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diff --git a/735-h/735-h.htm b/735-h/735-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d09550d --- /dev/null +++ b/735-h/735-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,34979 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of History Of The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, Volume 5 by Edward Gibbon</title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> +<style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + div.chapter {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 4em;} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +p.letter {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:hover {color:red} + +</style> + </head> + <body> + +<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold;'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire<br /> +Volume 5</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Edward Gibbon</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Commentator: H. H. Milman</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Release Date: November, 1996 [eBook #735]<br /> +[Most recently updated: March 7, 2021]</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: David Reed and David Widger</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em;margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE ***</div> + +<h1>HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE</h1> + +<h2>Edward Gibbon, Esq.</h2> + +<h2>With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman</h2> + +<h3>Vol. 5</h3> + +<h4>1788 (Written), 1845 (Revised)</h4> + +<hr /> + +<h2>Contents</h2> + +<p> +<a href="#chap49.1">Chapter XLIX: Conquest +Of Italy By The Franks.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Introduction, Worship, And Persecution Of Images.—Revolt Of +Italy And Rome.—Temporal Dominion Of The Popes.—Conquest +Of Italy By The Franks.—Establishment Of Images.—Character +And Coronation Of Charlemagne.—Restoration And Decay Of The +Roman Empire In The West.—Independence Of Italy.— +Constitution Of The Germanic Body. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap49.2">Chapter XLIX: Conquest +Of Italy By The Franks.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap49.3">Chapter XLIX: Conquest +Of Italy By The Franks.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap49.4">Chapter XLIX: Conquest +Of Italy By The Franks.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap49.5">Chapter XLIX: Conquest +Of Italy By The Franks.—Part V. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap49.6">Chapter XLIX: Conquest +Of Italy By The Franks.—Part VI. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap50.1">Chapter L: Description +Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Birth, +Character, And Doctrine Of Mahomet.—He Preaches At Mecca.— +Flies To Medina.—Propagates His Religion By The Sword.— +Voluntary Or Reluctant Submission Of The Arabs.—His Death +And Successors.—The Claims And Fortunes Of Ali And His +Descendants. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap50.2">Chapter L: Description +Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap50.3">Chapter L: Description +Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap50.4">Chapter L: Description +Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap50.5">Chapter L: Description +Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part V. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap50.6">Chapter L: Description +Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part VI. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap50.7"> Chapter L: Description +Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part VII. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap50.8">Chapter L: Description +Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part VIII. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap51.1">Chapter LI: Conquests +By The Arabs.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Conquest Of Persia, Syria, Egypt, Africa, And Spain, By +The Arabs Or Saracens.—Empire Of The Caliphs, Or Successors +Of Mahomet.—State Of The Christians, &c., Under Their +Government. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap51.2">Chapter LI: Conquests +By The Arabs.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap51.3">Chapter LI: Conquests +By The Arabs.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap51.4">Chapter LI: Conquests +By The Arabs.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap51.5">Chapter LI: Conquests +By The Arabs.—Part V. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap51.6">Chapter LI: Conquests +By The Arabs.—Part VI. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap51.7">Chapter LI: Conquests +By The Arabs.—Part VII. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap52.1">Chapter LII: More +Conquests By The Arabs.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Two Sieges Of Constantinople By The Arabs.—Their +Invasion Of France, And Defeat By Charles Martel.—Civil War +Of The Ommiades And Abbassides.—Learning Of The Arabs.— +Luxury Of The Caliphs.—Naval Enterprises On Crete, Sicily, +And Rome.—Decay And Division Of The Empire Of The Caliphs. +—Defeats And Victories Of The Greek Emperors. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap52.2">Chapter LII: More +Conquests By The Arabs.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap52.3">Chapter LII: More +Conquests By The Arabs.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap52.4">Chapter LII: More +Conquests By The Arabs.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap52.5">Chapter LII: More +Conquests By The Arabs.—Part V. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap53.1">Chapter LIII: Fate Of +The Eastern Empire.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Fate Of The Eastern Empire In The Tenth Century.—Extent And +Division.—Wealth And Revenue.—Palace Of Constantinople.— +Titles And Offices.—Pride And Power Of The Emperors.— +Tactics Of The Greeks, Arabs, And Franks.—Loss Of The Latin +Tongue.—Studies And Solitude Of The Greeks. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap53.2">Chapter LIII: Fate Of +The Eastern Empire.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap53.3">Chapter LIII: Fate Of +The Eastern Empire.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap53.4">Chapter LIII: Fate Of +The Eastern Empire.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap54.1">Chapter LIV: Origin +And Doctrine Of The Paulicians.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Origin And Doctrine Of The Paulicians.—Their Persecution By +The Greek Emperors.—Revolt In Armenia &c.—Transplantation +Into Thrace.—Propagation In The West.—The Seeds, +Character, And Consequences Of The Reformation. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap54.2">Chapter LIV: Origin +And Doctrine Of The Paulicians.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap55.1">Chapter LV: The +Bulgarians, The Hungarians And The Russians.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Bulgarians.—Origin, Migrations, And Settlement Of The +Hungarians.—Their Inroads In The East And West.—The +Monarchy Of Russia.—Geography And Trade.—Wars Of The +Russians Against The Greek Empire.—Conversion Of The +Barbarians. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap55.2">Chapter LV: The +Bulgarians, The Hungarians And The Russians.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap55.3">Chapter LV: The +Bulgarians, The Hungarians And The Russians.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap56.1">Chapter LVI: The +Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Saracens, Franks, And Greeks, In Italy.—First +Adventures And Settlement Of The Normans.—Character And +Conquest Of Robert Guiscard, Duke Of Apulia—Deliverance Of +Sicily By His Brother Roger.—Victories Of Robert Over The +Emperors Of The East And West.—Roger, King Of Sicily, +Invades Africa And Greece.—The Emperor Manuel Comnenus.— +Wars Of The Greeks And Normans.—Extinction Of The Normans. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap56.2">Chapter LVI: The +Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap56.3">Chapter LVI: The +Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap56.4">Chapter LVI: The +Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap56.5">Chapter LVI: The +Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.—Part V. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap57.1">Chapter LVII: The +Turks.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Turks Of The House Of Seljuk.—Their Revolt Against +Mahmud Conqueror Of Hindostan.—Togrul Subdues Persia, And +Protects The Caliphs.—Defeat And Captivity Of The Emperor +Romanus Diogenes By Alp Arslan.—Power And Magnificence Of +Malek Shah.—Conquest Of Asia Minor And Syria.—State And +Oppression Of Jerusalem.—Pilgrimages To The Holy Sepulchre. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap57.2">Chapter LVII: The +Turks.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap57.3">Chapter LVII: The +Turks.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap58.1">Chapter LVIII: The +First Crusade.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Origin And Numbers Of The First Crusade.—Characters Of The Latin +Princes.—Their March To Constantinople.—Policy Of The Greek +Emperor Alexius.—Conquest Of Nice, Antioch, And Jerusalem, By The +Franks.—Deliverance Of The Holy Sepulchre.— Godfrey Of Bouillon, +First King Of Jerusalem.—Institutions Of The French Or Latin Kingdom. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap58.2">Chapter LVIII: The +First Crusade.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap58.3">Chapter LVIII: The +First Crusade.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap58.4">Chapter LVIII: The +First Crusade.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap58.5">Chapter LVIII: The +First Crusade.—Part V. </a> +</p> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap49.1"></a> + Chapter XLIX: Conquest Of Italy By The Franks.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Introduction, Worship, And Persecution Of Images.—Revolt Of + Italy And Rome.—Temporal Dominion Of The Popes.—Conquest + Of Italy By The Franks.—Establishment Of Images.—Character + And Coronation Of Charlemagne.—Restoration And Decay Of The + Roman Empire In The West.—Independence Of Italy.— + Constitution Of The Germanic Body. +</pre> + <p> + In the connection of the church and state, I have considered the former as + subservient only, and relative, to the latter; a salutary maxim, if in + fact, as well as in narrative, it had ever been held sacred. The Oriental + philosophy of the Gnostics, the dark abyss of predestination and grace, + and the strange transformation of the Eucharist from the sign to the + substance of Christ’s body, <a href="#linknote-49.1" name="linknoteref-49.1" + id="linknoteref-49.1">1</a> I have purposely abandoned to the curiosity of + speculative divines. But I have reviewed, with diligence and pleasure, the + objects of ecclesiastical history, by which the decline and fall of the + Roman empire were materially affected, the propagation of Christianity, + the constitution of the Catholic church, the ruin of Paganism, and the + sects that arose from the mysterious controversies concerning the Trinity + and incarnation. At the head of this class, we may justly rank the worship + of images, so fiercely disputed in the eighth and ninth centuries; since a + question of popular superstition produced the revolt of Italy, the + temporal power of the popes, and the restoration of the Roman empire in + the West. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.1" id="linknote-49.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.1">return</a>)<br /> [ The learned Selden has + given the history of transubstantiation in a comprehensive and pithy + sentence: “This opinion is only rhetoric turned into logic,” (his Works, + vol. iii. p. 2037, in his Table-Talk.)] + </p> + <p> + The primitive Christians were possessed with an unconquerable repugnance + to the use and abuse of images; and this aversion may be ascribed to their + descent from the Jews, and their enmity to the Greeks. The Mosaic law had + severely proscribed all representations of the Deity; and that precept was + firmly established in the principles and practice of the chosen people. + The wit of the Christian apologists was pointed against the foolish + idolaters, who bowed before the workmanship of their own hands; the images + of brass and marble, which, had they been endowed with sense and motion, + should have started rather from the pedestal to adore the creative powers + of the artist. <a href="#linknote-49.2" name="linknoteref-49.2" + id="linknoteref-49.2">2</a> Perhaps some recent and imperfect converts of the + Gnostic tribe might crown the statues of Christ and St. Paul with the + profane honors which they paid to those of Aristotle and Pythagoras; <a + href="#linknote-49.3" name="linknoteref-49.3" id="linknoteref-49.3">3</a> but the + public religion of the Catholics was uniformly simple and spiritual; and + the first notice of the use of pictures is in the censure of the council + of Illiberis, three hundred years after the Christian aera. Under the + successors of Constantine, in the peace and luxury of the triumphant + church, the more prudent bishops condescended to indulge a visible + superstition, for the benefit of the multitude; and, after the ruin of + Paganism, they were no longer restrained by the apprehension of an odious + parallel. The first introduction of a symbolic worship was in the + veneration of the cross, and of relics. The saints and martyrs, whose + intercession was implored, were seated on the right hand of God; but the + gracious and often supernatural favors, which, in the popular belief, were + showered round their tomb, conveyed an unquestionable sanction of the + devout pilgrims, who visited, and touched, and kissed these lifeless + remains, the memorials of their merits and sufferings. <a + href="#linknote-49.4" name="linknoteref-49.4" id="linknoteref-49.4">4</a> But a + memorial, more interesting than the skull or the sandals of a departed + worthy, is the faithful copy of his person and features, delineated by the + arts of painting or sculpture. In every age, such copies, so congenial to + human feelings, have been cherished by the zeal of private friendship, or + public esteem: the images of the Roman emperors were adored with civil, + and almost religious, honors; a reverence less ostentatious, but more + sincere, was applied to the statues of sages and patriots; and these + profane virtues, these splendid sins, disappeared in the presence of the + holy men, who had died for their celestial and everlasting country. At + first, the experiment was made with caution and scruple; and the venerable + pictures were discreetly allowed to instruct the ignorant, to awaken the + cold, and to gratify the prejudices of the heathen proselytes. By a slow + though inevitable progression, the honors of the original were transferred + to the copy: the devout Christian prayed before the image of a saint; and + the Pagan rites of genuflection, luminaries, and incense, again stole into + the Catholic church. The scruples of reason, or piety, were silenced by + the strong evidence of visions and miracles; and the pictures which speak, + and move, and bleed, must be endowed with a divine energy, and may be + considered as the proper objects of religious adoration. The most + audacious pencil might tremble in the rash attempt of defining, by forms + and colors, the infinite Spirit, the eternal Father, who pervades and + sustains the universe. <a href="#linknote-49.5" name="linknoteref-49.5" + id="linknoteref-49.5">5</a> But the superstitious mind was more easily + reconciled to paint and to worship the angels, and, above all, the Son of + God, under the human shape, which, on earth, they have condescended to + assume. The second person of the Trinity had been clothed with a real and + mortal body; but that body had ascended into heaven: and, had not some + similitude been presented to the eyes of his disciples, the spiritual + worship of Christ might have been obliterated by the visible relics and + representations of the saints. A similar indulgence was requisite and + propitious for the Virgin Mary: the place of her burial was unknown; and + the assumption of her soul and body into heaven was adopted by the + credulity of the Greeks and Latins. The use, and even the worship, of + images was firmly established before the end of the sixth century: they + were fondly cherished by the warm imagination of the Greeks and Asiatics: + the Pantheon and Vatican were adorned with the emblems of a new + superstition; but this semblance of idolatry was more coldly entertained + by the rude Barbarians and the Arian clergy of the West. The bolder forms + of sculpture, in brass or marble, which peopled the temples of antiquity, + were offensive to the fancy or conscience of the Christian Greeks: and a + smooth surface of colors has ever been esteemed a more decent and harmless + mode of imitation. <a href="#linknote-49.6" name="linknoteref-49.6" + id="linknoteref-49.6">6</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.2" id="linknote-49.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.2">return</a>)<br /> [ Nec intelligunt homines + ineptissimi, quod si sentire simulacra et moveri possent, adoratura + hominem fuissent a quo sunt expolita. (Divin. Institut. l. ii. c. 2.) + Lactantius is the last, as well as the most eloquent, of the Latin + apologists. Their raillery of idols attacks not only the object, but the + form and matter.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.3" id="linknote-49.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.3">return</a>)<br /> [ See Irenaeus, Epiphanius, + and Augustin, (Basnage, Hist. des Eglises Reformees, tom. ii. p. 1313.) + This Gnostic practice has a singular affinity with the private worship of + Alexander Severus, (Lampridius, c. 29. Lardner, Heathen Testimonies, vol. + iii. p. 34.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.4" id="linknote-49.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.4">return</a>)<br /> [ See this History, vol. ii. + p. 261; vol. ii. p. 434; vol. iii. p. 158-163.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.5" id="linknote-49.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.5">return</a>)<br /> [ (Concilium Nicenum, ii. in + Collect. Labb. tom. viii. p. 1025, edit. Venet.) Il seroit peut-etre + a-propos de ne point souffrir d’images de la Trinite ou de la Divinite; + les defenseurs les plus zeles des images ayant condamne celles-ci, et le + concile de Trente ne parlant que des images de Jesus Christ et des Saints, + (Dupin, Bibliot. Eccles. tom. vi. p. 154.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.6" id="linknote-49.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.6">return</a>)<br /> [ This general history of + images is drawn from the xxiid book of the Hist. des Eglises Reformees of + Basnage, tom. ii. p. 1310-1337. He was a Protestant, but of a manly + spirit; and on this head the Protestants are so notoriously in the right, + that they can venture to be impartial. See the perplexity of poor Friar + Pagi, Critica, tom. i. p. 42.] + </p> + <p> + The merit and effect of a copy depends on its resemblance with the + original; but the primitive Christians were ignorant of the genuine + features of the Son of God, his mother, and his apostles: the statue of + Christ at Paneas in Palestine <a href="#linknote-49.7" name="linknoteref-49.7" + id="linknoteref-49.7">7</a> was more probably that of some temporal savior; + the Gnostics and their profane monuments were reprobated; and the fancy of + the Christian artists could only be guided by the clandestine imitation of + some heathen model. In this distress, a bold and dexterous invention + assured at once the likeness of the image and the innocence of the + worship. A new super structure of fable was raised on the popular basis of + a Syrian legend, on the correspondence of Christ and Abgarus, so famous in + the days of Eusebius, so reluctantly deserted by our modern advocates. The + bishop of Caesarea <a href="#linknote-49.8" name="linknoteref-49.8" + id="linknoteref-49.8">8</a> records the epistle, <a href="#linknote-49.9" + name="linknoteref-49.9" id="linknoteref-49.9">9</a> but he most strangely + forgets the picture of Christ; <a href="#linknote-49.10" name="linknoteref-49.10" + id="linknoteref-49.10">10</a> the perfect impression of his face on a linen, + with which he gratified the faith of the royal stranger who had invoked + his healing power, and offered the strong city of Edessa to protect him + against the malice of the Jews. The ignorance of the primitive church is + explained by the long imprisonment of the image in a niche of the wall, + from whence, after an oblivion of five hundred years, it was released by + some prudent bishop, and seasonably presented to the devotion of the + times. Its first and most glorious exploit was the deliverance of the city + from the arms of Chosroes Nushirvan; and it was soon revered as a pledge + of the divine promise, that Edessa should never be taken by a foreign + enemy. It is true, indeed, that the text of Procopius ascribes the double + deliverance of Edessa to the wealth and valor of her citizens, who + purchased the absence and repelled the assaults of the Persian monarch. He + was ignorant, the profane historian, of the testimony which he is + compelled to deliver in the ecclesiastical page of Evagrius, that the + Palladium was exposed on the rampart, and that the water which had been + sprinkled on the holy face, instead of quenching, added new fuel to the + flames of the besieged. After this important service, the image of Edessa + was preserved with respect and gratitude; and if the Armenians rejected + the legend, the more credulous Greeks adored the similitude, which was not + the work of any mortal pencil, but the immediate creation of the divine + original. The style and sentiments of a Byzantine hymn will declare how + far their worship was removed from the grossest idolatry. “How can we with + mortal eyes contemplate this image, whose celestial splendor the host of + heaven presumes not to behold? He who dwells in heaven, condescends this + day to visit us by his venerable image; He who is seated on the cherubim, + visits us this day by a picture, which the Father has delineated with his + immaculate hand, which he has formed in an ineffable manner, and which we + sanctify by adoring it with fear and love.” Before the end of the sixth + century, these images, made without hands, (in Greek it is a single word, + <a href="#linknote-49.11" name="linknoteref-49.11" id="linknoteref-49.11">11</a> + were propagated in the camps and cities of the Eastern empire: <a + href="#linknote-49.12" name="linknoteref-49.12" id="linknoteref-49.12">12</a> they + were the objects of worship, and the instruments of miracles; and in the + hour of danger or tumult, their venerable presence could revive the hope, + rekindle the courage, or repress the fury, of the Roman legions. Of these + pictures, the far greater part, the transcripts of a human pencil, could + only pretend to a secondary likeness and improper title: but there were + some of higher descent, who derived their resemblance from an immediate + contact with the original, endowed, for that purpose, with a miraculous + and prolific virtue. The most ambitious aspired from a filial to a + fraternal relation with the image of Edessa; and such is the veronica of + Rome, or Spain, or Jerusalem, which Christ in his agony and bloody sweat + applied to his face, and delivered to a holy matron. The fruitful + precedent was speedily transferred to the Virgin Mary, and the saints and + martyrs. In the church of Diospolis, in Palestine, the features of the + Mother of God <a href="#linknote-49.13" name="linknoteref-49.13" + id="linknoteref-49.13">13</a> were deeply inscribed in a marble column; the + East and West have been decorated by the pencil of St. Luke; and the + Evangelist, who was perhaps a physician, has been forced to exercise the + occupation of a painter, so profane and odious in the eyes of the + primitive Christians. The Olympian Jove, created by the muse of Homer and + the chisel of Phidias, might inspire a philosophic mind with momentary + devotion; but these Catholic images were faintly and flatly delineated by + monkish artists in the last degeneracy of taste and genius. <a + href="#linknote-49.14" name="linknoteref-49.14" id="linknoteref-49.14">14</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.7" id="linknote-49.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.7">return</a>)<br /> [ After removing some rubbish + of miracle and inconsistency, it may be allowed, that as late as the year + 300, Paneas in Palestine was decorated with a bronze statue, representing + a grave personage wrapped in a cloak, with a grateful or suppliant female + kneeling before him, and that an inscription was perhaps inscribed on the + pedestal. By the Christians, this group was foolishly explained of their + founder and the poor woman whom he had cured of the bloody flux, (Euseb. + vii. 18, Philostorg. vii. 3, &c.) M. de Beausobre more reasonably + conjectures the philosopher Apollonius, or the emperor Vespasian: in the + latter supposition, the female is a city, a province, or perhaps the queen + Berenice, (Bibliotheque Germanique, tom. xiii. p. 1-92.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.8" id="linknote-49.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.8">return</a>)<br /> [ Euseb. Hist. Eccles. l. i. + c. 13. The learned Assemannus has brought up the collateral aid of three + Syrians, St. Ephrem, Josua Stylites, and James bishop of Sarug; but I do + not find any notice of the Syriac original or the archives of Edessa, + (Bibliot. Orient. tom. i. p. 318, 420, 554;) their vague belief is + probably derived from the Greeks.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.9" id="linknote-49.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.9">return</a>)<br /> [ The evidence for these + epistles is stated and rejected by the candid Lardner, (Heathen + Testimonies, vol. i. p. 297-309.) Among the herd of bigots who are + forcibly driven from this convenient, but untenable, post, I am ashamed, + with the Grabes, Caves, Tillemonts, &c., to discover Mr. Addison, an + English gentleman, (his Works, vol. i. p. 528, Baskerville’s edition;) but + his superficial tract on the Christian religion owes its credit to his + name, his style, and the interested applause of our clergy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.10" id="linknote-49.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.10">return</a>)<br /> [ From the silence of James + of Sarug, (Asseman. Bibliot. Orient. p. 289, 318,) and the testimony of + Evagrius, (Hist. Eccles. l. iv. c. 27,) I conclude that this fable was + invented between the years 521 and 594, most probably after the siege of + Edessa in 540, (Asseman. tom. i. p. 416. Procopius, de Bell. Persic. l. + ii.) It is the sword and buckler of, Gregory II., (in Epist. i. ad. Leon. + Isaur. Concil. tom. viii. p. 656, 657,) of John Damascenus, (Opera, tom. + i. p. 281, edit. Lequien,) and of the second Nicene Council, (Actio v. p. + 1030.) The most perfect edition may be found in Cedrenus, (Compend. p. + 175-178.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.11" id="linknote-49.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.11">return</a>)<br /> [ See Ducange, in Gloss. + Graec. et Lat. The subject is treated with equal learning and bigotry by + the Jesuit Gretser, (Syntagma de Imaginibus non Manu factis, ad calcem + Codini de Officiis, p. 289-330,) the ass, or rather the fox, of + Ingoldstadt, (see the Scaligerana;) with equal reason and wit by the + Protestant Beausobre, in the ironical controversy which he has spread + through many volumes of the Bibliotheque Germanique, (tom. xviii. p. 1-50, + xx. p. 27-68, xxv. p. 1-36, xxvii. p. 85-118, xxviii. p. 1-33, xxxi. p. + 111-148, xxxii. p. 75-107, xxxiv. p. 67-96.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.12" id="linknote-49.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.12">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophylact Simocatta (l. + ii. c. 3, p. 34, l. iii. c. 1, p. 63) celebrates it; yet it was no more + than a copy, since he adds (of Edessa). See Pagi, tom. ii. A.D. 588 No. + 11.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.13" id="linknote-49.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.13">return</a>)<br /> [ See, in the genuine or + supposed works of John Damascenus, two passages on the Virgin and St. + Luke, which have not been noticed by Gretser, nor consequently by + Beausobre, (Opera Joh. Damascen. tom. i. p. 618, 631.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.14" id="linknote-49.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.14">return</a>)<br /> [ “Your scandalous figures + stand quite out from the canvass: they are as bad as a group of statues!” + It was thus that the ignorance and bigotry of a Greek priest applauded the + pictures of Titian, which he had ordered, and refused to accept.] + </p> + <p> + The worship of images had stolen into the church by insensible degrees, + and each petty step was pleasing to the superstitious mind, as productive + of comfort, and innocent of sin. But in the beginning of the eighth + century, in the full magnitude of the abuse, the more timorous Greeks were + awakened by an apprehension, that under the mask of Christianity, they had + restored the religion of their fathers: they heard, with grief and + impatience, the name of idolaters; the incessant charge of the Jews and + Mahometans, <a href="#linknote-49.15" name="linknoteref-49.15" + id="linknoteref-49.15">15</a> who derived from the Law and the Koran an + immortal hatred to graven images and all relative worship. The servitude + of the Jews might curb their zeal, and depreciate their authority; but the + triumphant Mussulmans, who reigned at Damascus, and threatened + Constantinople, cast into the scale of reproach the accumulated weight of + truth and victory. The cities of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt had been + fortified with the images of Christ, his mother, and his saints; and each + city presumed on the hope or promise of miraculous defence. In a rapid + conquest of ten years, the Arabs subdued those cities and these images; + and, in their opinion, the Lord of Hosts pronounced a decisive judgment + between the adoration and contempt of these mute and inanimate idols. <a + href="#linknote-49.1511" name="linknoteref-49.1511" id="linknoteref-49.1511">1511</a> + For a while Edessa had braved the Persian assaults; but the chosen city, + the spouse of Christ, was involved in the common ruin; and his divine + resemblance became the slave and trophy of the infidels. After a servitude + of three hundred years, the Palladium was yielded to the devotion of + Constantinople, for a ransom of twelve thousand pounds of silver, the + redemption of two hundred Mussulmans, and a perpetual truce for the + territory of Edessa. <a href="#linknote-49.16" name="linknoteref-49.16" + id="linknoteref-49.16">16</a> In this season of distress and dismay, the + eloquence of the monks was exercised in the defence of images; and they + attempted to prove, that the sin and schism of the greatest part of the + Orientals had forfeited the favor, and annihilated the virtue, of these + precious symbols. But they were now opposed by the murmurs of many simple + or rational Christians, who appealed to the evidence of texts, of facts, + and of the primitive times, and secretly desired the reformation of the + church. As the worship of images had never been established by any general + or positive law, its progress in the Eastern empire had been retarded, or + accelerated, by the differences of men and manners, the local degrees of + refinement, and the personal characters of the bishops. The splendid + devotion was fondly cherished by the levity of the capital, and the + inventive genius of the Byzantine clergy; while the rude and remote + districts of Asia were strangers to this innovation of sacred luxury. Many + large congregations of Gnostics and Arians maintained, after their + conversion, the simple worship which had preceded their separation; and + the Armenians, the most warlike subjects of Rome, were not reconciled, in + the twelfth century, to the sight of images. <a href="#linknote-49.17" + name="linknoteref-49.17" id="linknoteref-49.17">17</a> These various + denominations of men afforded a fund of prejudice and aversion, of small + account in the villages of Anatolia or Thrace, but which, in the fortune + of a soldier, a prelate, or a eunuch, might be often connected with the + powers of the church and state. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.15" id="linknote-49.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.15">return</a>)<br /> [ By Cedrenus, Zonaras, + Glycas, and Manasses, the origin of the Aconoclcasts is imprinted to the + caliph Yezid and two Jews, who promised the empire to Leo; and the + reproaches of these hostile sectaries are turned into an absurd conspiracy + for restoring the purity of the Christian worship, (see Spanheim, Hist. + Imag. c. 2.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.1511" id="linknote-49.1511"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1511 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.1511">return</a>)<br /> [ Yezid, ninth caliph + of the race of the Ommiadae, caused all the images in Syria to be + destroyed about the year 719; hence the orthodox reproaches the sectaries + with following the example of the Saracens and the Jews Fragm. Mon. Johan. + Jerosylym. Script. Byzant. vol. xvi. p. 235. Hist. des Repub. Ital. par M. + Sismondi, vol. i. p. 126.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.16" id="linknote-49.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.16">return</a>)<br /> [ See Elmacin, (Hist. + Saracen. p. 267,) Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 201,) and Abulfeda, (Annal. + Moslem. p. 264,), and the criticisms of Pagi, (tom. iii. A.D. 944.) The + prudent Franciscan refuses to determine whether the image of Edessa now + reposes at Rome or Genoa; but its repose is inglorious, and this ancient + object of worship is no longer famous or fashionable.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.17" id="linknote-49.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.17">return</a>)<br /> [ (Nicetas, l. ii. p. 258.) + The Armenian churches are still content with the Cross, (Missions du + Levant, tom. iii. p. 148;) but surely the superstitious Greek is unjust to + the superstition of the Germans of the xiith century.] + </p> + <p> + Of such adventurers, the most fortunate was the emperor Leo the Third, <a + href="#linknote-49.18" name="linknoteref-49.18" id="linknoteref-49.18">18</a> who, + from the mountains of Isauria, ascended the throne of the East. He was + ignorant of sacred and profane letters; but his education, his reason, + perhaps his intercourse with the Jews and Arabs, had inspired the martial + peasant with a hatred of images; and it was held to be the duty of a + prince to impose on his subjects the dictates of his own conscience. But + in the outset of an unsettled reign, during ten years of toil and danger, + Leo submitted to the meanness of hypocrisy, bowed before the idols which + he despised, and satisfied the Roman pontiff with the annual professions + of his orthodoxy and zeal. In the reformation of religion, his first steps + were moderate and cautious: he assembled a great council of senators and + bishops, and enacted, with their consent, that all the images should be + removed from the sanctuary and altar to a proper height in the churches + where they might be visible to the eyes, and inaccessible to the + superstition, of the people. But it was impossible on either side to check + the rapid through adverse impulse of veneration and abhorrence: in their + lofty position, the sacred images still edified their votaries, and + reproached the tyrant. He was himself provoked by resistance and + invective; and his own party accused him of an imperfect discharge of his + duty, and urged for his imitation the example of the Jewish king, who had + broken without scruple the brazen serpent of the temple. By a second + edict, he proscribed the existence as well as the use of religious + pictures; the churches of Constantinople and the provinces were cleansed + from idolatry; the images of Christ, the Virgin, and the saints, were + demolished, or a smooth surface of plaster was spread over the walls of + the edifice. The sect of the Iconoclasts was supported by the zeal and + despotism of six emperors, and the East and West were involved in a noisy + conflict of one hundred and twenty years. It was the design of Leo the + Isaurian to pronounce the condemnation of images as an article of faith, + and by the authority of a general council: but the convocation of such an + assembly was reserved for his son Constantine; <a href="#linknote-49.19" + name="linknoteref-49.19" id="linknoteref-49.19">19</a> and though it is + stigmatized by triumphant bigotry as a meeting of fools and atheists, + their own partial and mutilated acts betray many symptoms of reason and + piety. The debates and decrees of many provincial synods introduced the + summons of the general council which met in the suburbs of Constantinople, + and was composed of the respectable number of three hundred and + thirty-eight bishops of Europe and Anatolia; for the patriarchs of Antioch + and Alexandria were the slaves of the caliph, and the Roman pontiff had + withdrawn the churches of Italy and the West from the communion of the + Greeks. This Byzantine synod assumed the rank and powers of the seventh + general council; yet even this title was a recognition of the six + preceding assemblies, which had laboriously built the structure of the + Catholic faith. After a serious deliberation of six months, the three + hundred and thirty-eight bishops pronounced and subscribed a unanimous + decree, that all visible symbols of Christ, except in the Eucharist, were + either blasphemous or heretical; that image-worship was a corruption of + Christianity and a renewal of Paganism; that all such monuments of + idolatry should be broken or erased; and that those who should refuse to + deliver the objects of their private superstition, were guilty of + disobedience to the authority of the church and of the emperor. In their + loud and loyal acclamations, they celebrated the merits of their temporal + redeemer; and to his zeal and justice they intrusted the execution of + their spiritual censures. At Constantinople, as in the former councils, + the will of the prince was the rule of episcopal faith; but on this + occasion, I am inclined to suspect that a large majority of the prelates + sacrificed their secret conscience to the temptations of hope and fear. In + the long night of superstition, the Christians had wandered far away from + the simplicity of the gospel: nor was it easy for them to discern the + clew, and tread back the mazes, of the labyrinth. The worship of images + was inseparably blended, at least to a pious fancy, with the Cross, the + Virgin, the Saints and their relics; the holy ground was involved in a + cloud of miracles and visions; and the nerves of the mind, curiosity and + scepticism, were benumbed by the habits of obedience and belief. + Constantine himself is accused of indulging a royal license to doubt, or + deny, or deride the mysteries of the Catholics, <a href="#linknote-49.20" + name="linknoteref-49.20" id="linknoteref-49.20">20</a> but they were deeply + inscribed in the public and private creed of his bishops; and the boldest + Iconoclast might assault with a secret horror the monuments of popular + devotion, which were consecrated to the honor of his celestial patrons. In + the reformation of the sixteenth century, freedom and knowledge had + expanded all the faculties of man: the thirst of innovation superseded the + reverence of antiquity; and the vigor of Europe could disdain those + phantoms which terrified the sickly and servile weakness of the Greeks. