brodaei
+Anthologia, l. ii. p. 244.)]
+
+[Footnote 11: The Legatio Liutprandi Episcopi Cremonensis ad
+Nicephorum Phocam is inserted in Muratori, Scriptores Rerum
+Italicarum, tom. ii. pars i.]
+
+After the final division between the sons of Theodosius, the
+swarms of Barbarians from Scythia and Germany over-spread the
+provinces and extinguished the empire of ancient Rome.  The
+weakness of Constantinople was concealed by extent of dominion:
+her limits were inviolate, or at least entire; and the kingdom of
+Justinian was enlarged by the splendid acquisition of Africa and
+Italy.  But the possession of these new conquests was transient
+and precarious; and almost a moiety of the Eastern empire was
+torn away by the arms of the Saracens.  Syria and Egypt were
+oppressed by the Arabian caliphs; and, after the reduction of
+Africa, their lieutenants invaded and subdued the Roman province
+which had been changed into the Gothic monarchy of Spain.  The
+islands of the Mediterranean were not inaccessible to their naval
+powers; and it was from their extreme stations, the harbors of
+Crete and the fortresses of Cilicia, that the faithful or rebel
+emirs insulted the majesty of the throne and capital.  The
+remaining provinces, under the obedience of the emperors, were
+cast into a new mould; and the jurisdiction of the presidents,
+the consulars, and the counts were superseded by the institution
+of the themes, ^12 or military governments, which prevailed under
+the successors of Heraclius, and are described by the pen of the
+royal author.  Of the twenty-nine themes, twelve in Europe and
+seventeen in Asia, the origin is obscure, the etymology doubtful
+or capricious: the limits were arbitrary and fluctuating; but
+some particular names, that sound the most strangely to our ear,
+were derived from the character and attributes of the troops that
+were maintained at the expense, and for the guard, of the
+respective divisions. The vanity of the Greek princes most
+eagerly grasped the shadow of conquest and the memory of lost
+dominion.  A new Mesopotamia was created on the western side of
+the Euphrates: the appellation and praetor of Sicily were
+transferred to a narrow slip of Calabria; and a fragment of the
+duchy of Beneventum was promoted to the style and title of the
+theme of Lombardy.  In the decline of the Arabian empire, the
+successors of Constantine might indulge their pride in more solid
+advantages.  The victories of Nicephorus, John Zimisces, and
+Basil the Second, revived the fame, and enlarged the boundaries,
+of the Roman name: the province of Cilicia, the metropolis of
+Antioch, the islands of Crete and Cyprus, were restored to the
+allegiance of Christ and Caesar: one third of Italy was annexed
+to the throne of Constantinople: the kingdom of Bulgaria was
+destroyed; and the last sovereigns of the Macedonian dynasty
+extended their sway from the sources of the Tigris to the
+neighborhood of Rome.  In the eleventh century, the prospect was
+again clouded by new enemies and new misfortunes: the relics of
+Italy were swept away by the Norman adventures; and almost all
+the Asiatic branches were dissevered from the Roman trunk by the
+Turkish conquerors.  After these losses, the emperors of the
+Comnenian family continued to reign from the Danube to
+Peloponnesus, and from Belgrade to Nice, Trebizond, and the
+winding stream of the Meander.  The spacious provinces of Thrace,
+Macedonia, and Greece, were obedient to their sceptre; the
+possession of Cyprus, Rhodes, and Crete, was accompanied by the
+fifty islands of the Aegean or Holy Sea; ^13 and the remnant of
+their empire transcends the measure of the largest of the
+European kingdoms.
+
+[Footnote 12: See Constantine de Thematibus, in Banduri, tom. i.
+p. 1 - 30. It is used by Maurice (Strata gem. l. ii. c. 2) for a
+legion, from whence the name was easily transferred to its post
+or province, (Ducange, Gloss. Graec. tom. i. p. 487-488.) Some
+etymologies are attempted for the Opiscian, Optimatian,
+Thracesian, themes.]
+
+[Footnote 13: It is styled by the modern Greeks, from which the
+corrupt names of Archipelago, l'Archipel, and the Arches, have
+been transformed by geographers and seamen, (D'Anville,
+Geographie Ancienne, tom. i. p. 281. Analyse de la Carte de la
+Greece, p. 60.) The numbers of monks or caloyers in all the
+islands and the adjacent mountain of Athos, (Observations de
+Belon, fol. 32, verso,) monte santo, might justify the epithet of
+holy, a slight alteration from the original, imposed by the
+Dorians, who, in their dialect, gave the figurative name of
+goats, to the bounding waves, (Vossius, apud Cellarium, Geograph.
+Antiq. tom. i. p. 829.)]
+
+The same princes might assert, with dignity and truth, that
+of all the monarchs of Christendom they possessed the greatest
+city, ^14 the most ample revenue, the most flourishing and
+populous state.  With the decline and fall of the empire, the
+cities of the West had decayed and fallen; nor could the ruins of
+Rome, or the mud walls, wooden hovels, and narrow precincts of
+Paris and London, prepare the Latin stranger to contemplate the
+situation and extent of Constantinople, her stately palaces and
+churches, and the arts and luxury of an innumerable people.  Her
+treasures might attract, but her virgin strength had repelled,
+and still promised to repel, the audacious invasion of the
+Persian and Bulgarian, the Arab and the Russian.  The provinces
+were less fortunate and impregnable; and few districts, few
+cities, could be discovered which had not been violated by some
+fierce Barbarian, impatient to despoil, because he was hopeless
+to possess.  From the age of Justinian the Eastern empire was
+sinking below its former level; the powers of destruction were
+more active than those of improvement; and the calamities of war
+were imbittered by the more permanent evils of civil and
+ecclesiastical tyranny.  The captive who had escaped from the
+Barbarians was often stripped and imprisoned by the ministers of
+his sovereign: the Greek superstition relaxed the mind by prayer,
+and emaciated the body by fasting; and the multitude of convents
+and festivals diverted many hands and many days from the temporal
+service of mankind.  Yet the subjects of the Byzantine empire
+were still the most dexterous and diligent of nations; their
+country was blessed by nature with every advantage of soil,
+climate, and situation; and, in the support and restoration of
+the arts, their patient and peaceful temper was more useful than
+the warlike spirit and feudal anarchy of Europe.  The provinces
+that still adhered to the empire were repeopled and enriched by
+the misfortunes of those which were irrecoverably lost.  From the
+yoke of the caliphs, the Catholics of Syria, Egypt, and Africa
+retired to the allegiance of their prince, to the society of
+their brethren: the movable wealth, which eludes the search of
+oppression, accompanied and alleviated their exile, and
+Constantinople received into her bosom the fugitive trade of
+Alexandria and Tyre.  The chiefs of Armenia and Scythia, who fled
+from hostile or religious persecution, were hospitably
+entertained: their followers were encouraged to build new cities
+and to cultivate waste lands; and many spots, both in Europe and
+Asia, preserved the name, the manners, or at least the memory, of
+these national colonies.  Even the tribes of Barbarians, who had
+seated themselves in arms on the territory of the empire, were
+gradually reclaimed to the laws of the church and state; and as
+long as they were separated from the Greeks, their posterity
+supplied a race of faithful and obedient soldiers.  Did we
+possess sufficient materials to survey the twenty-nine themes of
+the Byzantine monarchy, our curiosity might be satisfied with a
+chosen example: it is fortunate enough that the clearest light
+should be thrown on the most interesting province, and the name
+of Peloponnesus will awaken the attention of the classic reader.
+
+[Footnote 14: According to the Jewish traveller who had visited
+Europe and Asia, Constantinople was equalled only by Bagdad, the
+great city of the Ismaelites, (Voyage de Benjamin de Tudele, par
+Baratier, tom. l. c. v. p. 46.)]
+
+As early as the eighth century, in the troubled reign of the
+Iconoclasts, Greece, and even Peloponnesus, ^15 were overrun by
+some Sclavonian bands who outstripped the royal standard of
+Bulgaria.  The strangers of old, Cadmus, and Danaus, and Pelops,
+had planted in that fruitful soil the seeds of policy and
+learning; but the savages of the north eradicated what yet
+remained of their sickly and withered roots.  In this irruption,
+the country and the inhabitants were transformed; the Grecian
+blood was contaminated; and the proudest nobles of Peloponnesus
+were branded with the names of foreigners and slaves.  By the
+diligence of succeeding princes, the land was in some measure
+purified from the Barbarians; and the humble remnant was bound by
+an oath of obedience, tribute, and military service, which they
+often renewed and often violated. The siege of Patras was formed
+by a singular concurrence of the Sclavonians of Peloponnesus and
+the Saracens of Africa.  In their last distress, a pious fiction
+of the approach of the praetor of Corinth revived the courage of
+the citizens.  Their sally was bold and successful; the strangers
+embarked, the rebels submitted, and the glory of the day was
+ascribed to a phantom or a stranger, who fought in the foremost
+ranks under the character of St. Andrew the Apostle.  The shrine
+which contained his relics was decorated with the trophies of
+victory, and the captive race was forever devoted to the service
+and vassalage of the metropolitan church of Patras. By the revolt
+of two Sclavonian tribes, in the neighborhood of Helos and
+Lacedaemon, the peace of the peninsula was often disturbed.  They
+sometimes insulted the weakness, and sometimes resisted the
+oppression, of the Byzantine government, till at length the
+approach of their hostile brethren extorted a golden bull to
+define the rites and obligations of the Ezzerites and Milengi,
+whose annual tribute was defined at twelve hundred pieces of
+gold.  From these strangers the Imperial geographer has
+accurately distinguished a domestic, and perhaps original, race,
+who, in some degree, might derive their blood from the
+much-injured Helots.  The liberality of the Romans, and
+especially of Augustus, had enfranchised the maritime cities from
+the dominion of Sparta; and the continuance of the same benefit
+ennobled them with the title of Eleuthero, or Free-Laconians. ^16
+In the time of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, they had acquired the
+name of Mainotes, under which they dishonor the claim of liberty
+by the inhuman pillage of all that is shipwrecked on their rocky
+shores. Their territory, barren of corn, but fruitful of olives,
+extended to the Cape of Malea: they accepted a chief or prince
+from the Byzantine praetor, and a light tribute of four hundred
+pieces of gold was the badge of their immunity, rather than of
+their dependence.  The freemen of Laconia assumed the character
+of Romans, and long adhered to the religion of the Greeks.  By
+the zeal of the emperor Basil, they were baptized in the faith of
+Christ: but the altars of Venus and Neptune had been crowned by
+these rustic votaries five hundred years after they were
+proscribed in the Roman world.  In the theme of Peloponnesus, ^17
+forty cities were still numbered, and the declining state of
+Sparta, Argos, and Corinth, may be suspended in the tenth
+century, at an equal distance, perhaps, between their antique
+splendor and their present desolation.  The duty of military
+service, either in person or by substitute, was imposed on the
+lands or benefices of the province; a sum of five pieces of gold
+was assessed on each of the substantial tenants; and the same
+capitation was shared among several heads of inferior value.  On
+the proclamation of an Italian war, the Peloponnesians excused
+themselves by a voluntary oblation of one hundred pounds of gold,
+(four thousand pounds sterling,) and a thousand horses with their
+arms and trappings.  The churches and monasteries furnished their
+contingent; a sacrilegious profit was extorted from the sale of
+ecclesiastical honors; and the indigent bishop of Leucadia ^18
+was made responsible for a pension of one hundred pieces of gold.
+^19
+
+[Footnote 15: Says Constantine, (Thematibus, l. ii. c. vi. p.
+25,) in a style as barbarous as the idea, which he confirms, as
+usual, by a foolish epigram. The epitomizer of Strabo likewise
+observes, (l. vii. p. 98, edit. Hudson. edit. Casaub. 1251;) a
+passage which leads Dodwell a weary dance (Geograph, Minor. tom.
+ii. dissert. vi. p. 170 - 191) to enumerate the inroads of the
+Sclavi, and to fix the date (A.D. 980) of this petty geographer.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Strabon. Geograph. l. viii. p. 562.  Pausanius,
+Graec. Descriptio, l. c 21, p. 264, 265.  Pliny, Hist. Natur. l.
+iv. c. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 17: Constantin. de Administrando Imperio, l. ii. c. 50,
+51, 52.]
+
+[Footnote 18: The rock of Leucate was the southern promontory of
+his island and diocese.  Had he been the exclusive guardian of
+the Lover's Leap so well known to the readers of Ovid (Epist.
+Sappho) and the Spectator, he might have been the richest prelate
+of the Greek church.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Leucatensis mihi juravit episcopus, quotannis
+ecclesiam suam debere Nicephoro aureos centum persolvere,
+similiter et ceteras plus minusve secundum vires suos, (Liutprand
+in Legat. p. 489.)]
+
+But the wealth of the province, and the trust of the
+revenue, were founded on the fair and plentiful produce of trade
+and manufacturers; and some symptoms of liberal policy may be
+traced in a law which exempts from all personal taxes the
+mariners of Peloponnesus, and the workmen in parchment and
+purple.  This denomination may be fairly applied or extended to
+the manufacturers of linen, woollen, and more especially of silk:
+the two former of which had flourished in Greece since the days
+of Homer; and the last was introduced perhaps as early as the
+reign of Justinian.  These arts, which were exercised at Corinth,
+Thebes, and Argos, afforded food and occupation to a numerous
+people: the men, women, and children were distributed according
+to their age and strength; and, if many of these were domestic
+slaves, their masters, who directed the work and enjoyed the
+profit, were of a free and honorable condition.  The gifts which
+a rich and generous matron of Peloponnesus presented to the
+emperor Basil, her adopted son, were doubtless fabricated in the
+Grecian looms.  Danielis bestowed a carpet of fine wool, of a
+pattern which imitated the spots of a peacock's tail, of a
+magnitude to overspread the floor of a new church, erected in the
+triple name of Christ, of Michael the archangel, and of the
+prophet Elijah.  She gave six hundred pieces of silk and linen,
+of various use and denomination: the silk was painted with the
+Tyrian dye, and adorned by the labors of the needle; and the
+linen was so exquisitely fine, that an entire piece might be
+rolled in the hollow of a cane. ^20 In his description of the
+Greek manufactures, an historian of Sicily discriminates their
+price, according to the weight and quality of the silk, the
+closeness of the texture, the beauty of the colors, and the taste
+and materials of the embroidery.  A single, or even a double or
+treble thread was thought sufficient for ordinary sale; but the
+union of six threads composed a piece of stronger and more costly
+workmanship.  Among the colors, he celebrates, with affectation
+of eloquence, the fiery blaze of the scarlet, and the softer
+lustre of the green.  The embroidery was raised either in silk or
+gold: the more simple ornament of stripes or circles was
+surpassed by the nicer imitation of flowers: the vestments that
+were fabricated for the palace or the altar often glittered with
+precious stones; and the figures were delineated in strings of
+Oriental pearls. ^21 Till the twelfth century, Greece alone, of
+all the countries of Christendom, was possessed of the insect who
+is taught by nature, and of the workmen who are instructed by
+art, to prepare this elegant luxury.  But the secret had been
+stolen by the dexterity and diligence of the Arabs: the caliphs
+of the East and West scorned to borrow from the unbelievers their
+furniture and apparel; and two cities of Spain, Almeria and
+Lisbon, were famous for the manufacture, the use, and, perhaps,
+the exportation, of silk.  It was first introduced into Sicily by
+the Normans; and this emigration of trade distinguishes the
+victory of Roger from the uniform and fruitless hostilities of
+every age.  After the sack of Corinth, Athens, and Thebes, his
+lieutenant embarked with a captive train of weavers and
+artificers of both sexes, a trophy glorious to their master, and
+disgraceful to the Greek emperor. ^22 The king of Sicily was not
+insensible of the value of the present; and, in the restitution
+of the prisoners, he excepted only the male and female
+manufacturers of Thebes and Corinth, who labor, says the
+Byzantine historian, under a barbarous lord, like the old
+Eretrians in the service of Darius. ^23 A stately edifice, in the
+palace of Palermo, was erected for the use of this industrious
+colony; ^24 and the art was propagated by their children and
+disciples to satisfy the increasing demand of the western world.
+The decay of the looms of Sicily may be ascribed to the troubles
+of the island, and the competition of the Italian cities.  In the
+year thirteen hundred and fourteen, Lucca alone, among her sister
+republics, enjoyed the lucrative monopoly. ^25 A domestic
+revolution dispersed the manufacturers to Florence, Bologna,
+Venice, Milan, and even the countries beyond the Alps; and
+thirteen years after this event the statutes of Modena enjoin the
+planting of mulberry-trees, and regulate the duties on raw silk.
+^26 The northern climates are less propitious to the education of
+the silkworm; but the industry of France and England ^27 is
+supplied and enriched by the productions of Italy and China.
+
+[Footnote 20: See Constantine, (in Vit. Basil. c. 74, 75, 76, p.
+195, 197, in Script. post Theophanem,) who allows himself to use
+many technical or barbarous words: barbarous, says he.  Ducange
+labors on some: but he was not a weaver.]
+
+[Footnote 21: The manufactures of Palermo, as they are described
+by Hugo Falcandus, (Hist. Sicula in proem. in Muratori Script.
+Rerum Italicarum, tom. v. p. 256,) is a copy of those of Greece.
+Without transcribing his declamatory sentences, which I have
+softened in the text, I shall observe, that in this passage the
+strange word exarentasmata is very properly changed for
+exanthemata by Carisius, the first editor Falcandus lived about
+the year 1190.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Inde ad interiora Graeciae progressi, Corinthum,
+Thebas, Athenas, antiqua nobilitate celebres, expugnant; et,
+maxima ibidem praeda direpta, opifices etiam, qui sericos pannos
+texere solent, ob ignominiam Imperatoris illius, suique principis
+gloriam, captivos deducunt.  Quos Rogerius, in Palermo Siciliae,
+metropoli collocans, artem texendi suos edocere praecepit; et
+exhinc praedicta ars illa, prius a Graecis tantum inter
+Christianos habita, Romanis patere coepit ingeniis, (Otho
+Frisingen. de Gestis Frederici I. l. i. c. 33, in Muratori
+Script. Ital. tom. vi. p. 668.) This exception allows the bishop
+to celebrate Lisbon and Almeria in sericorum pannorum opificio
+praenobilissimae, (in Chron. apud Muratori, Annali d'Italia, tom.
+ix. p. 415.)]
+
+[Footnote 23: Nicetas in Manuel, l. ii. c. 8. p. 65.  He
+describes these Greeks as skilled.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Hugo Falcandus styles them nobiles officinas.  The
+Arabs had not introduced silk, though they had planted canes and
+made sugar in the plain of Palermo.]
+
+[Footnote 25: See the Life of Castruccio Casticani, not by
+Machiavel, but by his more authentic biographer Nicholas Tegrimi.
+
+Muratori, who has inserted it in the xith volume of his
+Scriptores, quotes this curious passage in his Italian
+Antiquities, (tom. i. dissert. xxv. p. 378.)]
+
+[Footnote 26: From the Ms. statutes, as they are quoted by
+Muratori in his Italian Antiquities, (tom. ii. dissert. xxv. p.
+46 - 48.)]
+
+[Footnote 27: The broad silk manufacture was established in
+England in the year 1620, (Anderson's Chronological Deduction,
+vol. ii. p. 4: ) but it is to the revocation of the edict of
+Nantes that we owe the Spitalfields colony.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LIII: Fate Of The Eastern Empire.
+
+Part II.
+
+I must repeat the complaint that the vague and scanty
+memorials of the times will not afford any just estimate of the
+taxes, the revenue, and the resources of the Greek empire.  From
+every province of Europe and Asia the rivulets of gold and silver
+discharged into the Imperial reservoir a copious and perennial
+stream.  The separation of the branches from the trunk increased
+the relative magnitude of Constantinople; and the maxims of
+despotism contracted the state to the capital, the capital to the
+palace, and the palace to the royal person.  A Jewish traveller,
+who visited the East in the twelfth century, is lost in his
+admiration of the Byzantine riches.  "It is here," says Benjamin
+of Tudela, "in the queen of cities, that the tributes of the
+Greek empire are annually deposited and the lofty towers are
+filled with precious magazines of silk, purple, and gold.  It is
+said, that Constantinople pays each day to her sovereign twenty
+thousand pieces of gold; which are levied on the shops, taverns,
+and markets, on the merchants of Persia and Egypt, of Russia and
+Hungary, of Italy and Spain, who frequent the capital by sea and
+land." ^28 In all pecuniary matters, the authority of a Jew is
+doubtless respectable; but as the three hundred and sixty-five
+days would produce a yearly income exceeding seven millions
+sterling, I am tempted to retrench at least the numerous
+festivals of the Greek calendar.  The mass of treasure that was
+saved by Theodora and Basil the Second will suggest a splendid,
+though indefinite, idea of their supplies and resources.  The
+mother of Michael, before she retired to a cloister, attempted to
+check or expose the prodigality of her ungrateful son, by a free
+and faithful account of the wealth which he inherited; one
+hundred and nine thousand pounds of gold, and three hundred
+thousand of silver, the fruits of her own economy and that of her
+deceased husband. ^29 The avarice of Basil is not less renowned
+than his valor and fortune: his victorious armies were paid and
+rewarded without breaking into the mass of two hundred thousand
+pounds of gold, (about eight millions sterling,) which he had
+buried in the subterraneous vaults of the palace. ^30 Such
+accumulation of treasure is rejected by the theory and practice
+of modern policy; and we are more apt to compute the national
+riches by the use and abuse of the public credit.  Yet the maxims
+of antiquity are still embraced by a monarch formidable to his
+enemies; by a republic respectable to her allies; and both have
+attained their respective ends of military power and domestic
+tranquillity.
+
+[Footnote 28: Voyage de Benjamin de Tudele, tom. i. c. 5, p. 44 -
+52.  The Hebrew text has been translated into French by that
+marvellous child Baratier, who has added a volume of crude
+learning.  The errors and fictions of the Jewish rabbi are not a
+sufficient ground to deny the reality of his travels.
+
+Note: I am inclined, with Buegnot (Les Juifs d'Occident,
+part iii. p. 101 et seqq.) and Jost (Geschichte der Israeliter,
+vol. vi. anhang. p. 376) to consider this work a mere
+compilation, and to doubt the reality of the travels. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 29: See the continuator of Theophanes, (l. iv. p. 107,)
+Cedremis, (p. 544,) and Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. xvi. p. 157.)]
+
+[Footnote 30: Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. xvii. p. 225,) instead of
+pounds, uses the more classic appellation of talents, which, in a
+literal sense and strict computation, would multiply sixty fold
+the treasure of Basil.]
+
+Whatever might be consumed for the present wants, or
+reserved for the future use, of the state, the first and most
+sacred demand was for the pomp and pleasure of the emperor, and
+his discretion only could define the measure of his private
+expense.  The princes of Constantinople were far removed from the
+simplicity of nature; yet, with the revolving seasons, they were
+led by taste or fashion to withdraw to a purer air, from the
+smoke and tumult of the capital.  They enjoyed, or affected to
+enjoy, the rustic festival of the vintage: their leisure was
+amused by the exercise of the chase and the calmer occupation of
+fishing, and in the summer heats, they were shaded from the sun,
+and refreshed by the cooling breezes from the sea.  The coasts
+and islands of Asia and Europe were covered with their
+magnificent villas; but, instead of the modest art which secretly
+strives to hide itself and to decorate the scenery of nature, the
+marble structure of their gardens served only to expose the
+riches of the lord, and the labors of the architect.  The
+successive casualties of inheritance and forfeiture had rendered
+the sovereign proprietor of many stately houses in the city and
+suburbs, of which twelve were appropriated to the ministers of
+state; but the great palace, ^31 the centre of the Imperial
+residence, was fixed during eleven centuries to the same
+position, between the hippodrome, the cathedral of St. Sophia,
+and the gardens, which descended by many a terrace to the shores
+of the Propontis. The primitive edifice of the first Constantine
+was a copy, or rival, of ancient Rome; the gradual improvements
+of his successors aspired to emulate the wonders of the old
+world, ^32 and in the tenth century, the Byzantine palace excited
+the admiration, at least of the Latins, by an unquestionable
+preeminence of strength, size, and magnificence. ^33 But the toil
+and treasure of so many ages had produced a vast and irregular
+pile: each separate building was marked with the character of the
+times and of the founder; and the want of space might excuse the
+reigning monarch, who demolished, perhaps with secret
+satisfaction, the works of his predecessors.  The economy of the
+emperor Theophilus allowed a more free and ample scope for his
+domestic luxury and splendor.  A favorite ambassador, who had
+astonished the Abbassides themselves by his pride and liberality,
+presented on his return the model of a palace, which the caliph
+of Bagdad had recently constructed on the banks of the Tigris.
+The model was instantly copied and surpassed: the new buildings
+of Theophilus ^34 were accompanied with gardens, and with five
+churches, one of which was conspicuous for size and beauty: it
+was crowned with three domes, the roof of gilt brass reposed on
+columns of Italian marble, and the walls were incrusted with
+marbles of various colors.  In the face of the church, a
+semicircular portico, of the figure and name of the Greek sigma,
+was supported by fifteen columns of Phrygian marble, and the
+subterraneous vaults were of a similar construction.  The square
+before the sigma was decorated with a fountain, and the margin of
+the basin was lined and encompassed with plates of silver.  In
+the beginning of each season, the basin, instead of water, was
+replenished with the most exquisite fruits, which were abandoned
+to the populace for the entertainment of the prince.  He enjoyed
+this tumultuous spectacle from a throne resplendent with gold and
+gems, which was raised by a marble staircase to the height of a
+lofty terrace.  Below the throne were seated the officers of his
+guards, the magistrates, the chiefs of the factions of the
+circus; the inferior steps were occupied by the people, and the
+place below was covered with troops of dancers, singers, and
+pantomimes.  The square was surrounded by the hall of justice,
+the arsenal, and the various offices of business and pleasure;
+and the purple chamber was named from the annual distribution of
+robes of scarlet and purple by the hand of the empress herself.
+The long series of the apartments was adapted to the seasons, and
+decorated with marble and porphyry, with painting, sculpture, and
+mosaics, with a profusion of gold, silver, and precious stones.
+His fanciful magnificence employed the skill and patience of such
+artists as the times could afford: but the taste of Athens would
+have despised their frivolous and costly labors; a golden tree,
+with its leaves and branches, which sheltered a multitude of
+birds warbling their artificial notes, and two lions of massy
+gold, and of natural size, who looked and roared like their
+brethren of the forest.  The successors of Theophilus, of the
+Basilian and Comnenian dynasties, were not less ambitious of
+leaving some memorial of their residence; and the portion of the
+palace most splendid and august was dignified with the title of
+the golden triclinium. ^35 With becoming modesty, the rich and
+noble Greeks aspired to imitate their sovereign, and when they
+passed through the streets on horseback, in their robes of silk
+and embroidery, they were mistaken by the children for kings. ^36
+A matron of Peloponnesus, ^37 who had cherished the infant
+fortunes of Basil the Macedonian, was excited by tenderness or
+vanity to visit the greatness of her adopted son.  In a journey
+of five hundred miles from Patras to Constantinople, her age or
+indolence declined the fatigue of a horse or carriage: the soft
+litter or bed of Danielis was transported on the shoulders of ten
+robust slaves; and as they were relieved at easy distances, a
+band of three hundred were selected for the performance of this
+service.  She was entertained in the Byzantine palace with filial
+reverence, and the honors of a queen; and whatever might be the
+origin of her wealth, her gifts were not unworthy of the regal
+dignity.  I have already described the fine and curious
+manufactures of Peloponnesus, of linen, silk, and woollen; but
+the most acceptable of her presents consisted in three hundred
+beautiful youths, of whom one hundred were eunuchs; ^38 "for she
+was not ignorant," says the historian, "that the air of the
+palace is more congenial to such insects, than a shepherd's dairy
+to the flies of the summer." During her lifetime, she bestowed
+the greater part of her estates in Peloponnesus, and her
+testament instituted Leo, the son of Basil, her universal heir.
+After the payment of the legacies, fourscore villas or farms were
+added to the Imperial domain; and three thousand slaves of
+Danielis were enfranchised by their new lord, and transplanted as
+a colony to the Italian coast.  From this example of a private
+matron, we may estimate the wealth and magnificence of the
+emperors.  Yet our enjoyments are confined by a narrow circle;
+and, whatsoever may be its value, the luxury of life is possessed
+with more innocence and safety by the master of his own, than by
+the steward of the public, fortune.
+
+[Footnote 31: For a copious and minute description of the
+Imperial palace, see the Constantinop. Christiana (l. ii. c. 4,
+p. 113 - 123) of Ducange, the Tillemont of the middle ages.
+Never has laborious Germany produced two antiquarians more
+laborious and accurate than these two natives of lively France.]
+
+[Footnote 32: The Byzantine palace surpasses the Capitol, the
+palace of Pergamus, the Rufinian wood, the temple of Adrian at
+Cyzicus, the pyramids, the Pharus, &c., according to an epigram
+(Antholog. Graec. l. iv. p. 488, 489. Brodaei, apud Wechel)
+ascribed to Julian, ex-praefect of Egypt. Seventy-one of his
+epigrams, some lively, are collected in Brunck, (Analect. Graec.
+tom. ii. p. 493 - 510; but this is wanting.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Constantinopolitanum Palatium non pulchritudine
+solum, verum stiam fortitudine, omnibus quas unquam videram
+munitionibus praestat, (Liutprand, Hist. l. v. c. 9, p. 465.)]
+
+[Footnote 34: See the anonymous continuator of Theophanes, (p.
+59, 61, 86,) whom I have followed in the neat and concise
+abstract of Le Beau, (Hint. du Bas Empire, tom. xiv. p. 436,
+438.)]
+
+[Footnote 35: In aureo triclinio quae praestantior est pars
+potentissimus (the usurper Romanus) degens caeteras partes
+(filiis) distribuerat, (Liutprand. Hist. l. v. c. 9, p. 469.) For
+this last signification of Triclinium see Ducange (Gloss. Graec.
+et Observations sur Joinville, p. 240) and Reiske, (ad
+Constantinum de Ceremoniis, p. 7.)]
+
+[Footnote 36: In equis vecti (says Benjamin of Tudela) regum
+filiis videntur persimiles.  I prefer the Latin version of
+Constantine l'Empereur (p. 46) to the French of Baratier, (tom.
+i. p. 49.)]
+
+[Footnote 37: See the account of her journey, munificence, and
+testament, in the life of Basil, by his grandson Constantine, (p.
+74, 75, 76, p. 195 - 197.)]
+
+[Footnote 38: Carsamatium. Graeci vocant, amputatis virilibus et
+virga, puerum eunuchum quos Verdunenses mercatores obinmensum
+lucrum facere solent et in Hispaniam ducere, (Liutprand, l. vi.
+c. 3, p. 470.) - The last abomination of the abominable
+slave-trade!  Yet I am surprised to find, in the xth century,
+such active speculations of commerce in Lorraine.]
+
+In an absolute government, which levels the distinctions of
+noble and plebeian birth, the sovereign is the sole fountain of
+honor; and the rank, both in the palace and the empire, depends
+on the titles and offices which are bestowed and resumed by his
+arbitrary will.  Above a thousand years, from Vespasian to
+Alexius Comnenus, ^39 the Caesar was the second person, or at
+least the second degree, after the supreme title of Augustus was
+more freely communicated to the sons and brothers of the reigning
+monarch.  To elude without violating his promise to a powerful
+associate, the husband of his sister, and, without giving himself
+an equal, to reward the piety of his brother Isaac, the crafty
+Alexius interposed a new and supereminent dignity. The happy
+flexibility of the Greek tongue allowed him to compound the names
+of Augustus and Emperor (Sebastos and Autocrator,) and the union
+produces the sonorous title of Sebastocrator.  He was exalted
+above the Caesar on the first step of the throne: the public
+acclamations repeated his name; and he was only distinguished
+from the sovereign by some peculiar ornaments of the head and
+feet.  The emperor alone could assume the purple or red buskins,
+and the close diadem or tiara, which imitated the fashion of the
+Persian kings. ^40 It was a high pyramidal cap of cloth or silk,
+almost concealed by a profusion of pearls and jewels: the crown
+was formed by a horizontal circle and two arches of gold: at the
+summit, the point of their intersection, was placed a globe or
+cross, and two strings or lappets of pearl depended on either
+cheek.  Instead of red, the buskins of the Sebastocrator and
+Caesar were green; and on their open coronets or crowns, the
+precious gems were more sparingly distributed. Beside and below
+the Caesar the fancy of Alexius created the Panhypersebastos and
+the Protosebastos, whose sound and signification will satisfy a
+Grecian ear. They imply a superiority and a priority above the
+simple name of Augustus; and this sacred and primitive title of
+the Roman prince was degraded to the kinsmen and servants of the
+Byzantine court.  The daughter of Alexius applauds, with fond
+complacency, this artful gradation of hopes and honors; but the
+science of words is accessible to the meanest capacity; and this
+vain dictionary was easily enriched by the pride of his
+successors.  To their favorite sons or brothers, they imparted
+the more lofty appellation of Lord or Despot, which was
+illustrated with new ornaments, and prerogatives, and placed
+immediately after the person of the emperor himself.  The five
+titles of, 1. Despot; 2. Sebastocrator; 3. Caesar; 4.
+Panhypersebastos; and, 5. Protosebastos; were usually confined to
+the princes of his blood: they were the emanations of his
+majesty; but as they exercised no regular functions, their
+existence was useless, and their authority precarious.
+
+[Footnote 39: See the Alexiad (l. iii. p. 78, 79) of Anna
+Comnena, who, except in filial piety, may be compared to
+Mademoiselle de Montpensier.  In her awful reverence for titles
+and forms, she styles her father, the inventor of this royal
+art.]
+
+[Footnote 40: See Reiske, and Ceremoniale, p. 14, 15.  Ducange
+has given a learned dissertation on the crowns of Constantinople,
+Rome, France, &c., (sur Joinville, xxv. p. 289 - 303;) but of his
+thirty-four models, none exactly tally with Anne's description.]
+
+But in every monarchy the substantial powers of government
+must be divided and exercised by the ministers of the palace and
+treasury, the fleet and army.  The titles alone can differ; and
+in the revolution of ages, the counts and praefects, the praetor
+and quaestor, insensibly descended, while their servants rose
+above their heads to the first honors of the state.  1. In a
+monarchy, which refers every object to the person of the prince,
+the care and ceremonies of the palace form the most respectable
+department.  The Curopalata, ^41 so illustrious in the age of
+Justinian, was supplanted by the Protovestiare, whose primitive
+functions were limited to the custody of the wardrobe.  From
+thence his jurisdiction was extended over the numerous menials of
+pomp and luxury; and he presided with his silver wand at the
+public and private audience.  2. In the ancient system of
+Constantine, the name of Logothete, or accountant, was applied to
+the receivers of the finances: the principal officers were
+distinguished as the Logothetes of the domain, of the posts, the
+army, the private and public treasure; and the great Logothete,
+the supreme guardian of the laws and revenues, is compared with
+the chancellor of the Latin monarchies. ^42 His discerning eye
+pervaded the civil administration; and he was assisted, in due
+subordination, by the eparch or praefect of the city, the first
+secretary, and the keepers of the privy seal, the archives, and
+the red or purple ink which was reserved for the sacred signature
+of the emperor alone. ^43 The introductor and interpreter of
+foreign ambassadors were the great Chiauss ^44 and the Dragoman,
+^45 two names of Turkish origin, and which are still familiar to
+the Sublime Porte.  3. From the humble style and service of
+guards, the Domestics insensibly rose to the station of generals;
+the military themes of the East and West, the legions of Europe
+and Asia, were often divided, till the great Domestic was finally
+invested with the universal and absolute command of the land
+forces.  The Protostrator, in his original functions, was the
+assistant of the emperor when he mounted on horseback: he
+gradually became the lieutenant of the great Domestic in the
+field; and his jurisdiction extended over the stables, the
+cavalry, and the royal train of hunting and hawking.  The
+Stratopedarch was the great judge of the camp: the Protospathaire
+commanded the guards; the Constable, ^46 the great Aeteriarch,
+and the Acolyth, were the separate chiefs of the Franks, the
+Barbarians, and the Varangi, or English, the mercenary strangers,
+who, a the decay of the national spirit, formed the nerve of the
+Byzantine armies.  4. The naval powers were under the command of
+the great Duke; in his absence they obeyed the great Drungaire of
+the fleet; and, in his place, the Emir, or Admiral, a name of
+Saracen extraction, ^47 but which has been naturalized in all the
+modern languages of Europe.  Of these officers, and of many more
+whom it would be useless to enumerate, the civil and military
+hierarchy was framed.  Their honors and emoluments, their dress
+and titles, their mutual salutations and respective preeminence,
+were balanced with more exquisite labor than would have fixed the
+constitution of a free people; and the code was almost perfect
+when this baseless fabric, the monument of pride and servitude,
+was forever buried in the ruins of the empire. ^48
+
+[Footnote 41:  Par exstans curis, solo diademate dispar,
+          Ordine pro rerum vocitatus Cura-Palati,
+
+says the African Corippus, (de Laudibus Justini, l. i. 136,) and
+in the same century (the vith) Cassiodorus represents him, who,
+virga aurea decoratus, inter numerosa obsequia primus ante pedes
+regis incederet (Variar. vii. 5.) But this great officer,
+(unknown,) exercising no function, was cast down by the modern
+Greeks to the xvth rank, (Codin. c. 5, p. 65.)]
+
+[Footnote 42: Nicetas (in Manuel, l. vii. c. 1) defines him.  Yet
+the epithet was added by the elder Andronicus, (Ducange, tom. i.
+p. 822, 823.)]
+
+[Footnote 43: From Leo I. (A.D. 470) the Imperial ink, which is
+still visible on some original acts, was a mixture of vermilion
+and cinnabar, or purple. The emperor's guardians, who shared in
+this prerogative, always marked in green ink the indiction and
+the month.  See the Dictionnaire Diplomatique, (tom. i. p. 511 -
+513) a valuable abridgment.]
+
+[Footnote 44: The sultan sent to Alexius, (Anna Comnena, l. vi.
+p. 170. Ducange ad loc.;) and Pachymer often speaks, (l. vii. c.
+1, l. xii. c. 30, l. xiii. c. 22.) The Chiaoush basha is now at
+the head of 700 officers, (Rycaut's Ottoman Empire, p. 349,
+octavo edition.)]
+
+[Footnote 45: Tagerman is the Arabic name of an interpreter,
+(D'Herbelot, p. 854, 855;), says Codinus, (c. v. No. 70, p. 67.)
+See Villehardouin, (No. 96,) Bus, (Epist. iv. p. 338,) and
+Ducange, (Observations sur Villehardouin, and Gloss. Graec. et
+Latin)]
+
+[Footnote 46: A corruption from the Latin Comes stabuli, or the
+French Connetable.  In a military sense, it was used by the
+Greeks in the eleventh century, at least as early as in France.]
+
+[Footnote 47: It was directly borrowed from the Normans.  In the
+xiith century, Giannone reckons the admiral of Sicily among the
+great officers.]
+
+[Footnote 48: This sketch of honors and offices is drawn from
+George Cordinus Curopalata, who survived the taking of
+Constantinople by the Turks: his elaborate, though trifling, work
+(de Officiis Ecclesiae et Aulae C. P.) has been illustrated by
+the notes of Goar, and the three books of Gretser, a learned
+Jesuit.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LIII: Fate Of The Eastern Empire.
+
+Part III.
+
+The most lofty titles, and the most humble postures, which
+devotion has applied to the Supreme Being, have been prostituted
+by flattery and fear to creatures of the same nature with
+ourselves.  The mode of adoration, ^49 of falling prostrate on
+the ground, and kissing the feet of the emperor, was borrowed by
+Diocletian from Persian servitude; but it was continued and
+aggravated till the last age of the Greek monarchy. Excepting
+only on Sundays, when it was waived, from a motive of religious
+pride, this humiliating reverence was exacted from all who
+entered the royal presence, from the princes invested with the
+diadem and purple, and from the ambassadors who represented their
+independent sovereigns, the caliphs of Asia, Egypt, or Spain, the
+kings of France and Italy, and the Latin emperors of ancient
+Rome. In his transactions of business, Liutprand, bishop of
+Cremona, ^50 asserted the free spirit of a Frank and the dignity
+of his master Otho.  Yet his sincerity cannot disguise the
+abasement of his first audience.  When he approached the throne,
+the birds of the golden tree began to warble their notes, which
+were accompanied by the roarings of the two lions of gold.  With
+his two companions Liutprand was compelled to bow and to fall
+prostrate; and thrice to touch the ground with his forehead.  He
+arose, but in the short interval, the throne had been hoisted
+from the floor to the ceiling, the Imperial figure appeared in
+new and more gorgeous apparel, and the interview was concluded in
+haughty and majestic silence.  In this honest and curious
+narrative, the Bishop of Cremona represents the ceremonies of the
+Byzantine court, which are still practised in the Sublime Porte,
+and which were preserved in the last age by the dukes of Muscovy
+or Russia.  After a long journey by sea and land, from Venice to
+Constantinople, the ambassador halted at the golden gate, till he
+was conducted by the formal officers to the hospitable palace
+prepared for his reception; but this palace was a prison, and his
+jealous keepers prohibited all social intercourse either with
+strangers or natives.  At his first audience, he offered the
+gifts of his master, slaves, and golden vases, and costly armor.
+The ostentatious payment of the officers and troops displayed
+before his eyes the riches of the empire: he was entertained at a
+royal banquet, ^51 in which the ambassadors of the nations were
+marshalled by the esteem or contempt of the Greeks: from his own
+table, the emperor, as the most signal favor, sent the plates
+which he had tasted; and his favorites were dismissed with a robe
+of honor. ^52 In the morning and evening of each day, his civil
+and military servants attended their duty in the palace; their
+labors were repaid by the sight, perhaps by the smile, of their
+lord; his commands were signified by a nod or a sign: but all
+earthly greatness stood silent and submissive in his presence.
+In his regular or extraordinary processions through the capital,
+he unveiled his person to the public view: the rites of policy
+were connected with those of religion, and his visits to the
+principal churches were regulated by the festivals of the Greek
+calendar.  On the eve of these processions, the gracious or
+devout intention of the monarch was proclaimed by the heralds.
+The streets were cleared and purified; the pavement was strewed
+with flowers; the most precious furniture, the gold and silver
+plate, and silken hangings, were displayed from the windows and
+balconies, and a severe discipline restrained and silenced the
+tumult of the populace.  The march was opened by the military
+officers at the head of their troops: they were followed in long
+order by the magistrates and ministers of the civil government:
+the person of the emperor was guarded by his eunuchs and
+domestics, and at the church door he was solemnly received by the
+patriarch and his clergy.  The task of applause was not abandoned
+to the rude and spontaneous voices of the crowd. The most
+convenient stations were occupied by the bands of the blue and
+green factions of the circus; and their furious conflicts, which
+had shaken the capital, were insensibly sunk to an emulation of
+servitude.  From either side they echoed in responsive melody the
+praises of the emperor; their poets and musicians directed the
+choir, and long life ^53 and victory were the burden of every
+song.  The same acclamations were performed at the audience, the
+banquet, and the church; and as an evidence of boundless sway,
+they were repeated in the Latin, ^54 Gothic, Persian, French, and
+even English language, ^55 by the mercenaries who sustained the
+real or fictitious character of those nations.  By the pen of
+Constantine Porphyrogenitus, this science of form and flattery
+has been reduced into a pompous and trifling volume, ^56 which
+the vanity of succeeding times might enrich with an ample
+supplement.  Yet the calmer reflection of a prince would surely
+suggest that the same acclamations were applied to every
+character and every reign: and if he had risen from a private
+rank, he might remember, that his own voice had been the loudest
+and most eager in applause, at the very moment when he envied the
+fortune, or conspired against the life, of his predecessor. ^57
+
+[Footnote 49: The respectful salutation of carrying the hand to
+the mouth, ad os, is the root of the Latin word adoro, adorare.
+See our learned Selden, (vol. iii. p. 143 - 145, 942,) in his
+Titles of Honor.  It seems, from the 1st book of Herodotus, to be
+of Persian origin.]
+
+[Footnote 50: The two embassies of Liutprand to Constantinople,
+all that he saw or suffered in the Greek capital, are pleasantly
+described by himself (Hist. l. vi. c. 1 - 4, p. 469 - 471.
+Legatio ad Nicephorum Phocam, p. 479 - 489.)]
+
+[Footnote 51: Among the amusements of the feast, a boy balanced,
+on his forehead, a pike, or pole, twenty-four feet long, with a
+cross bar of two cubits a little below the top.  Two boys, naked,
+though cinctured, (campestrati,) together, and singly, climbed,
+stood, played, descended, &c., ita me stupidum reddidit: utrum
+mirabilius nescio, (p. 470.) At another repast a homily of
+Chrysostom on the Acts of the Apostles was read elata voce non
+Latine, (p. 483.)]
+
+[Footnote 52: Gala is not improbably derived from Cala, or
+Caloat, in Arabic a robe of honor, (Reiske, Not. in Ceremon. p.
+84.)]
+
+[Footnote 53: It is explained, (Codin, c. 7. Ducange, Gloss.
+Graec. tom. i. p. 1199.)]
+
+[Footnote 54: (Ceremon. c. 75, p. 215.) The want of the Latin 'V'
+obliged the Greeks to employ their 'beta'; nor do they regard
+quantity. Till he recollected the true language, these strange
+sentences might puzzle a professor.]
+
+[Footnote 55: (Codin.p. 90.) I wish he had preserved the words,
+however corrupt, of their English acclamation.]
+
+[Footnote 56: For all these ceremonies, see the professed work of
+Constantine Porphyrogenitus with the notes, or rather
+dissertations, of his German editors, Leich and Reiske.  For the
+rank of standing courtiers, p. 80, not. 23, 62; for the
+adoration, except on Sundays, p. 95, 240, not. 131; the
+processions, p. 2, &c., not. p. 3, &c.; the acclamations passim
+not. 25 &c.; the factions and Hippodrome, p. 177 - 214, not. 9,
+93, &c.; the Gothic games, p. 221, not. 111; vintage, p. 217, not
+109: much more information is scattered over the work.]
+
+[Footnote 57: Et privato Othoni et nuper eadem dicenti nota
+adulatio, (Tacit. Hist. 1,85.)]
+
+The princes of the North, of the nations, says Constantine,
+without faith or fame, were ambitious of mingling their blood
+with the blood of the Caesars, by their marriage with a royal
+virgin, or by the nuptials of their daughters with a Roman
+prince. ^58 The aged monarch, in his instructions to his son,
+reveals the secret maxims of policy and pride; and suggests the
+most decent reasons for refusing these insolent and unreasonable
+demands. Every animal, says the discreet emperor, is prompted by
+the distinction of language, religion, and manners.  A just
+regard to the purity of descent preserves the harmony of public
+and private life; but the mixture of foreign blood is the
+fruitful source of disorder and discord.  Such had ever been the
+opinion and practice of the sage Romans: their jurisprudence
+proscribed the marriage of a citizen and a stranger: in the days
+of freedom and virtue, a senator would have scorned to match his
+daughter with a king: the glory of Mark Antony was sullied by an
+Egyptian wife: ^59 and the emperor Titus was compelled, by
+popular censure, to dismiss with reluctance the reluctant
+Berenice. ^60 This perpetual interdict was ratified by the
+fabulous sanction of the great Constantine.  The ambassadors of
+the nations, more especially of the unbelieving nations, were
+solemnly admonished, that such strange alliances had been
+condemned by the founder of the church and city.  The irrevocable
+law was inscribed on the altar of St. Sophia; and the impious
+prince who should stain the majesty of the purple was excluded
+from the civil and ecclesiastical communion of the Romans.  If
+the ambassadors were instructed by any false brethren in the
+Byzantine history, they might produce three memorable examples of
+the violation of this imaginary law: the marriage of Leo, or
+rather of his father Constantine the Fourth, with the daughter of
+the king of the Chozars, the nuptials of the granddaughter of
+Romanus with a Bulgarian prince, and the union of Bertha of
+France or Italy with young Romanus, the son of Constantine
+Porphyrogenitus himself.  To these objections three answers were
+prepared, which solved the difficulty and established the law. I.
+
+The deed and the guilt of Constantine Copronymus were
+acknowledged. The Isaurian heretic, who sullied the baptismal
+font, and declared war against the holy images, had indeed
+embraced a Barbarian wife.  By this impious alliance he
+accomplished the measure of his crimes, and was devoted to the
+just censure of the church and of posterity.  II.  Romanus could
+not be alleged as a legitimate emperor; he was a plebeian
+usurper, ignorant of the laws, and regardless of the honor, of
+the monarchy.  His son Christopher, the father of the bride, was
+the third in rank in the college of princes, at once the subject
+and the accomplice of a rebellious parent. The Bulgarians were
+sincere and devout Christians; and the safety of the empire, with
+the redemption of many thousand captives, depended on this
+preposterous alliance.  Yet no consideration could dispense from
+the law of Constantine: the clergy, the senate, and the people,
+disapproved the conduct of Romanus; and he was reproached, both
+in his life and death, as the author of the public disgrace.
+III.  For the marriage of his own son with the daughter of Hugo,
+king of Italy, a more honorable defence is contrived by the wise
+Porphyrogenitus.  Constantine, the great and holy, esteemed the
+fidelity and valor of the Franks; ^61 and his prophetic spirit
+beheld the vision of their future greatness.  They alone were
+excepted from the general prohibition: Hugo, king of France, was
+the lineal descendant of Charlemagne; ^62 and his daughter Bertha
+inherited the prerogatives of her family and nation.  The voice
+of truth and malice insensibly betrayed the fraud or error of the
+Imperial court.  The patrimonial estate of Hugo was reduced from
+the monarchy of France to the simple county of Arles; though it
+was not denied, that, in the confusion of the times, he had
+usurped the sovereignty of Provence, and invaded the kingdom of
+Italy.  His father was a private noble; and if Bertha derived her
+female descent from the Carlovingian line, every step was
+polluted with illegitimacy or vice.  The grandmother of Hugo was
+the famous Valdrada, the concubine, rather than the wife, of the
+second Lothair; whose adultery, divorce, and second nuptials, had
+provoked against him the thunders of the Vatican.  His mother, as
+she was styled, the great Bertha, was successively the wife of
+the count of Arles and of the marquis of Tuscany: France and
+Italy were scandalized by her gallantries; and, till the age of
+threescore, her lovers, of every degree, were the zealous
+servants of her ambition.  The example of maternal incontinence
+was copied by the king of Italy; and the three favorite
+concubines of Hugo were decorated with the classic names of
+Venus, Juno, and Semele. ^63 The daughter of Venus was granted to
+the solicitations of the Byzantine court: her name of Bertha was
+changed to that of Eudoxia; and she was wedded, or rather
+betrothed, to young Romanus, the future heir of the empire of the
+East.  The consummation of this foreign alliance was suspended by
+the tender age of the two parties; and, at the end of five years,
+the union was dissolved by the death of the virgin spouse.  The
+second wife of the emperor Romanus was a maiden of plebeian, but
+of Roman, birth; and their two daughters, Theophano and Anne,
+were given in marriage to the princes of the earth.  The eldest
+was bestowed, as the pledge of peace, on the eldest son of the
+great Otho, who had solicited this alliance with arms and
+embassies.  It might legally be questioned how far a Saxon was
+entitled to the privilege of the French nation; but every scruple
+was silenced by the fame and piety of a hero who had restored the
+empire of the West. After the death of her father-in-law and
+husband, Theophano governed Rome, Italy, and Germany, during the
+minority of her son, the third Otho; and the Latins have praised
+the virtues of an empress, who sacrificed to a superior duty the
+remembrance of her country. ^64 In the nuptials of her sister
+Anne, every prejudice was lost, and every consideration of
+dignity was superseded, by the stronger argument of necessity and
+fear.  A Pagan of the North, Wolodomir, great prince of Russia,
+aspired to a daughter of the Roman purple; and his claim was
+enforced by the threats of war, the promise of conversion, and
+the offer of a powerful succor against a domestic rebel. A victim
+of her religion and country, the Grecian princess was torn from
+the palace of her fathers, and condemned to a savage reign, and a
+hopeless exile on the banks of the Borysthenes, or in the
+neighborhood of the Polar circle. ^65 Yet the marriage of Anne
+was fortunate and fruitful: the daughter of her grandson
+Joroslaus was recommended by her Imperial descent; and the king
+of France, Henry I., sought a wife on the last borders of Europe
+and Christendom. ^66
+
+[Footnote 58: The xiiith chapter, de Administratione Imperii, may
+be explained and rectified by the Familiae Byzantinae of
+Ducange.]
+
+[Footnote 59: Sequiturque nefas Aegyptia conjux, (Virgil, Aeneid,
+viii. 688.) Yet this Egyptian wife was the daughter of a long
+line of kings. Quid te mutavit (says Antony in a private letter
+to Augustus) an quod reginam ineo? Uxor mea est, (Sueton. in
+August. c. 69.) Yet I much question (for I cannot stay to
+inquire) whether the triumvir ever dared to celebrate his
+marriage either with Roman or Egyptian rites.]
+
+[Footnote 60: Berenicem invitus invitam dimisit, (Suetonius in
+Tito, c. 7.) Have I observed elsewhere, that this Jewish beauty
+was at this time above fifty years of age?  The judicious Racine
+has most discreetly suppressed both her age and her country.]
+
+[Footnote 61: Constantine was made to praise the the Franks, with
+whom he claimed a private and public alliance.  The French
+writers (Isaac Casaubon in Dedicat. Polybii) are highly delighted
+with these compliments.]
+
+[Footnote 62: Constantine Porphyrogenitus (de Administrat. Imp.
+c. 36) exhibits a pedigree and life of the illustrious King Hugo.
+A more correct idea may be formed from the Criticism of Pagi, the
+Annals of Muratori, and the Abridgment of St. Marc, A.D. 925 -
+946.]
+
+[Footnote 63: After the mention of the three goddesses, Luitprand
+very naturally adds, et quoniam non rex solus iis abutebatur,
+earum nati ex incertis patribus originera ducunt, (Hist. l. iv.
+c. 6: ) for the marriage of the younger Bertha, see Hist. l. v.
+c. 5; for the incontinence of the elder, dulcis exercipio
+Hymenaei, l. ii. c. 15; for the virtues and vices of Hugo, l.
+iii. c. 5.  Yet it must not be forgot, that the bishop of Cremona
+was a lover of scandal.]
+
+[Footnote 64: Licet illa Imperatrix Graeca sibi et aliis fuisset
+satis utilis, et optima, &c., is the preamble of an inimical
+writer, apud Pagi, tom. iv. A.D. 989, No. 3.  Her marriage and
+principal actions may be found in Muratori, Pagi, and St. Marc,
+under the proper years.]
+
+[Footnote 65: Cedrenus, tom. ii. p. 699.  Zonaras, tom. i. p.
+221. Elmacin, Hist. Saracenica, l. iii. c. 6.  Nestor apud
+Levesque, tom. ii. p. 112 Pagi, Critica, A.D. 987, No. 6: a
+singular concourse!  Wolodomir and Anne are ranked among the
+saints of the Russian church.  Yet we know his vices, and are
+ignorant of her virtues.]
+
+[Footnote 66: Henricus primus duxit uxorem Scythicam, Russam,
+filiam regis Jeroslai.  An embassy of bishops was sent into
+Russia, and the father gratanter filiam cum multis donis misit.
+This event happened in the year 1051.  See the passages of the
+original chronicles in Bouquet's Historians of France, (tom. xi.
+p. 29, 159, 161, 319, 384, 481.) Voltaire might wonder at this
+alliance; but he should not have owned his ignorance of the
+country, religion, &c., of Jeroslaus - a name so conspicuous in
+the Russian annals.]
+
+In the Byzantine palace, the emperor was the first slave of
+the ceremonies which he imposed, of the rigid forms which
+regulated each word and gesture, besieged him in the palace, and
+violated the leisure of his rural solitude.  But the lives and
+fortunes of millions hung on his arbitrary will; and the firmest
+minds, superior to the allurements of pomp and luxury, may be
+seduced by the more active pleasure of commanding their equals.
+The legislative and executive powers were centred in the person
+of the monarch, and the last remains of the authority of the
+senate were finally eradicated by Leo the philosopher. ^67 A
+lethargy of servitude had benumbed the minds of the Greeks: in
+the wildest tumults of rebellion they never aspired to the idea
+of a free constitution; and the private character of the prince
+was the only source and measure of their public happiness.
+Superstition rivetted their chains; in the church of St. Sophia
+he was solemnly crowned by the patriarch; at the foot of the
+altar, they pledged their passive and unconditional obedience to
+his government and family.  On his side he engaged to abstain as
+much as possible from the capital punishments of death and
+mutilation; his orthodox creed was subscribed with his own hand,
+and he promised to obey the decrees of the seven synods, and the
+canons of the holy church. ^68 But the assurance of mercy was
+loose and indefinite: he swore, not to his people, but to an
+invisible judge; and except in the inexpiable guilt of heresy,
+the ministers of heaven were always prepared to preach the
+indefeasible right, and to absolve the venial transgressions, of
+their sovereign.  The Greek ecclesiastics were themselves the
+subjects of the civil magistrate: at the nod of a tyrant, the
+bishops were created, or transferred, or deposed, or punished
+with an ignominious death: whatever might be their wealth or
+influence, they could never succeed like the Latin clergy in the
+establishment of an independent republic; and the patriarch of
+Constantinople condemned, what he secretly envied, the temporal
+greatness of his Roman brother.  Yet the exercise of boundless
+despotism is happily checked by the laws of nature and necessity.
+In proportion to his wisdom and virtue, the master of an empire
+is confined to the path of his sacred and laborious duty.  In
+proportion to his vice and folly, he drops the sceptre too
+weighty for his hands; and the motions of the royal image are
+ruled by the imperceptible thread of some minister or favorite,
+who undertakes for his private interest to exercise the task of
+the public oppression.  In some fatal moment, the most absolute
+monarch may dread the reason or the caprice of a nation of
+slaves; and experience has proved, that whatever is gained in the
+extent, is lost in the safety and solidity, of regal power.
+
+[Footnote 67: A constitution of Leo the Philosopher (lxxviii.) ne
+senatus consulta amplius fiant, speaks the language of naked
+despotism.]
+
+[Footnote 68: Codinus (de Officiis, c. xvii. p. 120, 121) gives
+an idea of this oath so strong to the church, so weak to the
+people.]
+
+Whatever titles a despot may assume, whatever claims he may
+assert, it is on the sword that he must ultimately depend to
+guard him against his foreign and domestic enemies.  From the age
+of Charlemagne to that of the Crusades, the world (for I overlook
+the remote monarchy of China) was occupied and disputed by the
+three great empires or nations of the Greeks, the Saracens, and
+the Franks.  Their military strength may be ascertained by a
+comparison of their courage, their arts and riches, and their
+obedience to a supreme head, who might call into action all the
+energies of the state.  The Greeks, far inferior to their rivals
+in the first, were superior to the Franks, and at least equal to
+the Saracens, in the second and third of these warlike
+qualifications.
+
+The wealth of the Greeks enabled them to purchase the
+service of the poorer nations, and to maintain a naval power for
+the protection of their coasts and the annoyance of their
+enemies. ^69 A commerce of mutual benefit exchanged the gold of
+Constantinople for the blood of Sclavonians and Turks, the
+Bulgarians and Russians: their valor contributed to the victories
+of Nicephorus and Zimisces; and if a hostile people pressed too
+closely on the frontier, they were recalled to the defence of
+their country, and the desire of peace, by the well-managed
+attack of a more distant tribe. ^70 The command of the
+Mediterranean, from the mouth of the Tanais to the columns of
+Hercules, was always claimed, and often possessed, by the
+successors of Constantine. Their capital was filled with naval
+stores and dexterous artificers: the situation of Greece and
+Asia, the long coasts, deep gulfs, and numerous islands,
+accustomed their subjects to the exercise of navigation; and the
+trade of Venice and Amalfi supplied a nursery of seamen to the
+Imperial fleet. ^71 Since the time of the Peloponnesian and Punic
+wars, the sphere of action had not been enlarged; and the science
+of naval architecture appears to have declined.  The art of
+constructing those stupendous machines which displayed three, or
+six, or ten, ranges of oars, rising above, or falling behind,
+each other, was unknown to the ship-builders of Constantinople,
+as well as to the mechanicians of modern days. ^72 The Dromones,
+^73 or light galleys of the Byzantine empire, were content with
+two tier of oars; each tier was composed of five-and-twenty
+benches; and two rowers were seated on each bench, who plied
+their oars on either side of the vessel.  To these we must add
+the captain or centurion, who, in time of action, stood erect
+with his armor-bearer on the poop, two steersmen at the helm, and
+two officers at the prow, the one to manage the anchor, the other
+to point and play against the enemy the tube of liquid fire.  The
+whole crew, as in the infancy of the art, performed the double
+service of mariners and soldiers; they were provided with
+defensive and offensive arms, with bows and arrows, which they
+used from the upper deck, with long pikes, which they pushed
+through the portholes of the lower tier.  Sometimes, indeed, the
+ships of war were of a larger and more solid construction; and
+the labors of combat and navigation were more regularly divided
+between seventy soldiers and two hundred and thirty mariners.
+But for the most part they were of the light and manageable size;
+and as the Cape of Malea in Peloponnesus was still clothed with
+its ancient terrors, an Imperial fleet was transported five miles
+over land across the Isthmus of Corinth. ^74 The principles of
+maritime tactics had not undergone any change since the time of
+Thucydides: a squadron of galleys still advanced in a crescent,
+charged to the front, and strove to impel their sharp beaks
+against the feeble sides of their antagonists.  A machine for
+casting stones and darts was built of strong timbers, in the
+midst of the deck; and the operation of boarding was effected by
+a crane that hoisted baskets of armed men.  The language of
+signals, so clear and copious in the naval grammar of the
+moderns, was imperfectly expressed by the various positions and
+colors of a commanding flag.  In the darkness of the night, the
+same orders to chase, to attack, to halt, to retreat, to break,
+to form, were conveyed by the lights of the leading galley.  By
+land, the fire-signals were repeated from one mountain to
+another; a chain of eight stations commanded a space of five
+hundred miles; and Constantinople in a few hours was apprised of
+the hostile motions of the Saracens of Tarsus. ^75 Some estimate
+may be formed of the power of the Greek emperors, by the curious
+and minute detail of the armament which was prepared for the
+reduction of Crete.  A fleet of one hundred and twelve galleys,
+and seventy-five vessels of the Pamphylian style, was equipped in
+the capital, the islands of the Aegean Sea, and the seaports of
+Asia, Macedonia, and Greece. It carried thirty-four thousand
+mariners, seven thousand three hundred and forty soldiers, seven
+hundred Russians, and five thousand and eighty-seven Mardaites,
+whose fathers had been transplanted from the mountains of
+Libanus. Their pay, most probably of a month, was computed at
+thirty-four centenaries of gold, about one hundred and thirty-six
+thousand pounds sterling.  Our fancy is bewildered by the endless
+recapitulation of arms and engines, of clothes and linen, of
+bread for the men and forage for the horses, and of stores and
+utensils of every description, inadequate to the conquest of a
+petty island, but amply sufficient for the establishment of a
+flourishing colony. ^76
+
+[Footnote 69: If we listen to the threats of Nicephorus to the
+ambassador of Otho, Nec est in mari domino tuo classium numerus.
+Navigantium fortitudo mihi soli inest, qui eum classibus
+aggrediar, bello maritimas ejus civitates demoliar; et quae
+fluminibus sunt vicina redigam in favillam.  (Liutprand in Legat.
+ad Nicephorum Phocam, in Muratori Scriptores Rerum Italicarum,
+tom. ii. pars i. p. 481.) He observes in another place, qui
+caeteris praestant Venetici sunt et Amalphitani.]
+
+[Footnote 70: Nec ipsa capiet eum (the emperor Otho) in qua ortus
+est pauper et pellicea Saxonia: pecunia qua pollemus omnes
+nationes super eum invitabimus: et quasi Keramicum confringemus,
+(Liutprand in Legat. p. 487.) The two books, de Administrando
+Imperio, perpetually inculcate the same policy.]
+
+[Footnote 71: The xixth chapter of the Tactics of Leo, (Meurs.
+Opera, tom. vi. p. 825 - 848,) which is given more correct from a
+manuscript of Gudius, by the laborious Fabricius, (Bibliot.
+Graec. tom. vi. p. 372 - 379,) relates to the Naumachia, or naval
+war.]
+
+[Footnote 72: Even of fifteen and sixteen rows of oars, in the
+navy of Demetrius Poliorcetes.  These were for real use: the
+forty rows of Ptolemy Philadelphus were applied to a floating
+palace, whose tonnage, according to Dr. Arbuthnot, (Tables of
+Ancient Coins, &c., p. 231 - 236,) is compared as 4 1/2 to 1 with
+an English 100 gun ship.]
+
+[Footnote 73: The Dromones of Leo, &c., are so clearly described
+with two tier of oars, that I must censure the version of
+Meursius and Fabricius, who pervert the sense by a blind
+attachment to the classic appellation of Triremes.  The Byzantine
+historians are sometimes guilty of the same inaccuracy.]
+
+[Footnote 74: Constantin. Porphyrogen. in Vit. Basil. c. lxi. p.
+185.  He calmly praises the stratagem; but the sailing round
+Peloponnesus is described by his terrified fancy as a
+circumnavigation of a thousand miles.]
+
+[Footnote 75: The continuator of Theophanes (l. iv. p. 122, 123)
+names the successive stations, the castle of Lulum near Tarsus,
+Mount Argaeus Isamus, Aegilus, the hill of Mamas, Cyrisus,
+Mocilus, the hill of Auxentius, the sun-dial of the Pharus of the
+great palace.  He affirms that the news were transmitted in an
+indivisible moment of time.  Miserable amplification, which, by
+saying too much, says nothing.  How much more forcible and
+instructive would have been the definition of three, or six, or
+twelve hours!]
+
+[Footnote 76: See the Ceremoniale of Constantine Porphyrogenitus,
+l. ii. c. 44, p. 176 - 192.  A critical reader will discern some
+inconsistencies in different parts of this account; but they are
+not more obscure or more stubborn than the establishment and
+effectives, the present and fit for duty, the rank and file and
+the private, of a modern return, which retain in proper hands the
+knowledge of these profitable mysteries.]
+
+The invention of the Greek fire did not, like that of gun
+powder, produce a total revolution in the art of war.  To these
+liquid combustibles the city and empire of Constantine owed their
+deliverance; and they were employed in sieges and sea-fights with
+terrible effect.  But they were either less improved, or less
+susceptible of improvement: the engines of antiquity, the
+catapultae, balistae, and battering-rams, were still of most
+frequent and powerful use in the attack and defence of
+fortifications; nor was the decision of battles reduced to the
+quick and heavy fire of a line of infantry, whom it were
+fruitless to protect with armor against a similar fire of their
+enemies. Steel and iron were still the common instruments of
+destruction and safety; and the helmets, cuirasses, and shields,
+of the tenth century did not, either in form or substance,
+essentially differ from those which had covered the companions of
+Alexander or Achilles. ^77 But instead of accustoming the modern
+Greeks, like the legionaries of old, to the constant and easy use
+of this salutary weight, their armor was laid aside in light
+chariots, which followed the march, till, on the approach of an
+enemy, they resumed with haste and reluctance the unusual
+encumbrance. Their offensive weapons consisted of swords,
+battle-axes, and spears; but the Macedonian pike was shortened a
+fourth of its length, and reduced to the more convenient measure
+of twelve cubits or feet.  The sharpness of the Scythian and
+Arabian arrows had been severely felt; and the emperors lament
+the decay of archery as a cause of the public misfortunes, and
+recommend, as an advice and a command, that the military youth,
+till the age of forty, should assiduously practise the exercise
+of the bow. ^78 The bands, or regiments, were usually three
+hundred strong; and, as a medium between the extremes of four and
+sixteen, the foot soldiers of Leo and Constantine were formed
+eight deep; but the cavalry charged in four ranks, from the
+reasonable consideration, that the weight of the front could not
+be increased by any pressure of the hindmost horses.  If the
+ranks of the infantry or cavalry were sometimes doubled, this
+cautious array betrayed a secret distrust of the courage of the
+troops, whose numbers might swell the appearance of the line, but
+of whom only a chosen band would dare to encounter the spears and
+swords of the Barbarians.  The order of battle must have varied
+according to the ground, the object, and the adversary; but their
+ordinary disposition, in two lines and a reserve, presented a
+succession of hopes and resources most agreeable to the temper as
+well as the judgment of the Greeks. ^79 In case of a repulse, the
+first line fell back into the intervals of the second; and the
+reserve, breaking into two divisions, wheeled round the flanks to
+improve the victory or cover the retreat.  Whatever authority
+could enact was accomplished, at least in theory, by the camps
+and marches, the exercises and evolutions, the edicts and books,
+of the Byzantine monarch. ^80 Whatever art could produce from the
+forge, the loom, or the laboratory, was abundantly supplied by
+the riches of the prince, and the industry of his numerous
+workmen.  But neither authority nor art could frame the most
+important machine, the soldier himself; and if the ceremonies of
+Constantine always suppose the safe and triumphal return of the
+emperor, ^81 his tactics seldom soar above the means of escaping
+a defeat, and procrastinating the war. ^82 Notwithstanding some
+transient success, the Greeks were sunk in their own esteem and
+that of their neighbors.  A cold hand and a loquacious tongue was
+the vulgar description of the nation: the author of the tactics
+was besieged in his capital; and the last of the Barbarians, who
+trembled at the name of the Saracens, or Franks, could proudly
+exhibit the medals of gold and silver which they had extorted
+from the feeble sovereign of Constantinople.  What spirit their
+government and character denied, might have been inspired in some
+degree by the influence of religion; but the religion of the
+Greeks could only teach them to suffer and to yield.  The emperor
+Nicephorus, who restored for a moment the discipline and glory of
+the Roman name, was desirous of bestowing the honors of martyrdom
+on the Christians who lost their lives in a holy war against the
+infidels.  But this political law was defeated by the opposition
+of the patriarch, the bishops, and the principal senators; and
+they strenuously urged the canons of St. Basil, that all who were
+polluted by the bloody trade of a soldier should be separated,
+during three years, from the communion of the faithful. ^83
+
+[Footnote 77: See the fifth, sixth, and seventh chapters, and, in
+the Tactics of Leo, with the corresponding passages in those of
+Constantine.]
+
+[Footnote 78: (Leo, Tactic. p. 581 Constantin. p 1216.) Yet such
+were not the maxims of the Greeks and Romans, who despised the
+loose and distant practice of archery.]
+
+[Footnote 79: Compare the passages of the Tactics, p. 669 and
+721, and the xiith with the xviiith chapter.]
+
+[Footnote 80: In the preface to his Tactics, Leo very freely
+deplores the loss of discipline and the calamities of the times,
+and repeats, without scruple, (Proem. p. 537,) the reproaches,
+nor does it appear that the same censures were less deserved in
+the next generation by the disciples of Constantine.]
+
+[Footnote 81: See in the Ceremonial (l. ii. c. 19, p. 353) the
+form of the emperor's trampling on the necks of the captive
+Saracens, while the singers chanted, "Thou hast made my enemies
+my footstool!" and the people shouted forty times the kyrie
+eleison.]
+
+[Footnote 82: Leo observes (Tactic. p. 668) that a fair open
+battle against any nation whatsoever: the words are strong, and
+the remark is true: yet if such had been the opinion of the old
+Romans, Leo had never reigned on the shores of the Thracian
+Bosphorus.]
+
+[Footnote 83: Zonaras (tom. ii. l. xvi. p. 202, 203) and
+Cedrenus, (Compend p. 668,) who relate the design of Nicephorus,
+most unfortunately apply the epithet to the opposition of the
+patriarch.]
+
+These scruples of the Greeks have been compared with the
+tears of the primitive Moslems when they were held back from
+battle; and this contrast of base superstition and high-spirited
+enthusiasm, unfolds to a philosophic eye the history of the rival
+nations.  The subjects of the last caliphs ^84 had undoubtedly
+degenerated from the zeal and faith of the companions of the
+prophet.  Yet their martial creed still represented the Deity as
+the author of war: ^85 the vital though latent spark of
+fanaticism still glowed in the heart of their religion, and among
+the Saracens, who dwelt on the Christian borders, it was
+frequently rekindled to a lively and active flame.  Their regular
+force was formed of the valiant slaves who had been educated to
+guard the person and accompany the standard of their lord: but
+the Mussulman people of Syria and Cilicia, of Africa and Spain,
+was awakened by the trumpet which proclaimed a holy war against
+the infidels. The rich were ambitious of death or victory in the
+cause of God; the poor were allured by the hopes of plunder; and
+the old, the infirm, and the women, assumed their share of
+meritorious service by sending their substitutes, with arms and
+horses, into the field.  These offensive and defensive arms were
+similar in strength and temper to those of the Romans, whom they
+far excelled in the management of the horse and the bow: the
+massy silver of their belts, their bridles, and their swords,
+displayed the magnificence of a prosperous nation; and except
+some black archers of the South, the Arabs disdained the naked
+bravery of their ancestors.  Instead of wagons, they were
+attended by a long train of camels, mules, and asses: the
+multitude of these animals, whom they bedecked with flags and
+streamers, appeared to swell the pomp and magnitude of their
+host; and the horses of the enemy were often disordered by the
+uncouth figure and odious smell of the camels of the East.
+Invincible by their patience of thirst and heat, their spirits
+were frozen by a winter's cold, and the consciousness of their
+propensity to sleep exacted the most rigorous precautions against
+the surprises of the night.  Their order of battle was a long
+square of two deep and solid lines; the first of archers, the
+second of cavalry.  In their engagements by sea and land, they
+sustained with patient firmness the fury of the attack, and
+seldom advanced to the charge till they could discern and oppress
+the lassitude of their foes.  But if they were repulsed and
+broken, they knew not how to rally or renew the combat; and their
+dismay was heightened by the superstitious prejudice, that God
+had declared himself on the side of their enemies.  The decline
+and fall of the caliphs countenanced this fearful opinion; nor
+were there wanting, among the Mahometans and Christians, some
+obscure prophecies ^86 which prognosticated their alternate
+defeats.  The unity of the Arabian empire was dissolved, but the
+independent fragments were equal to populous and powerful
+kingdoms; and in their naval and military armaments, an emir of
+Aleppo or Tunis might command no despicable fund of skill, and
+industry, and treasure.  In their transactions of peace and war
+with the Saracens, the princes of Constantinople too often felt
+that these Barbarians had nothing barbarous in their discipline;
+and that if they were destitute of original genius, they had been
+endowed with a quick spirit of curiosity and imitation.  The
+model was indeed more perfect than the copy; their ships, and
+engines, and fortifications, were of a less skilful construction;
+and they confess, without shame, that the same God who has given
+a tongue to the Arabians, had more nicely fashioned the hands of
+the Chinese, and the heads of the Greeks. ^87
+
+[Footnote 84: The xviith chapter of the tactics of the different
+nations is the most historical and useful of the whole collection
+of Leo.  The manners and arms of the Saracens (Tactic. p. 809 -
+817, and a fragment from the Medicean Ms. in the preface of the
+vith volume of Meursius) the Roman emperor was too frequently
+called upon to study.]
+
+[Footnote 85: Leon. Tactic. p. 809.]
+
+[Footnote 86: Liutprand (p. 484, 485) relates and interprets the
+oracles of the Greeks and Saracens, in which, after the fashion
+of prophecy, the past is clear and historical, the future is
+dark, enigmatical, and erroneous. From this boundary of light and
+shade an impartial critic may commonly determine the date of the
+composition.]
+
+[Footnote 87: The sense of this distinction is expressed by
+Abulpharagius (Dynast. p. 2, 62, 101;) but I cannot recollect the
+passage in which it is conveyed by this lively apothegm.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LIII: Fate Of The Eastern Empire.
+
+Part IV.
+
+A name of some German tribes between the Rhine and the Weser
+had spread its victorious influence over the greatest part of
+Gaul, Germany, and Italy; and the common appellation of Franks
+^88 was applied by the Greeks and Arabians to the Christians of
+the Latin church, the nations of the West, who stretched beyond
+their knowledge to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean.  The vast
+body had been inspired and united by the soul of Charlemagne; but
+the division and degeneracy of his race soon annihilated the
+Imperial power, which would have rivalled the Caesars of
+Byzantium, and revenged the indignities of the Christian name.
+The enemies no longer feared, nor could the subjects any longer
+trust, the application of a public revenue, the labors of trade
+and manufactures in the military service, the mutual aid of
+provinces and armies, and the naval squadrons which were
+regularly stationed from the mouth of the Elbe to that of the
+Tyber.  In the beginning of the tenth century, the family of
+Charlemagne had almost disappeared; his monarchy was broken into
+many hostile and independent states; the regal title was assumed
+by the most ambitious chiefs; their revolt was imitated in a long
+subordination of anarchy and discord, and the nobles of every
+province disobeyed their sovereign, oppressed their vassals, and
+exercised perpetual hostilities against their equals and
+neighbors.  Their private wars, which overturned the fabric of
+government, fomented the martial spirit of the nation.  In the
+system of modern Europe, the power of the sword is possessed, at
+least in fact, by five or six mighty potentates; their operations
+are conducted on a distant frontier, by an order of men who
+devote their lives to the study and practice of the military art:
+the rest of the country and community enjoys in the midst of war
+the tranquillity of peace, and is only made sensible of the
+change by the aggravation or decrease of the public taxes.  In
+the disorders of the tenth and eleventh centuries, every peasant
+was a soldier, and every village a fortification; each wood or
+valley was a scene of murder and rapine; and the lords of each
+castle were compelled to assume the character of princes and
+warriors.  To their own courage and policy they boldly trusted
+for the safety of their family, the protection of their lands,
+and the revenge of their injuries; and, like the conquerors of a
+larger size, they were too apt to transgress the privilege of
+defensive war.  The powers of the mind and body were hardened by
+the presence of danger and necessity of resolution: the same
+spirit refused to desert a friend and to forgive an enemy; and,
+instead of sleeping under the guardian care of a magistrate, they
+proudly disdained the authority of the laws.  In the days of
+feudal anarchy, the instruments of agriculture and art were
+converted into the weapons of bloodshed: the peaceful occupations
+of civil and ecclesiastical society were abolished or corrupted;
+and the bishop who exchanged his mitre for a helmet, was more
+forcibly urged by the manners of the times than by the obligation
+of his tenure. ^89
+
+[Footnote 88: Ex Francis, quo nomine tam Latinos quam Teutones
+comprehendit, ludum habuit, (Liutprand in Legat ad Imp.
+Nicephorum, p. 483, 484.) This extension of the name may be
+confirmed from Constantine (de Administrando Imperio, l. 2, c.
+27, 28) and Eutychius, (Annal. tom. i. p. 55, 56,) who both lived
+before the Crusades.  The testimonies of Abulpharagius (Dynast.
+p. 69) and Abulfeda (Praefat. ad Geograph.) are more recent]
+
+[Footnote 89: On this subject of ecclesiastical and beneficiary
+discipline, Father Thomassin, (tom. iii. l. i. c. 40, 45, 46, 47)
+may be usefully consulted.  A general law of Charlemagne exempted
+the bishops from personal service; but the opposite practice,
+which prevailed from the ixth to the xvth century, is
+countenanced by the example or silence of saints and doctors ....
+You justify your cowardice by the holy canons, says Ratherius of
+Verona; the canons likewise forbid you to whore, and yet - ]
+
+The love of freedom and of arms was felt, with conscious
+pride, by the Franks themselves, and is observed by the Greeks
+with some degree of amazement and terror.  "The Franks," says the
+emperor Constantine, "are bold and valiant to the verge of
+temerity; and their dauntless spirit is supported by the contempt
+of danger and death.  In the field and in close onset, they press
+to the front, and rush headlong against the enemy, without
+deigning to compute either his numbers or their own.  Their ranks
+are formed by the firm connections of consanguinity and
+friendship; and their martial deeds are prompted by the desire of
+saving or revenging their dearest companions.  In their eyes, a
+retreat is a shameful flight; and flight is indelible infamy."
+^90 A nation endowed with such high and intrepid spirit, must
+have been secure of victory if these advantages had not been
+counter-balanced by many weighty defects.  The decay of their
+naval power left the Greeks and Saracens in possession of the
+sea, for every purpose of annoyance and supply.  In the age which
+preceded the institution of knighthood, the Franks were rude and
+unskilful in the service of cavalry; ^91 and in all perilous
+emergencies, their warriors were so conscious of their ignorance,
+that they chose to dismount from their horses and fight on foot.