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.18" id="linknote-49.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.18">return</a>)<br /> [ Our original, but not + impartial, monuments of the Iconoclasts must be drawn from the Acts of the + Councils, tom. viii. and ix. Collect. Labbe, edit. Venet. and the + historical writings of Theophanes, Nicephorus, Manasses, Cedrenus, + Zonoras, &c. Of the modern Catholics, Baronius, Pagi, Natalis + Alexander, (Hist. Eccles. Seculum viii. and ix.,) and Maimbourg, (Hist. + des Iconoclasts,) have treated the subject with learning, passion, and + credulity. The Protestant labors of Frederick Spanheim (Historia Imaginum + restituta) and James Basnage (Hist. des Eglises Reformees, tom. ii. l. + xxiiii. p. 1339-1385) are cast into the Iconoclast scale. With this mutual + aid, and opposite tendency, it is easy for us to poise the balance with + philosophic indifference. * Note: Compare Schlosser, Geschichte der + Bilder-sturmender Kaiser, Frankfurt am-Main 1812 a book of research and + impartiality—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.19" id="linknote-49.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.19">return</a>)<br /> [ Some flowers of rhetoric. + By Damascenus is styled (Opera, tom. i. p. 623.) Spanheim’s Apology for + the Synod of Constantinople (p. 171, &c.) is worked up with truth and + ingenuity, from such materials as he could find in the Nicene Acts, (p. + 1046, &c.) The witty John of Damascus converts it into slaves of their + belly, &c. Opera, tom. i. p. 806] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.20" id="linknote-49.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.20">return</a>)<br /> [ He is accused of + proscribing the title of saint; styling the Virgin, Mother of Christ; + comparing her after her delivery to an empty purse of Arianism, + Nestorianism, &c. In his defence, Spanheim (c. iv. p. 207) is somewhat + embarrassed between the interest of a Protestant and the duty of an + orthodox divine.] + </p> + <p> + The scandal of an abstract heresy can be only proclaimed to the people by + the blast of the ecclesiastical trumpet; but the most ignorant can + perceive, the most torpid must feel, the profanation and downfall of their + visible deities. The first hostilities of Leo were directed against a + lofty Christ on the vestibule, and above the gate, of the palace. A ladder + had been planted for the assault, but it was furiously shaken by a crowd + of zealots and women: they beheld, with pious transport, the ministers of + sacrilege tumbling from on high and dashed against the pavement: and the + honors of the ancient martyrs were prostituted to these criminals, who + justly suffered for murder and rebellion. <a href="#linknote-49.21" + name="linknoteref-49.21" id="linknoteref-49.21">21</a> The execution of the + Imperial edicts was resisted by frequent tumults in Constantinople and the + provinces: the person of Leo was endangered, his officers were massacred, + and the popular enthusiasm was quelled by the strongest efforts of the + civil and military power. Of the Archipelago, or Holy Sea, the numerous + islands were filled with images and monks: their votaries abjured, without + scruple, the enemy of Christ, his mother, and the saints; they armed a + fleet of boats and galleys, displayed their consecrated banners, and + boldly steered for the harbor of Constantinople, to place on the throne a + new favorite of God and the people. They depended on the succor of a + miracle: but their miracles were inefficient against the Greek fire; and, + after the defeat and conflagration of the fleet, the naked islands were + abandoned to the clemency or justice of the conqueror. The son of Leo, in + the first year of his reign, had undertaken an expedition against the + Saracens: during his absence, the capital, the palace, and the purple, + were occupied by his kinsman Artavasdes, the ambitious champion of the + orthodox faith. The worship of images was triumphantly restored: the + patriarch renounced his dissimulation, or dissembled his sentiments and + the righteous claims of the usurper was acknowledged, both in the new, and + in ancient, Rome. Constantine flew for refuge to his paternal mountains; + but he descended at the head of the bold and affectionate Isaurians; and + his final victory confounded the arms and predictions of the fanatics. His + long reign was distracted with clamor, sedition, conspiracy, and mutual + hatred, and sanguinary revenge; the persecution of images was the motive + or pretence, of his adversaries; and, if they missed a temporal diadem, + they were rewarded by the Greeks with the crown of martyrdom. In every act + of open and clandestine treason, the emperor felt the unforgiving enmity + of the monks, the faithful slaves of the superstition to which they owed + their riches and influence. They prayed, they preached, they absolved, + they inflamed, they conspired; the solitude of Palestine poured forth a + torrent of invective; and the pen of St. John Damascenus, <a + href="#linknote-49.22" name="linknoteref-49.22" id="linknoteref-49.22">22</a> the + last of the Greek fathers, devoted the tyrant’s head, both in this world + and the next. <a href="#linknote-49.23" name="linknoteref-49.23" + id="linknoteref-49.23">23</a> <a href="#linknote-49.2311" name="linknoteref-49.2311" + id="linknoteref-49.2311">2311</a> I am not at leisure to examine how far the + monks provoked, nor how much they have exaggerated, their real and + pretended sufferings, nor how many lost their lives or limbs, their eyes + or their beards, by the cruelty of the emperor. <a href="#linknote-49.2312" + name="linknoteref-49.2312" id="linknoteref-49.2312">2312</a> From the + chastisement of individuals, he proceeded to the abolition of the order; + and, as it was wealthy and useless, his resentment might be stimulated by + avarice, and justified by patriotism. The formidable name and mission of + the Dragon, <a href="#linknote-49.24" name="linknoteref-49.24" + id="linknoteref-49.24">24</a> his visitor-general, excited the terror and + abhorrence of the black nation: the religious communities were dissolved, + the buildings were converted into magazines, or barracks; the lands, + movables, and cattle were confiscated; and our modern precedents will + support the charge, that much wanton or malicious havoc was exercised + against the relics, and even the books of the monasteries. With the habit + and profession of monks, the public and private worship of images was + rigorously proscribed; and it should seem, that a solemn abjuration of + idolatry was exacted from the subjects, or at least from the clergy, of + the Eastern empire. <a href="#linknote-49.25" name="linknoteref-49.25" + id="linknoteref-49.25">25</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.21" id="linknote-49.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.21">return</a>)<br /> [ The holy confessor + Theophanes approves the principle of their rebellion, (p. 339.) Gregory + II. (in Epist. i. ad Imp. Leon. Concil. tom. viii. p. 661, 664) applauds + the zeal of the Byzantine women who killed the Imperial officers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.22" id="linknote-49.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.22">return</a>)<br /> [ John, or Mansur, was a + noble Christian of Damascus, who held a considerable office in the service + of the caliph. His zeal in the cause of images exposed him to the + resentment and treachery of the Greek emperor; and on the suspicion of a + treasonable correspondence, he was deprived of his right hand, which was + miraculously restored by the Virgin. After this deliverance, he resigned + his office, distributed his wealth, and buried himself in the monastery of + St. Sabas, between Jerusalem and the Dead Sea. The legend is famous; but + his learned editor, Father Lequien, has a unluckily proved that St. John + Damascenus was already a monk before the Iconoclast dispute, (Opera, tom. + i. Vit. St. Joan. Damascen. p. 10-13, et Notas ad loc.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.23" id="linknote-49.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.23">return</a>)<br /> [ After sending Leo to the + devil, he introduces his heir, (Opera, Damascen. tom. i. p. 625.) If the + authenticity of this piece be suspicious, we are sure that in other works, + no longer extant, Damascenus bestowed on Constantine the titles. (tom. i. + p. 306.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.2311" id="linknote-49.2311"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2311 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.2311">return</a>)<br /> [ The patriarch + Anastasius, an Iconoclast under Leo, an image worshipper under Artavasdes, + was scourged, led through the streets on an ass, with his face to the + tail; and, reinvested in his dignity, became again the obsequious minister + of Constantine in his Iconoclastic persecutions. See Schlosser p. 211.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.2312" id="linknote-49.2312"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2312 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.2312">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare Schlosser, p. + 228-234.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.24" id="linknote-49.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.24">return</a>)<br /> [ In the narrative of this + persecution from Theophanes and Cedreves, Spanheim (p. 235-238) is happy + to compare the Draco of Leo with the dragoons (Dracones) of Louis XIV.; + and highly solaces himself with the controversial pun.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.25" id="linknote-49.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.25">return</a>)<br /> [ (Damascen. Op. tom. i. p. + 625.) This oath and subscription I do not remember to have seen in any + modern compilation] + </p> + <p> + The patient East abjured, with reluctance, her sacred images; they were + fondly cherished, and vigorously defended, by the independent zeal of the + Italians. In ecclesiastical rank and jurisdiction, the patriarch of + Constantinople and the pope of Rome were nearly equal. But the Greek + prelate was a domestic slave under the eye of his master, at whose nod he + alternately passed from the convent to the throne, and from the throne to + the convent. A distant and dangerous station, amidst the Barbarians of the + West, excited the spirit and freedom of the Latin bishops. + </p> + <p> + Their popular election endeared them to the Romans: the public and private + indigence was relieved by their ample revenue; and the weakness or neglect + of the emperors compelled them to consult, both in peace and war, the + temporal safety of the city. In the school of adversity the priest + insensibly imbibed the virtues and the ambition of a prince; the same + character was assumed, the same policy was adopted, by the Italian, the + Greek, or the Syrian, who ascended the chair of St. Peter; and, after the + loss of her legions and provinces, the genius and fortune of the popes + again restored the supremacy of Rome. It is agreed, that in the eighth + century, their dominion was founded on rebellion, and that the rebellion + was produced, and justified, by the heresy of the Iconoclasts; but the + conduct of the second and third Gregory, in this memorable contest, is + variously interpreted by the wishes of their friends and enemies. The + Byzantine writers unanimously declare, that, after a fruitless admonition, + they pronounced the separation of the East and West, and deprived the + sacrilegious tyrant of the revenue and sovereignty of Italy. Their + excommunication is still more clearly expressed by the Greeks, who beheld + the accomplishment of the papal triumphs; and as they are more strongly + attached to their religion than to their country, they praise, instead of + blaming, the zeal and orthodoxy of these apostolical men. <a + href="#linknote-49.26" name="linknoteref-49.26" id="linknoteref-49.26">26</a> The + modern champions of Rome are eager to accept the praise and the precedent: + this great and glorious example of the deposition of royal heretics is + celebrated by the cardinals Baronius and Bellarmine; <a href="#linknote-49.27" + name="linknoteref-49.27" id="linknoteref-49.27">27</a> and if they are asked, + why the same thunders were not hurled against the Neros and Julians of + antiquity, they reply, that the weakness of the primitive church was the + sole cause of her patient loyalty. <a href="#linknote-49.28" + name="linknoteref-49.28" id="linknoteref-49.28">28</a> On this occasion the + effects of love and hatred are the same; and the zealous Protestants, who + seek to kindle the indignation, and to alarm the fears, of princes and + magistrates, expatiate on the insolence and treason of the two Gregories + against their lawful sovereign. <a href="#linknote-49.29" + name="linknoteref-49.29" id="linknoteref-49.29">29</a> They are defended only by + the moderate Catholics, for the most part, of the Gallican church, <a + href="#linknote-49.30" name="linknoteref-49.30" id="linknoteref-49.30">30</a> who + respect the saint, without approving the sin. These common advocates of + the crown and the mitre circumscribe the truth of facts by the rule of + equity, Scripture, and tradition, and appeal to the evidence of the + Latins, <a href="#linknote-49.31" name="linknoteref-49.31" id="linknoteref-49.31">31</a> + and the lives <a href="#linknote-49.32" name="linknoteref-49.32" + id="linknoteref-49.32">32</a> and epistles of the popes; themselves. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.26" id="linknote-49.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.26">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophanes. (Chronograph. + p. 343.) For this Gregory is styled by Cedrenus. (p. 450.) Zonaras + specifies the thunder, (tom. ii. l. xv. p. 104, 105.) It may be observed, + that the Greeks are apt to confound the times and actions of two + Gregories.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.27" id="linknote-49.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.27">return</a>)<br /> [ See Baronius, Annal. + Eccles. A.D. 730, No. 4, 5; dignum exemplum! Bellarmin. de Romano + Pontifice, l. v. c. 8: mulctavit eum parte imperii. Sigonius, de Regno + Italiae, l. iii. Opera, tom. ii. p. 169. Yet such is the change of Italy, + that Sigonius is corrected by the editor of Milan, Philipus Argelatus, a + Bolognese, and subject of the pope.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.28" id="linknote-49.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.28">return</a>)<br /> [ Quod si Christiani olim + non deposuerunt Neronem aut Julianum, id fuit quia deerant vires + temporales Christianis, (honest Bellarmine, de Rom. Pont. l. v. c. 7.) + Cardinal Perron adds a distinction more honorable to the first Christians, + but not more satisfactory to modern princes—the treason of heretics + and apostates, who break their oath, belie their coin, and renounce their + allegiance to Christ and his vicar, (Perroniana, p. 89.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.29" id="linknote-49.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.29">return</a>)<br /> [ Take, as a specimen, the + cautious Basnage (Hist. d’Eglise, p. 1350, 1351) and the vehement + Spanheim, (Hist. Imaginum,) who, with a hundred more, tread in the + footsteps of the centuriators of Magdeburgh.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.30" id="linknote-49.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.30">return</a>)<br /> [ See Launoy, (Opera, tom. + v. pars ii. epist. vii. 7, p. 456-474,) Natalis Alexander, (Hist. Nov. + Testamenti, secul. viii. dissert. i. p. 92-98,) Pagi, (Critica, tom. iii. + p. 215, 216,) and Giannone, (Istoria Civile Napoli, tom. i. p. 317-320,) a + disciple of the Gallican school In the field of controversy I always pity + the moderate party, who stand on the open middle ground exposed to the + fire of both sides.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.31" id="linknote-49.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.31">return</a>)<br /> [ They appeal to Paul + Warnefrid, or Diaconus, (de Gestis Langobard. l. vi. c. 49, p. 506, 507, + in Script. Ital. Muratori, tom. i. pars i.,) and the nominal Anastasius, + (de Vit. Pont. in Muratori, tom. iii. pars i. Gregorius II. p. 154. + Gregorius III. p. 158. Zacharias, p. 161. Stephanus III. p. 165.; Paulus, + p. 172. Stephanus IV. p. 174. Hadrianus, p. 179. Leo III. p. 195.) Yet I + may remark, that the true Anastasius (Hist. Eccles. p. 134, edit. Reg.) + and the Historia Miscella, (l. xxi. p. 151, in tom. i. Script. Ital.,) + both of the ixth century, translate and approve the Greek text of + Theophanes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.32" id="linknote-49.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.32">return</a>)<br /> [ With some minute + difference, the most learned critics, Lucas Holstenius, Schelestrate, + Ciampini, Bianchini, Muratori, (Prolegomena ad tom. iii. pars i.,) are + agreed that the Liber Pontificalis was composed and continued by the + apostolic librarians and notaries of the viiith and ixth centuries; and + that the last and smallest part is the work of Anastasius, whose name it + bears. The style is barbarous, the narrative partial, the details are + trifling—yet it must be read as a curious and authentic record of + the times. The epistles of the popes are dispersed in the volumes of + Councils.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap49.2"></a> + Chapter XLIX: Conquest Of Italy By The Franks.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + Two original epistles, from Gregory the Second to the emperor Leo, are + still extant; <a href="#linknote-49.33" name="linknoteref-49.33" + id="linknoteref-49.33">33</a> and if they cannot be praised as the most + perfect models of eloquence and logic, they exhibit the portrait, or at + least the mask, of the founder of the papal monarchy. “During ten pure and + fortunate years,” says Gregory to the emperor, “we have tasted the annual + comfort of your royal letters, subscribed in purple ink, with your own + hand, the sacred pledges of your attachment to the orthodox creed of our + fathers. How deplorable is the change! how tremendous the scandal! You now + accuse the Catholics of idolatry; and, by the accusation, you betray your + own impiety and ignorance. To this ignorance we are compelled to adapt the + grossness of our style and arguments: the first elements of holy letters + are sufficient for your confusion; and were you to enter a grammar-school, + and avow yourself the enemy of our worship, the simple and pious children + would be provoked to cast their horn-books at your head.” After this + decent salutation, the pope attempts the usual distinction between the + idols of antiquity and the Christian images. The former were the fanciful + representations of phantoms or daemons, at a time when the true God had + not manifested his person in any visible likeness. The latter are the + genuine forms of Christ, his mother, and his saints, who had approved, by + a crowd of miracles, the innocence and merit of this relative worship. He + must indeed have trusted to the ignorance of Leo, since he could assert + the perpetual use of images, from the apostolic age, and their venerable + presence in the six synods of the Catholic church. A more specious + argument is drawn from present possession and recent practice the harmony + of the Christian world supersedes the demand of a general council; and + Gregory frankly confesses, than such assemblies can only be useful under + the reign of an orthodox prince. To the impudent and inhuman Leo, more + guilty than a heretic, he recommends peace, silence, and implicit + obedience to his spiritual guides of Constantinople and Rome. The limits + of civil and ecclesiastical powers are defined by the pontiff. To the + former he appropriates the body; to the latter, the soul: the sword of + justice is in the hands of the magistrate: the more formidable weapon of + excommunication is intrusted to the clergy; and in the exercise of their + divine commission a zealous son will not spare his offending father: the + successor of St. Peter may lawfully chastise the kings of the earth. “You + assault us, O tyrant! with a carnal and military hand: unarmed and naked + we can only implore the Christ, the prince of the heavenly host, that he + will send unto you a devil, for the destruction of your body and the + salvation of your soul. You declare, with foolish arrogance, I will + despatch my orders to Rome: I will break in pieces the image of St. Peter; + and Gregory, like his predecessor Martin, shall be transported in chains, + and in exile, to the foot of the Imperial throne. Would to God that I + might be permitted to tread in the footsteps of the holy Martin! but may + the fate of Constans serve as a warning to the persecutors of the church! + After his just condemnation by the bishops of Sicily, the tyrant was cut + off, in the fullness of his sins, by a domestic servant: the saint is + still adored by the nations of Scythia, among whom he ended his banishment + and his life. But it is our duty to live for the edification and support + of the faithful people; nor are we reduced to risk our safety on the event + of a combat. Incapable as you are of defending your Roman subjects, the + maritime situation of the city may perhaps expose it to your depredation + but we can remove to the distance of four-and-twenty stadia, to the first + fortress of the Lombards, and then—you may pursue the winds. <a + href="#linknote-49.34" name="linknoteref-49.34" id="linknoteref-49.34">34</a> Are + you ignorant that the popes are the bond of union, the mediators of peace, + between the East and West? The eyes of the nations are fixed on our + humility; and they revere, as a God upon earth, the apostle St. Peter, + whose image you threaten to destroy. <a href="#linknote-49.35" + name="linknoteref-49.35" id="linknoteref-49.35">35</a> The remote and interior + kingdoms of the West present their homage to Christ and his vicegerent; + and we now prepare to visit one of their most powerful monarchs, who + desires to receive from our hands the sacrament of baptism. <a + href="#linknote-49.36" name="linknoteref-49.36" id="linknoteref-49.36">36</a> The + Barbarians have submitted to the yoke of the gospel, while you alone are + deaf to the voice of the shepherd. These pious Barbarians are kindled into + rage: they thirst to avenge the persecution of the East. Abandon your rash + and fatal enterprise; reflect, tremble, and repent. If you persist, we are + innocent of the blood that will be spilt in the contest; may it fall on + your own head!” + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.33" id="linknote-49.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.33">return</a>)<br /> [ The two epistles of + Gregory II. have been preserved in the Acta of the Nicene Council, (tom. + viii. p. 651-674.) They are without a date, which is variously fixed, by + Baronius in the year 726, by Muratori (Annali d’Italia, tom. vi. p. 120) + in 729, and by Pagi in 730. Such is the force of prejudice, that some + papists have praised the good sense and moderation of these letters.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.34" id="linknote-49.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.34">return</a>)<br /> [ (Epist. i. p. 664.) This + proximity of the Lombards is hard of digestion. Camillo Pellegrini + (Dissert. iv. de Ducatu Beneventi, in the Script. Ital. tom. v. p. 172, + 173) forcibly reckons the xxivth stadia, not from Rome, but from the + limits of the Roman duchy, to the first fortress, perhaps Sora, of the + Lombards. I rather believe that Gregory, with the pedantry of the age, + employs stadia for miles, without much inquiry into the genuine measure.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.35" id="linknote-49.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.35">return</a>)<br /> [ {Greek}] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.36" id="linknote-49.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.36">return</a>)<br /> [ (p. 665.) The pope + appears to have imposed on the ignorance of the Greeks: he lived and died + in the Lateran; and in his time all the kingdoms of the West had embraced + Christianity. May not this unknown Septetus have some reference to the + chief of the Saxon Heptarchy, to Ina king of Wessex, who, in the + pontificate of Gregory the Second, visited Rome for the purpose, not of + baptism, but of pilgrimage! (Pagi. A., 89, No. 2. A.D. 726, No. 15.)] + </p> + <p> + The first assault of Leo against the images of Constantinople had been + witnessed by a crowd of strangers from Italy and the West, who related + with grief and indignation the sacrilege of the emperor. But on the + reception of his proscriptive edict, they trembled for their domestic + deities: the images of Christ and the Virgin, of the angels, martyrs, and + saints, were abolished in all the churches of Italy; and a strong + alternative was proposed to the Roman pontiff, the royal favor as the + price of his compliance, degradation and exile as the penalty of his + disobedience. Neither zeal nor policy allowed him to hesitate; and the + haughty strain in which Gregory addressed the emperor displays his + confidence in the truth of his doctrine or the powers of resistance. + Without depending on prayers or miracles, he boldly armed against the + public enemy, and his pastoral letters admonished the Italians of their + danger and their duty. <a href="#linknote-49.37" name="linknoteref-49.37" + id="linknoteref-49.37">37</a> At this signal, Ravenna, Venice, and the cities + of the Exarchate and Pentapolis, adhered to the cause of religion; their + military force by sea and land consisted, for the most part, of the + natives; and the spirit of patriotism and zeal was transfused into the + mercenary strangers. The Italians swore to live and die in the defence of + the pope and the holy images; the Roman people was devoted to their + father, and even the Lombards were ambitious to share the merit and + advantage of this holy war. The most treasonable act, but the most obvious + revenge, was the destruction of the statues of Leo himself: the most + effectual and pleasing measure of rebellion, was the withholding the + tribute of Italy, and depriving him of a power which he had recently + abused by the imposition of a new capitation. <a href="#linknote-49.38" + name="linknoteref-49.38" id="linknoteref-49.38">38</a> A form of administration + was preserved by the election of magistrates and governors; and so high + was the public indignation, that the Italians were prepared to create an + orthodox emperor, and to conduct him with a fleet and army to the palace + of Constantinople. In that palace, the Roman bishops, the second and third + Gregory, were condemned as the authors of the revolt, and every attempt + was made, either by fraud or force, to seize their persons, and to strike + at their lives. The city was repeatedly visited or assaulted by captains + of the guards, and dukes and exarchs of high dignity or secret trust; they + landed with foreign troops, they obtained some domestic aid, and the + superstition of Naples may blush that her fathers were attached to the + cause of heresy. But these clandestine or open attacks were repelled by + the courage and vigilance of the Romans; the Greeks were overthrown and + massacred, their leaders suffered an ignominious death, and the popes, + however inclined to mercy, refused to intercede for these guilty victims. + At Ravenna, <a href="#linknote-49.39" name="linknoteref-49.39" + id="linknoteref-49.39">39</a> the several quarters of the city had long + exercised a bloody and hereditary feud; in religious controversy they + found a new aliment of faction: but the votaries of images were superior + in numbers or spirit, and the exarch, who attempted to stem the torrent, + lost his life in a popular sedition. To punish this flagitious deed, and + restore his dominion in Italy, the emperor sent a fleet and army into the + Adriatic Gulf. After suffering from the winds and waves much loss and + delay, the Greeks made their descent in the neighborhood of Ravenna: they + threatened to depopulate the guilty capital, and to imitate, perhaps to + surpass, the example of Justinian the Second, who had chastised a former + rebellion by the choice and execution of fifty of the principal + inhabitants. The women and clergy, in sackcloth and ashes, lay prostrate + in prayer: the men were in arms for the defence of their country; the + common danger had united the factions, and the event of a battle was + preferred to the slow miseries of a siege. In a hard-fought day, as the + two armies alternately yielded and advanced, a phantom was seen, a voice + was heard, and Ravenna was victorious by the assurance of victory. The + strangers retreated to their ships, but the populous sea-coast poured + forth a multitude of boats; the waters of the Po were so deeply infected + with blood, that during six years the public prejudice abstained from the + fish of the river; and the institution of an annual feast perpetuated the + worship of images, and the abhorrence of the Greek tyrant. Amidst the + triumph of the Catholic arms, the Roman pontiff convened a synod of + ninety-three bishops against the heresy of the Iconoclasts. With their + consent, he pronounced a general excommunication against all who by word + or deed should attack the tradition of the fathers and the images of the + saints: in this sentence the emperor was tacitly involved, <a + href="#linknote-49.40" name="linknoteref-49.40" id="linknoteref-49.40">40</a> but + the vote of a last and hopeless remonstrance may seem to imply that the + anathema was yet suspended over his guilty head. No sooner had they + confirmed their own safety, the worship of images, and the freedom of Rome + and Italy, than the popes appear to have relaxed of their severity, and to + have spared the relics of the Byzantine dominion. Their moderate councils + delayed and prevented the election of a new emperor, and they exhorted the + Italians not to separate from the body of the Roman monarchy. The exarch + was permitted to reside within the walls of Ravenna, a captive rather than + a master; and till the Imperial coronation of Charlemagne, the government + of Rome and Italy was exercised in the name of the successors of + Constantine. <a href="#linknote-49.41" name="linknoteref-49.41" + id="linknoteref-49.41">41</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.37" id="linknote-49.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.37">return</a>)<br /> [ I shall transcribe the + important and decisive passage of the Liber Pontificalis. Respiciens ergo + pius vir profanam principis jussionem, jam contra Imperatorem quasi contra + hostem se armavit, renuens haeresim ejus, scribens ubique se cavere + Christianos, eo quod orta fuisset impietas talis. Igitur permoti omnes + Pentapolenses, atque Venetiarum exercitus contra Imperatoris jussionem + restiterunt; dicentes se nunquam in ejusdem pontificis condescendere + necem, sed pro ejus magis defensione viriliter decertare, (p. 156.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.38" id="linknote-49.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.38">return</a>)<br /> [ A census, or capitation, + says Anastasius, (p. 156;) a most cruel tax, unknown to the Saracens + themselves, exclaims the zealous Maimbourg, (Hist. des Iconoclastes, l. + i.,) and Theophanes, (p. 344,) who talks of Pharaoh’s numbering the male + children of Israel. This mode of taxation was familiar to the Saracens; + and, most unluckily for the historians, it was imposed a few years + afterwards in France by his patron Louis XIV.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.39" id="linknote-49.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.39">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Liber + Pontificalis of Agnellus, (in the Scriptores Rerum Italicarum of Muratori, + tom. ii. pars i.,) whose deeper shade of barbarism marks the difference + between Rome and Ravenna. Yet we are indebted to him for some curious and + domestic facts—the quarters and factions of Ravenna, (p. 154,) the + revenge of Justinian II, (p. 160, 161,) the defeat of the Greeks, (p. 170, + 171,) &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.40" id="linknote-49.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.40">return</a>)<br /> [ Yet Leo was undoubtedly + comprised in the si quis .... imaginum sacrarum.... destructor.... + extiterit, sit extorris a cor pore D. N. Jesu Christi vel totius ecclesiae + unitate. The canonists may decide whether the guilt or the name + constitutes the excommunication; and the decision is of the last + importance to their safety, since, according to the oracle (Gratian, Caus. + xxiii. q. 5, 47, apud Spanheim, Hist. Imag. p. 112) homicidas non esse qui + excommunicatos trucidant.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.41" id="linknote-49.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.41">return</a>)<br /> [ Compescuit tale consilium + Pontifex, sperans conversionem principis, (Anastas. p. 156.) Sed ne + desisterent ab amore et fide R. J. admonebat, (p. 157.) The popes style + Leo and Constantine Copronymus, Imperatores et Domini, with the strange + epithet of Piissimi. A famous Mosaic of the Lateran (A.D. 798) represents + Christ, who delivers the keys to St. Peter and the banner to Constantine + V. (Muratori, Annali d’Italia, tom. vi. p. 337.)] + </p> + <p> + The liberty of Rome, which had been oppressed by the arms and arts of + Augustus, was rescued, after seven hundred and fifty years of servitude, + from the persecution of Leo the Isaurian. By the Caesars, the triumphs of + the consuls had been annihilated: in the decline and fall of the empire, + the god Terminus, the sacred boundary, had insensibly receded from the + ocean, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates; and Rome was reduced to + her ancient territory from Viterbo to Terracina, and from Narni to the + mouth of the Tyber. <a href="#linknote-49.42" name="linknoteref-49.42" + id="linknoteref-49.42">42</a> When the kings were banished, the republic + reposed on the firm basis which had been founded by their wisdom and + virtue. Their perpetual jurisdiction was divided between two annual + magistrates: the senate continued to exercise the powers of administration + and counsel; and the legislative authority was distributed in the + assemblies of the people, by a well-proportioned scale of property and + service. Ignorant of the arts of luxury, the primitive Romans had improved + the science of government and war: the will of the community was absolute: + the rights of individuals were sacred: one hundred and thirty thousand + citizens were armed for defence or conquest; and a band of robbers and + outlaws was moulded into a nation deserving of freedom and ambitious of + glory. <a href="#linknote-49.43" name="linknoteref-49.43" id="linknoteref-49.43">43</a> + When the sovereignty of the Greek emperors was extinguished, the ruins of + Rome presented the sad image of depopulation and decay: her slavery was a + habit, her liberty an accident; the effect of superstition, and the object + of her own amazement and terror. The last vestige of the substance, or + even the forms, of the constitution, was obliterated from the practice and + memory of the Romans; and they were devoid of knowledge, or virtue, again + to build the fabric of a commonwealth. Their scanty remnant, the offspring + of slaves and strangers, was despicable in the eyes of the victorious + Barbarians. As often as the Franks or Lombards expressed their most bitter + contempt of a foe, they called him a Roman; “and in this name,” says the + bishop Liutprand, “we include whatever is base, whatever is cowardly, + whatever is perfidious, the extremes of avarice and luxury, and every vice + that can prostitute the dignity of human nature.” <a href="#linknote-49.44" + name="linknoteref-49.44" id="linknoteref-49.44">44</a> <a href="#linknote-49.441" + name="linknoteref-49.441" id="linknoteref-49.441">441</a> By the necessity of + their situation, the inhabitants of Rome were cast into the rough model of + a republican government: they were compelled to elect some judges in + peace, and some leaders in war: the nobles assembled to deliberate, and + their resolves could not be executed without the union and consent of the + multitude. The style of the Roman senate and people was revived, <a + href="#linknote-49.45" name="linknoteref-49.45" id="linknoteref-49.45">45</a> but + the spirit was fled; and their new independence was disgraced by the + tumultuous conflict of vicentiousness and oppression. The want of laws + could only be supplied by the influence of religion, and their foreign and + domestic counsels were moderated by the authority of the bishop. His alms, + his sermons, his correspondence with the kings and prelates of the West, + his recent services, their gratitude, and oath, accustomed the Romans to + consider him as the first magistrate or prince of the city. The Christian + humility of the popes was not offended by the name of Dominus, or Lord; + and their face and inscription are still apparent on the most ancient + coins. <a href="#linknote-49.46" name="linknoteref-49.46" id="linknoteref-49.46">46</a> + Their temporal dominion is now confirmed by the reverence of a thousand + years; and their noblest title is the free choice of a people, whom they + had redeemed from slavery. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.42" id="linknote-49.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.42">return</a>)<br /> [ I have traced the Roman + duchy according to the maps, and the maps according to the excellent + dissertation of father Beretti, (de Chorographia Italiae Medii Aevi, sect. + xx. p. 216-232.) Yet I must nicely observe, that Viterbo is of Lombard + foundation, (p. 211,) and that Terracina was usurped by the Greeks.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.43" id="linknote-49.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.43">return</a>)<br /> [ On the extent, + population, &c., of the Roman kingdom, the reader may peruse, with + pleasure, the Discours Preliminaire to the Republique Romaine of M. de + Beaufort, (tom. i.,) who will not be accused of too much credulity for the + early ages of Rome.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.44" id="linknote-49.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.44">return</a>)<br /> [ Quos (Romanos) nos, + Longobardi scilicet, Saxones, Franci, Locharingi, Bajoarii, Suevi, + Burgundiones, tanto dedignamur ut inimicos nostros commoti, nil aliud + contumeliarum nisi Romane, dicamus: hoc solo, id est Romanorum nomine, + quicquid ignobilitatis, quicquid timiditatis, quicquid avaritiae, quicquid + luxuriae, quicquid mendacii, immo quicquid vitiorum est comprehendentes, + (Liutprand, in Legat Script. Ital. tom. ii. para i. p. 481.) For the sins + of Cato or Tully Minos might have imposed as a fit penance the daily + perusal of this barbarous passage.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.441" id="linknote-49.441"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 441 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.441">return</a>)<br /> [ Yet this contumelious + sentence, quoted by Robertson (Charles V note 2) as well as Gibbon, was + applied by the angry bishop to the Byzantine Romans, whom, indeed, he + admits to be the genuine descendants of Romulus.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.45" id="linknote-49.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.45">return</a>)<br /> [ Pipino regi Francorum, + omnis senatus, atque universa populi generalitas a Deo servatae Romanae + urbis. Codex Carolin. epist. 36, in Script. Ital. tom. iii. pars ii. p. + 160. The names of senatus and senator were never totally extinct, + (Dissert. Chorograph. p. 216, 217;) but in the middle ages they signified + little more than nobiles, optimates, &c., (Ducange, Gloss. Latin.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.46" id="linknote-49.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.46">return</a>)<br /> [ See Muratori, Antiquit. + Italiae Medii Aevi, tom. ii. Dissertat xxvii. p. 548. On one of these + coins we read Hadrianus Papa (A.D. 772;) on the reverse, Vict. Ddnn. with + the word Conob, which the Pere Joubert (Science des Medailles, tom. ii. p. + 42) explains by Constantinopoli Officina B (secunda.)] + </p> + <p> + In the quarrels of ancient Greece, the holy people of Elis enjoyed a + perpetual peace, under the protection of Jupiter, and in the exercise of + the Olympic games. <a href="#linknote-49.47" name="linknoteref-49.47" + id="linknoteref-49.47">47</a> Happy would it have been for the Romans, if a + similar privilege had guarded the patrimony of St. Peter from the + calamities of war; if the Christians, who visited the holy threshold, + would have sheathed their swords in the presence of the apostle and his + successor. But this mystic circle could have been traced only by the wand + of a legislator and a sage: this pacific system was incompatible with the + zeal and ambition of the popes; the Romans were not addicted, like the + inhabitants of Elis, to the innocent and placid labors of agriculture; and + the Barbarians of Italy, though softened by the climate, were far below + the Grecian states in the institutions of public and private life. A + memorable example of repentance and piety was exhibited by Liutprand, king + of the Lombards. In arms, at the gate of the Vatican, the conqueror + listened to the voice of Gregory the Second, <a href="#linknote-49.48" + name="linknoteref-49.48" id="linknoteref-49.48">48</a> withdrew his troops, + resigned his conquests, respectfully visited the church of St. Peter, and + after performing his devotions, offered his sword and dagger, his cuirass + and mantle, his silver cross, and his crown of gold, on the tomb of the + apostle. But this religious fervor was the illusion, perhaps the artifice, + of the moment; the sense of interest is strong and lasting; the love of + arms and rapine was congenial to the Lombards; and both the prince and + people were irresistibly tempted by the disorders of Italy, the nakedness + of Rome, and the unwarlike profession of her new chief. On the first + edicts of the emperor, they declared themselves the champions of the holy + images: Liutprand invaded the province of Romagna, which had already + assumed that distinctive appellation; the Catholics of the Exarchate + yielded without reluctance to his civil and military power; and a foreign + enemy was introduced for the first time into the impregnable fortress of + Ravenna. That city and fortress were speedily recovered by the active + diligence and maritime forces of the Venetians; and those faithful + subjects obeyed the exhortation of Gregory himself, in separating the + personal guilt of Leo from the general cause of the Roman empire. <a + href="#linknote-49.49" name="linknoteref-49.49" id="linknoteref-49.49">49</a> The + Greeks were less mindful of the service, than the Lombards of the injury: + the two nations, hostile in their faith, were reconciled in a dangerous + and unnatural alliance: the king and the exarch marched to the conquest of + Spoleto and Rome: the storm evaporated without effect, but the policy of + Liutprand alarmed Italy with a vexatious alternative of hostility and + truce. His successor Astolphus declared himself the equal enemy of the + emperor and the pope: Ravenna was subdued by force or treachery, <a + href="#linknote-49.50" name="linknoteref-49.50" id="linknoteref-49.50">50</a> and + this final conquest extinguished the series of the exarchs, who had + reigned with a subordinate power since the time of Justinian and the ruin + of the Gothic kingdom. Rome was summoned to acknowledge the victorious + Lombard as her lawful sovereign; the annual tribute of a piece of gold was + fixed as the ransom of each citizen, and the sword of destruction was + unsheathed to exact the penalty of her disobedience. The Romans hesitated; + they entreated; they complained; and the threatening Barbarians were + checked by arms and negotiations, till the popes had engaged the + friendship of an ally and avenger beyond the Alps. <a href="#linknote-49.51" + name="linknoteref-49.51" id="linknoteref-49.51">51</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.47" id="linknote-49.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.47">return</a>)<br /> [ See West’s Dissertation + on the Olympic Games, (Pindar. vol. ii. p. 32-36, edition in 12mo.,) and + the judicious reflections of Polybius (tom. i. l. iv. p. 466, edit + Gronov.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.48" id="linknote-49.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.48">return</a>)<br /> [ The speech of Gregory to + the Lombard is finely composed by Sigonius, (de Regno Italiae, l. iii. + Opera, tom. ii. p. 173,) who imitates the license and the spirit of + Sallust or Livy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.49" id="linknote-49.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.49">return</a>)<br /> [ The Venetian historians, + John Sagorninus, (Chron. Venet. p. 13,) and the doge Andrew Dandolo, + (Scriptores Rer. Ital. tom. xii. p. 135,) have preserved this epistle of + Gregory. The loss and recovery of Ravenna are mentioned by Paulus + Diaconus, (de Gest. Langobard, l. vi. c. 42, 54, in Script. Ital. tom. i. + pars i. p. 506, 508;) but our chronologists, Pagi, Muratori, &c., + cannot ascertain the date or circumstances] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.50" id="linknote-49.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.50">return</a>)<br /> [ The option will depend on + the various readings of the Mss. of Anastasius—deceperat, or + decerpserat, (Script. Ital. tom. iii. pars i. p. 167.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.51" id="linknote-49.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.51">return</a>)<br /> [ The Codex Carolinus is a + collection of the epistles of the popes to Charles Martel, (whom they + style Subregulus,) Pepin, and Charlemagne, as far as the year 791, when it + was formed by the last of these princes. His original and authentic Ms. + (Bibliothecae Cubicularis) is now in the Imperial library of Vienna, and + has been published by Lambecius and Muratori, (Script. Rerum Ital. tom. + iii. pars ii. p. 75, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + In his distress, the first <a href="#linknote-49.511" name="linknoteref-49.511" + id="linknoteref-49.511">511</a> Gregory had implored the aid of the hero of + the age, of Charles Martel, who governed the French monarchy with the + humble title of mayor or duke; and who, by his signal victory over the + Saracens, had saved his country, and perhaps Europe, from the Mahometan + yoke. The ambassadors of the pope were received by Charles with decent + reverence; but the greatness of his occupations, and the shortness of his + life, prevented his interference in the affairs of Italy, except by a + friendly and ineffectual mediation. His son Pepin, the heir of his power + and virtues, assumed the office of champion of the Roman church; and the + zeal of the French prince appears to have been prompted by the love of + glory and religion. But the danger was on the banks of the Tyber, the + succor on those of the Seine, and our sympathy is cold to the relation of + distant misery. Amidst the tears of the city, Stephen the Third embraced + the generous resolution of visiting in person the courts of Lombardy and + France, to deprecate the injustice of his enemy, or to excite the pity and + indignation of his friend. After soothing the public despair by litanies + and orations, he undertook this laborious journey with the ambassadors of + the French monarch and the Greek emperor. The king of the Lombards was + inexorable; but his threats could not silence the complaints, nor retard + the speed of the Roman pontiff, who traversed the Pennine Alps, reposed in + the abbey of St. Maurice, and hastened to grasp the right hand of his + protector; a hand which was never lifted in vain, either in war or + friendship. Stephen was entertained as the visible successor of the + apostle; at the next assembly, the field of March or of May, his injuries + were exposed to a devout and warlike nation, and he repassed the Alps, not + as a suppliant, but as a conqueror, at the head of a French army, which + was led by the king in person. The Lombards, after a weak resistance, + obtained an ignominious peace, and swore to restore the possessions, and + to respect the sanctity, of the Roman church. But no sooner was Astolphus + delivered from the presence of the French arms, than he forgot his promise + and resented his disgrace. Rome was again encompassed by his arms; and + Stephen, apprehensive of fatiguing the zeal of his Transalpine allies + enforced his complaint and request by an eloquent letter in the name and + person of St. Peter himself. <a href="#linknote-49.52" name="linknoteref-49.52" + id="linknoteref-49.52">52</a> The apostle assures his adopted sons, the king, + the clergy, and the nobles of France, that, dead in the flesh, he is still + alive in the spirit; that they now hear, and must obey, the voice of the + founder and guardian of the Roman church; that the Virgin, the angels, the + saints, and the martyrs, and all the host of heaven, unanimously urge the + request, and will confess the obligation; that riches, victory, and + paradise, will crown their pious enterprise, and that eternal damnation + will be the penalty of their neglect, if they suffer his tomb, his temple, + and his people, to fall into the hands of the perfidious Lombards. The + second expedition of Pepin was not less rapid and fortunate than the + first: St. Peter was satisfied, Rome was again saved, and Astolphus was + taught the lessons of justice and sincerity by the scourge of a foreign + master. After this double chastisement, the Lombards languished about + twenty years in a state of languor and decay. But their minds were not yet + humbled to their condition; and instead of affecting the pacific virtues + of the feeble, they peevishly harassed the Romans with a repetition of + claims, evasions, and inroads, which they undertook without reflection, + and terminated without glory. On either side, their expiring monarchy was + pressed by the zeal and prudence of Pope Adrian the First, the genius, the + fortune, and greatness of Charlemagne, the son of Pepin; these heroes of + the church and state were united in public and domestic friendship, and + while they trampled on the prostrate, they varnished their proceedings + with the fairest colors of equity and moderation. <a href="#linknote-49.53" + name="linknoteref-49.53" id="linknoteref-49.53">53</a> The passes of the Alps, + and the walls of Pavia, were the only defence of the Lombards; the former + were surprised, the latter were invested, by the son of Pepin; and after a + blockade of two years, <a href="#linknote-49.531" name="linknoteref-49.531" + id="linknoteref-49.531">531</a> Desiderius, the last of their native princes, + surrendered his sceptre and his capital. + </p> + <p> + Under the dominion of a foreign king, but in the possession of their + national laws, the Lombards became the brethren, rather than the subjects, + of the Franks; who derived their blood, and manners, and language, from + the same Germanic origin. <a href="#linknote-49.54" name="linknoteref-49.54" + id="linknoteref-49.54">54</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.511" id="linknote-49.511"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 511 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.511">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregory I. had been + dead above a century; read Gregory III.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.52" id="linknote-49.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.52">return</a>)<br /> [ See this most + extraordinary letter in the Codex Carolinus, epist iii. p. 92. The enemies + of the popes have charged them with fraud and blasphemy; yet they surely + meant to persuade rather than deceive. This introduction of the dead, or + of immortals, was familiar to the ancient orators, though it is executed + on this occasion in the rude fashion of the age.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.53" id="linknote-49.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.53">return</a>)<br /> [ Except in the divorce of + the daughter of Desiderius, whom Charlemagne repudiated sine aliquo + crimine. Pope Stephen IV. had most furiously opposed the alliance of a + noble Frank—cum perfida, horrida nec dicenda, foetentissima natione + Longobardorum—to whom he imputes the first stain of leprosy, (Cod. + Carolin. epist. 45, p. 178, 179.) Another reason against the marriage was + the existence of a first wife, (Muratori, Annali d’Italia, tom. vi. p. + 232, 233, 236, 237.) But Charlemagne indulged himself in the freedom of + polygamy or concubinage.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.531" id="linknote-49.531"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 531 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.531">return</a>)<br /> [ Of fifteen months. + James, Life of Charlemagne, p. 187.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.54" id="linknote-49.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.54">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Annali d’Italia + of Muratori, tom. vi., and the three first Dissertations of his + Antiquitates Italiae Medii Aevi, tom. i.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap49.3"></a> + Chapter XLIX: Conquest Of Italy By The Franks.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + The mutual obligations of the popes and the Carlovingian family form the + important link of ancient and modern, of civil and ecclesiastical, + history. In the conquest of Italy, the champions of the Roman church + obtained a favorable occasion, a specious title, the wishes of the people, + the prayers and intrigues of the clergy. But the most essential gifts of + the popes to the Carlovingian race were the dignities of king of France, + <a href="#linknote-49.55" name="linknoteref-49.55" id="linknoteref-49.55">55</a> + and of patrician of Rome. I. Under the sacerdotal monarchy of St. Peter, + the nations began to resume the practice of seeking, on the banks of the + Tyber, their kings, their laws, and the oracles of their fate. The Franks + were perplexed between the name and substance of their government. All the + powers of royalty were exercised by Pepin, mayor of the palace; and + nothing, except the regal title, was wanting to his ambition. His enemies + were crushed by his valor; his friends were multiplied by his liberality; + his father had been the savior of Christendom; and the claims of personal + merit were repeated and ennobled in a descent of four generations. The + name and image of royalty was still preserved in the last descendant of + Clovis, the feeble Childeric; but his obsolete right could only be used as + an instrument of sedition: the nation was desirous of restoring the + simplicity of the constitution; and Pepin, a subject and a prince, was + ambitious to ascertain his own rank and the fortune of his family. The + mayor and the nobles were bound, by an oath of fidelity, to the royal + phantom: the blood of Clovis was pure and sacred in their eyes; and their + common ambassadors addressed the Roman pontiff, to dispel their scruples, + or to absolve their promise. The interest of Pope Zachary, the successor + of the two Gregories, prompted him to decide, and to decide in their + favor: he pronounced that the nation might lawfully unite in the same + person the title and authority of king; and that the unfortunate + Childeric, a victim of the public safety, should be degraded, shaved, and + confined in a monastery for the remainder of his days. An answer so + agreeable to their wishes was accepted by the Franks as the opinion of a + casuist, the sentence of a judge, or the oracle of a prophet: the + Merovingian race disappeared from the earth; and Pepin was exalted on a + buckler by the suffrage of a free people, accustomed to obey his laws and + to march under his standard. His coronation was twice performed, with the + sanction of the popes, by their most faithful servant St. Boniface, the + apostle of Germany, and by the grateful hands of Stephen the Third, who, + in the monastery of St. Denys placed the diadem on the head of his + benefactor. The royal unction of the kings of Israel was dexterously + applied: <a href="#linknote-49.56" name="linknoteref-49.56" id="linknoteref-49.56">56</a> + the successor of St. Peter assumed the character of a divine ambassador: a + German chieftain was transformed into the Lord’s anointed; and this Jewish + rite has been diffused and maintained by the superstition and vanity of + modern Europe. The Franks were absolved from their ancient oath; but a + dire anathema was thundered against them and their posterity, if they + should dare to renew the same freedom of choice, or to elect a king, + except in the holy and meritorious race of the Carlovingian princes. + Without apprehending the future danger, these princes gloried in their + present security: the secretary of Charlemagne affirms, that the French + sceptre was transferred by the authority of the popes; <a + href="#linknote-49.57" name="linknoteref-49.57" id="linknoteref-49.57">57</a> and + in their boldest enterprises, they insist, with confidence, on this signal + and successful act of temporal jurisdiction. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.55" id="linknote-49.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.55">return</a>)<br /> [ Besides the common + historians, three French critics, Launoy, (Opera, tom. v. pars ii. l. vii. + epist. 9, p. 477-487,) Pagi, (Critica, A.D. 751, No. 1-6, A.D. 752, No. + 1-10,) and Natalis Alexander, (Hist. Novi Testamenti, dissertat, ii. p. + 96-107,) have treated this subject of the deposition of Childeric with + learning and attention, but with a strong bias to save the independence of + the crown. Yet they are hard pressed by the texts which they produce of + Eginhard, Theophanes, and the old annals, Laureshamenses, Fuldenses, + Loisielani] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.56" id="linknote-49.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.56">return</a>)<br /> [ Not absolutely for the + first time. On a less conspicuous theatre it had been used, in the vith + and viith centuries, by the provincial bishops of Britain and Spain. The + royal unction of Constantinople was borrowed from the Latins in the last + age of the empire. Constantine Manasses mentions that of Charlemagne as a + foreign, Jewish, incomprehensible ceremony. See Selden’s Titles of Honor, + in his Works, vol. iii. part i. p. 234-249.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.57" id="linknote-49.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.57">return</a>)<br /> [ See Eginhard, in Vita + Caroli Magni, c. i. p. 9, &c., c. iii. p. 24. Childeric was deposed—jussu, + the Carlovingians were established—auctoritate, Pontificis Romani. + Launoy, &c., pretend that these strong words are susceptible of a very + soft interpretation. Be it so; yet Eginhard understood the world, the + court, and the Latin language.] + </p> + <p> + II. In the change of manners and language the patricians of Rome <a + href="#linknote-49.58" name="linknoteref-49.58" id="linknoteref-49.58">58</a> were + far removed from the senate of Romulus, or the palace of Constantine, from + the free nobles of the republic, or the fictitious parents of the emperor. + After the recovery of Italy and Africa by the arms of Justinian, the + importance and danger of those remote provinces required the presence of a + supreme magistrate; he was indifferently styled the exarch or the + patrician; and these governors of Ravenna, who fill their place in the + chronology of princes, extended their jurisdiction over the Roman city. + Since the revolt of Italy and the loss of the Exarchate, the distress of + the Romans had exacted some sacrifice of their independence. Yet, even in + this act, they exercised the right of disposing of themselves; and the + decrees of the senate and people successively invested Charles Martel and + his posterity with the honors of patrician of Rome. The leaders of a + powerful nation would have disdained a servile title and subordinate + office; but the reign of the Greek emperors was suspended; and, in the + vacancy of the empire, they derived a more glorious commission from the + pope and the republic. The Roman ambassadors presented these patricians + with the keys of the shrine of St. Peter, as a pledge and symbol of + sovereignty; with a holy banner which it was their right and duty to + unfurl in the defence of the church and city. <a href="#linknote-49.59" + name="linknoteref-49.59" id="linknoteref-49.59">59</a> In the time of Charles + Martel and of Pepin, the interposition of the Lombard kingdom covered the + freedom, while it threatened the safety, of Rome; and the patriciate + represented only the title, the service, the alliance, of these distant + protectors. The power and policy of Charlemagne annihilated an enemy, and + imposed a master. In his first visit to the capital, he was received with + all the honors which had formerly been paid to the exarch, the + representative of the emperor; and these honors obtained some new + decorations from the joy and gratitude of Pope Adrian the First. <a + href="#linknote-49.60" name="linknoteref-49.60" id="linknoteref-49.60">60</a> No + sooner was he informed of the sudden approach of the monarch, than he + despatched the magistrates and nobles of Rome to meet him, with the + banner, about thirty miles from the city. At the distance of one mile, the + Flaminian way was lined with the schools, or national communities, of + Greeks, Lombards, Saxons, &c.: the Roman youth were under arms; and + the children of a more tender age, with palms and olive branches in their + hands, chanted the praises of their great deliverer. At the aspect of the + holy crosses, and ensigns of the saints, he dismounted from his horse, led + the procession of his nobles to the Vatican, and, as he ascended the + stairs, devoutly kissed each step of the threshold of the apostles. In the + portico, Adrian expected him at the head of his clergy: they embraced, as + friends and equals; but in their march to the altar, the king or patrician + assumed the right hand of the pope. Nor was the Frank content with these + vain and empty demonstrations of respect. In the twenty-six years that + elapsed between the conquest of Lombardy and his Imperial coronation, + Rome, which had been delivered by the sword, was subject, as his own, to + the sceptre of Charlemagne. The people swore allegiance to his person and + family: in his name money was coined, and justice was administered; and + the election of the popes was examined and confirmed by his authority. + Except an original and self-inherent claim of sovereignty, there was not + any prerogative remaining, which the title of emperor could add to the + patrician of Rome. <a href="#linknote-49.61" name="linknoteref-49.61" + id="linknoteref-49.61">61</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.58" id="linknote-49.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.58">return</a>)<br /> [ For the title and powers + of patrician of Rome, see Ducange, (Gloss. Latin. tom. v. p. 149-151,) + Pagi, (Critica, A.D. 740, No. 6-11,) Muratori, (Annali d’Italia, tom. vi. + p. 308-329,) and St. Marc, (Abrege Chronologique d’Italie, tom. i. p. + 379-382.) Of these the Franciscan Pagi is the most disposed to make the + patrician a lieutenant of the church, rather than of the empire.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.59" id="linknote-49.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.59">return</a>)<br /> [ The papal advocates can + soften the symbolic meaning of the banner and the keys; but the style of + ad regnum dimisimus, or direximus, (Codex Carolin. epist. i. tom. iii. + pars ii. p. 76,) seems to allow of no palliation or escape. In the Ms. of + the Vienna library, they read, instead of regnum, rogum, prayer or request + (see Ducange;) and the royalty of Charles Martel is subverted by this + important correction, (Catalani, in his Critical Prefaces, Annali + d’Italia, tom. xvii. p. 95-99.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.60" id="linknote-49.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.60">return</a>)<br /> [ In the authentic + narrative of this reception, the Liber Pontificalis observes—obviam + illi ejus sanctitas dirigens venerabiles cruces, id est signa; sicut mos + est ad exarchum, aut patricium suscipiendum, sum cum ingenti honore + suscipi fecit, (tom. iii. pars i. p. 185.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.61" id="linknote-49.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.61">return</a>)<br /> [ Paulus Diaconus, who + wrote before the empire of Charlemagne describes Rome as his subject city—vestrae + civitates (ad Pompeium Festum) suis addidit sceptris, (de Metensis + Ecclesiae Episcopis.) Some Carlovingian medals, struck at Rome, have + engaged Le Blanc to write an elaborate, though partial, dissertation on + their authority at Rome, both as patricians and emperors, (Amsterdam, + 1692, in 4to.)] + </p> + <p> + The gratitude of the Carlovingians was adequate to these obligations, and + their names are consecrated, as the saviors and benefactors of the Roman + church. Her ancient patrimony of farms and houses was transformed by their + bounty into the temporal dominion of cities and provinces; and the + donation of the Exarchate was the first-fruits of the conquests of Pepin. + <a href="#linknote-49.62" name="linknoteref-49.62" id="linknoteref-49.62">62</a> + Astolphus with a sigh relinquished his prey; the keys and the hostages of + the principal cities were delivered to the French ambassador; and, in his + master’s name, he presented them before the tomb of St. Peter. The ample + measure of the Exarchate <a href="#linknote-49.63" name="linknoteref-49.63" + id="linknoteref-49.63">63</a> might comprise all the provinces of Italy which + had obeyed the emperor and his vicegerent; but its strict and proper + limits were included in the territories of Ravenna, Bologna, and Ferrara: + its inseparable dependency was the Pentapolis, which stretched along the + Adriatic from Rimini to Ancona, and advanced into the midland-country as + far as the ridges of the Apennine. In this transaction, the ambition and + avarice of the popes have been severely condemned. Perhaps the humility of + a Christian priest should have rejected an earthly kingdom, which it was + not easy for him to govern without renouncing the virtues of his + profession. Perhaps a faithful subject, or even a generous enemy, would + have been less impatient to divide the spoils of the Barbarian; and if the + emperor had intrusted Stephen to solicit in his name the restitution of + the Exarchate, I will not absolve the pope from the reproach of treachery + and falsehood. But in the rigid interpretation of the laws, every one may + accept, without injury, whatever his benefactor can bestow without + injustice. The Greek emperor had abdicated, or forfeited, his right to the + Exarchate; and the sword of Astolphus was broken by the stronger sword of + the Carlovingian. It was not in the cause of the Iconoclast that Pepin has + exposed his person and army in a double expedition beyond the Alps: he + possessed, and might lawfully alienate, his conquests: and to the + importunities of the Greeks he piously replied that no human consideration + should tempt him to resume the gift which he had conferred on the Roman + Pontiff for the remission of his sins, and the salvation of his soul. The + splendid donation was granted in supreme and absolute dominion, and the + world beheld for the first time a Christian bishop invested with the + prerogatives of a temporal prince; the choice of magistrates, the exercise + of justice, the imposition of taxes, and the wealth of the palace of + Ravenna. In the dissolution of the Lombard kingdom, the inhabitants of the + duchy of Spoleto <a href="#linknote-49.64" name="linknoteref-49.64" + id="linknoteref-49.64">64</a> sought a refuge from the storm, shaved their + heads after the Roman fashion, declared themselves the servants and + subjects of St. Peter, and completed, by this voluntary surrender, the + present circle of the ecclesiastical state. That mysterious circle was + enlarged to an indefinite extent, by the verbal or written donation of + Charlemagne, <a href="#linknote-49.65" name="linknoteref-49.65" + id="linknoteref-49.65">65</a> who, in the first transports of his victory, + despoiled himself and the Greek emperor of the cities and islands which + had formerly been annexed to the Exarchate. But, in the cooler moments of + absence and reflection, he viewed, with an eye of jealousy and envy, the + recent greatness of his ecclesiastical ally. The execution of his own and + his father’s promises was respectfully eluded: the king of the Franks and + Lombards asserted the inalienable rights of the empire; and, in his life + and death, Ravenna, <a href="#linknote-49.66" name="linknoteref-49.66" + id="linknoteref-49.66">66</a> as well as Rome, was numbered in the list of + his metropolitan cities. The sovereignty of the Exarchate melted away in + the hands of the popes; they found in the archbishops of Ravenna a + dangerous and domestic rival: <a href="#linknote-49.67" name="linknoteref-49.67" + id="linknoteref-49.67">67</a> the nobles and people disdained the yoke of a + priest; and in the disorders of the times, they could only retain the + memory of an ancient claim, which, in a more prosperous age, they have + revived and realized. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.62" id="linknote-49.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.62">return</a>)<br /> [ Mosheim (Institution, + Hist. Eccles. p. 263) weighs this donation with fair and deliberate + prudence. The original act has never been produced; but the Liber + Pontificalis represents, (p. 171,) and the Codex Carolinus supposes, this + ample gift. Both are contemporary records and the latter is the more + authentic, since it has been preserved, not in the Papal, but the + Imperial, library.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.63" id="linknote-49.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.63">return</a>)<br /> [ Between the exorbitant + claims, and narrow concessions, of interest and prejudice, from which even + Muratori (Antiquitat. tom. i. p. 63-68) is not exempt, I have been guided, + in the limits of the Exarchate and Pentapolis, by the Dissertatio + Chorographica Italiae Medii Aevi, tom. x. p. 160-180.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.64" id="linknote-49.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Spoletini deprecati sunt, + ut eos in servitio B. Petri receperet et more Romanorum tonsurari faceret, + (Anastasius, p. 185.) Yet it may be a question whether they gave their own + persons or their country.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.65" id="linknote-49.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.65">return</a>)<br /> [ The policy and donations + of Charlemagne are carefully examined by St. Marc, (Abrege, tom. i. p. + 390-408,) who has well studied the Codex Carolinus. I believe, with him, + that they were only verbal. The most ancient act of donation that pretends + to be extant, is that of the emperor Lewis the Pious, (Sigonius, de Regno + Italiae, l. iv. Opera, tom. ii. p. 267-270.) Its authenticity, or at least + its integrity, are much questioned, (Pagi, A.D. 817, No. 7, &c. + Muratori, Annali, tom. vi. p. 432, &c. Dissertat. Chorographica, p. + 33, 34;) but I see no reasonable objection to these princes so freely + disposing of what was not their own.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.66" id="linknote-49.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.66">return</a>)<br /> [ Charlemagne solicited and + obtained from the proprietor, Hadrian I., the mosaics of the palace of + Ravenna, for the decoration of Aix-la-Chapelle, (Cod. Carolin. epist. 67, + p. 223.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.67" id="linknote-49.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.67">return</a>)<br /> [ The popes often complain + of the usurpations of Leo of Ravenna, (Codex Carolin, epist. 