+Unpractised in the use of pikes, or of missile weapons, they were
+encumbered by the length of their swords, the weight of their
+armor, the magnitude of their shields, and, if I may repeat the
+satire of the meagre Greeks, by their unwieldy intemperance.
+Their independent spirit disdained the yoke of subordination, and
+abandoned the standard of their chief, if he attempted to keep
+the field beyond the term of their stipulation or service.  On
+all sides they were open to the snares of an enemy less brave but
+more artful than themselves.  They might be bribed, for the
+Barbarians were venal; or surprised in the night, for they
+neglected the precautions of a close encampment or vigilant
+sentinels.  The fatigues of a summer's campaign exhausted their
+strength and patience, and they sunk in despair if their
+voracious appetite was disappointed of a plentiful supply of wine
+and of food.  This general character of the Franks was marked
+with some national and local shades, which I should ascribe to
+accident rather than to climate, but which were visible both to
+natives and to foreigners.  An ambassador of the great Otho
+declared, in the palace of Constantinople, that the Saxons could
+dispute with swords better than with pens, and that they
+preferred inevitable death to the dishonor of turning their backs
+to an enemy. ^92 It was the glory of the nobles of France, that,
+in their humble dwellings, war and rapine were the only pleasure,
+the sole occupation, of their lives. They affected to deride the
+palaces, the banquets, the polished manner of the Italians, who
+in the estimate of the Greeks themselves had degenerated from the
+liberty and valor of the ancient Lombards. ^93
+
+[Footnote 90: In the xviiith chapter of his Tactics, the emperor
+Leo has fairly stated the military vices and virtues of the
+Franks (whom Meursius ridiculously translates by Galli) and the
+Lombards or Langobards.  See likewise the xxvith Dissertation of
+Muratori de Antiquitatibus Italiae Medii Aevi.]
+
+[Footnote 91: Domini tui milites (says the proud Nicephorus)
+equitandi ignari pedestris pugnae sunt inscii: scutorum
+magnitudo, loricarum gravitudo, ensium longitudo galearumque
+pondus neutra parte pugnare cossinit; ac subridens, impedit,
+inquit, et eos gastrimargia, hoc est ventris ingluvies, &c.
+Liutprand in Legat. p. 480 481]
+
+[Footnote 92: In Saxonia certe scio .... decentius ensibus
+pugnare quam calanis, et prius mortem obire quam hostibus terga
+dare, (Liutprand, p 482.)]
+
+[Footnote 93: Leonis Tactica, c. 18, p. 805.  The emperor Leo
+died A.D. 911: an historical poem, which ends in 916, and appears
+to have been composed in 910, by a native of Venetia,
+discriminates in these verses the manners of Italy and France:
+
+ - Quid inertia bello
+
+Pectora (Ubertus ait) duris praetenditis armis,
+
+O Itali?  Potius vobis sacra pocula cordi;
+
+Saepius et stomachum nitidis laxare saginis
+
+Elatasque domos rutilo fulcire metallo.
+
+Non eadem Gallos similis vel cura remordet:
+
+Vicinas quibus est studium devincere terras,
+
+Depressumque larem spoliis hinc inde coactis
+
+Sustentare -
+
+(Anonym. Carmen Panegyricum de Laudibus Berengarii Augusti, l. n.
+in Muratori Script. Rerum Italic. tom. ii. pars i. p. 393.)]
+
+By the well-known edict of Caracalla, his subjects, from
+Britain to Egypt, were entitled to the name and privileges of
+Romans, and their national sovereign might fix his occasional or
+permanent residence in any province of their common country.  In
+the division of the East and West, an ideal unity was
+scrupulously observed, and in their titles, laws, and statutes,
+the successors of Arcadius and Honorius announced themselves as
+the inseparable colleagues of the same office, as the joint
+sovereigns of the Roman world and city, which were bounded by the
+same limits.  After the fall of the Western monarchy, the majesty
+of the purple resided solely in the princes of Constantinople;
+and of these, Justinian was the first who, after a divorce of
+sixty years, regained the dominion of ancient Rome, and asserted,
+by the right of conquest, the august title of Emperor of the
+Romans. ^94 A motive of vanity or discontent solicited one of his
+successors, Constans the Second, to abandon the Thracian
+Bosphorus, and to restore the pristine honors of the Tyber: an
+extravagant project, (exclaims the malicious Byzantine,) as if he
+had despoiled a beautiful and blooming virgin, to enrich, or
+rather to expose, the deformity of a wrinkled and decrepit
+matron. ^95 But the sword of the Lombards opposed his settlement
+in Italy: he entered Rome not as a conqueror, but as a fugitive,
+and, after a visit of twelve days, he pillaged, and forever
+deserted, the ancient capital of the world. ^96 The final revolt
+and separation of Italy was accomplished about two centuries
+after the conquests of Justinian, and from his reign we may date
+the gradual oblivion of the Latin tongue.  That legislator had
+composed his Institutes, his Code, and his Pandects, in a
+language which he celebrates as the proper and public style of
+the Roman government, the consecrated idiom of the palace and
+senate of Constantinople, of the campus and tribunals of the
+East. ^97 But this foreign dialect was unknown to the people and
+soldiers of the Asiatic provinces, it was imperfectly understood
+by the greater part of the interpreters of the laws and the
+ministers of the state.  After a short conflict, nature and habit
+prevailed over the obsolete institutions of human power: for the
+general benefit of his subjects, Justinian promulgated his novels
+in the two languages: the several parts of his voluminous
+jurisprudence were successively translated; ^98 the original was
+forgotten, the version was studied, and the Greek, whose
+intrinsic merit deserved indeed the preference, obtained a legal,
+as well as popular establishment in the Byzantine monarchy.  The
+birth and residence of succeeding princes estranged them from the
+Roman idiom: Tiberius by the Arabs, ^99 and Maurice by the
+Italians, ^100 are distinguished as the first of the Greek
+Caesars, as the founders of a new dynasty and empire: the silent
+revolution was accomplished before the death of Heraclius; and
+the ruins of the Latin speech were darkly preserved in the terms
+of jurisprudence and the acclamations of the palace.  After the
+restoration of the Western empire by Charlemagne and the Othos,
+the names of Franks and Latins acquired an equal signification
+and extent; and these haughty Barbarians asserted, with some
+justice, their superior claim to the language and dominion of
+Rome.  They insulted the alien of the East who had renounced the
+dress and idiom of Romans; and their reasonable practice will
+justify the frequent appellation of Greeks. ^101 But this
+contemptuous appellation was indignantly rejected by the prince
+and people to whom it was applied.  Whatsoever changes had been
+introduced by the lapse of ages, they alleged a lineal and
+unbroken succession from Augustus and Constantine; and, in the
+lowest period of degeneracy and decay, the name of Romans adhered
+to the last fragments of the empire of Constantinople. ^102
+
+[Footnote 94: Justinian, says the historian Agathias, (l. v. p.
+157,). Yet the specific title of Emperor of the Romans was not
+used at Constantinople, till it had been claimed by the French
+and German emperors of old Rome.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Constantine Manasses reprobates this design in his
+barbarous verse, and it is confirmed by Theophanes, Zonaras,
+Cedrenus, and the Historia Miscella: voluit in urbem Romam
+Imperium transferre, (l. xix. p. 157 in tom. i. pars i. of the
+Scriptores Rer. Ital. of Muratori.)]
+
+[Footnote 96: Paul. Diacon. l. v. c. 11, p. 480.  Anastasius in
+Vitis Pontificum, in Muratori's Collection, tom. iii. pars i. p.
+141.]
+
+[Footnote 97: Consult the preface of Ducange, (ad Gloss, Graec.
+Medii Aevi) and the Novels of Justinian, (vii. lxvi.)]
+
+[Footnote 98: (Matth. Blastares, Hist. Juris, apud Fabric.
+Bibliot. Graec. tom. xii. p. 369.) The Code and Pandects (the
+latter by Thalelaeus) were translated in the time of Justinian,
+(p. 358, 366.) Theophilus one of the original triumvirs, has left
+an elegant, though diffuse, paraphrase of the Institutes.  On the
+other hand, Julian, antecessor of Constantinople, (A.D. 570,)
+cxx. Novellas Graecas eleganti Latinitate donavit (Heineccius,
+Hist. J. R. p. 396) for the use of Italy and Africa.]
+
+[Footnote 99: Abulpharagius assigns the viith Dynasty to the
+Franks or Romans, the viiith to the Greeks, the ixth to the
+Arabs.  A tempore Augusti Caesaris donec imperaret Tiberius
+Caesar spatio circiter annorum 600 fuerunt Imperatores C. P.
+Patricii, et praecipua pars exercitus Romani: extra quod,
+conciliarii, scribae et populus, omnes Graeci fuerunt: deinde
+regnum etiam Graecanicum factum est, (p. 96, vers. Pocock.) The
+Christian and ecclesiastical studies of Abulpharagius gave him
+some advantage over the more ignorant Moslems.]
+
+[Footnote 100: Primus ex Graecorum genere in Imperio confirmatus
+est; or according to another Ms. of Paulus Diaconus, (l. iii. c.
+15, p. 443,) in Orasorum Imperio.]
+
+[Footnote 101: Quia linguam, mores, vestesque mutastis, putavit
+Sanctissimus Papa. (an audacious irony,) ita vos (vobis)
+displicere Romanorum nomen. His nuncios, rogabant Nicephorum
+Imperatorem Graecorum, ut cum Othone Imperatore Romanorum
+amicitiam faceret, (Liutprand in Legatione, p. 486.)
+
+Note: Sicut et vestem.  These words follow in the text of
+Liutprand, (apud Murat. Script. Ital. tom. ii. p. 486, to which
+Gibbon refers.) But with some inaccuracy or confusion, which
+rarely occurs in Gibbon's references, the rest of the quotation,
+which as it stands is unintelligible, does not appear - M.]
+
+[Footnote 102: By Laonicus Chalcocondyles, who survived the last
+siege of Constantinople, the account is thus stated, (l. i. p.
+3.) Constantine transplanted his Latins of Italy to a Greek city
+of Thrace: they adopted the language and manners of the natives,
+who were confounded with them under the name of Romans.  The
+kings of Constantinople, says the historian.]
+
+While the government of the East was transacted in Latin,
+the Greek was the language of literature and philosophy; nor
+could the masters of this rich and perfect idiom be tempted to
+envy the borrowed learning and imitative taste of their Roman
+disciples.  After the fall of Paganism, the loss of Syria and
+Egypt, and the extinction of the schools of Alexandria and
+Athens, the studies of the Greeks insensibly retired to some
+regular monasteries, and above all, to the royal college of
+Constantinople, which was burnt in the reign of Leo the Isaurian.
+^103 In the pompous style of the age, the president of that
+foundation was named the Sun of Science: his twelve associates,
+the professors in the different arts and faculties, were the
+twelve signs of the zodiac; a library of thirty-six thousand five
+hundred volumes was open to their inquiries; and they could show
+an ancient manuscript of Homer, on a roll of parchment one
+hundred and twenty feet in length, the intestines, as it was
+fabled, of a prodigious serpent. ^104 But the seventh and eight
+centuries were a period of discord and darkness: the library was
+burnt, the college was abolished, the Iconoclasts are represented
+as the foes of antiquity; and a savage ignorance and contempt of
+letters has disgraced the princes of the Heraclean and Isaurian
+dynasties. ^105
+
+[Footnote 103: See Ducange, (C. P. Christiana, l. ii. p. 150,
+151,) who collects the testimonies, not of Theophanes, but at
+least of Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. xv. p. 104,) Cedrenus, (p. 454,)
+Michael Glycas, (p. 281,) Constantine Manasses, (p. 87.) After
+refuting the absurd charge against the emperor, Spanheim, (Hist.
+Imaginum, p. 99 - 111,) like a true advocate, proceeds to doubt
+or deny the reality of the fire, and almost of the library.]
+
+[Footnote 104: According to Malchus, (apud Zonar. l. xiv. p. 53,)
+this Homer was burnt in the time of Basiliscus.  The Ms. might be
+renewed - But on a serpent's skin?  Most strange and incredible!]
+
+[Footnote 105: The words of Zonaras, and of Cedrenus, are strong
+words, perhaps not ill suited to those reigns.]
+
+In the ninth century we trace the first dawnings of the
+restoration of science. ^106 After the fanaticism of the Arabs
+had subsided, the caliphs aspired to conquer the arts, rather
+than the provinces, of the empire: their liberal curiosity
+rekindled the emulation of the Greeks, brushed away the dust from
+their ancient libraries, and taught them to know and reward the
+philosophers, whose labors had been hitherto repaid by the
+pleasure of study and the pursuit of truth.  The Caesar Bardas,
+the uncle of Michael the Third, was the generous protector of
+letters, a title which alone has preserved his memory and excused
+his ambition.  A particle of the treasures of his nephew was
+sometimes diverted from the indulgence of vice and folly; a
+school was opened in the palace of Magnaura; and the presence of
+Bardas excited the emulation of the masters and students.  At
+their head was the philosopher Leo, archbishop of Thessalonica:
+his profound skill in astronomy and the mathematics was admired
+by the strangers of the East; and this occult science was
+magnified by vulgar credulity, which modestly supposes that all
+knowledge superior to its own must be the effect of inspiration
+or magic.  At the pressing entreaty of the Caesar, his friend,
+the celebrated Photius, ^107 renounced the freedom of a secular
+and studious life, ascended the patriarchal throne, and was
+alternately excommunicated and absolved by the synods of the East
+and West.  By the confession even of priestly hatred, no art or
+science, except poetry, was foreign to this universal scholar,
+who was deep in thought, indefatigable in reading, and eloquent
+in diction.  Whilst he exercised the office of protospathaire or
+captain of the guards, Photius was sent ambassador to the caliph
+of Bagdad. ^108 The tedious hours of exile, perhaps of
+confinement, were beguiled by the hasty composition of his
+Library, a living monument of erudition and criticism.  Two
+hundred and fourscore writers, historians, orators, philosophers,
+theologians, are reviewed without any regular method: he abridges
+their narrative or doctrine, appreciates their style and
+character, and judges even the fathers of the church with a
+discreet freedom, which often breaks through the superstition of
+the times.  The emperor Basil, who lamented the defects of his
+own education, intrusted to the care of Photius his son and
+successor, Leo the philosopher; and the reign of that prince and
+of his son Constantine Porphyrogenitus forms one of the most
+prosperous aeras of the Byzantine literature.  By their
+munificence the treasures of antiquity were deposited in the
+Imperial library; by their pens, or those of their associates,
+they were imparted in such extracts and abridgments as might
+amuse the curiosity, without oppressing the indolence, of the
+public.  Besides the Basilics, or code of laws, the arts of
+husbandry and war, of feeding or destroying the human species,
+were propagated with equal diligence; and the history of Greece
+and Rome was digested into fifty-three heads or titles, of which
+two only (of embassies, and of virtues and vices) have escaped
+the injuries of time. In every station, the reader might
+contemplate the image of the past world, apply the lesson or
+warning of each page, and learn to admire, perhaps to imitate,
+the examples of a brighter period.  I shall not expatiate on the
+works of the Byzantine Greeks, who, by the assiduous study of the
+ancients, have deserved, in some measure, the remembrance and
+gratitude of the moderns.  The scholars of the present age may
+still enjoy the benefit of the philosophical commonplace book of
+Stobaeus, the grammatical and historical lexicon of Suidas, the
+Chiliads of Tzetzes, which comprise six hundred narratives in
+twelve thousand verses, and the commentaries on Homer of
+Eustathius, archbishop of Thessalonica, who, from his horn of
+plenty, has poured the names and authorities of four hundred
+writers. From these originals, and from the numerous tribe of
+scholiasts and critics, ^109 some estimate may be formed of the
+literary wealth of the twelfth century: Constantinople was
+enlightened by the genius of Homer and Demosthenes, of Aristotle
+and Plato: and in the enjoyment or neglect of our present riches,
+we must envy the generation that could still peruse the history
+of Theopompus, the orations of Hyperides, the comedies of
+Menander, ^110 and the odes of Alcaeus and Sappho.  The frequent
+labor of illustration attests not only the existence, but the
+popularity, of the Grecian classics: the general knowledge of the
+age may be deduced from the example of two learned females, the
+empress Eudocia, and the princess Anna Comnena, who cultivated,
+in the purple, the arts of rhetoric and philosophy. ^111 The
+vulgar dialect of the city was gross and barbarous: a more
+correct and elaborate style distinguished the discourse, or at
+least the compositions, of the church and palace, which sometimes
+affected to copy the purity of the Attic models.
+
+[Footnote 106: See Zonaras (l. xvi. p. 160, 161) and Cedrenus,
+(p. 549, 550.) Like Friar Bacon, the philosopher Leo has been
+transformed by ignorance into a conjurer; yet not so
+undeservedly, if he be the author of the oracles more commonly
+ascribed to the emperor of the same name.  The physics of Leo in
+Ms. are in the library of Vienna, (Fabricius, Bibliot. Graec.
+tom. vi. p 366, tom. xii. p. 781.) Qui serant!]
+
+[Footnote 107: The ecclesiastical and literary character of
+Photius is copiously discussed by Hanckius (de Scriptoribus
+Byzant. p. 269, 396) and Fabricius.]
+
+[Footnote 108: It can only mean Bagdad, the seat of the caliphs
+and the relation of his embassy might have been curious and
+instructive.  But how did he procure his books?  A library so
+numerous could neither be found at Bagdad, nor transported with
+his baggage, nor preserved in his memory. Yet the last, however
+incredible, seems to be affirmed by Photius himself.  Camusat
+(Hist. Critique des Journaux, p. 87 - 94) gives a good account of
+the Myriobiblon.]
+
+[Footnote 109: Of these modern Greeks, see the respective
+articles in the Bibliotheca Graeca of Fabricius - a laborious
+work, yet susceptible of a better method and many improvements;
+of Eustathius, (tom. i. p. 289 - 292, 306 - 329,) of the Pselli,
+(a diatribe of Leo Allatius, ad calcem tom. v., of Constantine
+Porphyrogenitus, tom. vi. p. 486 - 509) of John Stobaeus, (tom.
+viii., 665 - 728,) of Suidas, (tom. ix. p. 620 - 827,) John
+Tzetzes, (tom. xii. p. 245 - 273.) Mr. Harris, in his
+Philological Arrangements, opus senile, has given a sketch of
+this Byzantine learning, (p. 287 - 300.)]
+
+[Footnote 110: From the obscure and hearsay evidence, Gerard
+Vossius (de Poetis Graecis, c. 6) and Le Clerc (Bibliotheque
+Choisie, tom. xix. p. 285) mention a commentary of Michael
+Psellus on twenty-four plays of Menander, still extant in Ms. at
+Constantinople.  Yet such classic studies seem incompatible with
+the gravity or dulness of a schoolman, who pored over the
+categories, (de Psellis, p. 42;) and Michael has probably been
+confounded with Homerus Sellius, who wrote arguments to the
+comedies of Menander.  In the xth century, Suidas quotes fifty
+plays, but he often transcribes the old scholiast of
+Aristophanes.]
+
+[Footnote 111: Anna Comnena may boast of her Greek style, and
+Zonaras her contemporary, but not her flatterer, may add with
+truth. The princess was conversant with the artful dialogues of
+Plato; and had studied quadrivium of astrology, geometry,
+arithmetic, and music, (see he preface to the Alexiad, with
+Ducange's notes)]
+
+In our modern education, the painful though necessary
+attainment of two languages, which are no longer living, may
+consume the time and damp the ardor of the youthful student.  The
+poets and orators were long imprisoned in the barbarous dialects
+of our Western ancestors, devoid of harmony or grace; and their
+genius, without precept or example, was abandoned to the rule and
+native powers of their judgment and fancy.  But the Greeks of
+Constantinople, after purging away the impurities of their vulgar
+speech, acquired the free use of their ancient language, the most
+happy composition of human art, and a familiar knowledge of the
+sublime masters who had pleased or instructed the first of
+nations.  But these advantages only tend to aggravate the
+reproach and shame of a degenerate people.  They held in their
+lifeless hands the riches of their fathers, without inheriting
+the spirit which had created and improved that sacred patrimony:
+they read, they praised, they compiled, but their languid souls
+seemed alike incapable of thought and action.  In the revolution
+of ten centuries, not a single discovery was made to exalt the
+dignity or promote the happiness of mankind.  Not a single idea
+has been added to the speculative systems of antiquity, and a
+succession of patient disciples became in their turn the dogmatic
+teachers of the next servile generation. Not a single composition
+of history, philosophy, or literature, has been saved from
+oblivion by the intrinsic beauties of style or sentiment, of
+original fancy, or even of successful imitation.  In prose, the
+least offensive of the Byzantine writers are absolved from
+censure by their naked and unpresuming simplicity: but the
+orators, most eloquent ^112 in their own conceit, are the
+farthest removed from the models whom they affect to emulate.  In
+every page our taste and reason are wounded by the choice of
+gigantic and obsolete words, a stiff and intricate phraseology,
+the discord of images, the childish play of false or unseasonable
+ornament, and the painful attempt to elevate themselves, to
+astonish the reader, and to involve a trivial meaning in the
+smoke of obscurity and exaggeration. Their prose is soaring to
+the vicious affectation of poetry: their poetry is sinking below
+the flatness and insipidity of prose. The tragic, epic, and lyric
+muses, were silent and inglorious: the bards of Constantinople
+seldom rose above a riddle or epigram, a panegyric or tale; they
+forgot even the rules of prosody; and with the melody of Homer
+yet sounding in their ears, they confound all measure of feet and
+syllables in the impotent strains which have received the name of
+political or city verses. ^113 The minds of the Greek were bound
+in the fetters of a base and imperious superstition which extends
+her dominion round the circle of profane science. Their
+understandings were bewildered in metaphysical controversy: in
+the belief of visions and miracles, they had lost all principles
+of moral evidence, and their taste was vitiates by the homilies
+of the monks, an absurd medley of declamation and Scripture.
+Even these contemptible studies were no longer dignified by the
+abuse of superior talents: the leaders of the Greek church were
+humbly content to admire and copy the oracles of antiquity, nor
+did the schools of pulpit produce any rivals of the fame of
+Athanasius and Chrysostom. ^114
+
+[Footnote 112: To censure the Byzantine taste.  Ducange (Praefat.
+Gloss. Graec. p. 17) strings the authorities of Aulus Gellius,
+Jerom, Petronius George Hamartolus, Longinus; who give at once
+the precept and the example.]
+
+[Footnote 113: The versus politici, those common prostitutes, as,
+from their easiness, they are styled by Leo Allatius, usually
+consist of fifteen syllables.  They are used by Constantine
+Manasses, John Tzetzes, &c. (Ducange, Gloss. Latin. tom. iii. p.
+i. p. 345, 346, edit. Basil, 1762.)]
+
+[Footnote 114: As St. Bernard of the Latin, so St. John
+Damascenus in the viiith century is revered as the last father of
+the Greek, church.]
+
+In all the pursuits of active and speculative life, the
+emulation of states and individuals is the most powerful spring
+of the efforts and improvements of mankind.  The cities of
+ancient Greece were cast in the happy mixture of union and
+independence, which is repeated on a larger scale, but in a
+looser form, by the nations of modern Europe; the union of
+language, religion, and manners, which renders them the
+spectators and judges of each other's merit; ^115 the
+independence of government and interest, which asserts their
+separate freedom, and excites them to strive for preeminence in
+the career of glory.  The situation of the Romans was less
+favorable; yet in the early ages of the republic, which fixed the
+national character, a similar emulation was kindled among the
+states of Latium and Italy; and in the arts and sciences, they
+aspired to equal or surpass their Grecian masters.  The empire of
+the Caesars undoubtedly checked the activity and progress of the
+human mind; its magnitude might indeed allow some scope for
+domestic competition; but when it was gradually reduced, at first
+to the East and at last to Greece and Constantinople, the
+Byzantine subjects were degraded to an abject and languid temper,
+the natural effect of their solitary and insulated state.  From
+the North they were oppressed by nameless tribes of Barbarians,
+to whom they scarcely imparted the appellation of men.  The
+language and religion of the more polished Arabs were an
+insurmountable bar to all social intercourse.  The conquerors of
+Europe were their brethren in the Christian faith; but the speech
+of the Franks or Latins was unknown, their manners were rude, and
+they were rarely connected, in peace or war, with the successors
+of Heraclius.  Alone in the universe, the self-satisfied pride of
+the Greeks was not disturbed by the comparison of foreign merit;
+and it is no wonder if they fainted in the race, since they had
+neither competitors to urge their speed, nor judges to crown
+their victory.  The nations of Europe and Asia were mingled by
+the expeditions to the Holy Land; and it is under the Comnenian
+dynasty that a faint emulation of knowledge and military virtue
+was rekindled in the Byzantine empire. [Footnote 115: Hume's
+Essays, vol. i. p. 125]
+
+
+
+Chapter LIV: Origin And Doctrine Of The Paulicians.
+
+Part I.
+
+Origin And Doctrine Of The Paulicians. - Their Persecution
+By The Greek Emperors. - Revolt In Armenia &c. - Transplantation
+Into Thrace. - Propagation In The West. - The Seeds, Character,
+And Consequences Of The Reformation.
+
+In the profession of Christianity, the variety of national
+characters may be clearly distinguished.  The natives of Syria
+and Egypt abandoned their lives to lazy and contemplative
+devotion: Rome again aspired to the dominion of the world; and
+the wit of the lively and loquacious Greeks was consumed in the
+disputes of metaphysical theology.  The incomprehensible
+mysteries of the Trinity and Incarnation, instead of commanding
+their silent submission, were agitated in vehement and subtile
+controversies, which enlarged their faith at the expense,
+perhaps, of their charity and reason.  From the council of Nice
+to the end of the seventh century, the peace and unity of the
+church was invaded by these spiritual wars; and so deeply did
+they affect the decline and fall of the empire, that the
+historian has too often been compelled to attend the synods, to
+explore the creeds, and to enumerate the sects, of this busy
+period of ecclesiastical annals.  From the beginning of the
+eighth century to the last ages of the Byzantine empire, the
+sound of controversy was seldom heard: curiosity was exhausted,
+zeal was fatigued, and, in the decrees of six councils, the
+articles of the Catholic faith had been irrevocably defined. The
+spirit of dispute, however vain and pernicious, requires some
+energy and exercise of the mental faculties; and the prostrate
+Greeks were content to fast, to pray, and to believe in blind
+obedience to the patriarch and his clergy. During a long dream of
+superstition, the Virgin and the Saints, their visions and
+miracles, their relics and images, were preached by the monks,
+and worshipped by the people; and the appellation of people might
+be extended, without injustice, to the first ranks of civil
+society.  At an unseasonable moment, the Isaurian emperors
+attempted somewhat rudely to awaken their subjects: under their
+influence reason might obtain some proselytes, a far greater
+number was swayed by interest or fear; but the Eastern world
+embraced or deplored their visible deities, and the restoration
+of images was celebrated as the feast of orthodoxy.  In this
+passive and unanimous state the ecclesiastical rulers were
+relieved from the toil, or deprived of the pleasure, of
+persecution.  The Pagans had disappeared; the Jews were silent
+and obscure; the disputes with the Latins were rare and remote
+hostilities against a national enemy; and the sects of Egypt and
+Syria enjoyed a free toleration under the shadow of the Arabian
+caliphs.  About the middle of the seventh century, a branch of
+Manichaeans was selected as the victims of spiritual tyranny;
+their patience was at length exasperated to despair and
+rebellion; and their exile has scattered over the West the seeds
+of reformation.  These important events will justify some inquiry
+into the doctrine and story of the Paulicians; ^1 and, as they
+cannot plead for themselves, our candid criticism will magnify
+the good, and abate or suspect the evil, that is reported by
+their adversaries.
+
+[Footnote 1: The errors and virtues of the Paulicians are
+weighed, with his usual judgment and candor, by the learned
+Mosheim, (Hist. Ecclesiast. seculum ix. p. 311, &c.) He draws his
+original intelligence from Photius (contra Manichaeos, l. i.) and
+Peter Siculus, (Hist. Manichaeorum.) The first of these accounts
+has not fallen into my hands; the second, which Mosheim prefers,
+I have read in a Latin version inserted in the Maxima Bibliotheca
+Patrum, (tom. xvi. p. 754 - 764,) from the edition of the Jesuit
+Raderus, (Ingolstadii, 1604, in 4to.)
+
+Note: Compare Hallam's Middle Ages, p. 461 - 471.  Mr.
+Hallam justly observes that this chapter "appears to be accurate
+as well as luminous, and is at least far superior to any modern
+work on the subject." - M.]
+
+The Gnostics, who had distracted the infancy, were oppressed
+by the greatness and authority, of the church.  Instead of
+emulating or surpassing the wealth, learning, and numbers of the
+Catholics, their obscure remnant was driven from the capitals of
+the East and West, and confined to the villages and mountains
+along the borders of the Euphrates.  Some vestige of the
+Marcionites may be detected in the fifth century; ^2 but the
+numerous sects were finally lost in the odious name of the
+Manichaeans; and these heretics, who presumed to reconcile the
+doctrines of Zoroaster and Christ, were pursued by the two
+religions with equal and unrelenting hatred.  Under the grandson
+of Heraclius, in the neighborhood of Samosata, more famous for
+the birth of Lucian than for the title of a Syrian kingdom, a
+reformer arose, esteemed by the Paulicians as the chosen
+messenger of truth.  In his humble dwelling of Mananalis,
+Constantine entertained a deacon, who returned from Syrian
+captivity, and received the inestimable gift of the New
+Testament, which was already concealed from the vulgar by the
+prudence of the Greek, and perhaps of the Gnostic, clergy. ^3
+These books became the measure of his studies and the rule of his
+faith; and the Catholics, who dispute his interpretation,
+acknowledge that his text was genuine and sincere.  But he
+attached himself with peculiar devotion to the writings and
+character of St. Paul: the name of the Paulicians is derived by
+their enemies from some unknown and domestic teacher; but I am
+confident that they gloried in their affinity to the apostle of
+the Gentiles.  His disciples, Titus, Timothy, Sylvanus, Tychicus,
+were represented by Constantine and his fellow-laborers: the
+names of the apostolic churches were applied to the congregations
+which they assembled in Armenia and Cappadocia; and this innocent
+allegory revived the example and memory of the first ages.  In
+the Gospel, and the Epistles of St. Paul, his faithful follower
+investigated the Creed of primitive Christianity; and, whatever
+might be the success, a Protestant reader will applaud the
+spirit, of the inquiry. But if the Scriptures of the Paulicians
+were pure, they were not perfect. Their founders rejected the two
+Epistles of St. Peter, ^4 the apostle of the circumcision, whose
+dispute with their favorite for the observance of the law could
+not easily be forgiven. ^5 They agreed with their Gnostic
+brethren in the universal contempt for the Old Testament, the
+books of Moses and the prophets, which have been consecrated by
+the decrees of the Catholic church. With equal boldness, and
+doubtless with more reason, Constantine, the new Sylvanus,
+disclaimed the visions, which, in so many bulky and splendid
+volumes, had been published by the Oriental sects; ^6 the
+fabulous productions of the Hebrew patriarchs and the sages of
+the East; the spurious gospels, epistles, and acts, which in the
+first age had overwhelmed the orthodox code; the theology of
+Manes, and the authors of the kindred heresies; and the thirty
+generations, or aeons, which had been created by the fruitful
+fancy of Valentine.  The Paulicians sincerely condemned the
+memory and opinions of the Manichaean sect, and complained of the
+injustice which impressed that invidious name on the simple
+votaries of St. Paul and of Christ.
+
+[Footnote 2: In the time of Theodoret, the diocese of Cyrrhus, in
+Syria, contained eight hundred villages.  Of these, two were
+inhabited by Arians and Eunomians, and eight by Marcionites, whom
+the laborious bishop reconciled to the Catholic church, (Dupin,
+Bibliot. Ecclesiastique, tom. iv. p. 81, 82.)]
+
+[Footnote 3: Nobis profanis ista (sacra Evangelia) legere non
+licet sed sacerdotibus duntaxat, was the first scruple of a
+Catholic when he was advised to read the Bible, (Petr. Sicul. p.
+761.)]
+
+[Footnote 4: In rejecting the second Epistle of St. Peter, the
+Paulicians are justified by some of the most respectable of the
+ancients and moderns, (see Wetstein ad loc., Simon, Hist.
+Critique du Nouveau Testament, c. 17.) They likewise overlooked
+the Apocalypse, (Petr. Sicul. p. 756;) but as such neglect is not
+imputed as a crime, the Greeks of the ixth century must have been
+careless of the credit and honor of the Revelations.]
+
+[Footnote 5: This contention, which has not escaped the malice of
+Porphyry, supposes some error and passion in one or both of the
+apostles.  By Chrysostom, Jerome, and Erasmus, it is represented
+as a sham quarrel a pious fraud, for the benefit of the Gentiles
+and the correction of the Jews, (Middleton's Works, vol. ii. p. 1
+- 20.)]
+
+[Footnote 6: Those who are curious of this heterodox library, may
+consult the researches of Beausobre, (Hist. Critique du
+Manicheisme, tom. i. p. 305 - 437.) Even in Africa, St. Austin
+could describe the Manichaean books, tam multi, tam grandes, tam
+pretiosi codices, (contra Faust. xiii. 14;) but he adds, without
+pity, Incendite omnes illas membranas: and his advice had been
+rigorously followed.]
+
+Of the ecclesiastical chain, many links had been broken by
+the Paulician reformers; and their liberty was enlarged, as they
+reduced the number of masters, at whose voice profane reason must
+bow to mystery and miracle.  The early separation of the Gnostics
+had preceded the establishment of the Catholic worship; and
+against the gradual innovations of discipline and doctrine they
+were as strongly guarded by habit and aversion, as by the silence
+of St. Paul and the evangelists.  The objects which had been
+transformed by the magic of superstition, appeared to the eyes of
+the Paulicians in their genuine and naked colors.  An image made
+without hands was the common workmanship of a mortal artist, to
+whose skill alone the wood and canvas must be indebted for their
+merit or value.  The miraculous relics were a heap of bones and
+ashes, destitute of life or virtue, or of any relation, perhaps,
+with the person to whom they were ascribed.  The true and
+vivifying cross was a piece of sound or rotten timber, the body
+and blood of Christ, a loaf of bread and a cup of wine, the gifts
+of nature and the symbols of grace. The mother of God was
+degraded from her celestial honors and immaculate virginity; and
+the saints and angels were no longer solicited to exercise the
+laborious office of meditation in heaven, and ministry upon
+earth.  In the practice, or at least in the theory, of the
+sacraments, the Paulicians were inclined to abolish all visible
+objects of worship, and the words of the gospel were, in their
+judgment, the baptism and communion of the faithful. They
+indulged a convenient latitude for the interpretation of
+Scripture: and as often as they were pressed by the literal
+sense, they could escape to the intricate mazes of figure and
+allegory.  Their utmost diligence must have been employed to
+dissolve the connection between the Old and the New Testament;
+since they adored the latter as the oracles of God, and abhorred
+the former as the fabulous and absurd invention of men or
+daemons.  We cannot be surprised, that they should have found in
+the Gospel the orthodox mystery of the Trinity: but, instead of
+confessing the human nature and substantial sufferings of Christ,
+they amused their fancy with a celestial body that passed through
+the virgin like water through a pipe; with a fantastic
+crucifixion, that eluded the vain and important malice of the
+Jews.  A creed thus simple and spiritual was not adapted to the
+genius of the times; ^7 and the rational Christian, who might
+have been contented with the light yoke and easy burden of Jesus
+and his apostles, was justly offended, that the Paulicians should
+dare to violate the unity of God, the first article of natural
+and revealed religion.  Their belief and their trust was in the
+Father, of Christ, of the human soul, and of the invisible world.
+
+But they likewise held the eternity of matter; a stubborn and
+rebellious substance, the origin of a second principle of an
+active being, who has created this visible world, and exercises
+his temporal reign till the final consummation of death and sin.
+^8 The appearances of moral and physical evil had established the
+two principles in the ancient philosophy and religion of the
+East; from whence this doctrine was transfused to the various
+swarms of the Gnostics.  A thousand shades may be devised in the
+nature and character of Ahriman, from a rival god to a
+subordinate daemon, from passion and frailty to pure and perfect
+malevolence: but, in spite of our efforts, the goodness, and the
+power, of Ormusd are placed at the opposite extremities of the
+line; and every step that approaches the one must recede in equal
+proportion from the other. ^9
+
+[Footnote 7: The six capital errors of the Paulicians are defined
+by Peter (p. 756,) with much prejudice and passion.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Primum illorum axioma est, duo rerum esse principia;
+Deum malum et Deum bonum, aliumque hujus mundi conditorem et
+princi pem, et alium futuri aevi, (Petr. Sicul. 765.)]
+
+[Footnote 9: Two learned critics, Beausobre (Hist. Critique du
+Manicheisme, l. i. iv. v. vi.) and Mosheim, (Institut. Hist.
+Eccles. and de Rebus Christianis ante Constantinum, sec. i. ii.
+iii.,) have labored to explore and discriminate the various
+systems of the Gnostics on the subject of the two principles.]
+
+The apostolic labors of Constantine Sylvanus soon multiplied
+the number of his disciples, the secret recompense of spiritual
+ambition.  The remnant of the Gnostic sects, and especially the
+Manichaeans of Armenia, were united under his standard; many
+Catholics were converted or seduced by his arguments; and he
+preached with success in the regions of Pontus ^10 and
+Cappadocia, which had long since imbibed the religion of
+Zoroaster. The Paulician teachers were distinguished only by
+their Scriptural names, by the modest title of Fellow-pilgrims,
+by the austerity of their lives, their zeal or knowledge, and the
+credit of some extraordinary gifts of the Holy Spirit.  But they
+were incapable of desiring, or at least of obtaining, the wealth
+and honors of the Catholic prelacy; such anti- Christian pride
+they bitterly censured; and even the rank of elders or presbyters
+was condemned as an institution of the Jewish synagogue.  The new
+sect was loosely spread over the provinces of Asia Minor to the
+westward of the Euphrates; six of their principal congregations
+represented the churches to which St. Paul had addressed his
+epistles; and their founder chose his residence in the
+neighborhood of Colonia, ^11 in the same district of Pontus which
+had been celebrated by the altars of Bellona ^12 and the miracles
+of Gregory. ^13 After a mission of twenty-seven years, Sylvanus,
+who had retired from the tolerating government of the Arabs, fell
+a sacrifice to Roman persecution.  The laws of the pious
+emperors, which seldom touched the lives of less odious heretics,
+proscribed without mercy or disguise the tenets, the books, and
+the persons of the Montanists and Manichaeans: the books were
+delivered to the flames; and all who should presume to secrete
+such writings, or to profess such opinions, were devoted to an
+ignominious death. ^14 A Greek minister, armed with legal and
+military powers, appeared at Colonia to strike the shepherd, and
+to reclaim, if possible, the lost sheep.  By a refinement of
+cruelty, Simeon placed the unfortunate Sylvanus before a line of
+his disciples, who were commanded, as the price of their pardon
+and the proof of their repentance, to massacre their spiritual
+father.  They turned aside from the impious office; the stones
+dropped from their filial hands, and of the whole number, only
+one executioner could be found, a new David, as he is styled by
+the Catholics, who boldly overthrew the giant of heresy.  This
+apostate (Justin was his name) again deceived and betrayed his
+unsuspecting brethren, and a new conformity to the acts of St.
+Paul may be found in the conversion of Simeon: like the apostle,
+he embraced the doctrine which he had been sent to persecute,
+renounced his honors and fortunes, and required among the
+Paulicians the fame of a missionary and a martyr.  They were not
+ambitious of martyrdom, ^15 but in a calamitous period of one
+hundred and fifty years, their patience sustained whatever zeal
+could inflict; and power was insufficient to eradicate the
+obstinate vegetation of fanaticism and reason.  From the blood
+and ashes of the first victims, a succession of teachers and
+congregations repeatedly arose: amidst their foreign hostilities,
+they found leisure for domestic quarrels: they preached, they
+disputed, they suffered; and the virtues, the apparent virtues,
+of Sergius, in a pilgrimage of thirty-three years, are
+reluctantly confessed by the orthodox historians. ^16 The native
+cruelty of Justinian the Second was stimulated by a pious cause;
+and he vainly hoped to extinguish, in a single conflagration, the
+name and memory of the Paulicians. By their primitive simplicity,
+their abhorrence of popular superstition, the Iconoclast princes
+might have been reconciled to some erroneous doctrines; but they
+themselves were exposed to the calumnies of the monks, and they
+chose to be the tyrants, lest they should be accused as the
+accomplices, of the Manichaeans.  Such a reproach has sullied the
+clemency of Nicephorus, who relaxed in their favor the severity
+of the penal statutes, nor will his character sustain the honor
+of a more liberal motive.  The feeble Michael the First, the
+rigid Leo the Armenian, were foremost in the race of persecution;
+but the prize must doubtless be adjudged to the sanguinary
+devotion of Theodora, who restored the images to the Oriental
+church.  Her inquisitors explored the cities and mountains of the
+Lesser Asia, and the flatterers of the empress have affirmed
+that, in a short reign, one hundred thousand Paulicians were
+extirpated by the sword, the gibbet, or the flames.  Her guilt or
+merit has perhaps been stretched beyond the measure of truth: but
+if the account be allowed, it must be presumed that many simple
+Iconoclasts were punished under a more odious name; and that some
+who were driven from the church, unwillingly took refuge in the
+bosom of heresy.
+
+[Footnote 10: The countries between the Euphrates and the Halys
+were possessed above 350 years by the Medes (Herodot. l. i. c.
+103) and Persians; and the kings of Pontus were of the royal race
+of the Achaemenides, (Sallust. Fragment. l. iii. with the French
+supplement and notes of the president de Brosses.)]
+
+[Footnote 11: Most probably founded by Pompey after the conquest
+of Pontus. This Colonia, on the Lycus, above Neo-Caesarea, is
+named by the Turks Coulei-hisar, or Chonac, a populous town in a
+strong country, (D'Anville, Geographie Ancienne, tom. ii. p. 34.
+Tournefort, Voyage du Levant, tom. iii. lettre xxi. p. 293.)]
+
+[Footnote 12: The temple of Bellona, at Comana in Pontus was a
+powerful and wealthy foundation, and the high priest was
+respected as the second person in the kingdom.  As the sacerdotal
+office had been occupied by his mother's family, Strabo (l. xii.
+p. 809, 835, 836, 837) dwells with peculiar complacency on the
+temple, the worship, and festival, which was twice celebrated
+every year.  But the Bellona of Pontus had the features and
+character of the goddess, not of war, but of love.]
+
+[Footnote 13: Gregory, bishop of Neo-Caesarea, (A.D. 240 - 265,)
+surnamed Thaumaturgus, or the Wonder-worker.  An hundred years
+afterwards, the history or romance of his life was composed by
+Gregory of Nyssa, his namesake and countryman, the brother of the
+great St. Basil.]
+
+[Footnote 14: Hoc caeterum ad sua egregia facinora, divini atque
+orthodoxi Imperatores addiderunt, ut Manichaeos Montanosque
+capitali puniri sententia juberent, eorumque libros, quocunque in
+loco inventi essent, flammis tradi; quod siquis uspiam eosdem
+occultasse deprehenderetur, hunc eundem mortis poenae addici,
+ejusque bona in fiscum inferri, (Petr. Sicul. p. 759.) What more
+could bigotry and persecution desire?]
+
+[Footnote 15: It should seem, that the Paulicians allowed
+themselves some latitude of equivocation and mental reservation;
+till the Catholics discovered the pressing questions, which
+reduced them to the alternative of apostasy or martyrdom, (Petr.
+Sicul. p. 760.)]
+
+[Footnote 16: The persecution is told by Petrus Siculus (p. 579 -
+763) with satisfaction and pleasantry.  Justus justa persolvit.
+See likewise Cedrenus, (p. 432 - 435.)]
+
+The most furious and desperate of rebels are the sectaries
+of a religion long persecuted, and at length provoked.  In a holy
+cause they are no longer susceptible of fear or remorse: the
+justice of their arms hardens them against the feelings of
+humanity; and they revenge their fathers' wrongs on the children
+of their tyrants.  Such have been the Hussites of Bohemia and the
+Calvinists of France, and such, in the ninth century, were the
+Paulicians of Armenia and the adjacent provinces. ^17 They were
+first awakened to the massacre of a governor and bishop, who
+exercised the Imperial mandate of converting or destroying the
+heretics; and the deepest recesses of Mount Argaeus protected
+their independence and revenge.  A more dangerous and consuming
+flame was kindled by the persecution of Theodora, and the revolt
+of Carbeas, a valiant Paulician, who commanded the guards of the
+general of the East.  His father had been impaled by the Catholic
+inquisitors; and religion, or at least nature, might justify his
+desertion and revenge.  Five thousand of his brethren were united
+by the same motives; they renounced the allegiance of
+anti-Christian Rome; a Saracen emir introduced Carbeas to the
+caliph; and the commander of the faithful extended his sceptre to
+the implacable enemy of the Greeks.  In the mountains between
+Siwas and Trebizond he founded or fortified the city of Tephrice,
+^18 which is still occupied by a fierce or licentious people, and
+the neighboring hills were covered with the Paulician fugitives,
+who now reconciled the use of the Bible and the sword.  During
+more than thirty years, Asia was afflicted by the calamities of
+foreign and domestic war; in their hostile inroads, the disciples
+of St. Paul were joined with those of Mahomet; and the peaceful
+Christians, the aged parent and tender virgin, who were delivered
+into barbarous servitude, might justly accuse the intolerant
+spirit of their sovereign.  So urgent was the mischief, so
+intolerable the shame, that even the dissolute Michael, the son
+of Theodora, was compelled to march in person against the
+Paulicians: he was defeated under the walls of Samosata; and the
+Roman emperor fled before the heretics whom his mother had
+condemned to the flames.  The Saracens fought under the same
+banners, but the victory was ascribed to Carbeas; and the captive
+generals, with more than a hundred tribunes, were either released
+by his avarice, or tortured by his fanaticism.  The valor and
+ambition of Chrysocheir, ^19 his successor, embraced a wider
+circle of rapine and revenge.  In alliance with his faithful
+Moslems, he boldly penetrated into the heart of Asia; the troops
+of the frontier and the palace were repeatedly overthrown; the
+edicts of persecution were answered by the pillage of Nice and
+Nicomedia, of Ancyra and Ephesus; nor could the apostle St. John
+protect from violation his city and sepulchre.  The cathedral of
+Ephesus was turned into a stable for mules and horses; and the
+Paulicians vied with the Saracens in their contempt and
+abhorrence of images and relics.  It is not unpleasing to observe
+the triumph of rebellion over the same despotism which had
+disdained the prayers of an injured people.  The emperor Basil,
+the Macedonian, was reduced to sue for peace, to offer a ransom
+for the captives, and to request, in the language of moderation
+and charity, that Chrysocheir would spare his fellow-Christians,
+and content himself with a royal donative of gold and silver and
+silk garments.  "If the emperor," replied the insolent fanatic,
+"be desirous of peace, let him abdicate the East, and reign
+without molestation in the West. If he refuse, the servants of
+the Lord will precipitate him from the throne." The reluctant
+Basil suspended the treaty, accepted the defiance, and led his
+army into the land of heresy, which he wasted with fire and
+sword.  The open country of the Paulicians was exposed to the
+same calamities which they had inflicted; but when he had
+explored the strength of Tephrice, the multitude of the
+Barbarians, and the ample magazines of arms and provisions, he
+desisted with a sigh from the hopeless siege.  On his return to
+Constantinople, he labored, by the foundation of convents and
+churches, to secure the aid of his celestial patrons, of Michael
+the archangel and the prophet Elijah; and it was his daily prayer
+that he might live to transpierce, with three arrows, the head of
+his impious adversary.  Beyond his expectations, the wish was
+accomplished: after a successful inroad, Chrysocheir was
+surprised and slain in his retreat; and the rebel's head was
+triumphantly presented at the foot of the throne.  On the
+reception of this welcome trophy, Basil instantly called for his
+bow, discharged three arrows with unerring aim, and accepted the
+applause of the court, who hailed the victory of the royal
+archer.  With Chrysocheir, the glory of the Paulicians faded and
+withered: ^20 on the second expedition of the emperor, the
+impregnable Tephrice, was deserted by the heretics, who sued for
+mercy or escaped to the borders.  The city was ruined, but the
+spirit of independence survived in the mountains: the Paulicians
+defended, above a century, their religion and liberty, infested
+the Roman limits, and maintained their perpetual alliance with
+the enemies of the empire and the gospel.
+
+[Footnote 17: Petrus Siculus, (p. 763, 764,) the continuator of
+Theophanes, (l. iv. c. 4, p. 103, 104,) Cedrenus, (p. 541, 542,
+545,) and Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. xvi. p. 156,) describe the revolt
+and exploits of Carbeas and his Paulicians.]
+
+[Footnote 18: Otter (Voyage en Turquie et en Perse, tom. ii.) is
+probably the only Frank who has visited the independent
+Barbarians of Tephrice now Divrigni, from whom he fortunately
+escaped in the train of a Turkish officer.]
+
+[Footnote 19: In the history of Chrysocheir, Genesius (Chron. p.
+67 - 70, edit. Venet.) has exposed the nakedness of the empire.
+Constantine Porphyrogenitus (in Vit. Basil. c. 37 - 43, p. 166 -
+171) has displayed the glory of his grandfather.  Cedrenus (p.
+570 - 573) is without their passions or their knowledge.]
+
+[Footnote 20: How elegant is the Greek tongue, even in the mouth
+of Cedrenus!]
+
+
+
+Chapter LIV: Origin And Doctrine Of The Paulicians.
+
+Part II.
+
+About the middle of the eight century, Constantine, surnamed
+Copronymus by the worshippers of images, had made an expedition
+into Armenia, and found, in the cities of Melitene and
+Theodosiopolis, a great number of Paulicians, his kindred
+heretics.  As a favor, or punishment, he transplanted them from
+the banks of the Euphrates to Constantinople and Thrace; and by
+this emigration their doctrine was introduced and diffused in
+Europe. ^21 If the sectaries of the metropolis were soon mingled
+with the promiscuous mass, those of the country struck a deep
+root in a foreign soil.  The Paulicians of Thrace resisted the
+storms of persecution, maintained a secret correspondence with
+their Armenian brethren, and gave aid and comfort to their
+preachers, who solicited, not without success, the infant faith
+of the Bulgarians. ^22 In the tenth century, they were restored
+and multiplied by a more powerful colony, which John Zimisces ^23
+transported from the Chalybian hills to the valleys of Mount
+Haemus.  The Oriental clergy who would have preferred the
+destruction, impatiently sighed for the absence, of the
+Manichaeans: the warlike emperor had felt and esteemed their
+valor: their attachment to the Saracens was pregnant with
+mischief; but, on the side of the Danube, against the Barbarians
+of Scythia, their service might be useful, and their loss would
+be desirable. Their exile in a distant land was softened by a
+free toleration: the Paulicians held the city of Philippopolis
+and the keys of Thrace; the Catholics were their subjects; the
+Jacobite emigrants their associates: they occupied a line of
+villages and castles in Macedonia and Epirus; and many native
+Bulgarians were associated to the communion of arms and heresy.
+As long as they were awed by power and treated with moderation,
+their voluntary bands were distinguished in the armies of the
+empire; and the courage of these dogs, ever greedy of war, ever
+thirsty of human blood, is noticed with astonishment, and almost
+with reproach, by the pusillanimous Greeks.  The same spirit
+rendered them arrogant and contumacious: they were easily
+provoked by caprice or injury; and their privileges were often
+violated by the faithless bigotry of the government and clergy.
+In the midst of the Norman war, two thousand five hundred
+Manichaeans deserted the standard of Alexius Comnenus, ^24 and
+retired to their native homes.  He dissembled till the moment of
+revenge; invited the chiefs to a friendly conference; and
+punished the innocent and guilty by imprisonment, confiscation,
+and baptism.  In an interval of peace, the emperor undertook the
+pious office of reconciling them to the church and state: his
+winter quarters were fixed at Philippopolis; and the thirteenth
+apostle, as he is styled by his pious daughter, consumed whole
+days and nights in theological controversy.  His arguments were
+fortified, their obstinacy was melted, by the honors and rewards
+which he bestowed on the most eminent proselytes; and a new city,
+surrounded with gardens, enriched with immunities, and dignified
+with his own name, was founded by Alexius for the residence of
+his vulgar converts.  The important station of Philippopolis was
+wrested from their hands; the contumacious leaders were secured
+in a dungeon, or banished from their country; and their lives
+were spared by the prudence, rather than the mercy, of an
+emperor, at whose command a poor and solitary heretic was burnt
+alive before the church of St. Sophia. ^25 But the proud hope of
+eradicating the prejudices of a nation was speedily overturned by
+the invincible zeal of the Paulicians, who ceased to dissemble or
+refused to obey. After the departure and death of Alexius, they
+soon resumed their civil and religious laws.  In the beginning of
+the thirteenth century, their pope or primate (a manifest
+corruption) resided on the confines of Bulgaria, Croatia, and
+Dalmatia, and governed, by his vicars, the filial congregations
+of Italy and France. ^26 From that aera, a minute scrutiny might
+prolong and perpetuate the chain of tradition.  At the end of the
+last age, the sect or colony still inhabited the valleys of Mount
+Haemus, where their ignorance and poverty were more frequently
+tormented by the Greek clergy than by the Turkish government. The
+modern Paulicians have lost all memory of their origin; and their
+religion is disgraced by the worship of the cross, and the
+practice of bloody sacrifice, which some captives have imported
+from the wilds of Tartary. ^27
+
+[Footnote 21: Copronymus transported his heretics; and thus says
+Cedrenus, (p. 463,) who has copied the annals of Theophanes.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Petrus Siculus, who resided nine months at Tephrice
+(A.D. 870) for the ransom of captives, (p. 764,) was informed of
+their intended mission, and addressed his preservative, the
+Historia Manichaeorum to the new archbishop of the Bulgarians,
+(p. 754.)]
+
+[Footnote 23: The colony of Paulicians and Jacobites transplanted
+by John Zimisces (A.D. 970) from Armenia to Thrace, is mentioned
+by Zonaras (tom. ii. l. xvii. p. 209) and Anna Comnena, (Alexiad,
+l. xiv. p. 450, &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 24: The Alexiad of Anna Comnena (l. v. p. 131, l. vi.
+p. 154, 155, l. xiv. p. 450 - 457, with the Annotations of
+Ducange) records the transactions of her apostolic father with
+the Manichaeans, whose abominable heresy she was desirous of
+refuting.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Basil, a monk, and the author of the Bogomiles, a
+sect of Gnostics, who soon vanished, (Anna Comnena, Alexiad, l.
+xv. p. 486 - 494 Mosheim, Hist. Ecclesiastica, p. 420.)]
+
+[Footnote 26: Matt. Paris, Hist. Major, p. 267.  This passage of
+our English historian is alleged by Ducange in an excellent note
+on Villehardouin (No. 208,) who found the Paulicians at
+Philippopolis the friends of the Bulgarians.]
+
+[Footnote 27: See Marsigli, Stato Militare dell' Imperio
+Ottomano, p. 24.]
+
+In the West, the first teachers of the Manichaean theology
+had been repulsed by the people, or suppressed by the prince.
+The favor and success of the Paulicians in the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries must be imputed to the strong, though secret,
+discontent which armed the most pious Christians against the
+church of Rome.  Her avarice was oppressive, her despotism
+odious; less degenerate perhaps than the Greeks in the worship of
+saints and images, her innovations were more rapid and
+scandalous: she had rigorously defined and imposed the doctrine
+of transubstantiation: the lives of the Latin clergy were more
+corrupt, and the Eastern bishops might pass for the successors of
+the apostles, if they were compared with the lordly prelates, who
+wielded by turns the crosier, the sceptre, and the sword.  Three
+different roads might introduce the Paulicians into the heart of
+Europe.  After the conversion of Hungary, the pilgrims who
+visited Jerusalem might safely follow the course of the Danube:
+in their journey and return they passed through Philippopolis;
+and the sectaries, disguising their name and heresy, might
+accompany the French or German caravans to their respective
+countries.  The trade and dominion of Venice pervaded the coast
+of the Adriatic, and the hospitable republic opened her bosom to
+foreigners of every climate and religion.  Under the Byzantine
+standard, the Paulicians were often transported to the Greek
+provinces of Italy and Sicily: in peace and war, they freely
+conversed with strangers and natives, and their opinions were
+silently propagated in Rome, Milan, and the kingdoms beyond the
+Alps. ^28 It was soon discovered, that many thousand Catholics of
+every rank, and of either sex, had embraced the Manichaean
+heresy; and the flames which consumed twelve canons of Orleans
+was the first act and signal of persecution.  The Bulgarians, ^29
+a name so innocent in its origin, so odious in its application,
+spread their branches over the face of Europe.  United in common
+hatred of idolatry and Rome, they were connected by a form of
+episcopal and presbyterian government; their various sects were
+discriminated by some fainter or darker shades of theology; but
+they generally agreed in the two principles, the contempt of the
+Old Testament and the denial of the body of Christ, either on the
+cross or in the eucharist.  A confession of simple worship and
+blameless manners is extorted from their enemies; and so high was
+their standard of perfection, that the increasing congregations
+were divided into two classes of disciples, of those who
+practised, and of those who aspired.  It was in the country of
+the Albigeois, ^30 in the southern provinces of France, that the
+Paulicians were most deeply implanted; and the same vicissitudes
+of martyrdom and revenge which had been displayed in the
+neighborhood of the Euphrates, were repeated in the thirteenth
+century on the banks of the Rhone.  The laws of the Eastern
+emperors were revived by Frederic the Second.  The insurgents of
+Tephrice were represented by the barons and cities of Languedoc:
+Pope Innocent III. surpassed the sanguinary fame of Theodora.  It
+was in cruelty alone that her soldiers could equal the heroes of
+the Crusades, and the cruelty of her priests was far excelled by
+the founders of the Inquisition; ^31 an office more adapted to
+confirm, than to refute, the belief of an evil principle.  The
+visible assemblies of the Paulicians, or Albigeois, were
+extirpated by fire and sword; and the bleeding remnant escaped by
+flight, concealment, or Catholic conformity. But the invincible
+spirit which they had kindled still lived and breathed in the
+Western world.  In the state, in the church, and even in the
+cloister, a latent succession was preserved of the disciples of
+St. Paul; who protested against the tyranny of Rome, embraced the
+Bible as the rule of faith, and purified their creed from all the
+visions of the Gnostic theology. ^* The struggles of Wickliff in
+England, of Huss in Bohemia, were premature and ineffectual; but
+the names of Zuinglius, Luther, and Calvin, are pronounced with
+gratitude as the deliverers of nations.
+
+[Footnote 28: The introduction of the Paulicians into Italy and
+France is amply discussed by Muratori (Antiquitat. Italiae Medii
+Aevi, tom. v. dissert. lx. p. 81 - 152) and Mosheim, (p. 379 -
+382, 419 - 422.) Yet both have overlooked a curious passage of
+William the Apulian, who clearly describes them in a battle
+between the Greeks and Normans, A.D. 1040, (in Muratori, Script.
+Rerum Ital. tom. v. p. 256: )
+
+Cum Graecis aderant quidam, quos pessimus error
+
+Fecerat amentes, et ab ipso nomen habebant.]
+
+But he is so ignorant of their doctrine as to make them a kind of
+Sabellians or Patripassians.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Bulgari, Boulgres, Bougres, a national appellation,
+has been applied by the French as a term of reproach to usurers
+and unnatural sinners. The Paterini, or Patelini, has been made
+to signify a smooth and flattering hypocrite, such as l'Avocat
+Patelin of that original and pleasant farce, (Ducange, Gloss.
+Latinitat. Medii et Infimi Aevi.) The Manichaeans were likewise
+named Cathari or the pure, by corruption. Gazari, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 30: Of the laws, crusade, and persecution against the
+Albigeois, a just, though general, idea is expressed by Mosheim,
+(p. 477 - 481.) The detail may be found in the ecclesiastical
+historians, ancient and modern, Catholics and Protestants; and
+amongst these Fleury is the most impartial and moderate.]
+
+[Footnote 31: The Acts (Liber Sententiarum) of the Inquisition of
+Tholouse (A.D. 1307 - 1323) have been published by Limborch,
+(Amstelodami, 1692,) with a previous History of the Inquisition
+in general.  They deserved a more learned and critical editor.
+As we must not calumniate even Satan, or the Holy Office, I will
+observe, that of a list of criminals which fills nineteen folio
+pages, only fifteen men and four women were delivered to the
+secular arm.]
+
+[Footnote *: The popularity of "Milner's History of the Church"
+with some readers, may make it proper to observe, that his
+attempt to exculpate the Paulicians from the charge of Gnosticism
+or Manicheism is in direct defiance, if not in ignorance, of all
+the original authorities.  Gibbon himself, it appears, was not
+acquainted with the work of Photius, "Contra Manicheos
+Repullulantes," the first book of which was edited by Montfaucon,
+Bibliotheca Coisliniana, pars ii. p. 349, 375, the whole by Wolf,
+in his Anecdota Graeca. Hamburg 1722.  Compare a very sensible
+tract.  Letter to Rev. S. R. Maitland, by J G. Dowling, M. A.
+London, 1835. - M.]
+
+A philosopher, who calculates the degree of their merit and
+the value of their reformation, will prudently ask from what
+articles of faith, above or against our reason, they have
+enfranchised the Christians; for such enfranchisement is
+doubtless a benefit so far as it may be compatible with truth and
+piety.  After a fair discussion, we shall rather be surprised by
+the timidity, than scandalized by the freedom, of our first
+reformers. ^32 With the Jews, they adopted the belief and defence
+of all the Hebrew Scriptures, with all their prodigies, from the
+garden of Eden to the visions of the prophet Daniel; and they
+were bound, like the Catholics, to justify against the Jews the
+abolition of a divine law.  In the great mysteries of the Trinity
+and Incarnation the reformers were severely orthodox: they freely
+adopted the theology of the four, or the six first councils; and
+with the Athanasian creed, they pronounced the eternal damnation
+of all who did not believe the Catholic faith.
+Transubstantiation, the invisible change of the bread and wine
+into the body and blood of Christ, is a tenet that may defy the
+power of argument and pleasantry; but instead of consulting the
+evidence of their senses, of their sight, their feeling, and
+their taste, the first Protestants were entangled in their own
+scruples, and awed by the words of Jesus in the institution of
+the sacrament.  Luther maintained a corporeal, and Calvin a real,
+presence of Christ in the eucharist; and the opinion of
+Zuinglius, that it is no more than a spiritual communion, a
+simple memorial, has slowly prevailed in the reformed churches.
+^33 But the loss of one mystery was amply compensated by the
+stupendous doctrines of original sin, redemption, faith, grace,
+and predestination, which have been strained from the epistles of
+St. Paul.  These subtile questions had most assuredly been
+prepared by the fathers and schoolmen; but the final improvement
+and popular use may be attributed to the first reformers, who
+enforced them as the absolute and essential terms of salvation.
+Hitherto the weight of supernatural belief inclines against the
+Protestants; and many a sober Christian would rather admit that a
+wafer is God, than that God is a cruel and capricious tyrant.
+
+[Footnote 32: The opinions and proceedings of the reformers are
+exposed in the second part of the general history of Mosheim; but
+the balance, which he has held with so clear an eye, and so
+steady a hand, begins to incline in favor of his Lutheran
+brethren.]
+
+[Footnote 33: Under Edward VI. our reformation was more bold and
+perfect, but in the fundamental articles of the church of
+England, a strong and explicit declaration against the real
+presence was obliterated in the original copy, to please the
+people or the Lutherans, or Queen Elizabeth, (Burnet's History of
+the Reformation, vol. ii. p. 82, 128, 302.)]
+
+Yet the services of Luther and his rivals are solid and
+important; and the philosopher must own his obligations to these
+fearless enthusiasts. ^34 I. By their hands the lofty fabric of
+superstition, from the abuse of indulgences to the intercesson of
+the Virgin, has been levelled with the ground.  Myriads of both
+sexes of the monastic profession were restored to the liberty and
+labors of social life.  A hierarchy of saints and angels, of
+imperfect and subordinate deities, were stripped of their
+temporal power, and reduced to the enjoyment of celestial
+happiness; their images and relics were banished from the church;
+and the credulity of the people was no longer nourished with the
+daily repetition of miracles and visions. The imitation of
+Paganism was supplied by a pure and spiritual worship of prayer
+and thanksgiving, the most worthy of man, the least unworthy of
+the Deity.  It only remains to observe, whether such sublime
+simplicity be consistent with popular devotion; whether the
+vulgar, in the absence of all visible objects, will not be
+inflamed by enthusiasm, or insensibly subside in languor and
+indifference.  II.  The chain of authority was broken, which
+restrains the bigot from thinking as he pleases, and the slave
+from speaking as he thinks: the popes, fathers, and councils,
+were no longer the supreme and infallible judges of the world;
+and each Christian was taught to acknowledge no law but the
+Scriptures, no interpreter but his own conscience.  This freedom,
+however, was the consequence, rather than the design, of the
+Reformation.  The patriot reformers were ambitious of succeeding
+the tyrants whom they had dethroned. They imposed with equal
+rigor their creeds and confessions; they asserted the right of
+the magistrate to punish heretics with death.  The pious or
+personal animosity of Calvin proscribed in Servetus ^35 the guilt
+of his own rebellion; ^36 and the flames of Smithfield, in which
+he was afterwards consumed, had been kindled for the Anabaptists
+by the zeal of Cranmer. ^37 The nature of the tiger wa s the
+same, but he was gradually deprived of his teeth and fangs. A
+spiritual and temporal kingdom was possessed by the Roman
+pontiff; the Protestant doctors were subjects of an humble rank,
+without revenue or jurisdiction.  His decrees were consecrated by
+the antiquity of the Catholic church: their arguments and
+disputes were submitted to the people; and their appeal to
+private judgment was accepted beyond their wishes, by curiosity
+and enthusiasm.  Since the days of Luther and Calvin, a secret
+reformation has been silently working in the bosom of the
+reformed churches; many weeds of prejudice were eradicated; and
+the disciples of Erasmus ^38 diffused a spirit of freedom and
+moderation.  The liberty of conscience has been claimed as a
+common benefit, an inalienable right: ^39 the free governments of
+Holland ^40 and England ^41 introduced the practice of
+toleration; and the narrow allowance of the laws has been
+enlarged by the prudence and humanity of the times.  In the
+exercise, the mind has understood the limits of its powers, and
+the words and shadows that might amuse the child can no longer
+satisfy his manly reason.  The volumes of controversy are
+overspread with cobwebs: the doctrine of a Protestant church is
+far removed from the knowledge or belief of its private members;
+and the forms of orthodoxy, the articles of faith, are subscribed
+with a sigh, or a smile, by the modern clergy.  Yet the friends
+of Christianity are alarmed at the boundless impulse of inquiry
+and scepticism. The predictions of the Catholics are
+accomplished: the web of mystery is unravelled by the Arminians,
+Arians, and Socinians, whose number must not be computed from
+their separate congregations; and the pillars of Revelation are
+shaken by those men who preserve the name without the substance
+of religion, who indulge the license without the temper of
+philosophy. ^42 ^*
+
+[Footnote 34: "Had it not been for such men as Luther and
+myself," said the fanatic Whiston to Halley the philosopher, "you
+would now be kneeling before an image of St. Winifred."]
+
+[Footnote 35: The article of Servet in the Dictionnaire Critique
+of Chauffepie is the best account which I have seen of this
+shameful transaction.  See likewise the Abbe d'Artigny, Nouveaux
+Memoires d'Histoire, &c., tom. ii. p. 55 - 154.]
+
+[Footnote 36: I am more deeply scandalized at the single
+execution of Servetus, than at the hecatombs which have blazed in
+the Auto de Fes of Spain and Portugal.  1. The zeal of Calvin
+seems to have been envenomed by personal malice, and perhaps
+envy.  He accused his adversary before their common enemies, the
+judges of Vienna, and betrayed, for his destruction, the sacred
+trust of a private correspondence.  2. The deed of cruelty was
+not varnished by the pretence of danger to the church or state.
+In his passage through Geneva, Servetus was a harmless stranger,
+who neither preached, nor printed, nor made proselytes.  3. A
+Catholic inquisition yields the same obedience which he requires,
+but Calvin violated the golden rule of doing as he would be done
+by; a rule which I read in a moral treatise of Isocrates (in
+Nicocle, tom. i. p. 93, edit. Battie) four hundred years before
+the publication of the Gospel.
+
+Note: Gibbon has not accurately rendered the sense of this
+passage, which does not contain the maxim of charity Do unto
+others as you would they should do unto you, but simply the maxim
+of justice, Do not to others the which would offend you if they
+should do it to you. - G.]
+
+[Footnote 37: See Burnet, vol. ii. p. 84 - 86.  The sense and
+humanity of the young king were oppressed by the authority of the
+primate.]
+
+[Footnote 38: Erasmus may be considered as the father of rational
+theology. After a slumber of a hundred years, it was revived by
+the Arminians of Holland, Grotius, Limborch, and Le Clerc; in
+England by Chillingworth, the latitudinarians of Cambridge,
+(Burnet, Hist. of Own Times, vol. i. p. 261 - 268, octavo
+edition.) Tillotson, Clarke, Hoadley, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 39: I am sorry to observe, that the three writers of
+the last age, by whom the rights of toleration have been so nobly
+defended, Bayle, Leibnitz, and Locke, are all laymen and
+philosophers.]
+
+[Footnote 40: See the excellent chapter of Sir William Temple on
+the Religion of the United Provinces.  I am not satisfied with
+Grotius, (de Rebus Belgicis, Annal. l. i. p. 13, 14, edit. in
+12mo.,) who approves the Imperial laws of persecution, and only
+condemns the bloody tribunal of the inquisition.]
+
+[Footnote 41: Sir William Blackstone (Commentaries, vol. iv. p.
+53, 54) explains the law of England as it was fixed at the
+Revolution.  The exceptions of Papists, and of those who deny the
+Trinity, would still have a tolerable scope for persecution if
+the national spirit were not more effectual than a hundred
+statutes.]
+
+[Footnote 42: I shall recommend to public animadversion two
+passages in Dr. Priestley, which betray the ultimate tendency of
+his opinions.  At the first of these (Hist. of the Corruptions of
+Christianity, vol. i. p. 275, 276) the priest, at the second
+(vol. ii. p. 484) the magistrate, may tremble!]
+
+[Footnote *: There is something ludicrous, if it were not
+offensive, in Gibbon holding up to "public animadversion" the
+opinions of any believer in Christianity, however imperfect his
+creed.  The observations which the whole of this passage on the
+effects of the reformation, in which much truth and justice is
+mingled with much prejudice, would suggest, could not possibly be
+compressed into a note; and would indeed embrace the whole
+religious and irreligious history of the time which has elapsed
+since Gibbon wrote. - M.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LV: The Bulgarians, The Hungarians And The Russians.
+
+Part I.
+
+The Bulgarians. - Origin, Migrations, And Settlement Of The
+Hungarians. - Their Inroads In The East And West. - The Monarchy
+Of Russia. - Geography And Trade. - Wars Of The Russians Against
+The Greek Empire. - Conversion Of The Barbarians.
+
+Under the reign of Constantine the grandson of Heraclius,
+the ancient barrier of the Danube, so often violated and so often
+restored, was irretrievably swept away by a new deluge of
+Barbarians.  Their progress was favored by the caliphs, their
+unknown and accidental auxiliaries: the Roman legions were
+occupied in Asia; and after the loss of Syria, Egypt, and Africa,
+the Caesars were twice reduced to the danger and disgrace of
+defending their capital against the Saracens.  If, in the account
+of this interesting people, I have deviated from the strict and
+original line of my undertaking, the merit of the subject will
+hide my transgression, or solicit my excuse.  In the East, in the
+West, in war, in religion, in science, in their prosperity, and
+in their decay, the Arabians press themselves on our curiosity:
+the first overthrow of the church and empire of the Greeks may be
+imputed to their arms; and the disciples of Mahomet still hold
+the civil and religious sceptre of the Oriental world.  But the
+same labor would be unworthily bestowed on the swarms of savages,
+who, between the seventh and the twelfth century, descended from
+the plains of Scythia, in transient inroad or perpetual
+emigration. ^1 Their names are uncouth, their origins doubtful,
+their actions obscure, their superstition was blind, their valor
+brutal, and the uniformity of their public and private lives was
+neither softened by innocence nor refined by policy. The majesty
+of the Byzantine throne repelled and survived their disorderly
+attacks; the greater part of these Barbarians has disappeared
+without leaving any memorial of their existence, and the
+despicable remnant continues, and may long continue, to groan
+under the dominion of a foreign tyrant.  From the antiquities of,
+I.  Bulgarians, II.  Hungarians, and, III.  Russians, I shall
+content myself with selecting such facts as yet deserve to be
+remembered.  The conquests of the, IV.  Normans, and the monarchy
+of the, V.  Turks, will naturally terminate in the memorable
+Crusades to the Holy Land, and the double fall of the city and
+empire of Constantine.
+
+[Footnote 1: All the passages of the Byzantine history which
+relate to the Barbarians are compiled, methodized, and
+transcribed, in a Latin version, by the laborious John Gotthelf
+Stritter, in his "Memoriae Populorum, ad Danubium, Pontum
+Euxinum, Paludem Maeotidem, Caucasum, Mare Caspium, et inde Magis
+ad Septemtriones incolentium." Petropoli, 1771 - 1779; in four
+tomes, or six volumes, in 4to.  But the fashion has not enhanced
+the price of these raw materials.]
+
+I.  In his march to Italy, Theodoric ^2 the Ostrogoth had
+trampled on the arms of the Bulgarians.  After this defeat, the
+name and the nation are lost during a century and a half; and it
+may be suspected that the same or a similar appellation was
+revived by strange colonies from the Borysthenes, the Tanais, or
+the Volga.  A king of the ancient Bulgaria, bequeathed to his
+five sons a last lesson of moderation and concord.  It was
+received as youth has ever received the counsels of age and
+experience: the five princes buried their father; divided his
+subjects and cattle; forgot his advice; separated from each
+other; and wandered in quest of fortune till we find the most
+adventurous in the heart of Italy, under the protection of the
+exarch of Ravenna. ^4 But the stream of emigration was directed
+or impelled towards the capital.  The modern Bulgaria, along the
+southern banks of the Danube, was stamped with the name and image
+which it has retained to the present hour: the new conquerors
+successively acquired, by war or treaty, the Roman provinces of
+Dardania, Thessaly, and the two Epirus; ^5 the ecclesiastical
+supremacy was translated from the native city of Justinian; and,
+in their prosperous age, the obscure town of Lychnidus, or
+Achrida, was honored with the throne of a king and a patriarch.
+^6 The unquestionable evidence of language attests the descent of
+the Bulgarians from the original stock of the Sclavonian, or more
+properly Slavonian, race; ^7 and the kindred bands of Servians,
+Bosnians, Rascians, Croatians, Walachians, ^8 &c., followed
+either the standard or the example of the leading tribe.  From
+the Euxine to the Adriatic, in the state of captives, or
+subjects, or allies, or enemies, of the Greek empire, they
+overspread the land; and the national appellation of the slaves
+^9 has been degraded by chance or malice from the signification
+of glory to that of servitude. ^10 Among these colonies, the
+Chrobatians, ^11 or Croats, who now attend the motions of an
+Austrian army, are the descendants of a mighty people, the
+conquerors and sovereigns of Dalmatia.  The maritime cities, and
+of these the infant republic of Ragusa, implored the aid and
+instructions of the Byzantine court: they were advised by the
+magnanimous Basil to reserve a small acknowledgment of their
+fidelity to the Roman empire, and to appease, by an annual
+tribute, the wrath of these irresistible Barbarians. The kingdom
+of Crotia was shared by eleven Zoupans, or feudatory lords; and
+their united forces were numbered at sixty thousand horse and one
+hundred thousand foot.  A long sea-coast, indented with capacious
+harbors, covered with a string of islands, and almost in sight of
+the Italian shores, disposed both the natives and strangers to
+the practice of navigation.  The boats or brigantines of the
+Croats were constructed after the fashion of the old Liburnians:
+one hundred and eighty vessels may excite the idea of a
+respectable navy; but our seamen will smile at the allowance of
+ten, or twenty, or forty, men for each of these ships of war.
+They were gradually converted to the more honorable service of
+commerce; yet the Sclavonian pirates were still frequent and
+dangerous; and it was not before the close of the tenth century
+that the freedom and sovereignty of the Gulf were effectually
+vindicated by the Venetian republic. ^12 The ancestors of these
+Dalmatian kings were equally removed from the use and abuse of
+navigation: they dwelt in the White Croatia, in the inland
+regions of Silesia and Little Poland, thirty days' journey,
+according to the Greek computation, from the sea of darkness.
+
+[Footnote 2: Hist. vol. iv. p. 11.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Theophanes, p. 296 - 299. Anastasius, p. 113.
+Nicephorus, C. P. p. 22, 23.  Theophanes places the old Bulgaria
+on the banks of the Atell or Volga; but he deprives himself of
+all geographical credit by discharging that river into the Euxine
+Sea.]
+
+[Footnote 4: Paul. Diacon. de Gestis Langobard. l. v. c. 29, p.
+881, 882. The apparent difference between the Lombard historian
+and the above- mentioned Greeks, is easily reconciled by Camillo
+Pellegrino (de Ducatu Beneventano, dissert. vii. in the
+Scriptores Rerum Ital. tom. v. p. 186, 187) and Beretti,
+(Chorograph. Italiae Medii Aevi, p. 273, &c.  This Bulgarian
+colony was planted in a vacant district of Samnium, and learned
+the Latin, without forgetting their native language.]
+
+[Footnote 5: These provinces of the Greek idiom and empire are
+assigned to the Bulgarian kingdom in the dispute of
+ecclesiastical jurisdiction between the patriarchs of Rome and
+Constantinople, (Baronius, Annal. Eccles. A.D. 869, No. 75.)]
+
+[Footnote 6: The situation and royalty of Lychnidus, or Achrida,
+are clearly expressed in Cedrenus, (p. 713.) The removal of an
+archbishop or patriarch from Justinianea prima to Lychnidus, and
+at length to Ternovo, has produced some perplexity in the ideas
+or language of the Greeks, (Nicephorus Gregoras, l. ii. c. 2, p.
+14, 15.  Thomassin, Discipline de l'Eglise, tom. i. l. i. c. 19,
+23;) and a Frenchman (D'Anville) is more accurately skilled in
+the geography of their own country, (Hist. de l'Academie des
+Inscriptions, tom. xxxi.)]
+
+[Footnote 7: Chalcocondyles, a competent judge, affirms the
+identity of the language of the Dalmatians, Bosnians, Servians,
+Bulgarians, Poles, (de Rebus Turcicis, l. x. p. 283,) and
+elsewhere of the Bohemians, (l. ii. p. 38.) The same author has
+marked the separate idiom of the Hungarians.
+
+Note: The Slavonian languages are no doubt Indo-European,
+though an original branch of that great family, comprehending the
+various dialects named by Gibbon and others.  Shafarik, t. 33. -
+M. 1845.]
+
+[Footnote 8: See the work of John Christopher de Jordan, de
+Originibus Sclavicis, Vindobonae, 1745, in four parts, or two
+volumes in folio.  His collections and researches are useful to
+elucidate the antiquities of Bohemia and the adjacent countries;
+but his plan is narrow, his style barbarous, his criticism
+shallow, and the Aulic counsellor is not free from the prejudices
+of a Bohemian.
+
+Note: We have at length a profound and satisfactory work on
+the Slavonian races.  Shafarik, Slawische Alterthumer.  B. 2,
+Leipzig, 1843. - M. 1845.]
+
+[Footnote 9: Jordan subscribes to the well-known and probable
+derivation from Slava, laus, gloria, a word of familiar use in
+the different dialects and parts of speech, and which forms the
+termination of the most illustrious names, (de Originibus
+Sclavicis, pars. i. p. 40, pars. iv. p. 101, 102)]
+
+[Footnote 10: This conversion of a national into an appellative
+name appears to have arisen in the viiith century, in the
+Oriental France, where the princes and bishops were rich in
+Sclavonian captives, not of the Bohemian, (exclaims Jordan,) but
+of Sorabian race.  From thence the word was extended to the
+general use, to the modern languages, and even to the style of
+the last Byzantines, (see the Greek and Latin Glossaries and
+Ducange.) The confusion of the Servians with the Latin Servi, was
+still more fortunate and familiar, (Constant. Porphyr. de
+Administrando, Imperio, c. 32, p. 99.)]