51, 52, 53, + p. 200-205.) Sir corpus St. Andreae fratris germani St. Petri hic + humasset, nequaquam nos Romani pontifices sic subjugassent, (Agnellus, + Liber Pontificalis, in Scriptores Rerum Ital. tom. ii. pars. i. p. 107.)] + </p> + <p> + Fraud is the resource of weakness and cunning; and the strong, though + ignorant, Barbarian was often entangled in the net of sacerdotal policy. + The Vatican and Lateran were an arsenal and manufacture, which, according + to the occasion, have produced or concealed a various collection of false + or genuine, of corrupt or suspicious, acts, as they tended to promote the + interest of the Roman church. Before the end of the eighth century, some + apostolic scribe, perhaps the notorious Isidore, composed the decretals, + and the donation of Constantine, the two magic pillars of the spiritual + and temporal monarchy of the popes. This memorable donation was introduced + to the world by an epistle of Adrian the First, who exhorts Charlemagne to + imitate the liberality, and revive the name, of the great Constantine. <a + href="#linknote-49.68" name="linknoteref-49.68" id="linknoteref-49.68">68</a> + According to the legend, the first of the Christian emperors was healed of + the leprosy, and purified in the waters of baptism, by St. Silvester, the + Roman bishop; and never was physician more gloriously recompensed. His + royal proselyte withdrew from the seat and patrimony of St. Peter; + declared his resolution of founding a new capital in the East; and + resigned to the popes; the free and perpetual sovereignty of Rome, Italy, + and the provinces of the West. <a href="#linknote-49.69" name="linknoteref-49.69" + id="linknoteref-49.69">69</a> This fiction was productive of the most + beneficial effects. The Greek princes were convicted of the guilt of + usurpation; and the revolt of Gregory was the claim of his lawful + inheritance. The popes were delivered from their debt of gratitude; and + the nominal gifts of the Carlovingians were no more than the just and + irrevocable restitution of a scanty portion of the ecclesiastical state. + The sovereignty of Rome no longer depended on the choice of a fickle + people; and the successors of St. Peter and Constantine were invested with + the purple and prerogatives of the Caesars. So deep was the ignorance and + credulity of the times, that the most absurd of fables was received, with + equal reverence, in Greece and in France, and is still enrolled among the + decrees of the canon law. <a href="#linknote-49.70" name="linknoteref-49.70" + id="linknoteref-49.70">70</a> The emperors, and the Romans, were incapable of + discerning a forgery, that subverted their rights and freedom; and the + only opposition proceeded from a Sabine monastery, which, in the beginning + of the twelfth century, disputed the truth and validity of the donation of + Constantine. <a href="#linknote-49.71" name="linknoteref-49.71" + id="linknoteref-49.71">71</a> In the revival of letters and liberty, this + fictitious deed was transpierced by the pen of Laurentius Valla, the pen + of an eloquent critic and a Roman patriot. <a href="#linknote-49.72" + name="linknoteref-49.72" id="linknoteref-49.72">72</a> His contemporaries of the + fifteenth century were astonished at his sacrilegious boldness; yet such + is the silent and irresistible progress of reason, that, before the end of + the next age, the fable was rejected by the contempt of historians <a + href="#linknote-49.73" name="linknoteref-49.73" id="linknoteref-49.73">73</a> and + poets, <a href="#linknote-49.74" name="linknoteref-49.74" id="linknoteref-49.74">74</a> + and the tacit or modest censure of the advocates of the Roman church. <a + href="#linknote-49.75" name="linknoteref-49.75" id="linknoteref-49.75">75</a> The + popes themselves have indulged a smile at the credulity of the vulgar; <a + href="#linknote-49.76" name="linknoteref-49.76" id="linknoteref-49.76">76</a> but a + false and obsolete title still sanctifies their reign; and, by the same + fortune which has attended the decretals and the Sibylline oracles, the + edifice has subsisted after the foundations have been undermined. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.68" id="linknote-49.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.68">return</a>)<br /> [ Piissimo Constantino + magno, per ejus largitatem S. R. Ecclesia elevata et exaltata est, et + potestatem in his Hesperiae partibus largiri olignatus est.... Quia ecce + novus Constantinus his temporibus, &c., (Codex Carolin. epist. 49, in + tom. iii. part ii. p. 195.) Pagi (Critica, A.D. 324, No. 16) ascribes them + to an impostor of the viiith century, who borrowed the name of St. + Isidore: his humble title of Peccator was ignorantly, but aptly, turned + into Mercator: his merchandise was indeed profitable, and a few sheets of + paper were sold for much wealth and power.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.69" id="linknote-49.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.69">return</a>)<br /> [ Fabricius (Bibliot. + Graec. tom. vi. p. 4-7) has enumerated the several editions of this Act, + in Greek and Latin. The copy which Laurentius Valla recites and refutes, + appears to be taken either from the spurious Acts of St. Silvester or from + Gratian’s Decree, to which, according to him and others, it has been + surreptitiously tacked.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.70" id="linknote-49.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.70">return</a>)<br /> [ In the year 1059, it was + believed (was it believed?) by Pope Leo IX. Cardinal Peter Damianus, &c. + Muratori places (Annali d’Italia, tom. ix. p. 23, 24) the fictitious + donations of Lewis the Pious, the Othos, &c., de Donatione + Constantini. See a Dissertation of Natalis Alexander, seculum iv. diss. + 25, p. 335-350.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.71" id="linknote-49.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.71">return</a>)<br /> [ See a large account of + the controversy (A.D. 1105) which arose from a private lawsuit, in the + Chronicon Farsense, (Script. Rerum Italicarum, tom. ii. pars ii. p. 637, + &c.,) a copious extract from the archives of that Benedictine abbey. + They were formerly accessible to curious foreigners, (Le Blanc and + Mabillon,) and would have enriched the first volume of the Historia + Monastica Italiae of Quirini. But they are now imprisoned (Muratori, + Scriptores R. I. tom. ii. pars ii. p. 269) by the timid policy of the + court of Rome; and the future cardinal yielded to the voice of authority + and the whispers of ambition, (Quirini, Comment. pars ii. p. 123-136.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.72" id="linknote-49.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.72">return</a>)<br /> [ I have read in the + collection of Schardius (de Potestate Imperiali Ecclesiastica, p. 734-780) + this animated discourse, which was composed by the author, A.D. 1440, six + years after the flight of Pope Eugenius IV. It is a most vehement party + pamphlet: Valla justifies and animates the revolt of the Romans, and would + even approve the use of a dagger against their sacerdotal tyrant. Such a + critic might expect the persecution of the clergy; yet he made his peace, + and is buried in the Lateran, (Bayle, Dictionnaire Critique, Valla; + Vossius, de Historicis Latinis, p. 580.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.73" id="linknote-49.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.73">return</a>)<br /> [ See Guicciardini, a + servant of the popes, in that long and valuable digression, which has + resumed its place in the last edition, correctly published from the + author’s Ms. and printed in four volumes in quarto, under the name of + Friburgo, 1775, (Istoria d’Italia, tom. i. p. 385-395.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.74" id="linknote-49.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.74">return</a>)<br /> [ The Paladin Astolpho + found it in the moon, among the things that were lost upon earth, (Orlando + Furioso, xxxiv. 80.) Di vari fiore ad un grand monte passa, Ch’ebbe gia + buono odore, or puzza forte: Questo era il dono (se pero dir lece) Che + Constantino al buon Silvestro fece. Yet this incomparable poem has been + approved by a bull of Leo X.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.75" id="linknote-49.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.75">return</a>)<br /> [ See Baronius, A.D. 324, + No. 117-123, A.D. 1191, No. 51, &c. The cardinal wishes to suppose + that Rome was offered by Constantine, and refused by Silvester. The act of + donation he considers strangely enough, as a forgery of the Greeks.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.76" id="linknote-49.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.76">return</a>)<br /> [ Baronius n’en dit guerres + contre; encore en a-t’il trop dit, et l’on vouloit sans moi, (Cardinal du + Perron,) qui l’empechai, censurer cette partie de son histoire. J’en + devisai un jour avec le Pape, et il ne me repondit autre chose “che + volete? i Canonici la tengono,” il le disoit en riant, (Perroniana, p. + 77.)] + </p> + <p> + While the popes established in Italy their freedom and dominion, the + images, the first cause of their revolt, were restored in the Eastern + empire. <a href="#linknote-49.77" name="linknoteref-49.77" id="linknoteref-49.77">77</a> + Under the reign of Constantine the Fifth, the union of civil and + ecclesiastical power had overthrown the tree, without extirpating the + root, of superstition. The idols (for such they were now held) were + secretly cherished by the order and the sex most prone to devotion; and + the fond alliance of the monks and females obtained a final victory over + the reason and authority of man. Leo the Fourth maintained with less rigor + the religion of his father and grandfather; but his wife, the fair and + ambitious Irene, had imbibed the zeal of the Athenians, the heirs of the + Idolatry, rather than the philosophy, of their ancestors. During the life + of her husband, these sentiments were inflamed by danger and + dissimulation, and she could only labor to protect and promote some + favorite monks whom she drew from their caverns, and seated on the + metropolitan thrones of the East. But as soon as she reigned in her own + name and that of her son, Irene more seriously undertook the ruin of the + Iconoclasts; and the first step of her future persecution was a general + edict for liberty of conscience. + </p> + <p> + In the restoration of the monks, a thousand images were exposed to the + public veneration; a thousand legends were inverted of their sufferings + and miracles. By the opportunities of death or removal, the episcopal + seats were judiciously filled; the most eager competitors for earthly or + celestial favor anticipated and flattered the judgment of their sovereign; + and the promotion of her secretary Tarasius gave Irene the patriarch of + Constantinople, and the command of the Oriental church. But the decrees of + a general council could only be repealed by a similar assembly: <a + href="#linknote-49.78" name="linknoteref-49.78" id="linknoteref-49.78">78</a> the + Iconoclasts whom she convened were bold in possession, and averse to + debate; and the feeble voice of the bishops was reechoed by the more + formidable clamor of the soldiers and people of Constantinople. The delay + and intrigues of a year, the separation of the disaffected troops, and the + choice of Nice for a second orthodox synod, removed these obstacles; and + the episcopal conscience was again, after the Greek fashion, in the hands + of the prince. No more than eighteen days were allowed for the + consummation of this important work: the Iconoclasts appeared, not as + judges, but as criminals or penitents: the scene was decorated by the + legates of Pope Adrian and the Eastern patriarchs, <a href="#linknote-49.79" + name="linknoteref-49.79" id="linknoteref-49.79">79</a> the decrees were framed + by the president Taracius, and ratified by the acclamations and + subscriptions of three hundred and fifty bishops. They unanimously + pronounced, that the worship of images is agreeable to Scripture and + reason, to the fathers and councils of the church: but they hesitate + whether that worship be relative or direct; whether the Godhead, and the + figure of Christ, be entitled to the same mode of adoration. Of this + second Nicene council the acts are still extant; a curious monument of + superstition and ignorance, of falsehood and folly. I shall only notice + the judgment of the bishops on the comparative merit of image-worship and + morality. A monk had concluded a truce with the daemon of fornication, on + condition of interrupting his daily prayers to a picture that hung in his + cell. His scruples prompted him to consult the abbot. “Rather than abstain + from adoring Christ and his Mother in their holy images, it would be + better for you,” replied the casuist, “to enter every brothel, and visit + every prostitute, in the city.” <a href="#linknote-49.80" + name="linknoteref-49.80" id="linknoteref-49.80">80</a> For the honor of + orthodoxy, at least the orthodoxy of the Roman church, it is somewhat + unfortunate, that the two princes who convened the two councils of Nice + are both stained with the blood of their sons. The second of these + assemblies was approved and rigorously executed by the despotism of Irene, + and she refused her adversaries the toleration which at first she had + granted to her friends. During the five succeeding reigns, a period of + thirty-eight years, the contest was maintained, with unabated rage and + various success, between the worshippers and the breakers of the images; + but I am not inclined to pursue with minute diligence the repetition of + the same events. Nicephorus allowed a general liberty of speech and + practice; and the only virtue of his reign is accused by the monks as the + cause of his temporal and eternal perdition. Superstition and weakness + formed the character of Michael the First, but the saints and images were + incapable of supporting their votary on the throne. In the purple, Leo the + Fifth asserted the name and religion of an Armenian; and the idols, with + their seditious adherents, were condemned to a second exile. Their + applause would have sanctified the murder of an impious tyrant, but his + assassin and successor, the second Michael, was tainted from his birth + with the Phrygian heresies: he attempted to mediate between the contending + parties; and the intractable spirit of the Catholics insensibly cast him + into the opposite scale. His moderation was guarded by timidity; but his + son Theophilus, alike ignorant of fear and pity, was the last and most + cruel of the Iconoclasts. The enthusiasm of the times ran strongly against + them; and the emperors who stemmed the torrent were exasperated and + punished by the public hatred. After the death of Theophilus, the final + victory of the images was achieved by a second female, his widow Theodora, + whom he left the guardian of the empire. Her measures were bold and + decisive. The fiction of a tardy repentance absolved the fame and the soul + of her deceased husband; the sentence of the Iconoclast patriarch was + commuted from the loss of his eyes to a whipping of two hundred lashes: + the bishops trembled, the monks shouted, and the festival of orthodoxy + preserves the annual memory of the triumph of the images. A single + question yet remained, whether they are endowed with any proper and + inherent sanctity; it was agitated by the Greeks of the eleventh century; + <a href="#linknote-49.81" name="linknoteref-49.81" id="linknoteref-49.81">81</a> + and as this opinion has the strongest recommendation of absurdity, I am + surprised that it was not more explicitly decided in the affirmative. In + the West, Pope Adrian the First accepted and announced the decrees of the + Nicene assembly, which is now revered by the Catholics as the seventh in + rank of the general councils. Rome and Italy were docile to the voice of + their father; but the greatest part of the Latin Christians were far + behind in the race of superstition. The churches of France, Germany, + England, and Spain, steered a middle course between the adoration and the + destruction of images, which they admitted into their temples, not as + objects of worship, but as lively and useful memorials of faith and + history. An angry book of controversy was composed and published in the + name of Charlemagne: <a href="#linknote-49.82" name="linknoteref-49.82" + id="linknoteref-49.82">82</a> under his authority a synod of three hundred + bishops was assembled at Frankfort: <a href="#linknote-49.83" + name="linknoteref-49.83" id="linknoteref-49.83">83</a> they blamed the fury of + the Iconoclasts, but they pronounced a more severe censure against the + superstition of the Greeks, and the decrees of their pretended council, + which was long despised by the Barbarians of the West. <a + href="#linknote-49.84" name="linknoteref-49.84" id="linknoteref-49.84">84</a> Among + them the worship of images advanced with a silent and insensible progress; + but a large atonement is made for their hesitation and delay, by the gross + idolatry of the ages which precede the reformation, and of the countries, + both in Europe and America, which are still immersed in the gloom of + superstition. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.77" id="linknote-49.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.77">return</a>)<br /> [ The remaining history of + images, from Irene to Theodora, is collected, for the Catholics, by + Baronius and Pagi, (A.D. 780-840.) Natalis Alexander, (Hist. N. T. seculum + viii. Panoplia adversus Haereticos p. 118-178,) and Dupin, (Bibliot. + Eccles. tom. vi. p. 136-154;) for the Protestants, by Spanheim, (Hist. + Imag. p. 305-639.) Basnage, (Hist. de l’Eglise, tom. i. p. 556-572, tom. + ii. p. 1362-1385,) and Mosheim, (Institut. Hist. Eccles. secul. viii. et + ix.) The Protestants, except Mosheim, are soured with controversy; but the + Catholics, except Dupin, are inflamed by the fury and superstition of the + monks; and even Le Beau, (Hist. du Bas Empire,) a gentleman and a scholar, + is infected by the odious contagion.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.78" id="linknote-49.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.78">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Acts, in Greek + and Latin, of the second Council of Nice, with a number of relative + pieces, in the viiith volume of the Councils, p. 645-1600. A faithful + version, with some critical notes, would provoke, in different readers, a + sigh or a smile.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.79" id="linknote-49.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.79">return</a>)<br /> [ The pope’s legates were + casual messengers, two priests without any special commission, and who + were disavowed on their return. Some vagabond monks were persuaded by the + Catholics to represent the Oriental patriarchs. This curious anecdote is + revealed by Theodore Studites, (epist. i. 38, in Sirmond. Opp. tom. v. p. + 1319,) one of the warmest Iconoclasts of the age.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.80" id="linknote-49.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.80">return</a>)<br /> [ These visits could not be + innocent since the daemon of fornication, &c. Actio iv. p. 901, Actio + v. p. 1081] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.81" id="linknote-49.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.81">return</a>)<br /> [ See an account of this + controversy in the Alexius of Anna Compena, (l. v. p. 129,) and Mosheim, + (Institut. Hist. Eccles. p. 371, 372.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.82" id="linknote-49.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.82">return</a>)<br /> [ The Libri Carolini, + (Spanheim, p. 443-529,) composed in the palace or winter quarters of + Charlemagne, at Worms, A.D. 790, and sent by Engebert to Pope Hadrian I., + who answered them by a grandis et verbosa epistola, (Concil. tom. vii. p. + 1553.) The Carolines propose 120 objections against the Nicene synod and + such words as these are the flowers of their rhetoric—Dementiam.... + priscae Gentilitatis obsoletum errorem .... argumenta insanissima et + absurdissima.... derisione dignas naenias, &c., &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.83" id="linknote-49.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.83">return</a>)<br /> [ The assemblies of + Charlemagne were political, as well as ecclesiastical; and the three + hundred members, (Nat. Alexander, sec. viii. p. 53,) who sat and voted at + Frankfort, must include not only the bishops, but the abbots, and even the + principal laymen.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.84" id="linknote-49.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.84">return</a>)<br /> [ Qui supra sanctissima + patres nostri (episcopi et sacerdotes) omnimodis servitium et adorationem + imaginum renuentes contempserunt, atque consentientes condemnaverunt, + (Concil. tom. ix. p. 101, Canon. ii. Franckfurd.) A polemic must be + hard-hearted indeed, who does not pity the efforts of Baronius, Pagi, + Alexander, Maimbourg, &c., to elude this unlucky sentence.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap49.4"></a> + Chapter XLIX: Conquest Of Italy By The Franks.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + It was after the Nycene synod, and under the reign of the pious Irene, + that the popes consummated the separation of Rome and Italy, by the + translation of the empire to the less orthodox Charlemagne. They were + compelled to choose between the rival nations: religion was not the sole + motive of their choice; and while they dissembled the failings of their + friends, they beheld, with reluctance and suspicion, the Catholic virtues + of their foes. The difference of language and manners had perpetuated the + enmity of the two capitals; and they were alienated from each other by the + hostile opposition of seventy years. In that schism the Romans had tasted + of freedom, and the popes of sovereignty: their submission would have + exposed them to the revenge of a jealous tyrant; and the revolution of + Italy had betrayed the impotence, as well as the tyranny, of the Byzantine + court. The Greek emperors had restored the images, but they had not + restored the Calabrian estates <a href="#linknote-49.85" name="linknoteref-49.85" + id="linknoteref-49.85">85</a> and the Illyrian diocese, <a href="#linknote-49.86" + name="linknoteref-49.86" id="linknoteref-49.86">86</a> which the Iconociasts had + torn away from the successors of St. Peter; and Pope Adrian threatens them + with a sentence of excommunication unless they speedily abjure this + practical heresy. <a href="#linknote-49.87" name="linknoteref-49.87" + id="linknoteref-49.87">87</a> The Greeks were now orthodox; but their + religion might be tainted by the breath of the reigning monarch: the + Franks were now contumacious; but a discerning eye might discern their + approaching conversion, from the use, to the adoration, of images. The + name of Charlemagne was stained by the polemic acrimony of his scribes; + but the conqueror himself conformed, with the temper of a statesman, to + the various practice of France and Italy. In his four pilgrimages or + visits to the Vatican, he embraced the popes in the communion of + friendship and piety; knelt before the tomb, and consequently before the + image, of the apostle; and joined, without scruple, in all the prayers and + processions of the Roman liturgy. Would prudence or gratitude allow the + pontiffs to renounce their benefactor? Had they a right to alienate his + gift of the Exarchate? Had they power to abolish his government of Rome? + The title of patrician was below the merit and greatness of Charlemagne; + and it was only by reviving the Western empire that they could pay their + obligations or secure their establishment. By this decisive measure they + would finally eradicate the claims of the Greeks; from the debasement of a + provincial town, the majesty of Rome would be restored: the Latin + Christians would be united, under a supreme head, in their ancient + metropolis; and the conquerors of the West would receive their crown from + the successors of St. Peter. The Roman church would acquire a zealous and + respectable advocate; and, under the shadow of the Carlovingian power, the + bishop might exercise, with honor and safety, the government of the city. + <a href="#linknote-49.88" name="linknoteref-49.88" id="linknoteref-49.88">88</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.85" id="linknote-49.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.85">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophanes (p. 343) + specifies those of Sicily and Calabria, which yielded an annual rent of + three talents and a half of gold, (perhaps 7000 L. sterling.) Liutprand + more pompously enumerates the patrimonies of the Roman church in Greece, + Judaea, Persia, Mesopotamia Babylonia, Egypt, and Libya, which were + detained by the injustice of the Greek emperor, (Legat. ad Nicephorum, in + Script. Rerum Italica rum, tom. ii. pars i. p. 481.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.86" id="linknote-49.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.86">return</a>)<br /> [ The great diocese of the + Eastern Illyricum, with Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily, (Thomassin, + Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. i. p. 145: ) by the confession of the Greeks, + the patriarch of Constantinople had detached from Rome the metropolitans + of Thessalonica, Athens Corinth, Nicopolis, and Patrae, (Luc. Holsten. + Geograph. Sacra, p. 22) and his spiritual conquests extended to Naples and + Amalphi (Istoria Civile di Napoli, tom. i. p. 517-524, Pagi, A. D 780, No. + 11.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.87" id="linknote-49.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.87">return</a>)<br /> [ In hoc ostenditur, quia + ex uno capitulo ab errore reversis, in aliis duobus, in eodem (was it the + same?) permaneant errore.... de diocessi S. R. E. seu de patrimoniis + iterum increpantes commonemus, ut si ea restituere noluerit hereticum eum + pro hujusmodi errore perseverantia decernemus, (Epist. Hadrian. Papae ad + Carolum Magnum, in Concil. tom. viii. p. 1598;) to which he adds a reason, + most directly opposite to his conduct, that he preferred the salvation of + souls and rule of faith to the goods of this transitory world.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.88" id="linknote-49.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.88">return</a>)<br /> [ Fontanini considers the + emperors as no more than the advocates of the church, (advocatus et + defensor S. R. E. See Ducange, Gloss Lat. tom. i. p. 297.) His antagonist + Muratori reduces the popes to be no more than the exarchs of the emperor. + In the more equitable view of Mosheim, (Institut. Hist. Eccles. p. 264, + 265,) they held Rome under the empire as the most honorable species of + fief or benefice—premuntur nocte caliginosa!] + </p> + <p> + Before the ruin of Paganism in Rome, the competition for a wealthy + bishopric had often been productive of tumult and bloodshed. The people + was less numerous, but the times were more savage, the prize more + important, and the chair of St. Peter was fiercely disputed by the leading + ecclesiastics who aspired to the rank of sovereign. The reign of Adrian + the First <a href="#linknote-49.89" name="linknoteref-49.89" id="linknoteref-49.89">89</a> + surpasses the measure of past or succeeding ages; <a href="#linknote-49.90" + name="linknoteref-49.90" id="linknoteref-49.90">90</a> the walls of Rome, the + sacred patrimony, the ruin of the Lombards, and the friendship of + Charlemagne, were the trophies of his fame: he secretly edified the throne + of his successors, and displayed in a narrow space the virtues of a great + prince. His memory was revered; but in the next election, a priest of the + Lateran, Leo the Third, was preferred to the nephew and the favorite of + Adrian, whom he had promoted to the first dignities of the church. Their + acquiescence or repentance disguised, above four years, the blackest + intention of revenge, till the day of a procession, when a furious band of + conspirators dispersed the unarmed multitude, and assaulted with blows and + wounds the sacred person of the pope. But their enterprise on his life or + liberty was disappointed, perhaps by their own confusion and remorse. Leo + was left for dead on the ground: on his revival from the swoon, the effect + of his loss of blood, he recovered his speech and sight; and this natural + event was improved to the miraculous restoration of his eyes and tongue, + of which he had been deprived, twice deprived, by the knife of the + assassins. <a href="#linknote-49.91" name="linknoteref-49.91" id="linknoteref-49.91">91</a> + From his prison he escaped to the Vatican: the duke of Spoleto hastened to + his rescue, Charlemagne sympathized in his injury, and in his camp of + Paderborn in Westphalia accepted, or solicited, a visit from the Roman + pontiff. Leo repassed the Alps with a commission of counts and bishops, + the guards of his safety and the judges of his innocence; and it was not + without reluctance, that the conqueror of the Saxons delayed till the + ensuing year the personal discharge of this pious office. In his fourth + and last pilgrimage, he was received at Rome with the due honors of king + and patrician: Leo was permitted to purge himself by oath of the crimes + imputed to his charge: his enemies were silenced, and the sacrilegious + attempt against his life was punished by the mild and insufficient penalty + of exile. On the festival of Christmas, the last year of the eighth + century, Charlemagne appeared in the church of St. Peter; and, to gratify + the vanity of Rome, he had exchanged the simple dress of his country for + the habit of a patrician. <a href="#linknote-49.92" name="linknoteref-49.92" + id="linknoteref-49.92">92</a> After the celebration of the holy mysteries, + Leo suddenly placed a precious crown on his head, <a href="#linknote-49.93" + name="linknoteref-49.93" id="linknoteref-49.93">93</a> and the dome resounded + with the acclamations of the people, “Long life and victory to Charles, + the most pious Augustus, crowned by God the great and pacific emperor of + the Romans!” The head and body of Charlemagne were consecrated by the + royal unction: after the example of the Caesars, he was saluted or adored + by the pontiff: his coronation oath represents a promise to maintain the + faith and privileges of the church; and the first-fruits were paid in his + rich offerings to the shrine of his apostle. In his familiar conversation, + the emperor protested the ignorance of the intentions of Leo, which he + would have disappointed by his absence on that memorable day. But the + preparations of the ceremony must have disclosed the secret; and the + journey of Charlemagne reveals his knowledge and expectation: he had + acknowledged that the Imperial title was the object of his ambition, and a + Roman synod had pronounced, that it was the only adequate reward of his + merit and services. <a href="#linknote-49.94" name="linknoteref-49.94" + id="linknoteref-49.94">94</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.89" id="linknote-49.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.89">return</a>)<br /> [ His merits and hopes are + summed up in an epitaph of thirty-eight-verses, of which Charlemagne + declares himself the author, (Concil. tom. viii. p. 520.) Post patrem + lacrymans Carolus haec carmina scripsi. Tu mihi dulcis amor, te modo + plango pater... Nomina jungo simul titulis, clarissime, nostra Adrianus, + Carolus, rex ego, tuque pater. The poetry might be supplied by Alcuin; but + the tears, the most glorious tribute, can only belong to Charlemagne.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.90" id="linknote-49.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.90">return</a>)<br /> [ Every new pope is + admonished—“Sancte Pater, non videbis annos Petri,” twenty-five + years. On the whole series the average is about eight years—a short + hope for an ambitious cardinal.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.91" id="linknote-49.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.91">return</a>)<br /> [ The assurance of + Anastasius (tom. iii. pars i. p. 197, 198) is supported by the credulity + of some French annalists; but Eginhard, and other writers of the same age, + are more natural and sincere. “Unus ei oculus paullulum est laesus,” says + John the deacon of Naples, (Vit. Episcop. Napol. in Scriptores Muratori, + tom. i. pars ii. p. 312.) Theodolphus, a contemporary bishop of Orleans, + observes with prudence (l. iii. carm. 3.) Reddita sunt? mirum est: mirum + est auferre nequtsse. Est tamen in dubio, hinc mirer an inde magis.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.92" id="linknote-49.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.92">return</a>)<br /> [ Twice, at the request of + Hadrian and Leo, he appeared at Rome,—longa tunica et chlamyde + amictus, et calceamentis quoque Romano more formatis. Eginhard (c. xxiii. + p. 109-113) describes, like Suetonius the simplicity of his dress, so + popular in the nation, that when Charles the Bald returned to France in a + foreign habit, the patriotic dogs barked at the apostate, (Gaillard, Vie + de Charlemagne, tom. iv. p. 109.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.93" id="linknote-49.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.93">return</a>)<br /> [ See Anastasius (p. 199) + and Eginhard, (c.xxviii. p. 124-128.) The unction is mentioned by + Theophanes, (p. 399,) the oath by Sigonius, (from the Ordo Romanus,) and + the Pope’s adoration more antiquorum principum, by the Annales Bertiniani, + (Script. Murator. tom. ii. pars ii. p. 505.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.94" id="linknote-49.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.94">return</a>)<br /> [ This great event of the + translation or restoration of the empire is related and discussed by + Natalis Alexander, (secul. ix. dissert. i. p. 390-397,) Pagi, (tom. iii. + p. 418,) Muratori, (Annali d’Italia, tom. vi. p. 339-352,) Sigonius, (de + Regno Italiae, l. iv. Opp. tom. ii. p. 247-251,) Spanheim, (de ficta + Translatione Imperii,) Giannone, (tom. i. p. 395-405,) St. Marc, (Abrege + Chronologique, tom. i. p. 438-450,) Gaillard, (Hist. de Charlemagne, tom. + ii. p. 386-446.) Almost all these moderns have some religious or national + bias.] + </p> + <p> + The appellation of great has been often bestowed, and sometimes deserved; + but Charlemagne is the only prince in whose favor the title has been + indissolubly blended with the name. That name, with the addition of saint, + is inserted in the Roman calendar; and the saint, by a rare felicity, is + crowned with the praises of the historians and philosophers of an + enlightened age. <a href="#linknote-49.95" name="linknoteref-49.95" + id="linknoteref-49.95">95</a> His real merit is doubtless enhanced by the + barbarism of the nation and the times from which he emerged: but the + apparent magnitude of an object is likewise enlarged by an unequal + comparison; and the ruins of Palmyra derive a casual splendor from the + nakedness of the surrounding desert. Without injustice to his fame, I may + discern some blemishes in the sanctity and greatness of the restorer of + the Western empire. Of his moral virtues, chastity is not the most + conspicuous: <a href="#linknote-49.96" name="linknoteref-49.96" + id="linknoteref-49.96">96</a> but the public happiness could not be + materially injured by his nine wives or concubines, the various indulgence + of meaner or more transient amours, the multitude of his bastards whom he + bestowed on the church, and the long celibacy and licentious manners of + his daughters, <a href="#linknote-49.97" name="linknoteref-49.97" + id="linknoteref-49.97">97</a> whom the father was suspected of loving with + too fond a passion. <a href="#linknote-49.971" name="linknoteref-49.971" + id="linknoteref-49.971">971</a> I shall be scarcely permitted to accuse the + ambition of a conqueror; but in a day of equal retribution, the sons of + his brother Carloman, the Merovingian princes of Aquitain, and the four + thousand five hundred Saxons who were beheaded on the same spot, would + have something to allege against the justice and humanity of Charlemagne. + His treatment of the vanquished Saxons <a href="#linknote-49.98" + name="linknoteref-49.98" id="linknoteref-49.98">98</a> was an abuse of the right + of conquest; his laws were not less sanguinary than his arms, and in the + discussion of his motives, whatever is subtracted from bigotry must be + imputed to temper. The sedentary reader is amazed by his incessant + activity of mind and body; and his subjects and enemies were not less + astonished at his sudden presence, at the moment when they believed him at + the most distant extremity of the empire; neither peace nor war, nor + summer nor winter, were a season of repose; and our fancy cannot easily + reconcile the annals of his reign with the geography of his expeditions. + <a href="#linknote-49.981" name="linknoteref-49.981" id="linknoteref-49.981">981</a> + But this activity was a national, rather than a personal, virtue; the + vagrant life of a Frank was spent in the chase, in pilgrimage, in military + adventures; and the journeys of Charlemagne were distinguished only by a + more numerous train and a more important purpose. His military renown must + be tried by the scrutiny of his troops, his enemies, and his actions. + Alexander conquered with the arms of Philip, but the two heroes who + preceded Charlemagne bequeathed him their name, their examples, and the + companions of their victories. At the head of his veteran and superior + armies, he oppressed the savage or degenerate nations, who were incapable + of confederating for their common safety: nor did he ever encounter an + equal antagonist in numbers, in discipline, or in arms The science of war + has been lost and revived with the arts of peace; but his campaigns are + not illustrated by any siege or battle of singular difficulty and success; + and he might behold, with envy, the Saracen trophies of his grandfather. + After the Spanish expedition, his rear-guard was defeated in the Pyrenaean + mountains; and the soldiers, whose situation was irretrievable, and whose + valor was useless, might accuse, with their last breath, the want of skill + or caution of their general. <a href="#linknote-49.99" name="linknoteref-49.99" + id="linknoteref-49.99">99</a> I touch with reverence the laws of Charlemagne, + so highly applauded by a respectable judge. They compose not a system, but + a series, of occasional and minute edicts, for the correction of abuses, + the reformation of manners, the economy of his farms, the care of his + poultry, and even the sale of his eggs. He wished to improve the laws and + the character of the Franks; and his attempts, however feeble and + imperfect, are deserving of praise: the inveterate evils of the times were + suspended or mollified by his government; <a href="#linknote-49.100" + name="linknoteref-49.100" id="linknoteref-49.100">100</a> but in his + institutions I can seldom discover the general views and the immortal + spirit of a legislator, who survives himself for the benefit of posterity. + The union and stability of his empire depended on the life of a single + man: he imitated the dangerous practice of dividing his kingdoms among his + sons; and after his numerous diets, the whole constitution was left to + fluctuate between the disorders of anarchy and despotism. His esteem for + the piety and knowledge of the clergy tempted him to intrust that aspiring + order with temporal dominion and civil jurisdiction; and his son Lewis, + when he was stripped and degraded by the bishops, might accuse, in some + measure, the imprudence of his father. His laws enforced the imposition of + tithes, because the daemons had proclaimed in the air that the default of + payment had been the cause of the last scarcity. <a href="#linknote-49.101" + name="linknoteref-49.101" id="linknoteref-49.101">101</a> The literary merits of + Charlemagne are attested by the foundation of schools, the introduction of + arts, the works which were published in his name, and his familiar + connection with the subjects and strangers whom he invited to his court to + educate both the prince and people. His own studies were tardy, laborious, + and imperfect; if he spoke Latin, and understood Greek, he derived the + rudiments of knowledge from conversation, rather than from books; and, in + his mature age, the emperor strove to acquire the practice of writing, + which every peasant now learns in his infancy. <a href="#linknote-49.102" + name="linknoteref-49.102" id="linknoteref-49.102">102</a> The grammar and logic, + the music and astronomy, of the times, were only cultivated as the + handmaids of superstition; but the curiosity of the human mind must + ultimately tend to its improvement, and the encouragement of learning + reflects the purest and most pleasing lustre on the character of + Charlemagne. <a href="#linknote-49.103" name="linknoteref-49.103" + id="linknoteref-49.103">103</a> The dignity of his person, <a + href="#linknote-49.104" name="linknoteref-49.104" id="linknoteref-49.104">104</a> + the length of his reign, the prosperity of his arms, the vigor of his + government, and the reverence of distant nations, distinguish him from the + royal crowd; and Europe dates a new aera from his restoration of the + Western empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.95" id="linknote-49.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.95">return</a>)<br /> [ By Mably, (Observations + sur l’Histoire de France,) Voltaire, (Histoire Generale,) Robertson, + (History of Charles V.,) and Montesquieu, (Esprit des Loix, l. xxxi. c. + 18.) In the year 1782, M. Gaillard published his Histoire de Charlemagne, + (in 4 vols. in 12mo.,) which I have freely and profitably used. The author + is a man of sense and humanity; and his work is labored with industry and + elegance. But I have likewise examined the original monuments of the + reigns of Pepin and Charlemagne, in the 5th volume of the Historians of + France.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.96" id="linknote-49.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.96">return</a>)<br /> [ The vision of Weltin, + composed by a monk, eleven years after the death of Charlemagne, shows him + in purgatory, with a vulture, who is perpetually gnawing the guilty + member, while the rest of his body, the emblem of his virtues, is sound + and perfect, (see Gaillard tom. ii. p. 317-360.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.97" id="linknote-49.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.97">return</a>)<br /> [ The marriage of Eginhard + with Imma, daughter of Charlemagne, is, in my opinion, sufficiently + refuted by the probum and suspicio that sullied these fair damsels, + without excepting his own wife, (c. xix. p. 98-100, cum Notis Schmincke.) + The husband must have been too strong for the historian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.971" id="linknote-49.971"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 971 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.971">return</a>)<br /> [ This charge of incest, + as Mr. Hallam justly observes, “seems to have originated in a + misinterpreted passage of Eginhard.” Hallam’s Middle Ages, vol.i. p. 16.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.98" id="linknote-49.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.98">return</a>)<br /> [ Besides the massacres and + transmigrations, the pain of death was pronounced against the following + crimes: 1. The refusal of baptism. 2. The false pretence of baptism. 3. A + relapse to idolatry. 4. The murder of a priest or bishop. 5. Human + sacrifices. 6. Eating meat in Lent. But every crime might be expiated by + baptism or penance, (Gaillard, tom. ii. p. 241-247;) and the Christian + Saxons became the friends and equals of the Franks, (Struv. Corpus Hist. + Germanicae, p.133.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.981" id="linknote-49.981"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 981 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.981">return</a>)<br /> [ M. Guizot (Cours + d’Histoire Moderne, p. 270, 273) has compiled the following statement of + Charlemagne’s military campaigns:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 1. Against the Aquitanians. + + 18. ” the Saxons. + + 5. ” the Lombards. + + 7. ” the Arabs in Spain. + + 1. ” the Thuringians. + + 4. ” the Avars. + + 2. ” the Bretons. + + 1. ” the Bavarians. + + 4. ” the Slaves beyond the Elbe + + 5. ” the Saracens in Italy. + + 3. ” the Danes. + + 2. ” the Greeks. + ___ + + 53 total.—M.] +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.99" id="linknote-49.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.99">return</a>)<br /> [ In this action the famous + Rutland, Rolando, Orlando, was slain—cum compluribus aliis. See the + truth in Eginhard, (c. 9, p. 51-56,) and the fable in an ingenious + Supplement of M. Gaillard, (tom. iii. p. 474.) The Spaniards are too proud + of a victory, which history ascribes to the Gascons, and romance to the + Saracens. * Note: In fact, it was a sudden onset of the Gascons, assisted + by the Beaure mountaineers, and possibly a few Navarrese.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.100" id="linknote-49.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.100">return</a>)<br /> [ Yet Schmidt, from the + best authorities, represents the interior disorders and oppression of his + reign, (Hist. des Allemands, tom. ii. p. 45-49.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.101" id="linknote-49.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.101">return</a>)<br /> [ Omnis homo ex sua + proprietate legitimam decimam ad ecclesiam conferat. Experimento enim + didicimus, in anno, quo illa valida fames irrepsit, ebullire vacuas + annonas a daemonibus devoratas, et voces exprobationis auditas. Such is + the decree and assertion of the great Council of Frankfort, (canon xxv. + tom. ix. p. 105.) Both Selden (Hist. of Tithes; Works, vol. iii. part ii. + p. 1146) and Montesquieu (Esprit des Loix, l. xxxi. c. 12) represent + Charlemagne as the first legal author of tithes. Such obligations have + country gentlemen to his memory!] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.102" id="linknote-49.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.102">return</a>)<br /> [ Eginhard (c. 25, p. + 119) clearly affirms, tentabat et scribere... sed parum prospere successit + labor praeposterus et sero inchoatus. The moderns have perverted and + corrected this obvious meaning, and the title of M. Gaillard’s + dissertation (tom. iii. p. 247-260) betrays his partiality. * Note: This + point has been contested; but Mr. Hallam and Monsieur Sismondl concur with + Gibbon. See Middle Ages, iii. 330, Histoire de Francais, tom. ii. p. 318. + The sensible observations of the latter are quoted in the Quarterly + Review, vol. xlviii. p. 451. Fleury, I may add, quotes from Mabillon a + remarkable evidence that Charlemagne “had a mark to himself like an + honest, plain-dealing man.” Ibid.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.103" id="linknote-49.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.103">return</a>)<br /> [ See Gaillard, tom. iii. + p. 138-176, and Schmidt, tom. ii. p. 121-129.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.104" id="linknote-49.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.104">return</a>)<br /> [ M. Gaillard (tom. iii. + p. 372) fixes the true stature of Charlemagne (see a Dissertation of + Marquard Freher ad calcem Eginhart, p. 220, &c.) at five feet nine + inches of French, about six feet one inch and a fourth English, measure. + The romance writers have increased it to eight feet, and the giant was + endowed with matchless strength and appetite: at a single stroke of his + good sword Joyeuse, he cut asunder a horseman and his horse; at a single + repast, he devoured a goose, two fowls, a quarter of mutton, &c.] + </p> + <p> + That empire was not unworthy of its title; <a href="#linknote-49.105" + name="linknoteref-49.105" id="linknoteref-49.105">105</a> and some of the + fairest kingdoms of Europe were the patrimony or conquest of a prince, who + reigned at the same time in France, Spain, Italy, Germany, and Hungary. <a + href="#linknote-49.106" name="linknoteref-49.106" id="linknoteref-49.106">106</a> + I. The Roman province of Gaul had been transformed into the name and + monarchy of France; but, in the decay of the Merovingian line, its limits + were contracted by the independence of the Britons and the revolt of + Aquitain. Charlemagne pursued, and confined, the Britons on the shores of + the ocean; and that ferocious tribe, whose origin and language are so + different from the French, was chastised by the imposition of tribute, + hostages, and peace. After a long and evasive contest, the rebellion of + the dukes of Aquitain was punished by the forfeiture of their province, + their liberty, and their lives. + </p> + <p> + Harsh and rigorous would have been such treatment of ambitious governors, + who had too faithfully copied the mayors of the palace. But a recent + discovery <a href="#linknote-49.107" name="linknoteref-49.107" + id="linknoteref-49.107">107</a> has proved that these unhappy princes were + the last and lawful heirs of the blood and sceptre of Clovis, and younger + branch, from the brother of Dagobert, of the Merovingian house. Their + ancient kingdom was reduced to the duchy of Gascogne, to the counties of + Fesenzac and Armagnac, at the foot of the Pyrenees: their race was + propagated till the beginning of the sixteenth century; and after + surviving their Carlovingian tyrants, they were reserved to feel the + injustice, or the favors, of a third dynasty. By the reunion of Aquitain, + France was enlarged to its present boundaries, with the additions of the + Netherlands and Spain, as far as the Rhine. II. + </p> + <p> + The Saracens had been expelled from France by the grandfather and father + of Charlemagne; but they still possessed the greatest part of Spain, from + the rock of Gibraltar to the Pyrenees. Amidst their civil divisions, an + Arabian emir of Saragossa implored his protection in the diet of + Paderborn. Charlemagne undertook the expedition, restored the emir, and, + without distinction of faith, impartially crushed the resistance of the + Christians, and rewarded the obedience and services of the Mahometans. In + his absence he instituted the Spanish march, <a href="#linknote-49.108" + name="linknoteref-49.108" id="linknoteref-49.108">108</a> which extended from + the Pyrenees to the River Ebro: Barcelona was the residence of the French + governor: he possessed the counties of Rousillon and Catalonia; and the + infant kingdoms of Navarre and Arragon were subject to his jurisdiction. + III. As king of the Lombards, and patrician of Rome, he reigned over the + greatest part of Italy, <a href="#linknote-49.109" name="linknoteref-49.109" + id="linknoteref-49.109">109</a> a tract of a thousand miles from the Alps to + the borders of Calabria. The duchy of Beneventum, a Lombard fief, had + spread, at the expense of the Greeks, over the modern kingdom of Naples. + But Arrechis, the reigning duke, refused to be included in the slavery of + his country; assumed the independent title of prince; and opposed his + sword to the Carlovingian monarchy. His defence was firm, his submission + was not inglorious, and the emperor was content with an easy tribute, the + demolition of his fortresses, and the acknowledgement, on his coins, of a + supreme lord. The artful flattery of his son Grimoald added the + appellation of father, but he asserted his dignity with prudence, and + Benventum insensibly escaped from the French yoke. <a href="#linknote-49.110" + name="linknoteref-49.110" id="linknoteref-49.110">110</a> IV. Charlemagne was + the first who united Germany under the same sceptre. The name of Oriental + France is preserved in the circle of Franconia; and the people of Hesse + and Thuringia were recently incorporated with the victors, by the + conformity of religion and government. The Alemanni, so formidable to the + Romans, were the faithful vassals and confederates of the Franks; and + their country was inscribed within the modern limits of Alsace, Swabia, + and Switzerland. The Bavarians, with a similar indulgence of their laws + and manners, were less patient of a master: the repeated treasons of + Tasillo justified the abolition of their hereditary dukes; and their power + was shared among the counts, who judged and guarded that important + frontier. But the north of Germany, from the Rhine and beyond the Elbe, + was still hostile and Pagan; nor was it till after a war of thirty-three + years that the Saxons bowed under the yoke of Christ and of Charlemagne. + The idols and their votaries were extirpated: the foundation of eight + bishoprics, of Munster, Osnaburgh, Paderborn, and Minden, of Bremen, + Verden, Hildesheim, and Halberstadt, define, on either side of the Weser, + the bounds of ancient Saxony these episcopal seats were the first schools + and cities of that savage land; and the religion and humanity of the + children atoned, in some degree, for the massacre of the parents. Beyond + the Elbe, the Slavi, or Sclavonians, of similar manners and various + denominations, overspread the modern dominions of Prussia, Poland, and + Bohemia, and some transient marks of obedience have tempted the French + historian to extend the empire to the Baltic and the Vistula. The conquest + or conversion of those countries is of a more recent age; but the first + union of Bohemia with the Germanic body may be justly ascribed to the arms + of Charlemagne. V. He retaliated on the Avars, or Huns of Pannonia, the + same calamities which they had inflicted on the nations. Their rings, the + wooden fortifications which encircled their districts and villages, were + broken down by the triple effort of a French army, that was poured into + their country by land and water, through the Carpathian mountains and + along the plain of the Danube. After a bloody conflict of eight years, the + loss of some French generals was avenged by the slaughter of the most + noble Huns: the relics of the nation submitted the royal residence of the + chagan was left desolate and unknown; and the treasures, the rapine of two + hundred and fifty years, enriched the victorious troops, or decorated the + churches of Italy and Gaul. <a href="#linknote-49.111" name="linknoteref-49.111" + id="linknoteref-49.111">111</a> After the reduction of Pannonia, the empire + of Charlemagne was bounded only by the conflux of the Danube with the + Teyss and the Save: the provinces of Istria, Liburnia, and Dalmatia, were + an easy, though unprofitable, accession; and it was an effect of his + moderation, that he left the maritime cities under the real or nominal + sovereignty of the Greeks. But these distant possessions added more to the + reputation than to the power of the Latin emperor; nor did he risk any + ecclesiastical foundations to reclaim the Barbarians from their vagrant + life and idolatrous worship. Some canals of communication between the + rivers, the Saone and the Meuse, the Rhine and the Danube, were faintly + attempted. <a href="#linknote-49.112" name="linknoteref-49.112" + id="linknoteref-49.112">112</a> Their execution would have vivified the + empire; and more cost and labor were often wasted in the structure of a + cathedral. <a href="#linknote-49.1121" name="linknoteref-49.1121" + id="linknoteref-49.1121">1121</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.105" id="linknote-49.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.105">return</a>)<br /> [ See the concise, but + correct and original, work of D’Anville, (Etats Formes en Europe apres la + Chute de l’Empire Romain en Occident, Paris, 1771, in 4to.,) whose map + includes the empire of Charlemagne; the different parts are illustrated, + by Valesius (Notitia Galliacum) for France, Beretti (Dissertatio + Chorographica) for Italy, De Marca (Marca Hispanica) for Spain. For the + middle geography of Germany, I confess myself poor and destitute.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.106" id="linknote-49.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.106">return</a>)<br /> [ After a brief relation + of his wars and conquests, (Vit. Carol. c. 5-14,) Eginhard recapitulates, + in a few words, (c. 15,) the countries subject to his empire. Struvius, + (Corpus Hist. German. p. 118-149) was inserted in his Notes the texts of + the old Chronicles.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.107" id="linknote-49.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.107">return</a>)<br /> [ On a charter granted to + the monastery of Alaon (A.D. 845) by Charles the Bald, which deduces this + royal pedigree. I doubt whether some subsequent links of the ixth and xth + centuries are equally firm; yet the whole is approved and defended by M. + Gaillard, (tom. ii. p.60-81, 203-206,) who affirms that the family of + Montesquiou (not of the President de Montesquieu) is descended, in the + female line, from Clotaire and Clovis—an innocent pretension!] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.108" id="linknote-49.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.108">return</a>)<br /> [ The governors or counts + of the Spanish march revolted from Charles the Simple about the year 900; + and a poor pittance, the Rousillon, has been recovered in 1642 by the + kings of France, (Longuerue, Description de la France, tom i. p. 220-222.) + Yet the Rousillon contains 188,900 subjects, and annually pays 2,600,000 + livres, (Necker, Administration des Finances, tom. i. p. 278, 279;) more + people, perhaps, and doubtless more money than the march of Charlemagne.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.109" id="linknote-49.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.109">return</a>)<br /> [ Schmidt, Hist. des + Allemands, tom. ii. p. 200, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.110" id="linknote-49.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.110">return</a>)<br /> [ See Giannone, tom. i. p + 374, 375, and the Annals of Muratori.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.111" id="linknote-49.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.111">return</a>)<br /> [ Quot praelia in eo + gesta! quantum sanguinis effusum sit! Testatur vacua omni habitatione + Pannonia, et locus in quo regia Cagani fuit ita desertus, ut ne vestigium + quidem humanae habitationis appareat. Tota in hoc bello Hunnorum nobilitas + periit, tota gloria decidit, omnis pecunia et congesti ex longo tempore + thesauri direpti sunt. Eginhard, cxiii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.112" id="linknote-49.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.112">return</a>)<br /> [ The junction of the + Rhine and Danube was undertaken only for the service of the Pannonian war, + (Gaillard, Vie de Charlemagne, tom. ii. p. 312-315.) The canal, which + would have been only two leagues in length, and of which some traces are + still extant in Swabia, was interrupted by excessive rains, military + avocations, and superstitious fears, (Schaepflin, Hist. de l’Academie des + Inscriptions, tom. xviii. p. 256. Molimina fluviorum, &c., + jungendorum, p. 59-62.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.1121" id="linknote-49.1121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1121 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.1121">return</a>)<br /> [ I should doubt this + in the time of Charlemagne, even if the term “expended” were substituted + for “wasted.”—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap49.5"></a> + Chapter XLIX: Conquest Of Italy By The Franks.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + If we retrace the outlines of this geographical picture, it will be seen + that the empire of the Franks extended, between east and west, from the + Ebro to the Elbe or Vistula; between the north and south, from the duchy + of Beneventum to the River Eyder, the perpetual boundary of Germany and + Denmark. The personal and political importance of Charlemagne was + magnified by the distress and division of the rest of Europe. The islands + of Great Britain and Ireland were disputed by a crowd of princes of Saxon + or Scottish origin: and, after the loss of Spain, the Christian and Gothic + kingdom of Alphonso the Chaste was confined to the narrow range of the + Asturian mountains. These petty sovereigns revered the power or virtue of + the Carlovingian monarch, implored the honor and support of his alliance, + and styled him their common parent, the sole and supreme emperor of the + West. <a href="#linknote-49.113" name="linknoteref-49.113" id="linknoteref-49.113">113</a> + He maintained a more equal intercourse with the caliph Harun al Rashid, <a + href="#linknote-49.114" name="linknoteref-49.114" id="linknoteref-49.114">114</a> + whose dominion stretched from Africa to India, and accepted from his + ambassadors a tent, a water-clock, an elephant, and the keys of the Holy + Sepulchre. It is not easy to conceive the private friendship of a Frank + and an Arab, who were strangers to each other’s person, and language, and + religion: but their public correspondence was founded on vanity, and their + remote situation left no room for a competition of interest. Two thirds of + the Western empire of Rome were subject to Charlemagne, and the deficiency + was amply supplied by his command of the inaccessible or invincible + nations of Germany. But in the choice of his enemies, <a + href="#linknote-49.1141" name="linknoteref-49.1141" id="linknoteref-49.1141">1141</a> + we may be reasonably surprised that he so often preferred the poverty of + the north to the riches of the south. The three-and-thirty campaigns + laboriously consumed in the woods and morasses of Germany would have + sufficed to assert the amplitude of his title by the expulsion of the + Greeks from Italy and the Saracens from Spain. The weakness of the Greeks + would have insured an easy victory; and the holy crusade against the + Saracens would have been prompted by glory and revenge, and loudly + justified by religion and policy. Perhaps, in his expeditions beyond the + Rhine and the Elbe, he aspired to save his monarchy from the fate of the + Roman empire, to disarm the enemies of civilized society, and to eradicate + the seed of future emigrations. But it has been wisely observed, that, in + a light of precaution, all conquest must be ineffectual, unless it could + be universal, since the increasing circle must be involved in a larger + sphere of hostility. <a href="#linknote-49.115" name="linknoteref-49.115" + id="linknoteref-49.115">115</a> The subjugation of Germany withdrew the veil + which had so long concealed the continent or islands of Scandinavia from + the knowledge of Europe, and awakened the torpid courage of their + barbarous natives. The fiercest of the Saxon idolaters escaped from the + Christian tyrant to their brethren of the North; the Ocean and + Mediterranean were covered with their piratical fleets; and Charlemagne + beheld with a sigh the destructive progress of the Normans, who, in less + than seventy years, precipitated the fall of his race and monarchy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.113" id="linknote-49.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.113">return</a>)<br /> [ See Eginhard, c. 16, + and Gaillard, tom. ii. p. 361-385, who mentions, with a loose reference, + the intercourse of Charlemagne and Egbert, the emperor’s gift of his own + sword, and the modest answer of his Saxon disciple. The anecdote, if + genuine, would have adorned our English histories.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.114" id="linknote-49.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.114">return</a>)<br /> [ The correspondence is + mentioned only in the French annals, and the Orientals are ignorant of the + caliph’s friendship for the Christian dog—a polite appellation, + which Harun bestows on the emperor of the Greeks.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.1141" id="linknote-49.1141"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1141 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.1141">return</a>)<br /> [ Had he the choice? M. + Guizot has eloquently described the position of Charlemagne towards the + Saxons. Il y fit face par le conquete; la guerre defensive prit la forme + offensive: il transporta la lutte sur le territoire des peuples qui + voulaient envahir le sien: il travailla a asservir les races etrangeres, + et extirper les croyances ennemies. De la son mode de gouvernement et la + fondation de son empire: la guerre offensive et la conquete voulaient + cette vaste et redoutable unite. Compare observations in the Quarterly + Review, vol. xlviii., and James’s Life of Charlemagne.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.115" id="linknote-49.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.115">return</a>)<br /> [ Gaillard, tom. ii. p. + 361-365, 471-476, 492. I have borrowed his judicious remarks on + Charlemagne’s plan of conquest, and the judicious distinction of his + enemies of the first and the second enceinte, (tom. ii. p. 184, 509, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + Had the pope and the Romans revived the primitive constitution, the titles + of emperor and Augustus were conferred on Charlemagne for the term of his + life; and his successors, on each vacancy, must have ascended the throne + by a formal or tacit election. But the association of his son Lewis the + Pious asserts the independent right of monarchy and conquest, and the + emperor seems on this occasion to have foreseen and prevented the latent + claims of the clergy. The royal youth was commanded to take the crown from + the altar, and with his own hands to place it on his head, as a gift which + he held from God, his father, and the nation. <a href="#linknote-49.116" + name="linknoteref-49.116" id="linknoteref-49.116">116</a> The same ceremony was + repeated, though with less energy, in the subsequent associations of + Lothaire and Lewis the Second: the Carlovingian sceptre was transmitted + from father to son in a lineal descent of four generations; and the + ambition of the popes was reduced to the empty honor of crowning and + anointing these hereditary princes, who were already invested with their + power and dominions. The pious Lewis survived his brothers, and embraced + the whole empire of Charlemagne; but the nations and the nobles, his + bishops and his children, quickly discerned that this mighty mass was no + longer inspired by the same soul; and the foundations were undermined to + the centre, while the external surface was yet fair and entire. After a + war, or battle, which consumed one hundred thousand Franks, the empire was + divided by treaty between his three sons, who had violated every filial + and fraternal duty. The kingdoms of Germany and France were forever + separated; the provinces of Gaul, between the Rhone and the Alps, the + Meuse and the Rhine, were assigned, with Italy, to the Imperial dignity of + Lothaire. In the partition of his share, Lorraine and Arles, two recent + and transitory kingdoms, were bestowed on the younger children; and Lewis + the Second, his eldest son, was content with the realm of Italy, the + proper and sufficient patrimony of a Roman emperor. On his death without + any male issue, the vacant throne was disputed by his uncles and cousins, + and the popes most dexterously seized the occasion of judging the claims + and merits of the candidates, and of bestowing on the most obsequious, or + most liberal, the Imperial office of advocate of the Roman church. The + dregs of the Carlovingian race no longer exhibited any symptoms of virtue + or power, and the ridiculous epithets of the bard, the stammerer, the fat, + and the simple, distinguished the tame and uniform features of a crowd of + kings alike deserving of oblivion. By the failure of the collateral + branches, the whole inheritance devolved to Charles the Fat, the last + emperor of his family: his insanity authorized the desertion of Germany, + Italy, and France: he was deposed in a diet, and solicited his daily bread + from the rebels by whose contempt his life and liberty had been spared. + According to the measure of their force, the governors, the bishops, and + the lords, usurped the fragments of the falling empire; and some + preference was shown to the female or illegitimate blood of Charlemagne. + Of the greater part, the title and possession were alike doubtful, and the + merit was adequate to the contracted scale of their dominions. Those who + could appear with an army at the gates of Rome were crowned emperors in + the Vatican; but their modesty was more frequently satisfied with the + appellation of kings of Italy: and the whole term of seventy-four years + may be deemed a vacancy, from the abdication of Charles the Fat to the + establishment of Otho the First. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.116" id="linknote-49.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.116">return</a>)<br /> [ Thegan, the biographer + of Lewis, relates this coronation: and Baronius has honestly transcribed + it, (A.D. 813, No. 13, &c. See Gaillard, tom. ii. p. 506, 507, 508,) + howsoever adverse to the claims of the popes. For the series of the + Carlovingians, see the historians of France, Italy, and Germany; Pfeffel, + Schmidt, Velly, Muratori, and even Voltaire, whose pictures are sometimes + just, and always pleasing.] + </p> + <p> + Otho <a href="#linknote-49.117" name="linknoteref-49.117" id="linknoteref-49.117">117</a> + was of the noble race of the dukes of Saxony; and if he truly descended + from Witikind, the adversary and proselyte of Charlemagne, the posterity + of a vanquished people was exalted to reign over their conquerors. His + father, Henry the Fowler, was elected, by the suffrage of the nation, to + save and institute the kingdom of Germany. Its limits <a + href="#linknote-49.118" name="linknoteref-49.118" id="linknoteref-49.118">118</a> + were enlarged on every side by his son, the first and greatest of the + Othos. A portion of Gaul, to the west of the Rhine, along the banks of the + Meuse and the Moselle, was assigned to the Germans, by whose blood and + language it has been tinged since the time of Caesar and Tacitus. + </p> + <p> + Between the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Alps, the successors of Otho + acquired a vain supremacy over the broken kingdoms of Burgundy and Arles. + In the North, Christianity was propagated by the sword of Otho, the + conqueror and apostle of the Slavic nations of the Elbe and Oder: the + marches of Brandenburgh and Sleswick were fortified with German colonies; + and the king of Denmark, the dukes of Poland and Bohemia, confessed + themselves his tributary vassals. At the head of a victorious army, he + passed the Alps, subdued the kingdom of Italy, delivered the pope, and + forever fixed the Imperial crown in the name and nation of Germany. From + that memorable aera, two maxims of public jurisprudence were introduced by + force and ratified by time. I. That the prince, who was elected in the + German diet, acquired, from that instant, the subject kingdoms of Italy + and Rome. II. But that he might not legally assume the titles of emperor + and Augustus, till he had received the crown from the hands of the Roman + pontiff. <a href="#linknote-49.119" name="linknoteref-49.119" + id="linknoteref-49.119">119</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.117" id="linknote-49.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.117">return</a>)<br /> [ He was the son of Otho, + the son of Ludolph, in whose favor the Duchy of Saxony had been + instituted, A.D. 858. Ruotgerus, the biographer of a St. Bruno, (Bibliot. + Bunavianae Catalog. tom. iii. vol. ii. p. 679,) gives a splendid character + of his family. Atavorum atavi usque ad hominum memoriam omnes nobilissimi; + nullus in eorum stirpe ignotus, nullus degener facile reperitur, (apud + Struvium, Corp. Hist. German. p. 216.) Yet Gundling (in Henrico Aucupe) is + not satisfied of his descent from Witikind.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.118" id="linknote-49.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.118">return</a>)<br /> [ See the treatise of + Conringius, (de Finibus Imperii Germanici, Francofurt. 1680, in 4to.: ) he + rejects the extravagant and improper scale of the Roman and Carlovingian + empires, and discusses with moderation the rights of Germany, her vassals, + and her neighbors.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.119" id="linknote-49.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.119">return</a>)<br /> [ The power of custom + forces me to number Conrad I. and Henry I., the Fowler, in the list of + emperors, a title which was never assumed by those kings of Germany. The + Italians, Muratori for instance, are more scrupulous and correct, and only + reckon the princes who have been crowned at Rome.] + </p> + <p> + The Imperial dignity of Charlemagne was announced to the East by the + alteration of his style; and instead of saluting his fathers, the Greek + emperors, he presumed to adopt the more equal and familiar appellation of + brother. <a href="#linknote-49.120" name="linknoteref-49.120" + id="linknoteref-49.120">120</a> Perhaps in his connection with Irene he + aspired to the name of husband: his embassy to Constantinople spoke the + language of peace and friendship, and might conceal a treaty of marriage + with that ambitious princess, who had renounced the most sacred duties of + a mother. The nature, the duration, the probable consequences of such a + union between two distant and dissonant empires, it is impossible to + conjecture; but the unanimous silence of the Latins may teach us to + suspect, that the report was invented by the enemies of Irene, to charge + her with the guilt of betraying the church and state to the strangers of + the West. <a href="#linknote-49.121" name="linknoteref-49.121" + id="linknoteref-49.121">121</a> The French ambassadors were the spectators, + and had nearly been the victims, of the conspiracy of Nicephorus, and the + national hatred. Constantinople was exasperated by the treason and + sacrilege of ancient Rome: a proverb, “That the Franks were good friends + and bad neighbors,” was in every one’s mouth; but it was dangerous to + provoke a neighbor who might be tempted to reiterate, in the church of St. + Sophia, the ceremony of his Imperial coronation. After a tedious journey + of circuit and delay, the ambassadors of Nicephorus found him in his camp, + on the banks of the River Sala; and Charlemagne affected to confound their + vanity by displaying, in a Franconian village, the pomp, or at least the + pride, of the Byzantine palace. <a href="#linknote-49.122" + name="linknoteref-49.122" id="linknoteref-49.122">122</a> The Greeks were + successively led through four halls of audience: in the first they were + ready to fall prostrate before a splendid personage in a chair of state, + till he informed them that he was only a servant, the constable, or master + of the horse, of the emperor. The same mistake, and the same answer, were + repeated in the apartments of the count palatine, the steward, and the + chamberlain; and their impatience was gradually heightened, till the doors + of the presence-chamber were thrown open, and they beheld the genuine + monarch, on his throne, enriched with the foreign luxury which he + despised, and encircled with the love and reverence of his victorious + chiefs. A treaty of peace and alliance was concluded between the two + empires, and the limits of the East and West were defined by the right of + present possession. But the Greeks <a href="#linknote-49.123" + name="linknoteref-49.123" id="linknoteref-49.123">123</a> soon forgot this + humiliating equality, or remembered it only to hate the Barbarians by whom + it was extorted. During the short union of virtue and power, they + respectfully saluted the august Charlemagne, with the acclamations of + basileus, and emperor of the Romans. As soon as these qualities were + separated in the person of his pious son, the Byzantine letters were + inscribed, “To the king, or, as he styles himself, the emperor of the + Franks and Lombards.” When both power and virtue were extinct, they + despoiled Lewis the Second of his hereditary title, and with the barbarous + appellation of rex or rega, degraded him among the crowd of Latin princes. + His reply <a href="#linknote-49.124" name="linknoteref-49.124" + id="linknoteref-49.124">124</a> is expressive of his weakness: he proves, + with some learning, that, both in sacred and profane history, the name of + king is synonymous with the Greek word basileus: if, at Constantinople, it + were assumed in a more exclusive and imperial sense, he claims from his + ancestors, and from the popes, a just participation of the honors of the + Roman purple. The same controversy was revived in the reign of the Othos; + and their ambassador describes, in lively colors, the insolence of the + Byzantine court. <a href="#linknote-49.125" name="linknoteref-49.125" + id="linknoteref-49.125">125</a> The Greeks affected to despise the poverty + and ignorance of the Franks and Saxons; and in their last decline refused + to prostitute to the kings of Germany the title of Roman emperors. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.120" id="linknote-49.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.120">return</a>)<br /> [ Invidiam tamen suscepti + nominis (C. P. imperatoribus super hoc indignantibus) magna tulit + patientia, vicitque eorum contumaciam... mittendo ad eos crebras + legationes, et in epistolis fratres eos appellando. Eginhard, c. 28, p. + 128. Perhaps it was on their account that, like Augustus, he affected some + reluctance to receive the empire.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.121" id="linknote-49.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.121">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophanes speaks of + the coronation and unction of Charles (Chronograph. p. 399,) and of his + treaty of marriage with Irene, (p. 402,) which is unknown to the Latins. + Gaillard relates his transactions with the Greek empire, (tom. ii. p. + 446-468.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.122" id="linknote-49.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.122">return</a>)<br /> [ Gaillard very properly + observes, that this pageant was a farce suitable to children only; but + that it was indeed represented in the presence, and for the benefit, of + children of a larger growth.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.123" id="linknote-49.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.123">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare, in the + original texts collected by Pagi, (tom. iii. A.D. 812, No. 7, A.D. 824, + No. 10, &c.,) the contrast of Charlemagne and his son; to the former + the ambassadors of Michael (who were indeed disavowed) more suo, id est + lingua Graeca laudes dixerunt, imperatorem eum et appellantes; to the + latter, Vocato imperatori Francorum, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.124" id="linknote-49.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.124">return</a>)<br /> [ See the epistle, in + Paralipomena, of the anonymous writer of Salerno, (Script. Ital. tom. ii. + pars ii. p. 243-254, c. 93-107,) whom Baronius (A.D. 871, No. 51-71) + mistook for Erchempert, when he transcribed it in his Annals.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.125" id="linknote-49.125"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.125">return</a>)<br /> [ Ipse enim vos, non + imperatorem, id est sua lingua, sed ob indignationem, id est regem nostra + vocabat, Liutprand, in Legat. in Script. Ital. tom. ii. pars i. p. 479. + The pope had exhorted Nicephorus, emperor of the Greeks, to make peace + with Otho, the august emperor of the Romans—quae inscriptio secundum + Graecos peccatoria et temeraria... imperatorem inquiunt, universalem, + Romanorum, Augustum, magnum, solum, Nicephorum, (p. 486.)] + </p> + <p> + These emperors, in the election of the popes, continued to exercise the + powers which had been assumed by the Gothic and Grecian princes; and the + importance of this prerogative increased with the temporal estate and + spiritual jurisdiction of the Roman church. In the Christian aristocracy, + the principal members of the clergy still formed a senate to assist the + administration, and to supply the vacancy, of the bishop. Rome was divided + into twenty-eight parishes, and each parish was governed by a cardinal + priest, or presbyter, a title which, however common or modest in its + origin, has aspired to emulate the purple of kings. Their number was + enlarged by the association of the seven deacons of the most considerable + hospitals, the seven palatine judges of the Lateran, and some dignitaries + of the church. This ecclesiastical senate was directed by the seven + cardinal-bishops of the Roman province, who were less occupied in the + suburb dioceses of Ostia, Porto, Velitrae, Tusculum, Praeneste, Tibur, and + the Sabines, than by their weekly service in the Lateran, and their + superior share in the honors and authority of the apostolic see. On the + death of the pope, these bishops recommended a successor to the suffrage + of the college of cardinals, <a href="#linknote-49.126" name="linknoteref-49.126" + id="linknoteref-49.126">126</a> and their choice was ratified or rejected by + the applause or clamor of the Roman people. But the election was + imperfect; nor could the pontiff be legally consecrated till the emperor, + the advocate of the church, had graciously signified his approbation and + consent. The royal commissioner examined, on the spot, the form and + freedom of the proceedings; nor was it till after a previous scrutiny into + the qualifications of the candidates, that he accepted an oath of + fidelity, and confirmed the donations which had successively enriched the + patrimony of St. Peter. In the frequent schisms, the rival claims were + submitted to the sentence of the emperor; and in a synod of bishops he + presumed to judge, to condemn, and to punish, the crimes of a guilty + pontiff. Otho the First imposed a treaty on the senate and people, who + engaged to prefer the candidate most acceptable to his majesty: <a + href="#linknote-49.127" name="linknoteref-49.127" id="linknoteref-49.127">127</a> + his successors anticipated or prevented their choice: they bestowed the + Roman benefice, like the bishoprics of Cologne or Bamberg, on their + chancellors or preceptors; and whatever might be the merit of a Frank or + Saxon, his name sufficiently attests the interposition of foreign power. + These acts of prerogative were most speciously excused by the vices of a + popular election. The competitor who had been excluded by the cardinals + appealed to the passions or avarice of the multitude; the Vatican and the + Lateran were stained with blood; and the most powerful senators, the + marquises of Tuscany and the counts of Tusculum, held the apostolic see in + a long and disgraceful servitude. The Roman pontiffs, of the ninth and + tenth centuries, were insulted, imprisoned, and murdered, by their + tyrants; and such was their indigence, after the loss and usurpation of + the ecclesiastical patrimonies, that they could neither support the state + of a prince, nor exercise the charity of a priest. <a href="#linknote-49.128" + name="linknoteref-49.128" id="linknoteref-49.128">128</a> The influence of two + sister prostitutes, Marozia and Theodora, was founded on their wealth and + beauty, their political and amorous intrigues: the most strenuous of their + lovers were rewarded with the Roman mitre, and their reign <a + href="#linknote-49.129" name="linknoteref-49.129" id="linknoteref-49.129">129</a> + may have suggested to the darker ages <a href="#linknote-49.130" + name="linknoteref-49.130" id="linknoteref-49.130">130</a> the fable <a + href="#linknote-49.131" name="linknoteref-49.131" id="linknoteref-49.131">131</a> + of a female pope. <a href="#linknote-49.132" name="linknoteref-49.132" + id="linknoteref-49.132">132</a> The bastard son, the grandson, and the + great-grandson of Marozia, a rare genealogy, were seated in the chair of + St. Peter, and it was at the age of nineteen years that the second of + these became the head of the Latin church. <a href="#linknote-49.1321" + name="linknoteref-49.1321" id="linknoteref-49.1321">1321</a> His youth and + manhood were of a suitable complexion; and the nations of pilgrims could + bear testimony to the charges that were urged against him in a Roman + synod, and in the presence of Otho the Great. As John XII. had renounced + the dress and decencies of his profession, the soldier may not perhaps be + dishonored by the wine which he drank, the blood that he spilt, the flames + that he kindled, or the licentious pursuits of gaming and hunting. His + open simony might be the consequence of distress; and his blasphemous + invocation of Jupiter and Venus, if it be true, could not possibly be + serious. But we read, with some surprise, that the worthy grandson of + Marozia lived in public adultery with the matrons of Rome; that the + Lateran palace was turned into a school for prostitution, and that his + rapes of virgins and widows had deterred the female pilgrims from visiting + the tomb of St. Peter, lest, in the devout act, they should be violated by + his successor. <a href="#linknote-49.133" name="linknoteref-49.133" + id="linknoteref-49.133">133</a> The Protestants have dwelt with malicious + pleasure on these characters of Antichrist; but to a philosophic eye, the + vices of the clergy are far less dangerous than their virtues. After a + long series of scandal, the apostolic see was reformed and exalted by the + austerity and zeal of Gregory VII. That ambitious monk devoted his life to + the execution of two projects. I. To fix in the college of cardinals the + freedom and independence of election, and forever to abolish the right or + usurpation of the emperors and the Roman people. II. To bestow and resume + the Western empire as a fief or benefice <a href="#linknote-49.134" + name="linknoteref-49.134" id="linknoteref-49.134">134</a> of the church, and to + extend his temporal dominion over the kings and kingdoms of the earth. + After a contest of fifty years, the first of these designs was + accomplished by the firm support of the ecclesiastical order, whose + liberty was connected with that of their chief. But the second attempt, + though it was crowned with some partial and apparent success, has been + vigorously resisted by the secular power, and finally extinguished by the + improvement of human reason. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.126" id="linknote-49.126"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.126">return</a>)<br /> [ The origin and progress + of the title of cardinal may be found in Themassin, (Discipline de + l’Eglise, tom. i. p. 1261-1298,) Muratori, (Antiquitat. Italiae Medii + Aevi, tom. vi. Dissert. lxi. p. 159-182,) and Mosheim, (Institut. Hist. + Eccles. p. 345-347,) who accurately remarks the form and changes of the + election. The cardinal-bishops so highly exalted by Peter Damianus, are + sunk to a level with the rest of the sacred college.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.127" id="linknote-49.127"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.127">return</a>)<br /> [ Firmiter jurantes, + nunquam se papam electuros aut audinaturos, praeter consensum et + electionem Othonis et filii sui. (Liutprand, l. vi. c. 6, p. 472.) This + important concession may either supply or confirm the decree of the clergy + and people of Rome, so fiercely rejected by Baronius, Pagi, and Muratori, + (A.D. 964,) and so well defended and explained by St. Marc, (Abrege, tom. + ii. p. 808-816, tom. iv. p. 1167-1185.) Consult the historical critic, and + the Annals of Muratori, for for the election and confirmation of each + pope.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.128" id="linknote-49.128"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.128">return</a>)<br /> [ The oppression and + vices of the Roman church, in the xth century, are strongly painted in the + history and legation of Liutprand, (see p. 440, 450, 471-476, 479, &c.;) + and it is whimsical enough to observe Muratori tempering the invectives of + Baronius against the popes. But these popes had been chosen, not by the + cardinals, but by lay-patrons.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.129" id="linknote-49.129"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.129">return</a>)<br /> [ The time of Pope Joan + (papissa Joanna) is placed somewhat earlier than Theodora or Marozia; and + the two years of her imaginary reign are forcibly inserted between Leo IV. + and Benedict III. But the contemporary Anastasius indissolubly links the + death of Leo and the elevation of Benedict, (illico, mox, p. 247;) and the + accurate chronology of Pagi, Muratori, and Leibnitz, fixes both events to + the year 857.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.130" id="linknote-49.130"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.130">return</a>)<br /> [ The advocates for Pope + Joan produce one hundred and fifty witnesses, or rather echoes, of the + xivth, xvth, and xvith centuries. They bear testimony against themselves + and the legend, by multiplying the proof that so curious a story must have + been repeated by writers of every description to whom it was known. On + those of the ixth and xth centuries, the recent event would have flashed + with a double force. Would Photius have spared such a reproach? Could + Liutprand have missed such scandal? It is scarcely worth while to discuss + the various readings of Martinus Polonus, Sigeber of Gamblours, or even + Marianus Scotus; but a most palpable forgery is the passage of Pope Joan, + which has been foisted into some Mss. and editions of the Roman + Anastasius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.131" id="linknote-49.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.131">return</a>)<br /> [ As false, it deserves + that name; but I would not pronounce it incredible. Suppose a famous + French chevalier of our own times to have been born in Italy, and educated + in the church, instead of the army: her merit or fortune might have raised + her to St. Peter’s chair; her amours would have been natural: her delivery + in the streets unlucky, but not improbable.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.132" id="linknote-49.132"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.132">return</a>)<br /> [ Till the reformation + the tale was repeated and believed without offence: and Joan’s female + statue long occupied her place among the popes in the cathedral of Sienna, + (Pagi, Critica, tom. iii. p. 624-626.) She has been annihilated by two + learned Protestants, Blondel and Bayle, (Dictionnaire Critique, Papesse, + Polonus, Blondel;) but their brethren were scandalized by this equitable + and generous criticism. Spanheim and Lenfant attempt to save this poor + engine of controversy, and even Mosheim condescends to cherish some doubt + and suspicion, (p. 289.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.1321" id="linknote-49.1321"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1321 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.1321">return</a>)<br /> [ John XI. was the son + of her husband Alberic, not of her lover, Pope Sergius III., as Muratori + has distinctly proved, Ann. ad ann. 911, tom. p. 268. Her grandson + Octavian, otherwise called John XII., was pope; but a great-grandson + cannot be discovered in any of the succeeding popes; nor does our + historian himself, in his subsequent narration, (p. 202,) seem to know of + one. Hobhouse, Illustrations of Childe Harold, p. 309.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.133" id="linknote-49.133"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.133">return</a>)<br /> [ Lateranense palatium... + prostibulum meretricum ... Testis omnium gentium, praeterquam Romanorum, + absentia mulierum, quae sanctorum apostolorum limina orandi gratia timent + visere, cum nonnullas ante dies paucos, hunc audierint conjugatas, viduas, + virgines vi oppressisse, (Liutprand, Hist. l. vi. c. 6, p. 471. See the + whole affair of John XII., p. 471-476.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.134" id="linknote-49.134"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.134">return</a>)<br /> [ A new example of the + mischief of equivocation is the beneficium (Ducange, tom. i. p. 617, &c.,) + which the pope conferred on the emperor Frederic I., since the Latin word + may signify either a legal fief, or a simple favor, an obligation, (we + want the word bienfait.) (See Schmidt, Hist. des Allemands, tom. iii. p. + 393-408. Pfeffel, Abrege Chronologique, tom. i. p. 229, 296, 317, 324, + 420, 430, 500, 505, 509, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + In the revival of the empire of empire of Rome, neither the bishop nor the + people could bestow on Charlemagne or Otho the provinces which were lost, + as they had been won, by the chance of arms. But the Romans were free to + choose a master for themselves; and the powers which had been delegated to + the patrician, were irrevocably granted to the French and Saxon emperors + of the West. The broken records of the times <a href="#linknote-49.135" + name="linknoteref-49.135" id="linknoteref-49.135">135</a> preserve some + remembrance of their palace, their mint, their tribunal, their edicts, and + the sword of justice, which, as late as the thirteenth century, was + derived from Caesar to the praefect of the city. <a href="#linknote-49.136" + name="linknoteref-49.136" id="linknoteref-49.136">136</a> Between the arts of + the popes and the violence of the people, this supremacy was crushed and + annihilated. Content with the titles of emperor and Augustus, the + successors of Charlemagne neglected to assert this local jurisdiction. In + the hour of prosperity, their ambition was diverted by more alluring + objects; and in the decay and division of the empire, they were oppressed + by the defence of their hereditary provinces. Amidst the ruins of Italy, + the famous Marozia invited one of the usurpers to assume the character of + her third husband; and Hugh, king of Burgundy was introduced by her + faction into the mole of Hadrian or Castle of St. Angelo, which commands + the principal bridge and entrance of Rome. Her son by the first marriage, + Alberic, was compelled to attend at the nuptial banquet; but his reluctant + and ungraceful service was chastised with a blow by his new father. The + blow was productive of a revolution. “Romans,” exclaimed the youth, “once + you were the masters of the world, and these Burgundians the most abject + of your slaves. They now reign, these voracious and brutal savages, and my + injury is the commencement of your servitude.” <a href="#linknote-49.137" + name="linknoteref-49.137" id="linknoteref-49.137">137</a> The alarum bell rang + to arms in every quarter of the city: the Burgundians retreated with haste + and shame; Marozia was imprisoned by her victorious son, and his brother, + Pope John XI., was reduced to the exercise of his spiritual functions. + With the title of prince, Alberic possessed above twenty years the + government of Rome; and he is said to have gratified the popular + prejudice, by restoring the office, or at least the title, of consuls and + tribunes. His son and heir Octavian assumed, with the pontificate, the + name of John XII.: like his predecessor, he was provoked by the Lombard + princes to seek a deliverer for the church and republic; and the services + of Otho were rewarded with the Imperial dignity. But the Saxon was + imperious, the Romans were impatient, the festival of the coronation was + disturbed by the secret conflict of prerogative and freedom, and Otho + commanded his sword-bearer not to stir from his person, lest he should be + assaulted and murdered at the foot of the altar. <a href="#linknote-49.138" + name="linknoteref-49.138" id="linknoteref-49.138">138</a> Before he repassed the + Alps, the emperor chastised the revolt of the people and the ingratitude + of John XII. The pope was degraded in a synod; the praefect was mounted on + an ass, whipped through the city, and cast into a dungeon; thirteen of the + most guilty were hanged, others were mutilated or banished; and this + severe process was justified by the ancient laws of Theodosius and + Justinian. The voice of fame has accused the second Otho of a perfidious + and bloody act, the massacre of the senators, whom he had invited to his + table under the fair semblance of hospitality and friendship. <a + href="#linknote-49.139" name="linknoteref-49.139" id="linknoteref-49.139">139</a> + In the minority of his son Otho the Third, Rome made a bold attempt to + shake off the Saxon yoke, and the consul Crescentius was the Brutus of the + republic. From the condition of a subject and an exile, he twice rose to + the command of the city, oppressed, expelled, and created the popes, and + formed a conspiracy for restoring the authority of the Greek emperors. <a + href="#linknote-49.1391" name="linknoteref-49.1391" id="linknoteref-49.1391">1391</a> + In the fortress of St. Angelo, he maintained an obstinate siege, till the + unfortunate consul was betrayed by a promise of safety: his body was + suspended on a gibbet, and his head was exposed on the battlements of the + castle. By a reverse of fortune, Otho, after separating his troops, was + besieged three days, without food, in his palace; and a disgraceful escape + saved him from the justice or fury of the Romans. The senator Ptolemy was + the leader of the people, and the widow of Crescentius enjoyed the + pleasure or the fame of revenging her husband, by a poison which she + administered to her Imperial lover. It was the design of Otho the Third to + abandon the ruder countries of the North, to erect his throne in Italy, + and to revive the institutions of the Roman monarchy. But his successors + only once in their lives appeared on the banks of the Tyber, to receive + their crown in the Vatican. <a href="#linknote-49.140" name="linknoteref-49.140" + id="linknoteref-49.140">140</a> Their absence was contemptible, their + presence odious and formidable. They descended from the Alps, at the head + of their barbarians, who were strangers and enemies to the country; and + their transient visit was a scene of tumult and bloodshed. <a + href="#linknote-49.141" name="linknoteref-49.141" id="linknoteref-49.141">141</a> A + faint remembrance of their ancestors still tormented the Romans; and they + beheld with pious indignation the succession of Saxons, Franks, Swabians, + and Bohemians, who usurped the purple and prerogatives of the Caesars. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.135" id="linknote-49.135"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.135">return</a>)<br /> [ For the history of the + emperors in Rome and Italy, see Sigonius, de Regno Italiae, Opp. tom. ii., + with the Notes of Saxius, and the Annals of Muratori, who might refer more + distinctly to the authors of his great collection.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.136" id="linknote-49.136"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.136">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Dissertations + of Le Blanc at the end of his treatise des Monnoyes de France, in which he + produces some Roman coins of the French emperors.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.137" id="linknote-49.137"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.137">return</a>)<br /> [ Romanorum aliquando + servi, scilicet Burgundiones, Romanis imperent?.... Romanae urbis dignitas + ad tantam est stultitiam ducta, ut meretricum etiam imperio pareat? + (Liutprand, l. iii. c. 12, p. 450.) Sigonius (l. vi. p. 400) positively + affirms the renovation of the consulship; but in the old writers Albericus + is more frequently styled princeps Romanorum.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.138" id="linknote-49.138"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.138">return</a>)<br /> [ Ditmar, p. 354, apud + Schmidt, tom. iii. p. 439.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.139" id="linknote-49.139"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.139">return</a>)<br /> [ This bloody feast is + described in Leonine verse in the Pantheon of Godfrey of Viterbo, (Script. + Ital. tom. vii. p. 436, 437,) who flourished towards the end of the xiith + century, (Fabricius Bibliot. Latin. Med. et Infimi Aevi, tom. iii. p. 69, + edit. Mansi;) but his evidence, which imposed on Sigonius, is reasonably + suspected by Muratori (Annali, tom. viii. p. 177.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.1391" id="linknote-49.1391"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1391 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.1391">return</a>)<br /> [ The Marquis Maffei’s + gallery contained a medal with Imp. Caes August. P. P. Crescentius. Hence + Hobhouse infers that he affected the empire. Hobhouse, Illustrations of + Childe Harold, p. 252.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.140" id="linknote-49.140"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.140">return</a>)<br /> [ The coronation of the + emperor, and some original ceremonies of the xth century are preserved in + the Panegyric on Berengarius, (Script. Ital. tom. ii. pars i. p. 405-414,) + illustrated by the Notes of Hadrian Valesius and Leibnitz. Sigonius has + related the whole process of the Roman expedition, in good Latin, but with + some errors of time and fact, (l. vii. p. 441-446.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.141" id="linknote-49.141"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 141 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.141">return</a>)<br /> [ In a quarrel at the + coronation of Conrad II. Muratori takes leave to observe—doveano ben + essere allora, indisciplinati, Barbari, e bestials Tedeschi. Annal. tom. + viii. p. 368.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap49.6"></a> + Chapter XLIX: Conquest Of Italy By The Franks.—Part VI. + </h2> + <p> + There is nothing perhaps more adverse to nature and reason than to hold in + obedience remote countries and foreign nations, in opposition to their + inclination and interest. A torrent of Barbarians may pass over the earth, + but an extensive empire must be supported by a refined system of policy + and oppression; in the centre, an absolute power, prompt in action and + rich in resources; a swift and easy communication with the extreme parts; + fortifications to check the first effort of rebellion; a regular + administration to protect and punish; and a well-disciplined army to + inspire fear, without provoking discontent and despair. Far different was + the situation of the German Caesars, who were ambitious to enslave the + kingdom of Italy. Their patrimonial estates were stretched along the + Rhine, or scattered in the provinces; but this ample domain was alienated + by the imprudence or distress of successive princes; and their revenue, + from minute and vexatious prerogative, was scarcely sufficient for the + maintenance of their household. Their troops were formed by the legal or + voluntary service of their feudal vassals, who passed the Alps with + reluctance, assumed the license of rapine and disorder, and capriciously + deserted before the end of the campaign. Whole armies were swept away by + the pestilential influence of the climate: the survivors brought back the + bones of their princes and nobles, <a href="#linknote-49.142" + name="linknoteref-49.142" id="linknoteref-49.142">142</a> and the effects of + their own intemperance were often imputed to the treachery and malice of + the Italians, who rejoiced at least in the calamities of the Barbarians. + This irregular tyranny might contend on equal terms with the petty tyrants + of Italy; nor can the people, or the reader, be much interested in the + event of the quarrel. But in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the + Lombards rekindled the flame of industry and freedom; and the generous + example was at length imitated by the republics of Tuscany. <a + href="#linknote-49.1421" name="linknoteref-49.1421" id="linknoteref-49.1421">1421</a> + In the Italian cities a municipal government had never been totally + abolished; and their first privileges were granted by the favor and policy + of the emperors, who were desirous of erecting a plebeian barrier against + the independence of the nobles. But their rapid progress, the daily + extension of their power and pretensions, were founded on the numbers and + spirit of these rising communities. <a href="#linknote-49.143" + name="linknoteref-49.143" id="linknoteref-49.143">143</a> Each city filled the + measure of her diocese or district: the jurisdiction of the counts and + bishops, of the marquises and counts, was banished from the land; and the + proudest nobles were persuaded or compelled to desert their solitary + castles, and to embrace the more honorable character of freemen and + magistrates. The legislative authority was inherent in the general + assembly; but the executive powers were intrusted to three consuls, + annually chosen from the three orders of captains, valvassors, <a + href="#linknote-49.144" name="linknoteref-49.144" id="linknoteref-49.144">144</a> + and commons, into which the republic was divided. Under the protection of + equal law, the labors of agriculture and commerce were gradually revived; + but the martial spirit of the Lombards was nourished by the presence of + danger; and as often as the bell was rung, or the standard <a + href="#linknote-49.145" name="linknoteref-49.145" id="linknoteref-49.145">145</a> + erected, the gates of the city poured forth a numerous and intrepid band, + whose zeal in their own cause was soon guided by the use and discipline of + arms. At the foot of these popular ramparts, the pride of the Caesars was + overthrown; and the invincible genius of liberty prevailed over the two + Frederics, the greatest princes of the middle age; the first, superior + perhaps in military prowess; the second, who undoubtedly excelled in the + softer accomplishments of peace and learning. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.142" id="linknote-49.142"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 142 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.142">return</a>)<br /> [ After boiling away the + flesh. The caldrons for that purpose were a necessary piece of travelling + furniture; and a German who was using it for his brother, promised it to a + friend, after it should have been employed for himself, (Schmidt, tom. + iii. p. 423, 424.) The same author observes that the whole Saxon line was + extinguished in Italy, (tom. ii. p. 440.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.1421" id="linknote-49.1421"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1421 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.1421">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare Sismondi, + Histoire des Republiques Italiannes. Hallam Middle Ages. Raumer, + Geschichte der Hohenstauffen. Savigny, Geschichte des Romischen Rechts, + vol. iii. p. 19 with the authors quoted.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.143" id="linknote-49.143"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 143 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.143">return</a>)<br /> [ Otho, bishop of + Frisingen, has left an important passage on the Italian cities, (l. ii. c. + 13, in Script. Ital. tom. vi. p. 707-710: ) and the rise, progress, and + government of these republics are perfectly illustrated by Muratori, + (Antiquitat. Ital. Medii Aevi, tom. iv. dissert xlv.—lii. p. 1-675. + Annal. tom. viii. ix. x.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.144" id="linknote-49.144"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 144 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.144">return</a>)<br /> [ For these titles, see + Selden, (Titles of Honor, vol. iii. part 1 p. 488.) Ducange, (Gloss. + Latin. tom. ii. p. 140, tom. vi. p. 776,) and St. Marc, (Abrege + Chronologique, tom. ii. p. 719.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.145" id="linknote-49.145"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 145 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.145">return</a>)<br /> [ The Lombards invented + and used the carocium, a standard planted on a car or wagon, drawn by a + team of oxen, (Ducange, tom. ii. p. 194, 195. Muratori Antiquitat tom. ii. + dis. xxvi. p. 489-493.)] + </p> + <p> + Ambitious of restoring the splendor of the purple, Frederic the First + invaded the republics of Lombardy, with the arts of a statesman, the valor + of a soldier, and the cruelty of a tyrant. The recent discovery of the + Pandects had renewed a science most favorable to despotism; and his venal + advocates proclaimed the emperor the absolute master of the lives and + properties of his subjects. His royal prerogatives, in a less odious + sense, were acknowledged in the diet of Roncaglia; and the revenue of + Italy was fixed at thirty thousand pounds of silver, <a + href="#linknote-49.146" name="linknoteref-49.146" id="linknoteref-49.146">146</a> + which were multiplied to an indefinite demand by the rapine of the fiscal + officers. The obstinate cities were reduced by the terror or the force of + his arms: his captives were delivered to the executioner, or shot from his + military engines; and. after the siege and surrender of Milan, the + buildings of that stately capital were razed to the ground, three hundred + hostages were sent into Germany, and the inhabitants were dispersed in + four villages, under the yoke of the inflexible conqueror. <a + href="#linknote-49.147" name="linknoteref-49.147" id="linknoteref-49.147">147</a> + But Milan soon rose from her ashes; and the league of Lombardy was + cemented by distress: their cause was espoused by Venice, Pope Alexander + the Third, and the Greek emperor: the fabric of oppression was overturned + in a day; and in the treaty of Constance, Frederic subscribed, with some + reservations, the freedom of four-and-twenty cities. His grandson + contended with their vigor and maturity; but Frederic the Second <a + href="#linknote-49.148" name="linknoteref-49.148" id="linknoteref-49.148">148</a> + was endowed with some personal and peculiar advantages. His birth and + education recommended him to the Italians; and in the implacable discord + of the two factions, the Ghibelins were attached to the emperor, while the + Guelfs displayed the banner of liberty and the church. The court of Rome + had slumbered, when his father Henry the Sixth was permitted to unite with + the empire the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily; and from these hereditary + realms the son derived an ample and ready supply of troops and treasure. + Yet Frederic the Second was finally oppressed by the arms of the Lombards + and the thunders of the Vatican: his kingdom was given to a stranger, and + the last of his family was beheaded at Naples on a public scaffold. During + sixty years, no emperor appeared in Italy, and the name was remembered + only by the ignominious sale of the last relics of sovereignty. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.146" id="linknote-49.146"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 146 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.146">return</a>)<br /> [ Gunther Ligurinus, l. + viii. 584, et seq., apud Schmidt, tom. iii. p. 399.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.147" id="linknote-49.147"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 147 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.147">return</a>)<br /> [ Solus imperator faciem + suam firmavit ut petram, (Burcard. de Excidio Mediolani, Script. Ital. + tom. vi. p. 917.) This volume of Muratori contains the originals of the + history of Frederic the First, which must be compared with due regard to + the circumstances and prejudices of each German or Lombard writer. * Note: + Von Raumer has traced the fortunes of the Swabian house in one of the + ablest historical works of modern times. He may be compared with the + spirited and independent Sismondi.