+
+[Footnote 11: The emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, most
+accurate for his own times, most fabulous for preceding ages,
+describes the Sclavonians of Dalmatia, (c. 29 - 36.)]
+
+[Footnote 12: See the anonymous Chronicle of the xith century,
+ascribed to John Sagorninus, (p. 94 - 102,) and that composed in
+the xivth by the Doge Andrew Dandolo, (Script. Rerum. Ital. tom.
+xii. p. 227 - 230,) the two oldest monuments of the history of
+Venice.]
+
+The glory of the Bulgarians ^13 was confined to a narrow
+scope both of time and place.  In the ninth and tenth centuries,
+they reigned to the south of the Danube; but the more powerful
+nations that had followed their emigration repelled all return to
+the north and all progress to the west. Yet in the obscure
+catalogue of their exploits, they might boast an honor which had
+hitherto been appropriated to the Goths: that of slaying in
+battle one of the successors of Augustus and Constantine.  The
+emperor Nicephorus had lost his fame in the Arabian, he lost his
+life in the Sclavonian, war.  In his first operations he advanced
+with boldness and success into the centre of Bulgaria, and burnt
+the royal court, which was probably no more than an edifice and
+village of timber.  But while he searched the spoil and refused
+all offers of treaty, his enemies collected their spirits and
+their forces: the passes of retreat were insuperably barred; and
+the trembling Nicephorus was heard to exclaim, "Alas, alas!
+unless we could assume the wings of birds, we cannot hope to
+escape." Two days he waited his fate in the inactivity of
+despair; but, on the morning of the third, the Bulgarians
+surprised the camp, and the Roman prince, with the great officers
+of the empire, were slaughtered in their tents.  The body of
+Valens had been saved from insult; but the head of Nicephorus was
+exposed on a spear, and his skull, enchased with gold, was often
+replenished in the feasts of victory.  The Greeks bewailed the
+dishonor of the throne; but they acknowledged the just punishment
+of avarice and cruelty.  This savage cup was deeply tinctured
+with the manners of the Scythian wilderness; but they were
+softened before the end of the same century by a peaceful
+intercourse with the Greeks, the possession of a cultivated
+region, and the introduction of the Christian worship.  The
+nobles of Bulgaria were educated in the schools and palace of
+Constantinople; and Simeon, ^14 a youth of the royal line, was
+instructed in the rhetoric of Demosthenes and the logic of
+Aristotle.  He relinquished the profession of a monk for that of
+a king and warrior; and in his reign of more than forty years,
+Bulgaria assumed a rank among the civilized powers of the earth.
+The Greeks, whom he repeatedly attacked, derived a faint
+consolation from indulging themselves in the reproaches of
+perfidy and sacrilege.  They purchased the aid of the Pagan
+Turks; but Simeon, in a second battle, redeemed the loss of the
+first, at a time when it was esteemed a victory to elude the arms
+of that formidable nation.  The Servians were overthrown, made
+captive and dispersed; and those who visited the country before
+their restoration could discover no more than fifty vagrants,
+without women or children, who extorted a precarious subsistence
+from the chase.  On classic ground, on the banks of Achelous, the
+greeks were defeated; their horn was broken by the strength of
+the Barbaric Hercules. ^15 He formed the siege of Constantinople;
+and, in a personal conference with the emperor, Simeon imposed
+the conditions of peace.  They met with the most jealous
+precautions: the royal gallery was drawn close to an artificial
+and well-fortified platform; and the majesty of the purple was
+emulated by the pomp of the Bulgarian.  "Are you a Christian?"
+said the humble Romanus: "it is your duty to abstain from the
+blood of your fellow- Christians.  Has the thirst of riches
+seduced you from the blessings of peace? Sheathe your sword, open
+your hand, and I will satiate the utmost measure of your
+desires." The reconciliation was sealed by a domestic alliance;
+the freedom of trade was granted or restored; the first honors of
+the court were secured to the friends of Bulgaria, above the
+ambassadors of enemies or strangers; ^16 and her princes were
+dignified with the high and invidious title of Basileus, or
+emperor.  But this friendship was soon disturbed: after the death
+of Simeon, the nations were again in arms; his feeble successors
+were divided and extinguished; and, in the beginning of the
+eleventh century, the second Basil, who was born in the purple,
+deserved the appellation of conqueror of the Bulgarians.  His
+avarice was in some measure gratified by a treasure of four
+hundred thousand pounds sterling, (ten thousand pounds' weight of
+gold,) which he found in the palace of Lychnidus.  His cruelty
+inflicted a cool and exquisite vengeance on fifteen thousand
+captives who had been guilty of the defence of their country.
+They were deprived of sight; but to one of each hundred a single
+eye was left, that he might conduct his blind century to the
+presence of their king.  Their king is said to have expired of
+grief and horror; the nation was awed by this terrible example;
+the Bulgarians were swept away from their settlements, and
+circumscribed within a narrow province; the surviving chiefs
+bequeathed to their children the advice of patience and the duty
+of revenge.
+
+[Footnote 13: The first kingdom of the Bulgarians may be found,
+under the proper dates, in the Annals of Cedrenus and Zonaras.
+The Byzantine materials are collected by Stritter, (Memoriae
+Populorum, tom. ii. pars ii. p. 441 - 647;) and the series of
+their kings is disposed and settled by Ducange, (Fam. Byzant. p.
+305 - 318.)
+
+[Footnote 14: Simeonem semi-Graecum esse aiebant, eo quod a
+pueritia Byzantii Demosthenis rhetoricam et Aristotelis
+syllogismos didicerat, (Liutprand, l. iii. c. 8.) He says in
+another place, Simeon, fortis bella tor, Bulgariae praeerat;
+Christianus, sed vicinis Graecis valde inimicus, (l. i. c. 2.)]
+
+[Footnote 15: -     Rigidum fera dextera cornu
+               Dum tenet, infregit, truncaque a fronte revellit.
+Ovid (Metamorph. ix. 1 - 100) has boldly painted the combat of
+the river god and the hero; the native and the stranger.]
+
+[Footnote 16: The ambassador of Otho was provoked by the Greek
+excuses, cum Christophori filiam Petrus Bulgarorum Vasileus
+conjugem duceret, Symphona, id est consonantia scripto juramento
+firmata sunt, ut omnium gentium Apostolis, id est nunciis, penes
+nos Bulgarorum Apostoli praeponantur, honorentur, diligantur,
+(Liutprand in Legatione, p. 482.) See the Ceremoniale of
+Constantine Porphyrogenitus, tom. i. p. 82, tom. ii. p. 429, 430,
+434, 435, 443, 444, 446, 447, with the annotations of Reiske.]
+
+II.  When the black swarm of Hungarians first hung over
+Europe, above nine hundred years after the Christian aera, they
+were mistaken by fear and superstition for the Gog and Magog of
+the Scriptures, the signs and forerunners of the end of the
+world. ^17 Since the introduction of letters, they have explored
+their own antiquities with a strong and laudable impulse of
+patriotic curiosity. ^18 Their rational criticism can no longer
+be amused with a vain pedigree of Attila and the Huns; but they
+complain that their primitive records have perished in the Tartar
+war; that the truth or fiction of their rustic songs is long
+since forgotten; and that the fragments of a rude chronicle ^19
+must be painfully reconciled with the contemporary though foreign
+intelligence of the imperial geographer. ^20 Magiar is the
+national and oriental denomination of the Hungarians; but, among
+the tribes of Scythia, they are distinguished by the Greeks under
+the proper and peculiar name of Turks, as the descendants of that
+mighty people who had conquered and reigned from China to the
+Volga.  The Pannonian colony preserved a correspondence of trade
+and amity with the eastern Turks on the confines of Persia and
+after a separation of three hundred and fifty years, the
+missionaries of the king of Hungary discovered and visited their
+ancient country near the banks of the Volga.  They were
+hospitably entertained by a people of Pagans and Savages who
+still bore the name of Hungarians; conversed in their native
+tongue, recollected a tradition of their long-lost brethren, and
+listened with amazement to the marvellous tale of their new
+kingdom and religion.  The zeal of conversion was animated by the
+interest of consanguinity; and one of the greatest of their
+princes had formed the generous, though fruitless, design of
+replenishing the solitude of Pannonia by this domestic colony
+from the heart of Tartary. ^21 From this primitive country they
+were driven to the West by the tide of war and emigration, by the
+weight of the more distant tribes, who at the same time were
+fugitives and conquerors. ^* Reason or fortune directed their
+course towards the frontiers of the Roman empire: they halted in
+the usual stations along the banks of the great rivers; and in
+the territories of Moscow, Kiow, and Moldavia, some vestiges have
+been discovered of their temporary residence.  In this long and
+various peregrination, they could not always escape the dominion
+of the stronger; and the purity of their blood was improved or
+sullied by the mixture of a foreign race: from a motive of
+compulsion, or choice, several tribes of the Chazars were
+associated to the standard of their ancient vassals; introduced
+the use of a second language; and obtained by their superior
+renown the most honorable place in the front of battle.  The
+military force of the Turks and their allies marched in seven
+equal and artificial divisions; each division was formed of
+thirty thousand eight hundred and fifty-seven warriors, and the
+proportion of women, children, and servants, supposes and
+requires at least a million of emigrants.  Their public counsels
+were directed by seven vayvods, or hereditary chiefs; but the
+experience of discord and weakness recommended the more simple
+and vigorous administration of a single person. The sceptre,
+which had been declined by the modest Lebedias, was granted to
+the birth or merit of Almus and his son Arpad, and the authority
+of the supreme khan of the Chazars confirmed the engagement of
+the prince and people; of the people to obey his commands, of the
+prince to consult their happiness and glory.
+
+[Footnote 17: A bishop of Wurtzburgh submitted his opinion to a
+reverend abbot; but he more gravely decided, that Gog and Magog
+were the spiritual persecutors of the church; since Gog signifies
+the root, the pride of the Heresiarchs, and Magog what comes from
+the root, the propagation of their sects.  Yet these men once
+commanded the respect of mankind, (Fleury, Hist. Eccles. tom. xi.
+p. 594, &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 18: The two national authors, from whom I have derived
+the mos assistance, are George Pray (Dissertationes and Annales
+veterum Hun garorum, &c., Vindobonae, 1775, in folio) and Stephen
+Katona, (Hist. Critica Ducum et Regum Hungariae Stirpis
+Arpadianae, Paestini, 1778 - 1781, 5 vols. in octavo.) The first
+embraces a large and often conjectural space; the latter, by his
+learning, judgment, and perspicuity, deserves the name of a
+critical historian.
+
+Note: Compare Engel Geschichte des Ungrischen Reichs und
+seiner Neben lander, Halle, 1797, and Mailath, Geschichte der
+Magyaren, Wien, 1828.  In an appendix to the latter work will be
+found a brief abstract of the speculations (for it is difficult
+to consider them more) which have been advanced by the learned,
+on the origin of the Magyar and Hungarian names. Compare vol. vi.
+p. 35, note. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 19: The author of this Chronicle is styled the notary
+of King Bela. Katona has assigned him to the xiith century, and
+defends his character against the hypercriticism of Pray.  This
+rude annalist must have transcribed some historical records,
+since he could affirm with dignity, rejectis falsis fabulis
+rusticorum, et garrulo cantu joculatorum.  In the xvth century,
+these fables were collected by Thurotzius, and embellished by the
+Italian Bonfinius. See the Preliminary Discourse in the Hist.
+Critica Ducum, p. 7 - 33.]
+
+[Footnote 20: See Constantine de Administrando Imperio, c. 3, 4,
+13, 38 - 42, Katona has nicely fixed the composition of this work
+to the years 949, 950, 951, (p. 4 - 7.) The critical historian
+(p. 34 - 107) endeavors to prove the existence, and to relate the
+actions, of a first duke Almus the father of Arpad, who is
+tacitly rejected by Constantine.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Pray (Dissert. p. 37 - 39, &c.) produces and
+illustrates the original passages of the Hungarian missionaries,
+Bonfinius and Aeneas Sylvius.]
+
+[Footnote *: In the deserts to the south-east of Astrakhan have
+been found the ruins of a city named Madchar, which proves the
+residence of the Hungarians or Magiar in those regions.  Precis
+de la Geog. Univ. par Malte Brun, vol. i. p. 353. - G.
+
+This is contested by Klaproth in his Travels, c. xxi.
+Madschar, (he states) in old Tartar, means "stone building." This
+was a Tartar city mentioned by the Mahometan writers. - M.]
+
+With this narrative we might be reasonably content, if the
+penetration of modern learning had not opened a new and larger
+prospect of the antiquities of nations.  The Hungarian language
+stands alone, and as it were insulated, among the Sclavonian
+dialects; but it bears a close and clear affinity to the idioms
+of the Fennic race, ^22 of an obsolete and savage race, which
+formerly occupied the northern regions of Asia and Europe. ^* The
+genuine appellation of Ugri or Igours is found on the western
+confines of China; ^23 their migration to the banks of the Irtish
+is attested by Tartar evidence; ^24 a similar name and language
+are detected in the southern parts of Siberia; ^25 and the
+remains of the Fennic tribes are widely, though thinly scattered
+from the sources of the Oby to the shores of Lapland. ^26 The
+consanguinity of the Hungarians and Laplanders would display the
+powerful energy of climate on the children of a common parent;
+the lively contrast between the bold adventurers who are
+intoxicated with the wines of the Danube, and the wretched
+fugitives who are immersed beneath the snows of the polar circle.
+
+Arms and freedom have ever been the ruling, though too often the
+unsuccessful, passion of the Hungarians, who are endowed by
+nature with a vigorous constitution of soul and body. ^27 Extreme
+cold has diminished the stature and congealed the faculties of
+the Laplanders; and the arctic tribes, alone among the sons of
+men, are ignorant of war, and unconscious of human blood; a happy
+ignorance, if reason and virtue were the guardians of their
+peace! ^28
+
+[Footnote 22: Fischer in the Quaestiones Petropolitanae, de
+Origine Ungrorum, and Pray, Dissertat. i. ii. iii. &c., have
+drawn up several comparative tables of the Hungarian with the
+Fennic dialects.  The affinity is indeed striking, but the lists
+are short; the words are purposely chosen; and I read in the
+learned Bayer, (Comment. Academ. Petropol. tom. x. p. 374,) that
+although the Hungarian has adopted many Fennic words, (innumeras
+voces,) it essentially differs toto genio et natura.]
+
+[Footnote *: The connection between the Magyar language and that
+of the Finns is now almost generally admitted.  Klaproth, Asia
+Polyglotta, p. 188, &c. Malte Bran, tom. vi. p. 723, &c. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 23: In the religion of Turfan, which is clearly and
+minutely described by the Chinese Geographers, (Gaubil, Hist. du
+Grand Gengiscan, 13; De Guignes, Hist. des Huns, tom. ii. p. 31,
+&c.)]
+
+[Footnote 24: Hist. Genealogique des Tartars, par Abulghazi
+Bahadur Khan partie ii. p. 90 - 98.]
+
+[Footnote 25: In their journey to Pekin, both Isbrand Ives
+(Harris's Collection of Voyages and Travels, vol. ii. p. 920,
+921) and Bell (Travels, vol. i p. 174) found the Vogulitz in the
+neighborhood of Tobolsky.  By the tortures of the etymological
+art, Ugur and Vogul are reduced to the same name; the
+circumjacent mountains really bear the appellation of Ugrian; and
+of all the Fennic dialects, the Vogulian is the nearest to the
+Hungarian, (Fischer, Dissert. i. p. 20 - 30.  Pray. Dissert. ii.
+p. 31 - 34.)]
+
+[Footnote 26: The eight tribes of the Fennic race are described
+in the curious work of M. Leveque, (Hist. des Peuples soumis a la
+Domination de la Russie, tom. ii. p. 361 - 561.)]
+
+[Footnote 27: This picture of the Hungarians and Bulgarians is
+chiefly drawn from the Tactics of Leo, p. 796 - 801, and the
+Latin Annals, which are alleged by Baronius, Pagi, and Muratori,
+A.D. 889, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Buffon, Hist. Naturelle, tom. v. p. 6, in 12mo.
+Gustavus Adolphus attempted, without success, to form a regiment
+of Laplanders. Grotius says of these arctic tribes, arma arcus et
+pharetra, sed adversus feras, (Annal. l. iv. p. 236;) and
+attempts, after the manner of Tacitus, to varnish with philosophy
+their brutal ignorance.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LV: The Bulgarians, The Hungarians And The Russians.
+
+Part II.
+
+It is the observation of the Imperial author of the Tactics,
+^29 that all the Scythian hordes resembled each other in their
+pastoral and military life, that they all practised the same
+means of subsistence, and employed the same instruments of
+destruction.  But he adds, that the two nations of Bulgarians and
+Hungarians were superior to their brethren, and similar to each
+other in the improvements, however rude, of their discipline and
+government: their visible likeness determines Leo to confound his
+friends and enemies in one common description; and the picture
+may be heightened by some strokes from their contemporaries of
+the tenth century.  Except the merit and fame of military
+prowess, all that is valued by mankind appeared vile and
+contemptible to these Barbarians, whose native fierceness was
+stimulated by the consciousness of numbers and freedom.  The
+tents of the Hungarians were of leather, their garments of fur;
+they shaved their hair, and scarified their faces: in speech they
+were slow, in action prompt, in treaty perfidious; and they
+shared the common reproach of Barbarians, too ignorant to
+conceive the importance of truth, too proud to deny or palliate
+the breach of their most solemn engagements.  Their simplicity
+has been praised; yet they abstained only from the luxury they
+had never known; whatever they saw they coveted; their desires
+were insatiate, and their sole industry was the hand of violence
+and rapine.  By the definition of a pastoral nation, I have
+recalled a long description of the economy, the warfare, and the
+government that prevail in that state of society; I may add, that
+to fishing, as well as to the chase, the Hungarians were indebted
+for a part of their subsistence; and since they seldom cultivated
+the ground, they must, at least in their new settlements, have
+sometimes practised a slight and unskilful husbandry.  In their
+emigrations, perhaps in their expeditions, the host was
+accompanied by thousands of sheep and oxen which increased the
+cloud of formidable dust, and afforded a constant and wholesale
+supply of milk and animal food.  A plentiful command of forage
+was the first care of the general, and if the flocks and herds
+were secure of their pastures, the hardy warrior was alike
+insensible of danger and fatigue.  The confusion of men and
+cattle that overspread the country exposed their camp to a
+nocturnal surprise, had not a still wider circuit been occupied
+by their light cavalry, perpetually in motion to discover and
+delay the approach of the enemy.  After some experience of the
+Roman tactics, they adopted the use of the sword and spear, the
+helmet of the soldier, and the iron breastplate of his steed: but
+their native and deadly weapon was the Tartar bow: from the
+earliest infancy their children and servants were exercised in
+the double science of archery and horsemanship; their arm was
+strong; their aim was sure; and in the most rapid career, they
+were taught to throw themselves backwards, and to shoot a volley
+of arrows into the air.  In open combat, in secret ambush, in
+flight, or pursuit, they were equally formidable; an appearance
+of order was maintained in the foremost ranks, but their charge
+was driven forwards by the impatient pressure of succeeding
+crowds.  They pursued, headlong and rash, with loosened reins and
+horrific outcries; but, if they fled, with real or dissembled
+fear, the ardor of a pursuing foe was checked and chastised by
+the same habits of irregular speed and sudden evolution.  In the
+abuse of victory, they astonished Europe, yet smarting from the
+wounds of the Saracen and the Dane: mercy they rarely asked, and
+more rarely bestowed: both sexes were accused is equally
+inaccessible to pity, and their appetite for raw flesh might
+countenance the popular tale, that they drank the blood, and
+feasted on the hearts of the slain.  Yet the Hungarians were not
+devoid of those principles of justice and humanity, which nature
+has implanted in every bosom.  The license of public and private
+injuries was restrained by laws and punishments; and in the
+security of an open camp, theft is the most tempting and most
+dangerous offence.  Among the Barbarians there were many, whose
+spontaneous virtue supplied their laws and corrected their
+manners, who performed the duties, and sympathized with the
+affections, of social life.
+
+[Footnote 29: Leo has observed, that the government of the Turks
+was monarchical, and that their punishments were rigorous,
+(Tactic. p. 896) Rhegino (in Chron. A.D. 889) mentions theft as a
+capital crime, and his jurisprudence is confirmed by the original
+code of St. Stephen, (A.D. 1016.) If a slave were guilty, he was
+chastised, for the first time, with the loss of his nose, or a
+fine of five heifers; for the second, with the loss of his ears,
+or a similar fine; for the third, with death; which the freeman
+did not incur till the fourth offence, as his first penalty was
+the loss of liberty, (Katona, Hist. Regum Hungar tom. i. p. 231,
+232.)]
+
+After a long pilgrimage of flight or victory, the Turkish
+hordes approached the common limits of the French and Byzantine
+empires.  Their first conquests and final settlements extended on
+either side of the Danube above Vienna, below Belgrade, and
+beyond the measure of the Roman province of Pannonia, or the
+modern kingdom of Hungary. ^30 That ample and fertile land was
+loosely occupied by the Moravians, a Sclavonian name and tribe,
+which were driven by the invaders into the compass of a narrow
+province. Charlemagne had stretched a vague and nominal empire as
+far as the edge of Transylvania; but, after the failure of his
+legitimate line, the dukes of Moravia forgot their obedience and
+tribute to the monarchs of Oriental France.  The bastard Arnulph
+was provoked to invite the arms of the Turks: they rushed through
+the real or figurative wall, which his indiscretion had thrown
+open; and the king of Germany has been justly reproached as a
+traitor to the civil and ecclesiastical society of the
+Christians.  During the life of Arnulph, the Hungarians were
+checked by gratitude or fear; but in the infancy of his son Lewis
+they discovered and invaded Bavaria; and such was their Scythian
+speed, that in a single day a circuit of fifty miles was stripped
+and consumed.  In the battle of Augsburgh the Christians
+maintained their advantage till the seventh hour of the day, they
+were deceived and vanquished by the flying stratagems of the
+Turkish cavalry. The conflagration spread over the provinces of
+Bavaria, Swabia, and Franconia; and the Hungarians ^31 promoted
+the reign of anarchy, by forcing the stoutest barons to
+discipline their vassals and fortify their castles. The origin of
+walled towns is ascribed to this calamitous period; nor could any
+distance be secure against an enemy, who, almost at the same
+instant, laid in ashes the Helvetian monastery of St. Gall, and
+the city of Bremen, on the shores of the northern ocean.  Above
+thirty years the Germanic empire, or kingdom, was subject to the
+ignominy of tribute; and resistance was disarmed by the menace,
+the serious and effectual menace of dragging the women and
+children into captivity, and of slaughtering the males above the
+age of ten years.  I have neither power nor inclination to follow
+the Hungarians beyond the Rhine; but I must observe with
+surprise, that the southern provinces of France were blasted by
+the tempest, and that Spain, behind her Pyrenees, was astonished
+at the approach of these formidable strangers. ^32 The vicinity
+of Italy had tempted their early inroads; but from their camp on
+the Brenta, they beheld with some terror the apparent strength
+and populousness of the new discovered country.  They requested
+leave to retire; their request was proudly rejected by the
+Italian king; and the lives of twenty thousand Christians paid
+the forfeit of his obstinacy and rashness. Among the cities of
+the West, the royal Pavia was conspicuous in fame and splendor;
+and the preeminence of Rome itself was only derived from the
+relics of the apostles.  The Hungarians appeared; Pavia was in
+flames; forty-three churches were consumed; and, after the
+massacre of the people, they spared about two hundred wretches
+who had gathered some bushels of gold and silver (a vague
+exaggeration) from the smoking ruins of their country.  In these
+annual excursions from the Alps to the neighborhood of Rome and
+Capua, the churches, that yet escaped, resounded with a fearful
+litany: "O, save and deliver us from the arrows of the
+Hungarians!" But the saints were deaf or inexorable; and the
+torrent rolled forwards, till it was stopped by the extreme land
+of Calabria. ^33 A composition was offered and accepted for the
+head of each Italian subject; and ten bushels of silver were
+poured forth in the Turkish camp.  But falsehood is the natural
+antagonist of violence; and the robbers were defrauded both in
+the numbers of the assessment and the standard of the metal.  On
+the side of the East, the Hungarians were opposed in doubtful
+conflict by the equal arms of the Bulgarians, whose faith forbade
+an alliance with the Pagans, and whose situation formed the
+barrier of the Byzantine empire.  The barrier was overturned; the
+emperor of Constantinople beheld the waving banners of the Turks;
+and one of their boldest warriors presumed to strike a battle-axe
+into the golden gate.  The arts and treasures of the Greeks
+diverted the assault; but the Hungarians might boast, in their
+retreat, that they had imposed a tribute on the spirit of
+Bulgaria and the majesty of the Caesars. ^34 The remote and rapid
+operations of the same campaign appear to magnify the power and
+numbers of the Turks; but their courage is most deserving of
+praise, since a light troop of three or four hundred horse would
+often attempt and execute the most daring inroads to the gates of
+Thessalonica and Constantinople.  At this disastrous aera of the
+ninth and tenth centuries, Europe was afflicted by a triple
+scourge from the North, the East, and the South: the Norman, the
+Hungarian, and the Saracen, sometimes trod the same ground of
+desolation; and these savage foes might have been compared by
+Homer to the two lions growling over the carcass of a mangled
+stag. ^35 [Footnote 30: See Katona, Hist. Ducum Hungar. p. 321 -
+352.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Hungarorum gens, cujus omnes fere nationes expertae
+saevitium &c., is the preface of Liutprand, (l. i. c. 2,) who
+frequently expatiated on the calamities of his own times.  See l.
+i. c. 5, l. ii. c. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7; l. iii. c. 1, &c., l. v. c.
+8, 15, in Legat. p. 485.  His colors are glaring but his
+chronology must be rectified by Pagi and Muratori.]
+
+[Footnote 32: The three bloody reigns of Arpad, Zoltan, and
+Toxus, are critically illustrated by Katona, (Hist. Ducum, &c. p.
+107 - 499.) His diligence has searched both natives and
+foreigners; yet to the deeds of mischief, or glory, I have been
+able to add the destruction of Bremen, (Adam Bremensis, i. 43.)]
+
+[Footnote 33: Muratori has considered with patriotic care the
+danger and resources of Modena.  The citizens besought St.
+Geminianus, their patron, to avert, by his intercession, the
+rabies, flagellum, &c.
+
+Nunc te rogamus, licet servi pessimi,
+Ab Ungerorum nos defendas jaculis.
+
+The bishop erected walls for the public defence, not contra
+dominos serenos, (Antiquitat. Ital. Med. Aevi, tom. i. dissertat.
+i. p. 21, 22,) and the song of the nightly watch is not without
+elegance or use, (tom. iii. dis. xl. p. 709.) The Italian
+annalist has accurately traced the series of their inroads,
+(Annali d' Italia, tom. vii. p. 365, 367, 398, 401, 437, 440,
+tom. viii. p. 19, 41, 52, &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 34: Both the Hungarian and Russian annals suppose, that
+they besieged, or attacked, or insulted Constantinople, (Pray,
+dissertat. x. p. 239.  Katona, Hist. Ducum, p. 354 - 360;) and
+the fact is almost confessed by the Byzantine historians, (Leo
+Grammaticus, p. 506.  Cedrenus, tom. ii. p. 629: ) yet, however
+glorious to the nation, it is denied or doubted by the critical
+historian, and even by the notary of Bela.  Their scepticism is
+meritorious; they could not safely transcribe or believe the
+rusticorum fabulas: but Katona might have given due attention to
+the evidence of Liutprand, Bulgarorum gentem atque daecorum
+tributariam fecerant, (Hist. l. ii. c. 4, p. 435.)]
+
+[Footnote 35: - Iliad, xvi. 756.]
+
+The deliverance of Germany and Christendom was achieved by
+the Saxon princes, Henry the Fowler and Otho the Great, who, in
+two memorable battles, forever broke the power of the Hungarians.
+^36 The valiant Henry was roused from a bed of sickness by the
+invasion of his country; but his mind was vigorous and his
+prudence successful.  "My companions," said he, on the morning of
+the combat, "maintain your ranks, receive on your bucklers the
+first arrows of the Pagans, and prevent their second discharge by
+the equal and rapid career of your lances." They obeyed and
+conquered: and the historical picture of the castle of Merseburgh
+expressed the features, or at least the character, of Henry, who,
+in an age of ignorance, intrusted to the finer arts the
+perpetuity of his name. ^37 At the end of twenty years, the
+children of the Turks who had fallen by his sword invaded the
+empire of his son; and their force is defined, in the lowest
+estimate, at one hundred thousand horse.  They were invited by
+domestic faction; the gates of Germany were treacherously
+unlocked; and they spread, far beyond the Rhine and the Meuse,
+into the heart of Flanders.  But the vigor and prudence of Otho
+dispelled the conspiracy; the princes were made sensible that
+unless they were true to each other, their religion and country
+were irrecoverably lost; and the national powers were reviewed in
+the plains of Augsburgh.  They marched and fought in eight
+legions, according to the division of provinces and tribes; the
+first, second, and third, were composed of Bavarians; the fourth,
+of Franconians; the fifth, of Saxons, under the immediate command
+of the monarch; the sixth and seventh consisted of Swabians; and
+the eighth legion, of a thousand Bohemians, closed the rear of
+the host.  The resources of discipline and valor were fortified
+by the arts of superstition, which, on this occasion, may deserve
+the epithets of generous and salutary.  The soldiers were
+purified with a fast; the camp was blessed with the relics of
+saints and martyrs; and the Christian hero girded on his side the
+sword of Constantine, grasped the invincible spear of
+Charlemagne, and waved the banner of St. Maurice, the praefect of
+the Thebaean legion.  But his firmest confidence was placed in
+the holy lance, ^38 whose point was fashioned of the nails of the
+cross, and which his father had extorted from the king of
+Burgundy, by the threats of war, and the gift of a province.  The
+Hungarians were expected in the front; they secretly passed the
+Lech, a river of Bavaria that falls into the Danube; turned the
+rear of the Christian army; plundered the baggage, and disordered
+the legion of Bohemia and Swabia.  The battle was restored by the
+Franconians, whose duke, the valiant Conrad, was pierced with an
+arrow as he rested from his fatigues: the Saxons fought under the
+eyes of their king; and his victory surpassed, in merit and
+importance, the triumphs of the last two hundred years.  The loss
+of the Hungarians was still greater in the flight than in the
+action; they were encompassed by the rivers of Bavaria; and their
+past cruelties excluded them from the hope of mercy. Three
+captive princes were hanged at Ratisbon, the multitude of
+prisoners was slain or mutilated, and the fugitives, who presumed
+to appear in the face of their country, were condemned to
+everlasting poverty and disgrace. ^39 Yet the spirit of the
+nation was humbled, and the most accessible passes of Hungary
+were fortified with a ditch and rampart.  Adversity suggested the
+counsels of moderation and peace: the robbers of the West
+acquiesced in a sedentary life; and the next generation was
+taught, by a discerning prince, that far more might be gained by
+multiplying and exchanging the produce of a fruitful soil. The
+native race, the Turkish or Fennic blood, was mingled with new
+colonies of Scythian or Sclavonian origin; ^40 many thousands of
+robust and industrious captives had been imported from all the
+countries of Europe; ^41 and after the marriage of Geisa with a
+Bavarian princess, he bestowed honors and estates on the nobles
+of Germany. ^42 The son of Geisa was invested with the regal
+title, and the house of Arpad reigned three hundred years in the
+kingdom of Hungary. But the freeborn Barbarians were not dazzled
+by the lustre of the diadem, and the people asserted their
+indefeasible right of choosing, deposing, and punishing the
+hereditary servant of the state.
+
+[Footnote 36: They are amply and critically discussed by Katona,
+(Hist. Dacum, p. 360 - 368, 427 - 470.) Liutprand (l. ii. c. 8,
+9) is the best evidence for the former, and Witichind (Annal.
+Saxon. l. iii.) of the latter; but the critical historian will
+not even overlook the horn of a warrior, which is said to be
+preserved at Jaz-berid.]
+
+[Footnote 37: Hunc vero triumphum, tam laude quam memoria dignum,
+ad Meresburgum rex in superiori coenaculo domus per Zeus, id est,
+picturam, notari praecepit, adeo ut rem veram potius quam
+verisimilem videas: a high encomium, (Liutprand, l. ii. c. 9.)
+Another palace in Germany had been painted with holy subjects by
+the order of Charlemagne; and Muratori may justly affirm, nulla
+saecula fuere in quibus pictores desiderati fuerint, (Antiquitat.
+Ital. Medii Aevi, tom. ii. dissert. xxiv. p. 360, 361.) Our
+domestic claims to antiquity of ignorance and original
+imperfection (Mr. Walpole's lively words) are of a much more
+recent date, (Anecdotes of Painting, vol. i. p. 2, &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 38: See Baronius, Annal. Eccles. A.D. 929, No. 2 - 5.
+The lance of Christ is taken from the best evidence, Liutprand,
+(l. iv. c. 12,) Sigebert, and the Acts of St. Gerard: but the
+other military relics depend on the faith of the Gesta Anglorum
+post Bedam, l. ii. c. 8.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Katona, Hist. Ducum Hungariae, p. 500, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Among these colonies we may distinguish, 1. The
+Chazars, or Cabari, who joined the Hungarians on their march,
+(Constant. de Admin. Imp. c. 39, 40, p. 108, 109.) 2. The
+Jazyges, Moravians, and Siculi, whom they found in the land; the
+last were perhaps a remnant of the Huns of Attila, and were
+intrusted with the guard of the borders.  3. The Russians, who,
+like the Swiss in France, imparted a general name to the royal
+porters.  4. The Bulgarians, whose chiefs (A.D. 956) were
+invited, cum magna multitudine Hismahelitarum. Had any of those
+Sclavonians embraced the Mahometan religion?  5. The Bisseni and
+Cumans, a mixed multitude of Patzinacites, Uzi, Chazars, &c., who
+had spread to the Lower Danube.  The last colony of 40,000
+Cumans, A.D. 1239, was received and converted by the kings of
+Hungary, who derived from that tribe a new regal appellation,
+(Pray, Dissert. vi. vii. p. 109 - 173.  Katona, Hist. Ducum, p.
+95 - 99, 259 - 264, 476, 479 - 483, &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 41: Christiani autem, quorum pars major populi est, qui
+ex omni parte mundi illuc tracti sunt captivi, &c.  Such was the
+language of Piligrinus, the first missionary who entered Hungary,
+A.D. 973.  Pars major is strong.  Hist. Ducum, p. 517.]
+
+[Footnote 42: The fideles Teutonici of Geisa are authenticated in
+old charters: and Katona, with his usual industry, has made a
+fair estimate of these colonies, which had been so loosely
+magnified by the Italian Ranzanus, (Hist. Critic. Ducum. p, 667 -
+681.)]
+
+III.  The name of Russians ^43 was first divulged, in the
+ninth century, by an embassy of Theophilus, emperor of the East,
+to the emperor of the West, Lewis, the son of Charlemagne.  The
+Greeks were accompanied by the envoys of the great duke, or
+chagan, or czar, of the Russians.  In their journey to
+Constantinople, they had traversed many hostile nations; and they
+hoped to escape the dangers of their return, by requesting the
+French monarch to transport them by sea to their native country.
+A closer examination detected their origin: they were the
+brethren of the Swedes and Normans, whose name was already odious
+and formidable in France; and it might justly be apprehended,
+that these Russian strangers were not the messengers of peace,
+but the emissaries of war.  They were detained, while the Greeks
+were dismissed; and Lewis expected a more satisfactory account,
+that he might obey the laws of hospitality or prudence, according
+to the interest of both empires. ^44 This Scandinavian origin of
+the people, or at least the princes, of Russia, may be confirmed
+and illustrated by the national annals ^45 and the general
+history of the North.  The Normans, who had so long been
+concealed by a veil of impenetrable darkness, suddenly burst
+forth in the spirit of naval and military enterprise.  The vast,
+and, as it is said, the populous regions of Denmark, Sweden, and
+Norway, were crowded with independent chieftains and desperate
+adventurers, who sighed in the laziness of peace, and smiled in
+the agonies of death.  Piracy was the exercise, the trade, the
+glory, and the virtue, of the Scandinavian youth.  Impatient of a
+bleak climate and narrow limits, they started from the banquet,
+grasped their arms, sounded their horn, ascended their vessels,
+and explored every coast that promised either spoil or
+settlement. The Baltic was the first scene of their naval
+achievements they visited the eastern shores, the silent
+residence of Fennic and Sclavonic tribes, and the primitive
+Russians of the Lake Ladoga paid a tribute, the skins of white
+squirrels, to these strangers, whom they saluted with the title
+of Varangians ^46 or Corsairs.  Their superiority in arms,
+discipline, and renown, commanded the fear and reverence of the
+natives.  In their wars against the more inland savages, the
+Varangians condescended to serve as friends and auxiliaries, and
+gradually, by choice or conquest, obtained the dominion of a
+people whom they were qualified to protect.  Their tyranny was
+expelled, their valor was again recalled, till at length Ruric, a
+Scandinavian chief, became the father of a dynasty which reigned
+above seven hundred years. His brothers extended his influence:
+the example of service and usurpation was imitated by his
+companions in the southern provinces of Russia; and their
+establishments, by the usual methods of war and assassination,
+were cemented into the fabric of a powerful monarchy.
+
+[Footnote 43: Among the Greeks, this national appellation has a
+singular form, as an undeclinable word, of which many fanciful
+etymologies have been suggested.  I have perused, with pleasure
+and profit, a dissertation de Origine Russorum (Comment. Academ.
+Petropolitanae, tom. viii. p. 388 - 436) by Theophilus Sigefrid
+Bayer, a learned German, who spent his life and labors in the
+service of Russia.  A geographical tract of D'Anville, de
+l'Empire de Russie, son Origine, et ses Accroissemens, (Paris,
+1772, in 12mo.,) has likewise been of use.
+
+Note: The later antiquarians of Russia and Germany appear to
+aquiesce in the authority of the monk Nestor, the earliest
+annalist of Russia, who derives the Russians, or Vareques, from
+Scandinavia.  The names of the first founders of the Russian
+monarchy are Scandinavian or Norman. Their language (according to
+Const. Porphyrog. de Administrat. Imper. c. 9) differed
+essentially from the Sclavonian.  The author of the Annals of St.
+Bertin, who first names the Russians (Rhos) in the year 839 of
+his Annals, assigns them Sweden for their country.  So Liutprand
+calls the Russians the same people as the Normans.  The Fins,
+Laplanders, and Esthonians, call the Swedes, to the present day,
+Roots, Rootsi, Ruotzi, Rootslaue.  See Thunman, Untersuchungen
+uber der Geschichte des Estlichen Europaischen Volker, p. 374.
+Gatterer, Comm. Societ. Regbcient. Gotting. xiii. p. 126.
+Schlozer, in his Nestor. Koch. Revolut. de 'Europe, vol. i. p.
+60.  Malte-Brun, Geograph. vol. vi. p. 378. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 44: See the entire passage (dignum, says Bayer, ut
+aureis in tabulis rigatur) in the Annales Bertiniani Francorum,
+(in Script. Ital. Muratori, tom. ii. pars i. p. 525,) A.D. 839,
+twenty-two years before the aera of Ruric.  In the xth century,
+Liutprand (Hist. l. v. c. 6) speaks of the Russians and Normans
+as the same Aquilonares homines of a red complexion.]
+
+[Footnote 45: My knowledge of these annals is drawn from M.
+Leveque, Histoire de Russie.  Nestor, the first and best of these
+ancient annalists, was a monk of Kiow, who died in the beginning
+of the xiith century; but his Chronicle was obscure, till it was
+published at Petersburgh, 1767, in 4to. Leveque, Hist. de Russie,
+tom. i. p. xvi.  Coxe's Travels, vol. ii. p. 184.
+
+Note: The late M. Schlozer has translated and added a
+commentary to the Annals of Nestor;" and his work is the mine
+from which henceforth the history of the North must be drawn. -
+G.]
+
+[Footnote 46: Theophil. Sig. Bayer de Varagis, (for the name is
+differently spelt,) in Comment. Academ. Petropolitanae, tom. iv.
+p. 275 - 311.]
+
+As long as the descendants of Ruric were considered as
+aliens and conquerors, they ruled by the sword of the Varangians,
+distributed estates and subjects to their faithful captains, and
+supplied their numbers with fresh streams of adventurers from the
+Baltic coast. ^47 But when the Scandinavian chiefs had struck a
+deep and permanent root into the soil, they mingled with the
+Russians in blood, religion, and language, and the first
+Waladimir had the merit of delivering his country from these
+foreign mercenaries.  They had seated him on the throne; his
+riches were insufficient to satisfy their demands; but they
+listened to his pleasing advice, that they should seek, not a
+more grateful, but a more wealthy, master; that they should
+embark for Greece, where, instead of the skins of squirrels, silk
+and gold would be the recompense of their service.  At the same
+time, the Russian prince admonished his Byzantine ally to
+disperse and employ, to recompense and restrain, these impetuous
+children of the North. Contemporary writers have recorded the
+introduction, name, and character, of the Varangians: each day
+they rose in confidence and esteem; the whole body was assembled
+at Constantinople to perform the duty of guards; and their
+strength was recruited by a numerous band of their countrymen
+from the Island of Thule.  On this occasion, the vague
+appellation of Thule is applied to England; and the new
+Varangians were a colony of English and Danes who fled from the
+yoke of the Norman conqueror. The habits of pilgrimage and piracy
+had approximated the countries of the earth; these exiles were
+entertained in the Byzantine court; and they preserved, till the
+last age of the empire, the inheritance of spotless loyalty, and
+the use of the Danish or English tongue.  With their broad and
+double-edged battle-axes on their shoulders, they attended the
+Greek emperor to the temple, the senate, and the hippodrome; he
+slept and feasted under their trusty guard; and the keys of the
+palace, the treasury, and the capital, were held by the firm and
+faithful hands of the Varangians. ^48
+
+[Footnote 47: Yet, as late as the year 1018, Kiow and Russia were
+still guarded ex fugitivorum servorum robore, confluentium et
+maxime Danorum. Bayer, who quotes (p. 292) the Chronicle of
+Dithmar of Merseburgh, observes, that it was unusual for the
+Germans to enlist in a foreign service.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Ducange has collected from the original authors the
+state and history of the Varangi at Constantinople, (Glossar.
+Med. et Infimae Graecitatis, sub voce.  Med. et Infimae
+Latinitatis, sub voce Vagri. Not. ad Alexiad.  Annae Comnenae, p.
+256, 257, 258.  Notes sur Villehardouin, p. 296 - 299.) See
+likewise the annotations of Reiske to the Ceremoniale Aulae
+Byzant. of Constantine, tom. ii. p. 149, 150.  Saxo Grammaticus
+affirms that they spoke Danish; but Codinus maintains them till
+the fifteenth century in the use of their native English.]
+
+In the tenth century, the geography of Scythia was extended
+far beyond the limits of ancient knowledge; and the monarchy of
+the Russians obtains a vast and conspicuous place in the map of
+Constantine. ^49 The sons of Ruric were masters of the spacious
+province of Wolodomir, or Moscow; and, if they were confined on
+that side by the hordes of the East, their western frontier in
+those early days was enlarged to the Baltic Sea and the country
+of the Prussians.  Their northern reign ascended above the
+sixtieth degree of latitude over the Hyperborean regions, which
+fancy had peopled with monsters, or clouded with eternal
+darkness.  To the south they followed the course of the
+Borysthenes, and approached with that river the neighborhood of
+the Euxine Sea.  The tribes that dwelt, or wandered, in this
+ample circuit were obedient to the same conqueror, and insensibly
+blended into the same nation.  The language of Russia is a
+dialect of the Sclavonian; but in the tenth century, these two
+modes of speech were different from each other; and, as the
+Sclavonian prevailed in the South, it may be presumed that the
+original Russians of the North, the primitive subjects of the
+Varangian chief, were a portion of the Fennic race.  With the
+emigration, union, or dissolution, of the wandering tribes, the
+loose and indefinite picture of the Scythian desert has
+continually shifted.  But the most ancient map of Russia affords
+some places which still retain their name and position; and the
+two capitals, Novogorod ^50 and Kiow, ^51 are coeval with the
+first age of the monarchy. Novogorod had not yet deserved the
+epithet of great, nor the alliance of the Hanseatic League, which
+diffused the streams of opulence and the principles of freedom.
+Kiow could not yet boast of three hundred churches, an
+innumerable people, and a degree of greatness and splendor which
+was compared with Constantinople by those who had never seen the
+residence of the Caesars.  In their origin, the two cities were
+no more than camps or fairs, the most convenient stations in
+which the Barbarians might assemble for the occasional business
+of war or trade.  Yet even these assemblies announce some
+progress in the arts of society; a new breed of cattle was
+imported from the southern provinces; and the spirit of
+commercial enterprise pervaded the sea and land, from the Baltic
+to the Euxine, from the mouth of the Oder to the port of
+Constantinople.  In the days of idolatry and barbarism, the
+Sclavonic city of Julin was frequented and enriched by the
+Normans, who had prudently secured a free mart of purchase and
+exchange. ^52 From this harbor, at the entrance of the Oder, the
+corsair, or merchant, sailed in forty-three days to the eastern
+shores of the Baltic, the most distant nations were intermingled,
+and the holy groves of Curland are said to have been decorated
+with Grecian and Spanish gold. ^53 Between the sea and Novogorod
+an easy intercourse was discovered; in the summer, through a
+gulf, a lake, and a navigable river; in the winter season, over
+the hard and level surface of boundless snows.  From the
+neighborhood of that city, the Russians descended the streams
+that fall into the Borysthenes; their canoes, of a single tree,
+were laden with slaves of every age, furs of every species, the
+spoil of their beehives, and the hides of their cattle; and the
+whole produce of the North was collected and discharged in the
+magazines of Kiow.  The month of June was the ordinary season of
+the departure of the fleet: the timber of the canoes was framed
+into the oars and benches of more solid and capacious boats; and
+they proceeded without obstacle down the Borysthenes, as far as
+the seven or thirteen ridges of rocks, which traverse the bed,
+and precipitate the waters, of the river. At the more shallow
+falls it was sufficient to lighten the vessels; but the deeper
+cataracts were impassable; and the mariners, who dragged their
+vessels and their slaves six miles over land, were exposed in
+this toilsome journey to the robbers of the desert. ^54 At the
+first island below the falls, the Russians celebrated the
+festival of their escape: at a second, near the mouth of the
+river, they repaired their shattered vessels for the longer and
+more perilous voyage of the Black Sea.  If they steered along the
+coast, the Danube was accessible; with a fair wind they could
+reach in thirty-six or forty hours the opposite shores of
+Anatolia; and Constantinople admitted the annual visit of the
+strangers of the North. They returned at the stated season with a
+rich cargo of corn, wine, and oil, the manufactures of Greece,
+and the spices of India.  Some of their countrymen resided in the
+capital and provinces; and the national treaties protected the
+persons, effects, and privileges, of the Russian merchant. ^55
+
+[Footnote 49: The original record of the geography and trade of
+Russia is produced by the emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus,
+(de Administrat. Imperii, c. 2, p. 55, 56, c. 9, p. 59 - 61, c.
+13, p. 63 - 67, c. 37, p. 106, c. 42, p. 112, 113,) and
+illustrated by the diligence of Bayer, (de Geographia Russiae
+vicinarumque Regionum circiter A. C. 948, in Comment. Academ.
+Petropol. tom. ix. p. 367 - 422, tom. x. p. 371 - 421,) with the
+aid of the chronicles and traditions of Russia, Scandinavia, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 50: The haughty proverb, "Who can resist God and the
+great Novogorod?" is applied by M. Leveque (Hist. de Russie, tom.
+i. p. 60) even to the times that preceded the reign of Ruric.  In
+the course of his history he frequently celebrates this republic,
+which was suppressed A.D. 1475, (tom. ii. p. 252 - 266.) That
+accurate traveller Adam Olearius describes (in 1635) the remains
+of Novogorod, and the route by sea and land of the Holstein
+ambassadors, tom. i. p. 123 - 129.]
+
+[Footnote 51: In hac magna civitate, quae est caput regni, plus
+trecentae ecclesiae habentur et nundinae octo, populi etiam
+ignota manus (Eggehardus ad A.D. 1018, apud Bayer, tom. ix. p.
+412.) He likewise quotes (tom. x. p. 397) the words of the Saxon
+annalist, Cujus (Russioe) metropolis est Chive, aemula sceptri
+Constantinopolitani, quae est clarissimum decus Graeciae. The
+fame of Kiow, especially in the xith century, had reached the
+German and Arabian geographers.]
+
+[Footnote 52: In Odorae ostio qua Scythicas alluit paludes,
+nobilissima civitas Julinum, celeberrimam, Barbaris et Graecis
+qui sunt in circuitu, praestans stationem, est sane maxima omnium
+quas Europa claudit civitatum, (Adam Bremensis, Hist. Eccles. p.
+19;) a strange exaggeration even in the xith century.  The trade
+of the Baltic, and the Hanseatic League, are carefully treated in
+Anderson's Historical Deduction of Commerce; at least, in our
+language, I am not acquainted with any book so satisfactory.
+
+Note: The book of authority is the "Geschichte des
+Hanseatischen Bundes," by George Sartorius, Gottingen, 1803, or
+rather the later edition of that work by M. Lappenberg, 2 vols.
+4to., Hamburgh, 1830. - M. 1845.]
+
+[Footnote 53: According to Adam of Bremen, (de Situ Daniae, p.
+58,) the old Curland extended eight days' journey along the
+coast; and by Peter Teutoburgicus, (p. 68, A.D. 1326,) Memel is
+defined as the common frontier of Russia, Curland, and Prussia.
+Aurum ibi plurimum, (says Adam,) divinis auguribus atque
+necromanticis omnes domus sunt plenae .... a toto orbe ibi
+responsa petuntur, maxime ab Hispanis (forsan Zupanis, id est
+regulis Lettoviae) et Graecis.  The name of Greeks was applied to
+the Russians even before their conversion; an imperfect
+conversion, if they still consulted the wizards of Curland,
+(Bayer, tom. x. p. 378, 402, &c.  Grotius, Prolegomen. ad Hist.
+Goth. p. 99.)]
+
+[Footnote 54: Constantine only reckons seven cataracts, of which
+he gives the Russian and Sclavonic names; but thirteen are
+enumerated by the Sieur de Beauplan, a French engineer, who had
+surveyed the course and navigation of the Dnieper, or
+Borysthenes, (Description de l'Ukraine, Rouen, 1660, a thin
+quarto;) but the map is unluckily wanting in my copy.]
+
+[Footnote 55: Nestor, apud Leveque, Hist. de Russie, tom. i. p.
+78 - 80. From the Dnieper, or Borysthenes, the Russians went to
+Black Bulgaria, Chazaria, and Syria.  To Syria, how?  where?
+when?  The alteration is slight; the position of Suania, between
+Chazaria and Lazica, is perfectly suitable; and the name was
+still used in the xith century, (Cedren. tom. ii. p. 770.)]
+
+
+
+Chapter LV: The Bulgarians, The Hungarians And The Russians.
+
+Part III.
+
+But the same communication which had been opened for the
+benefit, was soon abused for the injury, of mankind.  In a period
+of one hundred and ninety years, the Russians made four attempts
+to plunder the treasures of Constantinople: the event was
+various, but the motive, the means, and the object, were the same
+in these naval expeditions. ^56 The Russian traders had seen the
+magnificence, and tasted the luxury of the city of the Caesars.
+A marvellous tale, and a scanty supply, excited the desires of
+their savage countrymen: they envied the gifts of nature which
+their climate denied; they coveted the works of art, which they
+were too lazy to imitate and too indigent to purchase; the
+Varangian princes unfurled the banners of piratical adventure,
+and their bravest soldiers were drawn from the nations that dwelt
+in the northern isles of the ocean. ^57 The image of their naval
+armaments was revived in the last century, in the fleets of the
+Cossacks, which issued from the Borysthenes, to navigate the same
+seas for a similar purpose. ^58 The Greek appellation of
+monoxyla, or single canoes, might justly be applied to the bottom
+of their vessels.  It was scooped out of the long stem of a beech
+or willow, but the slight and narrow foundation was raised and
+continued on either side with planks, till it attained the length
+of sixty, and the height of about twelve, feet.  These boats were
+built without a deck, but with two rudders and a mast; to move
+with sails and oars; and to contain from forty to seventy men,
+with their arms, and provisions of fresh water and salt fish. The
+first trial of the Russians was made with two hundred boats; but
+when the national force was exerted, they might arm against
+Constantinople a thousand or twelve hundred vessels. Their fleet
+was not much inferior to the royal navy of Agamemnon, but it was
+magnified in the eyes of fear to ten or fifteen times the real
+proportion of its strength and numbers.  Had the Greek emperors
+been endowed with foresight to discern, and vigor to prevent,
+perhaps they might have sealed with a maritime force the mouth of
+the Borysthenes.  Their indolence abandoned the coast of Anatolia
+to the calamities of a piratical war, which, after an interval of
+six hundred years, again infested the Euxine; but as long as the
+capital was respected, the sufferings of a distant province
+escaped the notice both of the prince and the historian. The
+storm which had swept along from the Phasis and Trebizond, at
+length burst on the Bosphorus of Thrace; a strait of fifteen
+miles, in which the rude vessels of the Russians might have been
+stopped and destroyed by a more skilful adversary.  In their
+first enterprise ^59 under the princes of Kiow, they passed
+without opposition, and occupied the port of Constantinople in
+the absence of the emperor Michael, the son of Theophilus.
+Through a crowd of perils, he landed at the palace-stairs, and
+immediately repaired to a church of the Virgin Mary. ^60 By the
+advice of the patriarch, her garment, a precious relic, was drawn
+from the sanctuary and dipped in the sea; and a seasonable
+tempest, which determined the retreat of the Russians, was
+devoutly ascribed to the mother of God. ^61 The silence of the
+Greeks may inspire some doubt of the truth, or at least of the
+importance, of the second attempt by Oleg, the guardian of the
+sons of Ruric. ^62 A strong barrier of arms and fortifications
+defended the Bosphorus: they were eluded by the usual expedient
+of drawing the boats over the isthmus; and this simple operation
+is described in the national chronicles, as if the Russian fleet
+had sailed over dry land with a brisk and favorable gale.  The
+leader of the third armament, Igor, the son of Ruric, had chosen
+a moment of weakness and decay, when the naval powers of the
+empire were employed against the Saracens.  But if courage be not
+wanting, the instruments of defence are seldom deficient.
+Fifteen broken and decayed galleys were boldly launched against
+the enemy; but instead of the single tube of Greek fire usually
+planted on the prow, the sides and stern of each vessel were
+abundantly supplied with that liquid combustible. The engineers
+were dexterous; the weather was propitious; many thousand
+Russians, who chose rather to be drowned than burnt, leaped into
+the sea; and those who escaped to the Thracian shore were
+inhumanly slaughtered by the peasants and soldiers. Yet one third
+of the canoes escaped into shallow water; and the next spring
+Igor was again prepared to retrieve his disgrace and claim his
+revenge. ^63 After a long peace, Jaroslaus, the great grandson of
+Igor, resumed the same project of a naval invasion.  A fleet,
+under the command of his son, was repulsed at the entrance of the
+Bosphorus by the same artificial flames.  But in the rashness of
+pursuit, the vanguard of the Greeks was encompassed by an
+irresistible multitude of boats and men; their provision of fire
+was probably exhausted; and twenty- four galleys were either
+taken, sunk, or destroyed. ^64
+
+[Footnote 56: The wars of the Russians and Greeks in the ixth,
+xth, and xith centuries, are related in the Byzantine annals,
+especially those of Zonaras and Cedrenus; and all their
+testimonies are collected in the Russica of Stritter, tom. ii.
+pars ii. p. 939 - 1044.]
+
+[Footnote 57:  Cedrenus in Compend. p. 758]
+
+[Footnote 58: See Beauplan, (Description de l'Ukraine, p. 54 -
+61: ) his descriptions are lively, his plans accurate, and except
+the circumstances of fire-arms, we may read old Russians for
+modern Cosacks.]
+
+[Footnote 59: It is to be lamented, that Bayer has only given a
+Dissertation de Russorum prima Expeditione Constantinopolitana,
+(Comment. Academ. Petropol. tom. vi. p. 265 - 391.) After
+disentangling some chronological intricacies, he fixes it in the
+years 864 or 865, a date which might have smoothed some doubts
+and difficulties in the beginning of M. Leveque's history.]
+
+[Footnote 60: When Photius wrote his encyclic epistle on the
+conversion of the Russians, the miracle was not yet sufficiently
+ripe.]
+
+[Footnote 61: Leo Grammaticus, p. 463, 464.  Constantini
+Continuator in Script. post Theophanem, p. 121, 122.  Symeon
+Logothet. p. 445, 446. Georg. Monach. p. 535, 536.  Cedrenus,
+tom. ii. p. 551.  Zonaras, tom. ii. p. 162.]
+
+[Footnote 62: See Nestor and Nicon, in Leveque's Hist. de Russie,
+tom. i. p. 74 - 80.  Katona (Hist. Ducum, p. 75 - 79) uses his
+advantage to disprove this Russian victory, which would cloud the
+siege of Kiow by the Hungarians.]
+
+[Footnote 63: Leo Grammaticus, p. 506, 507.  Incert. Contin. p.
+263, 264 Symeon Logothet. p. 490, 491.  Georg. Monach. p. 588,
+589.  Cedren tom. ii. p. 629.  Zonaras, tom. ii. p. 190, 191, and
+Liutprand, l. v. c. 6, who writes from the narratives of his
+father-in-law, then ambassador at Constantinople, and corrects
+the vain exaggeration of the Greeks.]
+
+[Footnote 64: I can only appeal to Cedrenus (tom. ii. p. 758,
+759) and Zonaras, (tom. ii. p. 253, 254;) but they grow more
+weighty and credible as they draw near to their own times.]
+
+Yet the threats or calamities of a Russian war were more
+frequently diverted by treaty than by arms.  In these naval
+hostilities, every disadvantage was on the side of the Greeks;
+their savage enemy afforded no mercy: his poverty promised no
+spoil; his impenetrable retreat deprived the conqueror of the
+hopes of revenge; and the pride or weakness of empire indulged an
+opinion, that no honor could be gained or lost in the intercourse
+with Barbarians.  At first their demands were high and
+inadmissible, three pounds of gold for each soldier or mariner of
+the fleet: the Russian youth adhered to the design of conquest
+and glory; but the counsels of moderation were recommended by the
+hoary sages.  "Be content," they said, "with the liberal offers
+of Caesar; it is not far better to obtain without a combat the
+possession of gold, silver, silks, and all the objects of our
+desires?  Are we sure of victory?  Can we conclude a treaty with
+the sea?  We do not tread on the land; we float on the abyss of
+water, and a common death hangs over our heads." ^65 The memory
+of these Arctic fleets that seemed to descend from the polar
+circle left deep impression of terror on the Imperial city.  By
+the vulgar of every rank, it was asserted and believed, that an
+equestrian statue in the square of Taurus was secretly inscribed
+with a prophecy, how the Russians, in the last days, should
+become masters of Constantinople. ^66 In our own time, a Russian
+armament, instead of sailing from the Borysthenes, has
+circumnavigated the continent of Europe; and the Turkish capital
+has been threatened by a squadron of strong and lofty ships of
+war, each of which, with its naval science and thundering
+artillery, could have sunk or scattered a hundred canoes, such as
+those of their ancestors.  Perhaps the present generation may yet
+behold the accomplishment of the prediction, of a rare
+prediction, of which the style is unambiguous and the date
+unquestionable.
+
+[Footnote 65: Nestor, apud Leveque, Hist. de Russie, tom. i. p.
+87.]
+
+[Footnote 66: This brazen statue, which had been brought from
+Antioch, and was melted down by the Latins, was supposed to
+represent either Joshua or Bellerophon, an odd dilemma.  See
+Nicetas Choniates, (p. 413, 414,) Codinus, (de Originibus C. P.
+p. 24,) and the anonymous writer de Antiquitat.  C. P. (Banduri,
+Imp. Orient. tom. i. p. 17, 18,) who lived about the year 1100.
+They witness the belief of the prophecy the rest is immaterial.]
+
+By land the Russians were less formidable than by sea; and
+as they fought for the most part on foot, their irregular legions
+must often have been broken and overthrown by the cavalry of the
+Scythian hordes.  Yet their growing towns, however slight and
+imperfect, presented a shelter to the subject, and a barrier to
+the enemy: the monarchy of Kiow, till a fatal partition, assumed
+the dominion of the North; and the nations from the Volga to the
+Danube were subdued or repelled by the arms of Swatoslaus, ^67
+the son of Igor, the son of Oleg, the son of Ruric.  The vigor of
+his mind and body was fortified by the hardships of a military
+and savage life. Wrapped in a bear-skin, Swatoslaus usually slept
+on the ground, his head reclining on a saddle; his diet was
+coarse and frugal, and, like the heroes of Homer, ^68 his meat
+(it was often horse-flesh) was broiled or roasted on the coals.
+The exercise of war gave stability and discipline to his army;
+and it may be presumed, that no soldier was permitted to
+transcend the luxury of his chief.  By an embassy from
+Nicephorus, the Greek emperor, he was moved to undertake the
+conquest of Bulgaria; and a gift of fifteen hundred pounds of
+gold was laid at his feet to defray the expense, or reward the
+toils, of the expedition.  An army of sixty thousand men was
+assembled and embarked; they sailed from the Borysthenes to the
+Danube; their landing was effected on the Maesian shore; and,
+after a sharp encounter, the swords of the Russians prevailed
+against the arrows of the Bulgarian horse.  The vanquished king
+sunk into the grave; his children were made captive; and his
+dominions, as far as Mount Haemus, were subdued or ravaged by the
+northern invaders.  But instead of relinquishing his prey, and
+performing his engagements, the Varangian prince was more
+disposed to advance than to retire; and, had his ambition been
+crowned with success, the seat of empire in that early period
+might have been transferred to a more temperate and fruitful
+climate.  Swatoslaus enjoyed and acknowledged the advantages of
+his new position, in which he could unite, by exchange or rapine,
+the various productions of the earth.  By an easy navigation he
+might draw from Russia the native commodities of furs, wax, and
+hydromed: Hungary supplied him with a breed of horses and the
+spoils of the West; and Greece abounded with gold, silver, and
+the foreign luxuries, which his poverty had affected to disdain.
+The bands of Patzinacites, Chozars, and Turks, repaired to the
+standard of victory; and the ambassador of Nicephorus betrayed
+his trust, assumed the purple, and promised to share with his new
+allies the treasures of the Eastern world. From the banks of the
+Danube the Russian prince pursued his march as far as Adrianople;
+a formal summons to evacuate the Roman province was dismissed
+with contempt; and Swatoslaus fiercely replied, that
+Constantinople might soon expect the presence of an enemy and a
+master.
+
+[Footnote 67: The life of Swatoslaus, or Sviatoslaf, or
+Sphendosthlabus, is extracted from the Russian Chronicles by M.
+Levesque, (Hist. de Russie, tom. i. p. 94 - 107.)]
+
+[Footnote 68: This resemblance may be clearly seen in the ninth
+book of the Iliad, (205 - 221,) in the minute detail of the
+cookery of Achilles.  By such a picture, a modern epic poet would
+disgrace his work, and disgust his reader; but the Greek verses
+are harmonious - a dead language can seldom appear low or
+familiar; and at the distance of two thousand seven hundred
+years, we are amused with the primitive manners of antiquity.]
+
+Nicephorus could no longer expel the mischief which he had
+introduced; but his throne and wife were inherited by John
+Zimisces, ^69 who, in a diminutive body, possessed the spirit and
+abilities of a hero.  The first victory of his lieutenants
+deprived the Russians of their foreign allies, twenty thousand of
+whom were either destroyed by the sword, or provoked to revolt,
+or tempted to desert.  Thrace was delivered, but seventy thousand
+Barbarians were still in arms; and the legions that had been
+recalled from the new conquests of Syria, prepared, with the
+return of the spring, to march under the banners of a warlike
+prince, who declared himself the friend and avenger of the
+injured Bulgaria.  The passes of Mount Haemus had been left
+unguarded; they were instantly occupied; the Roman vanguard was
+formed of the immortals, (a proud imitation of the Persian
+style;) the emperor led the main body of ten thousand five
+hundred foot; and the rest of his forces followed in slow and
+cautious array, with the baggage and military engines.  The first
+exploit of Zimisces was the reduction of Marcianopolis, or
+Peristhlaba, ^70 in two days; the trumpets sounded; the walls
+were scaled; eight thousand five hundred Russians were put to the
+sword; and the sons of the Bulgarian king were rescued from an
+ignominious prison, and invested with a nominal diadem. After
+these repeated losses, Swatoslaus retired to the strong post of
+Drista, on the banks of the Danube, and was pursued by an enemy
+who alternately employed the arms of celerity and delay.  The
+Byzantine galleys ascended the river, the legions completed a
+line of circumvallation; and the Russian prince was encompassed,
+assaulted, and famished, in the fortifications of the camp and
+city.  Many deeds of valor were performed; several desperate
+sallies were attempted; nor was it till after a siege of
+sixty-five days that Swatoslaus yielded to his adverse fortune.
+The liberal terms which he obtained announce the prudence of the
+victor, who respected the valor, and apprehended the despair, of
+an unconquered mind.  The great duke of Russia bound himself, by
+solemn imprecations, to relinquish all hostile designs; a safe
+passage was opened for his return; the liberty of trade and
+navigation was restored; a measure of corn was distributed to
+each of his soldiers; and the allowance of twenty-two thousand
+measures attests the loss and the remnant of the Barbarians.
+After a painful voyage, they again reached the mouth of the
+Borysthenes; but their provisions were exhausted; the season was
+unfavorable; they passed the winter on the ice; and, before they
+could prosecute their march, Swatoslaus was surprised and
+oppressed by the neighboring tribes with whom the Greeks
+entertained a perpetual and useful correspondence. ^71 Far
+different was the return of Zimisces, who was received in his
+capital like Camillus or Marius, the saviors of ancient Rome.
+But the merit of the victory was attributed by the pious emperor
+to the mother of God; and the image of the Virgin Mary, with the
+divine infant in her arms, was placed on a triumphal car, adorned
+with the spoils of war, and the ensigns of Bulgarian royalty.
+Zimisces made his public entry on horseback; the diadem on his
+head, a crown of laurel in his hand; and Constantinople was
+astonished to applaud the martial virtues of her sovereign. ^72
+
+[Footnote 69: This singular epithet is derived from the Armenian
+language. As I profess myself equally ignorant of these words, I
+may be indulged in the question in the play, "Pray, which of you
+is the interpreter?" From the context, they seem to signify
+Adolescentulus, (Leo Diacon l. iv. Ms. apud Ducange, Glossar.
+Graec. p. 1570.)
+
+Note: Cerbied. the learned Armenian, gives another
+derivation. There is a city called Tschemisch-gaizag, which means
+a bright or purple sandal, such as women wear in the East.  He
+was called Tschemisch-ghigh, (for so his name is written in
+Armenian, from this city, his native place.) Hase. Note to Leo
+Diac. p. 454, in Niebuhr's Byzant. Hist. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 70: In the Sclavonic tongue, the name of Peristhlaba
+implied the great or illustrious city, says Anna Comnena,
+(Alexiad, l. vii. p. 194.) From its position between Mount Haemus
+and the Lower Danube, it appears to fill the ground, or at least
+the station, of Marcianopolis.  The situation of Durostolus, or
+Dristra, is well known and conspicuous, (Comment. Academ.
+Petropol. tom. ix. p. 415, 416.  D'Anville, Geographie Ancienne,
+tom. i. p. 307, 311.)]
+
+[Footnote 71: The political management of the Greeks, more
+especially with the Patzinacites, is explained in the seven first
+chapters, de Administratione Imperii.]
+
+[Footnote 72: In the narrative of this war, Leo the Deacon (apud
+Pagi, Critica, tom. iv. A.D. 968 - 973) is more authentic and
+circumstantial than Cedrenus (tom. ii. p. 660 - 683) and Zonaras,
+(tom. ii. p. 205 - 214.) These declaimers have multiplied to
+308,000 and 330,000 men, those Russian forces, of which the
+contemporary had given a moderate and consistent account.]
+
+Photius of Constantinople, a patriarch, whose ambition was
+equal to his curiosity, congratulates himself and the Greek
+church on the conversion of the Russians. ^73 Those fierce and
+bloody Barbarians had been persuaded, by the voice of reason and
+religion, to acknowledge Jesus for their God, the Christian
+missionaries for their teachers, and the Romans for their friends
+and brethren.  His triumph was transient and premature.  In the
+various fortune of their piratical adventures, some Russian
+chiefs might allow themselves to be sprinkled with the waters of
+baptism; and a Greek bishop, with the name of metropolitan, might
+administer the sacraments in the church of Kiow, to a
+congregation of slaves and natives.  But the seed of the gospel
+was sown on a barren soil: many were the apostates, the converts
+were few; and the baptism of Olga may be fixed as the aera of
+Russian Christianity. ^74 A female, perhaps of the basest origin,
+who could revenge the death, and assume the sceptre, of her
+husband Igor, must have been endowed with those active virtues
+which command the fear and obedience of Barbarians.  In a moment
+of foreign and domestic peace, she sailed from Kiow to
+Constantinople; and the emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus has
+described, with minute diligence, the ceremonial of her reception
+in his capital and palace.  The steps, the titles, the
+salutations, the banquet, the presents, were exquisitely adjusted
+to gratify the vanity of the stranger, with due reverence to the
+superior majesty of the purple. ^75 In the sacrament of baptism,
+she received the venerable name of the empress Helena; and her
+conversion might be preceded or followed by her uncle, two
+interpreters, sixteen damsels of a higher, and eighteen of a
+lower rank, twenty-two domestics or ministers, and forty-four
+Russian merchants, who composed the retinue of the great princess
+Olga.  After her return to Kiow and Novogorod, she firmly
+persisted in her new religion; but her labors in the propagation
+of the gospel were not crowned with success; and both her family
+and nation adhered with obstinacy or indifference to the gods of
+their fathers.  Her son Swatoslaus was apprehensive of the scorn
+and ridicule of his companions; and her grandson Wolodomir
+devoted his youthful zeal to multiply and decorate the monuments
+of ancient worship.  The savage deities of the North were still
+propitiated with human sacrifices: in the choice of the victim, a
+citizen was preferred to a stranger, a Christian to an idolater;
+and the father, who defended his son from the sacerdotal knife,
+was involved in the same doom by the rage of a fanatic tumult.
+Yet the lessons and example of the pious Olga had made a deep,
+though secret, impression in the minds of the prince and people:
+the Greek missionaries continued to preach, to dispute, and to
+baptize: and the ambassadors or merchants of Russia compared the
+idolatry of the woods with the elegant superstition of
+Constantinople.  They had gazed with admiration on the dome of
+St. Sophia: the lively pictures of saints and martyrs, the riches
+of the altar, the number and vestments of the priests, the pomp
+and order of the ceremonies; they were edified by the alternate
+succession of devout silence and harmonious song; nor was it
+difficult to persuade them, that a choir of angels descended each
+day from heaven to join in the devotion of the Christians. ^76
+But the conversion of Wolodomir was determined, or hastened, by
+his desire of a Roman bride.  At the same time, and in the city
+of Cherson, the rites of baptism and marriage were celebrated by
+the Christian pontiff: the city he restored to the emperor Basil,
+the brother of his spouse; but the brazen gates were transported,
+as it is said, to Novogorod, and erected before the first church
+as a trophy of his victory and faith. ^77 At his despotic
+command, Peround, the god of thunder, whom he had so long adored,
+was dragged through the streets of Kiow; and twelve sturdy
+Barbarians battered with clubs the misshapen image, which was
+indignantly cast into the waters of the Borysthenes.  The edict
+of Wolodomir had proclaimed, that all who should refuse the rites
+of baptism would be treated as the enemies of God and their
+prince; and the rivers were instantly filled with many thousands
+of obedient Russians, who acquiesced in the truth and excellence
+of a doctrine which had been embraced by the great duke and his
+boyars.  In the next generation, the relics of Paganism were
+finally extirpated; but as the two brothers of Wolodomir had died
+without baptism, their bones were taken from the grave, and
+sanctified by an irregular and posthumous sacrament.
+
+[Footnote 73: Phot. Epistol. ii. No. 35, p. 58, edit. Montacut.
+It was unworthy of the learning of the editor to mistake the
+Russian nation, for a war-cry of the Bulgarians, nor did it
+become the enlightened patriarch to accuse the Sclavonian
+idolaters.  They were neither Greeks nor Atheists.]
+
+[Footnote 74: M. Levesque has extracted, from old chronicles and
+modern researches, the most satisfactory account of the religion
+of the Slavi, and the conversion of Russia, (Hist. de Russie,
+tom. i. p. 35 - 54, 59, 92, 92, 113 - 121, 124 - 129, 148, 149,
+&c.)]
+
+[Footnote 75: See the Ceremoniale Aulae Byzant. tom. ii. c. 15,
+p. 343 - 345: the style of Olga, or Elga.  For the chief of
+Barbarians the Greeks whimsically borrowed the title of an
+Athenian magistrate, with a female termination, which would have
+astonished the ear of Demosthenes.]
+
+[Footnote 76: See an anonymous fragment published by Banduri,
+(Imperium Orientale, tom. ii. p. 112, 113, de Conversione
+Russorum.]
+
+[Footnote 77: Cherson, or Corsun, is mentioned by Herberstein
+(apud Pagi tom. iv. p. 56) as the place of Wolodomir's baptism
+and marriage; and both the tradition and the gates are still
+preserved at Novogorod.  Yet an observing traveller transports
+the brazen gates from Magdeburgh in Germany, (Coxe's Travels into
+Russia, &c., vol. i. p. 452;) and quotes an inscription, which
+seems to justify his opinion.  The modern reader must not
+confound this old Cherson of the Tauric or Crimaean peninsula,
+with a new city of the same name, which has arisen near the mouth
+of the Borysthenes, and was lately honored by the memorable
+interview of the empress of Russia with the emperor of the West.]
+
+In the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries of the Christian
+aera, the reign of the gospel and of the church was extended over
+Bulgaria, Hungary, Bohemia, Saxony, Denmark, Norway, Sweden,
+Poland, and Russia. ^78 The triumphs of apostolic zeal were
+repeated in the iron age of Christianity; and the northern and
+eastern regions of Europe submitted to a religion, more different
+in theory than in practice, from the worship of their native
+idols.  A laudable ambition excited the monks both of Germany and
+Greece, to visit the tents and huts of the Barbarians: poverty,
+hardships, and dangers, were the lot of the first missionaries;
+their courage was active and patient; their motive pure and
+meritorious; their present reward consisted in the testimony of
+their conscience and the respect of a grateful people; but the
+fruitful harvest of their toils was inherited and enjoyed by the
+proud and wealthy prelates of succeeding times.  The first
+conversions were free and spontaneous: a holy life and an
+eloquent tongue were the only arms of the missionaries; but the
+domestic fables of the Pagans were silenced by the miracles and
+visions of the strangers; and the favorable temper of the chiefs
+was accelerated by the dictates of vanity and interest.  The
+leaders of nations, who were saluted with the titles of kings and
+saints, ^79 held it lawful and pious to impose the Catholic faith
+on their subjects and neighbors; the coast of the Baltic, from
+Holstein to the Gulf of Finland, was invaded under the standard
+of the cross; and the reign of idolatry was closed by the
+conversion of Lithuania in the fourteenth century.  Yet truth and
+candor must acknowledge, that the conversion of the North
+imparted many temporal benefits both to the old and the new
+Christians.  The rage of war, inherent to the human species,
+could not be healed by the evangelic precepts of charity and
+peace; and the ambition of Catholic princes has renewed in every
+age the calamities of hostile contention.  But the admission of
+the Barbarians into the pale of civil and ecclesiastical society
+delivered Europe from the depredations, by sea and land, of the
+Normans, the Hungarians, and the Russians, who learned to spare
+their brethren and cultivate their possessions. ^80 The
+establishment of law and order was promoted by the influence of
+the clergy; and the rudiments of art and science were introduced
+into the savage countries of the globe.  The liberal piety of the
+Russian princes engaged in their service the most skilful of the
+Greeks, to decorate the cities and instruct the inhabitants: the
+dome and the paintings of St. Sophia were rudely copied in the
+churches of Kiow and Novogorod: the writings of the fathers were
+translated into the Sclavonic idiom; and three hundred noble
+youths were invited or compelled to attend the lessons of the
+college of Jaroslaus.  It should appear that Russia might have
+derived an early and rapid improvement from her peculiar
+connection with the church and state of Constantinople, which at
+that age so justly despised the ignorance of the Latins.  But the
+Byzantine nation was servile, solitary, and verging to a hasty
+decline: after the fall of Kiow, the navigation of the
+Borysthenes was forgotten; the great princes of Wolodomir and
+Moscow were separated from the sea and Christendom; and the
+divided monarchy was oppressed by the ignominy and blindness of
+Tartar servitude. ^81 The Sclavonic and Scandinavian kingdoms,
+which had been converted by the Latin missionaries, were exposed,
+it is true, to the spiritual jurisdiction and temporal claims of
+the popes; ^82 but they were united in language and religious
+worship, with each other, and with Rome; they imbibed the free
+and generous spirit of the European republic, and gradually
+shared the light of knowledge which arose on the western world.
+
+[Footnote 78: Consult the Latin text, or English version, of
+Mosheim's excellent History of the Church, under the first head
+or section of each of these centuries.]
+
+[Footnote 79: In the year 1000, the ambassadors of St. Stephen
+received from Pope Silvester the title of King of Hungary, with a
+diadem of Greek workmanship.  It had been designed for the duke
+of Poland: but the Poles, by their own confession, were yet too
+barbarous to deserve an angelical and apostolical crown.
+(Katona, Hist. Critic Regum Stirpis Arpadianae, tom. i. p. 1 -
+20.)]
+
+[Footnote 80: Listen to the exultations of Adam of Bremen, (A.D.
+1080,) of which the substance is agreeable to truth: Ecce illa
+ferocissima Danorum, &c., natio ..... jamdudum novit in Dei
+laudibus Alleluia resonare ..... Ecce populus ille piraticus
+..... suis nunc finibus contentus est. Ecce patria horribilis
+semper inaccessa propter cultum idolorum ... praedicatores
+veritatis ubique certatim admittit, &c., &c., (de Situ Daniae,
+&c., p. 40, 41, edit. Elzevir; a curious and original prospect of
+the north of Europe, and the introduction of Christianity.)]
+
+[Footnote 81: The great princes removed in 1156 from Kiow, which
+was ruined by the Tartars in 1240.  Moscow became the seat of
+empire in the xivth century. See the 1st and 2d volumes of
+Levesque's History, and Mr. Coxe's Travels into the North, tom.
+i. p. 241, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 82: The ambassadors of St. Stephen had used the
+reverential expressions of regnum oblatum, debitam obedientiam,
+&c., which were most rigorously interpreted by Gregory VII.; and
+the Hungarian Catholics are distressed between the sanctity of
+the pope and the independence of the crown, (Katona, Hist.
+Critica, tom. i. p. 20 - 25, tom. ii. p. 304, 346, 360, &c.)]
+
+
+
+Chapter LVI: The Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.
+
+Part I.
+
+The Saracens, Franks, And Greeks, In Italy. - First
+Adventures And Settlement Of The Normans. - Character And
+Conquest Of Robert Guiscard, Duke Of Apulia - Deliverance Of
+Sicily By His Brother Roger. - Victories Of Robert Over The
+Emperors Of The East And West. - Roger, King Of Sicily, Invades
+Africa And Greece. - The Emperor Manuel Comnenus. - Wars Of The
+Greeks And Normans. - Extinction Of The Normans.
+
+The three great nations of the world, the Greeks, the
+Saracens, and the Franks, encountered each other on the theatre
+of Italy. ^1 The southern provinces, which now compose the
+kingdom of Naples, were subject, for the most part, to the
+Lombard dukes and princes of Beneventum; ^2 so powerful in war,
+that they checked for a moment the genius of Charlemagne; so
+liberal in peace, that they maintained in their capital an
+academy of thirty-two philosophers and grammarians.  The division
+of this flourishing state produced the rival principalities of
+Benevento, Salerno, and Capua; and the thoughtless ambition or
+revenge of the competitors invited the Saracens to the ruin of
+their common inheritance.  During a calamitous period of two
+hundred years, Italy was exposed to a repetition of wounds, which
+the invaders were not capable of healing by the union and
+tranquility of a perfect conquest.  Their frequent and almost
+annual squadrons issued from the port of Palermo, and were
+entertained with too much indulgence by the Christians of Naples:
+the more formidable fleets were prepared on the African coast;
+and even the Arabs of Andalusia were sometimes tempted to assist
+or oppose the Moslems of an adverse sect.  In the revolution of
+human events, a new ambuscade was concealed in the Caudine Forks,
+the fields of Cannae were bedewed a second time with the blood of
+the Africans, and the sovereign of Rome again attacked or
+defended the walls of Capua and Tarentum.  A colony of Saracens
+had been planted at Bari, which commands the entrance of the
+Adriatic Gulf; and their impartial depredations provoked the
+resentment, and conciliated the union of the two emperors.  An
+offensive alliance was concluded between Basil the Macedonian,
+the first of his race, and Lewis the great-grandson of
+Charlemagne; ^3 and each party supplied the deficiencies of his
+associate.  It would have been imprudent in the Byzantine monarch
+to transport his stationary troops of Asia to an Italian
+campaign; and the Latin arms would have been insufficient if his
+superior navy had not occupied the mouth of the Gulf.  The
+fortress of Bari was invested by the infantry of the Franks, and
+by the cavalry and galleys of the Greeks; and, after a defence of
+four years, the Arabian emir submitted to the clemency of Lewis,
+who commanded in person the operations of the siege. This
+important conquest had been achieved by the concord of the East
+and West; but their recent amity was soon imbittered by the
+mutual complaints of jealousy and pride.  The Greeks assumed as
+their own the merit of the conquest and the pomp of the triumph;
+extolled the greatness of their powers, and affected to deride
+the intemperance and sloth of the handful of Barbarians who
+appeared under the banners of the Carlovingian prince.  His reply
+is expressed with the eloquence of indignation and truth: "We
+confess the magnitude of your preparation," says the great-
+grandson of Charlemagne.  "Your armies were indeed as numerous as
+a cloud of summer locusts, who darken the day, flap their wings,
+and, after a short flight, tumble weary and breathless to the
+ground.  Like them, ye sunk after a feeble effort; ye were
+vanquished by your own cowardice; and withdrew from the scene of
+action to injure and despoil our Christian subjects of the
+Sclavonian coast.  We were few in number, and why were we few?
+Because, after a tedious expectation of your arrival, I had
+dismissed my host, and retained only a chosen band of warriors to
+continue the blockade of the city.  If they indulged their
+hospitable feasts in the face of danger and death, did these
+feasts abate the vigor of their enterprise? Is it by your fasting
+that the walls of Bari have been overturned?  Did not these
+valiant Franks, diminished as they were by languor and fatigue,
+intercept and vanish the three most powerful emirs of the
+Saracens?  and did not their defeat precipitate the fall of the
+city?  Bari is now fallen; Tarentum trembles; Calabria will be
+delivered; and, if we command the sea, the Island of Sicily may
+be rescued from the hands of the infidels.  My brother,"
+accelerate (a name most offensive to the vanity of the Greek,)
+"accelerate your naval succors, respect your allies, and distrust
+your flatterers." ^4
+
+[Footnote 1: For the general history of Italy in the ixth and xth
+centuries, I may properly refer to the vth, vith, and viith books
+of Sigonius de Regno Italiae, (in the second volume of his works,
+Milan, 1732;) the Annals of Baronius, with the criticism of Pagi;
+the viith and viiith books of the Istoria Civile del Regno di
+Napoli of Giannone; the viith and viiith volumes (the octavo
+edition) of the Annali d' Italia of Muratori, and the 2d volume
+of the Abrege Chronologique of M. de St. Marc, a work which,
+under a superficial title, contains much genuine learning and
+industry.  But my long-accustomed reader will give me credit for
+saying, that I myself have ascended to the fountain head, as
+often as such ascent could be either profitable or possible; and
+that I have diligently turned over the originals in the first
+volumes of Muratori's great collection of the Scriptores Rerum
+Italicarum.]
+
+[Footnote 2: Camillo Pellegrino, a learned Capuan of the last
+century, has illustrated the history of the duchy of Beneventum,
+in his two books Historia Principum Longobardorum, in the
+Scriptores of Muratori tom. ii. pars i. p. 221 - 345, and tom. v.
+p 159 - 245.]
+
+[Footnote 3: See Constantin. Porphyrogen. de Thematibus, l. ii. c
+xi. in Vit Basil. c. 55, p. 181.]
+
+[Footnote 4: The oriental epistle of the emperor Lewis II. to the
+emperor Basil, a curious record of the age, was first published
+by Baronius, (Annal. Eccles. A.D. 871, No. 51 - 71,) from the
+Vatican Ms. of Erchempert, or rather of the anonymous historian
+of Salerno.] These lofty hopes were soon extinguished by the
+death of Lewis, and the decay of the Carlovingian house; and
+whoever might deserve the honor, the Greek emperors, Basil, and
+his son Leo, secured the advantage, of the reduction of Bari The
+Italians of Apulia and Calabria were persuaded or compelled to
+acknowledge their supremacy, and an ideal line from Mount
+Garganus to the Bay of Salerno, leaves the far greater part of
+the kingdom of Naples under the dominion of the Eastern empire.
+Beyond that line, the dukes or republics of Amalfi ^5 and Naples,
+who had never forfeited their voluntary allegiance, rejoiced in
+the neighborhood of their lawful sovereign; and Amalfi was
+enriched by supplying Europe with the produce and manufactures of
+Asia.  But the Lombard princes of Benevento, Salerno, and Capua,
+^6 were reluctantly torn from the communion of the Latin world,
+and too often violated their oaths of servitude and tribute.  The
+city of Bari rose to dignity and wealth, as the metropolis of the
+new theme or province of Lombardy: the title of patrician, and
+afterwards the singular name of Catapan, ^7 was assigned to the
+supreme governor; and the policy both of the church and state was
+modelled in exact subordination to the throne of Constantinople.
+As long as the sceptre was disputed by the princes of Italy,
+their efforts were feeble and adverse; and the Greeks resisted or
+eluded the forces of Germany, which descended from the Alps under
+the Imperial standard of the Othos.  The first and greatest of
+those Saxon princes was compelled to relinquish the siege of
+Bari: the second, after the loss of his stoutest bishops and
+barons, escaped with honor from the bloody field of Crotona.  On
+that day the scale of war was turned against the Franks by the
+valor of the Saracens. ^8 These corsairs had indeed been driven
+by the Byzantine fleets from the fortresses and coasts of Italy;
+but a sense of interest was more prevalent than superstition or
+resentment, and the caliph of Egypt had transported forty
+thousand Moslems to the aid of his Christian ally.  The
+successors of Basil amused themselves with the belief, that the
+conquest of Lombardy had been achieved, and was still preserved
+by the justice of their laws, the virtues of their ministers, and
+the gratitude of a people whom they had rescued from anarchy and
+oppression.  A series of rebellions might dart a ray of truth
+into the palace of Constantinople; and the illusions of flattery
+were dispelled by the easy and rapid success of the Norman
+adventurers.
+
+[Footnote 5: See an excellent Dissertation de Republica
+Amalphitana, in the Appendix (p. 1 - 42) of Henry Brencman's
+Historia Pandectarum, (Trajecti ad Rhenum, 1722, in 4to.)]
+
+[Footnote 6: Your master, says Nicephorus, has given aid and
+protection prinminibus Capuano et Beneventano, servis meis, quos
+oppugnare dispono .... Nova (potius nota) res est quod eorum
+patres et avi nostro Imperio tributa dederunt, (Liutprand, in
+Legat. p. 484.) Salerno is not mentioned, yet the prince changed
+his party about the same time, and Camillo Pellegrino (Script.
+Rer. Ital. tom. ii. pars i. p. 285) has nicely discerned this
+change in the style of the anonymous Chronicle.  On the rational
+ground of history and language, Liutprand (p. 480) had asserted
+the Latin claim to Apulia and Calabria.]
+
+[Footnote 7: See the Greek and Latin Glossaries of Ducange
+(catapanus,) and his notes on the Alexias, (p. 275.) Against the
+contemporary notion, which derives it from juxta omne, he treats
+it as a corruption of the Latin capitaneus.  Yet M. de St. Marc
+has accurately observed (Abrege Chronologique, tom. ii. p. 924)
+that in this age the capitanei were not captains, but only nobles
+of the first rank, the great valvassors of Italy.]
+
+[Footnote 8: (the Lombards), (Leon. Tactic. c. xv. p. 741.) The
+little Chronicle of Beneventum (tom. ii. pars i. p. 280) gives a
+far different character of the Greeks during the five years (A.D.
+891 - 896) that Leo was master of the city.]
+
+The revolution of human affairs had produced in Apulia and
+Calabria a melancholy contrast between the age of Pythagoras and
+the tenth century of the Christian aera.  At the former period,
+the coast of Great Greece (as it was then styled) was planted
+with free and opulent cities: these cities were peopled with
+soldiers, artists, and philosophers; and the military strength of
+Tarentum; Sybaris, or Crotona, was not inferior to that of a
+powerful kingdom. At the second aera, these once flourishing
+provinces were clouded with ignorance impoverished by tyranny,
+and depopulated by Barbarian war nor can we severely accuse the
+exaggeration of a contemporary, that a fair and ample district
+was reduced to the same desolation which had covered the earth
+after the general deluge. ^9 Among the hostilities of the Arabs,
+the Franks, and the Greeks, in the southern Italy, I shall select
+two or three anecdotes expressive of their national manners.  1.
+It was the amusement of the Saracens to profane, as well as to
+pillage, the monasteries and churches.  At the siege of Salerno,
+a Mussulman chief spread his couch on the communion-table, and on
+that altar sacrificed each night the virginity of a Christian
+nun.  As he wrestled with a reluctant maid, a beam in the roof
+was accidentally or dexterously thrown down on his head; and the
+death of the lustful emir was imputed to the wrath of Christ,
+which was at length awakened to the defence of his faithful
+spouse. ^10 2. The Saracens besieged the cities of Beneventum and
+Capua: after a vain appeal to the successors of Charlemagne, the
+Lombards implored the clemency and aid of the Greek emperor. ^11
+A fearless citizen dropped from the walls, passed the
+intrenchments, accomplished his commission, and fell into the
+hands of the Barbarians as he was returning with the welcome
+news.  They commanded him to assist their enterprise, and deceive
+his countrymen, with the assurance that wealth and honors should
+be the reward of his falsehood, and that his sincerity would be
+punished with immediate death. He affected to yield, but as soon
+as he was conducted within hearing of the Christians on the
+rampart, "Friends and brethren," he cried with a loud voice, "be
+bold and patient, maintain the city; your sovereign is informed
+of your distress, and your deliverers are at hand.  I know my
+doom, and commit my wife and children to your gratitude." The
+rage of the Arabs confirmed his evidence; and the self-devoted
+patriot was transpierced with a hundred spears.  He deserves to
+live in the memory of the virtuous, but the repetition of the
+same story in ancient and modern times, may sprinkle some doubts
+on the reality of this generous deed. ^12 3. The recital of a
+third incident may provoke a smile amidst the horrors of war.
+Theobald, marquis of Camerino and Spoleto, ^13 supported the
+rebels of Beneventum; and his wanton cruelty was not incompatible
+in that age with the character of a hero.  His captives of the
+Greek nation or party were castrated without mercy, and the
+outrage was aggravated by a cruel jest, that he wished to present
+the emperor with a supply of eunuchs, the most precious ornaments
+of the Byzantine court.  The garrison of a castle had been
+defeated in a sally, and the prisoners were sentenced to the
+customary operation.  But the sacrifice was disturbed by the
+intrusion of a frantic female, who, with bleeding cheeks
+dishevelled hair, and importunate clamors, compelled the marquis
+to listen to her complaint. "Is it thus," she cried, 'ye
+magnanimous heroes, that ye wage war against women, against women
+who have never injured ye, and whose only arms are the distaff
+and the loom?" Theobald denied the charge, and protested that,
+since the Amazons, he had never heard of a female war. "And how,"
+she furiously exclaimed, "can you attack us more directly, how
+can you wound us in a more vital part, than by robbing our
+husbands of what we most dearly cherish, the source of our joys,
+and the hope of our posterity?  The plunder of our flocks and
+herds I have endured without a murmur, but this fatal injury,
+this irreparable loss, subdues my patience, and calls aloud on
+the justice of heaven and earth." A general laugh applauded her
+eloquence; the savage Franks, inaccessible to pity, were moved by
+her ridiculous, yet rational despair; and with the deliverance of
+the captives, she obtained the restitution of her effects.  As
+she returned in triumph to the castle, she was overtaken by a
+messenger, to inquire, in the name of Theobald, what punishment
+should be inflicted on her husband, were he again taken in arms.
+"Should such," she answered without hesitation, "be his guilt and
+misfortune, he has eyes, and a nose, and hands, and feet.  These
+are his own, and these he may deserve to forfeit by his personal
+offences. But let my lord be pleased to spare what his little
+handmaid presumes to claim as her peculiar and lawful property."
+^14
+
+[Footnote 9: Calabriam adeunt, eamque inter se divisam
+reperientes funditus depopulati sunt, (or depopularunt,) ita ut
+deserta sit velut in diluvio. Such is the text of Herempert, or
+Erchempert, according to the two editions of Carraccioli (Rer.
+Italic. Script. tom. v. p. 23) and of Camillo Pellegrino, tom.
+ii. pars i. p. 246.) Both were extremely scarce, when they were
+reprinted by Muratori.]
+
+[Footnote 10: Baronius (Annal. Eccles. A.D. 874, No. 2) has drawn
+this story from a Ms. of Erchempert, who died at Capua only
+fifteen years after the event.  But the cardinal was deceived by
+a false title, and we can only quote the anonymous Chronicle of
+Salerno, (Paralipomena, c. 110,) composed towards the end of the
+xth century, and published in the second volume of Muratori's
+Collection.  See the Dissertations of Camillo Pellegrino, tom.
+ii. pars i. p. 231 - 281, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 11: Constantine Porphyrogenitus (in Vit. Basil. c. 58,
+p. 183) is the original author of this story.  He places it under
+the reigns of Basil and Lewis II.; yet the reduction of
+Beneventum by the Greeks is dated A.D. 891, after the decease of
+both of those princes.]
+
+[Footnote 12: In the year 663, the same tragedy is described by
+Paul the Deacon, (de Gestis Langobard. l. v. c. 7, 8, p. 870,
+871, edit. Grot.,) under the walls of the same city of
+Beneventum.  But the actors are different, and the guilt is
+imputed to the Greeks themselves, which in the Byzantine edition
+is applied to the Saracens.  In the late war in Germany, M.
+D'Assas, a French officer of the regiment of Auvergne, is said to
+have devoted himself in a similar manner.  His behavior is the
+more heroic, as mere silence was required by the enemy who had
+made him prisoner, (Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XV. c. 33, tom. ix.
+p. 172.)]
+
+[Footnote 13: Theobald, who is styled Heros by Liutprand, was
+properly duke of Spoleto and marquis of Camerino, from the year
+926 to 935.  The title and office of marquis (commander of the
+march or frontier) was introduced into Italy by the French
+emperors, (Abrege Chronologique, tom. ii. p. 545 - 732 &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 14: Liutprand, Hist. l. iv. c. iv. in the Rerum Italic.
+Script. tom. i. pars i. p. 453, 454.  Should the licentiousness
+of the tale be questioned, I may exclaim, with poor Sterne, that
+it is hard if I may not transcribe with caution what a bishop
+could write without scruple What if I had translated, ut viris
+certetis testiculos amputare, in quibus nostri corporis
+refocillatio, &c.?]
+
+The establishment of the Normans in the kingdoms of Naples
+and Sicily ^15 is an event most romantic in its origin, and in
+its consequences most important both to Italy and the Eastern
+empire.  The broken provinces of the Greeks, Lombards, and
+Saracens, were exposed to every invader, and every sea and land
+were invaded by the adventurous spirit of the Scandinavian
+pirates. After a long indulgence of rapine and slaughter, a fair
+and ample territory was accepted, occupied, and named, by the
+Normans of France: they renounced their gods for the God of the
+Christians; ^16 and the dukes of Normandy acknowledged themselves
+the vassals of the successors of Charlemagne and Capet.  The
+savage fierceness which they had brought from the snowy mountains
+of Norway was refined, without being corrupted, in a warmer
+climate; the companions of Rollo insensibly mingled with the
+natives; they imbibed the manners, language, ^17 and gallantry,
+of the French nation; and in a martial age, the Normans might
+claim the palm of valor and glorious achievements.  Of the
+fashionable superstitions, they embraced with ardor the
+pilgrimages of Rome, Italy, and the Holy Land. ^! In this active
+devotion, the minds and bodies were invigorated by exercise:
+danger was the incentive, novelty the recompense; and the
+prospect of the world was decorated by wonder, credulity, and
+ambitious hope.  They confederated for their mutual defence; and
+the robbers of the Alps, who had been allured by the garb of a
+pilgrim, were often chastised by the arm of a warrior.  In one of
+these pious visits to the cavern of Mount Garganus in Apulia,
+which had been sanctified by the apparition of the archangel
+Michael, ^18 they were accosted by a stranger in the Greek habit,
+but who soon revealed himself as a rebel, a fugitive, and a
+mortal foe of the Greek empire.  His name was Melo; a noble
+citizen of Bari, who, after an unsuccessful revolt, was compelled
+to seek new allies and avengers of his country.  The bold
+appearance of the Normans revived his hopes and solicited his
+confidence: they listened to the complaints, and still more to
+the promises, of the patriot.  The assurance of wealth
+demonstrated the justice of his cause; and they viewed, as the
+inheritance of the brave, the fruitful land which was oppressed
+by effeminate tyrants.  On their return to Normandy, they kindled
+a spark of enterprise, and a small but intrepid band was freely
+associated for the deliverance of Apulia.  They passed the Alps
+by separate roads, and in the disguise of pilgrims; but in the
+neighborhood of Rome they were saluted by the chief of Bari, who
+supplied the more indigent with arms and horses, and instantly
+led them to the field of action.  In the first conflict, their
+valor prevailed; but in the second engagement they were
+overwhelmed by the numbers and military engines of the Greeks,
+and indignantly retreated with their faces to the enemy. ^* The
+unfortunate Melo ended his life a suppliant at the court of
+Germany: his Norman followers, excluded from their native and
+their promised land, wandered among the hills and valleys of
+Italy, and earned their daily subsistence by the sword.  To that
+formidable sword the princes of Capua, Beneventum, Salerno, and
+Naples, alternately appealed in their domestic quarrels; the
+superior spirit and discipline of the Normans gave victory to the
+side which they espoused; and their cautious policy observed the
+balance of power, lest the preponderance of any rival state
+should render their aid less important, and their service less
+profitable.  Their first asylum was a strong camp in the depth of
+the marshes of Campania: but they were soon endowed by the
+liberality of the duke of Naples with a more plentiful and
+permanent seat.  Eight miles from his residence, as a bulwark
+against Capua, the town of Aversa was built and fortified for
+their use; and they enjoyed as their own the corn and fruits, the
+meadows and groves, of that fertile district.  The report of
+their success attracted every year new swarms of pilgrims and
+soldiers: the poor were urged by necessity; the rich were excited
+by hope; and the brave and active spirits of Normandy were
+impatient of ease and ambitious of renown.  The independent
+standard of Aversa afforded shelter and encouragement to the
+outlaws of the province, to every fugitive who had escaped from
+the injustice or justice of his superiors; and these foreign
+associates were quickly assimilated in manners and language to
+the Gallic colony.  The first leader of the Normans was Count
+Rainulf; and, in the origin of society, preeminence of rank is
+the reward and the proof of superior merit. ^19 ^*
+
+[Footnote 15: The original monuments of the Normans in Italy are
+collected in the vth volume of Muratori; and among these we may
+distinguish the poems of William Appulus (p. 245 - 278) and the
+history of Galfridus (Jeffrey) Malaterra, (p. 537 - 607.) Both
+were natives of France, but they wrote on the spot, in the age of
+the first conquerors (before A.D. 1100,) and with the spirit of
+freemen.  It is needless to recapitulate the compilers and
+critics of Italian history, Sigonius, Baronius, Pagi, Giannone,
+Muratori, St. Marc, &c., whom I have always consulted, and never
+copied.
+
+Note: M. Goutier d'Arc has discovered a translation of the
+Chronicle of Aime, monk of Mont Cassino, a contemporary of the
+first Norman invaders of Italy.  He has made use of it in his
+Histoire des Conquetes des Normands, and added a summary of its
+contents.  This work was quoted by later writers, but was
+supposed to have been entirely lost. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 16: Some of the first converts were baptized ten or
+twelve times, for the sake of the white garment usually given at
+this ceremony.  At the funeral of Rollo, the gifts to monasteries
+for the repose of his soul were accompanied by a sacrifice of one
+hundred captives.  But in a generation or two, the national
+change was pure and general.]
+
+[Footnote 17: The Danish language was still spoken by the Normans
+of Bayeux on the sea-coast, at a time (A.D. 940) when it was
+already forgotten at Rouen, in the court and capital.  Quem
+(Richard I.) confestim pater Baiocas mittens Botoni militiae suae
+principi nutriendum tradidit, ut, ibi lingua eruditus Danica,
+suis exterisque hominibus sciret aperte dare responsa, (Wilhelm.
+Gemeticensis de Ducibus Normannis, l. iii. c. 8, p. 623, edit.
+Camden.) Of the vernacular and favorite idiom of William the
+Conqueror, (A.D. 1035,) Selden (Opera, tom. ii. p. 1640 - 1656)
+has given a specimen, obsolete and obscure even to antiquarians
+and lawyers.]
+
+[Footnote !: A band of Normans returning from the Holy Land had
+rescued the city of Salerno from the attack of a numerous fleet
+of Saracens.  Gainar, the Lombard prince of Salerno wished to
+retain them in his service and take them into his pay.  They
+answered, "We fight for our religion, and not for money." Gaimar
+entreated them to send some Norman knights to his court.  This
+seems to have been the origin of the connection of the Normans
+with Italy.  See Histoire des Conquetes des Normands par Goutier
+d'Arc, l. i. c. i., Paris, 1830. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 18: See Leandro Alberti (Descrizione d'Italia, p. 250)
+and Baronius, (A.D. 493, No. 43.) If the archangel inherited the
+temple and oracle, perhaps the cavern, of old Calchas the
+soothsayer, (Strab. Geograph l. vi. p. 435, 436,) the Catholics
+(on this occasion) have surpassed the Greeks in the elegance of
+their superstition.]
+
+[Footnote *: Nine out of ten perished in the field.  Chronique
+d'Aime, tom. i. p. 21 quoted by M Goutier d'Arc, p. 42. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 19: See the first book of William Appulus.  His words
+are applicable to every swarm of Barbarians and freebooters: -
+
+Si vicinorum quis pernitiosus ad illos
+
+Confugiebat eum gratanter suscipiebant:
+
+Moribus et lingua quoscumque venire videbant
+
+Informant propria; gens efficiatur ut una.
+
+And elsewhere, of the native adventurers of Normandy: -
+
+Pars parat, exiguae vel opes aderant quia nullae:
+
+Pars, quia de magnis majora subire volebant.]
+
+[Footnote *: This account is not accurate.  After the retreat of
+the emperor Henry II. the Normans, united under the command of
+Rainulf, had taken possession of Aversa, then a small castle in
+the duchy of Naples. They had been masters of it a few years when
+Pandulf IV., prince of Capua, found means to take Naples by
+surprise.  Sergius, master of the soldiers, and head of the
+republic, with the principal citizens, abandoned a city in which
+he could not behold, without horror, the establishment of a
+foreign dominion he retired to Aversa; and when, with the
+assistance of the Greeks and that of the citizens faithful to
+their country, he had collected money enough to satisfy the
+rapacity of the Norman adventurers, he advanced at their head to
+attack the garrison of the prince of Capua, defeated it, and
+reentered Naples.  It was then that he confirmed the Normans in
+the possession of Aversa and its territory, which he raised into
+a count's fief, and granted the investiture to Rainulf.  Hist.
+des Rep. Ital. tom. i. p. 267]
+
+Since the conquest of Sicily by the Arabs, the Grecian
+emperors had been anxious to regain that valuable possession; but
+their efforts, however strenuous, had been opposed by the
+distance and the sea.  Their costly armaments, after a gleam of
+success, added new pages of calamity and disgrace to the
+Byzantine annals: twenty thousand of their best troops were lost
+in a single expedition; and the victorious Moslems derided the
+policy of a nation which intrusted eunuchs not only with the
+custody of their women, but with the command of their men ^20
+After a reign of two hundred years, the Saracens were ruined by
+their divisions. ^21 The emir disclaimed the authority of the
+king of Tunis; the people rose against the emir; the cities were
+usurped by the chiefs; each meaner rebel was independent in his
+village or castle; and the weaker of two rival brothers implored
+the friendship of the Christians.  In every service of danger the
+Normans were prompt and useful; and five hundred knights, or
+warriors on horseback, were enrolled by Arduin, the agent and
+interpreter of the Greeks, under the standard of Maniaces,
+governor of Lombardy.  Before their landing, the brothers were
+reconciled; the union of Sicily and Africa was restored; and the
+island was guarded to the water's edge.  The Normans led the van
+and the Arabs of Messina felt the valor of an untried foe.  In a
+second action the emir of Syracuse was unhorsed and transpierced
+by the iron arm of William of Hauteville.  In a third engagement,
+his intrepid companions discomfited the host of sixty thousand
+Saracens, and left the Greeks no more than the labor of the
+pursuit: a splendid victory; but of which the pen of the
+historian may divide the merit with the lance of the Normans. It
+is, however, true, that they essentially promoted the success of
+Maniaces, who reduced thirteen cities, and the greater part of
+Sicily, under the obedience of the emperor.  But his military
+fame was sullied by ingratitude and tyranny.  In the division of
+the spoils, the deserts of his brave auxiliaries were forgotten;
+and neither their avarice nor their pride could brook this
+injurious treatment.  They complained by the mouth of their
+interpreter: their complaint was disregarded; their interpreter
+was scourged; the sufferings were his; the insult and resentment
+belonged to those whose sentiments he had delivered.  Yet they
+dissembled till they had obtained, or stolen, a safe passage to
+the Italian continent: their brethren of Aversa sympathized in
+their indignation, and the province of Apulia was invaded as the
+forfeit of the debt. ^22 Above twenty years after the first
+emigration, the Normans took the field with no more than seven
+hundred horse and five hundred foot; and after the recall of the
+Byzantine legions ^23 from the Sicilian war, their numbers are
+magnified to the amount of threescore thousand men.  Their herald
+proposed the option of battle or retreat; "of battle," was the
+unanimous cry of the Normans; and one of their stoutest warriors,
+with a stroke of his fist, felled to the ground the horse of the
+Greek messenger.  He was dismissed with a fresh horse; the insult
+was concealed from the Imperial troops; but in two successive
+battles they were more fatally instructed of the prowess of their
+adversaries.  In the plains of Cannae, the Asiatics fled before
+the adventurers of France; the duke of Lombardy was made
+prisoner; the Apulians acquiesced in a new dominion; and the four
+places of Bari, Otranto, Brundusium, and Tarentum, were alone
+saved in the shipwreck of the Grecian fortunes.  From this aera
+we may date the establishment of the Norman power, which soon
+eclipsed the infant colony of Aversa.  Twelve counts ^24 were
+chosen by the popular suffrage; and age, birth, and merit, were
+the motives of their choice.  The tributes of their peculiar
+districts were appropriated to their use; and each count erected
+a fortress in the midst of his lands, and at the head of his
+vassals.  In the centre of the province, the common habitation of
+Melphi was reserved as the metropolis and citadel of the
+republic; a house and separate quarter was allotted to each of
+the twelve counts: and the national concerns were regulated by
+this military senate.  The first of his peers, their president
+and general, was entitled count of Apulia; and this dignity was
+conferred on William of the iron arm, who, in the language of the
+age, is styled a lion in battle, a lamb in society, and an angel
+in council. ^25 The manners of his countrymen are fairly
+delineated by a contemporary and national historian. ^26 "The
+Normans," says Malaterra, "are a cunning and revengeful people;
+eloquence and dissimulation appear to be their hereditary
+qualities: they can stoop to flatter; but unless they are curbed
+by the restraint of law, they indulge the licentiousness of
+nature and passion. Their princes affect the praises of popular
+munificence; the people observe the medium, or rather blond the
+extremes, of avarice and prodigality; and in their eager thirst
+of wealth and dominion, they despise whatever they possess, and
+hope whatever they desire.  Arms and horses, the luxury of dress,
+the exercises of hunting and hawking ^27 are the delight of the
+Normans; but, on pressing occasions, they can endure with
+incredible patience the inclemency of every climate, and the toil
+and absence of a military life." ^28
+
+[Footnote 20: Liutprand, in Legatione, p. 485.  Pagi has
+illustrated this event from the Ms. history of the deacon Leo,
+(tom. iv. A.D. 965, No. 17 - 19.)]
+
+[Footnote 21: See the Arabian Chronicle of Sicily, apud Muratori,
+Script. Rerum Ital. tom. i. p. 253.]
+
+[Footnote 22: Jeffrey Malaterra, who relates the Sicilian war,
+and the conquest of Apulia, (l. i. c. 7, 8, 9, 19.) The same
+events are described by Cedrenus (tom. ii. p. 741 - 743, 755,
+756) and Zonaras, (tom. ii. p. 237, 238;) and the Greeks are so
+hardened to disgrace, that their narratives are impartial
+enough.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Lydia: consult Constantine de Thematibus, i. 3, 4,
+with Delisle's map.]
+
+[Footnote 24:  Omnes conveniunt; et bis sex nobiliores,
+
+          Quos genus et gravitas morum decorabat et aetas,
+
+       Elegere duces.  Provectis ad comitatum
+
+          His alii parent.  Comitatus nomen honoris
+
+          Quo donantur erat.  Hi totas undique terras
+
+  Divisere sibi, ni sors inimica repugnet;
+
+          Singula proponunt loca quae contingere sorte
+
+   Cuique duci debent, et quaeque tributa locorum.
+
+And after speaking of Melphi, William Appulus adds,
+
+          Pro numero comitum bis sex statuere plateas,
+
+   Atque domus comitum totidem fabricantur in urbe.
+Leo Ostiensis (l. ii. c. 67) enumerates the divisions of the
+Apulian cities, which it is needless to repeat.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Gulielm. Appulus, l. ii. c 12, according to the
+reference of Giannone, (Istoria Civile di Napoli, tom. ii. p.
+31,) which I cannot verify in the original.  The Apulian praises
+indeed his validas vires, probitas animi, and vivida virtus; and
+declares that, had he lived, no poet could have equalled his
+merits, (l. i. p. 258, l. ii. p. 259.) He was bewailed by the
+Normans, quippe qui tanti consilii virum, (says Malaterra, l. i.
+c. 12, p. 552,) tam armis strenuum, tam sibi munificum,
+affabilem, morigeratum, ulterius se habere diffidebant.]
+
+[Footnote 26: The gens astutissima, injuriarum ultrix ....
+adulari sciens .... eloquentiis inserviens, of Malaterra, (l. i.
+c. 3, p. 550,) are expressive of the popular and proverbial
+character of the Normans.]
+
+[Footnote 27: The hunting and hawking more properly belong to the
+descendants of the Norwegian sailors; though they might import
+from Norway and Iceland the finest casts of falcons.]
+
+[Footnote 28: We may compare this portrait with that of William
+of Malmsbury, (de Gestis Anglorum, l. iii. p. 101, 102,) who
+appreciates, like a philosophic historian, the vices and virtues
+of the Saxons and Normans. England was assuredly a gainer by the
+conquest.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LVI: The Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.
+
+Part II.
+
+The Normans of Apulia were seated on the verge of the two
+empires; and, according to the policy of the hour, they accepted
+the investiture of their lands, from the sovereigns of Germany or
+Constantinople.  But the firmest title of these adventurers was
+the right of conquest: they neither loved nor trusted; they were
+neither trusted nor beloved: the contempt of the princes was
+mixed with fear, and the fear of the natives was mingled with
+hatred and resentment.  Every object of desire, a horse, a woman,
+a garden, tempted and gratified the rapaciousness of the
+strangers; ^29 and the avarice of their chiefs was only colored
+by the more specious names of ambition and glory.  The twelve
+counts were sometimes joined in the league of injustice: in their
+domestic quarrels they disputed the spoils of the people: the
+virtues of William were buried in his grave; and Drogo, his
+brother and successor, was better qualified to lead the valor,
+than to restrain the violence, of his peers.  Under the reign of
+Constantine Monomachus, the policy, rather than benevolence, of
+the Byzantine court, attempted to relieve Italy from this
+adherent mischief, more grievous than a flight of Barbarians; ^30
+and Argyrus, the son of Melo, was invested for this purpose with
+the most lofty titles ^31 and the most ample commission. The
+memory of his father might recommend him to the Normans; and he
+had already engaged their voluntary service to quell the revolt
+of Maniaces, and to avenge their own and the public injury.  It
+was the design of Constantine to transplant the warlike colony
+from the Italian provinces to the Persian war; and the son of
+Melo distributed among the chiefs the gold and manufactures of
+Greece, as the first-fruits of the Imperial bounty. But his arts
+were baffled by the sense and spirit of the conquerors of Apulia:
+his gifts, or at least his proposals, were rejected; and they
+unanimously refused to relinquish their possessions and their
+hopes for the distant prospect of Asiatic fortune.  After the
+means of persuasion had failed, Argyrus resolved to compel or to
+destroy: the Latin powers were solicited against the common
+enemy; and an offensive alliance was formed of the pope and the
+two emperors of the East and West.  The throne of St. Peter was
+occupied by Leo the Ninth, a simple saint, ^32 of a temper most
+apt to deceive himself and the world, and whose venerable
+character would consecrate with the name of piety the measures
+least compatible with the practice of religion.  His humanity was
+affected by the complaints, perhaps the calumnies, of an injured
+people: the impious Normans had interrupted the payment of
+tithes; and the temporal sword might be lawfully unsheathed
+against the sacrilegious robbers, who were deaf to the censures
+of the church.  As a German of noble birth and royal kindred, Leo
+had free access to the court and confidence of the emperor Henry
+the Third; and in search of arms and allies, his ardent zeal
+transported him from Apulia to Saxony, from the Elbe to the
+Tyber.  During these hostile preparations, Argyrus indulged
+himself in the use of secret and guilty weapons: a crowd of
+Normans became the victims of public or private revenge; and the
+valiant Drogo was murdered in a church.  But his spirit survived
+in his brother Humphrey, the third count of Apulia.  The
+assassins were chastised; and the son of Melo, overthrown and
+wounded, was driven from the field, to hide his shame behind the
+walls of Bari, and to await the tardy succor of his allies.
+
+[Footnote 29: The biographer of St. Leo IX. pours his holy venom
+on the Normans.  Videns indisciplinatam et alienam gentem
+Normannorum, crudeli et inaudita rabie, et plusquam Pagana
+impietate, adversus ecclesias Dei insurgere, passim Christianos
+trucidare, &c., (Wibert, c. 6.) The honest Apulian (l. ii. p.
+259) says calmly of their accuser, Veris commiscens fallacia.]
+
+[Footnote 30: The policy of the Greeks, revolt of Maniaces, &c.,
+must be collected from Cedrenus, (tom. ii. p. 757, 758,) William
+Appulus, (l. i. p 257, 258, l. ii. p. 259,) and the two
+Chronicles of Bari, by Lupus Protospata, (Muratori, Script. Ital.
+tom. v. p. 42, 43, 44,) and an anonymous writer, (Antiquitat,
+Italiae Medii Aevi, tom. i. p 31 - 35.) This last is a fragment
+of some value.]
+
+[Footnote 31: Argyrus received, says the anonymous Chronicle of
+Bari, Imperial letters, Foederatus et Patriciatus, et Catapani et
+Vestatus.  In his Annals, Muratori (tom. viii. p. 426) very
+properly reads, or interprets, Sevestatus, the title of Sebastos
+or Augustus.  But in his Antiquities, he was taught by Ducange to
+make it a palatine office, master of the wardrobe.]
+
+[Footnote 32: A Life of St. Leo IX., deeply tinged with the
+passions and prejudices of the age, has been composed by Wibert,
+printed at Paris, 1615, in octavo, and since inserted in the
+Collections of the Bollandists, of Mabillon, and of Muratori.
+The public and private history of that pope is diligently treated
+by M. de St. Marc.  (Abrege, tom. ii. p. 140 - 210, and p. 25 -
+95, second column.)]
+
+But the power of Constantine was distracted by a Turkish
+war; the mind of Henry was feeble and irresolute; and the pope,
+instead of repassing the Alps with a German army, was accompanied
+only by a guard of seven hundred Swabians and some volunteers of
+Lorraine.  In his long progress from Mantua to Beneventum, a vile
+and promiscuous multitude of Italians was enlisted under the holy
+standard: ^33 the priest and the robber slept in the same tent;
+the pikes and crosses were intermingled in the front; and the
+martial saint repeated the lessons of his youth in the order of
+march, of encampment, and of combat.  The Normans of Apulia could
+muster in the field no more than three thousand horse, with a
+handful of infantry: the defection of the natives intercepted
+their provisions and retreat; and their spirit, incapable of
+fear, was chilled for a moment by superstitious awe.  On the
+hostile approach of Leo, they knelt without disgrace or
+reluctance before their spiritual father. But the pope was
+inexorable; his lofty Germans affected to deride the diminutive
+stature of their adversaries; and the Normans were informed that
+death or exile was their only alternative.  Flight they
+disdained, and, as many of them had been three days without
+tasting food, they embraced the assurance of a more easy and
+honorable death.  They climbed the hill of Civitella, descended
+into the plain, and charged in three divisions the army of the
+pope.  On the left, and in the centre, Richard count of Aversa,
+and Robert the famous Guiscard, attacked, broke, routed, and
+pursued the Italian multitudes, who fought without discipline,
+and fled without shame.  A harder trial was reserved for the
+valor of Count Humphrey, who led the cavalry of the right wing.
+The Germans ^34 have been described as unskillful in the
+management of the horse and the lance, but on foot they formed a
+strong and impenetrable phalanx; and neither man, nor steed, nor
+armor, could resist the weight of their long and two-handed
+swords.  After a severe conflict, they were encompassed by the
+squadrons returning from the pursuit; and died in the ranks with
+the esteem of their foes, and the satisfaction of revenge.  The
+gates of Civitella were shut against the flying pope, and he was
+overtaken by the pious conquerors, who kissed his feet, to
+implore his blessing and the absolution of their sinful victory.
+The soldiers beheld in their enemy and captive the vicar of
+Christ; and, though we may suppose the policy of the chiefs, it
+is probable that they were infected by the popular superstition.
+In the calm of retirement, the well-meaning pope deplored the
+effusion of Christian blood, which must be imputed to his
+account: he felt, that he had been the author of sin and scandal;
+and as his undertaking had failed, the indecency of his military
+character was universally condemned. ^35 With these dispositions,
+he listened to the offers of a beneficial treaty; deserted an
+alliance which he had preached as the cause of God; and ratified
+the past and future conquests of the Normans.  By whatever hands
+they had been usurped, the provinces of Apulia and Calabria were
+a part of the donation of Constantine and the patrimony of St.
+Peter: the grant and the acceptance confirmed the mutual claims
+of the pontiff and the adventurers.  They promised to support
+each other with spiritual and temporal arms; a tribute or
+quitrent of twelve pence was afterwards stipulated for every
+ploughland; and since this memorable transaction, the kingdom of
+Naples has remained above seven hundred years a fief of the Holy
+See. ^36
+
+[Footnote 33: See the expedition of Leo XI. against the Normans.
+See William Appulus (l. ii. p. 259 - 261) and Jeffrey Malaterra
+(l. i. c. 13, 14, 15, p. 253.) They are impartial, as the
+national is counterbalanced by the clerical prejudice]
+
+[Footnote 34:  Teutonici, quia caesaries et forma decoros
+
+          Fecerat egregie proceri corporis illos
+
+          Corpora derident Normannica quae breviora
+
+          Esse videbantur.
+
+The verses of the Apulian are commonly in this strain, though he
+heats himself a little in the battle.  Two of his similes from
+hawking and sorcery are descriptive of manners.]
+
+[Footnote 35: Several respectable censures or complaints are
+produced by M. de St. Marc, (tom. ii. p. 200 - 204.) As Peter
+Damianus, the oracle of the times, has denied the popes the right
+of making war, the hermit (lugens eremi incola) is arraigned by
+the cardinal, and Baronius (Annal. Eccles. A.D. 1053, No. 10 -
+17) most strenuously asserts the two swords of St. Peter.]
+
+[Footnote 36: The origin and nature of the papal investitures are
+ably discussed by Giannone, (Istoria Civile di Napoli, tom. ii.
+p. 37 - 49, 57 - 66,) as a lawyer and antiquarian.  Yet he vainly
+strives to reconcile the duties of patriot and Catholic, adopts
+an empty distinction of "Ecclesia Romana non dedit, sed accepit,"
+and shrinks from an honest but dangerous confession of the
+truth.]
+
+The pedigree of Robert of Guiscard ^37 is variously deduced
+from the peasants and the dukes of Normandy: from the peasants,
+by the pride and ignorance of a Grecian princess; ^38 from the
+dukes, by the ignorance and flattery of the Italian subjects. ^39
+His genuine descent may be ascribed to the second or middle order
+of private nobility. ^40 He sprang from a race of valvassors or
+bannerets, of the diocese of Coutances, in the Lower Normandy:
+the castle of Hauteville was their honorable seat: his father
+Tancred was conspicuous in the court and army of the duke; and
+his military service was furnished by ten soldiers or knights.
+Two marriages, of a rank not unworthy of his own, made him the
+father of twelve sons, who were educated at home by the impartial
+tenderness of his second wife.  But a narrow patrimony was
+insufficient for this numerous and daring progeny; they saw
+around the neighborhood the mischiefs of poverty and discord, and
+resolved to seek in foreign wars a more glorious inheritance.
+Two only remained to perpetuate the race, and cherish their
+father's age: their ten brothers, as they successfully attained
+the vigor of manhood, departed from the castle, passed the Alps,
+and joined the Apulian camp of the Normans. The elder were
+prompted by native spirit; their success encouraged their younger
+brethren, and the three first in seniority, William, Drogo, and
+Humphrey, deserved to be the chiefs of their nation and the
+founders of the new republic.  Robert was the eldest of the seven
+sons of the second marriage; and even the reluctant praise of his
+foes has endowed him with the heroic qualities of a soldier and a
+statesman.  His lofty stature surpassed the tallest of his army:
+his limbs were cast in the true proportion of strength and
+gracefulness; and to the decline of life, he maintained the
+patient vigor of health and the commanding dignity of his form.
+His complexion was ruddy, his shoulders were broad, his hair and
+beard were long and of a flaxen color, his eyes sparkled with
+fire, and his voice, like that of Achilles, could impress
+obedience and terror amidst the tumult of battle.  In the ruder
+ages of chivalry, such qualifications are not below the notice of
+the poet or historians: they may observe that Robert, at once,
+and with equal dexterity, could wield in the right hand his
+sword, his lance in the left; that in the battle of Civitella he
+was thrice unhorsed; and that in the close of that memorable day
+he was adjudged to have borne away the prize of valor from the
+warriors of the two armies. ^41 His boundless ambition was
+founded on the consciousness of superior worth: in the pursuit of
+greatness, he was never arrested by the scruples of justice, and
+seldom moved by the feelings of humanity: though not insensible
+of fame, the choice of open or clandestine means was determined
+only by his present advantage.  The surname of Guiscard ^42 was
+applied to this master of political wisdom, which is too often
+confounded with the practice of dissimulation and deceit; and
+Robert is praised by the Apulian poet for excelling the cunning
+of Ulysses and the eloquence of Cicero.  Yet these arts were
+disguised by an appearance of military frankness: in his highest
+fortune, he was accessible and courteous to his fellow-soldiers;
+and while he indulged the prejudices of his new subjects, he
+affected in his dress and manners to maintain the ancient fashion
+of his country.  He grasped with a rapacious, that he might
+distribute with a liberal, hand: his primitive indigence had
+taught the habits of frugality; the gain of a merchant was not
+below his attention; and his prisoners were tortured with slow
+and unfeeling cruelty, to force a discovery of their secret
+treasure.  According to the Greeks, he departed from Normandy
+with only five followers on horseback and thirty on foot; yet
+even this allowance appears too bountiful: the sixth son of
+Tancred of Hauteville passed the Alps as a pilgrim; and his first
+military band was levied among the adventurers of Italy.  His
+brothers and countrymen had divided the fertile lands of Apulia;
+but they guarded their shares with the jealousy of avarice; the
+aspiring youth was driven forwards to the mountains of Calabria,
+and in his first exploits against the Greeks and the natives, it
+is not easy to discriminate the hero from the robber.  To
+surprise a castle or a convent, to ensnare a wealthy citizen, to
+plunder the adjacent villages for necessary food, were the
+obscure labors which formed and exercised the powers of his mind
+and body.  The volunteers of Normandy adhered to his standard;
+and, under his command, the peasants of Calabria assumed the name
+and character of Normans.
+
+[Footnote 37: The birth, character, and first actions of Robert
+Guiscard, may be found in Jeffrey Malaterra, (l. i. c. 3, 4, 11,
+16, 17, 18, 38, 39, 40,) William Appulus, (l. ii. p. 260 - 262,)
+William Gemeticensis, or of Jumieges, (l. xi. c. 30, p. 663, 664,
+edit. Camden,) and Anna Comnena, (Alexiad, l. i. p. 23 - 27, l.
+vi. p. 165, 166,) with the annotations of Ducange, (Not. in
+Alexiad, p. 230 - 232, 320,) who has swept all the French and
+Latin Chronicles for supplemental intelligence.]
+
+[Footnote 38: (a Greek corruption), and elsewhere, (l. iv. p.
+84,).  Anna Comnena was born in the purple; yet her father was no
+more than a private though illustrious subject, who raised
+himself to the empire.]
+
+[Footnote 39: Giannone, (tom. ii. p. 2) forgets all his original
+authors, and rests this princely descent on the credit of
+Inveges, an Augustine monk of Palermo in the last century.  They
+continue the succession of dukes from Rollo to William II. the
+Bastard or Conqueror, whom they hold (communemente si tiene) to
+be the father of Tancred of Hauteville; a most strange and
+stupendous blunder!  The sons of Tancred fought in Apulia, before
+William II. was three years old, (A.D. 1037.)]
+
+[Footnote 40: The judgment of Ducange is just and moderate: Certe
+humilis fuit ac tenuis Roberti familia, si ducalem et regium
+spectemus apicem, ad quem postea pervenit; quae honesta tamen et
+praeter nobilium vulgarium statum et conditionem illustris habita
+est, "quae nec humi reperet nec altum quid tumeret." (Wilhem.
+Malmsbur. de Gestis Anglorum, l. iii. p. 107. Not. ad Alexiad. p.
+230.)]
+
+[Footnote 41: I shall quote with pleasure some of the best lines
+of the Apulian, (l. ii. p. 270.)
+
+Pugnat utraque manu, nec lancea cassa, nec ensis
+
+Cassus erat, quocunque manu deducere vellet.
+
+Ter dejectus equo, ter viribus ipse resumptis
+
+Major in arma redit: stimulos furor ipse ministrat.
+
+Ut Leo cum frendens, &c.
+
+-    -    -    -    -    -    -
+
+Nullus in hoc bello sicuti post bella probatum est
+
+Victor vel victus, tam magnos edidit ictus.]
+
+[Footnote 42: The Norman writers and editors most conversant with
+their own idiom interpret Guiscard or Wiscard, by Callidus, a
+cunning man.  The root (wise) is familiar to our ear; and in the
+old word Wiseacre, I can discern something of a similar sense and
+termination.  It is no bad translation of the surname and
+character of Robert.]
+
+As the genius of Robert expanded with his fortune, he
+awakened the jealousy of his elder brother, by whom, in a
+transient quarrel, his life was threatened and his liberty
+restrained.  After the death of Humphrey, the tender age of his
+sons excluded them from the command; they were reduced to a
+private estate, by the ambition of their guardian and uncle; and
+Guiscard was exalted on a buckler, and saluted count of Apulia
+and general of the republic. With an increase of authority and of
+force, he resumed the conquest of Calabria, and soon aspired to a
+rank that should raise him forever above the heads of his equals.
+
+By some acts of rapine or sacrilege, he had incurred a papal
+excommunication; but Nicholas the Second was easily persuaded
+that the divisions of friends could terminate only in their
+mutual prejudice; that the Normans were the faithful champions of
+the Holy See; and it was safer to trust the alliance of a prince
+than the caprice of an aristocracy.  A synod of one hundred
+bishops was convened at Melphi; and the count interrupted an
+important enterprise to guard the person and execute the decrees
+of the Roman pontiff. His gratitude and policy conferred on
+Robert and his posterity the ducal title, ^43 with the
+investiture of Apulia, Calabria, and all the lands, both in Italy
+and Sicily, which his sword could rescue from the schismatic
+Greeks and the unbelieving Saracens. ^44 This apostolic sanction
+might justify his arms; but the obedience of a free and
+victorious people could not be transferred without their consent;
+and Guiscard dissembled his elevation till the ensuing campaign
+had been illustrated by the conquest of Consenza and Reggio.  In
+the hour of triumph, he assembled his troops, and solicited the
+Normans to confirm by their suffrage the judgment of the vicar of
+Christ: the soldiers hailed with joyful acclamations their
+valiant duke; and the counts, his former equals, pronounced the
+oath of fidelity with hollow smiles and secret indignation.
+After this inauguration, Robert styled himself, "By the grace of
+God and St. Peter, duke of Apulia, Calabria, and hereafter of
+Sicily;" and it was the labor of twenty years to deserve and
+realize these lofty appellations.  Such sardy progress, in a
+narrow space, may seem unworthy of the abilities of the chief and
+the spirit of the nation; but the Normans were few in number;
+their resources were scanty; their service was voluntary and
+precarious.  The bravest designs of the duke were sometimes
+opposed by the free voice of his parliament of barons: the twelve
+counts of popular election conspired against his authority; and
+against their perfidious uncle, the sons of Humphrey demanded
+justice and revenge.  By his policy and vigor, Guiscard
+discovered their plots, suppressed their rebellions, and punished
+the guilty with death or exile: but in these domestic feuds, his
+years, and the national strength, were unprofitably consumed.
+After the defeat of his foreign enemies, the Greeks, Lombards,
+and Saracens, their broken forces retreated to the strong and
+populous cities of the sea-coast.  They excelled in the arts of
+fortification and defence; the Normans were accustomed to serve
+on horseback in the field, and their rude attempts could only
+succeed by the efforts of persevering courage.  The resistance of
+Salerno was maintained above eight months; the siege or blockade
+of Bari lasted near four years. In these actions the Norman duke
+was the foremost in every danger; in every fatigue the last and
+most patient.  As he pressed the citadel of Salerno, a huge stone
+from the rampart shattered one of his military engines; and by a
+splinter he was wounded in the breast.  Before the gates of Bari,
+he lodged in a miserable hut or barrack, composed of dry
+branches, and thatched with straw; a perilous station, on all
+sides open to the inclemency of the winter and the spears of the
+enemy. ^45
+
+[Footnote 43: The acquisition of the ducal title by Robert
+Guiscard is a nice and obscure business.  With the good advice of
+Giannone, Muratori, and St. Marc, I have endeavored to form a
+consistent and probable narrative.]
+
+[Footnote 44: Baronius (Annal. Eccles. A.D. 1059, No. 69) has
+published the original act.  He professes to have copied it from
+the Liber Censuum, a Vatican Ms.  Yet a Liber Censuum of the
+xiith century has been printed by Muratori, (Antiquit. Medii
+Aevi, tom. v. p. 851 - 908;) and the names of Vatican and
+Cardinal awaken the suspicions of a Protestant, and even of a
+philosopher.]
+
+[Footnote 45: Read the life of Guiscard in the second and third
+books of the Apulian, the first and second books of Malaterra.]
+
+The Italian conquests of Robert correspond with the limits
+of the present kingdom of Naples; and the countries united by his
+arms have not been dissevered by the revolutions of seven hundred
+years. ^46 The monarchy has been composed of the Greek provinces
+of Calabria and Apulia, of the Lombard principality of Salerno,
+the republic of Amalphi, and the inland dependencies of the large
+and ancient duchy of Beneventum.  Three districts only were
+exempted from the common law of subjection; the first forever,
+the two last till the middle of the succeeding century.  The city
+and immediate territory of Benevento had been transferred, by
+gift or exchange, from the German emperor to the Roman pontiff;
+and although this holy land was sometimes invaded, the name of
+St. Peter was finally more potent than the sword of the Normans.
+Their first colony of Aversa subdued and held the state of Capua;
+and her princes were reduced to beg their bread before the palace
+of their fathers.  The dukes of Naples, the present metropolis,
+maintained the popular freedom, under the shadow of the Byzantine
+empire. Among the new acquisitions of Guiscard, the science of
+Salerno, ^47 and the trade of Amalphi, ^48 may detain for a
+moment the curiosity of the reader. I.  Of the learned faculties,
+jurisprudence implies the previous establishment of laws and
+property; and theology may perhaps be superseded by the full
+light of religion and reason. But the savage and the sage must
+alike implore the assistance of physic; and, if our diseases are
+inflamed by luxury, the mischiefs of blows and wounds would be
+more frequent in the ruder ages of society.  The treasures of
+Grecian medicine had been communicated to the Arabian colonies of
+Africa, Spain, and Sicily; and in the intercourse of peace and
+war, a spark of knowledge had been kindled and cherished at
+Salerno, an illustrious city, in which the men were honest and
+the women beautiful. ^49 A school, the first that arose in the
+darkness of Europe, was consecrated to the healing art: the
+conscience of monks and bishops was reconciled to that salutary
+and lucrative profession; and a crowd of patients, of the most
+eminent rank, and most distant climates, invited or visited the
+physicians of Salerno.  They were protected by the Norman
+conquerors; and Guiscard, though bred in arms, could discern the
+merit and value of a philosopher.  After a pilgrimage of
+thirty-nine years, Constantine, an African Christian, returned
+from Bagdad, a master of the language and learning of the
+Arabians; and Salerno was enriched by the practice, the lessons,
+and the writings of the pupil of Avicenna.  The school of
+medicine has long slept in the name of a university; but her
+precepts are abridged in a string of aphorisms, bound together in
+the Leonine verses, or Latin rhymes, of the twelfth century. ^50
+II. Seven miles to the west of Salerno, and thirty to the south
+of Naples, the obscure town of Amalphi displayed the power and
+rewards of industry.  The land, however fertile, was of narrow
+extent; but the sea was accessible and open: the inhabitants
+first assumed the office of supplying the western world with the
+manufactures and productions of the East; and this useful traffic
+was the source of their opulence and freedom.  The government was
+popular, under the administration of a duke and the supremacy of
+the Greek emperor.  Fifty thousand citizens were numbered in the
+walls of Amalphi; nor was any city more abundantly provided with
+gold, silver, and the objects of precious luxury.  The mariners
+who swarmed in her port, excelled in the theory and practice of
+navigation and astronomy: and the discovery of the compass, which
+has opened the globe, is owing to their ingenuity or good
+fortune.  Their trade was extended to the coasts, or at least to
+the commodities, of Africa, Arabia, and India: and their
+settlements in Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem, and
+Alexandria, acquired the privileges of independent colonies. ^51
+After three hundred years of prosperity, Amalphi was oppressed by
+the arms of the Normans, and sacked by the jealousy of Pisa; but
+the poverty of one thousand ^* fisherman is yet dignified by the
+remains of an arsenal, a cathedral, and the palaces of royal
+merchants.
+
+[Footnote 46: The conquests of Robert Guiscard and Roger I., the
+exemption of Benevento and the xii provinces of the kingdom, are
+fairly exposed by Giannone in the second volume of his Istoria
+Civile, l. ix. x. xi and l. xvii. p. 460 - 470.  This modern
+division was not established before the time of Frederic II.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Giannone, (tom. ii. p. 119 - 127,) Muratori,
+(Antiquitat. Medii Aevi, tom. iii. dissert. xliv. p. 935, 936,)
+and Tiraboschi, (Istoria della Letteratura Italiana,) have given
+an historical account of these physicians; their medical
+knowledge and practice must be left to our physicians.]
+
+[Footnote 48: At the end of the Historia Pandectarum of Henry
+Brenckmann, (Trajecti ad Rhenum, 1722, in 4to.,) the
+indefatigable author has inserted two dissertations, de Republica
+Amalphitana, and de Amalphi a Pisanis direpta, which are built on
+the testimonies of one hundred and forty writers.  Yet he has
+forgotten two most important passages of the embassy of
+Liutprand, (A.D. 939,) which compare the trade and navigation of
+Amalphi with that of Venice.]
+
+[Footnote 49:  Urbs Latii non est hac delitiosior urbe,
+
+          Frugibus, arboribus, vinoque redundat; et unde
+
+     Non tibi poma, nuces, non pulchra palatia desunt,
+
+   Non species muliebris abest probitasque virorum.
+
+          Gulielmus Appulus, l. iii. p. 367]
+
+[Footnote 50: Muratori carries their antiquity above the year
+(1066) of the death of Edward the Confessor, the rex Anglorum to
+whom they are addressed. Nor is this date affected by the
+opinion, or rather mistake, of Pasquier (Recherches de la France,
+l. vii. c. 2) and Ducange, (Glossar. Latin.) The practice of
+rhyming, as early as the viith century, was borrowed from the
+languages of the North and East, (Muratori, Antiquitat. tom. iii.
+dissert. xl. p. 686 - 708.)]
+
+[Footnote 51: The description of Amalphi, by William the Apulian,
+(l. iii. p. 267,) contains much truth and some poetry, and the
+third line may be applied to the sailor's compass: -
+
+Nulla magis locuples argento, vestibus, auro
+
+Partibus innumeris: hac plurimus urbe moratur
+
+Nauta maris Caelique vias aperire peritus.
+
+Huc et Alexandri diversa feruntur ab urbe
+
+Regis, et Antiochi.  Gens haec freta plurima transit.
+
+His Arabes, Indi, Siculi nascuntur et Afri.
+
+Haec gens est totum proore nobilitata per orbem,
+
+Et mercando forens, et amans mercata referre.]
+
+[Footnote *: Amalfi had only one thousand inhabitants at the
+commencement of the 18th century, when it was visited by
+Brenckmann, (Brenckmann de Rep. Amalph. Diss. i. c. 23.) At
+present it has six or eight thousand Hist. des Rep. tom. i. p.
+304. - G.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LVI: The Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.
+
+Part III.
+
+Roger, the twelfth and last of the sons of Tancred, had been
+long detained in Normandy by his own and his father' age.  He
+accepted the welcome summons; hastened to the Apulian camp; and
+deserved at first the esteem, and afterwards the envy, of his
+elder brother.  Their valor and ambition were equal; but the
+youth, the beauty, the elegant manners, of Roger engaged the
+disinterested love of the soldiers and people.  So scanty was his
+allowance for himself and forty followers, that he descended from
+conquest to robbery, and from robbery to domestic theft; and so
+loose were the notions of property, that, by his own historian,
+at his special command, he is accused of stealing horses from a
+stable at Melphi. ^52 His spirit emerged from poverty and
+disgrace: from these base practices he rose to the merit and
+glory of a holy war; and the invasion of Sicily was seconded by
+the zeal and policy of his brother Guiscard.  After the retreat
+of the Greeks, the idolaters, a most audacious reproach of the
+Catholics, had retrieved their losses and possessions; but the
+deliverance of the island, so vainly undertaken by the forces of
+the Eastern empire, was achieved by a small and private band of
+adventurers. ^53 In the first attempt, Roger braved, in an open
+boat, the real and fabulous dangers of Scylla and Charybdis;
+landed with only sixty soldiers on a hostile shore; drove the
+Saracens to the gates of Messina and safely returned with the
+spoils of the adjacent country.  In the fortress of Trani, his
+active and patient courage were equally conspicuous.  In his old
+age he related with pleasure, that, by the distress of the siege,
+himself, and the countess his wife, had been reduced to a single
+cloak or mantle, which they wore alternately; that in a sally his
+horse had been slain, and he was dragged away by the Saracens;
+but that he owed his rescue to his good sword, and had retreated
+with his saddle on his back, lest the meanest trophy might be
+left in the hands of the miscreants.  In the siege of Trani,
+three hundred Normans withstood and repulsed the forces of the
+island.  In the field of Ceramio, fifty thousand horse and foot
+were overthrown by one hundred and thirty-six Christian soldiers,
+without reckoning St. George, who fought on horseback in the
+foremost ranks.  The captive banners, with four camels, were
+reserved for the successor of St. Peter; and had these barbaric
+spoils been exposed, not in the Vatican, but in the Capitol, they
+might have revived the memory of the Punic triumphs.  These
+insufficient numbers of the Normans most probably denote their
+knights, the soldiers of honorable and equestrian rank, each of
+whom was attended by five or six followers in the field; ^54 yet,
+with the aid of this interpretation, and after every fair
+allowance on the side of valor, arms, and reputation, the
+discomfiture of so many myriads will reduce the prudent reader to
+the alternative of a miracle or a fable.  The Arabs of Sicily
+derived a frequent and powerful succor from their countrymen of
+Africa: in the siege of Palermo, the Norman cavalry was assisted
+by the galleys of Pisa; and, in the hour of action, the envy of
+the two brothers was sublimed to a generous and invincible
+emulation.  After a war of thirty years, ^55 Roger, with the
+title of great count, obtained the sovereignty of the largest and
+most fruitful island of the Mediterranean; and his administration
+displays a liberal and enlightened mind, above the limits of his
+age and education.  The Moslems were maintained in the free
+enjoyment of their religion and property: ^56 a philosopher and
+physician of Mazara, of the race of Mahomet, harangued the
+conqueror, and was invited to court; his geography of the seven
+climates was translated into Latin; and Roger, after a diligent
+perusal, preferred the work of the Arabian to the writings of the
+Grecian Ptolemy. ^57 A remnant of Christian natives had promoted
+the success of the Normans: they were rewarded by the triumph of
+the cross.  The island was restored to the jurisdiction of the
+Roman pontiff; new bishops were planted in the principal cities;
+and the clergy was satisfied by a liberal endowment of churches
+and monasteries.  Yet the Catholic hero asserted the rights of
+the civil magistrate.  Instead of resigning the investiture of
+benefices, he dexterously applied to his own profit the papal
+claims: the supremacy of the crown was secured and enlarged, by
+the singular bull, which declares the princes of Sicily
+hereditary and perpetual legates of the Holy See. ^58
+
+[Footnote 52: Latrocinio armigerorum suorum in multis
+sustentabatur, quod quidem ad ejus ignominiam non dicimus; sed
+ipso ita praecipiente adhuc viliora et reprehensibiliora dicturi
+sumus ut pluribus patescat, quam laboriose et cum quanta angustia
+a profunda paupertate ad summum culmen divitiarum vel honoris
+attigerit.  Such is the preface of Malaterra (l. i. c. 25) to the
+horse-stealing.  From the moment (l. i. c. 19) that he has
+mentioned his patron Roger, the elder brother sinks into the
+second character.  Something similar in Velleius Paterculus may
+be observed of Augustus and Tiberius.]
+
+[Footnote 53: Duo sibi proficua deputans animae scilicet et
+corporis si terran: Idolis deditam ad cultum divinum revocaret,
+(Galfrid Malaterra, l. ii. c. 1.) The conquest of Sicily is
+related in the three last books, and he himself has given an
+accurate summary of the chapters, (p. 544 - 546.)]
+
+[Footnote 54: See the word Milites in the Latin Glossary of
+Ducange.]
+
+[Footnote 55: Of odd particulars, I learn from Malaterra, that
+the Arabs had introduced into Sicily the use of camels (l. i. c.
+33) and of carrier- pigeons, (c. 42;) and that the bite of the
+tarantula provokes a windy disposition, quae per anum inhoneste
+crepitando emergit; a symptom most ridiculously felt by the whole
+Norman army in their camp near Palermo, (c. 36.) I shall add an
+etymology not unworthy of the xith century: Messana is divided
+from Messis, the place from whence the harvests of the isle were
+sent in tribute to Rome, (l. ii. c. 1.)]
+
+[Footnote 56: See the capitulation of Palermo in Malaterra, l.
+ii. c. 45, and Giannone, who remarks the general toleration of
+the Saracens, (tom ii. p. 72.)]
+
+[Footnote 57: John Leo Afer, de Medicis et Philosophus Arabibus,
+c. 14, apud Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. tom. xiii. p. 278, 279.  This
+philosopher is named Esseriph Essachalli, and he died in Africa,
+A. H. 516, A.D. 1122. Yet this story bears a strange resemblance
+to the Sherif al Edrissi, who presented his book (Geographia
+Nubiensis, see preface p. 88, 90, 170) to Roger, king of Sicily,
+A. H. 541, A.D. 1153, (D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p.
+786. Prideaux's Life of Mahomet, p. 188.  Petit de la Croix,
+Hist. de Gengiscan, p. 535, 536.  Casiri, Bibliot. Arab. Hispan.
+tom. ii. p. 9 - 13;) and I am afraid of some mistake.]
+
+[Footnote 58: Malaterra remarks the foundation of the bishoprics,
+(l. iv. c. 7,) and produces the original of the bull, (l. iv. c.
+29.) Giannone gives a rational idea of this privilege, and the
+tribunal of the monarchy of Sicily, (tom. ii. p. 95 - 102;) and
+St. Marc (Abrege, tom. iii. p. 217 - 301, 1st column) labors the
+case with the diligence of a Sicilian lawyer.]
+
+To Robert Guiscard, the conquest of Sicily was more glorious
+than beneficial: the possession of Apulia and Calabria was
+inadequate to his ambition; and he resolved to embrace or create
+the first occasion of invading, perhaps of subduing, the Roman
+empire of the East. ^59 From his first wife, the partner of his
+humble fortune, he had been divorced under the pretence of
+consanguinity; and her son Bohemond was destined to imitate,
+rather than to succeed, his illustrious father.  The second wife
+of Guiscard was the daughter of the princes of Salerno; the
+Lombards acquiesced in the lineal succession of their son Roger;
+their five daughters were given in honorable nuptials, ^60 and
+one of them was betrothed, in a tender age, to Constantine, a
+beautiful youth, the son and heir of the emperor Michael. ^61 But
+the throne of Constantinople was shaken by a revolution: the
+Imperial family of Ducas was confined to the palace or the
+cloister; and Robert deplored, and resented, the disgrace of his
+daughter and the expulsion of his ally.  A Greek, who styled
+himself the father of Constantine, soon appeared at Salerno, and
+related the adventures of his fall and flight.  That unfortunate
+friend was acknowledged by the duke, and adorned with the pomp
+and titles of Imperial dignity: in his triumphal progress through
+Apulia and Calabria, Michael ^62 was saluted with the tears and
+acclamations of the people; and Pope Gregory the Seventh exhorted
+the bishops to preach, and the Catholics to fight, in the pious
+work of his restoration.  His conversations with Robert were
+frequent and familiar; and their mutual promises were justified
+by the valor of the Normans and the treasures of the East.  Yet
+this Michael, by the confession of the Greeks and Latins, was a
+pageant and an impostor; a monk who had fled from his convent, or
+a domestic who had served in the palace.  The fraud had been
+contrived by the subtle Guiscard; and he trusted, that after this
+pretender had given a decent color to his arms, he would sink, at
+the nod of the conqueror, into his primitive obscurity.  But
+victory was the only argument that could determine the belief of
+the Greeks; and the ardor of the Latins was much inferior to
+their credulity: the Norman veterans wished to enjoy the harvest
+of their toils, and the unwarlike Italians trembled at the known
+and unknown dangers of a transmarine expedition.  In his new
+levies, Robert exerted the influence of gifts and promises, the
+terrors of civil and ecclesiastical authority; and some acts of
+violence might justify the reproach, that age and infancy were
+pressed without distinction into the service of their unrelenting
+prince. After two years' incessant preparations the land and
+naval forces were assembled at Otranto, at the heel, or extreme
+promontory, of Italy; and Robert was accompanied by his wife, who
+fought by his side, his son Bohemond, and the representative of
+the emperor Michael.  Thirteen hundred knights ^63 of Norman race
+or discipline, formed the sinews of the army, which might be
+swelled to thirty thousand ^64 followers of every denomination.
+The men, the horses, the arms, the engines, the wooden towers,
+covered with raw hides, were embarked on board one hundred and
+fifty vessels: the transports had been built in the ports of
+Italy, and the galleys were supplied by the alliance of the
+republic of Ragusa.
+
+[Footnote 59: In the first expedition of Robert against the
+Greeks, I follow Anna Comnena, (the ist, iiid, ivth, and vth
+books of the Alexiad,) William Appulus, (l. ivth and vth, p.
+270-275,) and Jeffrey Malaterra, (l. iii. c. 13, 14, 24 - 29,
+39.) Their information is contemporary and authentic, but none of
+them were eye-witnesses of the war.]
+
+[Footnote 60: One of them was married to Hugh, the son of Azzo,
+or Axo, a marquis of Lombardy, rich, powerful, and noble,
+(Gulielm. Appul. l. iii. p. 267,) in the xith century, and whose
+ancestors in the xth and ixth are explored by the critical
+industry of Leibnitz and Muratori.  From the two elder sons of
+the marquis Azzo are derived the illustrious lines of Brunswick
+and Este.  See Muratori, Antichita Estense.]
+
+[Footnote 61: Anna Comnena, somewhat too wantonly, praises and
+bewails that handsome boy, who, after the rupture of his barbaric
+nuptials, (l. i. p. 23,) was betrothed as her husband. (p. 27.)
+Elsewhere she describes the red and white of his skin, his hawk's
+eyes, &c., l. iii. p. 71.]
+
+[Footnote 62: Anna Comnena, l. i. p. 28, 29.  Gulielm. Appul. l.
+iv p. 271. Galfrid Malaterra, l. iii. c. 13, p. 579, 580.
+Malaterra is more cautious in his style; but the Apulian is bold
+and positive. - Mentitus se Michaelem Venerata Danais quidam
+seductor ad illum.
+
+As Gregory VII had believed, Baronius almost alone, recognizes
+the emperor Michael. (A.D. No. 44.)]
+
+[Footnote 63: Ipse armatae militiae non plusquam MCCC milites
+secum habuisse, ab eis qui eidem negotio interfuerunt attestatur,
+(Malaterra, l. iii. c. 24, p. 583.) These are the same whom the
+Apulian (l. iv. p. 273) styles the equestris gens ducis, equites
+de gente ducis.]
+
+[Footnote 64: Anna Comnena (Alexias, l. i. p. 37;) and her
+account tallies with the number and lading of the ships.  Ivit in
+Dyrrachium cum xv. millibus hominum, says the Chronicon Breve
+Normannicum, (Muratori, Scriptores, tom. v. p. 278.) I have
+endeavored to reconcile these reckonings.]
+
+At the mouth of the Adriatic Gulf, the shores of Italy and
+Epirus incline towards each other.  The space between Brundusium
+and Durazzo, the Roman passage, is no more than one hundred
+miles; ^65 at the last station of Otranto, it is contracted to
+fifty; ^66 and this narrow distance had suggested to Pyrrhus and
+Pompey the sublime or extravagant idea of a bridge.  Before the
+general embarkation, the Norman duke despatched Bohemond with
+fifteen galleys to seize or threaten the Isle of Corfu, to survey
+the opposite coast, and to secure a harbor in the neighborhood of
+Vallona for the landing of the troops. They passed and landed
+without perceiving an enemy; and this successful experiment
+displayed the neglect and decay of the naval power of the Greeks.
+The islands of Epirus and the maritime towns were subdued by the
+arms or the name of Robert, who led his fleet and army from Corfu
+(I use the modern appellation) to the siege of Durazzo.  That
+city, the western key of the empire, was guarded by ancient
+renown, and recent fortifications, by George Palaeologus, a
+patrician, victorious in the Oriental wars, and a numerous
+garrison of Albanians and Macedonians, who, in every age, have
+maintained the character of soldiers. In the prosecution of his
+enterprise, the courage of Guiscard was assailed by every form of
+danger and mischance.  In the most propitious season of the year,
+as his fleet passed along the coast, a storm of wind and snow
+unexpectedly arose: the Adriatic was swelled by the raging blast
+of the south, and a new shipwreck confirmed the old infamy of the
+Acroceraunian rocks. ^67 The sails, the masts, and the oars, were
+shattered or torn away; the sea and shore were covered with the
+fragments of vessels, with arms and dead bodies; and the greatest
+part of the provisions were either drowned or damaged.  The ducal
+galley was laboriously rescued from the waves, and Robert halted
+seven days on the adjacent cape, to collect the relics of his
+loss, and revive the drooping spirits of his soldiers.  The
+Normans were no longer the bold and experienced mariners who had
+explored the ocean from Greenland to Mount Atlas, and who smiled
+at the petty dangers of the Mediterranean.  They had wept during
+the tempest; they were alarmed by the hostile approach of the
+Venetians, who had been solicited by the prayers and promises of
+the Byzantine court.  The first day's action was not
+disadvantageous to Bohemond, a beardless youth, ^68 who led the
+naval powers of his father.  All night the galleys of the
+republic lay on their anchors in the form of a crescent; and the
+victory of the second day was decided by the dexterity of their
+evolutions, the station of their archers, the weight of their
+javelins, and the borrowed aid of the Greek fire.  The Apulian
+and Ragusian vessels fled to the shore, several were cut from
+their cables, and dragged away by the conqueror; and a sally from
+the town carried slaughter and dismay to the tents of the Norman
+duke.  A seasonable relief was poured into Durazzo, and as soon
+as the besiegers had lost the command of the sea, the islands and
+maritime towns withdrew from the camp the supply of tribute and
+provision.  That camp was soon afflicted with a pestilential
+disease; five hundred knights perished by an inglorious death;
+and the list of burials (if all could obtain a decent burial)
+amounted to ten thousand persons.  Under these calamities, the
+mind of Guiscard alone was firm and invincible; and while he
+collected new forces from Apulia and Sicily, he battered, or
+scaled, or sapped, the walls of Durazzo.  But his industry and
+valor were encountered by equal valor and more perfect industry.
+A movable turret, of a size and capacity to contain five hundred
+soldiers, had been rolled forwards to the foot of the rampart:
+but the descent of the door or drawbridge was checked by an
+enormous beam, and the wooden structure was constantly consumed
+by artificial flames.
+
+[Footnote 65: The Itinerary of Jerusalem (p. 609, edit.
+Wesseling) gives a true and reasonable space of a thousand stadia
+or one hundred miles which is strangely doubled by Strabo (l. vi.
+p. 433) and Pliny, (Hist. Natur. iii. 16.)]
+
+[Footnote 66: Pliny (Hist. Nat. iii. 6, 16) allows quinquaginta
+millia for this brevissimus cursus, and agrees with the real
+distance from Otranto to La Vallona, or Aulon, (D'Anville,
+Analyse de sa Carte des Cotes de la Grece, &c., p. 3 - 6.)
+Hermolaus Barbarus, who substitutes centum. (Harduin, Not. lxvi.
+in Plin. l. iii.,) might have been corrected by every Venetian
+pilot who had sailed out of the gulf.]
+
+[Footnote 67: Infames scopulos Acroceraunia, Horat. carm. i. 3.
+The praecipitem Africum decertantem Aquilonibus, et rabiem Noti
+and the monstra natantia of the Adriatic, are somewhat enlarged;
+but Horace trembling for the life of Virgil, is an interesting
+moment in the history of poetry and friendship.]
+
+[Footnote 68: (Alexias, l. iv. p. 106.) Yet the Normans shaved,
+and the Venetians wore, their beards: they must have derided the
+no beard of Bohemond; a harsh interpretation. (Duncanga ad
+Alexiad.  p. 283.)]
+
+While the Roman empire was attacked by the Turks in the
+East, east, and the Normans in the West, the aged successor of
+Michael surrendered the sceptre to the hands of Alexius, an
+illustrious captain, and the founder of the Comnenian dynasty.
+The princess Anne, his daughter and historian, observes, in her
+affected style, that even Hercules was unequal to a double
+combat; and, on this principle, she approves a hasty peace with
+the Turks, which allowed her father to undertake in person the
+relief of Durazzo.  On his accession, Alexius found the camp
+without soldiers, and the treasury without money; yet such were
+the vigor and activity of his measures, that in six months he
+assembled an army of seventy thousand men, ^69 and performed a
+march of five hundred miles.  His troops were levied in Europe
+and Asia, from Peloponnesus to the Black Sea; his majesty was
+displayed in the silver arms and rich trappings of the companies
+of Horse-guards; and the emperor was attended by a train of
+nobles and princes, some of whom, in rapid succession, had been
+clothed with the purple, and were indulged by the lenity of the
+times in a life of affluence and dignity.  Their youthful ardor
+might animate the multitude; but their love of pleasure and
+contempt of subordination were pregnant with disorder and
+mischief; and their importunate clamors for speedy and decisive
+action disconcerted the prudence of Alexius, who might have
+surrounded and starved the besieging army.  The enumeration of
+provinces recalls a sad comparison of the past and present limits
+of the Roman world: the raw levies were drawn together in haste
+and terror; and the garrisons of Anatolia, or Asia Minor, had
+been purchased by the evacuation of the cities which were
+immediately occupied by the Turks.  The strength of the Greek
+army consisted in the Varangians, the Scandinavian guards, whose
+numbers were recently augmented by a colony of exiles and
+volunteers from the British Island of Thule.  Under the yoke of
+the Norman conqueror, the Danes and English were oppressed and
+united; a band of adventurous youths resolved to desert a land of
+slavery; the sea was open to their escape; and, in their long
+pilgrimage, they visited every coast that afforded any hope of
+liberty and revenge.  They were entertained in the service of the
+Greek emperor; and their first station was in a new city on the
+Asiatic shore: but Alexius soon recalled them to the defence of
+his person and palace; and bequeathed to his successors the
+inheritance of their faith and valor. ^70 The name of a Norman
+invader revived the memory of their wrongs: they marched with
+alacrity against the national foe, and panted to regain in Epirus
+the glory which they had lost in the battle of Hastings.  The
+Varangians were supported by some companies of Franks or Latins;
+and the rebels, who had fled to Constantinople from the tyranny
+of Guiscard, were eager to signalize their zeal and gratify their
+revenge.  In this emergency, the emperor had not disdained the
+impure aid of the Paulicians or Manichaeans of Thrace and
+Bulgaria; and these heretics united with the patience of
+martyrdom the spirit and discipline of active valor. ^71 The
+treaty with the sultan had procured a supply of some thousand
+Turks; and the arrows of the Scythian horse were opposed to the
+lances of the Norman cavalry.  On the report and distant prospect
+of these formidable numbers, Robert assembled a council of his
+principal officers.  "You behold," said he, "your danger: it is
+urgent and inevitable.  The hills are covered with arms and
+standards; and the emperor of the Greeks is accustomed to wars
+and triumphs.  Obedience and union are our only safety; and I am
+ready to yield the command to a more worthy leader." The vote and
+acclamation even of his secret enemies, assured him, in that
+perilous moment, of their esteem and confidence; and the duke
+thus continued: "Let us trust in the rewards of victory, and
+deprive cowardice of the means of escape.  Let us burn our
+vessels and our baggage, and give battle on this spot, as if it
+were the place of our nativity and our burial." The resolution
+was unanimously approved; and, without confining himself to his
+lines, Guiscard awaited in battle-array the nearer approach of
+the enemy. His rear was covered by a small river; his right wing
+extended to the sea; his left to the hills: nor was he conscious,
+perhaps, that on the same ground Caesar and Pompey had formerly
+disputed the empire of the world. ^72
+
+[Footnote 69: Muratori (Annali d' Italia, tom. ix. p. 136, 137)
+observes, that some authors (Petrus Diacon. Chron. Casinen. l.
+iii. c. 49) compose the Greek army of 170,000 men, but that the
+hundred may be struck off, and that Malaterra reckons only
+70,000; a slight inattention.  The passage to which he alludes is
+in the Chronicle of Lupus Protospata, (Script. Ital. tom. v. p.
+45.) Malaterra (l. iv. c. 27) speaks in high, but indefinite
+terms of the emperor, cum copiisinnumerabilbus: like the Apulian
+poet, (l. iv. p. 272: ) -
+
+More locustarum montes et pianna teguntur.]
+
+[Footnote 70: See William of Malmsbury, de Gestis Anglorum, l.