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.148" id="linknote-49.148"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 148 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.148">return</a>)<br /> [ For the history of + Frederic II. and the house of Swabia at Naples, see Giannone, Istoria + Civile, tom. ii. l. xiv. -xix.] + </p> + <p> + The Barbarian conquerors of the West were pleased to decorate their chief + with the title of emperor; but it was not their design to invest him with + the despotism of Constantine and Justinian. The persons of the Germans + were free, their conquests were their own, and their national character + was animated by a spirit which scorned the servile jurisprudence of the + new or the ancient Rome. It would have been a vain and dangerous attempt + to impose a monarch on the armed freemen, who were impatient of a + magistrate; on the bold, who refused to obey; on the powerful, who aspired + to command. The empire of Charlemagne and Otho was distributed among the + dukes of the nations or provinces, the counts of the smaller districts, + and the margraves of the marches or frontiers, who all united the civil + and military authority as it had been delegated to the lieutenants of the + first Caesars. The Roman governors, who, for the most part, were soldiers + of fortune, seduced their mercenary legions, assumed the Imperial purple, + and either failed or succeeded in their revolt, without wounding the power + and unity of government. If the dukes, margraves, and counts of Germany, + were less audacious in their claims, the consequences of their success + were more lasting and pernicious to the state. Instead of aiming at the + supreme rank, they silently labored to establish and appropriate their + provincial independence. Their ambition was seconded by the weight of + their estates and vassals, their mutual example and support, the common + interest of the subordinate nobility, the change of princes and families, + the minorities of Otho the Third and Henry the Fourth, the ambition of the + popes, and the vain pursuit of the fugitive crowns of Italy and Rome. All + the attributes of regal and territorial jurisdiction were gradually + usurped by the commanders of the provinces; the right of peace and war, of + life and death, of coinage and taxation, of foreign alliance and domestic + economy. Whatever had been seized by violence, was ratified by favor or + distress, was granted as the price of a doubtful vote or a voluntary + service; whatever had been granted to one could not, without injury, be + denied to his successor or equal; and every act of local or temporary + possession was insensibly moulded into the constitution of the Germanic + kingdom. In every province, the visible presence of the duke or count was + interposed between the throne and the nobles; the subjects of the law + became the vassals of a private chief; and the standard which he received + from his sovereign, was often raised against him in the field. The + temporal power of the clergy was cherished and exalted by the superstition + or policy of the Carlovingian and Saxon dynasties, who blindly depended on + their moderation and fidelity; and the bishoprics of Germany were made + equal in extent and privilege, superior in wealth and population, to the + most ample states of the military order. As long as the emperors retained + the prerogative of bestowing on every vacancy these ecclesiastic and + secular benefices, their cause was maintained by the gratitude or ambition + of their friends and favorites. But in the quarrel of the investitures, + they were deprived of their influence over the episcopal chapters; the + freedom of election was restored, and the sovereign was reduced, by a + solemn mockery, to his first prayers, the recommendation, once in his + reign, to a single prebend in each church. The secular governors, instead + of being recalled at the will of a superior, could be degraded only by the + sentence of their peers. In the first age of the monarchy, the appointment + of the son to the duchy or county of his father, was solicited as a favor; + it was gradually obtained as a custom, and extorted as a right: the lineal + succession was often extended to the collateral or female branches; the + states of the empire (their popular, and at length their legal, + appellation) were divided and alienated by testament and sale; and all + idea of a public trust was lost in that of a private and perpetual + inheritance. The emperor could not even be enriched by the casualties of + forfeiture and extinction: within the term of a year, he was obliged to + dispose of the vacant fief; and, in the choice of the candidate, it was + his duty to consult either the general or the provincial diet. + </p> + <p> + After the death of Frederic the Second, Germany was left a monster with a + hundred heads. A crowd of princes and prelates disputed the ruins of the + empire: the lords of innumerable castles were less prone to obey, than to + imitate, their superiors; and, according to the measure of their strength, + their incessant hostilities received the names of conquest or robbery. + Such anarchy was the inevitable consequence of the laws and manners of + Europe; and the kingdoms of France and Italy were shivered into fragments + by the violence of the same tempest. But the Italian cities and the French + vassals were divided and destroyed, while the union of the Germans has + produced, under the name of an empire, a great system of a federative + republic. In the frequent and at last the perpetual institution of diets, + a national spirit was kept alive, and the powers of a common legislature + are still exercised by the three branches or colleges of the electors, the + princes, and the free and Imperial cities of Germany. I. Seven of the most + powerful feudatories were permitted to assume, with a distinguished name + and rank, the exclusive privilege of choosing the Roman emperor; and these + electors were the king of Bohemia, the duke of Saxony, the margrave of + Brandenburgh, the count palatine of the Rhine, and the three archbishops + of Mentz, of Treves, and of Cologne. II. The college of princes and + prelates purged themselves of a promiscuous multitude: they reduced to + four representative votes the long series of independent counts, and + excluded the nobles or equestrian order, sixty thousand of whom, as in the + Polish diets, had appeared on horseback in the field of election. III. The + pride of birth and dominion, of the sword and the mitre, wisely adopted + the commons as the third branch of the legislature, and, in the progress + of society, they were introduced about the same aera into the national + assemblies of France England, and Germany. + </p> + <p> + The Hanseatic League commanded the trade and navigation of the north: the + confederates of the Rhine secured the peace and intercourse of the inland + country; the influence of the cities has been adequate to their wealth and + policy, and their negative still invalidates the acts of the two superior + colleges of electors and princes. <a href="#linknote-49.149" + name="linknoteref-49.149" id="linknoteref-49.149">149</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.149" id="linknote-49.149"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 149 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.149">return</a>)<br /> [ In the immense + labyrinth of the jus publicum of Germany, I must either quote one writer + or a thousand; and I had rather trust to one faithful guide, than + transcribe, on credit, a multitude of names and passages. That guide is M. + Pfeffel, the author of the best legal and constitutional history that I + know of any country, (Nouvel Abrege Chronologique de l’Histoire et du + Droit public Allemagne; Paris, 1776, 2 vols. in 4to.) His learning and + judgment have discerned the most interesting facts; his simple brevity + comprises them in a narrow space. His chronological order distributes them + under the proper dates; and an elaborate index collects them under their + respective heads. To this work, in a less perfect state, Dr. Robertson was + gratefully indebted for that masterly sketch which traces even the modern + changes of the Germanic body. The Corpus Historiae Germanicae of Struvius + has been likewise consulted, the more usefully, as that huge compilation + is fortified in every page with the original texts. * Note: For the rise + and progress of the Hanseatic League, consult the authoritative history by + Sartorius; Geschichte des Hanseatischen Bandes & Theile, Gottingen, + 1802. New and improved edition by Lappenberg Elamburg, 1830. The original + Hanseatic League comprehended Cologne and many of the great cities in the + Netherlands and on the Rhine.—M.] + </p> + <p> + It is in the fourteenth century that we may view in the strongest light + the state and contrast of the Roman empire of Germany, which no longer + held, except on the borders of the Rhine and Danube, a single province of + Trajan or Constantine. Their unworthy successors were the counts of + Hapsburgh, of Nassau, of Luxemburgh, and Schwartzenburgh: the emperor + Henry the Seventh procured for his son the crown of Bohemia, and his + grandson Charles the Fourth was born among a people strange and barbarous + in the estimation of the Germans themselves. <a href="#linknote-49.150" + name="linknoteref-49.150" id="linknoteref-49.150">150</a> After the + excommunication of Lewis of Bavaria, he received the gift or promise of + the vacant empire from the Roman pontiffs, who, in the exile and captivity + of Avignon, affected the dominion of the earth. The death of his + competitors united the electoral college, and Charles was unanimously + saluted king of the Romans, and future emperor; a title which, in the same + age, was prostituted to the Caesars of Germany and Greece. The German + emperor was no more than the elective and impotent magistrate of an + aristocracy of princes, who had not left him a village that he might call + his own. His best prerogative was the right of presiding and proposing in + the national senate, which was convened at his summons; and his native + kingdom of Bohemia, less opulent than the adjacent city of Nuremberg, was + the firmest seat of his power and the richest source of his revenue. The + army with which he passed the Alps consisted of three hundred horse. In + the cathedral of St. Ambrose, Charles was crowned with the iron crown, + which tradition ascribed to the Lombard monarchy; but he was admitted only + with a peaceful train; the gates of the city were shut upon him; and the + king of Italy was held a captive by the arms of the Visconti, whom he + confirmed in the sovereignty of Milan. In the Vatican he was again crowned + with the golden crown of the empire; but, in obedience to a secret treaty, + the Roman emperor immediately withdrew, without reposing a single night + within the walls of Rome. The eloquent Petrarch, <a href="#linknote-49.151" + name="linknoteref-49.151" id="linknoteref-49.151">151</a> whose fancy revived + the visionary glories of the Capitol, deplores and upbraids the + ignominious flight of the Bohemian; and even his contemporaries could + observe, that the sole exercise of his authority was in the lucrative sale + of privileges and titles. The gold of Italy secured the election of his + son; but such was the shameful poverty of the Roman emperor, that his + person was arrested by a butcher in the streets of Worms, and was detained + in the public inn, as a pledge or hostage for the payment of his expenses. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.150" id="linknote-49.150"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 150 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.150">return</a>)<br /> [ Yet, personally, + Charles IV. must not be considered as a Barbarian. After his education at + Paris, he recovered the use of the Bohemian, his native, idiom; and the + emperor conversed and wrote with equal facility in French, Latin, Italian, + and German, (Struvius, p. 615, 616.) Petrarch always represents him as a + polite and learned prince.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.151" id="linknote-49.151"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 151 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.151">return</a>)<br /> [ Besides the German and + Italian historians, the expedition of Charles IV. is painted in lively and + original colors in the curious Memoires sur la Vie de Petrarque, tom. iii. + p. 376-430, by the Abbe de Sade, whose prolixity has never been blamed by + any reader of taste and curiosity.] + </p> + <p> + From this humiliating scene, let us turn to the apparent majesty of the + same Charles in the diets of the empire. The golden bull, which fixes the + Germanic constitution, is promulgated in the style of a sovereign and + legislator. A hundred princes bowed before his throne, and exalted their + own dignity by the voluntary honors which they yielded to their chief or + minister. At the royal banquet, the hereditary great officers, the seven + electors, who in rank and title were equal to kings, performed their + solemn and domestic service of the palace. The seals of the triple kingdom + were borne in state by the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and Treves, the + perpetual arch-chancellors of Germany, Italy, and Arles. The great + marshal, on horseback, exercised his function with a silver measure of + oats, which he emptied on the ground, and immediately dismounted to + regulate the order of the guests. The great steward, the count palatine of + the Rhine, place the dishes on the table. The great chamberlain, the + margrave of Brandenburgh, presented, after the repast, the golden ewer and + basin, to wash. The king of Bohemia, as great cup-bearer, was represented + by the emperor’s brother, the duke of Luxemburgh and Brabant; and the + procession was closed by the great huntsmen, who introduced a boar and a + stag, with a loud chorus of horns and hounds. <a href="#linknote-49.152" + name="linknoteref-49.152" id="linknoteref-49.152">152</a> Nor was the supremacy + of the emperor confined to Germany alone: the hereditary monarchs of + Europe confessed the preeminence of his rank and dignity: he was the first + of the Christian princes, the temporal head of the great republic of the + West: <a href="#linknote-49.153" name="linknoteref-49.153" id="linknoteref-49.153">153</a> + to his person the title of majesty was long appropriated; and he disputed + with the pope the sublime prerogative of creating kings and assembling + councils. The oracle of the civil law, the learned Bartolus, was a + pensioner of Charles the Fourth; and his school resounded with the + doctrine, that the Roman emperor was the rightful sovereign of the earth, + from the rising to the setting sun. The contrary opinion was condemned, + not as an error, but as a heresy, since even the gospel had pronounced, + “And there went forth a decree from Caesar Augustus, that all the world + should be taxed.” <a href="#linknote-49.154" name="linknoteref-49.154" + id="linknoteref-49.154">154</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.152" id="linknote-49.152"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 152 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.152">return</a>)<br /> [ See the whole ceremony + in Struvius, p. 629] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.153" id="linknote-49.153"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 153 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.153">return</a>)<br /> [ The republic of Europe, + with the pope and emperor at its head, was never represented with more + dignity than in the council of Constance. See Lenfant’s History of that + assembly.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.154" id="linknote-49.154"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 154 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.154">return</a>)<br /> [ Gravina, Origines Juris + Civilis, p. 108.] + </p> + <p> + If we annihilate the interval of time and space between Augustus and + Charles, strong and striking will be the contrast between the two Caesars; + the Bohemian who concealed his weakness under the mask of ostentation, and + the Roman, who disguised his strength under the semblance of modesty. At + the head of his victorious legions, in his reign over the sea and land, + from the Nile and Euphrates to the Atlantic Ocean, Augustus professed + himself the servant of the state and the equal of his fellow-citizens. The + conqueror of Rome and her provinces assumed a popular and legal form of a + censor, a consul, and a tribune. His will was the law of mankind, but in + the declaration of his laws he borrowed the voice of the senate and + people; and from their decrees their master accepted and renewed his + temporary commission to administer the republic. In his dress, his + domestics, <a href="#linknote-49.155" name="linknoteref-49.155" + id="linknoteref-49.155">155</a> his titles, in all the offices of social + life, Augustus maintained the character of a private Roman; and his most + artful flatterers respected the secret of his absolute and perpetual + monarchy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-49.155" id="linknote-49.155"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 155 (<a href="#linknoteref-49.155">return</a>)<br /> [ Six thousand urns have + been discovered of the slaves and freedmen of Augustus and Livia. So + minute was the division of office, that one slave was appointed to weigh + the wool which was spun by the empress’s maids, another for the care of + her lap-dog, &c., (Camera Sepolchrale, by Bianchini. Extract of his + work in the Bibliotheque Italique, tom. iv. p. 175. His Eloge, by + Fontenelle, tom. vi. p. 356.) But these servants were of the same rank, + and possibly not more numerous than those of Pollio or Lentulus. They only + prove the general riches of the city.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap50.1"></a> + Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Birth, + Character, And Doctrine Of Mahomet.—He Preaches At Mecca.— + Flies To Medina.—Propagates His Religion By The Sword.— + Voluntary Or Reluctant Submission Of The Arabs.—His Death + And Successors.—The Claims And Fortunes Of Ali And His + Descendants. +</pre> + <p> + After pursuing above six hundred years the fleeting Caesars of + Constantinople and Germany, I now descend, in the reign of Heraclius, on + the eastern borders of the Greek monarchy. While the state was exhausted + by the Persian war, and the church was distracted by the Nestorian and + Monophysite sects, Mahomet, with the sword in one hand and the Koran in + the other, erected his throne on the ruins of Christianity and of Rome. + The genius of the Arabian prophet, the manners of his nation, and the + spirit of his religion, involve the causes of the decline and fall of the + Eastern empire; and our eyes are curiously intent on one of the most + memorable revolutions, which have impressed a new and lasting character on + the nations of the globe. <a href="#linknote-50.1" name="linknoteref-50.1" + id="linknoteref-50.1">1</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1" id="linknote-50.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1">return</a>)<br /> [ As in this and the + following chapter I shall display much Arabic learning, I must profess my + total ignorance of the Oriental tongues, and my gratitude to the learned + interpreters, who have transfused their science into the Latin, French, + and English languages. Their collections, versions, and histories, I shall + occasionally notice.] + </p> + <p> + In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and Aethiopia, the + Arabian peninsula <a href="#linknote-50.2" name="linknoteref-50.2" + id="linknoteref-50.2">2</a> may be conceived as a triangle of spacious but + irregular dimensions. From the northern point of Beles <a + href="#linknote-50.3" name="linknoteref-50.3" id="linknoteref-50.3">3</a> on + the Euphrates, a line of fifteen hundred miles is terminated by the + Straits of Bebelmandel and the land of frankincense. About half this + length may be allowed for the middle breadth, from east to west, from + Bassora to Suez, from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea. <a + href="#linknote-50.4" name="linknoteref-50.4" id="linknoteref-50.4">4</a> The + sides of the triangle are gradually enlarged, and the southern basis + presents a front of a thousand miles to the Indian Ocean. The entire + surface of the peninsula exceeds in a fourfold proportion that of Germany + or France; but the far greater part has been justly stigmatized with the + epithets of the stony and the sandy. Even the wilds of Tartary are decked, + by the hand of nature, with lofty trees and luxuriant herbage; and the + lonesome traveller derives a sort of comfort and society from the presence + of vegetable life. But in the dreary waste of Arabia, a boundless level of + sand is intersected by sharp and naked mountains; and the face of the + desert, without shade or shelter, is scorched by the direct and intense + rays of a tropical sun. Instead of refreshing breezes, the winds, + particularly from the south-west, diffuse a noxious and even deadly vapor; + the hillocks of sand which they alternately raise and scatter, are + compared to the billows of the ocean, and whole caravans, whole armies, + have been lost and buried in the whirlwind. The common benefits of water + are an object of desire and contest; and such is the scarcity of wood, + that some art is requisite to preserve and propagate the element of fire. + Arabia is destitute of navigable rivers, which fertilize the soil, and + convey its produce to the adjacent regions: the torrents that fall from + the hills are imbibed by the thirsty earth: the rare and hardy plants, the + tamarind or the acacia, that strike their roots into the clefts of the + rocks, are nourished by the dews of the night: a scanty supply of rain is + collected in cisterns and aqueducts: the wells and springs are the secret + treasure of the desert; and the pilgrim of Mecca, <a href="#linknote-50.5" + name="linknoteref-50.5" id="linknoteref-50.5">5</a> after many a dry and + sultry march, is disgusted by the taste of the waters which have rolled + over a bed of sulphur or salt. Such is the general and genuine picture of + the climate of Arabia. The experience of evil enhances the value of any + local or partial enjoyments. A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of + fresh water, are sufficient to attract a colony of sedentary Arabs to the + fortunate spots which can afford food and refreshment to themselves and + their cattle, and which encourage their industry in the cultivation of the + palmtree and the vine. The high lands that border on the Indian Ocean are + distinguished by their superior plenty of wood and water; the air is more + temperate, the fruits are more delicious, the animals and the human race + more numerous: the fertility of the soil invites and rewards the toil of + the husbandman; and the peculiar gifts of frankincense <a + href="#linknote-50.6" name="linknoteref-50.6" id="linknoteref-50.6">6</a> and + coffee have attracted in different ages the merchants of the world. If it + be compared with the rest of the peninsula, this sequestered region may + truly deserve the appellation of the happy; and the splendid coloring of + fancy and fiction has been suggested by contrast, and countenanced by + distance. It was for this earthly paradise that Nature had reserved her + choicest favors and her most curious workmanship: the incompatible + blessings of luxury and innocence were ascribed to the natives: the soil + was impregnated with gold <a href="#linknote-50.7" name="linknoteref-50.7" + id="linknoteref-50.7">7</a> and gems, and both the land and sea were taught + to exhale the odors of aromatic sweets. This division of the sandy, the + stony, and the happy, so familiar to the Greeks and Latins, is unknown to + the Arabians themselves; and it is singular enough, that a country, whose + language and inhabitants have ever been the same, should scarcely retain a + vestige of its ancient geography. The maritime districts of Bahrein and + Oman are opposite to the realm of Persia. The kingdom of Yemen displays + the limits, or at least the situation, of Arabia Felix: the name of Neged + is extended over the inland space; and the birth of Mahomet has + illustrated the province of Hejaz along the coast of the Red Sea. <a + href="#linknote-50.8" name="linknoteref-50.8" id="linknoteref-50.8">8</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.2" id="linknote-50.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.2">return</a>)<br /> [ The geographers of Arabia + may be divided into three classes: 1. The Greeks and Latins, whose + progressive knowledge may be traced in Agatharcides, (de Mari Rubro, in + Hudson, Geograph. Minor. tom. i.,) Diodorus Siculus, (tom. i. l. ii. p. + 159-167, l. iii. p. 211-216, edit. Wesseling,) Strabo, (l. xvi. p. + 1112-1114, from Eratosthenes, p. 1122-1132, from Artemidorus,) Dionysius, + (Periegesis, 927-969,) Pliny, (Hist. Natur. v. 12, vi. 32,) and Ptolemy, + (Descript. et Tabulae Urbium, in Hudson, tom. iii.) 2. The Arabic writers, + who have treated the subject with the zeal of patriotism or devotion: the + extracts of Pocock (Specimen Hist. Arabum, p. 125-128) from the Geography + of the Sherif al Edrissi, render us still more dissatisfied with the + version or abridgment (p. 24-27, 44-56, 108, &c., 119, &c.) which + the Maronites have published under the absurd title of Geographia + Nubiensis, (Paris, 1619;) but the Latin and French translators, Greaves + (in Hudson, tom. iii.) and Galland, (Voyage de la Palestine par La Roque, + p. 265-346,) have opened to us the Arabia of Abulfeda, the most copious + and correct account of the peninsula, which may be enriched, however, from + the Bibliotheque Orientale of D’Herbelot, p. 120, et alibi passim. 3. The + European travellers; among whom Shaw (p. 438-455) and Niebuhr + (Description, 1773; Voyages, tom. i. 1776) deserve an honorable + distinction: Busching (Geographie par Berenger, tom. viii. p. 416-510) has + compiled with judgment, and D’Anville’s Maps (Orbis Veteribus Notus, and + 1re Partie de l’Asie) should lie before the reader, with his Geographie + Ancienne, tom. ii. p. 208-231. * Note: Of modern travellers may be + mentioned the adventurer who called himself Ali Bey; but above all, the + intelligent, the enterprising the accurate Burckhardt.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.3" id="linknote-50.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.3">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulfed. Descript. + Arabiae, p. 1. D’Anville, l’Euphrate et le Tigre, p. 19, 20. It was in + this place, the paradise or garden of a satrap, that Xenophon and the + Greeks first passed the Euphrates, (Anabasis, l. i. c. 10, p. 29, edit. + Wells.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.4" id="linknote-50.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.4">return</a>)<br /> [ Reland has proved, with + much superfluous learning, + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1. That our Red Sea (the Arabian Gulf) is no more than a part of the Mare + Rubrum, which was extended to the indefinite space of the Indian Ocean. + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2. That the synonymous words, allude to the color of the blacks or + negroes, (Dissert Miscell. tom. i. p. 59-117.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.5" id="linknote-50.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.5">return</a>)<br /> [ In the thirty days, or + stations, between Cairo and Mecca, there are fifteen destitute of good + water. See the route of the Hadjees, in Shaw’s Travels, p. 477.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.6" id="linknote-50.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.6">return</a>)<br /> [ The aromatics, especially + the thus, or frankincense, of Arabia, occupy the xiith book of Pliny. Our + great poet (Paradise Lost, l. iv.) introduces, in a simile, the spicy + odors that are blown by the north-east wind from the Sabaean coast:——Many + a league, Pleased with the grateful scent, old Ocean smiles. (Plin. Hist. + Natur. xii. 42.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.7" id="linknote-50.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.7">return</a>)<br /> [ Agatharcides affirms, + that lumps of pure gold were found, from the size of an olive to that of a + nut; that iron was twice, and silver ten times, the value of gold, (de + Mari Rubro, p. 60.) These real or imaginary treasures are vanished; and no + gold mines are at present known in Arabia, (Niebuhr, Description, p. 124.) + * Note: A brilliant passage in the geographical poem of Dionysius + Periegetes embodies the notions of the ancients on the wealth and + fertility of Yemen. Greek mythology, and the traditions of the “gorgeous + east,” of India as well as Arabia, are mingled together in indiscriminate + splendor. Compare on the southern coast of Arabia, the recent travels of + Lieut. Wellsted—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.8" id="linknote-50.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.8">return</a>)<br /> [ Consult, peruse, and + study the Specimen Hostoriae Arabum of Pocock, (Oxon. 1650, in 4to.) The + thirty pages of text and version are extracted from the Dynasties of + Gregory Abulpharagius, which Pocock afterwards translated, (Oxon. 1663, in + 4to.;) the three hundred and fifty-eight notes form a classic and original + work on the Arabian antiquities.] + </p> + <p> + The measure of population is regulated by the means of subsistence; and + the inhabitants of this vast peninsula might be outnumbered by the + subjects of a fertile and industrious province. Along the shores of the + Persian Gulf, of the ocean, and even of the Red Sea, the Icthyophagi, <a + href="#linknote-50.9" name="linknoteref-50.9" id="linknoteref-50.9">9</a> or + fish eaters, continued to wander in quest of their precarious food. In + this primitive and abject state, which ill deserves the name of society, + the human brute, without arts or laws, almost without sense or language, + is poorly distinguished from the rest of the animal creation. Generations + and ages might roll away in silent oblivion, and the helpless savage was + restrained from multiplying his race by the wants and pursuits which + confined his existence to the narrow margin of the seacoast. But in an + early period of antiquity the great body of the Arabs had emerged from + this scene of misery; and as the naked wilderness could not maintain a + people of hunters, they rose at once to the more secure and plentiful + condition of the pastoral life. The same life is uniformly pursued by the + roving tribes of the desert; and in the portrait of the modern Bedoweens, + we may trace the features of their ancestors, <a href="#linknote-50.10" + name="linknoteref-50.10" id="linknoteref-50.10">10</a> who, in the age of + Moses or Mahomet, dwelt under similar tents, and conducted their horses, + and camels, and sheep, to the same springs and the same pastures. Our toil + is lessened, and our wealth is increased, by our dominion over the useful + animals; and the Arabian shepherd had acquired the absolute possession of + a faithful friend and a laborious slave. <a href="#linknote-50.11" + name="linknoteref-50.11" id="linknoteref-50.11">11</a> Arabia, in the + opinion of the naturalist, is the genuine and original country of the + horse; the climate most propitious, not indeed to the size, but to the + spirit and swiftness, of that generous animal. The merit of the Barb, the + Spanish, and the English breed, is derived from a mixture of Arabian + blood: <a href="#linknote-50.12" name="linknoteref-50.12" + id="linknoteref-50.12">12</a> the Bedoweens preserve, with superstitious + care, the honors and the memory of the purest race: the males are sold at + a high price, but the females are seldom alienated; and the birth of a + noble foal was esteemed among the tribes, as a subject of joy and mutual + congratulation. These horses are educated in the tents, among the children + of the Arabs, with a tender familiarity, which trains them in the habits + of gentleness and attachment. They are accustomed only to walk and to + gallop: their sensations are not blunted by the incessant abuse of the + spur and the whip: their powers are reserved for the moments of flight and + pursuit: but no sooner do they feel the touch of the hand or the stirrup, + than they dart away with the swiftness of the wind; and if their friend be + dismounted in the rapid career, they instantly stop till he has recovered + his seat. In the sands of Africa and Arabia, the camel is a sacred and + precious gift. That strong and patient beast of burden can perform, + without eating or drinking, a journey of several days; and a reservoir of + fresh water is preserved in a large bag, a fifth stomach of the animal, + whose body is imprinted with the marks of servitude: the larger breed is + capable of transporting a weight of a thousand pounds; and the dromedary, + of a lighter and more active frame, outstrips the fleetest courser in the + race. Alive or dead, almost every part of the camel is serviceable to man: + her milk is plentiful and nutritious: the young and tender flesh has the + taste of veal: <a href="#linknote-50.13" name="linknoteref-50.13" + id="linknoteref-50.13">13</a> a valuable salt is extracted from the urine: + the dung supplies the deficiency of fuel; and the long hair, which falls + each year and is renewed, is coarsely manufactured into the garments, the + furniture, and the tents of the Bedoweens. In the rainy seasons, they + consume the rare and insufficient herbage of the desert: during the heats + of summer and the scarcity of winter, they remove their encampments to the + sea-coast, the hills of Yemen, or the neighborhood of the Euphrates, and + have often extorted the dangerous license of visiting the banks of the + Nile, and the villages of Syria and Palestine. The life of a wandering + Arab is a life of danger and distress; and though sometimes, by rapine or + exchange, he may appropriate the fruits of industry, a private citizen in + Europe is in the possession of more solid and pleasing luxury than the + proudest emir, who marches in the field at the head of ten thousand horse. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.9" id="linknote-50.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.9">return</a>)<br /> [ Arrian remarks the + Icthyophagi of the coast of Hejez, (Periplus Maris Erythraei, p. 12,) and + beyond Aden, (p. 15.) It seems probable that the shores of the Red Sea (in + the largest sense) were occupied by these savages in the time, perhaps, of + Cyrus; but I can hardly believe that any cannibals were left among the + savages in the reign of Justinian. (Procop. de Bell. Persic. l. i. c. + 19.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.10" id="linknote-50.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.10">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Specimen + Historiae Arabum of Pocock, p. 2, 5, 86, &c. The journey of M. + d’Arvieux, in 1664, to the camp of the emir of Mount Carmel, (Voyage de la + Palestine, Amsterdam, 1718,) exhibits a pleasing and original picture of + the life of the Bedoweens, which may be illustrated from Niebuhr + (Description de l’Arabie, p. 327-344) and Volney, (tom. i. p. 343-385,) + the last and most judicious of our Syrian travellers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.11" id="linknote-50.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.11">return</a>)<br /> [ Read (it is no + unpleasing task) the incomparable articles of the Horse and the Camel, in + the Natural History of M. de Buffon.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.12" id="linknote-50.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.12">return</a>)<br /> [ For the Arabian horses, + see D’Arvieux (p. 159-173) and Niebuhr, (p. 142-144.) At the end of the + xiiith century, the horses of Neged were esteemed sure-footed, those of + Yemen strong and serviceable, those of Hejaz most noble. The horses of + Europe, the tenth and last class, were generally despised as having too + much body and too little spirit, (D’Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 339: ) + their strength was requisite to bear the weight of the knight and his + armor] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.13" id="linknote-50.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.13">return</a>)<br /> [ Qui carnibus camelorum + vesci solent odii tenaces sunt, was the opinion of an Arabian physician, + (Pocock, Specimen, p. 88.) Mahomet himself, who was fond of milk, prefers + the cow, and does not even mention the camel; but the diet of Mecca and + Medina was already more luxurious, (Gagnier Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. + 404.)] + </p> + <p> + Yet an essential difference may be found between the hordes of Scythia and + the Arabian tribes; since many of the latter were collected into towns, + and employed in the labors of trade and agriculture. A part of their time + and industry was still devoted to the management of their cattle: they + mingled, in peace and war, with their brethren of the desert; and the + Bedoweens derived from their useful intercourse some supply of their + wants, and some rudiments of art and knowledge. Among the forty-two cities + of Arabia, <a href="#linknote-50.14" name="linknoteref-50.14" + id="linknoteref-50.14">14</a> enumerated by Abulfeda, the most ancient and + populous were situate in the happy Yemen: the towers of Saana, <a + href="#linknote-50.15" name="linknoteref-50.15" id="linknoteref-50.15">15</a> + and the marvellous reservoir of Merab, <a href="#linknote-50.16" + name="linknoteref-50.16" id="linknoteref-50.16">16</a> were constructed by + the kings of the Homerites; but their profane lustre was eclipsed by the + prophetic glories of Medina <a href="#linknote-50.17" + name="linknoteref-50.17" id="linknoteref-50.17">17</a> and Mecca, <a + href="#linknote-50.18" name="linknoteref-50.18" id="linknoteref-50.18">18</a> + near the Red Sea, and at the distance from each other of two hundred and + seventy miles. The last of these holy places was known to the Greeks under + the name of Macoraba; and the termination of the word is expressive of its + greatness, which has not, indeed, in the most flourishing period, exceeded + the size and populousness of Marseilles. Some latent motive, perhaps of + superstition, must have impelled the founders, in the choice of a most + unpromising situation. They erected their habitations of mud or stone, in + a plain about two miles long and one mile broad, at the foot of three + barren mountains: the soil is a rock; the water even of the holy well of + Zemzem is bitter or brackish; the pastures are remote from the city; and + grapes are transported above seventy miles from the gardens of Tayef. The + fame and spirit of the Koreishites, who reigned in Mecca, were conspicuous + among the Arabian tribes; but their ungrateful soil refused the labors of + agriculture, and their position was favorable to the enterprises of trade. + By the seaport of Gedda, at the distance only of forty miles, they + maintained an easy correspondence with Abyssinia; and that Christian + kingdom afforded the first refuge to the disciples of Mahomet. The + treasures of Africa were conveyed over the Peninsula to Gerrha or Katif, + in the province of Bahrein, a city built, as it is said, of rock-salt, by + the Chaldaean exiles; <a href="#linknote-50.19" name="linknoteref-50.19" + id="linknoteref-50.19">19</a> and from thence with the native pearls of the + Persian Gulf, they were floated on rafts to the mouth of the Euphrates. + Mecca is placed almost at an equal distance, a month’s journey, between + Yemen on the right, and Syria on the left hand. The former was the winter, + the latter the summer, station of her caravans; and their seasonable + arrival relieved the ships of India from the tedious and troublesome + navigation of the Red Sea. In the markets of Saana and Merab, in the + harbors of Oman and Aden, the camels of the Koreishites were laden with a + precious cargo of aromatics; a supply of corn and manufactures was + purchased in the fairs of Bostra and Damascus; the lucrative exchange + diffused plenty and riches in the streets of Mecca; and the noblest of her + sons united the love of arms with the profession of merchandise. <a + href="#linknote-50.20" name="linknoteref-50.20" id="linknoteref-50.20">20</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.14" id="linknote-50.