+ii. p. 92. Alexius fidem Anglorum suspiciens praecipuis
+familiaritatibus suis eos applicabat, amorem eorum filio
+transcribens.  Odericus Vitalis (Hist. Eccles. l. iv. p. 508, l.
+vii. p. 641) relates their emigration from England, and their
+service in Greece.]
+
+[Footnote 71: See the Apulian, (l. i. p. 256.) The character and
+the story of these Manichaeans has been the subject of the livth
+chapter.]
+
+[Footnote 72: See the simple and masterly narrative of Caesar
+himself, (Comment. de Bell. Civil. iii. 41 - 75.) It is a pity
+that Quintus Icilius (M. Guichard) did not live to analyze these
+operations, as he has done the campaigns of Africa and Spain.]
+
+Against the advice of his wisest captains, Alexius resolved
+to risk the event of a general action, and exhorted the garrison
+of Durazzo to assist their own deliverance by a well-timed sally
+from the town.  He marched in two columns to surprise the Normans
+before daybreak on two different sides: his light cavalry was
+scattered over the plain; the archers formed the second line; and
+the Varangians claimed the honors of the vanguard.  In the first
+onset, the battle-axes of the strangers made a deep and bloody
+impression on the army of Guiscard, which was now reduced to
+fifteen thousand men.  The Lombards and Calabrians ignominiously
+turned their backs; they fled towards the river and the sea; but
+the bridge had been broken down to check the sally of the
+garrison, and the coast was lined with the Venetian galleys, who
+played their engines among the disorderly throng.  On the verge
+of ruin, they were saved by the spirit and conduct of their
+chiefs.  Gaita, the wife of Robert, is painted by the Greeks as a
+warlike Amazon, a second Pallas; less skilful in arts, but not
+less terrible in arms, than the Athenian goddess: ^73 though
+wounded by an arrow, she stood her ground, and strove, by her
+exhortation and example, to rally the flying troops. ^74 Her
+female voice was seconded by the more powerful voice and arm of
+the Norman duke, as calm in action as he was magnanimous in
+council: "Whither," he cried aloud, "whither do ye fly? Your
+enemy is implacable; and death is less grievous than servitude."
+The moment was decisive: as the Varangians advanced before the
+line, they discovered the nakedness of their flanks: the main
+battle of the duke, of eight hundred knights, stood firm and
+entire; they couched their lances, and the Greeks deplore the
+furious and irresistible shock of the French cavalry. ^75 Alexius
+was not deficient in the duties of a soldier or a general; but he
+no sooner beheld the slaughter of the Varangians, and the flight
+of the Turks, than he despised his subjects, and despaired of his
+fortune.  The princess Anne, who drops a tear on this melancholy
+event, is reduced to praise the strength and swiftness of her
+father's horse, and his vigorous struggle when he was almost
+overthrown by the stroke of a lance, which had shivered the
+Imperial helmet. His desperate valor broke through a squadron of
+Franks who opposed his flight; and after wandering two days and
+as many nights in the mountains, he found some repose, of body,
+though not of mind, in the walls of Lychnidus.  The victorious
+Robert reproached the tardy and feeble pursuit which had suffered
+the escape of so illustrious a prize: but he consoled his
+disappointment by the trophies and standards of the field, the
+wealth and luxury of the Byzantine camp, and the glory of
+defeating an army five times more numerous than his own.  A
+multitude of Italians had been the victims of their own fears;
+but only thirty of his knights were slain in this memorable day.
+In the Roman host, the loss of Greeks, Turks, and English,
+amounted to five or six thousand: ^76 the plain of Durazzo was
+stained with noble and royal blood; and the end of the impostor
+Michael was more honorable than his life.
+
+[Footnote 73: It is very properly translated by the President
+Cousin, (Hist. de Constantinople, tom. iv. p. 131, in 12mo.,) qui
+combattoit comme une Pallas, quoiqu'elle ne fut pas aussi savante
+que celle d'Athenes. The Grecian goddess was composed of two
+discordant characters, of Neith, the workwoman of Sais in Egypt,
+and of a virgin Amazon of the Tritonian lake in Libya, (Banier,
+Mythologie, tom. iv. p. 1 - 31, in 12mo.)]
+
+[Footnote 74: Anna Comnena (l. iv. p. 116) admires, with some
+degree of terror, her masculine virtues.  They were more familiar
+to the Latins and though the Apulian (l. iv. p. 273) mentions her
+presence and her wound, he represents her as far less intrepid.
+
+Uxor in hoc bello Roberti forte sagitta
+
+Quadam laesa fuit: quo vulnere territa nullam.
+
+Dum sperabat opem, se poene subegerat hosti.
+
+The last is an unlucky word for a female prisoner.]
+
+[Footnote 75: (Anna, l. v. p. 133;) and elsewhere, (p. 140.) The
+pedantry of the princess in the choice of classic appellations
+encouraged Ducange to apply to his countrymen the characters of
+the ancient Gauls.]
+
+[Footnote 76: Lupus Protospata (tom. iii. p. 45) says 6000:
+William the Apulian more than 5000, (l. iv. p. 273.) Their
+modesty is singular and laudable: they might with so little
+trouble have slain two or three myriads of schismatics and
+infidels!]
+
+It is more than probable that Guiscard was not afflicted by
+the loss of a costly pageant, which had merited only the contempt
+and derision of the Greeks.  After their defeat, they still
+persevered in the defence of Durazzo; and a Venetian commander
+supplied the place of George Palaeologus, who had been
+imprudently called away from his station.  The tents of the
+besiegers were converted into barracks, to sustain the inclemency
+of the winter; and in answer to the defiance of the garrison,
+Robert insinuated, that his patience was at least equal to their
+obstinacy. ^77 Perhaps he already trusted to his secret
+correspondence with a Venetian noble, who sold the city for a
+rich and honorable marriage.  At the dead of night, several
+rope-ladders were dropped from the walls; the light Calabrians
+ascended in silence; and the Greeks were awakened by the name and
+trumpets of the conqueror.  Yet they defended the streets three
+days against an enemy already master of the rampart; and near
+seven months elapsed between the first investment and the final
+surrender of the place.  From Durazzo, the Norman duke advanced
+into the heart of Epirus or Albania; traversed the first
+mountains of Thessaly; surprised three hundred English in the
+city of Castoria; approached Thessalonica; and made
+Constantinople tremble.  A more pressing duty suspended the
+prosecution of his ambitious designs.  By shipwreck, pestilence,
+and the sword, his army was reduced to a third of the original
+numbers; and instead of being recruited from Italy, he was
+informed, by plaintive epistles, of the mischiefs and dangers
+which had been produced by his absence: the revolt of the cities
+and barons of Apulia; the distress of the pope; and the approach
+or invasion of Henry king of Germany.  Highly presuming that his
+person was sufficient for the public safety, he repassed the sea
+in a single brigantine, and left the remains of the army under
+the command of his son and the Norman counts, exhorting Bohemond
+to respect the freedom of his peers, and the counts to obey the
+authority of their leader.  The son of Guiscard trod in the
+footsteps of his father; and the two destroyers are compared, by
+the Greeks, to the caterpillar and the locust, the last of whom
+devours whatever has escaped the teeth of the former. ^78 After
+winning two battles against the emperor, he descended into the
+plain of Thessaly, and besieged Larissa, the fabulous realm of
+Achilles, ^79 which contained the treasure and magazines of the
+Byzantine camp.  Yet a just praise must not be refused to the
+fortitude and prudence of Alexius, who bravely struggled with the
+calamities of the times.  In the poverty of the state, he
+presumed to borrow the superfluous ornaments of the churches: the
+desertion of the Manichaeans was supplied by some tribes of
+Moldavia: a reenforcement of seven thousand Turks replaced and
+revenged the loss of their brethren; and the Greek soldiers were
+exercised to ride, to draw the bow, and to the daily practice of
+ambuscades and evolutions.  Alexius had been taught by
+experience, that the formidable cavalry of the Franks on foot was
+unfit for action, and almost incapable of motion; ^80 his archers
+were directed to aim their arrows at the horse rather than the
+man; and a variety of spikes and snares were scattered over the
+ground on which he might expect an attack.  In the neighborhood
+of Larissa the events of war were protracted and balanced.  The
+courage of Bohemond was always conspicuous, and often successful;
+but his camp was pillaged by a stratagem of the Greeks; the city
+was impregnable; and the venal or discontented counts deserted
+his standard, betrayed their trusts, and enlisted in the service
+of the emperor.  Alexius returned to Constantinople with the
+advantage, rather than the honor, of victory.  After evacuating
+the conquests which he could no longer defend, the son of
+Guiscard embarked for Italy, and was embraced by a father who
+esteemed his merit, and sympathized in his misfortune.
+
+[Footnote 77: The Romans had changed the inauspicious name of
+Epi-damnus to Dyrrachium, (Plin. iii. 26;) and the vulgar
+corruption of Duracium (see Malaterra) bore some affinity to
+hardness.  One of Robert's names was Durand, a durando: poor wit!
+
+(Alberic. Monach. in Chron. apud Muratori, Annali d'Italia, tom.
+ix. p. 137.)]
+
+[Footnote 78: (Anna, l. i. p. 35.) By these similes, so different
+from those of Homer she wishes to inspire contempt as well as
+horror for the little noxious animal, a conqueror.  Most
+unfortunately, the common sense, or common nonsense, of mankind,
+resists her laudable design.]
+
+[Footnote 79: Prodiit hac auctor Trojanae cladis Achilles. The
+supposition of the Apulian (l. v. p. 275) may be excused by the
+more classic poetry of Virgil, (Aeneid. ii. 197,) Larissaeus
+Achilles, but it is not justified by the geography of Homer.]
+
+[Footnote 80: The items which encumbered the knights on foot,
+have been ignorantly translated spurs, (Anna Comnena, Alexias, l.
+v. p. 140.) Ducange has explained the true sense by a ridiculous
+and inconvenient fashion, which lasted from the xith to the xvth
+century.  These peaks, in the form of a scorpion, were sometimes
+two feet and fastened to the knee with a silver chain.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LVI: The Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.
+
+Part IV.
+
+Of the Latin princes, the allies of Alexius and enemies of
+Robert, the most prompt and powerful was Henry the Third or
+Fourth, king of Germany and Italy, and future emperor of the
+West.  The epistle of the Greek monarch ^81 to his brother is
+filled with the warmest professions of friendship, and the most
+lively desire of strengthening their alliance by every public and
+private tie.  He congratulates Henry on his success in a just and
+pious war; and complains that the prosperity of his own empire is
+disturbed by the audacious enterprises of the Norman Robert.  The
+lists of his presents expresses the manners of the age - a
+radiated crown of gold, a cross set with pearls to hang on the
+breast, a case of relics, with the names and titles of the
+saints, a vase of crystal, a vase of sardonyx, some balm, most
+probably of Mecca, and one hundred pieces of purple.  To these he
+added a more solid present, of one hundred and forty-four
+thousand Byzantines of gold, with a further assurance of two
+hundred and sixteen thousand, so soon as Henry should have
+entered in arms the Apulian territories, and confirmed by an oath
+the league against the common enemy. The German, ^82 who was
+already in Lombardy at the head of an army and a faction,
+accepted these liberal offers, and marched towards the south: his
+speed was checked by the sound of the battle of Durazzo; but the
+influence of his arms, or name, in the hasty return of Robert,
+was a full equivalent for the Grecian bribe.  Henry was the
+severe adversary of the Normans, the allies and vassals of
+Gregory the Seventh, his implacable foe. The long quarrel of the
+throne and mitre had been recently kindled by the zeal and
+ambition of that haughty priest: ^83 the king and the pope had
+degraded each other; and each had seated a rival on the temporal
+or spiritual throne of his antagonist.  After the defeat and
+death of his Swabian rebel, Henry descended into Italy, to assume
+the Imperial crown, and to drive from the Vatican the tyrant of
+the church. ^84 But the Roman people adhered to the cause of
+Gregory: their resolution was fortified by supplies of men and
+money from Apulia; and the city was thrice ineffectually besieged
+by the king of Germany.  In the fourth year he corrupted, as it
+is said, with Byzantine gold, the nobles of Rome, whose estates
+and castles had been ruined by the war.  The gates, the bridges,
+and fifty hostages, were delivered into his hands: the anti-pope,
+Clement the Third, was consecrated in the Lateran: the grateful
+pontiff crowned his protector in the Vatican; and the emperor
+Henry fixed his residence in the Capitol, as the lawful successor
+of Augustus and Charlemagne. The ruins of the Septizonium were
+still defended by the nephew of Gregory: the pope himself was
+invested in the castle of St. Angelo; and his last hope was in
+the courage and fidelity of his Norman vassal.  Their friendship
+had been interrupted by some reciprocal injuries and complaints;
+but, on this pressing occasion, Guiscard was urged by the
+obligation of his oath, by his interest, more potent than oaths,
+by the love of fame, and his enmity to the two emperors.
+Unfurling the holy banner, he resolved to fly to the relief of
+the prince of the apostles: the most numerous of his armies, six
+thousand horse, and thirty thousand foot, was instantly
+assembled; and his march from Salerno to Rome was animated by the
+public applause and the promise of the divine favor.  Henry,
+invincible in sixty-six battles, trembled at his approach;
+recollected some indispensable affairs that required his presence
+in Lombardy; exhorted the Romans to persevere in their
+allegiance; and hastily retreated three days before the entrance
+of the Normans.  In less than three years, the son of Tancred of
+Hauteville enjoyed the glory of delivering the pope, and of
+compelling the two emperors, of the East and West, to fly before
+his victorious arms. ^85 But the triumph of Robert was clouded by
+the calamities of Rome.  By the aid of the friends of Gregory,
+the walls had been perforated or scaled; but the Imperial faction
+was still powerful and active; on the third day, the people rose
+in a furious tumult; and a hasty word of the conqueror, in his
+defence or revenge, was the signal of fire and pillage. ^86 The
+Saracens of Sicily, the subjects of Roger, and auxiliaries of his
+brother, embraced this fair occasion of rifling and profaning the
+holy city of the Christians: many thousands of the citizens, in
+the sight, and by the allies, of their spiritual father were
+exposed to violation, captivity, or death; and a spacious quarter
+of the city, from the Lateran to the Coliseum, was consumed by
+the flames, and devoted to perpetual solitude. ^87 From a city,
+where he was now hated, and might be no longer feared, Gregory
+retired to end his days in the palace of Salerno.  The artful
+pontiff might flatter the vanity of Guiscard with the hope of a
+Roman or Imperial crown; but this dangerous measure, which would
+have inflamed the ambition of the Norman, must forever have
+alienated the most faithful princes of Germany.
+
+[Footnote 81: The epistle itself (Alexias, l. iii. p. 93, 94, 95)
+well deserves to be read.  There is one expression which Ducange
+does not understand.  I have endeavored to grope out a tolerable
+meaning: The first word is a golden crown; the second is
+explained by Simon Portius, (in Lexico Graeco-Barbar.,) by a
+flash of lightning.]
+
+[Footnote 82: For these general events I must refer to the
+general historians Sigonius, Baronius, Muratori, Mosheim, St.
+Marc, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 83: The lives of Gregory VII. are either legends or
+invectives, (St. Marc, Abrege, tom. iii. p. 235, &c.;) and his
+miraculous or magical performances are alike incredible to a
+modern reader.  He will, as usual, find some instruction in Le
+Clerc, (Vie de Hildebrand, Bibliot, ancienne et moderne, tom.
+viii.,) and much amusement in Bayle, (Dictionnaire Critique,
+Gregoire VII.) That pope was undoubtedly a great man, a second
+Athanasius, in a more fortunate age of the church.  May I presume
+to add, that the portrait of Athanasius is one of the passages of
+my history (vol. ii. p. 332, &c.) with which I am the least
+dissatisfied?
+
+Note: There is a fair life of Gregory VII. by Voigt,
+(Weimar. 1815,) which has been translated into French.  M.
+Villemain, it is understood, has devoted much time to the study
+of this remarkable character, to whom his eloquence may do
+justice.  There is much valuable information on the subject in
+the accurate work of Stenzel, Geschichte Deutschlands unter den
+Frankischen Kaisern - the History of Germany under the Emperors
+of the Franconian Race. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 84: Anna, with the rancor of a Greek schismatic, calls
+him (l. i. p. 32,) a pope, or priest, worthy to be spit upon and
+accuses him of scourging, shaving, and perhaps of castrating the
+ambassadors of Henry, (p. 31, 33.) But this outrage is improbable
+and doubtful, (see the sensible preface of Cousin.)]
+
+[Footnote 85:  Sic uno tempore victi
+
+          Sunt terrae Domini duo: rex Alemannicus iste,
+
+    Imperii rector Romani maximus ille.
+
+          Alter ad arma ruens armis superatur; et alter
+
+    Nominis auditi sola formidine cessit.
+
+It is singular enough, that the Apulian, a Latin, should
+distinguish the Greek as the ruler of the Roman empire, (l. iv.
+p. 274.)]
+
+[Footnote 86: The narrative of Malaterra (l. iii. c. 37, p. 587,
+588) is authentic, circumstantial, and fair.  Dux ignem exclamans
+urbe incensa, &c. The Apulian softens the mischief, (inde
+quibusdam aedibus exustis,) which is again exaggerated in some
+partial chronicles, (Muratori, Annali, tom. ix. p. 147.)]
+
+[Footnote 87: After mentioning this devastation, the Jesuit
+Donatus (de Roma veteri et nova, l. iv. c. 8, p. 489) prettily
+adds, Duraret hodieque in Coelio monte, interque ipsum et
+capitolium, miserabilis facies prostrates urbis, nisi in hortorum
+vinetorumque amoenitatem Roma resurrexisset, ut perpetua
+viriditate contegeret vulnera et ruinas suas.]
+
+The deliverer and scourge of Rome might have indulged
+himself in a season of repose; but in the same year of the flight
+of the German emperor, the indefatigable Robert resumed the
+design of his eastern conquests.  The zeal or gratitude of
+Gregory had promised to his valor the kingdoms of Greece and
+Asia; ^88 his troops were assembled in arms, flushed with
+success, and eager for action.  Their numbers, in the language of
+Homer, are compared by Anna to a swarm of bees; ^89 yet the
+utmost and moderate limits of the powers of Guiscard have been
+already defined; they were contained on this second occasion in
+one hundred and twenty vessels; and as the season was far
+advanced, the harbor of Brundusium ^90 was preferred to the open
+road of Otranto.  Alexius, apprehensive of a second attack, had
+assiduously labored to restore the naval forces of the empire;
+and obtained from the republic of Venice an important succor of
+thirty-six transports, fourteen galleys, and nine galiots or
+ships of extra-ordinary strength and magnitude.  Their services
+were liberally paid by the license or monopoly of trade, a
+profitable gift of many shops and houses in the port of
+Constantinople, and a tribute to St. Mark, the more acceptable,
+as it was the produce of a tax on their rivals at Amalphi.  By
+the union of the Greeks and Venetians, the Adriatic was covered
+with a hostile fleet; but their own neglect, or the vigilance of
+Robert, the change of a wind, or the shelter of a mist, opened a
+free passage; and the Norman troops were safely disembarked on
+the coast of Epirus.  With twenty strong and well-appointed
+galleys, their intrepid duke immediately sought the enemy, and
+though more accustomed to fight on horseback, he trusted his own
+life, and the lives of his brother and two sons, to the event of
+a naval combat.  The dominion of the sea was disputed in three
+engagements, in sight of the Isle of Corfu: in the two former,
+the skill and numbers of the allies were superior; but in the
+third, the Normans obtained a final and complete victory. ^91 The
+light brigantines of the Greeks were scattered in ignominious
+flight: the nine castles of the Venetians maintained a more
+obstinate conflict; seven were sunk, two were taken; two thousand
+five hundred captives implored in vain the mercy of the victor;
+and the daughter of Alexius deplores the loss of thirteen
+thousand of his subjects or allies.  The want of experience had
+been supplied by the genius of Guiscard; and each evening, when
+he had sounded a retreat, he calmly explored the causes of his
+repulse, and invented new methods how to remedy his own defects,
+and to baffle the advantages of the enemy.  The winter season
+suspended his progress: with the return of spring he again
+aspired to the conquest of Constantinople; but, instead of
+traversing the hills of Epirus, he turned his arms against Greece
+and the islands, where the spoils would repay the labor, and
+where the land and sea forces might pursue their joint operations
+with vigor and effect. But, in the Isle of Cephalonia, his
+projects were fatally blasted by an epidemical disease: Robert
+himself, in the seventieth year of his age, expired in his tent;
+and a suspicion of poison was imputed, by public rumor, to his
+wife, or to the Greek emperor. ^92 This premature death might
+allow a boundless scope for the imagination of his future
+exploits; and the event sufficiently declares, that the Norman
+greatness was founded on his life. ^93 Without the appearance of
+an enemy, a victorious army dispersed or retreated in disorder
+and consternation; and Alexius, who had trembled for his empire,
+rejoiced in his deliverance.  The galley which transported the
+remains of Guiscard was ship-wrecked on the Italian shore; but
+the duke's body was recovered from the sea, and deposited in the
+sepulchre of Venusia, ^94 a place more illustrious for the birth
+of Horace ^95 than for the burial of the Norman heroes.  Roger,
+his second son and successor, immediately sunk to the humble
+station of a duke of Apulia: the esteem or partiality of his
+father left the valiant Bohemond to the inheritance of his sword.
+
+The national tranquillity was disturbed by his claims, till the
+first crusade against the infidels of the East opened a more
+splendid field of glory and conquest. ^96
+
+[Footnote 88: The royalty of Robert, either promised or bestowed
+by the pope, (Anna, l. i. p. 32,) is sufficiently confirmed by
+the Apulian, (l. iv. p. 270.)
+
+Romani regni sibi promisisse coronam
+Papa ferebatur.
+
+Nor can I understand why Gretser, and the other papal advocates,
+should be displeased with this new instance of apostolic
+jurisdiction.]
+
+[Footnote 89: See Homer, Iliad, B. (I hate this pedantic mode of
+quotation by letters of the Greek alphabet) 87, &c.  His bees are
+the image of a disorderly crowd: their discipline and public
+works seem to be the ideas of a later age, (Virgil. Aeneid. l.
+i.)]
+
+[Footnote 90: Gulielm.  Appulus, l. v. p. 276.) The admirable
+port of Brundusium was double; the outward harbor was a gulf
+covered by an island, and narrowing by degrees, till it
+communicated by a small gullet with the inner harbor, which
+embraced the city on both sides.  Caesar and nature have labored
+for its ruin; and against such agents what are the feeble efforts
+of the Neapolitan government?  (Swinburne's Travels in the Two
+Sicilies, vol. i. p. 384 - 390.]
+
+[Footnote 91: William of Apulia (l. v. p. 276) describes the
+victory of the Normans, and forgets the two previous defeats,
+which are diligently recorded by Anna Comnena, (l. vi. p. 159,
+160, 161.) In her turn, she invents or magnifies a fourth action,
+to give the Venetians revenge and rewards.  Their own feelings
+were far different, since they deposed their doge, propter
+excidium stoli, (Dandulus in Chron in Muratori, Script. Rerum
+Italicarum, tom. xii. p. 249.)]
+
+[Footnote 92: The most authentic writers, William of Apulia. (l.
+v. 277,) Jeffrey Malaterra, (l. iii. c. 41, p. 589,) and Romuald
+of Salerno, (Chron. in Muratori, Script. Rerum Ital. tom. vii.,)
+are ignorant of this crime, so apparent to our countrymen William
+of Malmsbury (l. iii. p. 107) and Roger de Hoveden, (p. 710, in
+Script. post Bedam) and the latter can tell, how the just Alexius
+married, crowned, and burnt alive, his female accomplice. The
+English historian is indeed so blind, that he ranks Robert
+Guiscard, or Wiscard, among the knights of Henry I, who ascended
+the throne fifteen years after the duke of Apulia's death.]
+
+[Footnote 93: The joyful Anna Comnena scatters some flowers over
+the grave of an enemy, (Alexiad, l. v. p. 162 - 166;) and his
+best praise is the esteem and envy of William the Conqueror, the
+sovereign of his family Graecia (says Malaterra) hostibus
+recedentibus libera laeta quievit: Apulia tota sive Calabria
+turbatur.]
+
+[Footnote 94: Urbs Venusina nitet tantis decorata sepulchris, is
+one of the last lines of the Apulian's poems, (l. v. p. 278.)
+William of Malmsbury (l. iii. p. 107) inserts an epitaph on
+Guiscard, which is not worth transcribing.]
+
+[Footnote 95: Yet Horace had few obligations to Venusia; he was
+carried to Rome in his childhood, (Serm. i. 6;) and his repeated
+allusions to the doubtful limit of Apulia and Lucania (Carm. iii.
+4, Serm. ii. I) are unworthy of his age and genius.]
+
+[Footnote 96: See Giannone (tom. ii. p. 88 - 93) and the
+historians of the fire crusade.]
+
+Of human life, the most glorious or humble prospects are
+alike and soon bounded by the sepulchre.  The male line of Robert
+Guiscard was extinguished, both in Apulia and at Antioch, in the
+second generation; but his younger brother became the father of a
+line of kings; and the son of the great count was endowed with
+the name, the conquests, and the spirit, of the first Roger. ^97
+The heir of that Norman adventurer was born in Sicily; and, at
+the age of only four years, he succeeded to the sovereignty of
+the island, a lot which reason might envy, could she indulge for
+a moment the visionary, though virtuous wish of dominion.  Had
+Roger been content with his fruitful patrimony, a happy and
+grateful people might have blessed their benefactor; and if a
+wise administration could have restored the prosperous times of
+the Greek colonies, ^98 the opulence and power of Sicily alone
+might have equalled the widest scope that could be acquired and
+desolated by the sword of war. But the ambition of the great
+count was ignorant of these noble pursuits; it was gratified by
+the vulgar means of violence and artifice.  He sought to obtain
+the undivided possession of Palermo, of which one moiety had been
+ceded to the elder branch; struggled to enlarge his Calabrian
+limits beyond the measure of former treaties; and impatiently
+watched the declining health of his cousin William of Apulia, the
+grandson of Robert.  On the first intelligence of his premature
+death, Roger sailed from Palermo with seven galleys, cast anchor
+in the Bay of Salerno, received, after ten days' negotiation, an
+oath of fidelity from the Norman capital, commanded the
+submission of the barons, and extorted a legal investiture from
+the reluctant popes, who could not long endure either the
+friendship or enmity of a powerful vassal.  The sacred spot of
+Benevento was respectfully spared, as the patrimony of St. Peter;
+but the reduction of Capua and Naples completed the design of his
+uncle Guiscard; and the sole inheritance of the Norman conquests
+was possessed by the victorious Roger.  A conscious superiority
+of power and merit prompted him to disdain the titles of duke and
+of count; and the Isle of Sicily, with a third perhaps of the
+continent of Italy, might form the basis of a kingdom ^99 which
+would only yield to the monarchies of France and England.  The
+chiefs of the nation who attended his coronation at Palermo might
+doubtless pronounce under what name he should reign over them;
+but the example of a Greek tyrant or a Saracen emir was
+insufficient to justify his regal character; and the nine kings
+of the Latin world ^100 might disclaim their new associate,
+unless he were consecrated by the authority of the supreme
+pontiff.  The pride of Anacletus was pleased to confer a title,
+which the pride of the Norman had stooped to solicit; ^101 but
+his own legitimacy was attacked by the adverse election of
+Innocent the Second; and while Anacletus sat in the Vatican, the
+successful fugitive was acknowledged by the nations of Europe.
+The infant monarchy of Roger was shaken, and almost overthrown,
+by the unlucky choice of an ecclesiastical patron; and the sword
+of Lothaire the Second of Germany, the excommunications of
+Innocent, the fleets of Pisa, and the zeal of St. Bernard, were
+united for the ruin of the Sicilian robber.  After a gallant
+resistance, the Norman prince was driven from the continent of
+Italy: a new duke of Apulia was invested by the pope and the
+emperor, each of whom held one end of the gonfanon, or flagstaff,
+as a token that they asserted their right, and suspended their
+quarrel.  But such jealous friendship was of short and precarious
+duration: the German armies soon vanished in disease and
+desertion: ^102 the Apulian duke, with all his adherents, was
+exterminated by a conqueror who seldom forgave either the dead or
+the living; like his predecessor Leo the Ninth, the feeble though
+haughty pontiff became the captive and friend of the Normans; and
+their reconciliation was celebrated by the eloquence of Bernard,
+who now revered the title and virtues of the king of Sicily.
+
+[Footnote 97: The reign of Roger, and the Norman kings of Sicily,
+fills books of the Istoria Civile of Giannone, (tom. ii. l. xi. -
+xiv. p. 136 - 340,) and is spread over the ixth and xth volumes
+of the Italian Annals of Muratori.  In the Bibliotheque Italique
+(tom. i. p. 175 - 122,) I find a useful abstract of Capacelatro,
+a modern Neapolitan, who has composed, in two volumes, the
+history of his country from Roger Frederic II. inclusive.]
+
+[Footnote 98: According to the testimony of Philistus and
+Diodorus, the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse could maintain a
+standing force of 10,000 horse, 100,000 foot, and 400 galleys.
+Compare Hume, (Essays, vol. i. p. 268, 435,) and his adversary
+Wallace, (Numbers of Mankind, p. 306, 307.) The ruins of
+Agrigentum are the theme of every traveller, D'Orville, Reidesel,
+Swinburne, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 99: A contemporary historian of the acts of Roger from
+the year 1127 to 1135, founds his title on merit and power, the
+consent of the barons, and the ancient royalty of Sicily and
+Palermo, without introducing Pope Anacletus, (Alexand. Coenobii
+Telesini Abbatis de Rebus gestis Regis Rogerii, lib. iv. in
+Muratori, Script. Rerum Ital. tom. v. p. 607 - 645)]
+
+[Footnote 100: The kings of France, England, Scotland, Castille,
+Arragon, Navarre, Sweden, Denmark, and Hungary.  The three first
+were more ancient than Charlemagne; the three next were created
+by their sword; the three last by their baptism; and of these the
+king of Hungary alone was honored or debased by a papal crown.]
+
+[Footnote 101: Fazellus, and a crowd of Sicilians, had imagined a
+more early and independent coronation, (A.D. 1130, May 1,) which
+Giannone unwillingly rejects, (tom. ii. p. 137 - 144.) This
+fiction is disproved by the silence of contemporaries; nor can it
+be restored by a spurious character of Messina, (Muratori, Annali
+d' Italia, tom. ix. p. 340. Pagi, Critica, tom. iv. p. 467,
+468.)]
+
+[Footnote 102: Roger corrupted the second person of Lothaire's
+army, who sounded, or rather cried, a retreat; for the Germans
+(says Cinnamus, l. iii. c. i. p. 51) are ignorant of the use of
+trumpets.  Most ignorant himself!
+
+Note: Cinnamus says nothing of their ignorance. - M]
+
+As a penance for his impious war against the successor of
+St. Peter, that monarch might have promised to display the banner
+of the cross, and he accomplished with ardor a vow so propitious
+to his interest and revenge. The recent injuries of Sicily might
+provoke a just retaliation on the heads of the Saracens: the
+Normans, whose blood had been mingled with so many subject
+streams, were encouraged to remember and emulate the naval
+trophies of their fathers, and in the maturity of their strength
+they contended with the decline of an African power.  When the
+Fatimite caliph departed for the conquest of Egypt, he rewarded
+the real merit and apparent fidelity of his servant Joseph with a
+gift of his royal mantle, and forty Arabian horses, his palace
+with its sumptuous furniture, and the government of the kingdoms
+of Tunis and Algiers. The Zeirides, ^103 the descendants of
+Joseph, forgot their allegiance and gratitude to a distant
+benefactor, grasped and abused the fruits of prosperity; and
+after running the little course of an Oriental dynasty, were now
+fainting in their own weakness.  On the side of the land, they
+were pressed by the Almohades, the fanatic princes of Morocco,
+while the sea-coast was open to the enterprises of the Greeks and
+Franks, who, before the close of the eleventh century, had
+extorted a ransom of two hundred thousand pieces of gold.  By the
+first arms of Roger, the island or rock of Malta, which has been
+since ennobled by a military and religious colony, was
+inseparably annexed to the crown of Sicily. Tripoli, ^104 a
+strong and maritime city, was the next object of his attack; and
+the slaughter of the males, the captivity of the females, might
+be justified by the frequent practice of the Moslems themselves.
+The capital of the Zeirides was named Africa from the country,
+and Mahadia ^105 from the Arabian founder: it is strongly built
+on a neck of land, but the imperfection of the harbor is not
+compensated by the fertility of the adjacent plain.  Mahadia was
+besieged by George the Sicilian admiral, with a fleet of one
+hundred and fifty galleys, amply provided with men and the
+instruments of mischief: the sovereign had fled, the Moorish
+governor refused to capitulate, declined the last and
+irresistible assault, and secretly escaping with the Moslem
+inhabitants abandoned the place and its treasures to the
+rapacious Franks.  In successive expeditions, the king of Sicily
+or his lieutenants reduced the cities of Tunis, Safax, Capsia,
+Bona, and a long tract of the sea-coast; ^106 the fortresses were
+garrisoned, the country was tributary, and a boast that it held
+Africa in subjection might be inscribed with some flattery on the
+sword of Roger. ^107 After his death, that sword was broken; and
+these transmarine possessions were neglected, evacuated, or lost,
+under the troubled reign of his successor. ^108 The triumphs of
+Scipio and Belisarius have proved, that the African continent is
+neither inaccessible nor invincible; yet the great princes and
+powers of Christendom have repeatedly failed in their armaments
+against the Moors, who may still glory in the easy conquest and
+long servitude of Spain.
+
+[Footnote 103: See De Guignes, Hist. Generate des Huns, tom. i.
+p. 369 - 373 and Cardonne, Hist. de l'Afrique, &c., sous la
+Domination des Arabes tom. ii. p. 70 - 144.  Their common
+original appears to be Novairi.]
+
+[Footnote 104: Tripoli (says the Nubian geographer, or more
+properly the Sherif al Edrisi) urbs fortis, saxeo muro vallata,
+sita prope littus maris Hanc expugnavit Rogerius, qui mulieribus
+captivis ductis, viros pere mit.]
+
+[Footnote 105: See the geography of Leo Africanus, (in Ramusio
+tom. i. fol. 74 verso. fol. 75, recto,) and Shaw's Travels, (p.
+110,) the viith book of Thuanus, and the xith of the Abbe de
+Vertot.  The possession and defence of the place was offered by
+Charles V. and wisely declined by the knights of Malta.]
+
+[Footnote 106: Pagi has accurately marked the African conquests
+of Roger and his criticism was supplied by his friend the Abbe de
+Longuerue with some Arabic memorials, (A.D. 1147, No. 26, 27,
+A.D. 1148, No. 16, A.D. 1153, No. 16.)]
+
+[Footnote 107: Appulus et Calaber, Siculus mihi servit et Afer.
+A proud inscription, which denotes, that the Norman conquerors
+were still discriminated from their Christian and Moslem
+subjects.]
+
+[Footnote 108: Hugo Falcandus (Hist. Sicula, in Muratori, Script.
+tom. vii. p. 270, 271) ascribes these losses to the neglect or
+treachery of the admiral Majo.]
+
+Since the decease of Robert Guiscard, the Normans had
+relinquished, above sixty years, their hostile designs against
+the empire of the East. The policy of Roger solicited a public
+and private union with the Greek princes, whose alliance would
+dignify his regal character: he demanded in marriage a daughter
+of the Comnenian family, and the first steps of the treaty seemed
+to promise a favorable event.  But the contemptuous treatment of
+his ambassadors exasperated the vanity of the new monarch; and
+the insolence of the Byzantine court was expiated, according to
+the laws of nations, by the sufferings of a guiltless people.
+^109 With the fleet of seventy galleys, George, the admiral of
+Sicily, appeared before Corfu; and both the island and city were
+delivered into his hands by the disaffected inhabitants, who had
+yet to learn that a siege is still more calamitous than a
+tribute.  In this invasion, of some moment in the annals of
+commerce, the Normans spread themselves by sea, and over the
+provinces of Greece; and the venerable age of Athens, Thebes, and
+Corinth, was violated by rapine and cruelty.  Of the wrongs of
+Athens, no memorial remains.  The ancient walls, which
+encompassed, without guarding, the opulence of Thebes, were
+scaled by the Latin Christians; but their sole use of the gospel
+was to sanctify an oath, that the lawful owners had not secreted
+any relic of their inheritance or industry.  On the approach of
+the Normans, the lower town of Corinth was evacuated; the Greeks
+retired to the citadel, which was seated on a lofty eminence,
+abundantly watered by the classic fountain of Pirene; an
+impregnable fortress, if the want of courage could be balanced by
+any advantages of art or nature.  As soon as the besiegers had
+surmounted the labor (their sole labor) of climbing the hill,
+their general, from the commanding eminence, admired his own
+victory, and testified his gratitude to Heaven, by tearing from
+the altar the precious image of Theodore, the tutelary saint.
+The silk weavers of both sexes, whom George transported to
+Sicily, composed the most valuable part of the spoil; and in
+comparing the skilful industry of the mechanic with the sloth and
+cowardice of the soldier, he was heard to exclaim that the
+distaff and loom were the only weapons which the Greeks were
+capable of using.  The progress of this naval armament was marked
+by two conspicuous events, the rescue of the king of France, and
+the insult of the Byzantine capital.  In his return by sea from
+an unfortunate crusade, Louis the Seventh was intercepted by the
+Greeks, who basely violated the laws of honor and religion.  The
+fortunate encounter of the Norman fleet delivered the royal
+captive; and after a free and honorable entertainment in the
+court of Sicily, Louis continued his journey to Rome and Paris.
+^110 In the absence of the emperor, Constantinople and the
+Hellespont were left without defence and without the suspicion of
+danger.  The clergy and people (for the soldiers had followed the
+standard of Manuel) were astonished and dismayed at the hostile
+appearance of a line of galleys, which boldly cast anchor in the
+front of the Imperial city.  The forces of the Sicilian admiral
+were inadequate to the siege or assault of an immense and
+populous metropolis; but George enjoyed the glory of humbling the
+Greek arrogance, and of marking the path of conquest to the
+navies of the West.  He landed some soldiers to rifle the fruits
+of the royal gardens, and pointed with silver, or most probably
+with fire, the arrows which he discharged against the palace of
+the Caesars. ^111 This playful outrage of the pirates of Sicily,
+who had surprised an unguarded moment, Manuel affected to
+despise, while his martial spirit, and the forces of the empire,
+were awakened to revenge. The Archipelago and Ionian Sea were
+covered with his squadrons and those of Venice; but I know not by
+what favorable allowance of transports, victuallers, and
+pinnaces, our reason, or even our fancy, can be reconciled to the
+stupendous account of fifteen hundred vessels, which is proposed
+by a Byzantine historian.  These operations were directed with
+prudence and energy: in his homeward voyage George lost nineteen
+of his galleys, which were separated and taken: after an
+obstinate defence, Corfu implored the clemency of her lawful
+sovereign; nor could a ship, a soldier, of the Norman prince, be
+found, unless as a captive, within the limits of the Eastern
+empire.  The prosperity and the health of Roger were already in a
+declining state: while he listened in his palace of Palermo to
+the messengers of victory or defeat, the invincible Manuel, the
+foremost in every assault, was celebrated by the Greeks and
+Latins as the Alexander or the Hercules of the age.
+
+[Footnote 109: The silence of the Sicilian historians, who end
+too soon, or begin too late, must be supplied by Otho of
+Frisingen, a German, (de Gestis Frederici I. l. i. c. 33, in
+Muratori, Script. tom. vi. p. 668,) the Venetian Andrew Dandulus,
+(Id. tom. xii. p. 282, 283) and the Greek writers Cinnamus (l.
+iii. c. 2 - 5) and Nicetas, (in Manuel. l. iii. c. 1 - 6.)]
+
+[Footnote 110: To this imperfect capture and speedy rescue I
+apply Cinnamus, l. ii. c. 19, p. 49.  Muratori, on tolerable
+evidence, (Annali d'Italia, tom. ix. p. 420, 421,) laughs at the
+delicacy of the French, who maintain, marisque nullo impediente
+periculo ad regnum proprium reversum esse; yet I observe that
+their advocate, Ducange, is less positive as the commentator on
+Cinnamus, than as the editor of Joinville.]
+
+[Footnote 111: In palatium regium sagittas igneas injecit, says
+Dandulus; but Nicetas (l. ii. c. 8, p. 66) transforms them, and
+adds, that Manuel styled this insult.  These arrows, by the
+compiler, Vincent de Beauvais, are again transmuted into gold.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LVI: The Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.
+
+Part V.
+
+A prince of such a temper could not be satisfied with having
+repelled the insolence of a Barbarian.  It was the right and
+duty, it might be the interest and glory, of Manuel to restore
+the ancient majesty of the empire, to recover the provinces of
+Italy and Sicily, and to chastise this pretended king, the
+grandson of a Norman vassal. ^112 The natives of Calabria were
+still attached to the Greek language and worship, which had been
+inexorably proscribed by the Latin clergy: after the loss of her
+dukes, Apulia was chained as a servile appendage to the crown of
+Sicily; the founder of the monarchy had ruled by the sword; and
+his death had abated the fear, without healing the discontent, of
+his subjects: the feudal government was always pregnant with the
+seeds of rebellion; and a nephew of Roger himself invited the
+enemies of his family and nation.  The majesty of the purple, and
+a series of Hungarian and Turkish wars, prevented Manuel from
+embarking his person in the Italian expedition. To the brave and
+noble Palaeologus, his lieutenant, the Greek monarch intrusted a
+fleet and army: the siege of Bari was his first exploit; and, in
+every operation, gold as well as steel was the instrument of
+victory. Salerno, and some places along the western coast,
+maintained their fidelity to the Norman king; but he lost in two
+campaigns the greater part of his continental possessions; and
+the modest emperor, disdaining all flattery and falsehood, was
+content with the reduction of three hundred cities or villages of
+Apulia and Calabria, whose names and titles were inscribed on all
+the walls of the palace.  The prejudices of the Latins were
+gratified by a genuine or fictitious donation under the seal of
+the German Caesars; ^113 but the successor of Constantine soon
+renounced this ignominious pretence, claimed the indefeasible
+dominion of Italy, and professed his design of chasing the
+Barbarians beyond the Alps.  By the artful speeches, liberal
+gifts, and unbounded promises, of their Eastern ally, the free
+cities were encouraged to persevere in their generous struggle
+against the despotism of Frederic Barbarossa: the walls of Milan
+were rebuilt by the contributions of Manuel; and he poured, says
+the historian, a river of gold into the bosom of Ancona, whose
+attachment to the Greeks was fortified by the jealous enmity of
+the Venetians. ^114 The situation and trade of Ancona rendered it
+an important garrison in the heart of Italy: it was twice
+besieged by the arms of Frederic; the imperial forces were twice
+repulsed by the spirit of freedom; that spirit was animated by
+the ambassador of Constantinople; and the most intrepid patriots,
+the most faithful servants, were rewarded by the wealth and
+honors of the Byzantine court. ^115 The pride of Manuel disdained
+and rejected a Barbarian colleague; his ambition was excited by
+the hope of stripping the purple from the German usurpers, and of
+establishing, in the West, as in the East, his lawful title of
+sole emperor of the Romans.  With this view, he solicited the
+alliance of the people and the bishop of Rome.  Several of the
+nobles embraced the cause of the Greek monarch; the splendid
+nuptials of his niece with Odo Frangipani secured the support of
+that powerful family, ^116 and his royal standard or image was
+entertained with due reverence in the ancient metropolis. ^117
+During the quarrel between Frederic and Alexander the Third, the
+pope twice received in the Vatican the ambassadors of
+Constantinople.  They flattered his piety by the long-promised
+union of the two churches, tempted the avarice of his venal
+court, and exhorted the Roman pontiff to seize the just
+provocation, the favorable moment, to humble the savage insolence
+of the Alemanni and to acknowledge the true representative of
+Constantine and Augustus. ^118
+
+[Footnote 112: For the invasion of Italy, which is almost
+overlooked by Nicetas see the more polite history of Cinnamus,
+(l. iv. c. 1 - 15, p. 78 - 101,) who introduces a diffuse
+narrative by a lofty profession, iii. 5.]
+
+[Footnote 113: The Latin, Otho, (de Gestis Frederici I. l. ii. c.
+30, p. 734,) attests the forgery; the Greek, Cinnamus, (l. iv. c.
+1, p. 78,) claims a promise of restitution from Conrad and
+Frederic.  An act of fraud is always credible when it is told of
+the Greeks.]
+
+[Footnote 114: Quod Ancontiani Graecum imperium nimis diligerent
+... Veneti speciali odio Anconam oderunt.  The cause of love,
+perhaps of envy, were the beneficia, flumen aureum of the
+emperor; and the Latin narrative is confirmed by Cinnamus, (l.
+iv. c. 14, p. 98.)]
+
+[Footnote 115: Muratori mentions the two sieges of Ancona; the
+first, in 1167, against Frederic I. in person (Annali, tom. x. p.
+39, &c.;) the second, in 1173, against his lieutenant Christian,
+archbishop of Mentz, a man unworthy of his name and office, (p.
+76, &c.) It is of the second siege that we possess an original
+narrative, which he has published in his great collection, (tom.
+vi. p. 921 - 946.)]
+
+[Footnote 116: We derive this anecdote from an anonymous
+chronicle of Fossa Nova, published by Muratori, (Script. Ital.
+tom. vii. p. 874.)]
+
+[Footnote 117: Cinnamus (l. iv. c. 14, p. 99) is susceptible of
+this double sense. A standard is more Latin, an image more
+Greek.]
+
+[Footnote 118: Nihilominus quoque petebat, ut quia occasio justa
+et tempos opportunum et acceptabile se obtulerant, Romani corona
+imperii a sancto apostolo sibi redderetur; quoniam non ad
+Frederici Alemanni, sed ad suum jus asseruit pertinere, (Vit.
+Alexandri III. a Cardinal. Arragoniae, in Script. Rerum Ital.
+tom. iii. par. i. p. 458.) His second embassy was accompanied cum
+immensa multitudine pecuniarum.]
+
+But these Italian conquests, this universal reign, soon
+escaped from the hand of the Greek emperor.  His first demands
+were eluded by the prudence of Alexander the Third, who paused on
+this deep and momentous revolution; ^119 nor could the pope be
+seduced by a personal dispute to renounce the perpetual
+inheritance of the Latin name.  After the reunion with Frederic,
+he spoke a more peremptory language, confirmed the acts of his
+predecessors, excommunicated the adherents of Manuel, and
+pronounced the final separation of the churches, or at least the
+empires, of Constantinople and Rome. ^120 The free cities of
+Lombardy no longer remembered their foreign benefactor, and
+without preserving the friendship of Ancona, he soon incurred the
+enmity of Venice. ^121 By his own avarice, or the complaints of
+his subjects, the Greek emperor was provoked to arrest the
+persons, and confiscate the effects, of the Venetian merchants.
+This violation of the public faith exasperated a free and
+commercial people: one hundred galleys were launched and armed in
+as many days; they swept the coasts of Dalmatia and Greece: but
+after some mutual wounds, the war was terminated by an agreement,
+inglorious to the empire, insufficient for the republic; and a
+complete vengeance of these and of fresh injuries was reserved
+for the succeeding generation.  The lieutenant of Manuel had
+informed his sovereign that he was strong enough to quell any
+domestic revolt of Apulia and Calabria; but that his forces were
+inadequate to resist the impending attack of the king of Sicily.
+His prophecy was soon verified: the death of Palaeologus devolved
+the command on several chiefs, alike eminent in rank, alike
+defective in military talents; the Greeks were oppressed by land
+and sea; and a captive remnant that escaped the swords of the
+Normans and Saracens, abjured all future hostility against the
+person or dominions of their conqueror. ^122 Yet the king of
+Sicily esteemed the courage and constancy of Manuel, who had
+landed a second army on the Italian shore; he respectfully
+addressed the new Justinian; solicited a peace or truce of thirty
+years, accepted as a gift the regal title; and acknowledged
+himself the military vassal of the Roman empire. ^123 The
+Byzantine Caesars acquiesced in this shadow of dominion, without
+expecting, perhaps without desiring, the service of a Norman
+army; and the truce of thirty years was not disturbed by any
+hostilities between Sicily and Constantinople.  About the end of
+that period, the throne of Manuel was usurped by an inhuman
+tyrant, who had deserved the abhorrence of his country and
+mankind: the sword of William the Second, the grandson of Roger,
+was drawn by a fugitive of the Comnenian race; and the subjects
+of Andronicus might salute the strangers as friends, since they
+detested their sovereign as the worst of enemies.  The Latin
+historians ^124 expatiate on the rapid progress of the four
+counts who invaded Romania with a fleet and army, and reduced
+many castles and cities to the obedience of the king of Sicily.
+The Greeks ^125 accuse and magnify the wanton and sacrilegious
+cruelties that were perpetrated in the sack of Thessalonica, the
+second city of the empire.  The former deplore the fate of those
+invincible but unsuspecting warriors who were destroyed by the
+arts of a vanquished foe. The latter applaud, in songs of
+triumph, the repeated victories of their countrymen on the Sea of
+Marmora or Propontis, on the banks of the Strymon, and under the
+walls of Durazzo.  A revolution which punished the crimes of
+Andronicus, had united against the Franks the zeal and courage of
+the successful insurgents: ten thousand were slain in battle, and
+Isaac Angelus, the new emperor, might indulge his vanity or
+vengeance in the treatment of four thousand captives.  Such was
+the event of the last contest between the Greeks and Normans:
+before the expiration of twenty years, the rival nations were
+lost or degraded in foreign servitude; and the successors of
+Constantine did not long survive to insult the fall of the
+Sicilian monarchy.
+
+[Footnote 119: Nimis alta et perplexa sunt, (Vit. Alexandri III.
+p. 460, 461,) says the cautious pope.]
+
+[Footnote 120: (Cinnamus, l. iv. c. 14, p. 99.)]
+
+[Footnote 121: In his vith book, Cinnamus describes the Venetian
+war, which Nicetas has not thought worthy of his attention.  The
+Italian accounts, which do not satisfy our curiosity, are
+reported by the annalist Muratori, under the years 1171, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 122: This victory is mentioned by Romuald of Salerno,
+(in Muratori, Script. Ital. tom. vii. p. 198.) It is whimsical
+enough, that in the praise of the king of Sicily, Cinnamus (l.
+iv. c. 13, p. 97, 98) is much warmer and copious than Falcandus,
+(p. 268, 270.) But the Greek is fond of description, and the
+Latin historian is not fond of William the Bad.]
+
+[Footnote 123: For the epistle of William I. see Cinnamus (l. iv.
+c. 15, p. 101, 102) and Nicetas, (l. ii. c. 8.) It is difficult
+to affirm, whether these Greeks deceived themselves, or the
+public, in these flattering portraits of the grandeur of the
+empire.]
+
+[Footnote 124: I can only quote, of original evidence, the poor
+chronicles of Sicard of Cremona, (p. 603,) and of Fossa Nova, (p.
+875,) as they are published in the viith tome of Muratori's
+historians.  The king of Sicily sent his troops contra nequitiam
+Andronici .... ad acquirendum imperium C. P.  They were ....
+decepti captique, by Isaac.]
+
+[Footnote 125: By the failure of Cinnamus to Nicetas (in
+Andronico, l. . c. 7, 8, 9, l. ii. c. 1, in Isaac Angelo, l. i.
+c. 1 - 4,) who now becomes a respectable contemporary.  As he
+survived the emperor and the empire, he is above flattery; but
+the fall of Constantinople exasperated his prejudices against the
+Latins.  For the honor of learning I shall observe that Homer's
+great commentator, Eustathias archbishop of Thessalonica, refused
+to desert his flock.]
+
+The sceptre of Roger successively devolved to his son and
+grandson: they might be confounded under the name of William:
+they are strongly discriminated by the epithets of the bad and
+the good; but these epithets, which appear to describe the
+perfection of vice and virtue, cannot strictly be applied to
+either of the Norman princes.  When he was roused to arms by
+danger and shame, the first William did not degenerate from the
+valor of his race; but his temper was slothful; his manners were
+dissolute; his passions headstrong and mischievous; and the
+monarch is responsible, not only for his personal vices, but for
+those of Majo, the great admiral, who abused the confidence, and
+conspired against the life, of his benefactor. From the Arabian
+conquest, Sicily had imbibed a deep tincture of Oriental manners;
+the despotism, the pomp, and even the harem, of a sultan; and a
+Christian people was oppressed and insulted by the ascendant of
+the eunuchs, who openly professed, or secretly cherished, the
+religion of Mahomet.  An eloquent historian of the times ^126 has
+delineated the misfortunes of his country: ^127 the ambition and
+fall of the ungrateful Majo; the revolt and punishment of his
+assassins; the imprisonment and deliverance of the king himself;
+the private feuds that arose from the public confusion; and the
+various forms of calamity and discord which afflicted Palermo,
+the island, and the continent, during the reign of William the
+First, and the minority of his son.  The youth, innocence, and
+beauty of William the Second, ^128 endeared him to the nation:
+the factions were reconciled; the laws were revived; and from the
+manhood to the premature death of that amiable prince, Sicily
+enjoyed a short season of peace, justice, and happiness, whose
+value was enhanced by the remembrance of the past and the dread
+of futurity.  The legitimate male posterity of Tancred of
+Hauteville was extinct in the person of the second William; but
+his aunt, the daughter of Roger, had married the most powerful
+prince of the age; and Henry the Sixth, the son of Frederic
+Barbarossa, descended from the Alps to claim the Imperial crown
+and the inheritance of his wife. Against the unanimous wish of a
+free people, this inheritance could only be acquired by arms; and
+I am pleased to transcribe the style and sense of the historian
+Falcandus, who writes at the moment, and on the spot, with the
+feelings of a patriot, and the prophetic eye of a statesman.
+"Constantia, the daughter of Sicily, nursed from her cradle in
+the pleasures and plenty, and educated in the arts and manners,
+of this fortunate isle, departed long since to enrich the
+Barbarians with our treasures, and now returns, with her savage
+allies, to contaminate the beauties of her venerable parent.
+Already I behold the swarms of angry Barbarians: our opulent
+cities, the places flourishing in a long peace, are shaken with
+fear, desolated by slaughter, consumed by rapine, and polluted by
+intemperance and lust.  I see the massacre or captivity of our
+citizens, the rapes of our virgins and matrons. ^129 In this
+extremity (he interrogates a friend) how must the Sicilians act?
+By the unanimous election of a king of valor and experience,
+Sicily and Calabria might yet be preserved; ^130 for in the
+levity of the Apulians, ever eager for new revolutions, I can
+repose neither confidence nor hope. ^131 Should Calabria be lost,
+the lofty towers, the numerous youth, and the naval strength, of
+Messina, ^132 might guard the passage against a foreign invader.
+If the savage Germans coalesce with the pirates of Messina; if
+they destroy with fire the fruitful region, so often wasted by
+the fires of Mount Aetna, ^133 what resource will be left for the
+interior parts of the island, these noble cities which should
+never be violated by the hostile footsteps of a Barbarian? ^134
+Catana has again been overwhelmed by an earthquake: the ancient
+virtue of Syracuse expires in poverty and solitude; ^135 but
+Palermo is still crowned with a diadem, and her triple walls
+enclose the active multitudes of Christians and Saracens.  If the
+two nations, under one king, can unite for their common safety,
+they may rush on the Barbarians with invincible arms.  But if the
+Saracens, fatigued by a repetition of injuries, should now retire
+and rebel; if they should occupy the castles of the mountains and
+sea-coast, the unfortunate Christians, exposed to a double
+attack, and placed as it were between the hammer and the anvil,
+must resign themselves to hopeless and inevitable servitude."
+^136 We must not forget, that a priest here prefers his country
+to his religion; and that the Moslems, whose alliance he seeks,
+were still numerous and powerful in the state of Sicily.
+
+[Footnote 126: The Historia Sicula of Hugo Falcandus, which
+properly extends from 1154 to 1169, is inserted in the viiith
+volume of Muratori's Collection, (tom. vii. p. 259 - 344,) and
+preceded by a eloquent preface or epistle, (p. 251 - 258, de
+Calamitatibus Siciliae.) Falcandus has been styled the Tacitus of
+Sicily; and, after a just, but immense, abatement, from the ist
+to the xiith century, from a senator to a monk, I would not strip
+him of his title: his narrative is rapid and perspicuous, his
+style bold and elegant, his observation keen; he had studied
+mankind, and feels like a man.  I can only regret the narrow and
+barren field on which his labors have been cast.]
+
+[Footnote 127: The laborious Benedictines (l'Art de verifier les
+Dates, p. 896) are of opinion, that the true name of Falcandus is
+Fulcandus, or Foucault.  According to them, Hugues Foucalt, a
+Frenchman by birth, and at length abbot of St. Denys, had
+followed into Sicily his patron Stephen de la Perche, uncle to
+the mother of William II., archbishop of Palermo, and great
+chancellor of the kingdom.  Yet Falcandus has all the feelings of
+a Sicilian; and the title of Alumnus (which he bestows on
+himself) appears to indicate that he was born, or at least
+educated, in the island.]
+
+[Footnote 128: Falcand. p. 303.  Richard de St. Germano begins
+his history from the death and praises of William II.  After some
+unmeaning epithets, he thus continues: Legis et justitiae cultus
+tempore suo vigebat in regno; sua erat quilibet sorte contentus;
+(were they mortals?) abique pax, ubique securitas, nec latronum
+metuebat viator insidias, nec maris nauta offendicula piratarum,
+(Script. Rerum Ital. tom. vii p 939.)]
+
+[Footnote 129: Constantia, primis a cunabulis in deliciarun
+tuarum affluentia diutius educata, tuisque institutis, doctrinus
+et moribus informata, tandem opibus tuis Barbaros delatura
+discessit: et nunc cum imgentibus copiis revertitur, ut
+pulcherrima nutricis ornamenta barbarica foeditate contaminet
+.... Intuari mihi jam videor turbulentas bar barorum acies ....
+civitates opulentas et loca diuturna pace florentia, metu
+concutere, caede vastare, rapinis atterere, et foedare luxuria
+hinc cives aut gladiis intercepti, aut servitute depressi,
+virgines constupratae, matronae, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 130: Certe si regem non dubiae virtutis elegerint, nec
+a Saracenis Christiani dissentiant, poterit rex creatus rebus
+licet quasi desperatis et perditis subvenire, et incursus
+hostium, si prudenter egerit, propulsare.]
+
+[Footnote 131: In Apulis, qui, semper novitate gaudentes, novarum
+rerum studiis aguntur, nihil arbitror spei aut fiduciae
+reponendum.]
+
+[Footnote 132: Si civium tuorum virtutem et audaciam attendas,
+.... muriorum etiam ambitum densis turribus circumseptum.]
+
+[Footnote 133: Cum erudelitate piratica Theutonum confligat
+atrocitas, et inter aucbustos lapides, et Aethnae flagrant's
+incendia, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 134: Eam partem, quam nobilissimarum civitatum fulgor
+illustrat, quae et toti regno singulari meruit privilegio
+praeminere, nefarium esset .... vel barbarorum ingressu pollui.
+I wish to transcribe his florid, but curious, description, of the
+palace, city, and luxuriant plain of Palermo.]
+
+[Footnote 135: Vires non suppetunt, et conatus tuos tam inopia
+civium, quam paucitas bellatorum elidunt.]
+
+[Footnote 136: The Normans and Sicilians appear to be
+confounded.]
+
+The hopes, or at least the wishes, of Falcandus were at
+first gratified by the free and unanimous election of Tancred,
+the grandson of the first king, whose birth was illegitimate, but
+whose civil and military virtues shone without a blemish.  During
+four years, the term of his life and reign, he stood in arms on
+the farthest verge of the Apulian frontier, against the powers of
+Germany; and the restitution of a royal captive, of Constantia
+herself, without injury or ransom, may appear to surpass the most
+liberal measure of policy or reason.  After his decease, the
+kingdom of his widow and infant son fell without a struggle; and
+Henry pursued his victorious march from Capua to Palermo.  The
+political balance of Italy was destroyed by his success; and if
+the pope and the free cities had consulted their obvious and real
+interest, they would have combined the powers of earth and heaven
+to prevent the dangerous union of the German empire with the
+kingdom of Sicily. But the subtle policy, for which the Vatican
+has so often been praised or arraigned, was on this occasion
+blind and inactive; and if it were true that Celestine the Third
+had kicked away the Imperial crown from the head of the prostrate
+Henry, ^137 such an act of impotent pride could serve only to
+cancel an obligation and provoke an enemy.  The Genoese, who
+enjoyed a beneficial trade and establishment in Sicily, listened
+to the promise of his boundless gratitude and speedy departure:
+^138 their fleet commanded the straits of Messina, and opened the
+harbor of Palermo; and the first act of his government was to
+abolish the privileges, and to seize the property, of these
+imprudent allies.  The last hope of Falcandus was defeated by the
+discord of the Christians and Mahometans: they fought in the
+capital; several thousands of the latter were slain; but their
+surviving brethren fortified the mountains, and disturbed above
+thirty years the peace of the island.  By the policy of Frederic
+the Second, sixty thousand Saracens were transplanted to Nocera
+in Apulia.  In their wars against the Roman church, the emperor
+and his son Mainfroy were strengthened and disgraced by the
+service of the enemies of Christ; and this national colony
+maintained their religion and manners in the heart of Italy, till
+they were extirpated, at the end of the thirteenth century, by
+the zeal and revenge of the house of Anjou. ^139 All the
+calamities which the prophetic orator had deplored were surpassed
+by the cruelty and avarice of the German conqueror.  He violated
+the royal sepulchres, ^* and explored the secret treasures of the
+palace, Palermo, and the whole kingdom: the pearls and jewels,
+however precious, might be easily removed; but one hundred and
+sixty horses were laden with the gold and silver of Sicily. ^140
+The young king, his mother and sisters, and the nobles of both
+sexes, were separately confined in the fortresses of the Alps;
+and, on the slightest rumor of rebellion, the captives were
+deprived of life, of their eyes, or of the hope of posterity.
+Constantia herself was touched with sympathy for the miseries of
+her country; and the heiress of the Norman line might struggle to
+check her despotic husband, and to save the patrimony of her
+new-born son, of an emperor so famous in the next age under the
+name of Frederic the Second.  Ten years after this revolution,
+the French monarchs annexed to their crown the duchy of Normandy:
+the sceptre of her ancient dukes had been transmitted, by a
+granddaughter of William the Conqueror, to the house of
+Plantagenet; and the adventurous Normans, who had raised so many
+trophies in France, England, and Ireland, in Apulia, Sicily, and
+the East, were lost, either in victory or servitude, among the
+vanquished nations.
+
+[Footnote 137: The testimony of an Englishman, of Roger de
+Hoveden, (p. 689,) will lightly weigh against the silence of
+German and Italian history, (Muratori, Annali d' Italia, tom. x.
+p. 156.) The priests and pilgrims, who returned from Rome,
+exalted, by every tale, the omnipotence of the holy father.]
+
+[Footnote 138: Ego enim in eo cum Teutonicis manere non debeo,
+(Caffari, Annal. Genuenses, in Muratori, Script. Rerum
+Italicarum, tom vi. p. 367, 368.)]
+
+[Footnote 139: For the Saracens of Sicily and Nocera, see the
+Annals of Muratori, (tom. x. p. 149, and A.D. 1223, 1247,)
+Giannone, (tom ii. p. 385,) and of the originals, in Muratori's
+Collection, Richard de St. Germano, (tom. vii. p. 996,) Matteo
+Spinelli de Giovenazzo, (tom. vii. p. 1064,) Nicholas de
+Jamsilla, (tom. x. p. 494,) and Matreo Villani, (tom. xiv l. vii.
+p. 103.) The last of these insinuates that, in reducing the
+Saracens of Nocera, Charles II. of Anjou employed rather artifice
+than violence.]
+
+[Footnote *: It is remarkable that at the same time the tombs of
+the Roman emperors, even of Constantine himself, were violated
+and ransacked by their degenerate successor Alexius Comnenus, in
+order to enable him to pay the "German" tribute exacted by the
+menaces of the emperor Henry.  See the end of the first book of
+the Life of Alexius, in Nicetas, p. 632, edit. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 140: Muratori quotes a passage from Arnold of Lubec,
+(l. iv. c. 20:) Reperit thesauros absconditos, et omnem lapidum
+pretiosorum et gemmarum gloriam, ita ut oneratis 160 somariis,
+gloriose ad terram suam redierit. Roger de Hoveden, who mentions
+the violation of the royal tombs and corpses, computes the spoil
+of Salerno at 200,000 ounces of gold, (p. 746.) On these
+occasions, I am almost tempted to exclaim with the listening maid
+in La Fontaine, "Je voudrois bien avoir ce qui manque."]
+
+
+
+Chapter LVII: The Turks.
+
+Part I.
+
+The Turks Of The House Of Seljuk. - Their Revolt Against
+Mahmud Conqueror Of Hindostan. - Togrul Subdues Persia, And
+Protects The Caliphs. - Defeat And Captivity Of The Emperor
+Romanus Diogenes By Alp Arslan. - Power And Magnificence Of Malek
+Shah. - Conquest Of Asia Minor And Syria. - State And Oppression
+Of Jerusalem. - Pilgrimages To The Holy Sepulchre.
+
+From the Isle of Sicily, the reader must transport himself
+beyond the Caspian Sea, to the original seat of the Turks or
+Turkmans, against whom the first crusade was principally
+directed.  Their Scythian empire of the sixth century was long
+since dissolved; but the name was still famous among the Greeks
+and Orientals; and the fragments of the nation, each a powerful
+and independent people, were scattered over the desert from China
+to the Oxus and the Danube: the colony of Hungarians was admitted
+into the republic of Europe, and the thrones of Asia were
+occupied by slaves and soldiers of Turkish extraction.  While
+Apulia and Sicily were subdued by the Norman lance, a swarm of
+these northern shepherds overspread the kingdoms of Persia; their
+princes of the race of Seljuk erected a splendid and solid empire
+from Samarcand to the confines of Greece and Egypt; and the Turks
+have maintained their dominion in Asia Minor, till the victorious
+crescent has been planted on the dome of St. Sophia.
+
+One of the greatest of the Turkish princes was Mahmood or
+Mahmud, ^1 the Gaznevide, who reigned in the eastern provinces of
+Persia, one thousand years after the birth of Christ.  His father
+Sebectagi was the slave of the slave of the slave of the
+commander of the faithful.  But in this descent of servitude, the
+first degree was merely titular, since it was filled by the
+sovereign of Transoxiana and Chorasan, who still paid a nominal
+allegiance to the caliph of Bagdad.  The second rank was that of
+a minister of state, a lieutenant of the Samanides, ^2 who broke,
+by his revolt, the bonds of political slavery.  But the third
+step was a state of real and domestic servitude in the family of
+that rebel; from which Sebectagi, by his courage and dexterity,
+ascended to the supreme command of the city and provinces of
+Gazna, ^3 as the son-in-law and successor of his grateful master.
+
+The falling dynasty of the Samanides was at first protected, and
+at last overthrown, by their servants; and, in the public
+disorders, the fortune of Mahmud continually increased.  From him
+the title of Sultan ^4 was first invented; and his kingdom was
+enlarged from Transoxiana to the neighborhood of Ispahan, from
+the shores of the Caspian to the mouth of the Indus.  But the
+principal source of his fame and riches was the holy war which he
+waged against the Gentoos of Hindostan.  In this foreign
+narrative I may not consume a page; and a volume would scarcely
+suffice to recapitulate the battles and sieges of his twelve
+expeditions.  Never was the Mussulman hero dismayed by the
+inclemency of the seasons, the height of the mountains, the
+breadth of the rivers, the barrenness of the desert, the
+multitudes of the enemy, or the formidable array of their
+elephants of war. ^5 The sultan of Gazna surpassed the limits of
+the conquests of Alexander: after a march of three months, over
+the hills of Cashmir and Thibet, he reached the famous city of
+Kinnoge, ^6 on the Upper Ganges; and, in a naval combat on one of
+the branches of the Indus, he fought and vanquished four thousand
+boats of the natives.  Delhi, Lahor, and Multan, were compelled
+to open their gates: the fertile kingdom of Guzarat attracted his
+ambition and tempted his stay; and his avarice indulged the
+fruitless project of discovering the golden and aromatic isles of
+the Southern Ocean.  On the payment of a tribute, the rajahs
+preserved their dominions; the people, their lives and fortunes;
+but to the religion of Hindostan the zealous Mussulman was cruel
+and inexorable: many hundred temples, or pagodas, were levelled
+with the ground; many thousand idols were demolished; and the
+servants of the prophet were stimulated and rewarded by the
+precious materials of which they were composed.  The pagoda of
+Sumnat was situate on the promontory of Guzarat, in the
+neighborhood of Diu, one of the last remaining possessions of the
+Portuguese. ^7 It was endowed with the revenue of two thousand
+villages; two thousand Brahmins were consecrated to the service
+of the Deity, whom they washed each morning and evening in water
+from the distant Ganges: the subordinate ministers consisted of
+three hundred musicians, three hundred barbers, and five hundred
+dancing girls, conspicuous for their birth or beauty.  Three
+sides of the temple were protected by the ocean, the narrow
+isthmus was fortified by a natural or artificial precipice; and
+the city and adjacent country were peopled by a nation of
+fanatics.  They confessed the sins and the punishment of Kinnoge
+and Delhi; but if the impious stranger should presume to approach
+their holy precincts, he would surely be overwhelmed by a blast
+of the divine vengeance. By this challenge, the faith of Mahmud
+was animated to a personal trial of the strength of this Indian
+deity.  Fifty thousand of his worshippers were pierced by the
+spear of the Moslems; the walls were scaled; the sanctuary was
+profaned; and the conqueror aimed a blow of his iron mace at the
+head of the idol.  The trembling Brahmins are said to have
+offered ten millions ^* sterling for his ransom; and it was urged
+by the wisest counsellors, that the destruction of a stone image
+would not change the hearts of the Gentoos; and that such a sum
+might be dedicated to the relief of the true believers.  "Your
+reasons," replied the sultan, "are specious and strong; but never
+in the eyes of posterity shall Mahmud appear as a merchant of
+idols." ^* He repeated his blows, and a treasure of pearls and
+rubies, concealed in the belly of the statue, explained in some
+degree the devout prodigality of the Brahmins.  The fragments of
+the idol were distributed to Gazna, Mecca, and Medina.  Bagdad
+listened to the edifying tale; and Mahmud was saluted by the
+caliph with the title of guardian of the fortune and faith of
+Mahomet.
+
+[Footnote 1: I am indebted for his character and history to
+D'Herbelot, (Bibliotheque Orientale, Mahmud, p. 533 - 537,) M. De
+Guignes, (Histoire des Huns, tom. iii. p. 155 - 173,) and our
+countryman Colonel Alexander Dow, (vol. i. p. 23 - 83.) In the
+two first volumes of his History of Hindostan, he styles himself
+the translator of the Persian Ferishta; but in his florid text,
+it is not easy to distinguish the version and the original.
+
+Note: The European reader now possesses a more accurate
+version of Ferishta, that of Col. Briggs.  Of Col. Dow's work,
+Col. Briggs observes, "that the author's name will be handed down
+to posterity as one of the earliest and most indefatigable of our
+Oriental scholars.  Instead of confining himself, however, to
+mere translation, he has filled his work with his own
+observations, which have been so embodied in the text that Gibbon
+declares it impossible to distinguish the translator from the
+original author." Preface p. vii. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 2: The dynasty of the Samanides continued 125 years,
+A.D. 847 - 999, under ten princes.  See their succession and
+ruin, in the Tables of M. De Guignes, (Hist. des Huns, tom. i. p.
+404 - 406.) They were followed by the Gaznevides, A.D. 999 -
+1183, (see tom. i. p. 239, 240.) His divisions of nations often
+disturbs the series of time and place.]
+
+[Footnote 3: Gaznah hortos non habet: est emporium et domicilium
+mercaturae Indicae.  Abulfedae Geograph. Reiske, tab. xxiii. p.
+349.  D'Herbelot, p. 364. It has not been visited by any modern
+traveller.]
+
+[Footnote 4: By the ambassador of the caliph of Bagdad, who
+employed an Arabian or Chaldaic word that signifies lord and
+master, (D'Herbelot, p. 825.) It is interpreted by the Byzantine
+writers of the eleventh century; and the name (Soldanus) is
+familiarly employed in the Greek and Latin languages, after it
+had passed from the Gaznevides to the Seljukides, and other emirs
+of Asia and Egypt.  Ducange (Dissertation xvi. sur Joinville, p.
+238 - 240.  Gloss. Graec. et Latin.) labors to find the title of
+Sultan in the ancient kingdom of Persia: but his proofs are mere
+shadows; a proper name in the Themes of Constantine, (ii. 11,) an
+anticipation of Zonaras, &c., and a medal of Kai Khosrou, not (as
+he believes) the Sassanide of the vith, but the Seljukide of
+Iconium of the xiiith century, (De Guignes, Hist. des Huns, tom.
+i. p. 246.)]
+
+[Footnote 5: Ferishta (apud Dow, Hist. of Hindostan, vol. i. p.
+49) mentions the report of a gun in the Indian army.  But as I am
+slow in believing this premature (A.D. 1008) use of artillery, I
+must desire to scrutinize first the text, and then the authority
+of Ferishta, who lived in the Mogul court in the last century.
+
+Note: This passage is differently written in the various
+manuscripts I have seen; and in some the word tope (gun) has been
+written for nupth, (naphtha, and toofung (musket) for khudung,
+(arrow.) But no Persian or Arabic history speaks of gunpowder
+before the time usually assigned for its invention, (A.D. 1317;)
+long after which, it was first applied to the purposes of war.
+Briggs's Ferishta, vol. i. p. 47, note. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 6: Kinnouge, or Canouge, (the old Palimbothra) is
+marked in latitude 27 Degrees 3 Minutes, longitude 80 Degrees 13
+Minutes. See D'Anville, (Antiquite de l'Inde, p. 60 - 62,)
+corrected by the local knowledge of Major Rennel (in his
+excellent Memoir on his Map of Hindostan, p. 37 - 43: ) 300
+jewellers, 30,000 shops for the arreca nut, 60,000 bands of
+musicians, &c. (Abulfed. Geograph. tab. xv. p. 274.  Dow, vol. i.
+p. 16,) will allow an ample deduction.
+
+Note: Mr. Wilson (Hindu Drama, vol. iii. p. 12) and Schlegel
+(Indische Bibliothek, vol. ii. p. 394) concur in identifying
+Palimbothra with the Patalipara of the Indians; the Patna of the
+moderns. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 7: The idolaters of Europe, says Ferishta, (Dow, vol.
+i. p. 66.) Consult Abulfeda, (p. 272,) and Rennel's Map of
+Hindostan.]
+
+[Footnote *: Ferishta says, some "crores of gold." Dow says, in a
+note at the bottom of the page, "ten millions," which is the
+explanation of the word "crore." Mr. Gibbon says rashly that the
+sum offered by the Brahmins was ten millions sterling.  Note to
+Mill's India, vol. ii. p. 222.  Col. Briggs's translation is "a
+quantity of gold."
+
+The treasure found in the temple, "perhaps in the image,"
+according to Major Price's authorities, was twenty millions of
+dinars of gold, above nine millions sterling; but this was a
+hundred-fold the ransom offered by the Brahmins.  Price, vol. ii.
+p. 290. - M.]
+
+[Footnote *: Rather than the idol broker, he chose to be called
+Mahmud the idol breaker.  Price, vol. ii. p. 289 - M]
+
+From the paths of blood (and such is the history of nations)
+I cannot refuse to turn aside to gather some flowers of science
+or virtue. The name of Mahmud the Gaznevide is still venerable in
+the East: his subjects enjoyed the blessings of prosperity and
+peace; his vices were concealed by the veil of religion; and two
+familiar examples will testify his justice and magnanimity. I. As
+he sat in the Divan, an unhappy subject bowed before the throne
+to accuse the insolence of a Turkish soldier who had driven him
+from his house and bed.  "Suspend your clamors," said Mahmud;
+"inform me of his next visit, and ourself in person will judge
+and punish the offender." The sultan followed his guide, invested
+the house with his guards, and extinguishing the torches,
+pronounced the death of the criminal, who had been seized in the
+act of rapine and adultery.  After the execution of his sentence,
+the lights were rekindled, Mahmud fell prostrate in prayer, and
+rising from the ground, demanded some homely fare, which he
+devoured with the voraciousness of hunger.  The poor man, whose
+injury he had avenged, was unable to suppress his astonishment
+and curiosity; and the courteous monarch condescended to explain
+the motives of this singular behavior. "I had reason to suspect
+that none, except one of my sons, could dare to perpetrate such
+an outrage; and I extinguished the lights, that my justice might
+be blind and inexorable.  My prayer was a thanksgiving on the
+discovery of the offender; and so painful was my anxiety, that I
+had passed three days without food since the first moment of your
+complaint." II. The sultan of Gazna had declared war against the
+dynasty of the Bowides, the sovereigns of the western Persia: he
+was disarmed by an epistle of the sultana mother, and delayed his
+invasion till the manhood of her son. ^8 "During the life of my
+husband," said the artful regent, "I was ever apprehensive of
+your ambition: he was a prince and a soldier worthy of your arms.
+
+He is now no more his sceptre has passed to a woman and a child,
+and you dare not attack their infancy and weakness.  How
+inglorious would be your conquest, how shameful your defeat!  and
+yet the event of war is in the hand of the Almighty." Avarice was
+the only defect that tarnished the illustrious character of
+Mahmud; and never has that passion been more richly satiated. ^*
+The Orientals exceed the measure of credibility in the account of
+millions of gold and silver, such as the avidity of man has never
+accumulated; in the magnitude of pearls, diamonds, and rubies,
+such as have never been produced by the workmanship of nature. ^9
+Yet the soil of Hindostan is impregnated with precious minerals:
+her trade, in every age, has attracted the gold and silver of the
+world; and her virgin spoils were rifled by the first of the
+Mahometan conquerors.  His behavior, in the last days of his
+life, evinces the vanity of these possessions, so laboriously
+won, so dangerously held, and so inevitably lost.  He surveyed
+the vast and various chambers of the treasury of Gazna, burst
+into tears, and again closed the doors, without bestowing any
+portion of the wealth which he could no longer hope to preserve.
+The following day he reviewed the state of his military force;
+one hundred thousand foot, fifty-five thousand horse, and
+thirteen hundred elephants of battle. ^10 He again wept the
+instability of human greatness; and his grief was imbittered by
+the hostile progress of the Turkmans, whom he had introduced into
+the heart of his Persian kingdom.
+
+[Footnote 8: D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 527.  Yet
+these letters apothegms, &c., are rarely the language of the
+heart, or the motives of public action.]
+
+[Footnote *: Compare Price, vol. ii. p. 295. - M]
+
+[Footnote 9: For instance, a ruby of four hundred and fifty
+miskals, (Dow, vol. i. p. 53,) or six pounds three ounces: the
+largest in the treasury of Delhi weighed seventeen miskals,
+(Voyages de Tavernier, partie ii. p. 280.) It is true, that in
+the East all colored stones are calied rubies, (p. 355,) and that
+Tavernier saw three larger and more precious among the jewels de
+notre grand roi, le plus puissant et plus magnifique de tous les
+rois de la terre, (p. 376.)]
+
+[Footnote 10: Dow, vol. i. p. 65.  The sovereign of Kinoge is
+said to have possessed 2500 elephants, (Abulfed. Geograph. tab.
+xv. p. 274.) From these Indian stories, the reader may correct a
+note in my first volume, (p. 245;) or from that note he may
+correct these stories.]
+
+In the modern depopulation of Asia, the regular operation of
+government and agriculture is confined to the neighborhood of
+cities; and the distant country is abandoned to the pastoral
+tribes of Arabs, Curds, and Turkmans. ^11 Of the last-mentioned
+people, two considerable branches extend on either side of the
+Caspian Sea: the western colony can muster forty thousand
+soldiers; the eastern, less obvious to the traveller, but more
+strong and populous, has increased to the number of one hundred
+thousand families.  In the midst of civilized nations, they
+preserve the manners of the Scythian desert, remove their
+encampments with a change of seasons, and feed their cattle among
+the ruins of palaces and temples. Their flocks and herds are
+their only riches; their tents, either black or white, according
+to the color of the banner, are covered with felt, and of a
+circular form; their winter apparel is a sheep-skin; a robe of
+cloth or cotton their summer garment: the features of the men are
+harsh and ferocious; the countenance of their women is soft and
+pleasing.  Their wandering life maintains the spirit and exercise
+of arms; they fight on horseback; and their courage is displayed
+in frequent contests with each other and with their neighbors.
+For the license of pasture they pay a slight tribute to the
+sovereign of the land; but the domestic jurisdiction is in the
+hands of the chiefs and elders.  The first emigration of the
+Eastern Turkmans, the most ancient of the race, may be ascribed
+to the tenth century of the Christian aera. ^12 In the decline of
+the caliphs, and the weakness of their lieutenants, the barrier
+of the Jaxartes was often violated; in each invasion, after the
+victory or retreat of their countrymen, some wandering tribe,
+embracing the Mahometan faith, obtained a free encampment in the
+spacious plains and pleasant climate of Transoxiana and Carizme.
+The Turkish slaves who aspired to the throne encouraged these
+emigrations which recruited their armies, awed their subjects and
+rivals, and protected the frontier against the wilder natives of
+Turkestan; and this policy was abused by Mahmud the Gaznevide
+beyond the example of former times.  He was admonished of his
+error by the chief of the race of Seljuk, who dwelt in the
+territory of Bochara.  The sultan had inquired what supply of men
+he could furnish for military service.  "If you send," replied
+Ismael, "one of these arrows into our camp, fifty thousand of
+your servants will mount on horseback." - "And if that number,"
+continued Mahmud, "should not be sufficient?" - "Send this second
+arrow to the horde of Balik, and you will find fifty thousand
+more." - "But," said the Gaznevide, dissembling his anxiety, "if
+I should stand in need of the whole force of your kindred
+tribes?" - "Despatch my bow," was the last reply of Ismael, "and
+as it is circulated around, the summons will be obeyed by two
+hundred thousand horse." The apprehension of such formidable
+friendship induced Mahmud to transport the most obnoxious tribes
+into the heart of Chorasan, where they would be separated from
+their brethren of the River Oxus, and enclosed on all sides by
+the walls of obedient cities.  But the face of the country was an
+object of temptation rather than terror; and the vigor of
+government was relaxed by the absence and death of the sultan of
+Gazna. The shepherds were converted into robbers; the bands of
+robbers were collected into an army of conquerors: as far as
+Ispahan and the Tigris, Persia was afflicted by their predatory
+inroads; and the Turkmans were not ashamed or afraid to measure
+their courage and numbers with the proudest sovereigns of Asia.
+Massoud, the son and successor of Mahmud, had too long neglected
+the advice of his wisest Omrahs.  "Your enemies," they repeatedly
+urged, "were in their origin a swarm of ants; they are now little
+snakes; and, unless they be instantly crushed, they will acquire
+the venom and magnitude of serpents." After some alternatives of
+truce and hostility, after the repulse or partial success of his
+lieutenants, the sultan marched in person against the Turkmans,
+who attacked him on all sides with barbarous shouts and irregular
+onset. "Massoud," says the Persian historian, ^13 "plunged singly
+to oppose the torrent of gleaming arms, exhibiting such acts of
+gigantic force and valor as never king had before displayed.  A
+few of his friends, roused by his words and actions, and that
+innate honor which inspires the brave, seconded their lord so
+well, that wheresoever he turned his fatal sword, the enemies
+were mowed down, or retreated before him.  But now, when victory
+seemed to blow on his standard, misfortune was active behind it;
+for when he looked round, be beheld almost his whole army,
+excepting that body he commanded in person, devouring the paths
+of flight." The Gaznevide was abandoned by the cowardice or
+treachery of some generals of Turkish race; and this memorable
+day of Zendecan ^14 founded in Persia the dynasty of the shepherd
+kings. ^15
+
+[Footnote 11: See a just and natural picture of these pastoral
+manners, in the history of William archbishop of Tyre, (l. i. c.
+vii. in the Gesta Dei per Francos, p. 633, 634,) and a valuable
+note by the editor of the Histoire Genealogique des Tatars, p.
+535 - 538.]
+
+[Footnote 12: The first emigration of the Turkmans, and doubtful
+origin of the Seljukians, may be traced in the laborious History
+of the Huns, by M. De Guignes, (tom. i. Tables Chronologiques, l.
+v. tom. iii. l. vii. ix. x.) and the Bibliotheque Orientale, of
+D'Herbelot, (p. 799 - 802, 897 - 901,) Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen.
+p. 321 - 333,) and Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 221, 222.)]
+
+[Footnote 13: Dow, Hist. of Hindostan, vol. i. p. 89, 95 - 98.  I
+have copied this passage as a specimen of the Persian manner; but
+I suspect that, by some odd fatality, the style of Ferishta has
+been improved by that of Ossian.
+
+Note: Gibbon's conjecture was well founded.  Compare the
+more sober and genuine version of Col. Briggs, vol. i. p. 110. -
+M.]
+
+[Footnote 14: The Zendekan of D'Herbelot, (p. 1028,) the Dindaka
+of Dow (vol. i. p. 97,) is probably the Dandanekan of Abulfeda,
+(Geograph. p. 345, Reiske,) a small town of Chorasan, two days'
+journey from Maru, and renowned through the East for the
+production and manufacture of cotton.]
+
+[Footnote 15: The Byzantine historians (Cedrenus, tom. ii. p.
+766, 766, Zonaras tom. ii. p. 255, Nicephorus Bryennius, p. 21)
+have confounded, in this revolution, the truth of time and place,
+of names and persons, of causes and events.  The ignorance and
+errors of these Greeks (which I shall not stop to unravel) may
+inspire some distrust of the story of Cyaxares and Cyrus, as it
+is told by their most eloquent predecessor.]
+
+The victorious Turkmans immediately proceeded to the
+election of a king; and, if the probable tale of a Latin
+historian ^16 deserves any credit, they determined by lot the
+choice of their new master.  A number of arrows were successively
+inscribed with the name of a tribe, a family, and a candidate;
+they were drawn from the bundle by the hand of a child; and the
+important prize was obtained by Togrul Beg, the son of Michael
+the son of Seljuk, whose surname was immortalized in the
+greatness of his posterity.  The sultan Mahmud, who valued
+himself on his skill in national genealogy, professed his
+ignorance of the family of Seljuk; yet the father of that race
+appears to have been a chief of power and renown. ^17 For a
+daring intrusion into the harem of his prince.  Seljuk was
+banished from Turkestan: with a numerous tribe of his friends and
+vassals, he passed the Jaxartes, encamped in the neighborhood of
+Samarcand, embraced the religion of Mahomet, and acquired the
+crown of martyrdom in a war against the infidels.  His age, of a
+hundred and seven years, surpassed the life of his son, and
+Seljuk adopted the care of his two grandsons, Togrul and Jaafar;
+the eldest of whom, at the age of forty-five, was invested with
+the title of Sultan, in the royal city of Nishabur.  The blind
+determination of chance was justified by the virtues of the
+successful candidate.  It would be superfluous to praise the
+valor of a Turk; and the ambition of Togrul ^18 was equal to his
+valor.  By his arms, the Gasnevides were expelled from the
+eastern kingdoms of Persia, and gradually driven to the banks of
+the Indus, in search of a softer and more wealthy conquest.  In
+the West he annihilated the dynasty of the Bowides; and the
+sceptre of Irak passed from the Persian to the Turkish nation.
+The princes who had felt, or who feared, the Seljukian arrows,
+bowed their heads in the dust; by the conquest of Aderbijan, or
+Media, he approached the Roman confines; and the shepherd
+presumed to despatch an ambassador, or herald, to demand the
+tribute and obedience of the emperor of Constantinople. ^19 In
+his own dominions, Togrul was the father of his soldiers and
+people; by a firm and equal administration, Persia was relieved
+from the evils of anarchy; and the same hands which had been
+imbrued in blood became the guardians of justice and the public
+peace. The more rustic, perhaps the wisest, portion of the
+Turkmans ^20 continued to dwell in the tents of their ancestors;
+and, from the Oxus to the Euphrates, these military colonies were
+protected and propagated by their native princes. But the Turks
+of the court and city were refined by business and softened by
+pleasure: they imitated the dress, language, and manners of
+Persia; and the royal palaces of Nishabur and Rei displayed the
+order and magnificence of a great monarchy.  The most deserving
+of the Arabians and Persians were promoted to the honors of the
+state; and the whole body of the Turkish nation embraced, with
+fervor and sincerity, the religion of Mahomet.  The northern
+swarms of Barbarians, who overspread both Europe and Asia, have
+been irreconcilably separated by the consequences of a similar
+conduct.  Among the Moslems, as among the Christians, their vague
+and local traditions have yielded to the reason and authority of
+the prevailing system, to the fame of antiquity, and the consent
+of nations.  But the triumph of the Koran is more pure and
+meritorious, as it was not assisted by any visible splendor of
+worship which might allure the Pagans by some resemblance of
+idolatry.  The first of the Seljukian sultans was conspicuous by
+his zeal and faith: each day he repeated the five prayers which
+are enjoined to the true believers; of each week, the two first
+days were consecrated by an extraordinary fast; and in every city
+a mosch was completed, before Togrul presumed to lay the
+foundations of a palace. ^21
+
+[Footnote 16: Willerm. Tyr. l. i. c. 7, p. 633.  The divination
+by arrows is ancient and famous in the East.]
+
+[Footnote 17: D'Herbelot, p. 801.  Yet after the fortune of his
+posterity, Seljuk became the thirty-fourth in lineal descent from
+the great Afrasiab, emperor of Touran, (p. 800.) The Tartar
+pedigree of the house of Zingis gave a different cast to flattery
+and fable; and the historian Mirkhond derives the Seljukides from
+Alankavah, the virgin mother, (p. 801, col. 2.) If they be the
+same as the Zalzuts of Abulghazi Bahadur Kahn, (Hist.
+Genealogique, p. 148,) we quote in their favor the most weighty
+evidence of a Tartar prince himself, the descendant of Zingis,
+Alankavah, or Alancu, and Oguz Khan.]
+
+[Footnote 18: By a slight corruption, Togrul Beg is the
+Tangroli-pix of the Greeks.  His reign and character are
+faithfully exhibited by D'Herbelot (Bibliotheque Orientale, p.
+1027, 1028) and De Guignes, (Hist. des Huns, tom. iii. p. 189 -
+201.)]
+
+[Footnote 19: Cedrenus, tom. ii. p. 774, 775.  Zonaras, tom. ii.
+p. 257. With their usual knowledge of Oriental affairs, they
+describe the ambassador as a sherif, who, like the syncellus of
+the patriarch, was the vicar and successor of the caliph.]
+
+[Footnote 20: From William of Tyre I have borrowed this
+distinction of Turks and Turkmans, which at least is popular and
+convenient.  The names are the same, and the addition of man is
+of the same import in the Persic and Teutonic idioms.  Few
+critics will adopt the etymology of James de Vitry, (Hist.
+Hierosol. l. i. c. 11 p. 1061,) of Turcomani, quesi Turci et
+Comani, a mixed people.]
+
+[Footnote 21: Hist. Generale des Huns, tom. iii. p. 165, 166,
+167.  M. DeGognes Abulmahasen, an historian of Egypt.]
+
+With the belief of the Koran, the son of Seljuk imbibed a
+lively reverence for the successor of the prophet.  But that
+sublime character was still disputed by the caliphs of Bagdad and
+Egypt, and each of the rivals was solicitous to prove his title
+in the judgment of the strong, though illiterate Barbarians.
+Mahmud the Gaznevide had declared himself in favor of the line of
+Abbas; and had treated with indignity the robe of honor which was
+presented by the Fatimite ambassador.  Yet the ungrateful
+Hashemite had changed with the change of fortune; he applauded
+the victory of Zendecan, and named the Seljukian sultan his
+temporal vicegerent over the Moslem world.  As Togrul executed
+and enlarged this important trust, he was called to the
+deliverance of the caliph Cayem, and obeyed the holy summons,
+which gave a new kingdom to his arms. ^22 In the palace of
+Bagdad, the commander of the faithful still slumbered, a
+venerable phantom.  His servant or master, the prince of the
+Bowides, could no longer protect him from the insolence of meaner
+tyrants; and the Euphrates and Tigris were oppressed by the
+revolt of the Turkish and Arabian emirs.  The presence of a
+conqueror was implored as a blessing; and the transient mischiefs
+of fire and sword were excused as the sharp but salutary remedies
+which alone could restore the health of the republic.  At the
+head of an irresistible force, the sultan of Persia marched from
+Hamadan: the proud were crushed, the prostrate were spared; the
+prince of the Bowides disappeared; the heads of the most
+obstinate rebels were laid at the feet of Togrul; and he
+inflicted a lesson of obedience on the people of Mosul and
+Bagdad.  After the chastisement of the guilty, and the
+restoration of peace, the royal shepherd accepted the reward of
+his labors; and a solemn comedy represented the triumph of
+religious prejudice over Barbarian power. ^23 The Turkish sultan
+embarked on the Tigris, landed at the gate of Racca, and made his
+public entry on horseback.  At the palace-gate he respectfully
+dismounted, and walked on foot, preceded by his emirs without
+arms.  The caliph was seated behind his black veil: the black
+garment of the Abbassides was cast over his shoulders, and he
+held in his hand the staff of the apostle of God.  The conqueror
+of the East kissed the ground, stood some time in a modest
+posture, and was led towards the throne by the vizier and
+interpreter.  After Togrul had seated himself on another throne,
+his commission was publicly read, which declared him the temporal
+lieutenant of the vicar of the prophet.  He was successively
+invested with seven robes of honor, and presented with seven
+slaves, the natives of the seven climates of the Arabian empire.
+His mystic veil was perfumed with musk; two crowns ^* were placed
+on his head; two cimeters were girded to his side, as the symbols
+of a double reign over the East and West.  After this
+inauguration, the sultan was prevented from prostrating himself a
+second time; but he twice kissed the hand of the commander of the
+faithful, and his titles were proclaimed by the voice of heralds
+and the applause of the Moslems.  In a second visit to Bagdad,
+the Seljukian prince again rescued the caliph from his enemies
+and devoutly, on foot, led the bridle of his mule from the prison
+to the palace.  Their alliance was cemented by the marriage of
+Togrul's sister with the successor of the prophet.  Without
+reluctance he had introduced a Turkish virgin into his harem; but
+Cayem proudly refused his daughter to the sultan, disdained to
+mingle the blood of the Hashemites with the blood of a Scythian
+shepherd; and protracted the negotiation many months, till the
+gradual diminution of his revenue admonished him that he was
+still in the hands of a master.  The royal nuptials were followed
+by the death of Togrul himself; ^24 ^! as he left no children,
+his nephew Alp Arslan succeeded to the title and prerogatives of
+sultan; and his name, after that of the caliph, was pronounced in
+the public prayers of the Moslems.  Yet in this revolution, the
+Abbassides acquired a larger measure of liberty and power.  On
+the throne of Asia, the Turkish monarchs were less jealous of the
+domestic administration of Bagdad; and the commanders of the
+faithful were relieved from the ignominious vexations to which
+they had been exposed by the presence and poverty of the Persian
+dynasty.
+
+[Footnote 22: Consult the Bibliotheque Orientale, in the articles
+of the Abbassides, Caher, and Caiem, and the Annals of Elmacin
+and Abulpharagius.]
+
+[Footnote 23: For this curious ceremony, I am indebted to M. De
+Guignes (tom. iii. p. 197, 198,) and that learned author is
+obliged to Bondari, who composed in Arabic the history of the
+Seljukides, tom. v. p. 365) I am ignorant of his age, country,
+and character.]
+
+[Footnote *: According to Von Hammer, "crowns" are incorrect.
+They are unknown as a symbol of royalty in the East.  V. Hammer,
+Osmanische Geschischte, vol. i. p. 567. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Eodem anno (A. H. 455) obiit princeps Togrulbecus
+.... rex fuit clemens, prudens, et peritus regnandi, cujus terror
+corda mortalium invaserat, ita ut obedirent ei reges atque ad
+ipsum scriberent. Elma cin, Hist. Saracen. p. 342, vers. Erpenii.
+
+Note: He died, being 75 years old.  V. Hammer. - M.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LVII: The Turks.
+
+Part II.
+
+Since the fall of the caliphs, the discord and degeneracy of
+the Saracens respected the Asiatic provinces of Rome; which, by
+the victories of Nicephorus, Zimisces, and Basil, had been
+extended as far as Antioch and the eastern boundaries of Armenia.
+
+Twenty-five years after the death of Basil, his successors were
+suddenly assaulted by an unknown race of Barbarians, who united
+the Scythian valor with the fanaticism of new proselytes, and the
+art and riches of a powerful monarchy. ^25 The myriads of Turkish
+horse overspread a frontier of six hundred miles from Tauris to
+Arzeroum, and the blood of one hundred and thirty thousand
+Christians was a grateful sacrifice to the Arabian prophet.  Yet
+the arms of Togrul did not make any deep or lasting impression on
+the Greek empire.  The torrent rolled away from the open country;
+the sultan retired without glory or success from the siege of an
+Armenian city; the obscure hostilities were continued or
+suspended with a vicissitude of events; and the bravery of the
+Macedonian legions renewed the fame of the conqueror of Asia. ^26
+The name of Alp Arslan, the valiant lion, is expressive of the
+popular idea of the perfection of man; and the successor of
+Togrul displayed the fierceness and generosity of the royal
+animal.  He passed the Euphrates at the head of the Turkish
+cavalry, and entered Caesarea, the metropolis of Cappadocia, to
+which he had been attracted by the fame and wealth of the temple
+of St. Basil.  The solid structure resisted the destroyer: but he
+carried away the doors of the shrine incrusted with gold and
+pearls, and profaned the relics of the tutelar saint, whose
+mortal frailties were now covered by the venerable rust of
+antiquity.  The final conquest of Armenia and Georgia was
+achieved by Alp Arslan.  In Armenia, the title of a kingdom, and
+the spirit of a nation, were annihilated: the artificial
+fortifications were yielded by the mercenaries of Constantinople;
+by strangers without faith, veterans without pay or arms, and
+recruits without experience or discipline.  The loss of this
+important frontier was the news of a day; and the Catholics were
+neither surprised nor displeased, that a people so deeply
+infected with the Nestorian and Eutychian errors had been
+delivered by Christ and his mother into the hands of the
+infidels. ^27 The woods and valleys of Mount Caucasus were more
+strenuously defended by the native Georgians ^28 or Iberians; but
+the Turkish sultan and his son Malek were indefatigable in this
+holy war: their captives were compelled to promise a spiritual,
+as well as temporal, obedience; and, instead of their collars and
+bracelets, an iron horseshoe, a badge of ignominy, was imposed on
+the infidels who still adhered to the worship of their fathers.
+The change, however, was not sincere or universal; and, through
+ages of servitude, the Georgians have maintained the succession
+of their princes and bishops.  But a race of men, whom nature has
+cast in her most perfect mould, is degraded by poverty,
+ignorance, and vice; their profession, and still more their
+practice, of Christianity is an empty name; and if they have
+emerged from heresy, it is only because they are too illiterate
+to remember a metaphysical creed. ^29
+
+[Footnote 25: For these wars of the Turks and Romans, see in
+general the Byzantine histories of Zonaras and Cedrenus,
+Scylitzes the continuator of Cedrenus, and Nicephorus Bryennius
+Caesar.  The two first of these were monks, the two latter
+statesmen; yet such were the Greeks, that the difference of style
+and character is scarcely discernible.  For the Orientals, I draw
+as usuul on the wealth of D'Herbelot (see titles of the first
+Seljukides) and the accuracy of De Guignes, (Hist. des Huns, tom.
+iii. l. x.)]
+
+[Footnote 26: Cedrenus, tom. ii. p. 791.  The credulity of the
+vulgar is always probable; and the Turks had learned from the
+Arabs the history or legend of Escander Dulcarnein, (D'Herbelot,
+p. 213 &c.)]
+
+[Footnote 27: (Scylitzes, ad calcem Cedreni, tom. ii. p. 834,
+whose ambiguous construction shall not tempt me to suspect that
+he confounded the Nestorian and Monophysite heresies,) He
+familiarly talks of the qualities, as I should apprehend, very
+foreign to the perfect Being; but his bigotry is forced to
+confess that they were soon afterwards discharged on the orthodox
+Romans.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Had the name of Georgians been known to the Greeks,
+(Stritter, Memoriae Byzant. tom. iv. Iberica,) I should derive it
+from their agriculture, (l. iv. c. 18, p. 289, edit. Wesseling.)
+But it appears only since the crusades, among the Latins (Jac. a
+Vitriaco, Hist. Hierosol. c. 79, p. 1095) and Orientals,
+(D'Herbelot, p. 407,) and was devoutly borrowed from St. George
+of Cappadocia.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Mosheim, Institut. Hist. Eccles. p. 632.  See, in
+Chardin's Travels, (tom. i. p. 171 - 174,) the manners and
+religion of this handsome but worthless nation.  See the pedigree
+of their princes from Adam to the present century, in the tables
+of M. De Guignes, (tom. i. p. 433 - 438.)]
+
+The false or genuine magnanimity of Mahmud the Gaznevide was
+not imitated by Alp Arslan; and he attacked without scruple the
+Greek empress Eudocia and her children.  His alarming progress
+compelled her to give herself and her sceptre to the hand of a
+soldier; and Romanus Diogenes was invested with the Imperial
+purple.  His patriotism, and perhaps his pride, urged him from
+Constantinople within two months after his accession; and the
+next campaign he most scandalously took the field during the holy
+festival of Easter.  In the palace, Diogenes was no more than the
+husband of Eudocia: in the camp, he was the emperor of the
+Romans, and he sustained that character with feeble resources and
+invincible courage.  By his spirit and success the soldiers were
+taught to act, the subjects to hope, and the enemies to fear.
+The Turks had penetrated into the heart of Phrygia; but the
+sultan himself had resigned to his emirs the prosecution of the
+war; and their numerous detachments were scattered over Asia in
+the security of conquest.  Laden with spoil, and careless of
+discipline, they were separately surprised and defeated by the
+Greeks: the activity of the emperor seemed to multiply his
+presence: and while they heard of his expedition to Antioch, the
+enemy felt his sword on the hills of Trebizond. In three
+laborious campaigns, the Turks were driven beyond the Euphrates;
+in the fourth and last, Romanus undertook the deliverance of
+Armenia.  The desolation of the land obliged him to transport a
+supply of two months' provisions; and he marched forwards to the
+siege of Malazkerd, ^30 an important fortress in the midway
+between the modern cities of Arzeroum and Van.  His army
+amounted, at the least, to one hundred thousand men.  The troops
+of Constantinople were reenforced by the disorderly multitudes of
+Phrygia and Cappadocia; but the real strength was composed of the
+subjects and allies of Europe, the legions of Macedonia, and the
+squadrons of Bulgaria; the Uzi, a Moldavian horde, who were
+themselves of the Turkish race; ^31 and, above all, the mercenary
+and adventurous bands of French and Normans.  Their lances were
+commanded by the valiant Ursel of Baliol, the kinsman or father
+of the Scottish kings, ^32 and were allowed to excel in the
+exercise of arms, or, according to the Greek style, in the
+practice of the Pyrrhic dance.
+
+[Footnote 30: This city is mentioned by Constantine
+Porphyrogenitus, (de Administrat. Imperii, l. ii. c. 44, p. 119,)
+and the Byzantines of the xith century, under the name of
+Mantzikierte, and by some is confounded with Theodosiopolis; but
+Delisle, in his notes and maps, has very properly fixed the
+situation.  Abulfeda (Geograph. tab. xviii. p. 310) describes
+Malasgerd as a small town, built with black stone, supplied with
+water, without trees, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 31: The Uzi of the Greeks (Stritter, Memor. Byzant.
+tom. iii. p. 923 - 948) are the Gozz of the Orientals, (Hist. des
+Huns, tom. ii. p. 522, tom. iii. p. 133, &c.) They appear on the
+Danube and the Volga, and Armenia, Syria, and Chorasan, and the
+name seems to have been extended to the whole Turkman race.]
+
+[Footnote 32: Urselius (the Russelius of Zonaras) is
+distinguished by Jeffrey Malaterra (l. i. c. 33) among the Norman
+conquerors of Sicily, and with the surname of Baliol: and our own
+historians will tell how the Baliols came from Normandy to
+Durham, built Bernard's castle on the Tees, married an heiress of
+Scotland, &c.  Ducange (Not. ad Nicephor. Bryennium, l. ii. No.
+4) has labored the subject in honor of the president de Bailleul,
+whose father had exchanged the sword for the gown.]
+
+On the report of this bold invasion, which threatened his
+hereditary dominions, Alp Arslan flew to the scene of action at
+the head of forty thousand horse. ^33 His rapid and skilful
+evolutions distressed and dismayed the superior numbers of the
+Greeks; and in the defeat of Basilacius, one of their principal
+generals, he displayed the first example of his valor and
+clemency.  The imprudence of the emperor had separated his forces
+after the reduction of Malazkerd.  It was in vain that he
+attempted to recall the mercenary Franks: they refused to obey
+his summons; he disdained to await their return: the desertion of
+the Uzi filled his mind with anxiety and suspicion; and against
+the most salutary advice he rushed forwards to speedy and
+decisive action.  Had he listened to the fair proposals of the
+sultan, Romanus might have secured a retreat, perhaps a peace;
+but in these overtures he supposed the fear or weakness of the
+enemy, and his answer was conceived in the tone of insult and
+defiance. "If the Barbarian wishes for peace, let him evacuate
+the ground which he occupies for the encampment of the Romans,
+and surrender his city and palace of Rei as a pledge of his
+sincerity." Alp Arslan smiled at the vanity of the demand, but he
+wept the death of so many faithful Moslems; and, after a devout
+prayer, proclaimed a free permission to all who were desirous of
+retiring from the field.  With his own hands he tied up his
+horse's tail, exchanged his bow and arrows for a mace and
+cimeter, clothed himself in a white garment, perfumed his body
+with musk, and declared that if he were vanquished, that spot
+should be the place of his burial. ^34 The sultan himself had
+affected to cast away his missile weapons: but his hopes of
+victory were placed in the arrows of the Turkish cavalry, whose
+squadrons were loosely distributed in the form of a crescent.
+Instead of the successive lines and reserves of the Grecian
+tactics, Romulus led his army in a single and solid phalanx, and
+pressed with vigor and impatience the artful and yielding
+resistance of the Barbarians.  In this desultory and fruitless
+combat he spent the greater part of a summer's day, till prudence
+and fatigue compelled him to return to his camp.  But a retreat
+is always perilous in the face of an active foe; and no sooner
+had the standard been turned to the rear than the phalanx was
+broken by the base cowardice, or the baser jealousy, of
+Andronicus, a rival prince, who disgraced his birth and the
+purple of the Caesars. ^35 The Turkish squadrons poured a cloud
+of arrows on this moment of confusion and lassitude; and the
+horns of their formidable crescent were closed in the rear of the
+Greeks.  In the destruction of the army and pillage of the camp,
+it would be needless to mention the number of the slain or
+captives. The Byzantine writers deplore the loss of an
+inestimable pearl: they forgot to mention, that in this fatal day
+the Asiatic provinces of Rome were irretrievably sacrificed.
+
+[Footnote 33: Elmacin (p. 343, 344) assigns this probable number,
+which is reduced by Abulpharagius to 15,000, (p. 227,) and by
+D'Herbelot (p. 102) to 12,000 horse.  But the same Elmacin gives
+300,000 met to the emperor, of whom Abulpharagius says, Cum
+centum hominum millibus, multisque equis et magna pompa
+instructus.  The Greeks abstain from any definition of numbers.]
+
+[Footnote 34: The Byzantine writers do not speak so distinctly of
+the presence of the sultan: he committed his forces to a eunuch,
+had retired to a distance, &c.  Is it ignorance, or jealousy, or
+truth?]
+
+[Footnote 35: He was the son of Caesar John Ducas, brother of the
+emperor Constantine, (Ducange, Fam. Byzant. p. 165.) Nicephorus
+Bryennius applauds his virtues and extenuates his faults, (l. i.
+p. 30, 38. l. ii. p. 53.) Yet he owns his enmity to Romanus.
+Scylitzes speaks more explicitly of his treason.]
+
+As long as a hope survived, Romanus attempted to rally and
+save the relics of his army.  When the centre, the Imperial
+station, was left naked on all sides, and encompassed by the
+victorious Turks, he still, with desperate courage, maintained
+the fight till the close of day, at the head of the brave and
+faithful subjects who adhered to his standard.  They fell around
+him; his horse was slain; the emperor was wounded; yet he stood
+alone and intrepid, till he was oppressed and bound by the
+strength of multitudes.  The glory of this illustrious prize was
+disputed by a slave and a soldier; a slave who had seen him on
+the throne of Constantinople, and a soldier whose extreme
+deformity had been excused on the promise of some signal service.
+
+Despoiled of his arms, his jewels, and his purple, Romanus spent
+a dreary and perilous night on the field of battle, amidst a
+disorderly crowd of the meaner Barbarians.  In the morning the
+royal captive was presented to Alp Arslan, who doubted of his
+fortune, till the identity of the person was ascertained by the
+report of his ambassadors, and by the more pathetic evidence of
+Basilacius, who embraced with tears the feet of his unhappy
+sovereign.  The successor of Constantine, in a plebeian habit,
+was led into the Turkish divan, and commanded to kiss the ground
+before the lord of Asia.  He reluctantly obeyed; and Alp Arslan,
+starting from his throne, is said to have planted his foot on the
+neck of the Roman emperor. ^36 But the fact is doubtful; and if,
+in this moment of insolence, the sultan complied with the
+national custom, the rest of his conduct has extorted the praise
+of his bigoted foes, and may afford a lesson to the most
+civilized ages.  He instantly raised the royal captive from the
+ground; and thrice clasping his hand with tender sympathy,
+assured him, that his life and dignity should be inviolate in the
+hands of a prince who had learned to respect the majesty of his
+equals and the vicissitudes of fortune. From the divan, Romanus
+was conducted to an adjacent tent, where he was served with pomp
+and reverence by the officers of the sultan, who, twice each day,
+seated him in the place of honor at his own table.  In a free and
+familiar conversation of eight days, not a word, not a look, of
+insult escaped from the conqueror; but he severely censured the
+unworthy subjects who had deserted their valiant prince in the
+hour of danger, and gently admonished his antagonist of some
+errors which he had committed in the management of the war. In
+the preliminaries of negotiation, Alp Arslan asked him what
+treatment he expected to receive, and the calm indifference of
+the emperor displays the freedom of his mind.  "If you are
+cruel," said he, "you will take my life; if you listen to pride,
+you will drag me at your chariot-wheels; if you consult your
+interest, you will accept a ransom, and restore me to my
+country." "And what," continued the sultan, "would have been your
+own behavior, had fortune smiled on your arms?" The reply of the
+Greek betrays a sentiment, which prudence, and even gratitude,
+should have taught him to suppress.  "Had I vanquished," he
+fiercely said, "I would have inflicted on thy body many a
+stripe." The Turkish conqueror smiled at the insolence of his
+captive observed that the Christian law inculcated the love of
+enemies and forgiveness of injuries; and nobly declared, that he
+would not imitate an example which he condemned.  After mature
+deliberation, Alp Arslan dictated the terms of liberty and peace,
+a ransom of a million, ^* an annual tribute of three hundred and
+sixty thousand pieces of gold, ^37 the marriage of the royal
+children, and the deliverance of all the Moslems, who were in the
+power of the Greeks. Romanus, with a sigh, subscribed this
+treaty, so disgraceful to the majesty of the empire; he was
+immediately invested with a Turkish robe of honor; his nobles and
+patricians were restored to their sovereign; and the sultan,
+after a courteous embrace, dismissed him with rich presents and a
+military guard.  No sooner did he reach the confines of the
+empire, than he was informed that the palace and provinces had
+disclaimed their allegiance to a captive: a sum of two hundred
+thousand pieces was painfully collected; and the fallen monarch
+transmitted this part of his ransom, with a sad confession of his
+impotence and disgrace.  The generosity, or perhaps the ambition,
+of the sultan, prepared to espouse the cause of his ally; but his
+designs were prevented by the defeat, imprisonment, and death, of
+Romanus Diogenes. ^38
+
+[Footnote 36: This circumstance, which we read and doubt in
+Scylitzes and Constantine Manasses, is more prudently omitted by
+Nicephorus and Zonaras.]
+
+[Footnote *: Elmacin gives 1,500,000.  Wilken, Geschichte der
+Kreuz-zuge, vol. l. p. 10. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 37: The ransom and tribute are attested by reason and
+the Orientals. The other Greeks are modestly silent; but
+Nicephorus Bryennius dares to affirm, that the terms were bad and
+that the emperor would have preferred death to a shameful
+treaty.]
+
+[Footnote 38: The defeat and captivity of Romanus Diogenes may be
+found in John Scylitzes ad calcem Cedreni, tom. ii. p. 835 - 843.
+
+Zonaras, tom. ii. p. 281 - 284.  Nicephorus Bryennius, l. i. p.
+25 - 32.  Glycas, p. 325 - 327. Constantine Manasses, p. 134.
+Elmacin, Hist. Saracen. p. 343 344. Abulpharag. Dynast. p. 227.
+D'Herbelot, p. 102, 103.  D Guignes, tom. iii. p. 207 - 211.
+Besides my old acquaintance Elmacin and Abulpharagius, the
+historian of the Huns has consulted Abulfeda, and his epitomizer
+Benschounah, a Chronicle of the Caliphs, by Abulmahasen of Egypt,
+and Novairi of Africa.]
+
+In the treaty of peace, it does not appear that Alp Arslan
+extorted any province or city from the captive emperor; and his
+revenge was satisfied with the trophies of his victory, and the
+spoils of Anatolia, from Antioch to the Black Sea.  The fairest
+part of Asia was subject to his laws: twelve hundred princes, or
+the sons of princes, stood before his throne; and two hundred
+thousand soldiers marched under his banners. The sultan disdained
+to pursue the fugitive Greeks; but he meditated the more glorious
+conquest of Turkestan, the original seat of the house of Seljuk.
+He moved from Bagdad to the banks of the Oxus; a bridge was
+thrown over the river; and twenty days were consumed in the
+passage of his troops.  But the progress of the great king was
+retarded by the governor of Berzem; and Joseph the Carizmian
+presumed to defend his fortress against the powers of the East.
+When he was produced a captive in the royal tent, the sultan,
+instead of praising his valor, severely reproached his obstinate
+folly: and the insolent replies of the rebel provoked a sentence,
+that he should be fastened to four stakes, and left to expire in
+that painful situation.  At this command, the desperate
+Carizmian, drawing a dagger, rushed headlong towards the throne:
+the guards raised their battle-axes; their zeal was checked by
+Alp Arslan, the most skilful archer of the age: he drew his bow,
+but his foot slipped, the arrow glanced aside, and he received in
+his breast the dagger of Joseph, who was instantly cut in pieces.
+
+The wound was mortal; and the Turkish prince bequeathed a dying
+admonition to the pride of kings.  "In my youth," said Alp
+Arslan, "I was advised by a sage to humble myself before God; to
+distrust my own strength; and never to despise the most
+contemptible foe.  I have neglected these lessons; and my neglect
+has been deservedly punished.  Yesterday, as from an eminence I
+beheld the numbers, the discipline, and the spirit, of my armies,
+the earth seemed to tremble under my feet; and I said in my
+heart, Surely thou art the king of the world, the greatest and
+most invincible of warriors. These armies are no longer mine;
+and, in the confidence of my personal strength, I now fall by the
+hand of an assassin." ^39 Alp Arslan possessed the virtues of a
+Turk and a Mussulman; his voice and stature commanded the
+reverence of mankind; his face was shaded with long whiskers; and
+his ample turban was fashioned in the shape of a crown.  The
+remains of the sultan were deposited in the tomb of the Seljukian
+dynasty; and the passenger might read and meditate this useful
+inscription: ^40 "O ye who have seen the glory of Alp Arslan
+exalted to the heavens, repair to Maru, and you will behold it
+buried in the dust." The annihilation of the inscription, and the
+tomb itself, more forcibly proclaims the instability of human
+greatness.
+
+[Footnote 39: This interesting death is told by D'Herbelot, (p.
+103, 104,) and M. De Guignes, (tom. iii. p. 212, 213.) from their
+Oriental writers; but neither of them have transfused the spirit
+of Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen p. 344, 345.)]
+
+[Footnote 40: A critic of high renown, (the late Dr. Johnson,)
+who has severely scrutinized the epitaphs of Pope, might cavil in
+this sublime inscription at the words "repair to Maru," since the
+reader must already be at Maru before he could peruse the
+inscription.]
+
+During the life of Alp Arslan, his eldest son had been
+acknowledged as the future sultan of the Turks.  On his father's
+death the inheritance was disputed by an uncle, a cousin, and a
+brother: they drew their cimeters, and assembled their followers;
+and the triple victory of Malek Shah ^41 established his own
+reputation and the right of primogeniture.  In every age, and
+more especially in Asia, the thirst of power has inspired the
+same passions, and occasioned the same disorders; but, from the
+long series of civil war, it would not be easy to extract a
+sentiment more pure and magnanimous than is contained in the
+saying of the Turkish prince.  On the eve of the battle, he
+performed his devotions at Thous, before the tomb of the Imam
+Riza.  As the sultan rose from the ground, he asked his vizier
+Nizam, who had knelt beside him, what had been the object of his
+secret petition: "That your arms may be crowned with victory,"
+was the prudent, and most probably the sincere, answer of the
+minister.  "For my part," replied the generous Malek, "I implored
+the Lord of Hosts that he would take from me my life and crown,
+if my brother be more worthy than myself to reign over the
+Moslems." The favorable judgment of heaven was ratified by the
+caliph; and for the first time, the sacred title of Commander of
+the Faithful was communicated to a Barbarian.  But this
+Barbarian, by his personal merit, and the extent of his empire,
+was the greatest prince of his age.  After the settlement of
+Persia and Syria, he marched at the head of innumerable armies to
+achieve the conquest of Turkestan, which had been undertaken by
+his father.  In his passage of the Oxus, the boatmen, who had
+been employed in transporting some troops, complained, that their
+payment was assigned on the revenues of Antioch.  The sultan
+frowned at this preposterous choice; but he miled at the artful
+flattery of his vizier. "It was not to postpone their reward,
+that I selected those remote places, but to leave a memorial to
+posterity, that, under your reign, Antioch and the Oxus were
+subject to the same sovereign." But this description of his
+limits was unjust and parsimonious: beyond the Oxus, he reduced
+to his obedience the cities of Bochara, Carizme, and Samarcand,
+and crushed each rebellious slave, or independent savage, who
+dared to resist.  Malek passed the Sihon or Jaxartes, the last
+boundary of Persian civilization: the hordes of Turkestan yielded
+to his supremacy: his name was inserted on the coins, and in the
+prayers of Cashgar, a Tartar kingdom on the extreme borders of
+China.  From the Chinese frontier, he stretched his immediate
+jurisdiction or feudatory sway to the west and south, as far as
+the mountains of Georgia, the neighborhood of Constantinople, the
+holy city of Jerusalem, and the spicy groves of Arabia Felix.
+Instead of resigning himself to the luxury of his harem, the
+shepherd king, both in peace and war, was in action and in the
+field.  By the perpetual motion of the royal camp, each province
+was successively blessed with his presence; and he is said to
+have perambulated twelve times the wide extent of his dominions,
+which surpassed the Asiatic reign of Cyrus and the caliphs.  Of
+these expeditions, the most pious and splendid was the pilgrimage
+of Mecca: the freedom and safety of the caravans were protected
+by his arms; the citizens and pilgrims were enriched by the
+profusion of his alms; and the desert was cheered by the places
+of relief and refreshment, which he instituted for the use of his
+brethren. Hunting was the pleasure, and even the passion, of the
+sultan, and his train consisted of forty-seven thousand horses;
+but after the massacre of a Turkish chase, for each piece of
+game, he bestowed a piece of gold on the poor, a slight
+atonement, at the expense of the people, for the cost and
+mischief of the amusement of kings.  In the peaceful prosperity
+of his reign, the cities of Asia were adorned with palaces and
+hospitals with moschs and colleges; few departed from his Divan
+without reward, and none without justice.  The language and
+literature of Persia revived under the house of Seljuk; ^42 and
+if Malek emulated the liberality of a Turk less potent than
+himself, ^43 his palace might resound with the songs of a hundred
+poets.  The sultan bestowed a more serious and learned care on
+the reformation of the calendar, which was effected by a general
+assembly of the astronomers of the East.  By a law of the
+prophet, the Moslems are confined to the irregular course of the
+lunar months; in Persia, since the age of Zoroaster, the
+revolution of the sun has been known and celebrated as an annual
+festival; ^44 but after the fall of the Magian empire, the
+intercalation had been neglected; the fractions of minutes and
+hours were multiplied into days; and the date of the springs was
+removed from the sign of Aries to that of Pisces.  The reign of
+Malek was illustrated by the Gelalaean aera; and all errors,
+either past or future, were corrected by a computation of time,
+which surpasses the Julian, and approaches the accuracy of the
+Gregorian, style. ^45
+
+[Footnote 41: The Bibliotheque Orientale has given the text of
+the reign of Malek, (p. 542, 543, 544, 654, 655;) and the
+Histoire Generale des Huns (tom. iii. p. 214 - 224) has added the
+usual measure of repetition emendation, and supplement.  Without
+those two learned Frenchmen I should be blind indeed in the
+Eastern world.]
+
+[Footnote 42: See an excellent discourse at the end of Sir
+William Jones's History of Nadir Shah, and the articles of the
+poets, Amak, Anvari, Raschidi, &c., in the Bibliotheque
+Orientale. ]
+
+[Footnote 43: His name was Kheder Khan.  Four bags were placed
+round his sopha, and as he listened to the song, he cast handfuls
+of gold and silver to the poets, (D'Herbelot, p. 107.) All this
+may be true; but I do not understand how he could reign in
+Transoxiana in the time of Malek Shah, and much less how Kheder
+could surpass him in power and pomp.  I suspect that the
+beginning, not the end, of the xith century is the true aera of
+his reign.]
+
+[Footnote 44: See Chardin, Voyages en Perse, tom. ii. p. 235.]
+
+[Footnote 45: The Gelalaean aera (Gelaleddin, Glory of the Faith,
+was one of the names or titles of Malek Shah) is fixed to the
+xvth of March, A. H. 471, A.D. 1079.  Dr. Hyde has produced the
+original testimonies of the Persians and Arabians, (de Religione
+veterum Persarum, c. 16 p. 200 - 211.)]
+
+In a period when Europe was plunged in the deepest
+barbarism, the light and splendor of Asia may be ascribed to the
+docility rather than the knowledge of the Turkish conquerors.  An
+ample share of their wisdom and virtue is due to a Persian
+vizier, who ruled the empire under the reigns of Alp Arslan and
+his son.  Nizam, one of the most illustrious ministers of the
+East, was honored by the caliph as an oracle of religion and
+science; he was trusted by the sultan as the faithful vicegerent
+of his power and justice.  After an administration of thirty
+years, the fame of the vizier, his wealth, and even his services,
+were transformed into crimes.  He was overthrown by the insidious
+arts of a woman and a rival; and his fall was hastened by a rash
+declaration, that his cap and ink-horn, the badges of his office,
+were connected by the divine decree with the throne and diadem of
+the sultan.  At the age of ninety-three years, the venerable
+statesman was dismissed by his master, accused by his enemies,
+and murdered by a fanatic: ^* the last words of Nizam attested
+his innocence, and the remainder of Malek's life was short and
+inglorious.  From Ispahan, the scene of this disgraceful
+transaction, the sultan moved to Bagdad, with the design of
+transplanting the caliph, and of fixing his own residence in the
+capital of the Moslem world.  The feeble successor of Mahomet
+obtained a respite of ten days; and before the expiration of the
+term, the Barbarian was summoned by the angel of death.  His
+ambassadors at Constantinople had asked in marriage a Roman
+princess; but the proposal was decently eluded; and the daughter
+of Alexius, who might herself have been the victim, expresses her
+abhorrence of his unnatural conjunction. ^46 The daughter of the
+sultan was bestowed on the caliph Moctadi, with the imperious
+condition, that, renouncing the society of his wives and
+concubines, he should forever confine himself to this honorable
+alliance.
+
+[Footnote *: He was the first great victim of his enemy, Hassan
+Sabek, founder of the Assassins.  Von Hammer, Geschichte der
+Assassinen, p. 95. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 46: She speaks of this Persian royalty.  Anna Comnena
+was only nine years old at the end of the reign of Malek Shah,
+(A.D. 1092,) and when she speaks of his assassination, she
+confounds the sultan with the vizier, (Alexias, l. vi. p. 177,
+178.)]
+
+
+
+Chapter LVII: The Turks.
+
+Part III.
+
+The greatness and unity of the Turkish empire expired in the
+person of Malek Shah.  His vacant throne was disputed by his
+brother and his four sons; ^! and, after a series of civil wars,
+the treaty which reconciled the surviving candidates confirmed a
+lasting separation in the Persian dynasty, the eldest and
+principal branch of the house of Seljuk. The three younger
+dynasties were those of Kerman, of Syria, and of Roum: the first
+of these commanded an extensive, though obscure, ^47 dominion on
+the shores of the Indian Ocean: ^48 the second expelled the
+Arabian princes of Aleppo and Damascus; and the third, our
+peculiar care, invaded the Roman provinces of Asia Minor.  The
+generous policy of Malek contributed to their elevation: he
+allowed the princes of his blood, even those whom he had
+vanquished in the field, to seek new kingdoms worthy of their
+ambition; nor was he displeased that they should draw away the
+more ardent spirits, who might have disturbed the tranquillity of
+his reign.  As the supreme head of his family and nation, the
+great sultan of Persia commanded the obedience and tribute of his
+royal brethren: the thrones of Kerman and Nice, of Aleppo and
+Damascus; the Atabeks, and emirs of Syria and Mesopotamia,
+erected their standards under the shadow of his sceptre: ^49 and
+the hordes of Turkmans overspread the plains of the Western Asia.
+
+After the death of Malek, the bands of union and subordination
+were relaxed and finally dissolved: the indulgence of the house
+of Seljuk invested their slaves with the inheritance of kingdoms;
+and, in the Oriental style, a crowd of princes arose from the
+dust of their feet. ^50
+
+[Footnote !: See Von Hammer, Osmanische Geschichte, vol. i. p.
+16. The Seljukian dominions were for a time reunited in the
+person of Sandjar, one of the sons of Malek Shah, who ruled "from
+Kashgar to Antioch, from the Caspian to the Straits of
+Babelmandel." - M.]
+
+[Footnote 47: So obscure, that the industry of M. De Guignes
+could only copy (tom. i. p. 244, tom. iii. part i. p. 269, &c.)
+the history, or rather list, of the Seljukides of Kerman, in
+Bibliotheque Orientale.  They were extinguished before the end of
+the xiith century.]
+
+[Footnote 48: Tavernier, perhaps the only traveller who has
+visited Kerman, describes the capital as a great ruinous village,
+twenty-five days' journey from Ispahan, and twenty-seven from
+Ormus, in the midst of a fertile country, (Voyages en Turquie et
+en Perse, p. 107, 110.)]
+
+[Footnote 49: It appears from Anna Comnena, that the Turks of
+Asia Minor obeyed the signet and chiauss of the great sultan,
+(Alexias, l. vi. p. 170;) and that the two sons of Soliman were
+detained in his court, p. 180.)]
+
+[Footnote 50: This expression is quoted by Petit de la Croix (Vie
+de Gestis p. 160) from some poet, most probably a Persian.]
+
+A prince of the royal line, Cutulmish, ^* the son of Izrail,
+the son of Seljuk, had fallen in a battle against Alp Arslan and
+the humane victor had dropped a tear over his grave.  His five
+sons, strong in arms, ambitious of power, and eager for revenge,
+unsheathed their cimeters against the son of Alp Arslan.  The two
+armies expected the signal when the caliph, forgetful of the
+majesty which secluded him from vulgar eyes, interposed his
+venerable mediation.  "Instead of shedding the blood of your
+brethren, your brethren both in descent and faith, unite your
+forces in a holy war against the Greeks, the enemies of God and
+his apostle." They listened to his voice; the sultan embraced his
+rebellious kinsmen; and the eldest, the valiant Soliman, accepted
+the royal standard, which gave him the free conquest and
+hereditary command of the provinces of the Roman empire, from
+Arzeroum to Constantinople, and the unknown regions of the West.
+^51 Accompanied by his four brothers, he passed the Euphrates;
+the Turkish camp was soon seated in the neighborhood of Kutaieh
+in Phrygia; and his flying cavalry laid waste the country as far
+as the Hellespont and the Black Sea.  Since the decline of the
+empire, the peninsula of Asia Minor had been exposed to the
+transient, though destructive, inroads of the Persians and
+Saracens; but the fruits of a lasting conquest were reserved for
+the Turkish sultan; and his arms were introduced by the Greeks,
+who aspired to reign on the ruins of their country.  Since the
+captivity of Romanus, six years the feeble son of Eudocia had
+trembled under the weight of the Imperial crown, till the
+provinces of the East and West were lost in the same month by a
+double rebellion: of either chief Nicephorus was the common name;
+but the surnames of Bryennius and Botoniates distinguish the
+European and Asiatic candidates.  Their reasons, or rather their
+promises, were weighed in the Divan; and, after some hesitation,
+Soliman declared himself in favor of Botoniates, opened a free
+passage to his troops in their march from Antioch to Nice, and
+joined the banner of the Crescent to that of the Cross.  After
+his ally had ascended the throne of Constantinople, the sultan
+was hospitably entertained in the suburb of Chrysopolis or
+Scutari; and a body of two thousand Turks was transported into
+Europe, to whose dexterity and courage the new emperor was
+indebted for the defeat and captivity of his rival, Bryennius.
+But the conquest of Europe was dearly purchased by the sacrifice
+of Asia: Constantinople was deprived of the obedience and revenue
+of the provinces beyond the Bosphorus and Hellespont; and the
+regular progress of the Turks, who fortified the passes of the
+rivers and mountains, left not a hope of their retreat or
+expulsion.  Another candidate implored the aid of the sultan:
+Melissenus, in his purple robes and red buskins, attended the
+motions of the Turkish camp; and the desponding cities were
+tempted by the summons of a Roman prince, who immediately
+surrendered them into the hands of the Barbarians. These
+acquisitions were confirmed by a treaty of peace with the emperor
+Alexius: his fear of Robert compelled him to seek the friendship
+of Soliman; and it was not till after the sultan's death that he
+extended as far as Nicomedia, about sixty miles from
+Constantinople, the eastern boundary of the Roman world.
+Trebizond alone, defended on either side by the sea and
+mountains, preserved at the extremity of the Euxine the ancient
+character of a Greek colony, and the future destiny of a
+Christian empire.
+
+[Footnote *: Wilken considers Cutulmish not a Turkish name.
+Geschicht Kreuz-zuge, vol. i. p. 9. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 51: On the conquest of Asia Minor, M. De Guignes has
+derived no assistance from the Turkish or Arabian writers, who
+produce a naked list of the Seljukides of Roum.  The Greeks are
+unwilling to expose their shame, and we must extort some hints
+from Scylitzes, (p. 860, 863,) Nicephorus Bryennius, (p. 88, 91,
+92, &c., 103, 104,) and Anna Comnena (Alexias, p. 91, 92, &c.,
+163, &c.)]
+
+Since the first conquests of the caliphs, the establishment
+of the Turks in Anatolia or Asia Minor was the most deplorable
+loss which the church and empire had sustained.  By the
+propagation of the Moslem faith, Soliman deserved the name of
+Gazi, a holy champion; and his new kingdoms, of the Romans, or of
+Roum, was added to the tables of Oriental geography. It is
+described as extending from the Euphrates to Constantinople, from
+the Black Sea to the confines of Syria; pregnant with mines of
+silver and iron, of alum and copper, fruitful in corn and wine,
+and productive of cattle and excellent horses. ^52 The wealth of
+Lydia, the arts of the Greeks, the splendor of the Augustan age,
+existed only in books and ruins, which were equally obscure in
+the eyes of the Scythian conquerors.  Yet, in the present decay,
+Anatolia still contains some wealthy and populous cities; and,
+under the Byzantine empire, they were far more flourishing in
+numbers, size, and opulence.  By the choice of the sultan, Nice,
+the metropolis of Bithynia, was preferred for his palace and
+fortress: the seat of the Seljukian dynasty of Roum was planted
+one hundred miles from Constantinople; and the divinity of Christ
+was denied and derided in the same temple in which it had been
+pronounced by the first general synod of the Catholics.  The
+unity of God, and the mission of Mahomet, were preached in the
+moschs; the Arabian learning was taught in the schools; the
+Cadhis judged according to the law of the Koran; the Turkish
+manners and language prevailed in the cities; and Turkman camps
+were scattered over the plains and mountains of Anatolia.  On the
+hard conditions of tribute and servitude, the Greek Christians
+might enjoy the exercise of their religion; but their most holy
+churches were profaned; their priests and bishops were insulted;
+^53 they were compelled to suffer the triumph of the Pagans, and
+the apostasy of their brethren; many thousand children were
+marked by the knife of circumcision; and many thousand captives
+were devoted to the service or the pleasures of their masters.
+^54 After the loss of Asia, Antioch still maintained her
+primitive allegiance to Christ and Caesar; but the solitary
+province was separated from all Roman aid, and surrounded on all
+sides by the Mahometan powers.  The despair of Philaretus the
+governor prepared the sacrifice of his religion and loyalty, had
+not his guilt been prevented by his son, who hastened to the
+Nicene palace, and offered to deliver this valuable prize into
+the hands of Soliman.  The ambitious sultan mounted on horseback,
+and in twelve nights (for he reposed in the day) performed a
+march of six hundred miles.  Antioch was oppressed by the speed
+and secrecy of his enterprise; and the dependent cities, as far
+as Laodicea and the confines of Aleppo, ^55 obeyed the example of
+the metropolis.  From Laodicea to the Thracian Bosphorus, or arm
+of St. George, the conquests and reign of Soliman extended thirty
+days' journey in length, and in breadth about ten or fifteen,
+between the rocks of Lycia and the Black Sea. ^56 The Turkish
+ignorance of navigation protected, for a while, the inglorious
+safety of the emperor; but no sooner had a fleet of two hundred
+ships been constructed by the hands of the captive Greeks, than
+Alexius trembled behind the walls of his capital. His plaintive
+epistles were dispersed over Europe, to excite the compassion of
+the Latins, and to paint the danger, the weakness, and the riches
+of the city of Constantine. ^57
+
+[Footnote 52: Such is the description of Roum by Haiton the
+Armenian, whose Tartar history may be found in the collections of
+Ramusio and Bergeron, (see Abulfeda, Geograph. climat. xvii. p.
+301 - 305.)]
+
+[Footnote 53: Dicit eos quendam abusione Sodomitica intervertisse
+episcopum, (Guibert. Abbat. Hist. Hierosol. l. i. p. 468.) It is
+odd enough, that we should find a parallel passage of the same
+people in the present age.  "Il n'est point d'horreur que ces
+Turcs n'ayent commis, et semblables aux soldats effrenes, qui
+dans le sac d'une ville, non contens de disposer de tout a leur
+gre pretendent encore aux succes les moins desirables.  Quelque
+Sipahis ont porte leurs attentats sur la personne du vieux rabbi
+de la synagogue, et celle de l'Archeveque Grec." (Memoires du
+Baron de Tott, tom. ii. p. 193.)]
+
+[Footnote 54: The emperor, or abbot describe the scenes of a
+Turkish camp as if they had been present.  Matres correptae in
+conspectu filiarum multipliciter repetitis diversorum coitibus
+vexabantur; (is that the true reading?) cum filiae assistentes
+carmina praecinere saltando cogerentur. Mox eadem passio ad
+filias, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 55: See Antioch, and the death of Soliman, in Anna
+Comnena, (Alexius, l. vi. p. 168, 169,) with the notes of
+Ducange.]
+
+[Footnote 56: William of Tyre (l. i. c. 9, 10, p. 635) gives the
+most authentic and deplorable account of these Turkish
+conquests.]
+
+[Footnote 57: In his epistle to the count of Flanders, Alexius
+seems to fall too low beneath his character and dignity; yet it
+is approved by Ducange, (Not. ad Alexiad. p. 335, &c.,) and
+paraphrased by the Abbot Guibert, a contemporary historian.  The
+Greek text no longer exists; and each translator and scribe might
+say with Guibert, (p. 475,) verbis vestita meis, a privilege of
+most indefinite latitude.]
+
+But the most interesting conquest of the Seljukian Turks was
+that of Jerusalem, ^58 which soon became the theatre of nations.
+In their capitulation with Omar, the inhabitants had stipulated
+the assurance of their religion and property; but the articles
+were interpreted by a master against whom it was dangerous to
+dispute; and in the four hundred years of the reign of the
+caliphs, the political climate of Jerusalem was exposed to the
+vicissitudes of storm and sunshine. ^59 By the increase of
+proselytes and population, the Mahometans might excuse the
+usurpation of three fourths of the city: but a peculiar quarter
+was resolved for the patriarch with his clergy and people; a
+tribute of two pieces of gold was the price of protection; and
+the sepulchre of Christ, with the church of the Resurrection, was
+still left in the hands of his votaries.  Of these votaries, the
+most numerous and respectable portion were strangers to
+Jerusalem: the pilgrimages to the Holy Land had been stimulated,
+rather than suppressed, by the conquest of the Arabs; and the
+enthusiasm which had always prompted these perilous journeys, was
+nourished by the congenial passions of grief and indignation.  A
+crowd of pilgrims from the East and West continued to visit the
+holy sepulchre, and the adjacent sanctuaries, more especially at
+the festival of Easter; and the Greeks and Latins, the Nestorians
+and Jacobites, the Copts and Abyssinians, the Armenians and
+Georgians, maintained the chapels, the clergy, and the poor of
+their respective communions.  The harmony of prayer in so many
+various tongues, the worship of so many nations in the common
+temple of their religion, might have afforded a spectacle of
+edification and peace; but the zeal of the Christian sects was
+imbittered by hatred and revenge; and in the kingdom of a
+suffering Messiah, who had pardoned his enemies, they aspired to
+command and persecute their spiritual brethren.  The preeminence
+was asserted by the spirit and numbers of the Franks; and the
+greatness of Charlemagne ^60 protected both the Latin pilgrims
+and the Catholics of the East.  The poverty of Carthage,
+Alexandria, and Jerusalem, was relieved by the alms of that pious
+emperor; and many monasteries of Palestine were founded or
+restored by his liberal devotion.  Harun Alrashid, the greatest
+of the Abbassides, esteemed in his Christian brother a similar
+supremacy of genius and power: their friendship was cemented by a
+frequent intercourse of gifts and embassies; and the caliph,
+without resigning the substantial dominion, presented the emperor
+with the keys of the holy sepulchre, and perhaps of the city of
+Jerusalem.  In the decline of the Carlovingian monarchy, the
+republic of Amalphi promoted the interest of trade and religion
+in the East.  Her vessels transported the Latin pilgrims to the
+coasts of Egypt and Palestine, and deserved, by their useful
+imports, the favor and alliance of the Fatimite caliphs: ^61 an
+annual fair was instituted on Mount Calvary: and the Italian
+merchants founded the convent and hospital of St. John of
+Jerusalem, the cradle of the monastic and military order, which
+has since reigned in the isles of Rhodes and of Malta.  Had the
+Christian pilgrims been content to revere the tomb of a prophet,
+the disciples of Mahomet, instead of blaming, would have
+imitated, their piety: but these rigid Unitarians were
+scandalized by a worship which represents the birth, death, and
+resurrection, of a God; the Catholic images were branded with the
+name of idols; and the Moslems smiled with indignation ^62 at the
+miraculous flame which was kindled on the eve of Easter in the
+holy sepulchre. ^63 This pious fraud, first devised in the ninth
+century, ^64 was devoutly cherished by the Latin crusaders, and
+is annually repeated by the clergy of the Greek, Armenian, and
+Coptic sects, ^65 who impose on the credulous spectators ^66 for
+their own benefit, and that of their tyrants.  In every age, a
+principle of toleration has been fortified by a sense of
+interest: and the revenue of the prince and his emir was
+increased each year, by the expense and tribute of so many
+thousand strangers.
+
+[Footnote 58: Our best fund for the history of Jerusalem from
+Heraclius to the crusades is contained in two large and original
+passages of William archbishop of Tyre, (l. i. c. 1 - 10, l.
+xviii. c. 5, 6,) the principal author of the Gesta Dei per
+Francos.  M. De Guignes has composed a very learned Memoire sur
+le Commerce des Francois dans le de Levant avant les Croisades,
+&c. (Mem. de l'Academie des Inscriptions, tom. xxxvii. p. 467 -
+500.)]
+
+[Footnote 59: Secundum Dominorum dispositionem plerumque lucida
+plerum que nubila recepit intervalla, et aegrotantium more
+temporum praesentium gravabatur aut respirabat qualitate, (l. i.
+c. 3, p. 630.) The latinity of William of Tyre is by no means
+contemptible: but in his account of 490 years, from the loss to
+the recovery of Jerusalem, precedes the true account by 30
+years.]
+
+[Footnote 60: For the transactions of Charlemagne with the Holy
+Land, see Eginhard, (de Vita Caroli Magni, c. 16, p. 79 - 82,)
+Constantine Porphyrogenitus, (de Administratione Imperii, l. ii.
+c. 26, p. 80,) and Pagi, (Critica, tom. iii. A.D. 800, No. 13,
+14, 15.)]
+
+[Footnote 61: The caliph granted his privileges, Amalphitanis
+viris amicis et utilium introductoribus, (Gesta Dei, p. 934.) The
+trade of Venice to Egypt and Palestine cannot produce so old a
+title, unless we adopt the laughable translation of a Frenchman,
+who mistook the two factions of the circus (Veneti et Prasini)
+for the Venetians and Parisians.]
+
+[Footnote 62: An Arabic chronicle of Jerusalem (apud Asseman.
+Bibliot. Orient. tom. i. p. 268, tom. iv. p. 368) attests the
+unbelief of the caliph and the historian; yet Cantacuzene
+presumes to appeal to the Mahometans themselves for the truth of
+this perpetual miracle.]
+
+[Footnote 63: In his Dissertations on Ecclesiastical History, the
+learned Mosheim has separately discussed this pretended miracle,
+(tom. ii. p. 214 - 306,) de lumine sancti sepulchri.]
+
+[Footnote 64: William of Malmsbury (l. iv. c. 2, p. 209) quotes
+the Itinerary of the monk Bernard, an eye-witness, who visited
+Jerusalem A.D. 870.  The miracle is confirmed by another pilgrim
+some years older; and Mosheim ascribes the invention to the
+Franks, soon after the decease of Charlemagne.]
+
+[Footnote 65: Our travellers, Sandys, (p. 134,) Thevenot, (p. 621
+- 627,) Maundrell, (p. 94, 95,) &c., describes this extravagant
+farce.  The Catholics are puzzled to decide when the miracle
+ended and the trick began.]
+
+[Footnote 66: The Orientals themselves confess the fraud, and
+plead necessity and edification, (Memoires du Chevalier
+D'Arvieux, tom. ii. p. 140.  Joseph Abudacni, Hist. Copt. c. 20;)
+but I will not attempt, with Mosheim, to explain the mode.  Our
+travellers have failed with the blood of St. Januarius at
+Naples.]
+
+The revolution which transferred the sceptre from the
+Abbassides to the Fatimites was a benefit, rather than an injury,
+to the Holy Land.  A sovereign resident in Egypt was more
+sensible of the importance of Christian trade; and the emirs of
+Palestine were less remote from the justice and power of the
+throne.  But the third of these Fatimite caliphs was the famous
+Hakem, ^67 a frantic youth, who was delivered by his impiety and
+despotism from the fear either of God or man; and whose reign was
+a wild mixture of vice and folly. Regardless of the most ancient
+customs of Egypt, he imposed on the women an absolute
+confinement; the restraint excited the clamors of both sexes;
+their clamors provoked his fury; a part of Old Cairo was
+delivered to the flames and the guards and citizens were engaged
+many days in a bloody conflict.  At first the caliph declared
+himself a zealous Mussulman, the founder or benefactor of moschs
+and colleges: twelve hundred and ninety copies of the Koran were
+transcribed at his expense in letters of gold; and his edict
+extirpated the vineyards of the Upper Egypt.  But his vanity was
+soon flattered by the hope of introducing a new religion; he
+aspired above the fame of a prophet, and styled himself the
+visible image of the Most High God, who, after nine apparitions
+on earth, was at length manifest in his royal person.  At the
+name of Hakem, the lord of the living and the dead, every knee
+was bent in religious adoration: his mysteries were performed on
+a mountain near Cairo: sixteen thousand converts had signed his
+profession of faith; and at the present hour, a free and warlike
+people, the Druses of Mount Libanus, are persuaded of the life
+and divinity of a madman and tyrant. ^68 In his divine character,
+Hakem hated the Jews and Christians, as the servants of his
+rivals; while some remains of prejudice or prudence still pleaded
+in favor of the law of Mahomet.  Both in Egypt and Palestine, his
+cruel and wanton persecution made some martyrs and many apostles:
+the common rights and special privileges of the sectaries were
+equally disregarded; and a general interdict was laid on the
+devotion of strangers and natives.  The temple of the Christian
+world, the church of the Resurrection, was demolished to its
+foundations; the luminous prodigy of Easter was interrupted, and
+much profane labor was exhausted to destroy the cave in the rock
+which properly constitutes the holy sepulchre. At the report of
+this sacrilege, the nations of Europe were astonished and
+afflicted: but instead of arming in the defence of the Holy Land,
+they contented themselves with burning, or banishing, the Jews,
+as the secret advisers of the impious Barbarian. ^69 Yet the
+calamities of Jerusalem were in some measure alleviated by the
+inconstancy or repentance of Hakem himself; and the royal mandate
+was sealed for the restitution of the churches, when the tyrant
+was assassinated by the emissaries of his sister.  The succeeding
+caliphs resumed the maxims of religion and policy: a free
+toleration was again granted; with the pious aid of the emperor
+of Constantinople, the holy sepulchre arose from its ruins; and,
+after a short abstinence, the pilgrims returned with an increase
+of appetite to the spiritual feast. ^70 In the sea-voyage of
+Palestine, the dangers were frequent, and the opportunities rare:
+but the conversion of Hungary opened a safe communication between
+Germany and Greece.  The charity of St. Stephen, the apostle of
+his kingdom, relieved and conducted his itinerant brethren; ^71
+and from Belgrade to Antioch, they traversed fifteen hundred
+miles of a Christian empire.  Among the Franks, the zeal of
+pilgrimage prevailed beyond the example of former times: and the
+roads were covered with multitudes of either sex, and of every
+rank, who professed their contempt of life, so soon as they
+should have kissed the tomb of their Redeemer. Princes and
+prelates abandoned the care of their dominions; and the numbers
+of these pious caravans were a prelude to the armies which
+marched in the ensuing age under the banner of the cross.  About
+thirty years before the first crusade, the arch bishop of Mentz,
+with the bishops of Utrecht, Bamberg, and Ratisbon, undertook
+this laborious journey from the Rhine to the Jordan; and the
+multitude of their followers amounted to seven thousand persons.
+At Constantinople, they were hospitably entertained by the
+emperor; but the ostentation of their wealth provoked the assault
+of the wild Arabs: they drew their swords with scrupulous
+reluctance, and sustained siege in the village of Capernaum, till
+they were rescued by the venal protection of the Fatimite emir.
+After visiting the holy places, they embarked for Italy, but only
+a remnant of two thousand arrived in safety in their native land.
+
+Ingulphus, a secretary of William the Conqueror, was a companion
+of this pilgrimage: he observes that they sailed from Normandy,
+thirty stout and well-appointed horsemen; but that they repassed
+the Alps, twenty miserable palmers, with the staff in their hand,
+and the wallet at their back. ^72
+
+[Footnote 67: See D'Herbelot, (Bibliot. Orientale, p. 411,)
+Renaudot, (Hist. Patriarch. Alex. p. 390, 397, 400, 401,)
+Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 321 - 323,) and Marei, (p. 384 -
+386,) an historian of Egypt, translated by Reiske from Arabic
+into German, and verbally interpreted to me by a friend.]
+
+[Footnote 68: The religion of the Druses is concealed by their
+ignorance and hypocrisy.  Their secret doctrines are confined to
+the elect who profess a contemplative life; and the vulgar
+Druses, the most indifferent of men, occasionally conform to the
+worship of the Mahometans and Christians of their neighborhood.
+The little that is, or deserves to be, known, may be seen in the
+industrious Niebuhr, (Voyages, tom. ii. p. 354 - 357,) and the
+second volume of the recent and instructive Travels of M. de
+Volney.
+
+Note: The religion of the Druses has, within the present
+year, been fully developed from their own writings, which have
+long lain neglected in the libraries of Paris and Oxford, in the
+"Expose de la Religion des Druses, by M. Silvestre de Sacy." Deux
+tomes, Paris, 1838. The learned author has prefixed a life of
+Hakem Biamr-Allah, which enables us to correct several errors in
+the account of Gibbon.  These errors chiefly arose from his want
+of knowledge or of attention to the chronology of Hakem's life.
+Hakem succeeded to the throne of Egypt in the year of the Hegira
+386.  He did not assume his divinity till 408.  His life was
+indeed "a wild mixture of vice and folly," to which may be added,
+of the most sanguinary cruelty.  During his reign, 18,000 persons
+were victims of his ferocity.  Yet such is the god, observes M.
+de Sacy, whom the Druses have worshipped for 800 years!  (See p.
+ccccxxix.) All his wildest and most extravagant actions were
+interpreted by his followers as having a mystic and allegoric
+meaning, alluding to the destruction of other religions and the
+propagation of his own.  It does not seem to have been the
+"vanity" of Hakem which induced him to introduce a new religion.
+The curious point in the new faith is that Hamza, the son of Ali,
+the real founder of the Unitarian religion, (such is its boastful
+title,) was content to take a secondary part. While Hakem was
+God, the one Supreme, the Imam Hamza was his Intelligence.  It
+was not in his "divine character" that Hakem "hated the Jews and
+Christians," but in that of a Mahometan bigot, which he displayed
+in the earlier years of his reign.  His barbarous persecution,
+and the burning of the church of the Resurrection at Jerusalem,
+belong entirely to that period; and his assumption of divinity
+was followed by an edict of toleration to Jews and Christians.
+The Mahometans, whose religion he then treated with hostility and
+contempt, being far the most numerous, were his most dangerous
+enemies, and therefore the objects of his most inveterate hatred.
+
+It is another singular fact, that the religion of Hakem was by no
+means confined to Egypt and Syria.  M. de Sacy quotes a letter
+addressed to the chief of the sect in India; and there is
+likewise a letter to the Byzantine emperor Constantine, son of
+Armanous, (Romanus,) and the clergy of the empire.  (Constantine
+VIII., M. de Sacy supposes, but this is irreconcilable with
+chronology; it must mean Constantine XI., Monomachus.) The
+assassination of Hakem is, of course, disbelieved by his
+sectaries.  M. de Sacy seems to consider the fact obscure and
+doubtful. According to his followers he disappeared, but is
+hereafter to return.  At his return the resurrection is to take
+place; the triumph of Unitarianism, and the final discomfiture of
+all other religions.  The temple of Mecca is especially devoted
+to destruction.  It is remarkable that one of the signs of this
+final consummation, and of the reappearance of Hakem, is that
+Christianity shall be gaining a manifest predominance over
+Mahometanism.
+
+As for the religion of the Druses, I cannot agree with
+Gibbon that it does not "deserve" to be better known; and am
+grateful to M. de Sacy, notwithstanding the prolixity and
+occasional repetition in his two large volumes, for the full
+examination of the most extraordinary religious aberration which
+ever extensively affected the mind of man.  The worship of a mad
+tyrant is the basis of a subtle metaphysical creed, and of a
+severe, and even ascetic, morality. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 69: See Glaber, l. iii. c. 7, and the Annals of
+Baronius and Pagi, A.D. 1009.]
+
+[Footnote 70: Per idem tempus ex universo orbe tam innumerabilis
+multitudo coepit confluere ad sepulchrum Salvatoris Hierosolymis,
+quantum nullus hominum prius sperare poterat.  Ordo inferioris
+plebis ....  mediocres .... reges et comites ..... praesules
+..... mulieres multae nobilis cum pauperioribus .... Pluribus
+enim erat mentis desiderium mori priusquam ad propria
+reverterentur, (Glaber, l. iv. c. 6, Bouquet. Historians of
+France, tom. x. p. 50.)
+
+Note: Compare the first chap. of Wilken, Geschichte der
+Kreuz-zuge. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 71: Glaber, l. iii. c. 1. Katona (Hist. Critic. Regum
+Hungariae, tom. i. p. 304 - 311) examines whether St. Stephen
+founded a monastery at Jerusalem.]
+
+[Footnote 72: Baronius (A.D. 1064, No. 43 - 56) has transcribed
+the greater part of the original narratives of Ingulphus,
+Marianus, and Lambertus.]
+
+After the defeat of the Romans, the tranquillity of the
+Fatimite caliphs was invaded by the Turks. ^73 One of the
+lieutenants of Malek Shah, Atsiz the Carizmian, marched into
+Syria at the head of a powerful army, and reduced Damascus by
+famine and the sword.  Hems, and the other cities of the
+province, acknowledged the caliph of Bagdad and the sultan of
+Persia; and the victorious emir advanced without resistance to
+the banks of the Nile: the Fatimite was preparing to fly into the
+heart of Africa; but the negroes of his guard and the inhabitants
+of Cairo made a desperate sally, and repulsed the Turk from the
+confines of Egypt.  In his retreat he indulged the license of
+slaughter and rapine: the judge and notaries of Jerusalem were
+invited to his camp; and their execution was followed by the
+massacre of three thousand citizens.  The cruelty or the defeat
+of Atsiz was soon punished by the sultan Toucush, the brother of
+Malek Shah, who, with a higher title and more formidable powers,
+asserted the dominion of Syria and Palestine.  The house of
+Seljuk reigned about twenty years in Jerusalem; ^74 but the
+hereditary command of the holy city and territory was intrusted
+or abandoned to the emir Ortok, the chief of a tribe of Turkmans,
+whose children, after their expulsion from Palestine, formed two
+dynasties on the borders of Armenia and Assyria. ^75 The Oriental
+Christians and the Latin pilgrims deplored a revolution, which,
+instead of the regular government and old alliance of the
+caliphs, imposed on their necks the iron yoke of the strangers of
+the North. ^76 In his court and camp the great sultan had adopted
+in some degree the arts and manners of Persia; but the body of
+the Turkish nation, and more especially the pastoral tribes,
+still breathed the fierceness of the desert.  From Nice to
+Jerusalem, the western countries of Asia were a scene of foreign
+and domestic hostility; and the shepherds of Palestine, who held
+a precarious sway on a doubtful frontier, had neither leisure nor
+capacity to await the slow profits of commercial and religious
+freedom.  The pilgrims, who, through innumerable perils, had
+reached the gates of Jerusalem, were the victims of private
+rapine or public oppression, and often sunk under the pressure of
+famine and disease, before they were permitted to salute the holy
+sepulchre.  A spirit of native barbarism, or recent zeal,
+prompted the Turkmans to insult the clergy of every sect: the
+patriarch was dragged by the hair along the pavement, and cast
+into a dungeon, to extort a ransom from the sympathy of his
+flock; and the divine worship in the church of the Resurrection
+was often disturbed by the savage rudeness of its masters. The
+pathetic tale excited the millions of the West to march under the
+standard of the cross to the relief of the Holy Land; and yet how
+trifling is the sum of these accumulated evils, if compared with
+the single act of the sacrilege of Hakem, which had been so
+patiently endured by the Latin Christians!  A slighter
+provocation inflamed the more irascible temper of their
+descendants: a new spirit had arisen of religious chivalry and
+papal dominion; a nerve was touched of exquisite feeling; and the
+sensation vibrated to the heart of Europe.
+
+[Footnote 73: See Elmacin (Hist. Saracen. p. 349, 350) and
+Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 237, vers. Pocock.) M. De Guignes
+(Hist. des Huns, tom iii. part i. p. 215, 216) adds the
+testimonies, or rather the names, of Abulfeda and Novairi.]
+
+[Footnote 74: From the expedition of Isar Atsiz, (A. H. 469, A.D.
+1076,) to the expulsion of the Ortokides, (A.D. 1096.) Yet
+William of Tyre (l. i. c. 6, p. 633) asserts, that Jerusalem was
+thirty-eight years in the hands of the Turks; and an Arabic
+chronicle, quoted by Pagi, (tom. iv. p. 202) supposes that the
+city was reduced by a Carizmian general to the obedience of the
+caliph of Bagdad, A. H. 463, A.D. 1070.  These early dates are
+not very compatible with the general history of Asia; and I am
+sure, that as late as A.D. 1064, the regnum Babylonicum (of
+Cairo) still prevailed in Palestine, (Baronius, A.D. 1064, No.
+56.)]
+
+[Footnote 75: De Guignes, Hist. des Huns, tom. i. p. 249 - 252. ]
+
+[Footnote 76: Willierm. Tyr. l. i. c. 8, p. 634, who strives hard
+to magnify the Christian grievances.  The Turks exacted an aureus
+from each pilgrim!  The caphar of the Franks now is fourteen
+dollars: and Europe does not complain of this voluntary tax.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LVIII: The First Crusade.
+
+Part I.
+
+Origin And Numbers Of The First Crusade. - Characters Of The
+Latin Princes. - Their March To Constantinople. - Policy Of The
+Greek Emperor Alexius. - Conquest Of Nice, Antioch, And
+Jerusalem, By The Franks. - Deliverance Of The Holy Sepulchre. -
+Godfrey Of Bouillon, First King Of Jerusalem. - Institutions Of
+The French Or Latin Kingdom.
+
+About twenty years after the conquest of Jerusalem by the
+Turks, the holy sepulchre was visited by a hermit of the name of
+Peter, a native of Amiens, in the province of Picardy ^1 in
+France.  His resentment and sympathy were excited by his own
+injuries and the oppression of the Christian name; he mingled his
+tears with those of the patriarch, and earnestly inquired, if no
+hopes of relief could be entertained from the Greek emperors of
+the East.  The patriarch exposed the vices and weakness of the
+successors of Constantine.  "I will rouse," exclaimed the hermit,
+"the martial nations of Europe in your cause;" and Europe was
+obedient to the call of the hermit.  The astonished patriarch
+dismissed him with epistles of credit and complaint; and no
+sooner did he land at Bari, than Peter hastened to kiss the feet
+of the Roman pontiff.  His stature was small, his appearance
+contemptible; but his eye was keen and lively; and he possessed
+that vehemence of speech, which seldom fails to impart the
+persuasion of the soul. ^2 He was born of a gentleman's family,
+(for we must now adopt a modern idiom,) and his military service
+was under the neighboring counts of Boulogne, the heroes of the
+first crusade.  But he soon relinquished the sword and the world;
+and if it be true, that his wife, however noble, was aged and
+ugly, he might withdraw, with the less reluctance, from her bed
+to a convent, and at length to a hermitage. ^* In this austere
+solitude, his body was emaciated, his fancy was inflamed;
+whatever he wished, he believed; whatever he believed, he saw in
+dreams and revelations.  From Jerusalem the pilgrim returned an
+accomplished fanatic; but as he excelled in the popular madness
+of the times, Pope Urban the Second received him as a prophet,
+applauded his glorious design, promised to support it in a
+general council, and encouraged him to proclaim the deliverance
+of the Holy Land. Invigorated by the approbation of the pontiff,
+his zealous missionary traversed. with speed and success, the
+provinces of Italy and France.  His diet was abstemious, his
+prayers long and fervent, and the alms which he received with one
+hand, he distributed with the other: his head was bare, his feet
+naked, his meagre body was wrapped in a coarse garment; he bore
+and displayed a weighty crucifix; and the ass on which he rode
+was sanctified, in the public eye, by the service of the man of
+God.  He preached to innumerable crowds in the churches, the
+streets, and the highways: the hermit entered with equal
+confidence the palace and the cottage; and the people (for all
+was people) was impetuously moved by his call to repentance and
+arms.  When he painted the sufferings of the natives and pilgrims
+of Palestine, every heart was melted to compassion; every breast
+glowed with indignation, when he challenged the warriors of the
+age to defend their brethren, and rescue their Savior: his
+ignorance of art and language was compensated by sighs, and
+tears, and ejaculations; and Peter supplied the deficiency of
+reason by loud and frequent appeals to Christ and his mother, to
+the saints and angels of paradise, with whom he had personally
+conversed. ^! The most perfect orator of Athens might have envied
+the success of his eloquence; the rustic enthusiast inspired the
+passions which he felt, and Christendom expected with impatience
+the counsels and decrees of the supreme pontiff.
+
+[Footnote 1: Whimsical enough is the origin of the name of
+Picards, and from thence of Picardie, which does not date later
+than A.D. 1200.  It was an academical joke, an epithet first
+applied to the quarrelsome humor of those students, in the
+University of Paris, who came from the frontier of France and
+Flanders, (Valesii Notitia Galliarum, p. 447, Longuerue.
+Description de la France, p. 54.)]
+
+[Footnote 2: William of Tyre (l. i. c. 11, p. 637, 638) thus
+describes the hermit: Pusillus, persona contemptibilis, vivacis
+ingenii, et oculum habeas perspicacem gratumque, et sponte fluens
+ei non deerat eloquium.  See Albert Aquensis, p. 185.  Guibert,
+p. 482.  Anna Comnena in Alex isd, l. x. p. 284, &c., with
+Ducarge's Notes, p. 349.]
+
+[Footnote *: Wilken considers this as doubtful, (vol. i. p. 47.(
+- M.]
+
+[Footnote !: He had seen the Savior in a vision: a letter had
+fallen from heaven Wilken, vol. i. p. 49. - M.]
+
+The magnanimous spirit of Gregory the Seventh had already
+embraced the design of arming Europe against Asia; the ardor of
+his zeal and ambition still breathes in his epistles: from either
+side of the Alps, fifty thousand Catholics had enlisted under the
+banner of St. Peter; ^3 and his successor reveals his intention
+of marching at their head against the impious sectaries of
+Mahomet.  But the glory or reproach of executing, though not in
+person, this holy enterprise, was reserved for Urban the Second,
+^4 the most faithful of his disciples.  He undertook the conquest
+of the East, whilst the larger portion of Rome was possessed and
+fortified by his rival Guibert of Ravenna, who contended with
+Urban for the name and honors of the pontificate.  He attempted
+to unite the powers of the West, at a time when the princes were
+separated from the church, and the people from their princes, by
+the excommunication which himself and his predecessors had
+thundered against the emperor and the king of France. Philip the
+First, of France, supported with patience the censures which he
+had provoked by his scandalous life and adulterous marriage.
+Henry the Fourth, of Germany, asserted the right of investitures,
+the prerogative of confirming his bishops by the delivery of the
+ring and crosier.  But the emperor's party was crushed in Italy
+by the arms of the Normans and the Countess Mathilda; and the
+long quarrel had been recently envenomed by the revolt of his son
+Conrad and the shame of his wife, ^5 who, in the synods of
+Constance and Placentia, confessed the manifold prostitutions to
+which she had been exposed by a husband regardless of her honor
+and his own. ^6 So popular was the cause of Urban, so weighty was
+his influence, that the council which he summoned at Placentia ^7
+was composed of two hundred bishops of Italy, France, Burgandy,
+Swabia, and Bavaria.  Four thousand of the clergy, and thirty
+thousand of the laity, attended this important meeting; and, as
+the most spacious cathedral would have been inadequate to the
+multitude, the session of seven days was held in a plain adjacent
+to the city. The ambassadors of the Greek emperor, Alexius
+Comnenus, were introduced to plead the distress of their
+sovereign, and the danger of Constantinople, which was divided
+only by a narrow sea from the victorious Turks, the common
+enemies of the Christian name.  In their suppliant address they
+flattered the pride of the Latin princes; and, appealing at once
+to their policy and religion, exhorted them to repel the
+Barbarians on the confines of Asia, rather than to expect them in
+the heart of Europe. At the sad tale of the misery and perils of
+their Eastern brethren, the assembly burst into tears; the most
+eager champions declared their readiness to march; and the Greek
+ambassadors were dismissed with the assurance of a speedy and
+powerful succor.  The relief of Constantinople was included in
+the larger and most distant project of the deliverance of
+Jerusalem; but the prudent Urban adjourned the final decision to
+a second synod, which he proposed to celebrate in some city of
+France in the autumn of the same year.  The short delay would
+propagate the flame of enthusiasm; and his firmest hope was in a
+nation of soldiers ^8 still proud of the preeminence of their
+name, and ambitious to emulate their hero Charlemagne, ^9 who, in
+the popular romance of Turpin, ^10 had achieved the conquest of
+the Holy Land.  A latent motive of affection or vanity might
+influence the choice of Urban: he was himself a native of France,
+a monk of Clugny, and the first of his countrymen who ascended
+the throne of St. Peter. The pope had illustrated his family and
+province; nor is there perhaps a more exquisite gratification
+than to revisit, in a conspicuous dignity, the humble and
+laborious scenes of our youth.
+
+[Footnote 3: Ultra quinquaginta millia, si me possunt in
+expeditione pro duce et pontifice habere, armata manu volunt in
+inimicos Dei insurgere et ad sepulchrum Domini ipso ducente
+pervenire, (Gregor. vii. epist. ii. 31, in tom. xii. 322,
+concil.)]
+
+[Footnote 4: See the original lives of Urban II. by Pandulphus
+Pisanus and Bernardus Guido, in Muratori, Rer. Ital. Script. tom.
+iii. pars i. p. 352, 353.]
+
+[Footnote 5: She is known by the different names of Praxes,
+Eupraecia, Eufrasia, and Adelais; and was the daughter of a
+Russian prince, and the widow of a margrave of Brandenburgh.
+(Struv. Corpus Hist. Germanicae, p. 340.)]
+
+[Footnote 6: Henricus odio eam coepit habere: ideo incarceravit
+eam, et concessit ut plerique vim ei inferrent; immo filium
+hortans ut eam subagitaret, (Dodechin, Continuat. Marian. Scot.
+apud Baron. A.D. 1093, No. 4.) In the synod of Constance, she is
+described by Bertholdus, rerum inspector: quae se tantas et tam
+inauditas fornicationum spur citias, et a tantis passam fuisse
+conquesta est, &c.; and again at Placentia: satis misericorditer
+suscepit, eo quod ipsam tantas spurcitias pertulisse pro certo
+cognoverit papa cum sancta synodo.  Apud Baron. A.D. 1093, No. 4,
+1094, No. 3. A rare subject for the infallible decision of a pope
+and council.  These abominations are repugnant to every principle
+of human nature, which is not altered by a dispute about rings
+and crosiers.  Yet it should seem, that the wretched woman was
+tempted by the priests to relate or subscribe some infamous
+stories of herself and her husband.]
+
+[Footnote 7: See the narrative and acts of the synod of
+Placentia, Concil. tom. xii. p. 821, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Guibert, himself a Frenchman, praises the piety and
+valor of the French nation, the author and example of the
+crusades: Gens nobilis, prudens, bellicosa, dapsilis et nitida
+.... Quos enim Britones, Anglos, Ligures, si bonis eos moribus
+videamus, non illico Francos homines appellemus?  (p. 478.) He
+owns, however, that the vivacity of the French degenerates into
+petulance among foreigners, (p. 488.) and vain loquaciousness,
+(p. 502.)]
+
+[Footnote 9: Per viam quam jamdudum Carolus Magnus mirificus rex
+Francorum aptari fecit usque C. P., (Gesta Francorum, p. 1.
+Robert. Monach. Hist. Hieros. l. i. p. 33, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 10: John Tilpinus, or Turpinus, was archbishop of
+Rheims, A.D. 773. After the year 1000, this romance was composed
+in his name, by a monk of the borders of France and Spain; and
+such was the idea of ecclesiastical merit, that he describes
+himself as a fighting and drinking priest!  Yet the book of lies
+was pronounced authentic by Pope Calixtus II., (A.D. 1122,) and
+is respectfully quoted by the abbot Suger, in the great
+Chronicles of St. Denys, (Fabric Bibliot. Latin Medii Aevi, edit.
+Mansi, tom. iv. p. 161.)]
+
+It may occasion some surprise that the Roman pontiff should
+erect, in the heart of France, the tribunal from whence he hurled
+his anathemas against the king; but our surprise will vanish so
+soon as we form a just estimate of a king of France of the
+eleventh century. ^11 Philip the First was the great-grandson of
+Hugh Capet, the founder of the present race, who, in the decline
+of Charlemagne's posterity, added the regal title to his
+patrimonial estates of Paris and Orleans.  In this narrow
+compass, he was possessed of wealth and jurisdiction; but in the
+rest of France, Hugh and his first descendants were no more than
+the feudal lords of about sixty dukes and counts, of independent
+and hereditary power, ^12 who disdained the control of laws and
+legal assemblies, and whose disregard of their sovereign was
+revenged by the disobedience of their inferior vassals.  At
+Clermont, in the territories of the count of Auvergne, ^13 the
+pope might brave with impunity the resentment of Philip; and the
+council which he convened in that city was not less numerous or
+respectable than the synod of Placentia. ^14 Besides his court
+and council of Roman cardinals, he was supported by thirteen
+archbishops and two hundred and twenty-five bishops: the number
+of mitred prelates was computed at four hundred; and the fathers
+of the church were blessed by the saints and enlightened by the
+doctors of the age.  From the adjacent kingdoms, a martial train
+of lords and knights of power and renown attended the council,
+^15 in high expectation of its resolves; and such was the ardor
+of zeal and curiosity, that the city was filled, and many
+thousands, in the month of November, erected their tents or huts
+in the open field.  A session of eight days produced some useful
+or edifying canons for the reformation of manners; a severe
+censure was pronounced against the license of private war; the
+Truce of God ^16 was confirmed, a suspension of hostilities
+during four days of the week; women and priests were placed under
+the safeguard of the church; and a protection of three years was
+extended to husbandmen and merchants, the defenceless victims of
+military rapine.  But a law, however venerable be the sanction,
+cannot suddenly transform the temper of the times; and the
+benevolent efforts of Urban deserve the less praise, since he
+labored to appease some domestic quarrels that he might spread
+the flames of war from the Atlantic to the Euphrates.  From the
+synod of Placentia, the rumor of his great design had gone forth
+among the nations: the clergy on their return had preached in
+every diocese the merit and glory of the deliverance of the Holy
+Land; and when the pope ascended a lofty scaffold in the
+market-place of Clermont, his eloquence was addressed to a
+well-prepared and impatient audience.  His topics were obvious,
+his exhortation was vehement, his success inevitable.  The orator
+was interrupted by the shout of thousands, who with one voice,
+and in their rustic idiom, exclaimed aloud, "God wills it, God
+wills it." ^17 "It is indeed the will of God," replied the pope;
+"and let this memorable word, the inspiration surely of the Holy
+Spirit, be forever adopted as your cry of battle, to animate the
+devotion and courage of the champions of Christ.  His cross is
+the symbol of your salvation; wear it, a red, a bloody cross, as
+an external mark, on your breasts or shoulders, as a pledge of
+your sacred and irrevocable engagement." The proposal was
+joyfully accepted; great numbers, both of the clergy and laity,
+impressed on their garments the sign of the cross, ^18 and
+solicited the pope to march at their head.  This dangerous honor
+was declined by the more prudent successor of Gregory, who
+alleged the schism of the church, and the duties of his pastoral
+office, recommending to the faithful, who were disqualified by
+sex or profession, by age or infirmity, to aid, with their
+prayers and alms, the personal service of their robust brethren.
+The name and powers of his legate he devolved on Adhemar bishop
+of Puy, the first who had received the cross at his hands.  The
+foremost of the temporal chiefs was Raymond count of Thoulouse,
+whose ambassadors in the council excused the absence, and pledged
+the honor, of their master.  After the confession and absolution
+of their sins, the champions of the cross were dismissed with a
+superfluous admonition to invite their countrymen and friends;
+and their departure for the Holy Land was fixed to the festival
+of the Assumption, the fifteenth of August, of the ensuing year.
+^19
+
+[Footnote 11: See Etat de la France, by the Count de
+Boulainvilliers, tom. i. p. 180 - 182, and the second volume of
+the Observations sur l'Histoire de France, by the Abbe de Mably.]
+
+[Footnote 12: In the provinces to the south of the Loire, the
+first Capetians were scarcely allowed a feudal supremacy.  On all
+sides, Normandy, Bretagne, Aquitain, Burgundy, Lorraine, and
+Flanders, contracted the same and limits of the proper France.
+See Hadrian Vales. Notitia Galliarum]
+
+[Footnote 13: These counts, a younger branch of the dukes of
+Aquitain, were at length despoiled of the greatest part of their
+country by Philip Augustus. The bishops of Clermont gradually
+became princes of the city. Melanges, tires d'une grand
+Bibliotheque, tom. xxxvi. p. 288, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 14: See the Acts of the council of Clermont, Concil.
+tom. xii. p. 829, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 15: Confluxerunt ad concilium e multis regionibus, viri
+potentes et honorati, innumeri quamvis cingulo laicalis militiae
+superbi, (Baldric, an eye-witness, p. 86 - 88.  Robert. Monach.
+p. 31, 32.  Will. Tyr. i. 14, 15, p. 639 - 641.  Guibert, p. 478
+- 480.  Fulcher. Carnot. p. 382.)]
+
+[Footnote 16: The Truce of God (Treva, or Treuga Dei) was first
+invented in Aquitain, A.D. 1032; blamed by some bishops as an
+occasion of perjury, and rejected by the Normans as contrary to
+their privileges (Ducange, Gloss Latin. tom. vi. p. 682 - 685.)]
+
+[Footnote 17: Deus vult, Deus vult!  was the pure acclamation of
+the clergy who understood Latin, (Robert. Mon. l. i. p. 32.) By
+the illiterate laity, who spoke the Provincial or Limousin idiom,
+it was corrupted to Deus lo volt, or Diex el volt.  See Chron.
+Casinense, l. iv. c. 11, p. 497, in Muratori, Script. Rerum Ital.
+tom. iv., and Ducange, (Dissertat xi. p. 207, sur Joinville, and
+Gloss. Latin. tom. ii. p. 690,) who, in his preface, produces a
+very difficult specimen of the dialect of Rovergue, A.D. 1100,
+very near, both in time and place, to the council of Clermont,
+(p. 15, 16.)]
+
+[Footnote 18: Most commonly on their shoulders, in gold, or silk,
+or cloth sewed on their garments.  In the first crusade, all were
+red, in the third, the French alone preserved that color, while
+green crosses were adopted by the Flemings, and white by the
+English, (Ducange, tom. ii. p. 651.) Yet in England, the red ever
+appears the favorite, and as if were, the national, color of our
+military ensigns and uniforms.]
+
+[Footnote 19: Bongarsius, who has published the original writers
+of the crusades, adopts, with much complacency, the fanatic title
+of Guibertus, Gesta Dei per Francos; though some critics propose
+to read Gesta Diaboli per Francos, (Hanoviae, 1611, two vols. in
+folio.) I shall briefly enumerate, as they stand in this
+collection, the authors whom I have used for the first crusade.
+
+I.    Gesta Francorum.
+
+II.   Robertus Monachus.
+
+III.  Baldricus.
+
+IV.   Raimundus de Agiles.
+
+V.    Albertus Aquensis VI. Fulcherius Carnotensis.
+
+VII.  Guibertus.
+
+VIII. Willielmus Tyriensis. Muratori has given us,
+
+IX.   Radulphus Cadomensis de Gestis Tancredi,
+
+          (Script. Rer. Ital. tom. v. p. 285 - 333,)
+
+X.    Bernardus Thesaurarius de Acquisitione Terrae Sanctae,
+
+         (tom. vii. p. 664 - 848.)
+
+The last of these was unknown to a late French historian,
+who has given a large and critical list of the writers of the
+crusades, (Esprit des Croisades, tom. i. p. 13 - 141,) and most
+of whose judgments my own experience will allow me to ratify.  It
+was late before I could obtain a sight of the French historians
+collected by Duchesne.  I.  Petri Tudebodi Sacerdotis Sivracensis
+Historia de Hierosolymitano Itinere, (tom. iv. p. 773 - 815,) has
+been transfused into the first anonymous writer of Bongarsius.
+II. The Metrical History of the first Crusade, in vii. books, (p.
+890 - 912,) is of small value or account.
+
+Note: Several new documents, particularly from the East,
+have been collected by the industry of the modern historians of
+the crusades, M. Michaud and Wilken. - M.]
+
+So familiar, and as it were so natural to man, is the
+practice of violence, that our indulgence allows the slightest
+provocation, the most disputable right, as a sufficient ground of
+national hostility.  But the name and nature of a holy war
+demands a more rigorous scrutiny; nor can we hastily believe,
+that the servants of the Prince of Peace would unsheathe the
+sword of destruction, unless the motive were pure, the quarrel
+legitimate, and the necessity inevitable.  The policy of an
+action may be determined from the tardy lessons of experience;
+but, before we act, our conscience should be satisfied of the
+justice and propriety of our enterprise.  In the age of the
+crusades, the Christians, both of the East and West, were
+persuaded of their lawfulness and merit; their arguments are
+clouded by the perpetual abuse of Scripture and rhetoric; but
+they seem to insist on the right of natural and religious
+defence, their peculiar title to the Holy Land, and the impiety
+of their Pagan and Mahometan foes. ^20
+
+I. The right of a just defence may fairly include our civil
+and spiritual allies: it depends on the existence of danger; and
+that danger must be estimated by the twofold consideration of the
+malice, and the power, of our enemies.  A pernicious tenet has
+been imputed to the Mahometans, the duty of extirpating all other
+religions by the sword.  This charge of ignorance and bigotry is
+refuted by the Koran, by the history of the Mussulman conquerors,
+and by their public and legal toleration of the Christian
+worship.  But it cannot be denied, that the Oriental churches are
+depressed under their iron yoke; that, in peace and war, they
+assert a divine and indefeasible claim of universal empire; and
+that, in their orthodox creed, the unbelieving nations are
+continually threatened with the loss of religion or liberty.  In
+the eleventh century, the victorious arms of the Turks presented
+a real and urgent apprehension of these losses.  They had
+subdued, in less than thirty years, the kingdoms of Asia, as far
+as Jerusalem and the Hellespont; and the Greek empire tottered on
+the verge of destruction. Besides an honest sympathy for their
+brethren, the Latins had a right and interest in the support of
+Constantinople, the most important barrier of the West; and the
+privilege of defence must reach to prevent, as well as to repel,
+an impending assault.  But this salutary purpose might have been
+accomplished by a moderate succor; and our calmer reason must
+disclaim the innumerable hosts, and remote operations, which
+overwhelmed Asia and depopulated Europe. ^*
+
+[Footnote 20: If the reader will turn to the first scene of the
+First Part of Henry the Fourth, he will see in the text of
+Shakespeare the natural feelings of enthusiasm; and in the notes
+of Dr. Johnson the workings of a bigoted, though vigorous mind,
+greedy of every pretence to hate and persecute those who dissent
+from his creed.]
+
+[Footnote *: The manner in which the war was conducted surely has
+little relation to the abstract question of the justice or
+injustice of the war. The most just and necessary war may be
+conducted with the most prodigal waste of human life, and the
+wildest fanaticism; the most unjust with the coolest moderation
+and consummate generalship.  The question is, whether the
+liberties and religion of Europe were in danger from the
+aggressions of Mahometanism? If so, it is difficult to limit the
+right, though it may be proper to question the wisdom, of
+overwhelming the enemy with the armed population of a whole
+continent, and repelling, if possible, the invading conqueror
+into his native deserts.  The crusades are monuments of human
+folly!  but to which of the more regular wars civilized.  Europe,
+waged for personal ambition or national jealousy, will our calmer
+reason appeal as monuments either of human justice or human
+wisdom? - M.]
+
+II.  Palestine could add nothing to the strength or safety
+of the Latins; and fanaticism alone could pretend to justify the
+conquest of that distant and narrow province.  The Christians
+affirmed that their inalienable title to the promised land had
+been sealed by the blood of their divine Savior; it was their
+right and duty to rescue their inheritance from the unjust
+possessors, who profaned his sepulchre, and oppressed the
+pilgrimage of his disciples. Vainly would it be alleged that the
+preeminence of Jerusalem, and the sanctity of Palestine, have
+been abolished with the Mosaic law; that the God of the
+Christians is not a local deity, and that the recovery of Bethlem
+or Calvary, his cradle or his tomb, will not atone for the
+violation of the moral precepts of the gospel. Such arguments
+glance aside from the leaden shield of superstition; and the
+religious mind will not easily relinquish its hold on the sacred
+ground of mystery and miracle.
+
+III.  But the holy wars which have been waged in every
+climate of the globe, from Egypt to Livonia, and from Peru to
+Hindostan, require the support of some more general and flexible
+tenet.  It has been often supposed, and sometimes affirmed, that
+a difference of religion is a worthy cause of hostility; that
+obstinate unbelievers may be slain or subdued by the champions of
+the cross; and that grace is the sole fountain of dominion as
+well as of mercy. ^* Above four hundred years before the first
+crusade, the eastern and western provinces of the Roman empire
+had been acquired about the same time, and in the same manner, by
+the Barbarians of Germany and Arabia.  Time and treaties had
+legitimated the conquest of the Christian Franks; but in the eyes
+of their subjects and neighbors, the Mahometan princes were still
+tyrants and usurpers, who, by the arms of war or rebellion, might
+be lawfully driven from their unlawful possession. ^21
+
+[Footnote *: "God," says the abbot Guibert, "invented the
+crusades as a new way for the laity to atone for their sins and
+to merit salvation." This extraordinary and characteristic
+passage must be given entire.  "Deus nostro tempore praelia
+sancta instituit, ut ordo equestris et vulgus oberrans qui
+vetustae Paganitatis exemplo in mutuas versabatur caedes, novum
+reperirent salutis promerendae genus, ut nec funditus electa, ut
+fieri assolet, monastica conversatione, seu religiosa qualibet
+professione saeculum relinquere congerentur; sed sub consueta
+licentia et habitu ex suo ipsorum officio Dei aliquantenus
+gratiam consequerentur." Guib. Abbas, p. 371.  See Wilken, vol.
+i. p. 63. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 21: The vith Discourse of Fleury on Ecclesiastical
+History (p. 223 - 261) contains an accurate and rational view of
+the causes and effects of the crusades.]
+
+As the manners of the Christians were relaxed, their
+discipline of penance ^22 was enforced; and with the
+multiplication of sins, the remedies were multiplied.  In the
+primitive church, a voluntary and open confession prepared the
+work of atonement.  In the middle ages, the bishops and priests
+interrogated the criminal; compelled him to account for his
+thoughts, words, and actions; and prescribed the terms of his
+reconciliation with God.  But as this discretionary power might
+alternately be abused by indulgence and tyranny, a rule of
+discipline was framed, to inform and regulate the spiritual
+judges.  This mode of legislation was invented by the Greeks;
+their penitentials ^23 were translated, or imitated, in the Latin
+church; and, in the time of Charlemagne, the clergy of every
+diocese were provided with a code, which they prudently concealed
+from the knowledge of the vulgar.  In this dangerous estimate of
+crimes and punishments, each case was supposed, each difference
+was remarked, by the experience or penetration of the monks; some
+sins are enumerated which innocence could not have suspected, and
+others which reason cannot believe; and the more ordinary
+offences of fornication and adultery, of perjury and sacrilege,
+of rapine and murder, were expiated by a penance, which,
+according to the various circumstances, was prolonged from forty
+days to seven years.  During this term of mortification, the
+patient was healed, the criminal was absolved, by a salutary
+regimen of fasts and prayers: the disorder of his dress was
+expressive of grief and remorse; and he humbly abstained from all
+the business and pleasure of social life.  But the rigid
+execution of these laws would have depopulated the palace, the
+camp, and the city; the Barbarians of the West believed and
+trembled; but nature often rebelled against principle; and the
+magistrate labored without effect to enforce the jurisdiction of
+the priest.  A literal accomplishment of penance was indeed
+impracticable: the guilt of adultery was multiplied by daily
+repetition; that of homicide might involve the massacre of a
+whole people; each act was separately numbered; and, in those
+times of anarchy and vice, a modest sinner might easily incur a
+debt of three hundred years. His insolvency was relieved by a
+commutation, or indulgence: a year of penance was appreciated at
+twenty-six solidi ^24 of silver, about four pounds sterling, for
+the rich; at three solidi, or nine shillings, for the indigent:
+and these alms were soon appropriated to the use of the church,
+which derived, from the redemption of sins, an inexhaustible
+source of opulence and dominion.  A debt of three hundred years,
+or twelve hundred pounds, was enough to impoverish a plentiful
+fortune; the scarcity of gold and silver was supplied by the
+alienation of land; and the princely donations of Pepin and
+Charlemagne are expressly given for the remedy of their soul.  It
+is a maxim of the civil law, that whosoever cannot pay with his
+purse, must pay with his body; and the practice of flagellation
+was adopted by the monks, a cheap, though painful equivalent.  By
+a fantastic arithmetic, a year of penance was taxed at three
+thousand lashes; ^25 and such was the skill and patience of a
+famous hermit, St. Dominic of the iron Cuirass, ^26 that in six
+days he could discharge an entire century, by a whipping of three
+hundred thousand stripes.  His example was followed by many
+penitents of both sexes; and, as a vicarious sacrifice was
+accepted, a sturdy disciplinarian might expiate on his own back
+the sins of his benefactors. ^27 These compensations of the purse
+and the person introduced, in the eleventh century, a more
+honorable mode of satisfaction. The merit of military service
+against the Saracens of Africa and Spain had been allowed by the
+predecessors of Urban the Second.  In the council of Clermont,
+that pope proclaimed a plenary indulgence to those who should
+enlist under the banner of the cross; the absolution of all their
+sins, and a full receipt for all that might be due of canonical
+penance. ^28 The cold philosophy of modern times is incapable of
+feeling the impression that was made on a sinful and fanatic
+world.  At the voice of their pastor, the robber, the incendiary,
+the homicide, arose by thousands to redeem their souls, by
+repeating on the infidels the same deeds which they had exercised
+against their Christian brethren; and the terms of atonement were
+eagerly embraced by offenders of every rank and denomination.
+None were pure; none were exempt from the guilt and penalty of
+sin; and those who were the least amenable to the justice of God
+and the church were the best entitled to the temporal and eternal
+recompense of their pious courage.  If they fell, the spirit of
+the Latin clergy did not hesitate to adorn their tomb with the
+crown of martyrdom; ^29 and should they survive, they could
+expect without impatience the delay and increase of their
+heavenly reward.  They offered their blood to the Son of God, who
+had laid down his life for their salvation: they took up the
+cross, and entered with confidence into the way of the Lord.  His
+providence would watch over their safety; perhaps his visible and
+miraculous power would smooth the difficulties of their holy
+enterprise.  The cloud and pillar of Jehovah had marched before
+the Israelites into the promised land.  Might not the Christians
+more reasonably hope that the rivers would open for their
+passage; that the walls of their strongest cities would fall at
+the sound of their trumpets; and that the sun would be arrested
+in his mid career, to allow them time for the destruction of the
+infidels?
+
+[Footnote 22: The penance, indulgences, &c., of the middle ages
+are amply discussed by Muratori, (Antiquitat. Italiae Medii Aevi,
+tom. v. dissert. lxviii. p. 709 - 768,) and by M. Chais, (Lettres
+sur les Jubiles et les Indulgences, tom. ii. lettres 21 & 22, p.
+478 - 556,) with this difference, that the abuses of superstition
+are mildly, perhaps faintly, exposed by the learned Italian, and
+peevishly magnified by the Dutch minister.]
+
+[Footnote 23: Schmidt (Histoire des Allemands, tom. ii. p. 211 -
+220, 452 - 462) gives an abstract of the Penitential of Rhegino
+in the ninth, and of Burchard in the tenth, century.  In one
+year, five-and-thirty murders were perpetrated at Worms.]
+
+[Footnote 24: Till the xiith century, we may support the clear
+account of xii. denarii, or pence, to the solidus, or shilling;
+and xx. solidi to the pound weight of silver, about the pound
+sterling.  Our money is diminished to a third, and the French to
+a fiftieth, of this primitive standard.]
+
+[Footnote 25: Each century of lashes was sanctified with a
+recital of a psalm, and the whole Psalter, with the accompaniment
+of 15,000 stripes, was equivalent to five years.]
+
+[Footnote 26: The Life and Achievements of St. Dominic Loricatus
+was composed by his friend and admirer, Peter Damianus.  See
+Fleury, Hist. Eccles. tom. xiii. p. 96 - 104.  Baronius, A.D.
+1056, No. 7, who observes, from Damianus, how fashionable, even
+among ladies of quality, (sublimis generis,) this expiation
+(purgatorii genus) was grown.]
+
+[Footnote 27: At a quarter, or even half a rial a lash, Sancho
+Panza was a cheaper, and possibly not a more dishonest, workman.
+I remember in Pere Labat (Voyages en Italie, tom. vii. p. 16 -
+29) a very lively picture of the dexterity of one of these
+artists.]
+
+[Footnote 28: Quicunque pro sola devotione, non pro honoris vel
+pecuniae adoptione, ad liberandam ecclesiam Dei Jerusalem
+profectus fuerit, iter illud pro omni poenitentia reputetur.
+Canon. Concil. Claromont. ii. p. 829. Guibert styles it novum
+salutis genus, (p. 471,) and is almost philosophical on the
+subject.
+
+Note: See note, page 546. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 29: Such at least was the belief of the crusaders, and
+such is the uniform style of the historians, (Esprit des
+Croisades, tom. iii. p. 477;) but the prayer for the repose of
+their souls is inconsistent in orthodox theology with the merits
+of martyrdom.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LVIII: The First Crusade.
+
+Part II.
+
+Of the chiefs and soldiers who marched to the holy sepulchre,
+I will dare to affirm, that all were prompted by the spirit of
+enthusiasm; the belief of merit, the hope of reward, and the
+assurance of divine aid.  But I am equally persuaded, that in
+many it was not the sole, that in some it was not the leading,
+principle of action.  The use and abuse of religion are feeble to
+stem, they are strong and irresistible to impel, the stream of
+national manners.  Against the private wars of the Barbarians,
+their bloody tournaments, licentious love, and judicial duels,
+the popes and synods might ineffectually thunder.  It is a more
+easy task to provoke the metaphysical disputes of the Greeks, to
+drive into the cloister the victims of anarchy or despotism, to
+sanctify the patience of slaves and cowards, or to assume the
+merit of the humanity and benevolence of modern Christians. War
+and exercise were the reigning passions of the Franks or Latins;
+they were enjoined, as a penance, to gratify those passions, to
+visit distant lands, and to draw their swords against the nation
+of the East.  Their victory, or even their attempt, would
+immortalize the names of the intrepid heroes of the cross; and
+the purest piety could not be insensible to the most splendid
+prospect of military glory.  In the petty quarrels of Europe,
+they shed the blood of their friends and countrymen, for the
+acquisition perhaps of a castle or a village.  They could march
+with alacrity against the distant and hostile nations who were
+devoted to their arms; their fancy already grasped the golden
+sceptres of Asia; and the conquest of Apulia and Sicily by the
+Normans might exalt to royalty the hopes of the most private
+adventurer.  Christendom, in her rudest state, must have yielded
+to the climate and cultivation of the Mahometan countries; and
+their natural and artificial wealth had been magnified by the
+tales of pilgrims, and the gifts of an imperfect commerce.  The
+vulgar, both the great and small, were taught to believe every
+wonder, of lands flowing with milk and honey, of mines and
+treasures, of gold and diamonds, of palaces of marble and jasper,
+and of odoriferous groves of cinnamon and frankincense. In this
+earthly paradise, each warrior depended on his sword to carve a
+plenteous and honorable establishment, which he measured only by
+the extent of his wishes. ^30 Their vassals and soldiers trusted
+their fortunes to God and their master: the spoils of a Turkish
+emir might enrich the meanest follower of the camp; and the
+flavor of the wines, the beauty of the Grecian women, ^31 were
+temptations more adapted to the nature, than to the profession,
+of the champions of the cross.  The love of freedom was a
+powerful incitement to the multitudes who were oppressed by
+feudal or ecclesiastical tyranny.  Under this holy sign, the
+peasants and burghers, who were attached to the servitude of the
+glebe, might escape from a haughty lord, and transplant
+themselves and their families to a land of liberty.  The monk
+might release himself from the discipline of his convent: the
+debtor might suspend the accumulation of usury, and the pursuit
+of his creditors; and outlaws and malefactors of every cast might
+continue to brave the laws and elude the punishment of their
+crimes. ^32
+
+[Footnote 30: The same hopes were displayed in the letters of the
+adventurers ad animandos qui in Francia residerant.  Hugh de
+Reiteste could boast, that his share amounted to one abbey and
+ten castles, of the yearly value of 1500 marks, and that he
+should acquire a hundred castles by the conquest of Aleppo,
+(Guibert, p. 554, 555.)]
+
+[Footnote 31: In his genuine or fictitious letter to the count of
+Flanders, Alexius mingles with the danger of the church, and the
+relics of saints, the auri et argenti amor, and pulcherrimarum
+foeminarum voluptas, p. 476;) as if, says the indignant Guibert,
+the Greek women were handsomer than those of France.]
+
+[Footnote 32: See the privileges of the Crucesignati, freedom
+from debt, usury injury, secular justice, &c.  The pope was their
+perpetual guardian (Ducange, tom. ii. p. 651, 652.)]
+
+These motives were potent and numerous: when we have singly
+computed their weight on the mind of each individual, we must add
+the infinite series, the multiplying powers, of example and
+fashion.  The first proselytes became the warmest and most
+effectual missionaries of the cross: among their friends and
+countrymen they preached the duty, the merit, and the recompense,
+of their holy vow; and the most reluctant hearers were insensibly
+drawn within the whirlpool of persuasion and authority.  The
+martial youths were fired by the reproach or suspicion of
+cowardice; the opportunity of visiting with an army the sepulchre
+of Christ was embraced by the old and infirm, by women and
+children, who consulted rather their zeal than their strength;
+and those who in the evening had derided the folly of their
+companions, were the most eager, the ensuing day, to tread in
+their footsteps.  The ignorance, which magnified the hopes,
+diminished the perils, of the enterprise.  Since the Turkish
+conquest, the paths of pilgrimage were obliterated; the chiefs
+themselves had an imperfect notion of the length of the way and
+the state of their enemies; and such was the stupidity of the
+people, that, at the sight of the first city or castle beyond the
+limits of their knowledge, they were ready to ask whether that
+was not the Jerusalem, the term and object of their labors.  Yet
+the more prudent of the crusaders, who were not sure that they
+should be fed from heaven with a shower of quails or manna,
+provided themselves with those precious metals, which, in every
+country, are the representatives of every commodity.  To defray,
+according to their rank, the expenses of the road, princes
+alienated their provinces, nobles their lands and castles,
+peasants their cattle and the instruments of husbandry.  The
+value of property was depreciated by the eager competition of
+multitudes; while the price of arms and horses was raised to an
+exorbitant height by the wants and impatience of the buyers. ^33
+Those who remained at home, with sense and money, were enriched
+by the epidemical disease: the sovereigns acquired at a cheap
+rate the domains of their vassals; and the ecclesiastical
+purchasers completed the payment by the assurance of their
+prayers.  The cross, which was commonly sewed on the garment, in
+cloth or silk, was inscribed by some zealots on their skin: a hot
+iron, or indelible liquor, was applied to perpetuate the mark;
+and a crafty monk, who showed the miraculous impression on his
+breast was repaid with the popular veneration and the richest
+benefices of Palestine. ^34
+
+[Footnote 33: Guibert (p. 481) paints in lively colors this
+general emotion. He was one of the few contemporaries who had
+genius enough to feel the astonishing scenes that were passing
+before their eyes.  Erat itaque videre miraculum, caro omnes
+emere, atque vili vendere, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 34: Some instances of these stigmata are given in the
+Esprit des Croisades, (tom. iii. p. 169 &c.,) from authors whom I
+have not seen]
+
+The fifteenth of August had been fixed in the council of
+Clermont for the departure of the pilgrims; but the day was
+anticipated by the thoughtless and needy crowd of plebeians, and
+I shall briefly despatch the calamities which they inflicted and
+suffered, before I enter on the more serious and successful
+enterprise of the chiefs.  Early in the spring, from the confines
+of France and Lorraine, above sixty thousand of the populace of
+both sexes flocked round the first missionary of the crusade, and
+pressed him with clamorous importunity to lead them to the holy
+sepulchre. The hermit, assuming the character, without the
+talents or authority, of a general, impelled or obeyed the
+forward impulse of his votaries along the banks of the Rhine and
+Danube. Their wants and numbers soon compelled them to separate,
+and his lieutenant, Walter the Penniless, a valiant though needy
+soldier, conducted a van guard of pilgrims, whose condition may
+be determined from the proportion of eight horsemen to fifteen
+thousand foot. The example and footsteps of Peter were closely
+pursued by another fanatic, the monk Godescal, whose sermons had
+swept away fifteen or twenty thousand peasants from the villages
+of Germany.  Their rear was again pressed by a herd of two
+hundred thousand, the most stupid and savage refuse of the
+people, who mingled with their devotion a brutal license of
+rapine, prostitution, and drunkenness.  Some counts and
+gentlemen, at the head of three thousand horse, attended the
+motions of the multitude to partake in the spoil; but their
+genuine leaders (may we credit such folly?) were a goose and a
+goat, who were carried in the front, and to whom these worthy
+Christians ascribed an infusion of the divine spirit. ^35 Of
+these, and of other bands of enthusiasts, the first and most easy
+warfare was against the Jews, the murderers of the Son of God.
+In the trading cities of the Moselle and the Rhine, their
+colonies were numerous and rich; and they enjoyed, under the
+protection of the emperor and the bishops, the free exercise of
+their religion. ^36 At Verdun, Treves, Mentz, Spires, Worms, many
+thousands of that unhappy people were pillaged and massacred: ^37
+nor had they felt a more bloody stroke since the persecution of
+Hadrian.  A remnant was saved by the firmness of their bishops,
+who accepted a feigned and transient conversion; but the more
+obstinate Jews opposed their fanaticism to the fanaticism of the
+Christians, barricadoed their houses, and precipitating
+themselves, their families, and their wealth, into the rivers or
+the flames, disappointed the malice, or at least the avarice, of
+their implacable foes.
+
+[Footnote 35: Fuit et aliud scelus detestabile in hac
+congregatione pedestris populi stulti et vesanae levitatis,
+anserem quendam divino spiritu asserebant afflatum, et capellam
+non minus eodem repletam, et has sibi duces secundae viae
+fecerant, &c., (Albert. Aquensis, l. i. c. 31, p. 196.) Had these
+peasants founded an empire, they might have introduced, as in
+Egypt, the worship of animals, which their philosophic descend
+ants would have glossed over with some specious and subtile
+allegory.
+
+Note: A singular "allegoric" explanation of this strange
+fact has recently been broached: it is connected with the charge
+of idolatry and Eastern heretical opinions subsequently made
+against the Templars.  "We have no doubt that they were Manichee
+or Gnostic standards." (The author says the animals themselves
+were carried before the army. - M.) "The goose, in Egyptian
+symbols, as every Egyptian scholar knows, meant 'divine Son,' or
+'Son of God.' The goat meant Typhon, or Devil.  Thus we have the
+Manichee opposing principles of good and evil, as standards, at
+the head of the ignorant mob of crusading invaders.  Can any one
+doubt that a large portion of this host must have been infected
+with the Manichee or Gnostic idolatry?" Account of the Temple
+Church by R. W. Billings, p. 5 London. 1838.  This is, at all
+events, a curious coincidence, especially considered in
+connection with the extensive dissemination of the Paulician
+opinions among the common people of Europe.  At any rate, in so
+inexplicable a matter, we are inclined to catch at any
+explanation, however wild or subtile. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 36: Benjamin of Tudela describes the state of his
+Jewish brethren from Cologne along the Rhine: they were rich,
+generous, learned, hospitable, and lived in the eager hope of the
+Messiah, (Voyage, tom. i. p. 243 - 245, par Baratier.) In seventy
+years (he wrote about A.D. 1170) they had recovered from these
+massacres.]
+
+[Footnote 37: These massacres and depredations on the Jews, which
+were renewed at each crusade, are coolly related.  It is true,
+that St. Bernard (epist. 363, tom. i. p. 329) admonishes the
+Oriental Franks, non sunt persequendi Judaei, non sunt
+trucidandi.  The contrary doctrine had been preached by a rival
+monk.
+
+Note: This is an unjust sarcasm against St. Bernard.  He
+stood above all rivalry of this kind See note 31, c. l x. - M]
+
+Between the frontiers of Austria and the seat of the Byzan
+tine monarchy, the crusaders were compelled to traverse as
+interval of six hundred miles; the wild and desolate countries of
+Hungary ^38 and Bulgaria. The soil is fruitful, and intersected
+with rivers; but it was then covered with morasses and forests,
+which spread to a boundless extent, whenever man has ceased to
+exercise his dominion over the earth.  Both nations had imbibed
+the rudiments of Christianity; the Hungarians were ruled by their
+native princes; the Bulgarians by a lieutenant of the Greek
+emperor; but, on the slightest provocation, their ferocious
+nature was rekindled, and ample provocation was afforded by the
+disorders of the first pilgrims Agriculture must have been
+unskilful and languid among a people, whose cities were built of
+reeds and timber, which were deserted in the summer season for
+the tents of hunters and shepherds.  A scanty supply of
+provisions was rudely demanded, forcibly seized, and greedily
+consumed; and on the first quarrel, the crusaders gave a loose to
+indignation and revenge.  But their ignorance of the country, of
+war, and of discipline, exposed them to every snare.  The Greek
+praefect of Bulgaria commanded a regular force; ^* at the trumpet
+of the Hungarian king, the eighth or the tenth of his martial
+subjects bent their bows and mounted on horseback; their policy
+was insidious, and their retaliation on these pious robbers was
+unrelenting and bloody. ^39 About a third of the naked fugitives
+(and the hermit Peter was of the number) escaped to the Thracian
+mountains; and the emperor, who respected the pilgrimage and
+succor of the Latins, conducted them by secure and easy journeys
+to Constantinople, and advised them to await the arrival of their
+brethren.  For a while they remembered their faults and losses;
+but no sooner were they revived by the hospitable entertainment,
+than their venom was again inflamed; they stung their benefactor,
+and neither gardens, nor palaces, nor churches, were safe from
+their depredations.  For his own safety, Alexius allured them to
+pass over to the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus; but their blind
+impetuosity soon urged them to desert the station which he had
+assigned, and to rush headlong against the Turks, who occupied
+the road to Jerusalem.  The hermit, conscious of his shame, had
+withdrawn from the camp to Constantinople; and his lieutenant,
+Walter the Penniless, who was worthy of a better command,
+attempted without success to introduce some order and prudence
+among the herd of savages.  They separated in quest of prey, and
+themselves fell an easy prey to the arts of the sultan.  By a
+rumor that their foremost companions were rioting in the spoils
+of his capital, Soliman ^* tempted the main body to descend into
+the plain of Nice: they were overwhelmed by the Turkish arrows;
+and a pyramid of bones ^40 informed their companions of the place
+of their defeat.  Of the first crusaders, three hundred thousand
+had already perished, before a single city was rescued from the
+infidels, before their graver and more noble brethren had
+completed the preparations of their enterprise. ^41
+
+[Footnote 38: See the contemporary description of Hungary in Otho
+of Frisin gen, l. ii. c. 31, in Muratori, Script. Rerum
+Italicarum, tom. vi. p. 665 666.]
+
+[Footnote *: The narrative of the first march is very incorrect.
+The first party moved under Walter de Pexego and Walter the
+Penniless: they passed safe through Hungary, the kingdom of
+Kalmeny, and were attacked in Bulgaria.  Peter followed with
+40,000 men; passed through Hungary; but seeing the clothes of
+sixteen crusaders, who had been empaled on the walls of Semlin.
+he attacked and stormed the city.  He then marched to Nissa,
+where, at first, he was hospitably received: but an accidental
+quar rel taking place, he suffered a great defeat.  Wilken, vol.
+i. p. 84 - 86 - M.]
+
+[Footnote 39: The old Hungarians, without excepting Turotzius,
+are ill informed of the first crusade, which they involve in a
+single passage. Katona, like ourselves, can only quote the
+writers of France; but he compares with local science the ancient
+and modern geography.  Ante portam Cyperon, is Sopron or Poson;
+Mallevilla, Zemlin; Fluvius Maroe, Savus; Lintax, Leith;
+Mesebroch, or Merseburg, Ouar, or Moson; Tollenburg, Pragg, (de
+Regibus Hungariae, tom. iii. p. 19 - 53.)]
+
+[Footnote *: Soliman had been killed in 1085, in a battle against
+Toutoneh, brother of Malek Schah, between Appelo and Antioch.  It
+was not Soliman, therefore, but his son David, surnamed Kilidje
+Arslan, the "Sword of the Lion," who reigned in Nice.  Almost all
+the occidental authors have fallen into this mistake, which was
+detected by M. Michaud, Hist. des Crois. 4th edit. and Extraits
+des Aut. Arab. rel. aux Croisades, par M. Reinaud Paris, 1829, p.
+3.  His kingdom extended from the Orontes to the Euphra tes, and
+as far as the Bosphorus.  Kilidje Arslan must uniformly be
+substituted for Soliman.  Brosset note on Le Beau, tom. xv. p.
+311. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 40: Anna Comnena (Alexias, l. x. p. 287) describes this
+as a mountain.  In the siege of Nice, such were used by the
+Franks themselves as the materials of a wall.]
+
+[Footnote 41: See table on following page.]
+
+"To save time and space, I shall represent, in a short table, the
+particular references to the great events of the first crusade."
+
+
+[See Table 1.: Events Of The First Crusade]
+
+None of the great sovereigns of Europe embarked their
+persons in the first crusade.  The emperor Henry the Fourth was
+not disposed to obey the summons of the pope: Philip the First of
+France was occupied by his pleasures; William Rufus of England by
+a recent conquest; the kin`gs of Spain were engaged in a domestic
+war against the Moors; and the northern monarchs of Scotland,
+Denmark, ^42 Sweden, and Poland, were yet strangers to the
+passions and interests of the South.  The religious ardor was
+more strongly felt by the princes of the second order, who held
+an important place in the feudal system. Their situation will
+naturally cast under four distinct heads the review of their
+names and characters; but I may escape some needless repetition,
+by observing at once, that courage and the exercise of arms are
+the common attribute of these Christian adventurers.  I.  The
+first rank both in war and council is justly due to Godfrey of
+Bouillon; and happy would it have been for the crusaders, if they
+had trusted themselves to the sole conduct of that accomplished
+hero, a worthy representative of Charlemagne, from whom he was
+descended in the female line.  His father was of the noble race
+of the counts of Boulogne: Brabant, the lower province of
+Lorraine, ^43 was the inheritance of his mother; and by the
+emperor's bounty he was himself invested with that ducal title,
+which has been improperly transferred to his lordship of Bouillon
+in the Ardennes. ^44 In the service of Henry the Fourth, he bore
+the great standard of the empire, and pierced with his lance the
+breast of Rodolph, the rebel king: Godfrey was the first who
+ascended the walls of Rome; and his sickness, his vow, perhaps
+his remorse for bearing arms against the pope, confirmed an early
+resolution of visiting the holy sepulchre, not as a pilgrim, but
+a deliverer.  His valor was matured by prudence and moderation;
+his piety, though blind, was sincere; and, in the tumult of a
+camp, he practised the real and fictitious virtues of a convent.
+Superior to the private factions of the chiefs, he reserved his
+enmity for the enemies of Christ; and though he gained a kingdom
+by the attempt, his pure and disinterested zeal was acknowledged
+by his rivals.  Godfrey of Bouillon ^45 was accompanied by his
+two brothers, by Eustace the elder, who had succeeded to the
+county of Boulogne, and by the younger, Baldwin, a character of
+more ambiguous virtue.  The duke of Lorraine, was alike
+celebrated on either side of the Rhine: from his birth and
+education, he was equally conversant with the French and Teutonic
+languages: the barons of France, Germany, and Lorraine, assembled
+their vassals; and the confederate force that marched under his
+banner was composed of fourscore thousand foot and about ten
+thousand horse. II.  In the parliament that was held at Paris, in
+the king's presence, about two months after the council of
+Clermont, Hugh, count of Vermandois, was the most conspicuous of
+the princes who assumed the cross. But the appellation of the
+Great was applied, not so much to his merit or possessions,
+(though neither were contemptible,) as to the royal birth of the
+brother of the king of France. ^46 Robert, duke of Normandy, was
+the eldest son of William the Conqueror; but on his father's
+death he was deprived of the kingdom of England, by his own
+indolence and the activity of his brother Rufus.  The worth of
+Robert was degraded by an excessive levity and easiness of
+temper: his cheerfulness seduced him to the indulgence of
+pleasure; his profuse liberality impoverished the prince and
+people; his indiscriminate clemency multiplied the number of
+offenders; and the amiable qualities of a private man became the
+essential defects of a sovereign.  For the trifling sum of ten
+thousand marks, he mortgaged Normandy during his absence to the
+English usurper; ^47 but his engagement and behavior in the holy
+war announced in Robert a reformation of manners, and restored
+him in some degree to the public esteem.  Another Robert was
+count of Flanders, a royal province, which, in this century, gave
+three queens to the thrones of France, England, and Denmark: he
+was surnamed the Sword and Lance of the Christians; but in the
+exploits of a soldier he sometimes forgot the duties of a
+general.  Stephen, count of Chartres, of Blois, and of Troyes,
+was one of the richest princes of the age; and the number of his
+castles has been compared to the three hundred and sixty-five
+days of the year.  His mind was improved by literature; and, in
+the council of the chiefs, the eloquent Stephen ^48 was chosen to
+discharge the office of their president.  These four were the
+principal leaders of the French, the Normans, and the pilgrims of
+the British isles: but the list of the barons who were possessed
+of three or four towns would exceed, says a contemporary, the
+catalogue of the Trojan war. ^49 III.  In the south of France,
+the command was assumed by Adhemar bishop of Puy, the pope egate,
+and by Raymond count of St. Giles and Thoulouse who added the
+prouder titles of duke of Narbonne and marquis of Provence.  The
+former was a respectable prelate, alike qualified for this world
+and the next.  The latter was a veteran warrior, who had fought
+against the Saracens of Spain, and who consecrated his declining
+age, not only to the deliverance, but to the perpetual service,
+of the holy sepulchre.  His experience and riches gave him a
+strong ascendant in the Christian camp, whose distress he was
+often able, and sometimes willing, to relieve.  But it was easier
+for him to extort the praise of the Infidels, than to preserve
+the love of his subjects and associates.  His eminent qualities
+were clouded by a temper haughty, envious, and obstinate; and,
+though he resigned an ample patrimony for the cause of God, his
+piety, in the public opinion, was not exempt from avarice and
+ambition. ^50 A mercantile, rather than a martial, spirit
+prevailed among his provincials, ^51 a common name, which
+included the natives of Auvergne and Languedoc, ^52 the vassals
+of the kingdom of Burgundy or Arles.  From the adjacent frontier
+of Spain he drew a band of hardy adventurers; as he marched
+through Lombardy, a crowd of Italians flocked to his standard,
+and his united force consisted of one hundred thousand horse and
+foot.  If Raymond was the first to enlist and the last to depart,
+the delay may be excused by the greatness of his preparation and
+the promise of an everlasting farewell.  IV. The name of
+Bohemond, the son of Robert Guiscard, was already famous by his
+double victory over the Greek emperor; but his father's will had
+reduced him to the principality of Tarentum, and the remembrance
+of his Eastern trophies, till he was awakened by the rumor and
+passage of the French pilgrims.  It is in the person of this
+Norman chief that we may seek for the coolest policy and
+ambition, with a small allay of religious fanaticism.  His
+conduct may justify a belief that he had secretly directed the
+design of the pope, which he affected to second with astonishment
+and zeal: at the siege of Amalphi, his example and discourse
+inflamed the passions of a confederate army; he instantly tore
+his garment to supply crosses for the numerous candidates, and
+prepared to visit Constantinople and Asia at the head of ten
+thousand horse and twenty thousand foot.  Several princes of the
+Norman race accompanied this veteran general; and his cousin
+Tancred ^53 was the partner, rather than the servant, of the war.
+
+In the accomplished character of Tancred we discover all the
+virtues of a perfect knight, ^54 the true spirit of chivalry,
+which inspired the generous sentiments and social offices of man
+far better than the base philosophy, or the baser religion, of
+the times.
+
+[Footnote 42: The author of the Esprit des Croisades has doubted,
+and might have disbelieved, the crusade and tragic death of
+Prince Sueno, with 1500 or 15,000 Danes, who was cut off by
+Sultan Soliman in Cappadocia, but who still lives in the poem of
+Tasso, (tom. iv. p. 111 - 115.)]
+
+[Footnote 43: The fragments of the kingdoms of Lotharingia, or
+Lorraine, were broken into the two duchies of the Moselle and of
+the Meuse: the first has preserved its name, which in the latter
+has been changed into that of Brabant, (Vales. Notit. Gall. p.
+283 - 288.)]
+
+[Footnote 44: See, in the Description of France, by the Abbe de
+Longuerue, the articles of Boulogne, part i. p. 54; Brabant, part
+ii. p. 47, 48; Bouillon, p. 134.  On his departure, Godfrey sold
+or pawned Bouillon to the church for 1300 marks.]
+
+[Footnote 45: See the family character of Godfrey, in William of
+Tyre, l. ix. c. 5 - 8; his previous design in Guibert, (p. 485;)
+his sickness and vow in Bernard. Thesaur., (c 78.)]
+
+[Footnote 46: Anna Comnena supposes, that Hugh was proud of his
+nobility riches, and power, (l. x. p. 288: ) the two last
+articles appear more equivocal; but an item, which seven hundred
+years ago was famous in the palace of Constantinople, attests the
+ancient dignity of the Capetian family of France.]
+
+[Footnote 47: Will. Gemeticensis, l. vii. c. 7, p. 672, 673, in
+Camden. Normani cis.  He pawned the duchy for one hundredth part
+of the present yearly revenue.  Ten thousand marks may be equal
+to five hundred thousand livres, and Normandy annually yields
+fifty-seven millions to the king, (Necker, Administration des
+Finances, tom. i. p. 287.)]
+
+[Footnote 48: His original letter to his wife is inserted in the
+Spicilegium of Dom. Luc. d'Acheri, tom. iv. and quoted in the
+Esprit des Croisades tom. i. p. 63.]
+
+[Footnote 49: Unius enim duum, trium seu quatuor oppidorum
+dominos quis numeret?  quorum tanta fuit copia, ut non vix
+totidem Trojana obsidio coegisse putetur.  (Ever the lively and
+interesting Guibert, p. 486.)]
+
+[Footnote 50: It is singular enough, that Raymond of St. Giles, a
+second character in the genuine history of the crusades, should
+shine as the first of heroes in the writings of the Greeks (Anna
+Comnen. Alexiad, l. x xi.) and the Arabians, (Longueruana, p.
+129.)]
+
+[Footnote 51: Omnes de Burgundia, et Alvernia, et Vasconia, et
+Gothi, (of Languedoc,) provinciales appellabantur, caeteri vero
+Francigenae et hoc in exercitu; inter hostes autem Franci
+dicebantur.  Raymond des Agiles, p. 144.]
+
+[Footnote 52: The town of his birth, or first appanage, was
+consecrated to St Aegidius, whose name, as early as the first
+crusade, was corrupted by the French into St. Gilles, or St.
+Giles.  It is situate in the Iowen Languedoc, between Nismes and
+the Rhone, and still boasts a collegiate church of the foundation
+of Raymond, (Melanges tires d'une Grande Bibliotheque, tom.
+xxxvii. p 51.)]
+
+[Footnote 53: The mother of Tancred was Emma, sister of the great
+Robert Guiscard; his father, the Marquis Odo the Good.  It is
+singular enough, that the family and country of so illustrious a
+person should be unknown; but Muratori reasonably conjectures
+that he was an Italian, and perhaps of the race of the marquises
+of Montferrat in Piedmont, (Script. tom. v. p. 281, 282.)]
+
+[Footnote 54: To gratify the childish vanity of the house of
+Este. Tasso has inserted in his poem, and in the first crusade, a
+fabulous hero, the brave and amorous Rinaldo, (x. 75, xvii. 66 -
+94.) He might borrow his name from a Rinaldo, with the Aquila
+bianca Estense, who vanquished, as the standard-bearer of the
+Roman church, the emperor Frederic I., (Storia Imperiale di
+Ricobaldo, in Muratori Script. Ital. tom. ix. p. 360. Ariosto,
+Orlando Furioso, iii. 30.) But, 1. The distance of sixty years
+between the youth of the two Rinaldos destroys their identity.
+2. The Storia Imperiale is a forgery of the Conte Boyardo, at the
+end of the xvth century, (Muratori, p. 281 - 289.) 3. This
+Rinaldo, and his exploits, are not less chimerical than the hero
+of Tasso, (Muratori, Antichita Estense, tom. i. p. 350.)]
+
+
+
+Chapter LVIII: The First Crusade.
+
+Part III.
+
+Between the age of Charlemagne and that of the crusades, a
+revolution had taken place among the Spaniards, the Normans, and
+the French, which was gradually extended to the rest of Europe.
+The service of the infantry was degraded to the plebeians; the
+cavalry formed the strength of the armies, and the honorable name
+of miles, or soldier, was confined to the gentlemen ^55 who
+served on horseback, and were invested with the character of
+knighthood.  The dukes and counts, who had usurped the rights of
+sovereignty, divided the provinces among their faithful barons:
+the barons distributed among their vassals the fiefs or benefices
+of their jurisdiction; and these military tenants, the peers of
+each other and of their lord, composed the noble or equestrian
+order, which disdained to conceive the peasant or burgher as of
+the same species with themselves. The dignity of their birth was
+preserved by pure and equal alliances; their sons alone, who
+could produce four quarters or lines of ancestry without spot or
+reproach, might legally pretend to the honor of knighthood; but a
+valiant plebeian was sometimes enriched and ennobled by the
+sword, and became the father of a new race.  A single knight
+could impart, according to his judgment, the character which he
+received; and the warlike sovereigns of Europe derived more glory
+from this personal distinction than from the lustre of their
+diadem.  This ceremony, of which some traces may be found in
+Tacitus and the woods of Germany, ^56 was in its origin simple
+and profane; the candidate, after some previous trial, was
+invested with the sword and spurs; and his cheek or shoulder was
+touched with a slight blow, as an emblem of the last affront
+which it was lawful for him to endure.  But superstition mingled
+in every public and private action of life: in the holy wars, it
+sanctified the profession of arms; and the order of chivalry was
+assimilated in its rights and privileges to the sacred orders of
+priesthood. The bath and white garment of the novice were an
+indecent copy of the regeneration of baptism: his sword, which he
+offered on the altar, was blessed by the ministers of religion:
+his solemn reception was preceded by fasts and vigils; and he was
+created a knight in the name of God, of St. George, and of St.
+Michael the archangel.  He swore to accomplish the duties of his
+profession; and education, example, and the public opinion, were
+the inviolable guardians of his oath.  As the champion of God and
+the ladies, (I blush to unite such discordant names,) he devoted
+himself to speak the truth; to maintain the right; to protect the
+distressed; to practise courtesy, a virtue less familiar to the
+ancients; to pursue the infidels; to despise the allurements of
+ease and safety; and to vindicate in every perilous adventure the
+honor of his character.  The abuse of the same spirit provoked
+the illiterate knight to disdain the arts of industry and peace;
+to esteem himself the sole judge and avenger of his own injuries;
+and proudly to neglect the laws of civil society and military
+discipline.  Yet the benefits of this institution, to refine the
+temper of Barbarians, and to infuse some principles of faith,
+justice, and humanity, were strongly felt, and have been often
+observed.  The asperity of national prejudice was softened; and
+the community of religion and arms spread a similar color and
+generous emulation over the face of Christendom.  Abroad in
+enterprise and pilgrimage, at home in martial exercise, the
+warriors of every country were perpetually associated; and
+impartial taste must prefer a Gothic tournament to the Olympic
+games of classic antiquity. ^57 Instead of the naked spectacles
+which corrupted the manners of the Greeks, and banished from the
+stadium the virgins and matrons, the pompous decoration of the
+lists was crowned with the presence of chaste and high-born
+beauty, from whose hands the conqueror received the prize of his
+dexterity and courage.  The skill and strength that were exerted
+in wrestling and boxing bear a distant and doubtful relation to
+the merit of a soldier; but the tournaments, as they were
+invented in France, and eagerly adopted both in the East and
+West, presented a lively image of the business of the field. The
+single combats, the general skirmish, the defence of a pass, or
+castle, were rehearsed as in actual service; and the contest,
+both in real and mimic war, was decided by the superior
+management of the horse and lance. The lance was the proper and
+peculiar weapon of the knight: his horse was of a large and heavy
+breed; but this charger, till he was roused by the approaching
+danger, was usually led by an attendant, and he quietly rode a
+pad or palfrey of a more easy pace.  His helmet and sword, his
+greaves and buckler, it would be superfluous to describe; but I
+may remark, that, at the period of the crusades, the armor was
+less ponderous than in later times; and that, instead of a massy
+cuirass, his breast was defended by a hauberk or coat of mail.
+When their long lances were fixed in the rest, the warriors
+furiously spurred their horses against the foe; and the light
+cavalry of the Turks and Arabs could seldom stand against the
+direct and impetuous weight of their charge. Each knight was
+attended to the field by his faithful squire, a youth of equal
+birth and similar hopes; he was followed by his archers and men
+at arms, and four, or five, or six soldiers were computed as the
+furniture of a complete lance.  In the expeditions to the
+neighboring kingdoms or the Holy Land, the duties of the feudal
+tenure no longer subsisted; the voluntary service of the knights
+and their followers were either prompted by zeal or attachment,
+or purchased with rewards and promises; and the numbers of each
+squadron were measured by the power, the wealth, and the fame, of
+each independent chieftain.  They were distinguished by his
+banner, his armorial coat, and his cry of war; and the most
+ancient families of Europe must seek in these achievements the
+origin and proof of their nobility.  In this rapid portrait of
+chivalry I have been urged to anticipate on the story of the
+crusades, at once an effect and a cause, of this memorable
+institution. ^58
+
+[Footnote 55: Of the words gentilis, gentilhomme, gentleman, two
+etymologies are produced: 1. From the Barbarians of the fifth
+century, the soldiers, and at length the conquerors of the Roman
+empire, who were vain of their foreign nobility; and 2. From the
+sense of the civilians, who consider gentilis as synonymous with
+ingenuus.  Selden inclines to the first but the latter is more
+pure, as well as probable.]
+
+[Footnote 56: Framea scutoque juvenem ornant.  Tacitus, Germania.
+c. 13.]
+
+[Footnote 57: The athletic exercises, particularly the caestus
+and pancratium, were condemned by Lycurgus, Philopoemen, and
+Galen, a lawgiver, a general, and a physician.  Against their
+authority and reasons, the reader may weigh the apology of
+Lucian, in the character of Solon.  See West on the Olympic
+Games, in his Pindar, vol. ii. p. 86 - 96 243 - 248]
+
+[Footnote 58: On the curious subjects of knighthood,
+knights-service, nobility, arms, cry of war, banners, and
+tournaments, an ample fund of information may be sought in
+Selden, (Opera, tom. iii. part i.  Titles of Honor, part ii. c.
+1, 3, 5, 8,) Ducange, (Gloss. Latin. tom. iv. p. 398 - 412, &c.,)
+Dissertations sur Joinville, (i. vi. - xii. p. 127 - 142, p. 161
+- 222,) and M. de St. Palaye, (Memoires sur la Chevalerie.)]
+
+Such were the troops, and such the leaders, who assumed the
+cross for the deliverance of the holy sepulchre.  As soon as they
+were relieved by the absence of the plebeian multitude, they
+encouraged each other, by interviews and messages, to accomplish
+their vow, and hasten their departure.  Their wives and sisters
+were desirous of partaking the danger and merit of the
+pilgrimage: their portable treasures were conveyed in bars of
+silver and gold; and the princes and barons were attended by
+their equipage of hounds and hawks to amuse their leisure and to
+supply their table.  The difficulty of procuring subsistence for
+so many myriads of men and horses engaged them to separate their
+forces: their choice or situation determined the road; and it was
+agreed to meet in the neighborhood of Constantinople, and from
+thence to begin their operations against the Turks.  From the
+banks of the Meuse and the Moselle, Godfrey of Bouillon followed
+the direct way of Germany, Hungary, and Bulgaria; and, as long as
+he exercised the sole command every step afforded some proof of
+his prudence and virtue.  On the confines of Hungary he was
+stopped three weeks by a Christian people, to whom the name, or
+at least the abuse, of the cross was justly odious.  The
+Hungarians still smarted with the wounds which they had received
+from the first pilgrims: in their turn they had abused the right
+of defence and retaliation; and they had reason to apprehend a
+severe revenge from a hero of the same nation, and who was
+engaged in the same cause. But, after weighing the motives and
+the events, the virtuous duke was content to pity the crimes and
+misfortunes of his worthless brethren; and his twelve deputies,
+the messengers of peace, requested in his name a free passage and
+an equal market.  To remove their suspicions, Godfrey trusted
+himself, and afterwards his brother, to the faith of Carloman, ^*
+king of Hungary, who treated them with a simple but hospitable
+entertainment: the treaty was sanctified by their common gospel;
+and a proclamation, under pain of death, restrained the animosity
+and license of the Latin soldiers.  From Austria to Belgrade,
+they traversed the plains of Hungary, without enduring or
+offering an injury; and the proximity of Carloman, who hovered on
+their flanks with his numerous cavalry, was a precaution not less
+useful for their safety than for his own.  They reached the banks
+of the Save; and no sooner had they passed the river, than the
+king of Hungary restored the hostages, and saluted their
+departure with the fairest wishes for the success of their
+enterprise. With the same conduct and discipline, Godfrey
+pervaded the woods of Bulgaria and the frontiers of Thrace; and
+might congratulate himself that he had almost reached the first
+term of his pilgrimage, without drawing his sword against a
+Christian adversary.  After an easy and pleasant journey through
+Lombardy, from Turin to Aquileia, Raymond and his provincials
+marched forty days through the savage country of Dalmatia ^59 and
+Sclavonia.  The weather was a perpetual fog; the land was
+mountainous and desolate; the natives were either fugitive or
+hostile: loose in their religion and government, they refused to
+furnish provisions or guides; murdered the stragglers; and
+exercised by night and day the vigilance of the count, who
+derived more security from the punishment of some captive robbers
+than from his interview and treaty with the prince of Scodra. ^60
+His march between Durazzo and Constantinople was harassed,
+without being stopped, by the peasants and soldiers of the Greek
+emperor; and the same faint and ambiguous hostility was prepared
+for the remaining chiefs, who passed the Adriatic from the coast
+of Italy.  Bohemond had arms and vessels, and foresight and
+discipline; and his name was not forgotten in the provinces of
+Epirus and Thessaly.  Whatever obstacles he encountered were
+surmounted by his military conduct and the valor of Tancred; and
+if the Norman prince affected to spare the Greeks, he gorged his
+soldiers with the full plunder of an heretical castle. ^61 The
+nobles of France pressed forwards with the vain and thoughtless
+ardor of which their nation has been sometimes accused.  From the
+Alps to Apulia the march of Hugh the Great, of the two Roberts,
+and of Stephen of Chartres, through a wealthy country, and amidst
+the applauding Catholics, was a devout or triumphant progress:
+they kissed the feet of the Roman pontiff; and the golden
+standard of St. Peter was delivered to the brother of the French
+monarch. ^62 But in this visit of piety and pleasure, they
+neglected to secure the season, and the means of their
+embarkation: the winter was insensibly lost: their troops were
+scattered and corrupted in the towns of Italy.  They separately
+accomplished their passage, regardless of safety or dignity; and
+within nine months from the feast of the Assumption, the day
+appointed by Urban, all the Latin princes had reached
+Constantinople. But the count of Vermandois was produced as a
+captive; his foremost vessels were scattered by a tempest; and
+his person, against the law of nations, was detained by the
+lieutenants of Alexius.  Yet the arrival of Hugh had been
+announced by four-and-twenty knights in golden armor, who
+commanded the emperor to revere the general of the Latin
+Christians, the brother of the king of kings. ^63 ^*
+
+[Footnote *: Carloman (or Calmany) demanded the brother of
+Godfrey as hostage but Count Baldwin refused the humiliating
+submission.  Godfrey shamed him into this sacrifice for the
+common good by offering to surrender himself Wilken, vol. i. p.
+104. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 59: The Familiae Dalmaticae of Ducange are meagre and
+imperfect; the national historians are recent and fabulous, the
+Greeks remote and careless. In the year 1104 Coloman reduced the
+maritine country as far as Trau and Saloma, (Katona, Hist. Crit.
+tom. iii. p. 195 - 207.)]
+
+[Footnote 60: Scodras appears in Livy as the capital and fortress
+of Gentius, king of the Illyrians, arx munitissima, afterwards a
+Roman colony, (Cellarius, tom. i. p. 393, 394.) It is now called
+Iscodar, or Scutari, (D'Anville, Geographie Ancienne, tom. i. p.
+164.) The sanjiak (now a pacha) of Scutari, or Schendeire, was
+the viiith under the Beglerbeg of Romania, and furnished 600
+soldiers on a revenue of 78,787 rix dollars, (Marsigli, Stato
+Militare del Imperio Ottomano, p. 128.)]
+
+[Footnote 61: In Pelagonia castrum haereticum ..... spoliatum cum
+suis habi tatoribus igne combussere.  Nec id eis injuria
+contigit: quia illorum detestabilis sermo et cancer serpebat,
+jamque circumjacentes regiones suo pravo dogmate foedaverat,
+(Robert. Mon. p. 36, 37.) After cooly relating the fact, the
+Archbishop Baldric adds, as a praise, Omnes siquidem illi
+viatores, Judeos, haereticos, Saracenos aequaliter habent exosos;
+quos omnes appellant inimicos Dei, (p. 92.)]
+
+[Footnote 62: (Alexiad. l. x. p. 288.)]
+
+[Footnote 63: This Oriental pomp is extravagant in a count of
+Vermandois; but the patriot Ducange repeats with much complacency
+(Not. ad Alexiad. p. 352, 353.  Dissert. xxvii. sur Joinville, p.
+315) the passages of Matthew Paris (A.D. 1254) and Froissard,
+(vol. iv. p. 201,) which style the king of France rex regum, and
+chef de tous les rois Chretiens.]
+
+[Footnote *: Hugh was taken at Durazzo, and sent by land to
+Constantinople Wilken - M.]
+
+In some oriental tale I have read the fable of a shepherd,
+who was ruined by the accomplishment of his own wishes: he had
+prayed for water; the Ganges was turned into his grounds, and his
+flock and cottage were swept away by the inundation.  Such was
+the fortune, or at least the apprehension of the Greek emperor
+Alexius Comnenus, whose name has already appeared in this
+history, and whose conduct is so differently represented by his
+daughter Anne, ^64 and by the Latin writers. ^65 In the council
+of Placentia, his ambassadors had solicited a moderate succor,
+perhaps of ten thousand soldiers, but he was astonished by the
+approach of so many potent chiefs and fanatic nations.  The
+emperor fluctuated between hope and fear, between timidity and
+courage; but in the crooked policy which he mistook for wisdom, I
+cannot believe, I cannot discern, that he maliciously conspired
+against the life or honor of the French heroes.  The promiscuous
+multitudes of Peter the Hermit were savage beasts, alike
+destitute of humanity and reason: nor was it possible for Alexius
+to prevent or deplore their destruction.  The troops of Godfrey
+and his peers were less contemptible, but not less suspicious, to
+the Greek emperor.  Their motives might be pure and pious: but he
+was equally alarmed by his knowledge of the ambitious Bohemond,
+^* and his ignorance of the Transalpine chiefs: the courage of
+the French was blind and headstrong; they might be tempted by the
+luxury and wealth of Greece, and elated by the view and opinion
+of their invincible strength: and Jerusalem might be forgotten in
+the prospect of Constantinople.  After a long march and painful
+abstinence, the troops of Godfrey encamped in the plains of
+Thrace; they heard with indignation, that their brother, the
+count of Vermandois, was imprisoned by the Greeks; and their
+reluctant duke was compelled to indulge them in some freedom of
+retaliation and rapine.  They were appeased by the submission of
+Alexius: he promised to supply their camp; and as they refused,
+in the midst of winter, to pass the Bosphorus, their quarters
+were assigned among the gardens and palaces on the shores of that
+narrow sea.  But an incurable jealousy still rankled in the minds
+of the two nations, who despised each other as slaves and
+Barbarians.  Ignorance is the ground of suspicion, and suspicion
+was inflamed into daily provocations: prejudice is blind, hunger
+is deaf; and Alexius is accused of a design to starve or assault
+the Latins in a dangerous post, on all sides encompassed with the
+waters. ^66 Godfrey sounded his trumpets, burst the net,
+overspread the plain, and insulted the suburbs; but the gates of
+Constantinople were strongly fortified; the ramparts were lined
+with archers; and, after a doubtful conflict, both parties
+listened to the voice of peace and religion.  The gifts and
+promises of the emperor insensibly soothed the fierce spirit of
+the western strangers; as a Christian warrior, he rekindled their
+zeal for the prosecution of their holy enterprise, which he
+engaged to second with his troops and treasures.  On the return
+of spring, Godfrey was persuaded to occupy a pleasant and
+plentiful camp in Asia; and no sooner had he passed the
+Bosphorus, than the Greek vessels were suddenly recalled to the
+opposite shore.  The same policy was repeated with the succeeding
+chiefs, who were swayed by the example, and weakened by the
+departure, of their foremost companions.  By his skill and
+diligence, Alexius prevented the union of any two of the
+confederate armies at the same moment under the walls of
+Constantinople; and before the feast of the Pentecost not a Latin
+pilgrim was left on the coast of Europe.
+
+[Footnote 64: Anna Comnena was born the 1st of December, A.D.
+1083, indiction vii., (Alexiad. l. vi. p. 166, 167.) At thirteen,
+the time of the first crusade, she was nubile, and perhaps
+married to the younger Nicephorus Bryennius, whom she fondly
+styles, (l. x. p. 295, 296.) Some moderns have imagined, that her
+enmity to Bohemond was the fruit of disappointed love. In the
+transactions of Constantinople and Nice, her partial accounts
+(Alex. l. x. xi. p. 283 - 317) may be opposed to the partiality
+of the Latins, but in their subsequent exploits she is brief and
+ignorant.]
+
+[Footnote 65: In their views of the character and conduct of
+Alexius, Maimbourg has favored the Catholic Franks, and Voltaire
+has been partial to the schismatic Greeks.  The prejudice of a
+philosopher is less excusable than that of a Jesuit.]
+
+[Footnote *: Wilken quotes a remarkable passage of William of
+Malmsbury as to the secret motives of Urban and of Bohemond in
+urging the crusade. Illud repositius propositum non ita
+vulgabatur, quod Boemundi consilio, pene totam Europam in
+Asiaticam expeditionem moveret, ut in tanto tumultu omnium
+provinciarum facile obaeratis auxiliaribus, et Urbanus Romam et
+Boemundus Illyricum et Macedoniam pervaderent.  Nam eas terras et
+quidquid praeterea a Dyrrachio usque ad Thessalonicam
+protenditur, Guiscardus pater, super Alexium acquisierat; ideirco
+illas Boemundus suo juri competere clamitabat: inops haereditatis
+Apuliae, quam genitor Rogerio, minori filio delegaverat.  Wilken,
+vol. ii. p. 313. - M]
+
+[Footnote 66: Between the Black Sea, the Bosphorus, and the River
+Barbyses, which is deep in summer, and runs fifteen miles through
+a flat meadow.  Its communication with Europe and Constantinople
+is by the stone bridge of the Blachernoe, which in successive
+ages was restored by Justinian and Basil, (Gyllius de Bosphoro
+Thracio, l. ii. c. 3.  Ducange O. P. Christiana, l. v. c. 2, p,
+179.)]
+
+The same arms which threatened Europe might deliver Asia,
+and repel the Turks from the neighboring shores of the Bosphorus
+and Hellespont.  The fair provinces from Nice to Antioch were the
+recent patrimony of the Roman emperor; and his ancient and
+perpetual claim still embraced the kingdoms of Syria and Egypt.
+In his enthusiasm, Alexius indulged, or affected, the ambitious
+hope of leading his new allies to subvert the thrones of the
+East; but the calmer dictates of reason and temper dissuaded him
+from exposing his royal person to the faith of unknown and
+lawless Barbarians. His prudence, or his pride, was content with
+extorting from the French princes an oath of homage and fidelity,
+and a solemn promise, that they
+
+would either restore, or hold, their Asiatic conquests as the
+humble and loyal vassals of the Roman empire.  Their independent
+spirit was fired at the mention of this foreign and voluntary
+servitude: they successively yielded to the dexterous application
+of gifts and flattery; and the first proselytes became the most
+eloquent and effectual missionaries to multiply the companions of
+their shame.  The pride of Hugh of Vermandois was soothed by the
+honors of his captivity; and in the brother of the French king,
+the example of submission was prevalent and weighty.  In the mind
+of Godfrey of Bouillon every human consideration was subordinate
+to the glory of God and the success of the crusade.  He had
+firmly resisted the temptations of Bohemond and Raymond, who
+urged the attack and conquest of Constantinople. Alexius esteemed
+his virtues, deservedly named him the champion of the empire, and
+dignified his homage with the filial name and the rights of
+adoption. ^67 The hateful Bohemond was received as a true and
+ancient ally; and if the emperor reminded him of former
+hostilities, it was only to praise the valor that he had
+displayed, and the glory that he had acquired, in the fields of
+Durazzo and Larissa.  The son of Guiscard was lodged and
+entertained, and served with Imperial pomp: one day, as he passed
+through the gallery of the palace, a door was carelessly left
+open to expose a pile of gold and silver, of silk and gems, of
+curious and costly furniture, that was heaped, in seeming
+disorder, from the floor to the roof of the chamber. "What
+conquests," exclaimed the ambitious miser, "might not be achieved
+by the possession of such a treasure!" - "It is your own,"
+replied a Greek attendant, who watched the motions of his soul;
+and Bohemond, after some hesitation, condescended to accept this
+magnificent present.  The Norman was flattered by the assurance
+of an independent principality; and Alexius eluded, rather than
+denied, his daring demand of the office of great domestic, or
+general of the East.  The two Roberts, the son of the conqueror
+of England, and the kinsmen of three queens, ^68 bowed in their
+turn before the Byzantine throne.  A private letter of Stephen of
+Chartres attests his admiration of the emperor, the most
+excellent and liberal of men, who taught him to believe that he
+was a favorite, and promised to educate and establish his
+youngest son.  In his southern province, the count of St. Giles
+and Thoulouse faintly recognized the supremacy of the king of
+France, a prince of a foreign nation and language.  At the head
+of a hundred thousand men, he declared that he was the soldier
+and servant of Christ alone, and that the Greek might be
+satisfied with an equal treaty of alliance and friendship.  His
+obstinate resistance enhanced the value and the price of his
+submission; and he shone, says the princess Anne, among the
+Barbarians, as the sun amidst the stars of heaven.  His disgust
+of the noise and insolence of the French, his suspicions of the
+designs of Bohemond, the emperor imparted to his faithful
+Raymond; and that aged statesman might clearly discern, that
+however false in friendship, he was sincere in his enmity. ^69
+The spirit of chivalry was last subdued in the person of Tancred;
+and none could deem themselves dishonored by the imitation of
+that gallant knight.  He disdained the gold and flattery of the
+Greek monarch; assaulted in his presence an insolent patrician;
+escaped to Asia in the habit of a private soldier; and yielded
+with a sigh to the authority of Bohemond, and the interest of the
+Christian cause.  The best and most ostensible reason was the
+impossibility of passing the sea and accomplishing their vow,
+without the license and the vessels of Alexius; but they
+cherished a secret hope, that as soon as they trod the continent
+of Asia, their swords would obliterate their shame, and dissolve
+the engagement, which on his side might not be very faithfully
+performed.  The ceremony of their homage was grateful to a people
+who had long since considered pride as the substitute of power.
+High on his throne, the emperor sat mute and immovable: his
+majesty was adored by the Latin princes; and they submitted to
+kiss either his feet or his knees, an indignity which their own
+writers are ashamed to confess and unable to deny. ^70
+
+[Footnote 67: There are two sorts of adoption, the one by arms,
+the other by introducing the son between the shirt and skin of
+his father.  Ducange isur Joinville, Diss. xxii. p. 270) supposes
+Godfrey's adoption to have been of the latter sort.]
+
+[Footnote 68: After his return, Robert of Flanders became the man
+of the king of England, for a pension of four hundred marks.  See
+the first act in Rymer's Foedera.]
+
+[Footnote 69: Sensit vetus regnandi, falsos in amore, odia non
+fingere. Tacit. vi. 44.]
+
+[Footnote 70: The proud historians of the crusades slide and
+stumble over this humiliating step.  Yet, since the heroes knelt
+to salute the emperor, as he sat motionless on his throne, it is
+clear that they must have kissed either his feet or knees.  It is
+only singular, that Anna should not have amply supplied the
+silence or ambiguity of the Latins.  The abasement of their
+princes would have added a fine chapter to the Ceremoniale Aulae
+Byzantinae.]
+
+Private or public interest suppressed the murmurs of the
+dukes and counts; but a French baron (he is supposed to be Robert
+of Paris ^71) presumed to ascend the throne, and to place himself
+by the side of Alexius. The sage reproof of Baldwin provoked him
+to exclaim, in his barbarous idiom, "Who is this rustic, that
+keeps his seat, while so many valiant captains are standing round
+him?" The emperor maintained his silence, dissembled his
+indignation, and questioned his interpreter concerning the
+meaning of the words, which he partly suspected from the
+universal language of gesture and countenance. Before the
+departure of the pilgrims, he endeavored to learn the name and
+condition of the audacious baron.  "I am a Frenchman," replied
+Robert, "of the purest and most ancient nobility of my country.
+All that I know is, that there is a church in my neighborhood,
+^72 the resort of those who are desirous of approving their valor
+in single combat.  Till an enemy appears, they address their
+prayers to God and his saints.  That church I have frequently
+visited.  But never have I found an antagonist who dared to
+accept my defiance." Alexius dismissed the challenger with some
+prudent advice for his conduct in the Turkish warfare; and
+history repeats with pleasure this lively example of the manners
+of his age and country.
+
+[Footnote 71: He called himself (see Alexias, l. x. p. 301.) What
+a title of noblesse of the eleventh century, if any one could now
+prove his inheritance! Anna relates, with visible pleasure, that
+the swelling Barbarian, was killed, or wounded, after fighting in
+the front in the battle of Dorylaeum, (l. xi. p. 317.) This
+circumstance may justify the suspicion of Ducange, (Not. p. 362,)
+that he was no other than Robert of Paris, of the district most
+peculiarly styled the Duchy or Island of France, (L'Isle de
+France.)]
+
+[Footnote 72: With the same penetration, Ducange discovers his
+church to be that of St. Drausus, or Drosin, of Soissons, quem
+duello dimicaturi solent invocare: pugiles qui ad memoriam ejus
+(his tomb) pernoctant invictos reddit, ut et de Burgundia et
+Italia tali necessitate confugiatur ad eum. Joan. Sariberiensis,
+epist. 139.]
+
+The conquest of Asia was undertaken and achieved by
+Alexander, with thirty-five thousand Macedonians and Greeks; ^73
+and his best hope was in the strength and discipline of his
+phalanx of infantry.  The principal force of the crusaders
+consisted in their cavalry; and when that force was mustered in
+the plains of Bithynia, the knights and their martial attendants
+on horseback amounted to one hundred thousand fighting men,
+completely armed with the helmet and coat of mail.  The value of
+these soldiers deserved a strict and authentic account; and the
+flower of European chivalry might furnish, in a first effort,
+this formidable body of heavy horse.  A part of the infantry
+might be enrolled for the service of scouts, pioneers, and
+archers; but the promiscuous crowd were lost in their own
+disorder; and we depend not on the eyes and knowledge, but on the
+belief and fancy, of a chaplain of Count Baldwin, ^74 in the
+estimate of six hundred thousand pilgrims able to bear arms,
+besides the priests and monks, the women and children of the
+Latin camp. The reader starts; and before he is recovered from
+his surprise, I shall add, on the same testimony, that if all who
+took the cross had accomplished their vow, above six millions
+would have migrated from Europe to Asia.  Under this oppression
+of faith, I derive some relief from a more sagacious and thinking
+writer, ^75 who, after the same review of the cavalry, accuses
+the credulity of the priest of Chartres, and even doubts whether
+the Cisalpine regions (in the geography of a Frenchman) were
+sufficient to produce and pour forth such incredible multitudes.
+The coolest scepticism will remember, that of these religious
+volunteers great numbers never beheld Constantinople and Nice.
+Of enthusiasm the influence is irregular and transient: many were
+detained at home by reason or cowardice, by poverty or weakness;
+and many were repulsed by the obstacles of the way, the more
+insuperable as they were unforeseen, to these ignorant fanatics.
+The savage countries of Hungary and Bulgaria were whitened with
+their bones: their vanguard was cut in pieces by the Turkish
+sultan; and the loss of the first adventure, by the sword, or
+climate, or fatigue, has already been stated at three hundred
+thousand men.  Yet the myriads that survived, that marched, that
+pressed forwards on the holy pilgrimage, were a subject of
+astonishment to themselves and to the Greeks. The copious energy
+of her language sinks under the efforts of the princess Anne: ^76
+the images of locusts, of leaves and flowers, of the sands of the
+sea, or the stars of heaven, imperfectly represent what she had
+seen and heard; and the daughter of Alexius exclaims, that Europe
+was loosened from its foundations, and hurled against Asia.  The
+ancient hosts of Darius and Xerxes labor under the same doubt of
+a vague and indefinite magnitude; but I am inclined to believe,
+that a larger number has never been contained within the lines of
+a single camp, than at the siege of Nice, the first operation of
+the Latin princes.  Their motives, their characters, and their
+arms, have been already displayed.  Of their troops the most
+numerous portion were natives of France: the Low Countries, the
+banks of the Rhine, and Apulia, sent a powerful reenforcement:
+some bands of adventurers were drawn from Spain, Lombardy, and
+England; ^77 and from the distant bogs and mountains of Ireland
+or Scotland ^78 issued some naked and savage fanatics, ferocious
+at home but unwarlike abroad.  Had not superstition condemned the
+sacrilegious prudence of depriving the poorest or weakest
+Christian of the merit of the pilgrimage, the useless crowd, with
+mouths but without hands, might have been stationed in the Greek
+empire, till their companions had opened and secured the way of
+the Lord.  A small remnant of the pilgrims, who passed the
+Bosphorus, was permitted to visit the holy sepulchre.  Their
+northern constitution was scorched by the rays, and infected by
+the vapors, of a Syrian sun.  They consumed, with heedless
+prodigality, their stores of water and provision: their numbers
+exhausted the inland country: the sea was remote, the Greeks were
+unfriendly, and the Christians of every sect fled before the
+voracious and cruel rapine of their brethren.  In the dire
+necessity of famine, they sometimes roasted and devoured the
+flesh of their infant or adult captives.  Among the Turks and
+Saracens, the idolaters of Europe were rendered more odious by
+the name and reputation of Cannibals; the spies, who introduced
+themselves into the kitchen of Bohemond, were shown several human
+bodies turning on the spit: and the artful Norman encouraged a
+report, which increased at the same time the abhorrence and the
+terror of the infidels. ^79
+
+[Footnote 73: There is some diversity on the numbers of his army;
+but no authority can be compared with that of Ptolemy, who states
+it at five thousand horse and thirty thousand foot, (see Usher's
+Annales, p 152.)]
+
+[Footnote 74: Fulcher. Carnotensis, p. 387.  He enumerates
+nineteen nations of different names and languages, (p. 389;) but
+I do not clearly apprehend his difference between the Franci and
+Galli, Itali and Apuli.  Elsewhere (p. 385) he contemptuously
+brands the deserters.]
+
+[Footnote 75: Guibert, p. 556.  Yet even his gentle opposition
+implies an
+immense multitude.  By Urban II., in the fervor of his zeal, it
+is only rated at 300,000 pilgrims, (epist. xvi. Concil. tom. xii.
+p. 731.)]
+
+[Footnote 76: Alexias, l. x. p. 283, 305.  Her fastidious
+delicacy complains of their strange and inarticulate names; and
+indeed there is scarcely one that she has not contrived to
+disfigure with the proud ignorance so dear and familiar to a
+polished people.  I shall select only one example, Sangeles, for
+the count of St. Giles.]
+
+[Footnote 77: William of Malmsbury (who wrote about the year
+1130) has inserted in his history (l. iv. p. 130-154) a narrative
+of the first crusade: but I wish that, instead of listening to
+the tenue murmur which had passed the British ocean, (p. 143,) he
+had confined himself to the numbers, families, and adventures of
+his countrymen.  I find in Dugdale, that an English Norman,
+Stephen earl of Albemarle and Holdernesse, led the rear-guard
+with Duke Robert, at the battle of Antioch, (Baronage, part i. p.
+61.)]
+
+[Footnote 78: Videres Scotorum apud se ferocium alias imbellium
+cuneos, (Guibert, p. 471;) the crus intectum and hispida chlamys,
+may suit the Highlanders; but the finibus uliginosis may rather
+apply to the Irish bogs. William of Malmsbury expressly mentions
+the Welsh and Scots, &c., (l. iv. p. 133,) who quitted, the
+former venatiorem, the latter familiaritatem pulicum.]
+
+[Footnote 79: This cannibal hunger, sometimes real, more
+frequently an artifice or a lie, may be found in Anna Comnena,
+(Alexias, l. x. p. 288,) Guibert, (p. 546,) Radulph. Cadom., (c.
+97.) The stratagem is related by the author of the Gesta
+Francorum, the monk Robert Baldric, and Raymond des Agiles, in
+the siege and famine of Antioch.]
+
+
+
+Chapter LVIII: The First Crusade.
+
+Part IV.
+
+I have expiated with pleasure on the first steps of the
+crusaders, as they paint the manners and character of Europe: but
+I shall abridge the tedious and uniform narrative of their blind
+achievements, which were performed by strength and are described
+by ignorance.  From their first station in the neighborhood of
+Nicomedia, they advanced in successive divisions; passed the
+contracted limit of the Greek empire; opened a road through the
+hills, and commenced, by the siege of his capital, their pious
+warfare against the Turkish sultan.  His kingdom of Roum extended
+from the Hellespont to the confines of Syria, and barred the
+pilgrimage of Jerusalem, his name was Kilidge-Arslan, or Soliman,
+^80 of the race of Seljuk, and son of the first conqueror; and in
+the defence of a land which the Turks considered as their own, he
+deserved the praise of his enemies, by whom alone he is known to
+posterity.  Yielding to the first impulse of the torrent, he
+deposited his family and treasure in Nice; retired to the
+mountains with fifty thousand horse; and twice descended to
+assault the camps or quarters of the Christian besiegers, which
+formed an imperfect circle of above six miles.  The lofty and
+solid walls of Nice were covered by a deep ditch, and flanked by
+three hundred and seventy towers; and on the verge of
+Christendom, the Moslems were trained in arms, and inflamed by
+religion.  Before this city, the French princes occupied their
+stations, and prosecuted their attacks without correspondence or
+subordination: emulation prompted their valor; but their valor
+was sullied by cruelty, and their emulation degenerated into envy
+and civil discord.  In the siege of Nice, the arts and engines of
+antiquity were employed by the Latins; the mine and the
+battering-ram, the tortoise, and the belfrey or movable turret,
+artificial fire, and the catapult and balist, the sling, and the
+crossbow for the casting of stones and darts. ^81 In the space of
+seven weeks much labor and blood were expended, and some
+progress, especially by Count Raymond, was made on the side of
+the besiegers.  But the Turks could protract their resistance and
+secure their escape, as long as they were masters of the Lake ^82
+Ascanius, which stretches several miles to the westward of the
+city.  The means of conquest were supplied by the prudence and
+industry of Alexius; a great number of boats was transported on
+sledges from the sea to the lake; they were filled with the most
+dexterous of his archers; the flight of the sultana was
+intercepted; Nice was invested by land and water; and a Greek
+emissary persuaded the inhabitants to accept his master's
+protection, and to save themselves, by a timely surrender, from
+the rage of the savages of Europe.  In the moment of victory, or
+at least of hope, the crusaders, thirsting for blood and plunder,
+were awed by the Imperial banner that streamed from the citadel;
+^* and Alexius guarded with jealous vigilance this important
+conquest.  The murmurs of the chiefs were stifled by honor or
+interest; and after a halt of nine days, they directed their
+march towards Phrygia under the guidance of a Greek general, whom
+they suspected of a secret connivance with the sultan.  The
+consort and the principal servants of Soliman had been honorably
+restored without ransom; and the emperor's generosity to the
+miscreants ^83 was interpreted as treason to the Christian cause.
+
+[Footnote 80: His Mussulman appellation of Soliman is used by the
+Latins, and his character is highly embellished by Tasso.  His
+Turkish name of Kilidge-Arslan (A. H. 485 - 500, A.D. 1192 -
+1206.  See De Guignes's Tables, tom. i. p. 245) is employed by
+the Orientals, and with some corruption by the Greeks; but little
+more than his name can be found in the Mahometan writers, who are
+dry and sulky on the subject of the first crusade, (De Guignes,
+tom. iii. p. ii. p. 10 - 30.)
+
+Note: See note, page 556.  Soliman and Kilidge-Arslan were
+father and son - M.]
+
+[Footnote 81: On the fortifications, engines, and sieges of the
+middle ages, see Muratori, (Antiquitat. Italiae, tom. ii.
+dissert. xxvi. p. 452 - 524.) The belfredus, from whence our
+belfrey, was the movable tower of the ancients, (Ducange, tom. i.
+p. 608.)]
+
+[Footnote 82: I cannot forbear remarking the resemblance between
+the siege and lake of Nice, with the operations of Hernan Cortez
+before Mexico.  See Dr. Robertson, History of America, l. v.]
+
+[Footnote *: See Anna Comnena. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 83: Mecreant, a word invented by the French crusaders,
+and confined in that language to its primitive sense.  It should
+seem, that the zeal of our ancestors boiled higher, and that they
+branded every unbeliever as a rascal. A similar prejudice still
+lurks in the minds of many who think themselves Christians.]
+
+Soliman was rather provoked than dismayed by the loss of his
+capital: he admonished his subjects and allies of this strange
+invasion of the Western Barbarians; the Turkish emirs obeyed the
+call of loyalty or religion; the Turkman hordes encamped round
+his standard; and his whole force is loosely stated by the
+Christians at two hundred, or even three hundred and sixty
+thousand horse.  Yet he patiently waited till they had left
+behind them the sea and the Greek frontier; and hovering on the
+flanks, observed their careless and confident progress in two
+columns beyond the view of each other. Some miles before they
+could reach Dorylaeum in Phrygia, the left, and least numerous,
+division was surprised, and attacked, and almost oppressed, by
+the Turkish cavalry. ^84 The heat of the weather, the clouds of
+arrows, and the barbarous onset, overwhelmed the crusaders; they
+lost their order and confidence, and the fainting fight was
+sustained by the personal valor, rather than by the military
+conduct, of Bohemond, Tancred, and Robert of Normandy. They were
+revived by the welcome banners of Duke Godfrey, who flew to their
+succor, with the count of Vermandois, and sixty thousand horse;
+and was followed by Raymond of Tholouse, the bishop of Puy, and
+the remainder of the sacred army.  Without a moment's pause, they
+formed in new order, and advanced to a second battle.  They were
+received with equal resolution; and, in their common disdain for
+the unwarlike people of Greece and Asia, it was confessed on both
+sides, that the Turks and the Franks were the only nations
+entitled to the appellation of soldiers. ^85 Their encounter was
+varied, and balanced by the contrast of arms and discipline; of
+the direct charge, and wheeling evolutions; of the couched lance,
+and the brandished javelin; of a weighty broadsword, and a
+crooked sabre; of cumbrous armor, and thin flowing robes; and of
+the long Tartar bow, and the arbalist or crossbow, a deadly
+weapon, yet unknown to the Orientals. ^86 As long as the horses
+were fresh, and the quivers full, Soliman maintained the
+advantage of the day; and four thousand Christians were pierced
+by the Turkish arrows.  In the evening, swiftness yielded to
+strength: on either side, the numbers were equal or at least as
+great as any ground could hold, or any generals could manage; but
+in turning the hills, the last division of Raymond and his
+provincials was led, perhaps without design on the rear of an
+exhausted enemy; and the long contest was determined.  Besides a
+nameless and unaccounted multitude, three thousand Pagan knights
+were slain in the battle and pursuit; the camp of Soliman was
+pillaged; and in the variety of precious spoil, the curiosity of
+the Latins was amused with foreign arms and apparel, and the new
+aspect of dromedaries and camels.  The importance of the victory
+was proved by the hasty retreat of the sultan: reserving ten
+thousand guards of the relics of his army, Soliman evacuated the
+kingdom of Roum, and hastened to implore the aid, and kindle the
+resentment, of his Eastern brethren.  In a march of five hundred
+miles, the crusaders traversed the Lesser Asia, through a wasted
+land and deserted towns, without finding either a friend or an
+enemy.  The geographer ^87 may trace the position of Dorylaeum,
+Antioch of Pisidia, Iconium, Archelais, and Germanicia, and may
+compare those classic appellations with the modern names of
+Eskishehr the old city, Akshehr the white city, Cogni, Erekli,
+and Marash.  As the pilgrims passed over a desert, where a
+draught of water is exchanged for silver, they were tormented by
+intolerable thirst; and on the banks of the first rivulet, their
+haste and intemperance were still more pernicious to the
+disorderly throng.  They climbed with toil and danger the steep
+and slippery sides of Mount Taurus; many of the soldiers cast
+away their arms to secure their footsteps; and had not terror
+preceded their van, the long and trembling file might have been
+driven down the precipice by a handful of resolute enemies.  Two
+of their most respectable chiefs, the duke of Lorraine and the
+count of Tholouse, were carried in litters: Raymond was raised,
+as it is said by miracle, from a hopeless malady; and Godfrey had
+been torn by a bear, as he pursued that rough and perilous chase
+in the mountains of Pisidia.
+
+[Footnote 84: Baronius has produced a very doubtful letter to his
+brother Roger, (A.D. 1098, No. 15.) The enemies consisted of
+Medes, Persians, Chaldeans: be it so.  The first attack was cum
+nostro incommodo; true and tender.  But why Godfrey of Bouillon
+and Hugh brothers!  Tancred is styled filius; of whom?  Certainly
+not of Roger, nor of Bohemond.]
+
+[Footnote 85: Verumtamen dicunt se esse de Francorum generatione;
+et quia nullus homo naturaliter debet esse miles nisi Franci et
+Turci, (Gesta Francorum, p. 7.) The same community of blood and
+valor is attested by Archbishop Baldric, (p. 99.)]
+
+[Footnote 86: Balista, Balestra, Arbalestre.  See Muratori,
+Antiq. tom. ii. p. 517 - 524.  Ducange, Gloss. Latin. tom. i. p.
+531, 532.  In the time of Anna Comnena, this weapon, which she
+describes under the name of izangra, was unknown in the East, (l.
+x. p. 291.) By a humane inconsistency, the pope strove to
+prohibit it in Christian wars.]
+
+[Footnote 87: The curious reader may compare the classic learning
+of Cellarius and the geographical science of D'Anville.  William
+of Tyre is the only historian of the crusades who has any
+knowledge of antiquity; and M. Otter trod almost in the footsteps
+of the Franks from Constantinople to Antioch, (Voyage en Turquie
+et en Perse, tom. i. p. 35 - 88.)
+
+Note: The journey of Col. Macdonald Kinneir in Asia Minor
+throws considerable light on the geography of this march of the
+crusaders. - M.]
+
+To improve the general consternation, the cousin of Bohemond
+and the brother of Godfrey were detached from the main army with
+their respective squadrons of five, and of seven, hundred
+knights.  They overran in a rapid career the hills and sea-coast
+of Cilicia, from Cogni to the Syrian gates: the Norman standard
+was first planted on the walls of Tarsus and Malmistra; but the
+proud injustice of Baldwin at length provoked the patient and
+generous Italian; and they turned their consecrated swords
+against each other in a private and profane quarrel.  Honor was
+the motive, and fame the reward, of Tancred; but fortune smiled
+on the more selfish enterprise of his rival. ^88 He was called to
+the assistance of a Greek or Armenian tyrant, who had been
+suffered under the Turkish yoke to reign over the Christians of
+Edessa. Baldwin accepted the character of his son and champion:
+but no sooner was he introduced into the city, than he inflamed
+the people to the massacre of his father, occupied the throne and
+treasure, extended his conquests over the hills of Armenia and
+the plain of Mesopotamia, and founded the first principality of
+the Franks or Latins, which subsisted fifty-four years beyond the
+Euphrates. ^89
+
+[Footnote 88: This detached conquest of Edessa is best
+represented by Fulcherius Carnotensis, or of Chartres, (in the
+collections of Bongarsius Duchesne, and Martenne,) the valiant
+chaplain of Count Baldwin (Esprit des Croisades, tom. i. p. 13,
+14.) In the disputes of that prince with Tancred, his partiality
+is encountered by the partiality of Radulphus Cadomensis, the
+soldier and historian of the gallant marquis.]
+
+[Footnote 89: See de Guignes, Hist. des Huns, tom. i. p. 456.]
+
+Before the Franks could enter Syria, the summer, and even
+the autumn, were completely wasted: the siege of Antioch, or the
+separation and repose of the army during the winter season, was
+strongly debated in their council: the love of arms and the holy
+sepulchre urged them to advance; and reason perhaps was on the
+side of resolution, since every hour of delay abates the fame and
+force of the invader, and multiplies the resources of defensive
+war.  The capital of Syria was protected by the River Orontes;
+and the iron bridge, ^* of nine arches, derives its name from the
+massy gates of the two towers which are constructed at either
+end.  They were opened by the sword of the duke of Normandy: his
+victory gave entrance to three hundred thousand crusaders, an
+account which may allow some scope for losses and desertion, but
+which clearly detects much exaggeration in the review of Nice.
+In the description of Antioch, ^90 it is not easy to define a
+middle term between her ancient magnificence, under the
+successors of Alexander and Augustus, and the modern aspect of
+Turkish desolation. The Tetrapolis, or four cities, if they
+retained their name and position, must have left a large vacuity
+in a circumference of twelve miles; and that measure, as well as
+the number of four hundred towers, are not perfectly consistent
+with the five gates, so often mentioned in the history of the
+siege.  Yet Antioch must have still flourished as a great and
+populous capital.  At the head of the Turkish emirs, Baghisian, a
+veteran chief, commanded in the place: his garrison was composed
+of six or seven thousand horse, and fifteen or twenty thousand
+foot: one hundred thousand Moslems are said to have fallen by the
+sword; and their numbers were probably inferior to the Greeks,
+Armenians, and Syrians, who had been no more than fourteen years
+the slaves of the house of Seljuk.  From the remains of a solid
+and stately wall, it appears to have arisen to the height of
+threescore feet in the valleys; and wherever less art and labor
+had been applied, the ground was supposed to be defended by the
+river, the morass, and the mountains. Notwithstanding these
+fortifications, the city had been repeatedly taken by the
+Persians, the Arabs, the Greeks, and the Turks; so large a
+circuit must have yielded many pervious points of attack; and in
+a siege that was formed about the middle of October, the vigor of
+the execution could alone justify the boldness of the attempt.
+Whatever strength and valor could perform in the field was
+abundantly discharged by the champions of the cross: in the
+frequent occasions of sallies, of forage, of the attack and
+defence of convoys, they were often victorious; and we can only
+complain, that their exploits are sometimes enlarged beyond the
+scale of probability and truth.  The sword of Godfrey ^91 divided
+a Turk from the shoulder to the haunch; and one half of the
+infidel fell to the ground, while the other was transported by
+his horse to the city gate. As Robert of Normandy rode against
+his antagonist, "I devote thy head," he piously exclaimed, "to
+the daemons of hell;" and that head was instantly cloven to the
+breast by the resistless stroke of his descending falchion. But
+the reality or the report of such gigantic prowess ^92 must have
+taught the Moslems to keep within their walls: and against those
+walls of earth or stone, the sword and the lance were unavailing
+weapons.  In the slow and successive labors of a siege, the
+crusaders were supine and ignorant, without skill to contrive, or
+money to purchase, or industry to use, the artificial engines and
+implements of assault.  In the conquest of Nice, they had been
+powerfully assisted by the wealth and knowledge of the Greek
+emperor: his absence was poorly supplied by some Genoese and
+Pisan vessels, that were attracted by religion or trade to the
+coast of Syria: the stores were scanty, the return precarious,
+and the communication difficult and dangerous. Indolence or
+weakness had prevented the Franks from investing the entire
+circuit; and the perpetual freedom of two gates relieved the
+wants and recruited the garrison of the city.  At the end of
+seven months, after the ruin of their cavalry, and an enormous
+loss by famine, desertion and fatigue, the progress of the
+crusaders was imperceptible, and their success remote, if the
+Latin Ulysses, the artful and ambitious Bohemond, had not
+employed the arms of cunning and deceit.  The Christians of
+Antioch were numerous and discontented: Phirouz, a Syrian
+renegado, had acquired the favor of the emir and the command of
+three towers; and the merit of his repentance disguised to the
+Latins, and perhaps to himself, the foul design of perfidy and
+treason.  A secret correspondence, for their mutual interest, was
+soon established between Phirouz and the prince of Tarento; and
+Bohemond declared in the council of the chiefs, that he could
+deliver the city into their hands. ^* But he claimed the
+sovereignty of Antioch as the reward of his service; and the
+proposal which had been rejected by the envy, was at length
+extorted from the distress, of his equals.  The nocturnal
+surprise was executed by the French and Norman princes, who
+ascended in person the scaling-ladders that were thrown from the
+walls: their new proselyte, after the murder of his too
+scrupulous brother, embraced and introduced the servants of
+Christ; the army rushed through the gates; and the Moslems soon
+found, that although mercy was hopeless, resistance was impotent.
+
+But the citadel still refused to surrender; and the victims
+themselves were speedily encompassed and besieged by the
+innumerable forces of Kerboga, prince of Mosul, who, with
+twenty-eight Turkish emirs, advanced to the deliverance of
+Antioch.  Five-and-twenty days the Christians spent on the verge
+of destruction; and the proud lieutenant of the caliph and the
+sultan left them only the choice of servitude or death. ^93 In
+this extremity they collected the relics of their strength,
+sallied from the town, and in a single memorable day, annihilated
+or dispersed the host of Turks and Arabians, which they might
+safely report to have consisted of six hundred thousand men. ^94
+Their supernatural allies I shall proceed to consider: the human
+causes of the victory of Antioch were the fearless despair of the
+Franks; and the surprise, the discord, perhaps the errors, of
+their unskilful and presumptuous adversaries.  The battle is
+described with as much disorder as it was fought; but we may
+observe the tent of Kerboga, a movable and spacious palace,
+enriched with the luxury of Asia, and capable of holding above
+two thousand persons; we may distinguish his three thousand
+guards, who were cased, the horse as well as the men, in complete
+steel. [Footnote *: This bridge was over the Ifrin, not the
+Orontes, at a distance of three leagues from Antioch.  See
+Wilken, vol. i. p. 172. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 90: For Antioch, see Pocock, (Description of the East,
+vol. ii. p. i. p. 188 - 193,) Otter, (Voyage en Turquie, &c.,
+tom. i. p. 81, &c.,) the Turkish geographer, (in Otter's notes,)
+the Index Geographicus of Schultens, (ad calcem Bohadin. Vit.
+Saladin.,) and Abulfeda, (Tabula Syriae, p. 115, 116, vers.
+Reiske.)]
+
+[Footnote 91: Ensem elevat, eumque a sinistra parte scapularum,
+tanta virtute intorsit, ut quod pectus medium disjunxit spinam et
+vitalia interrupit; et sic lubricus ensis super crus dextrum
+integer exivit: sicque caput integrum cum dextra parte corporis
+immersit gurgite, partemque quae equo praesidebat remisit
+civitati, (Robert. Mon. p. 50.) Cujus ense trajectus, Turcus duo
+factus est Turci: ut inferior alter in urbem equitaret, alter
+arcitenens in flumine nataret, (Radulph. Cadom. c. 53, p. 304.)
+Yet he justifies the deed by the stupendis viribus of Godfrey;
+and William of Tyre covers it by obstupuit populus facti novitate
+.... mirabilis, (l. v. c. 6, p. 701.) Yet it must not have
+appeared incredible to the knights of that age.]
+
+[Footnote 92: See the exploits of Robert, Raymond, and the modest
+Tancred who imposed silence on his squire, (Randulph. Cadom. c.
+53.)]
+
+[Footnote *: See the interesting extract from Kemaleddin's
+History of Aleppo in Wilken, preface to vol. ii. p. 36.  Phirouz,
+or Azzerrad, the breastplate maker, had been pillaged and put to
+the torture by Bagi Sejan, the prince of Antioch. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 93: After mentioning the distress and humble petition
+of the Franks, Abulpharagius adds the haughty reply of Codbuka,
+or Kerboga, "Non evasuri estis nisi per gladium," (Dynast. p.
+242.)]
+
+[Footnote 94: In describing the host of Kerboga, most of the
+Latin historians, the author of the Gesta, (p. 17,) Robert
+Monachus, p. 56,) Baldric, (p. 111,) Fulcherius Carnotensis, (p.
+392,) Guibert, (p. 512,) William of Tyre, (l. vi. c. 3, p. 714,)
+Bernard Thesaurarius, (c. 39, p. 695,) are content with the vague
+expressions of infinita multitudo, immensum agmen, innumerae
+copiae or gentes, which correspond with Anna Comnena, (Alexias,
+l. xi. p. 318 - 320.) The numbers of the Turks are fixed by
+Albert Aquensis at 200,000, (l. iv. c. 10, p. 242,) and by
+Radulphus Cadomensis at 400,000 horse, (c. 72, p. 309.)]
+
+In the eventful period of the siege and defence of Antioch,
+the crusaders were alternately exalted by victory or sunk in
+despair; either swelled with plenty or emaciated with hunger.  A
+speculative reasoner might suppose, that their faith had a strong
+and serious influence on their practice; and that the soldiers of
+the cross, the deliverers of the holy sepulchre, prepared
+themselves by a sober and virtuous life for the daily
+contemplation of martyrdom.  Experience blows away this
+charitable illusion; and seldom does the history of profane war
+display such scenes of intemperance and prostitution as were
+exhibited under the walls of Antioch. The grove of Daphne no
+longer flourished; but the Syrian air was still impregnated with
+the same vices; the Christians were seduced by every temptation
+^95 that nature either prompts or reprobates; the authority of
+the chiefs was despised; and sermons and edicts were alike
+fruitless against those scandalous disorders, not less pernicious
+to military discipline, than repugnant to evangelic purity.  In
+the first days of the siege and the possession of Antioch, the
+Franks consumed with wanton and thoughtless prodigality the
+frugal subsistence of weeks and months: the desolate country no
+longer yielded a supply; and from that country they were at
+length excluded by the arms of the besieging Turks.  Disease, the
+faithful companion of want, was envenomed by the rains of the
+winter, the summer heats, unwholesome food, and the close
+imprisonment of multitudes. The pictures of famine and pestilence
+are always the same, and always disgustful; and our imagination
+may suggest the nature of their sufferings and their resources.
+The remains of treasure or spoil were eagerly lavished in the
+purchase of the vilest nourishment; and dreadful must have been
+the calamities of the poor, since, after paying three marks of
+silver for a goat and fifteen for a lean camel, ^96 the count of
+Flanders was reduced to beg a dinner, and Duke Godfrey to borrow
+a horse.  Sixty thousand horse had been reviewed in the camp:
+before the end of the siege they were diminished to two thousand,
+and scarcely two hundred fit for service could be mustered on the
+day of battle. Weakness of body and terror of mind extinguished
+the ardent enthusiasm of the pilgrims; and every motive of honor
+and religion was subdued by the desire of life. ^97 Among the
+chiefs, three heroes may be found without fear or reproach:
+Godfrey of Bouillon was supported by his magnanimous piety;
+Bohemond by ambition and interest; and Tancred declared, in the
+true spirit of chivalry, that as long as he was at the head of
+forty knights, he would never relinquish the enterprise of
+Palestine.  But the count of Tholouse and Provence was suspected
+of a voluntary indisposition; the duke of Normandy was recalled
+from the sea-shore by the censures of the church: Hugh the Great,
+though he led the vanguard of the battle, embraced an ambiguous
+opportunity of returning to France and Stephen, count of
+Chartres, basely deserted the standard which he bore, and the
+council in which he presided.  The soldiers were discouraged by
+the flight of William, viscount of Melun, surnamed the Carpenter,
+from the weighty strokes of his axe; and the saints were
+scandalized by the fall ^* of Peter the Hermit, who, after arming
+Europe against Asia, attempted to escape from the penance of a
+necessary fast.  Of the multitude of recreant warriors, the names
+(says an historian) are blotted from the book of life; and the
+opprobrious epithet of the rope-dancers was applied to the
+deserters who dropped in the night from the walls of Antioch. The
+emperor Alexius, ^98 who seemed to advance to the succor of the
+Latins, was dismayed by the assurance of their hopeless
+condition.  They expected their fate in silent despair; oaths and
+punishments were tried without effect; and to rouse the soldiers
+to the defence of the walls, it was found necessary to set fire
+to their quarters.
+
+[Footnote 95: See the tragic and scandalous fate of an archdeacon
+of royal birth, who was slain by the Turks as he reposed in an
+orchard, playing at dice with a Syrian concubine.]
+
+[Footnote 96: The value of an ox rose from five solidi, (fifteen
+shillings,) at Christmas to two marks, (four pounds,) and
+afterwards much higher; a kid or lamb, from one shilling to
+eighteen of our present money: in the second famine, a loaf of
+bread, or the head of an animal, sold for a piece of gold. More
+examples might be produced; but it is the ordinary, not the
+extraordinary, prices, that deserve the notice of the
+philosopher.]
+
+[Footnote 97: Alli multi, quorum nomina non tenemus; quia, deleta
+de libro vitae, praesenti operi non sunt inserenda, (Will. Tyr.
+l. vi. c. 5, p. 715.) Guibert (p. 518, 523) attempts to excuse
+Hugh the Great, and even Stephen of Chartres.]
+
+[Footnote *: Peter fell during the siege: he went afterwards on
+an embassy to Kerboga Wilken. vol. i. p. 217. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 98: See the progress of the crusade, the retreat of
+Alexius, the victory of Antioch, and the conquest of Jerusalem,
+in the Alexiad, l. xi. p. 317 - 327.  Anna was so prone to
+exaggeration, that she magnifies the exploits of the Latins.]
+
+For their salvation and victory, they were indebted to the
+same fanaticism which had led them to the brink of ruin.  In such
+a cause, and in such an army, visions, prophecies, and miracles,
+were frequent and familiar. In the distress of Antioch, they were
+repeated with unusual energy and success: St. Ambrose had assured
+a pious ecclesiastic, that two years of trial must precede the
+season of deliverance and grace; the deserters were stopped by
+the presence and reproaches of Christ himself; the dead had
+promised to arise and combat with their brethren; the Virgin had
+obtained the pardon of their sins; and their confidence was
+revived by a visible sign, the seasonable and splendid discovery
+of the Holy Lance. The policy of their chiefs has on this
+occasion been admired, and might surely be excused; but a pious
+baud is seldom produced by the cool conspiracy of many persons;
+and a voluntary impostor might depend on the support of the wise
+and the credulity of the people.  Of the diocese of Marseilles,
+there was a priest of low cunning and loose manners, and his name
+was Peter Bartholemy.  He presented himself at the door of the
+council-chamber, to disclose an apparition of St. Andrew, which
+had been thrice reiterated in his sleep with a dreadful menace,
+if he presumed to suppress the commands of Heaven.  "At Antioch,"
+said the apostle, "in the church of my brother St. Peter, near
+the high altar, is concealed the steel head of the lance that
+pierced the side of our Redeemer.  In three days that instrument
+of eternal, and now of temporal, salvation, will be manifested to
+his disciples.  Search, and ye shall find: bear it aloft in
+battle; and that mystic weapon shall penetrate the souls of the
+miscreants." The pope's legate, the bishop of Puy, affected to
+listen with coldness and distrust; but the revelation was eagerly
+accepted by Count Raymond, whom his faithful subject, in the name
+of the apostle, had chosen for the guardian of the holy lance.
+The experiment was resolved; and on the third day after a due
+preparation of prayer and fasting, the priest of Marseilles
+introduced twelve trusty spectators, among whom were the count
+and his chaplain; and the church doors were barred against the
+impetuous multitude.  The ground was opened in the appointed
+place; but the workmen, who relieved each other, dug to the depth
+of twelve feet without discovering the object of their search.
+In the evening, when Count Raymond had withdrawn to his post, and
+the weary assistants began to murmur, Bartholemy, in his shirt,
+and without his shoes, boldly descended into the pit; the
+darkness of the hour and of the place enabled him to secrete and
+deposit the head of a Saracen lance; and the first sound, the
+first gleam, of the steel was saluted with a devout rapture.  The
+holy lance was drawn from its recess, wrapped in a veil of silk
+and gold, and exposed to the veneration of the crusaders; their
+anxious suspense burst forth in a general shout of joy and hope,
+and the desponding troops were again inflamed with the enthusiasm
+of valor.  Whatever had been the arts, and whatever might be the
+sentiments of the chiefs, they skilfully improved this fortunate
+revolution by every aid that discipline and devotion could
+afford.  The soldiers were dismissed to their quarters with an
+injunction to fortify their minds and bodies for the approaching
+conflict, freely to bestow their last pittance on themselves and
+their horses, and to expect with the dawn of day the signal of
+victory.  On the festival of St. Peter and St. Paul, the gates of
+Antioch were thrown open: a martial psalm, "Let the Lord arise,
+and let his enemies be scattered!" was chanted by a procession of
+priests and monks; the battle array was marshalled in twelve
+divisions, in honor of the twelve apostles; and the holy lance,
+in the absence of Raymond, was intrusted to the hands of his
+chaplain.  The influence of his relic or trophy, was felt by the
+servants, and perhaps by the enemies, of Christ; ^99 and its
+potent energy was heightened by an accident, a stratagem, or a
+rumor, of a miraculous complexion.  Three knights, in white
+garments and resplendent arms, either issued, or seemed to issue,
+from the hills: the voice of Adhemar, the pope's legate,
+proclaimed them as the martyrs St. George, St. Theodore, and St.
+Maurice: the tumult of battle allowed no time for doubt or
+scrutiny; and the welcome apparition dazzled the eyes or the
+imagination of a fanatic army. ^* In the season of danger and
+triumph, the revelation of Bartholemy of Marseilles was
+unanimously asserted; but as soon as the temporary service was
+accomplished, the personal dignity and liberal arms which the
+count of Tholouse derived from the custody of the holy lance,
+provoked the envy, and awakened the reason, of his rivals.  A
+Norman clerk presumed to sift, with a philosophic spirit, the
+truth of the legend, the circumstances of the discovery, and the
+character of the prophet; and the pious Bohemond ascribed their
+deliverance to the merits and intercession of Christ alone. For a
+while, the Provincials defended their national palladium with
+clamors and arms and new visions condemned to death and hell the
+profane sceptics who presumed to scrutinize the truth and merit
+of the discovery.  The prevalence of incredulity compelled the
+author to submit his life and veracity to the judgment of God.  A
+pile of dry fagots, four feet high and fourteen long, was erected
+in the midst of the camp; the flames burnt fiercely to the
+elevation of thirty cubits; and a narrow path of twelve inches
+was left for the perilous trial.  The unfortunate priest of
+Marseilles traversed the fire with dexterity and speed; but the
+thighs and belly were scorched by the intense heat; he expired
+the next day; ^** and the logic of believing minds will pay some
+regard to his dying protestations of innocence and truth.  Some
+efforts were made by the Provincials to substitute a cross, a
+ring, or a tabernacle, in the place of the holy lance, which soon
+vanished in contempt and oblivion. ^100 Yet the revelation of
+Antioch is gravely asserted by succeeding historians: and such is
+the progress of credulity, that miracles most doubtful on the
+spot, and at the moment, will be received with implicit faith at
+a convenient distance of time and space.
+
+[Footnote 99: The Mahometan Aboulmahasen (apud De Guignes, tom.
+ii. p. ii. p. 95) is more correct in his account of the holy
+lance than the Christians, Anna Comnena and Abulpharagius: the
+Greek princess confounds it with the nail of the cross, (l. xi.
+p. 326;) the Jacobite primate, with St. Peter's staff, p. 242.)]
+
+[Footnote *: The real cause of this victory appears to have been
+the feud in Kerboga's army Wilken, vol. ii. p. 40. - M.]
+
+[Footnote **: The twelfth day after.  He was much injured, and
+his flesh torn off, from the ardor of pious congratulation with
+which he was assailed by those who witnessed his escape, unhurt,
+as it was first supposed. Wilken vol. i p. 263 - M.]
+
+[Footnote 100: The two antagonists who express the most intimate
+knowledge and the strongest conviction of the miracle, and of the
+fraud, are Raymond des Agiles, and Radulphus Cadomensis, the one
+attached to the count of Tholouse, the other to the Norman
+prince.  Fulcherius Carnotensis presumes to say, Audite fraudem
+et non fraudem!  and afterwards, Invenit lanceam, fallaciter
+occultatam forsitan.  The rest of the herd are loud and
+strenuous.]
+
+The prudence or fortune of the Franks had delayed their
+invasion till the decline of the Turkish empire. ^101 Under the
+manly government of the three first sultans, the kingdoms of Asia
+were united in peace and justice; and the innumerable armies
+which they led in person were equal in courage, and superior in
+discipline, to the Barbarians of the West.  But at the time of
+the crusade, the inheritance of Malek Shaw was disputed by his
+four sons; their private ambition was insensible of the public
+danger; and, in the vicissitudes of their fortune, the royal
+vassals were ignorant, or regardless, of the true object of their
+allegiance.  The twenty-eight emirs who marched with the standard
+or Kerboga were his rivals or enemies: their hasty levies were
+drawn from the towns and tents of Mesopotamia and Syria; and the
+Turkish veterans were employed or consumed in the civil wars
+beyond the Tigris.  The caliph of Egypt embraced this opportunity
+of weakness and discord to recover his ancient possessions; and
+his sultan Aphdal besieged Jerusalem and Tyre, expelled the
+children of Ortok, and restored in Palestine the civil and
+ecclesiastical authority of the Fatimites. ^102 They heard with
+astonishment of the vast armies of Christians that had passed
+from Europe to Asia, and rejoiced in the sieges and battles which
+broke the power of the Turks, the adversaries of their sect and
+monarchy. But the same Christians were the enemies of the
+prophet; and from the overthrow of Nice and Antioch, the motive
+of their enterprise, which was gradually understood, would urge
+them forwards to the banks of the Jordan, or perhaps of the Nile.
+
+An intercourse of epistles and embassies, which rose and fell
+with the events of war, was maintained between the throne of
+Cairo and the camp of the Latins; and their adverse pride was the
+result of ignorance and enthusiasm.  The ministers of Egypt
+declared in a haughty, or insinuated in a milder, tone, that
+their sovereign, the true and lawful commander of the faithful,
+had rescued Jerusalem from the Turkish yoke; and that the
+pilgrims, if they would divide their numbers, and lay aside their
+arms, should find a safe and hospitable reception at the
+sepulchre of Jesus. In the belief of their lost condition, the
+caliph Mostali despised their arms and imprisoned their deputies:
+the conquest and victory of Antioch prompted him to solicit those
+formidable champions with gifts of horses and silk robes, of
+vases, and purses of gold and silver; and in his estimate of
+their merit or power, the first place was assigned to Bohemond,
+and the second to Godfrey. In either fortune, the answer of the
+crusaders was firm and uniform: they disdained to inquire into
+the private claims or possessions of the followers of Mahomet;
+whatsoever was his name or nation, the usurper of Jerusalem was
+their enemy; and instead of prescribing the mode and terms of
+their pilgrimage, it was only by a timely surrender of the city
+and province, their sacred right, that he could deserve their
+alliance, or deprecate their impending and irresistible attack.
+^103
+
+[Footnote 101: See M. De Guignes, tom. ii. p. ii. p. 223, &c.;
+and the articles of Barkidrok, Mohammed, Sangiar, in D'Herbelot.]
+
+[Footnote 102: The emir, or sultan, Aphdal, recovered Jerusalem
+and Tyre, A. H. 489, (Renaudot, Hist. Patriarch.  Alexandrin. p.
+478. De Guignes, tom. i. p. 249, from Abulfeda and Ben Schounah.)
+Jerusalem ante adventum vestrum recuperavimus, Turcos ejecimus,
+say the Fatimite ambassadors]
+
+[Footnote 103: See the transactions between the caliph of Egypt
+and the crusaders in William of Tyre (l. iv. c. 24, l. vi. c. 19)
+and Albert Aquensis, (l. iii. c. 59,) who are more sensible of
+their importance than the contemporary writers.]
+
+Yet this attack, when they were within the view and reach of
+their glorious prize, was suspended above ten months after the
+defeat of Kerboga. The zeal and courage of the crusaders were
+chilled in the moment of victory; and instead of marching to
+improve the consternation, they hastily dispersed to enjoy the
+luxury, of Syria.  The causes of this strange delay may be found
+in the want of strength and subordination.  In the painful and
+various service of Antioch, the cavalry was annihilated; many
+thousands of every rank had been lost by famine, sickness, and
+desertion: the same abuse of plenty had been productive of a
+third famine; and the alternative of intemperance and distress
+had generated a pestilence, which swept away above fifty thousand
+of the pilgrims.  Few were able to command, and none were willing
+to obey; the domestic feuds, which had been stifled by common
+fear, were again renewed in acts, or at least in sentiments, of
+hostility; the fortune of Baldwin and Bohemond excited the envy
+of their companions; the bravest knights were enlisted for the
+defence of their new principalities; and Count Raymond exhausted
+his troops and treasures in an idle expedition into the heart of
+Syria. ^* The winter was consumed in discord and disorder; a
+sense of honor and religion was rekindled in the spring; and the
+private soldiers, less susceptible of ambition and jealousy,
+awakened with angry clamors the indolence of their chiefs.  In
+the month of May, the relics of this mighty host proceeded from
+Antioch to Laodicea: about forty thousand Latins, of whom no more
+than fifteen hundred horse, and twenty thousand foot, were
+capable of immediate service.  Their easy march was continued
+between Mount Libanus and the sea-shore: their wants were
+liberally supplied by the coasting traders of Genoa and Pisa; and
+they drew large contributions from the emirs of Tripoli, Tyre,
+Sidon, Acre, and Caesarea, who granted a free passage, and
+promised to follow the example of Jerusalem.  From Caesarea they
+advanced into the midland country; their clerks recognized the
+sacred geography of Lydda, Ramla, Emmaus, and Bethlem, ^* and as
+soon as they descried the holy city, the crusaders forgot their
+toils and claimed their reward. ^104
+
+[Footnote *: This is not quite correct: he took Marra on his
+road.  His excursions were partly to obtain provisions for the
+army and fodder for the horses Wilken, vol. i. p. 226. - M.]
+
+[Footnote *: Scarcely of Bethlehem, to the south of Jerusalem. -
+M.]
+
+[Footnote 104: The greatest part of the march of the Franks is
+traced, and most accurately traced, in Maundrell's Journey from
+Aleppo to Jerusalem, (p. 11 - 67;) un des meilleurs morceaux,
+sans contredit qu'on ait dans ce genre, (D'Anville, Memoire sur
+Jerusalem, p. 27.)]
+
+
+
+Chapter LVIII: The First Crusade.
+
+Part V.
+
+Jerusalem has derived some reputation from the number and
+importance of her memorable sieges.  It was not till after a long
+and obstinate contest that Babylon and Rome could prevail against
+the obstinacy of the people, the craggy ground that might
+supersede the necessity of fortifications, and the walls and
+towers that would have fortified the most accessible plain. ^105
+These obstacles were diminished in the age of the crusades.  The
+bulwarks had been completely destroyed and imperfectly restored:
+the Jews, their nation, and worship, were forever banished; but
+nature is less changeable than man, and the site of Jerusalem,
+though somewhat softened and somewhat removed, was still strong
+against the assaults of an enemy.  By the experience of a recent
+siege, and a three years' possession, the Saracens of Egypt had
+been taught to discern, and in some degree to remedy, the defects
+of a place, which religion as well as honor forbade them to
+resign.  Aladin, or Iftikhar, the caliph's lieutenant, was
+intrusted with the defence: his policy strove to restrain the
+native Christians by the dread of their own ruin and that of the
+holy sepulchre; to animate the Moslems by the assurance of
+temporal and eternal rewards.  His garrison is said to have
+consisted of forty thousand Turks and Arabians; and if he could
+muster twenty thousand of the inhabitants, it must be confessed
+that the besieged were more numerous than the besieging army.
+^106 Had the diminished strength and numbers of the Latins
+allowed them to grasp the whole circumference of four thousand
+yards, (about two English miles and a half, ^107) to what useful
+purpose should they have descended into the valley of Ben Hinnom
+and torrent of Cedron, ^108 or approach the precipices of the
+south and east, from whence they had nothing either to hope or
+fear? Their siege was more reasonably directed against the
+northern and western sides of the city.  Godfrey of Bouillon
+erected his standard on the first swell of Mount Calvary: to the
+left, as far as St. Stephen's gate, the line of attack was
+continued by Tancred and the two Roberts; and Count Raymond
+established his quarters from the citadel to the foot of Mount
+Sion, which was no longer included within the precincts of the
+city.  On the fifth day, the crusaders made a general assault, in
+the fanatic hope of battering down the walls without engines, and
+of scaling them without ladders.  By the dint of brutal force,
+they burst the first barrier; but they were driven back with
+shame and slaughter to the camp: the influence of vision and
+prophecy was deadened by the too frequent abuse of those pious
+stratagems; and time and labor were found to be the only means of
+victory.  The time of the siege was indeed fulfilled in forty
+days, but they were forty days of calamity and anguish.  A
+repetition of the old complaint of famine may be imputed in some
+degree to the voracious or disorderly appetite of the Franks; but
+the stony soil of Jerusalem is almost destitute of water; the
+scanty springs and hasty torrents were dry in the summer season;
+nor was the thirst of the besiegers relieved, as in the city, by
+the artificial supply of cisterns and aqueducts. The circumjacent
+country is equally destitute of trees for the uses of shade or
+building, but some large beams were discovered in a cave by the
+crusaders: a wood near Sichem, the enchanted grove of Tasso, ^109
+was cut down: the necessary timber was transported to the camp by
+the vigor and dexterity of Tancred; and the engines were framed
+by some Genoese artists, who had fortunately landed in the harbor
+of Jaffa.  Two movable turrets were constructed at the expense,
+and in the stations, of the duke of Lorraine and the count of
+Tholouse, and rolled forwards with devout labor, not to the most
+accessible, but to the most neglected, parts of the
+fortification. Raymond's Tower was reduced to ashes by the fire
+of the besieged, but his colleague was more vigilant and
+successful; ^* the enemies were driven by his archers from the
+rampart; the draw-bridge was let down; and on a Friday, at three
+in the afternoon, the day and hour of the passion, Godfrey of
+Bouillon stood victorious on the walls of Jerusalem.  His example
+was followed on every side by the emulation of valor; and about
+four hundred and sixty years after the conquest of Omar, the holy
+city was rescued from the Mahometan yoke.  In the pillage of
+public and private wealth, the adventurers had agreed to respect
+the exclusive property of the first occupant; and the spoils of
+the great mosque, seventy lamps and massy vases of gold and
+silver, rewarded the diligence, and displayed the generosity, of
+Tancred.  A bloody sacrifice was offered by his mistaken votaries
+to the God of the Christians: resistance might provoke but
+neither age nor sex could mollify, their implacable rage: they
+indulged themselves three days in a promiscuous massacre; ^110
+and the infection of the dead bodies produced an epidemical
+disease.  After seventy thousand Moslems had been put to the
+sword, and the harmless Jews had been burnt in their synagogue,
+they could still reserve a multitude of captives, whom interest
+or lassitude persuaded them to spare.  Of these savage heroes of
+the cross, Tancred alone betrayed some sentiments of compassion;
+yet we may praise the more selfish lenity of Raymond, who granted
+a capitulation and safe-conduct to the garrison of the citadel.
+^111 The holy sepulchre was now free; and the bloody victors
+prepared to accomplish their vow.  Bareheaded and barefoot, with
+contrite hearts, and in an humble posture, they ascended the hill
+of Calvary, amidst the loud anthems of the clergy; kissed the
+stone which had covered the Savior of the world; and bedewed with
+tears of joy and penitence the monument of their redemption.
+This union of the fiercest and most tender passions has been
+variously considered by two philosophers; by the one, ^112 as
+easy and natural; by the other, ^113 as absurd and incredible.
+Perhaps it is too rigorously applied to the same persons and the
+same hour; the example of the virtuous Godfrey awakened the piety
+of his companions; while they cleansed their bodies, they
+purified their minds; nor shall I believe that the most ardent in
+slaughter and rapine were the foremost in the procession to the
+holy sepulchre.
+
+[Footnote 105: See the masterly description of Tacitus, (Hist. v.
+11, 12, 13,) who supposes that the Jewish lawgivers had provided
+for a perpetual state of hostility against the rest of mankind.
+
+Note: This is an exaggerated inference from the words of
+Tacitus, who speaks of the founders of the city, not the
+lawgivers. Praeviderant conditores, ex diversitate morum, crebra
+bella; inde cuncta quamvis adversus loagum obsidium. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 106: The lively scepticism of Voltaire is balanced with
+sense and erudition by the French author of the Esprit des
+Croisades, (tom. iv. p. 386 - 388,) who observes, that, according
+to the Arabians, the inhabitants of Jerusalem must have exceeded
+200,000; that in the siege of Titus, Josephus collects 1,300,000
+Jews; that they are stated by Tacitus himself at 600,000; and
+that the largest defalcation, that his accepimus can justify,
+will still leave them more numerous than the Roman army.]
+
+[Footnote 107: Maundrell, who diligently perambulated the walls,
+found a circuit of 4630 paces, or 4167 English yards, (p. 109,
+110: ) from an authentic plan, D'Anville concludes a measure
+nearly similar, of 1960 French toises, (p. 23 - 29,) in his
+scarce and valuable tract.  For the topography of Jerusalem, see
+Reland, (Palestina, tom. ii. p. 832 - 860.)]
+
+[Footnote 108: Jerusalem was possessed only of the torrent of
+Kedron, dry in summer, and of the little spring or brook of
+Siloe, (Reland, tom. i. p. 294, 300.) Both strangers and natives
+complain of the want of water, which, in time of war, was
+studiously aggravated.  Within the city, Tacitus mentions a
+perennial fountain, an aqueduct and cisterns for rain water. The
+aqueduct was conveyed from the rivulet Tekos or Etham, which is
+likewise mentioned by Bohadin, (in Vit. Saludio p. 238.)]
+
+[Footnote 109: Gierusalomme Liberata, canto xiii.  It is pleasant
+enough to observe how Tasso has copied and embellished the
+minutest details of the siege.]
+
+[Footnote *: This does not appear by Wilken's account, (p. 294.)
+They fought in vair the whole of the Thursday. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 110: Besides the Latins, who are not ashamed of the
+massacre, see Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 363,) Abulpharagius,
+(Dynast. p. 243,) and M. De Guignes, tom. ii. p. ii. p. 99, from
+Aboulmahasen.]
+
+[Footnote 111: The old tower Psephina, in the middle ages
+Neblosa, was named Castellum Pisanum, from the patriarch
+Daimbert.  It is still the citadel, the residence of the Turkish
+aga, and commands a prospect of the Dead Sea, Judea, and Arabia,
+(D'Anville, p. 19 - 23.) It was likewise called the Tower of
+David.]
+
+[Footnote 112: Hume, in his History of England, vol. i. p. 311,
+312, octavo edition.]
+
+[Footnote 113: Voltaire, in his Essai sur l'Histoire Generale,
+tom ii. c. 54, p 345, 346]
+
+Eight days after this memorable event, which Pope Urban did
+not live to hear, the Latin chiefs proceeded to the election of a
+king, to guard and govern their conquests in Palestine.  Hugh the
+Great, and Stephen of Chartres, had retired with some loss of
+reputation, which they strove to regain by a second crusade and
+an honorable death.  Baldwin was established at Edessa, and
+Bohemond at Antioch; and two Roberts, the duke of Normandy ^114
+and the count of Flanders, preferred their fair inheritance in
+the West to a doubtful competition or a barren sceptre. The
+jealousy and ambition of Raymond were condemned by his own
+followers, and the free, the just, the unanimous voice of the
+army proclaimed Godfrey of Bouillon the first and most worthy of
+the champions of Christendom.  His magnanimity accepted a trust
+as full of danger as of glory; but in a city where his Savior had
+been crowned with thorns, the devout pilgrim rejected the name
+and ensigns of royalty; and the founder of the kingdom of
+Jerusalem contented himself with the modest title of Defender and
+Baron of the Holy Sepulchre.  His government of a single year,
+^115 too short for the public happiness, was interrupted in the
+first fortnight by a summons to the field, by the approach of the
+vizier or sultan of Egypt, who had been too slow to prevent, but
+who was impatient to avenge, the loss of Jerusalem. His total
+overthrow in the battle of Ascalon sealed the establishment of
+the Latins in Syria, and signalized the valor of the French
+princes who in this action bade a long farewell to the holy wars.
+
+Some glory might be derived from the prodigious inequality of
+numbers, though I shall not count the myriads of horse and foot
+^* on the side of the Fatimites; but, except three thousand
+Ethiopians or Blacks, who were armed with flails or scourges of
+iron, the Barbarians of the South fled on the first onset, and
+afforded a pleasing comparison between the active valor of the
+Turks and the sloth and effeminacy of the natives of Egypt.
+After suspending before the holy sepulchre the sword and standard
+of the sultan, the new king (he deserves the title) embraced his
+departing companions, and could retain only with the gallant
+Tancred three hundred knights, and two thousand foot-soldiers for
+the defence of Palestine.  His sovereignty was soon attacked by a
+new enemy, the only one against whom Godfrey was a coward.
+Adhemar, bishop of Puy, who excelled both in council and action,
+had been swept away in the last plague at Antioch: the remaining
+ecclesiastics preserved only the pride and avarice of their
+character; and their seditious clamors had required that the
+choice of a bishop should precede that of a king.  The revenue
+and jurisdiction of the lawful patriarch were usurped by the
+Latin clergy: the exclusion of the Greeks and Syrians was
+justified by the reproach of heresy or schism; ^116 and, under
+the iron yoke of their deliverers, the Oriental Christians
+regretted the tolerating government of the Arabian caliphs.
+Daimbert, archbishop of Pisa, had long been trained in the secret
+policy of Rome: he brought a fleet at his countrymen to the
+succor of the Holy Land, and was installed, without a competitor,
+the spiritual and temporal head of the church. ^* The new
+patriarch ^117 immediately grasped the sceptre which had been
+acquired by the toil and blood of the victorious pilgrims; and
+both Godfrey and Bohemond submitted to receive at his hands the
+investiture of their feudal possessions. Nor was this sufficient;
+Daimbert claimed the immediate property of Jerusalem and Jaffa;
+instead of a firm and generous refusal, the hero negotiated with
+the priest; a quarter of either city was ceded to the church; and
+the modest bishop was satisfied with an eventual reversion of the
+rest, on the death of Godfrey without children, or on the future
+acquisition of a new seat at Cairo or Damascus.
+
+[Footnote 114: The English ascribe to Robert of Normandy, and the
+Provincials to Raymond of Tholouse, the glory of refusing the
+crown; but the honest voice of tradition has preserved the memory
+of the ambition and revenge (Villehardouin, No. 136) of the count
+of St. Giles.  He died at the siege of Tripoli, which was
+possessed by his descendants.]
+
+[Footnote 115: See the election, the battle of Ascalon, &c., in
+William of Tyre l. ix. c. 1 - 12, and in the conclusion of the
+Latin historians of the first crusade.]
+
+[Footnote *: 20,000 Franks, 300,000 Mussulmen, according to
+Wilken, (vol. ii. p. 9) - M.]
+
+[Footnote 116: Renaudot, Hist. Patriarch. Alex. p. 479.]
+
+[Footnote *: Arnulf was first chosen, but illegitimately, and
+degraded.  He was ever after the secret enemy of Daimbert or
+Dagobert.  Wilken, vol. i. p. 306, vol. ii. p. 52. - M]
+
+[Footnote 117: See the claims of the patriarch Daimbert, in
+William of Tyre (l. ix. c. 15 - 18, x. 4, 7, 9,) who asserts with
+marvellous candor the independence of the conquerors and kings of
+Jerusalem.]
+
+Without this indulgence, the conqueror would have almost
+been stripped of his infant kingdom, which consisted only of
+Jerusalem and Jaffa, with about twenty villages and towns of the
+adjacent country. ^118 Within this narrow verge, the Mahometans
+were still lodged in some impregnable castles: and the
+husbandman, the trader, and the pilgrim, were exposed to daily
+and domestic hostility.  By the arms of Godfrey himself, and of
+the two Baldwins, his brother and cousin, who succeeded to the
+throne, the Latins breathed with more ease and safety; and at
+length they equalled, in the extent of their dominions, though
+not in the millions of their subjects, the ancient princes of
+Judah and Israel. ^119 After the reduction of the maritime cities
+of Laodicea, Tripoli, Tyre, and Ascalon, ^120 which were
+powerfully assisted by the fleets of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, and
+even of Flanders and Norway, ^121 the range of sea-coast from
+Scanderoon to the borders of Egypt was possessed by the Christian
+pilgrims.  If the prince of Antioch disclaimed his supremacy, the
+counts of Edessa and Tripoli owned themselves the vassals of the
+king of Jerusalem: the Latins reigned beyond the Euphrates; and
+the four cities of Hems, Hamah, Damascus, and Aleppo, were the
+only relics of the Mahometan conquests in Syria. ^122 The laws
+and language, the manners and titles, of the French nation and
+Latin church, were introduced into these transmarine colonies.
+According to the feudal jurisprudence, the principal states and
+subordinate baronies descended in the line of male and female
+succession: ^123 but the children of the first conquerors, ^124 a
+motley and degenerate race, were dissolved by the luxury of the
+climate; the arrival of new crusaders from Europe was a doubtful
+hope and a casual event.  The service of the feudal tenures ^125
+was performed by six hundred and sixty-six knights, who might
+expect the aid of two hundred more under the banner of the count
+of Tripoli; and each knight was attended to the field by four
+squires or archers on horseback. ^126 Five thousand and seventy
+sergeants, most probably foot-soldiers, were supplied by the
+churches and cities; and the whole legal militia of the kingdom
+could not exceed eleven thousand men, a slender defence against
+the surrounding myriads of Saracens and Turks. ^127 But the
+firmest bulwark of Jerusalem was founded on the knights of the
+Hospital of St. John, ^128 and of the temple of Solomon; ^129 on
+the strange association of a monastic and military life, which
+fanaticism might suggest, but which policy must approve.  The
+flower of the nobility of Europe aspired to wear the cross, and
+to profess the vows, of these respectable orders; their spirit
+and discipline were immortal; and the speedy donation of
+twenty-eight thousand farms, or manors, ^130 enabled them to
+support a regular force of cavalry and infantry for the defence
+of Palestine.  The austerity of the convent soon evaporated in
+the exercise of arms; the world was scandalized by the pride,
+avarice, and corruption of these Christian soldiers; their claims
+of immunity and jurisdiction disturbed the harmony of the church
+and state; and the public peace was endangered by their jealous
+emulation.  But in their most dissolute period, the knights of
+their hospital and temple maintained their fearless and fanatic
+character: they neglected to live, but they were prepared to die,
+in the service of Christ; and the spirit of chivalry, the parent
+and offspring of the crusades, has been transplanted by this
+institution from the holy sepulchre to the Isle of Malta. ^131
+
+[Footnote 118: Willerm. Tyr. l. x. 19.  The Historia
+Hierosolimitana of Jacobus a Vitriaco (l. i. c. 21 - 50) and the
+Secreta Fidelium Crucis of Marinus Sanutus (l. iii. p. 1)
+describe the state and conquests of the Latin kingdom of
+Jerusalem.]
+
+[Footnote 119: An actual muster, not including the tribes of Levi
+and Benjamin, gave David an army of 1,300,000 or 1,574,000
+fighting men; which, with the addition of women, children, and
+slaves, may imply a population of thirteen millions, in a country
+sixty leagues in length, and thirty broad. The honest and
+rational Le Clerc (Comment on 2d Samuel xxiv. and 1st Chronicles,
+xxi.) aestuat angusto in limite, and mutters his suspicion of a
+false transcript; a dangerous suspicion!
+
+Note: David determined to take a census of his vast
+dominions, which extended from Lebanon to the frontiers of Egypt,
+from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean.  The numbers (in 2 Sam.
+xxiv. 9, and 1 Chron. xxi. 5) differ; but the lowest gives
+800,000 men fit to bear arms in Israel, 500,000 in Judah. Hist.
+of Jews, vol. i. p. 248.  Gibbon has taken the highest census in
+his estimate of the population, and confined the dominions of
+David to Jordandic Palestine. - M.]
+
+[Footnote 120: These sieges are related, each in its proper
+place, in the great history of William of Tyre, from the ixth to
+the xviiith book, and more briefly told by Bernardus
+Thesaurarius, (de Acquisitione Terrae Sanctae, c. 89 - 98, p. 732
+- 740.) Some domestic facts are celebrated in the Chronicles of
+Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, in the vith, ixth, and xiith tomes of
+Muratori.]
+
+[Footnote 121: Quidam populus de insulis occidentis egressus, et
+maxime de ea parte quae Norvegia dicitur.  William of Tyre (l.
+xi. c. 14, p. 804) marks their course per Britannicum Mare et
+Calpen to the siege of Sidon.]
+
+[Footnote 122: Benelathir, apud De Guignes, Hist. des Huns, tom.
+ii. part ii. p. 150, 151, A.D. 1127.  He must speak of the inland
+country.]
+
+[Footnote 123: Sanut very sensibly descants on the mischiefs of
+female succession, in a land hostibus circumdata, ubi cuncta
+virilia et virtuosa esse deberent.  Yet, at the summons, and with
+the approbation, of her feudal lord, a noble damsel was obliged
+to choose a husband and champion, (Assises de Jerusalem, c. 242,
+&c.) See in M. De Guignes (tom. i. p. 441 - 471) the accurate and
+useful tables of these dynasties, which are chiefly drawn from
+the Lignages d'Outremer.]
+
+[Footnote 124: They were called by derision Poullains, Pallani,
+and their name is never pronounced without contempt, (Ducange,
+Gloss. Latin. tom. v. p. 535; and Observations sur Joinville, p.
+84, 85; Jacob. a Vitriaco Hist. Hierosol. i. c. 67, 72; and
+Sanut, l. iii. p. viii. c. 2, p. 182.) Illustrium virorum, qui ad
+Terrae Sanctae .... liberationem in ipsa manserunt, degeneres
+filii .... in deliciis enutriti, molles et effoe minati, &c.]
+
+[Footnote 125: This authentic detail is extracted from the
+Assises de Jerusalem (c. 324, 326 - 331.) Sanut (l. iii. p. viii.
+c. 1, p. 174) reckons only 518 knights, and 5775 followers.]
+
+[Footnote 126: The sum total, and the division, ascertain the
+service of the three great baronies at 100 knights each; and the
+text of the Assises, which extends the number to 500, can only be
+justified by this supposition.]
+
+[Footnote 127: Yet on great emergencies (says Sanut) the barons
+brought a voluntary aid; decentem comitivam militum juxta statum
+suum.]
+
+[Footnote 128: William of Tyre (l. xviii. c. 3, 4, 5) relates the
+ignoble origin and early insolence of the Hospitallers, who soon
+deserted their humble patron, St. John the Eleemosynary, for the
+more august character of St. John the Baptist, (see the
+ineffectual struggles of Pagi, Critica, A. D 1099, No. 14 - 18.)
+They assumed the profession of arms about the year 1120; the
+Hospital was mater; the Temple filia; the Teutonic order was
+founded A.D. 1190, at the siege of Acre, (Mosheim Institut p.
+389, 390.)]
+
+[Footnote 129: See St. Bernard de Laude Novae Militiae Templi,
+composed A.D. 1132 - 1136, in Opp. tom. i. p. ii. p. 547 - 563,
+edit. Mabillon, Venet. 1750. Such an encomium, which is thrown
+away on the dead Templars, would be highly valued by the
+historians of Malta.]
+
+[Footnote 130: Matthew Paris, Hist. Major, p. 544.  He assigns to
+the Hospitallers 19,000, to the Templars 9,000 maneria, word of
+much higher import (as Ducange has rightly observed) in the
+English than in the French idiom. Manor is a lordship, manoir a
+dwelling.]
+
+[Footnote 131: In the three first books of the Histoire de
+Chevaliers de Malthe par l'Abbe de Vertot, the reader may amuse
+himself with a fair, and sometimes flattering, picture of the
+order, while it was employed for the defence of Palestine.  The
+subsequent books pursue their emigration to Rhodes and Malta.]
+
+The spirit of freedom, which pervades the feudal
+institutions, was felt in its strongest energy by the volunteers
+of the cross, who elected for their chief the most deserving of
+his peers.  Amidst the slaves of Asia, unconscious of the lesson
+or example, a model of political liberty was introduced; and the
+laws of the French kingdom are derived from the purest source of
+equality and justice.  Of such laws, the first and indispensable
+condition is the assent of those whose obedience they require,
+and for whose benefit they are designed. No sooner had Godfrey of
+Bouillon accepted the office of supreme magistrate, than he
+solicited the public and private advice of the Latin pilgrims,
+who were the best skilled in the statutes and customs of Europe.
+From these materials, with the counsel and approbation of the
+patriarch and barons, of the clergy and laity, Godfrey composed
+the Assise of Jerusalem, ^132 a precious monument of feudal
+jurisprudence.  The new code, attested by the seals of the king,
+the patriarch, and the viscount of Jerusalem, was deposited in
+the holy sepulchre, enriched with the improvements of succeeding
+times, and respectfully consulted as often as any doubtful
+question arose in the tribunals of Palestine.  With the kingdom
+and city all was lost: ^133 the fragments of the written law were
+preserved by jealous tradition ^134 and variable practice till
+the middle of the thirteenth century: the code was restored by
+the pen of John d'Ibelin, count of Jaffa, one of the principal
+feudatories; ^135 and the final revision was accomplished in the
+year thirteen hundred and sixty-nine, for the use of the Latin
+kingdom of Cyprus. ^136
+
+[Footnote 132: The Assises de Jerusalem, in old law French, were
+printed with Beaumanoir's Coutumes de Beauvoisis, (Bourges and
+Paris, 1690, in folio,) and illustrated by Gaspard Thaumas de la
+Thaumassiere, with a comment and glossary.  An Italian version
+had been published in 1534, at Venice, for the use of the kingdom
+of Cyprus.
+
+Note: See Wilken, vol. i. p. 17, &c., - M.]
+
+[Footnote 133: A la terre perdue, tout fut perdu, is the vigorous
+expression of the Assise, (c. 281.) Yet Jerusalem capitulated
+with Saladin; the queen and the principal Christians departed in
+peace; and a code so precious and so portable could not provoke
+the avarice of the conquerors. I have sometimes suspected the
+existence of this original copy of the Holy Sepulchre, which
+might be invented to sanctify and authenticate the traditionary
+customs of the French in Palestine.]
+
+[Footnote 134: A noble lawyer, Raoul de Tabarie, denied the
+prayer of King Amauri, (A.D. 1195 - 1205,) that he would commit
+his knowledged to writing, and frankly declared, que de ce qu'il
+savoit ne feroit-il ja nul borjois son pareill, ne null sage
+homme lettre, (c. 281.)]
+
+[Footnote 135: The compiler of this work, Jean d'Ibelin, was
+count of Jaffa and Ascalon, lord of Baruth (Berytus) and Rames,
+and died A.D. 1266, (Sanut, l. iii. p. ii. c. 5, 8.) The family
+of Ibelin, which descended from a younger brother of a count of
+Chartres in France, long flourished in Palestine and Cyprus, (see
+the Lignages de deca Mer, or d'Outremer, c. 6, at the end of the
+Assises de Jerusalem, an original book, which records the
+pedigrees of the French adventurers.)]
+
+[Footnote 136: By sixteen commissioners chosen in the states of
+the island: the work was finished the 3d of November, 1369,
+sealed with four seals and deposited in the cathedral of Nicosia,
+(see the preface to the Assises.)]
+
+The justice and freedom of the constitution were maintained
+by two tribunals of unequal dignity, which were instituted by
+Godfrey of Bouillon after the conquest of Jerusalem.  The king,
+in person, presided in the upper court, the court of the barons.
+Of these the four most conspicuous were the prince of Galilee,
+the lord of Sidon and Caesarea, and the counts of Jaffa and
+Tripoli, who, perhaps with the constable and marshal, ^137 were
+in a special manner the compeers and judges of each other.  But
+all the nobles, who held their lands immediately of the crown,
+were entitled and bound to attend the king's court; and each
+baron exercised a similar jurisdiction on the subordinate
+assemblies of his own feudatories.  The connection of lord and
+vassal was honorable and voluntary: reverence was due to the
+benefactor, protection to the dependant; but they mutually
+pledged their faith to each other; and the obligation on either
+side might be suspended by neglect or dissolved by injury.  The
+cognizance of marriages and testaments was blended with religion,
+and usurped by the clergy: but the civil and criminal causes of
+the nobles, the inheritance and tenure of their fiefs, formed the
+proper occupation of the supreme court.  Each member was the
+judge and guardian both of public and private rights.  It was his
+duty to assert with his tongue and sword the lawful claims of the
+lord; but if an unjust superior presumed to violate the freedom
+or property of a vassal, the confederate peers stood forth to
+maintain his quarrel by word and deed.  They boldly affirmed his
+innocence and his wrongs; demanded the restitution of his liberty
+or his lands; suspended, after a fruitless demand, their own
+service; rescued their brother from prison; and employed every
+weapon in his defence, without offering direct violence to the
+person of their lord, which was ever sacred in their eyes. ^138
+In their pleadings, replies, and rejoinders, the advocates of the
+court were subtle and copious; but the use of argument and
+evidence was often superseded by judicial combat; and the Assise
+of Jerusalem admits in many cases this barbarous institution,
+which has been slowly abolished by the laws and manners of
+Europe.
+
+[Footnote 137: The cautious John D'Ibelin argues, rather than
+affirms, that Tripoli is the fourth barony, and expresses some
+doubt concerning the right or pretension of the constable and
+marshal, (c. 323.)]
+
+[Footnote 138: Entre seignor et homme ne n'a que la foi; ....
+mais tant que l'homme doit a son seignor reverence en toutes
+choses, (c. 206.) Tous les hommes dudit royaume sont par ladite
+Assise tenus les uns as autres .... et en celle maniere que le
+seignor mette main ou face mettre au cors ou au fie d'aucun
+d'yaus sans esgard et sans connoissans de court, que tous les
+autres doivent venir devant le seignor, &c., (212.) The form of
+their remonstrances is conceived with the noble simplicity of
+freedom.]
+
+The trial by battle was established in all criminal cases
+which affected the life, or limb, or honor, of any person; and in
+all civil transactions, of or above the value of one mark of
+silver.  It appears that in criminal cases the combat was the
+privilege of the accuser, who, except in a charge of treason,
+avenged his personal injury, or the death of those persons whom
+he had a right to represent; but wherever, from the nature of the
+charge, testimony could be obtained, it was necessary for him to
+produce witnesses of the fact.  In civil cases, the combat was
+not allowed as the means of establishing the claim of the
+demandant; but he was obliged to produce witnesses who had, or
+assumed to have, knowledge of the fact. The combat was then the
+privilege of the defendant; because he charged the witness with
+an attempt by perjury to take away his right.  He came therefore
+to be in the same situation as the appellant in criminal cases.
+It was not then as a mode of proof that the combat was received,
+nor as making negative evidence, (according to the supposition of
+Montesquieu; ^139) but in every case the right to offer battle
+was founded on the right to pursue by arms the redress of an
+injury; and the judicial combat was fought on the same principle,
+and with the same spirit, as a private duel. Champions were only
+allowed to women, and to men maimed or past the age of sixty.
+The consequence of a defeat was death to the person accused, or
+to the champion or witness, as well as to the accuser himself:
+but in civil cases, the demandant was punished with infamy and
+the loss of his suit, while his witness and champion suffered
+ignominious death.  In many cases it was in the option of the
+judge to award or to refuse the combat: but two are specified, in
+which it was the inevitable result of the challenge; if a
+faithful vassal gave the lie to his compeer, who unjustly claimed
+any portion of their lord's demesnes; or if an unsuccessful
+suitor presumed to impeach the judgment and veracity of the
+court.  He might impeach them, but the terms were severe and
+perilous: in the same day he successively fought all the members
+of the tribunal, even those who had been absent; a single defeat
+was followed by death and infamy; and where none could hope for
+victory, it is highly probable that none would adventure the
+trial.  In the Assise of Jerusalem, the legal subtlety of the
+count of Jaffa is more laudably employed to elude, than to
+facilitate, the judicial combat, which he derives from a
+principle of honor rather than of superstition. ^140
+
+[Footnote 139: See l'Esprit des Loix, l. xxviii.  In the forty
+years since its publication, no work has been more read and
+criticized; and the spirit of inquiry which it has excited is not
+the least of our obligations to the author.]
+
+[Footnote 140: For the intelligence of this obscure and obsolete
+jurisprudence (c. 80 - 111) I am deeply indebted to the
+friendship of a learned lord, who, with an accurate and
+discerning eye, has surveyed the philosophic history of law.  By
+his studies, posterity might be enriched: the merit of the orator
+and the judge can be felt only by his contemporaries.]
+
+Among the causes which enfranchised the plebeians from the
+yoke of feudal tyranny, the institution of cities and
+corporations is one of the most powerful; and if those of
+Palestine are coeval with the first crusade, they may be ranked
+with the most ancient of the Latin world.  Many of the pilgrims
+had escaped from their lords under the banner of the cross; and
+it was the policy of the French princes to tempt their stay by
+the assurance of the rights and privileges of freemen.  It is
+expressly declared in the Assise of Jerusalem, that after
+instituting, for his knights and barons, the court of peers, in
+which he presided himself, Godfrey of Bouillon established a
+second tribunal, in which his person was represented by his
+viscount.  The jurisdiction of this inferior court extended over
+the burgesses of the kingdom; and it was composed of a select
+number of the most discreet and worthy citizens, who were sworn
+to judge, according to the laws of the actions and fortunes of
+their equals. ^141 In the conquest and settlement of new cities,
+the example of Jerusalem was imitated by the kings and their
+great vassals; and above thirty similar corporations were founded
+before the loss of the Holy Land.  Another class of subjects, the
+Syrians, ^142 or Oriental Christians, were oppressed by the zeal
+of the clergy, and protected by the toleration of the state.
+Godfrey listened to their reasonable prayer, that they might be
+judged by their own national laws.  A third court was instituted
+for their use, of limited and domestic jurisdiction: the sworn
+members were Syrians, in blood, language, and religion; but the
+office of the president (in Arabic, of the rais) was sometimes
+exercised by the viscount of the city.  At an immeasurable
+distance below the nobles, the burgesses, and the strangers, the
+Assise of Jerusalem condescends to mention the villains and
+slaves, the peasants of the land and the captives of war, who
+were almost equally considered as the objects of property.  The
+relief or protection of these unhappy men was not esteemed worthy
+of the care of the legislator; but he diligently provides for the
+recovery, though not indeed for the punishment, of the fugitives.
+Like hounds, or hawks, who had strayed from the lawful owner,
+they might be lost and claimed: the slave and falcon were of the
+same value; but three slaves, or twelve oxen, were accumulated to
+equal the price of the war-horse; and a sum of three hundred
+pieces of gold was fixed, in the age of chivalry, as the
+equivalent of the more noble animal. ^143
+
+[Footnote 141: Louis le Gros, who is considered as the father of
+this institution in France, did not begin his reign till nine
+years (A.D. 1108) after Godfrey of Bouillon, (Assises, c. 2,
+324.) For its origin and effects, see the judicious remarks of
+Dr. Robertson, (History of Charles V. vol. i. p. 30 - 36, 251 -
+265, quarto edition.)]
+
+[Footnote 142: Every reader conversant with the historians of the
+crusades will understand by the peuple des Suriens, the Oriental
+Christians, Melchites, Jacobites, or Nestorians, who had all
+adopted the use of the Arabic language, (vol. iv. p. 593.)]
+
+[Footnote 143: See the Assises de Jerusalem, (310, 311, 312.)
+These laws were enacted as late as the year 1350, in the kingdom
+of Cyprus.  In the same century, in the reign of Edward I., I
+understand, from a late publication, (of his Book of Account,)
+that the price of a war-horse was not less exorbitant in
+England.]
+
+
+
+
+
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