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.14">return</a>)<br /> [ Yet Marcian of Heraclea + (in Periplo, p. 16, in tom. i. Hudson, Minor. Geograph.) reckons one + hundred and sixty-four towns in Arabia Felix. The size of the towns might + be small—the faith of the writer might be large.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.15" id="linknote-50.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.15">return</a>)<br /> [ It is compared by + Abulfeda (in Hudson, tom. ii. p. 54) to Damascus, and is still the + residence of the Imam of Yemen, (Voyages de Niebuhr, tom. i. p. 331-342.) + Saana is twenty-four parasangs from Dafar, (Abulfeda, p. 51,) and + sixty-eight from Aden, (p. 53.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.16" id="linknote-50.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.16">return</a>)<br /> [ Pocock, Specimen, p. + 57. Geograph. Nubiensis, p. 52. Meriaba, or Merab, six miles in + circumference, was destroyed by the legions of Augustus, (Plin. Hist. Nat. + vi. 32,) and had not revived in the xivth century, (Abulfed. Descript. + Arab. p. 58.) * Note: See note 2 to chap. i. The destruction of Meriaba by + the Romans is doubtful. The town never recovered the inundation which took + place from the bursting of a large reservoir of water—an event of + great importance in the Arabian annals, and discussed at considerable + length by modern Orientalists.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.17" id="linknote-50.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.17">return</a>)<br /> [ The name of city, + Medina, was appropriated, to Yatreb. (the Iatrippa of the Greeks,) the + seat of the prophet. The distances from Medina are reckoned by Abulfeda in + stations, or days’ journey of a caravan, (p. 15: ) to Bahrein, xv.; to + Bassora, xviii.; to Cufah, xx.; to Damascus or Palestine, xx.; to Cairo, + xxv.; to Mecca. x.; from Mecca to Saana, (p. 52,) or Aden, xxx.; to Cairo, + xxxi. days, or 412 hours, (Shaw’s Travels, p. 477;) which, according to + the estimate of D’Anville, (Mesures Itineraires, p. 99,) allows about + twenty-five English miles for a day’s journey. From the land of + frankincense (Hadramaut, in Yemen, between Aden and Cape Fartasch) to Gaza + in Syria, Pliny (Hist. Nat. xii. 32) computes lxv. mansions of camels. + These measures may assist fancy and elucidate facts.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.18" id="linknote-50.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.18">return</a>)<br /> [ Our notions of Mecca + must be drawn from the Arabians, (D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p. + 368-371. Pocock, Specimen, p. 125-128. Abulfeda, p. 11-40.) As no + unbeliever is permitted to enter the city, our travellers are silent; and + the short hints of Thevenot (Voyages du Levant, part i. p. 490) are taken + from the suspicious mouth of an African renegado. Some Persians counted + 6000 houses, (Chardin. tom. iv. p. 167.) * Note: Even in the time of + Gibbon, Mecca had not been so inaccessible to Europeans. It had been + visited by Ludovico Barthema, and by one Joseph Pitts, of Exeter, who was + taken prisoner by the Moors, and forcibly converted to Mahometanism. His + volume is a curious, though plain, account of his sufferings and travels. + Since that time Mecca has been entered, and the ceremonies witnessed, by + Dr. Seetzen, whose papers were unfortunately lost; by the Spaniard, who + called himself Ali Bey; and, lastly, by Burckhardt, whose description + leaves nothing wanting to satisfy the curiosity.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.19" id="linknote-50.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.19">return</a>)<br /> [ Strabo, l. xvi. p. + 1110. See one of these salt houses near Bassora, in D’Herbelot, Bibliot. + Orient. p. 6.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.20" id="linknote-50.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.20">return</a>)<br /> [ Mirum dictu ex + innumeris populis pars aequa in commerciis aut in latrociniis degit, + (Plin. Hist. Nat. vi. 32.) See Sale’s Koran, Sura. cvi. p. 503. Pocock, + Specimen, p. 2. D’Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 361. Prideaux’s Life of + Mahomet, p. 5. Gagnier, Vie de Mahomet, tom. i. p. 72, 120, 126, &c.] + </p> + <p> + The perpetual independence of the Arabs has been the theme of praise among + strangers and natives; and the arts of controversy transform this singular + event into a prophecy and a miracle, in favor of the posterity of Ismael. + <a href="#linknote-50.21" name="linknoteref-50.21" id="linknoteref-50.21">21</a> + Some exceptions, that can neither be dismissed nor eluded, render this + mode of reasoning as indiscreet as it is superfluous; the kingdom of Yemen + has been successively subdued by the Abyssinians, the Persians, the + sultans of Egypt, <a href="#linknote-50.22" name="linknoteref-50.22" + id="linknoteref-50.22">22</a> and the Turks; <a href="#linknote-50.23" + name="linknoteref-50.23" id="linknoteref-50.23">23</a> the holy cities of + Mecca and Medina have repeatedly bowed under a Scythian tyrant; and the + Roman province of Arabia <a href="#linknote-50.24" name="linknoteref-50.24" + id="linknoteref-50.24">24</a> embraced the peculiar wilderness in which + Ismael and his sons must have pitched their tents in the face of their + brethren. Yet these exceptions are temporary or local; the body of the + nation has escaped the yoke of the most powerful monarchies: the arms of + Sesostris and Cyrus, of Pompey and Trajan, could never achieve the + conquest of Arabia; the present sovereign of the Turks <a + href="#linknote-50.25" name="linknoteref-50.25" id="linknoteref-50.25">25</a> + may exercise a shadow of jurisdiction, but his pride is reduced to solicit + the friendship of a people, whom it is dangerous to provoke, and fruitless + to attack. The obvious causes of their freedom are inscribed on the + character and country of the Arabs. Many ages before Mahomet, <a + href="#linknote-50.26" name="linknoteref-50.26" id="linknoteref-50.26">26</a> + their intrepid valor had been severely felt by their neighbors in + offensive and defensive war. The patient and active virtues of a soldier + are insensibly nursed in the habits and discipline of a pastoral life. The + care of the sheep and camels is abandoned to the women of the tribe; but + the martial youth, under the banner of the emir, is ever on horseback, and + in the field, to practise the exercise of the bow, the javelin, and the + cimeter. The long memory of their independence is the firmest pledge of + its perpetuity and succeeding generations are animated to prove their + descent, and to maintain their inheritance. Their domestic feuds are + suspended on the approach of a common enemy; and in their last hostilities + against the Turks, the caravan of Mecca was attacked and pillaged by + fourscore thousand of the confederates. When they advance to battle, the + hope of victory is in the front; in the rear, the assurance of a retreat. + Their horses and camels, who, in eight or ten days, can perform a march of + four or five hundred miles, disappear before the conqueror; the secret + waters of the desert elude his search, and his victorious troops are + consumed with thirst, hunger, and fatigue, in the pursuit of an invisible + foe, who scorns his efforts, and safely reposes in the heart of the + burning solitude. The arms and deserts of the Bedoweens are not only the + safeguards of their own freedom, but the barriers also of the happy + Arabia, whose inhabitants, remote from war, are enervated by the luxury of + the soil and climate. The legions of Augustus melted away in disease and + lassitude; <a href="#linknote-50.27" name="linknoteref-50.27" + id="linknoteref-50.27">27</a> and it is only by a naval power that the + reduction of Yemen has been successfully attempted. When Mahomet erected + his holy standard, <a href="#linknote-50.28" name="linknoteref-50.28" + id="linknoteref-50.28">28</a> that kingdom was a province of the Persian + empire; yet seven princes of the Homerites still reigned in the mountains; + and the vicegerent of Chosroes was tempted to forget his distant country + and his unfortunate master. The historians of the age of Justinian + represent the state of the independent Arabs, who were divided by interest + or affection in the long quarrel of the East: the tribe of Gassan was + allowed to encamp on the Syrian territory: the princes of Hira were + permitted to form a city about forty miles to the southward of the ruins + of Babylon. Their service in the field was speedy and vigorous; but their + friendship was venal, their faith inconstant, their enmity capricious: it + was an easier task to excite than to disarm these roving barbarians; and, + in the familiar intercourse of war, they learned to see, and to despise, + the splendid weakness both of Rome and of Persia. From Mecca to the + Euphrates, the Arabian tribes <a href="#linknote-50.29" + name="linknoteref-50.29" id="linknoteref-50.29">29</a> were confounded by + the Greeks and Latins, under the general appellation of Saracens, <a + href="#linknote-50.30" name="linknoteref-50.30" id="linknoteref-50.30">30</a> + a name which every Christian mouth has been taught to pronounce with + terror and abhorrence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.21" id="linknote-50.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.21">return</a>)<br /> [ A nameless doctor + (Universal Hist. vol. xx. octavo edition) has formally demonstrated the + truth of Christianity by the independence of the Arabs. A critic, besides + the exceptions of fact, might dispute the meaning of the text (Gen. xvi. + 12,) the extent of the application, and the foundation of the pedigree. * + Note: See note 3 to chap. xlvi. The atter point is probably the least + contestable of the three.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.22" id="linknote-50.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.22">return</a>)<br /> [ It was subdued, A.D. + 1173, by a brother of the great Saladin, who founded a dynasty of Curds or + Ayoubites, (Guignes, Hist. des Huns, tom. i. p. 425. D’Herbelot, p. 477.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.23" id="linknote-50.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.23">return</a>)<br /> [ By the lieutenant of + Soliman I. (A.D. 1538) and Selim II., (1568.) See Cantemir’s Hist. of the + Othman Empire, p. 201, 221. The pacha, who resided at Saana, commanded + twenty-one beys; but no revenue was ever remitted to the Porte, (Marsigli, + Stato Militare dell’ Imperio Ottomanno, p. 124,) and the Turks were + expelled about the year 1630, (Niebuhr, p. 167, 168.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.24" id="linknote-50.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.24">return</a>)<br /> [ Of the Roman province, + under the name of Arabia and the third Palestine, the principal cities + were Bostra and Petra, which dated their aera from the year 105, when they + were subdued by Palma, a lieutenant of Trajan, (Dion. Cassius, l. lxviii.) + Petra was the capital of the Nabathaeans; whose name is derived from the + eldest of the sons of Ismael, (Gen. xxv. 12, &c., with the + Commentaries of Jerom, Le Clerc, and Calmet.) Justinian relinquished a + palm country of ten days’ journey to the south of Aelah, (Procop. de Bell. + Persic. l. i. c. 19,) and the Romans maintained a centurion and a + custom-house, (Arrian in Periplo Maris Erythraei, p. 11, in Hudson, tom. + i.,) at a place (Pagus Albus, Hawara) in the territory of Medina, + (D’Anville, Memoire sur l’Egypte, p. 243.) These real possessions, and + some naval inroads of Trajan, (Peripl. p. 14, 15,) are magnified by + history and medals into the Roman conquest of Arabia. * Note: On the ruins + of Petra, see the travels of Messrs. Irby and Mangles, and of Leon de + Laborde.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.25" id="linknote-50.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.25">return</a>)<br /> [ Niebuhr (Description de + l’Arabie, p. 302, 303, 329-331) affords the most recent and authentic + intelligence of the Turkish empire in Arabia. * Note: Niebuhr’s, + notwithstanding the multitude of later travellers, maintains its ground, + as the classical work on Arabia.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.26" id="linknote-50.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.26">return</a>)<br /> [ Diodorus Siculus (tom. + ii. l. xix. p. 390-393, edit. Wesseling) has clearly exposed the freedom + of the Nabathaean Arabs, who resisted the arms of Antigonus and his son.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.27" id="linknote-50.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.27">return</a>)<br /> [ Strabo, l. xvi. p. + 1127-1129. Plin. Hist. Natur. vi. 32. Aelius Gallus landed near Medina, + and marched near a thousand miles into the part of Yemen between Mareb and + the Ocean. The non ante devictis Sabeae regibus, (Od. i. 29,) and the + intacti Arabum thesanri (Od. iii. 24) of Horace, attest the virgin purity + of Arabia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.28" id="linknote-50.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.28">return</a>)<br /> [ See the imperfect + history of Yemen in Pocock, Specimen, p. 55-66, of Hira, p. 66-74, of + Gassan, p. 75-78, as far as it could be known or preserved in the time of + ignorance. * Note: Compare the Hist. Yemanae, published by Johannsen at + Bonn 1880 particularly the translator’s preface.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.29" id="linknote-50.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.29">return</a>)<br /> [ They are described by + Menander, (Excerpt. Legation p. 149,) Procopius, (de Bell. Persic. l. i. + c. 17, 19, l. ii. c. 10,) and, in the most lively colors, by Ammianus + Marcellinus, (l. xiv. c. 4,) who had spoken of them as early as the reign + of Marcus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.30" id="linknote-50.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.30">return</a>)<br /> [ The name which, used by + Ptolemy and Pliny in a more confined, by Ammianus and Procopius in a + larger, sense, has been derived, ridiculously, from Sarah, the wife of + Abraham, obscurely from the village of Saraka, (Stephan. de Urbibus,) more + plausibly from the Arabic words, which signify a thievish character, or + Oriental situation, (Hottinger, Hist. Oriental. l. i. c. i. p. 7, 8. + Pocock, Specimen, p. 33, 35. Asseman. Bibliot. Orient. tom. iv. p. 567.) + Yet the last and most popular of these etymologies is refuted by Ptolemy, + (Arabia, p. 2, 18, in Hudson, tom. iv.,) who expressly remarks the western + and southern position of the Saracens, then an obscure tribe on the + borders of Egypt. The appellation cannot therefore allude to any national + character; and, since it was imposed by strangers, it must be found, not + in the Arabic, but in a foreign language. * Note: Dr. Clarke, (Travels, + vol. ii. p. 491,) after expressing contemptuous pity for Gibbon’s + ignorance, derives the word from Zara, Zaara, Sara, the Desert, whence + Saraceni, the children of the Desert. De Marles adopts the derivation from + Sarrik, a robber, (Hist. des Arabes, vol. i. p. 36, S.L. Martin from + Scharkioun, or Sharkun, Eastern, vol. xi. p. 55.)—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap50.2"></a> + Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The slaves of domestic tyranny may vainly exult in their national + independence: but the Arab is personally free; and he enjoys, in some + degree, the benefits of society, without forfeiting the prerogatives of + nature. In every tribe, superstition, or gratitude, or fortune, has + exalted a particular family above the heads of their equals. The dignities + of sheick and emir invariably descend in this chosen race; but the order + of succession is loose and precarious; and the most worthy or aged of the + noble kinsmen are preferred to the simple, though important, office of + composing disputes by their advice, and guiding valor by their example. + Even a female of sense and spirit has been permitted to command the + countrymen of Zenobia. <a href="#linknote-50.31" name="linknoteref-50.31" + id="linknoteref-50.31">31</a> The momentary junction of several tribes + produces an army: their more lasting union constitutes a nation; and the + supreme chief, the emir of emirs, whose banner is displayed at their head, + may deserve, in the eyes of strangers, the honors of the kingly name. + </p> + <p> + If the Arabian princes abuse their power, they are quickly punished by the + desertion of their subjects, who had been accustomed to a mild and + parental jurisdiction. Their spirit is free, their steps are unconfined, + the desert is open, and the tribes and families are held together by a + mutual and voluntary compact. The softer natives of Yemen supported the + pomp and majesty of a monarch; but if he could not leave his palace + without endangering his life, <a href="#linknote-50.32" + name="linknoteref-50.32" id="linknoteref-50.32">32</a> the active powers of + government must have been devolved on his nobles and magistrates. The + cities of Mecca and Medina present, in the heart of Asia, the form, or + rather the substance, of a commonwealth. The grandfather of Mahomet, and + his lineal ancestors, appear in foreign and domestic transactions as the + princes of their country; but they reigned, like Pericles at Athens, or + the Medici at Florence, by the opinion of their wisdom and integrity; + their influence was divided with their patrimony; and the sceptre was + transferred from the uncles of the prophet to a younger branch of the + tribe of Koreish. On solemn occasions they convened the assembly of the + people; and, since mankind must be either compelled or persuaded to obey, + the use and reputation of oratory among the ancient Arabs is the clearest + evidence of public freedom. <a href="#linknote-50.33" + name="linknoteref-50.33" id="linknoteref-50.33">33</a> But their simple + freedom was of a very different cast from the nice and artificial + machinery of the Greek and Roman republics, in which each member possessed + an undivided share of the civil and political rights of the community. In + the more simple state of the Arabs, the nation is free, because each of + her sons disdains a base submission to the will of a master. His breast is + fortified by the austere virtues of courage, patience, and sobriety; the + love of independence prompts him to exercise the habits of self-command; + and the fear of dishonor guards him from the meaner apprehension of pain, + of danger, and of death. The gravity and firmness of the mind is + conspicuous in his outward demeanor; his speech is low, weighty, and + concise; he is seldom provoked to laughter; his only gesture is that of + stroking his beard, the venerable symbol of manhood; and the sense of his + own importance teaches him to accost his equals without levity, and his + superiors without awe. <a href="#linknote-50.34" name="linknoteref-50.34" + id="linknoteref-50.34">34</a> The liberty of the Saracens survived their + conquests: the first caliphs indulged the bold and familiar language of + their subjects; they ascended the pulpit to persuade and edify the + congregation; nor was it before the seat of empire was removed to the + Tigris, that the Abbasides adopted the proud and pompous ceremonial of the + Persian and Byzantine courts. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.31" id="linknote-50.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.31">return</a>)<br /> [ Saraceni... mulieres + aiunt in eos regnare, (Expositio totius Mundi, p. 3, in Hudson, tom. iii.) + The reign of Mavia is famous in ecclesiastical story Pocock, Specimen, p. + 69, 83.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.32" id="linknote-50.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.32">return</a>)<br /> [ The report of + Agatharcides, (de Mari Rubro, p. 63, 64, in Hudson, tom. i.) Diodorus + Siculus, (tom. i. l. iii. c. 47, p. 215,) and Strabo, (l. xvi. p. 1124.) + But I much suspect that this is one of the popular tales, or extraordinary + accidents, which the credulity of travellers so often transforms into a + fact, a custom, and a law.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.33" id="linknote-50.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.33">return</a>)<br /> [ Non gloriabantur + antiquitus Arabes, nisi gladio, hospite, et eloquentia (Sephadius apud + Pocock, Specimen, p. 161, 162.) This gift of speech they shared only with + the Persians; and the sententious Arabs would probably have disdained the + simple and sublime logic of Demosthenes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.34" id="linknote-50.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.34">return</a>)<br /> [ I must remind the + reader that D’Arvieux, D’Herbelot, and Niebuhr, represent, in the most + lively colors, the manners and government of the Arabs, which are + illustrated by many incidental passages in the Life of Mahomet. * Note: + See, likewise the curious romance of Antar, the most vivid and authentic + picture of Arabian manners.—M.] + </p> + <p> + In the study of nations and men, we may observe the causes that render + them hostile or friendly to each other, that tend to narrow or enlarge, to + mollify or exasperate, the social character. The separation of the Arabs + from the rest of mankind has accustomed them to confound the ideas of + stranger and enemy; and the poverty of the land has introduced a maxim of + jurisprudence, which they believe and practise to the present hour. They + pretend, that, in the division of the earth, the rich and fertile climates + were assigned to the other branches of the human family; and that the + posterity of the outlaw Ismael might recover, by fraud or force, the + portion of inheritance of which he had been unjustly deprived. According + to the remark of Pliny, the Arabian tribes are equally addicted to theft + and merchandise; the caravans that traverse the desert are ransomed or + pillaged; and their neighbors, since the remote times of Job and + Sesostris, <a href="#linknote-50.35" name="linknoteref-50.35" + id="linknoteref-50.35">35</a> have been the victims of their rapacious + spirit. If a Bedoween discovers from afar a solitary traveller, he rides + furiously against him, crying, with a loud voice, “Undress thyself, thy + aunt (my wife) is without a garment.” A ready submission entitles him to + mercy; resistance will provoke the aggressor, and his own blood must + expiate the blood which he presumes to shed in legitimate defence. A + single robber, or a few associates, are branded with their genuine name; + but the exploits of a numerous band assume the character of lawful and + honorable war. The temper of a people thus armed against mankind was + doubly inflamed by the domestic license of rapine, murder, and revenge. In + the constitution of Europe, the right of peace and war is now confined to + a small, and the actual exercise to a much smaller, list of respectable + potentates; but each Arab, with impunity and renown, might point his + javelin against the life of his countrymen. The union of the nation + consisted only in a vague resemblance of language and manners; and in each + community, the jurisdiction of the magistrate was mute and impotent. Of + the time of ignorance which preceded Mahomet, seventeen hundred battles <a + href="#linknote-50.36" name="linknoteref-50.36" id="linknoteref-50.36">36</a> + are recorded by tradition: hostility was imbittered with the rancor of + civil faction; and the recital, in prose or verse, of an obsolete feud, + was sufficient to rekindle the same passions among the descendants of the + hostile tribes. In private life every man, at least every family, was the + judge and avenger of his own cause. The nice sensibility of honor, which + weighs the insult rather than the injury, sheds its deadly venom on the + quarrels of the Arabs: the honor of their women, and of their beards, is + most easily wounded; an indecent action, a contemptuous word, can be + expiated only by the blood of the offender; and such is their patient + inveteracy, that they expect whole months and years the opportunity of + revenge. A fine or compensation for murder is familiar to the Barbarians + of every age: but in Arabia the kinsmen of the dead are at liberty to + accept the atonement, or to exercise with their own hands the law of + retaliation. The refined malice of the Arabs refuses even the head of the + murderer, substitutes an innocent for the guilty person, and transfers the + penalty to the best and most considerable of the race by whom they have + been injured. If he falls by their hands, they are exposed, in their turn, + to the danger of reprisals, the interest and principal of the bloody debt + are accumulated: the individuals of either family lead a life of malice + and suspicion, and fifty years may sometimes elapse before the account of + vengeance be finally settled. <a href="#linknote-50.37" + name="linknoteref-50.37" id="linknoteref-50.37">37</a> This sanguinary + spirit, ignorant of pity or forgiveness, has been moderated, however, by + the maxims of honor, which require in every private encounter some decent + equality of age and strength, of numbers and weapons. An annual festival + of two, perhaps of four, months, was observed by the Arabs before the time + of Mahomet, during which their swords were religiously sheathed both in + foreign and domestic hostility; and this partial truce is more strongly + expressive of the habits of anarchy and warfare. <a href="#linknote-50.38" + name="linknoteref-50.38" id="linknoteref-50.38">38</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.35" id="linknote-50.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.35">return</a>)<br /> [ Observe the first + chapter of Job, and the long wall of 1500 stadia which Sesostris built + from Pelusium to Heliopolis, (Diodor. Sicul. tom. i. l. i. p. 67.) Under + the name of Hycsos, the shepherd kings, they had formerly subdued Egypt, + (Marsham, Canon. Chron. p. 98-163) &c.) * Note: This origin of the + Hycsos, though probable, is by no means so certain here is some reason for + supposing them Scythians.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.36" id="linknote-50.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.36">return</a>)<br /> [ Or, according to + another account, 1200, (D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 75: ) the + two historians who wrote of the Ayam al Arab, the battles of the Arabs, + lived in the 9th and 10th century. The famous war of Dahes and Gabrah was + occasioned by two horses, lasted forty years, and ended in a proverb, + (Pocock, Specimen, p. 48.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.37" id="linknote-50.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.37">return</a>)<br /> [ The modern theory and + practice of the Arabs in the revenge of murder are described by Niebuhr, + (Description, p. 26-31.) The harsher features of antiquity may be traced + in the Koran, c. 2, p. 20, c. 17, p. 230, with Sale’s Observations.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.38" id="linknote-50.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.38">return</a>)<br /> [ Procopius (de Bell. + Persic. l. i. c. 16) places the two holy months about the summer solstice. + The Arabians consecrate four months of the year—the first, seventh, + eleventh, and twelfth; and pretend, that in a long series of ages the + truce was infringed only four or six times, (Sale’s Preliminary Discourse, + p. 147-150, and Notes on the ixth chapter of the Koran, p. 154, &c. + Casiri, Bibliot. Hispano-Arabica, tom. ii. p. 20, 21.)] + </p> + <p> + But the spirit of rapine and revenge was attempered by the milder + influence of trade and literature. The solitary peninsula is encompassed + by the most civilized nations of the ancient world; the merchant is the + friend of mankind; and the annual caravans imported the first seeds of + knowledge and politeness into the cities, and even the camps of the + desert. Whatever may be the pedigree of the Arabs, their language is + derived from the same original stock with the Hebrew, the Syriac, and the + Chaldaean tongues; the independence of the tribes was marked by their + peculiar dialects; <a href="#linknote-50.39" name="linknoteref-50.39" + id="linknoteref-50.39">39</a> but each, after their own, allowed a just + preference to the pure and perspicuous idiom of Mecca. In Arabia, as well + as in Greece, the perfection of language outstripped the refinement of + manners; and her speech could diversify the fourscore names of honey, the + two hundred of a serpent, the five hundred of a lion, the thousand of a + sword, at a time when this copious dictionary was intrusted to the memory + of an illiterate people. The monuments of the Homerites were inscribed + with an obsolete and mysterious character; but the Cufic letters, the + groundwork of the present alphabet, were invented on the banks of the + Euphrates; and the recent invention was taught at Mecca by a stranger who + settled in that city after the birth of Mahomet. The arts of grammar, of + metre, and of rhetoric, were unknown to the freeborn eloquence of the + Arabians; but their penetration was sharp, their fancy luxuriant, their + wit strong and sententious, <a href="#linknote-50.40" + name="linknoteref-50.40" id="linknoteref-50.40">40</a> and their more + elaborate compositions were addressed with energy and effect to the minds + of their hearers. The genius and merit of a rising poet was celebrated by + the applause of his own and the kindred tribes. A solemn banquet was + prepared, and a chorus of women, striking their tymbals, and displaying + the pomp of their nuptials, sung in the presence of their sons and + husbands the felicity of their native tribe; that a champion had now + appeared to vindicate their rights; that a herald had raised his voice to + immortalize their renown. The distant or hostile tribes resorted to an + annual fair, which was abolished by the fanaticism of the first Moslems; a + national assembly that must have contributed to refine and harmonize the + Barbarians. Thirty days were employed in the exchange, not only of corn + and wine, but of eloquence and poetry. The prize was disputed by the + generous emulation of the bards; the victorious performance was deposited + in the archives of princes and emirs; and we may read in our own language, + the seven original poems which were inscribed in letters of gold, and + suspended in the temple of Mecca. <a href="#linknote-50.41" + name="linknoteref-50.41" id="linknoteref-50.41">41</a> The Arabian poets + were the historians and moralists of the age; and if they sympathized with + the prejudices, they inspired and crowned the virtues, of their + countrymen. The indissoluble union of generosity and valor was the darling + theme of their song; and when they pointed their keenest satire against a + despicable race, they affirmed, in the bitterness of reproach, that the + men knew not how to give, nor the women to deny. <a href="#linknote-50.42" + name="linknoteref-50.42" id="linknoteref-50.42">42</a> The same hospitality, + which was practised by Abraham, and celebrated by Homer, is still renewed + in the camps of the Arabs. The ferocious Bedoweens, the terror of the + desert, embrace, without inquiry or hesitation, the stranger who dares to + confide in their honor and to enter their tent. His treatment is kind and + respectful: he shares the wealth, or the poverty, of his host; and, after + a needful repose, he is dismissed on his way, with thanks, with blessings, + and perhaps with gifts. The heart and hand are more largely expanded by + the wants of a brother or a friend; but the heroic acts that could deserve + the public applause, must have surpassed the narrow measure of discretion + and experience. A dispute had arisen, who, among the citizens of Mecca, + was entitled to the prize of generosity; and a successive application was + made to the three who were deemed most worthy of the trial. Abdallah, the + son of Abbas, had undertaken a distant journey, and his foot was in the + stirrup when he heard the voice of a suppliant, “O son of the uncle of the + apostle of God, I am a traveller, and in distress!” He instantly + dismounted to present the pilgrim with his camel, her rich caparison, and + a purse of four thousand pieces of gold, excepting only the sword, either + for its intrinsic value, or as the gift of an honored kinsman. The servant + of Kais informed the second suppliant that his master was asleep: but he + immediately added, “Here is a purse of seven thousand pieces of gold, (it + is all we have in the house,) and here is an order, that will entitle you + to a camel and a slave;” the master, as soon as he awoke, praised and + enfranchised his faithful steward, with a gentle reproof, that by + respecting his slumbers he had stinted his bounty. The third of these + heroes, the blind Arabah, at the hour of prayer, was supporting his steps + on the shoulders of two slaves. “Alas!” he replied, “my coffers are empty! + but these you may sell; if you refuse, I renounce them.” At these words, + pushing away the youths, he groped along the wall with his staff. + </p> + <p> + The character of Hatem is the perfect model of Arabian virtue: <a + href="#linknote-50.43" name="linknoteref-50.43" id="linknoteref-50.43">43</a> + he was brave and liberal, an eloquent poet, and a successful robber; forty + camels were roasted at his hospitable feast; and at the prayer of a + suppliant enemy he restored both the captives and the spoil. The freedom + of his countrymen disdained the laws of justice; they proudly indulged the + spontaneous impulse of pity and benevolence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.39" id="linknote-50.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.39">return</a>)<br /> [ Arrian, in the second + century, remarks (in Periplo Maris Erythraei, p. 12) the partial or total + difference of the dialects of the Arabs. Their language and letters are + copiously treated by Pocock, (Specimen, p. 150-154,) Casiri, (Bibliot. + Hispano-Arabica, tom. i. p. 1, 83, 292, tom. ii. p. 25, &c.,) and + Niebuhr, (Description de l’Arabie, p. 72-36) I pass slightly; I am not + fond of repeating words like a parrot.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.40" id="linknote-50.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.40">return</a>)<br /> [ A familiar tale in + Voltaire’s Zadig (le Chien et le Cheval) is related, to prove the natural + sagacity of the Arabs, (D’Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 120, 121. Gagnier, + Vie de Mahomet, tom. i. p. 37-46: ) but D’Arvieux, or rather La Roque, + (Voyage de Palestine, p. 92,) denies the boasted superiority of the + Bedoweens. The one hundred and sixty-nine sentences of Ali (translated by + Ockley, London, 1718) afford a just and favorable specimen of Arabian wit. + * Note: Compare the Arabic proverbs translated by Burckhardt. London. 1830—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.41" id="linknote-50.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.41">return</a>)<br /> [ Pocock (Specimen, p. + 158-161) and Casiri (Bibliot. Hispano-Arabica, tom. i. p. 48, 84, &c., + 119, tom. ii. p. 17, &c.) speak of the Arabian poets before Mahomet; + the seven poems of the Caaba have been published in English by Sir William + Jones; but his honorable mission to India has deprived us of his own + notes, far more interesting than the obscure and obsolete text.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.42" id="linknote-50.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.42">return</a>)<br /> [ Sale’s Preliminary + Discourse, p. 29, 30] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.43" id="linknote-50.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.43">return</a>)<br /> [ D’Herbelot, Bibliot. + Orient. p. 458. Gagnier, Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. 118. Caab and Hesnus + (Pocock, Specimen, p. 43, 46, 48) were likewise conspicuous for their + liberality; and the latter is elegantly praised by an Arabian poet: + “Videbis eum cum accesseris exultantem, ac si dares illi quod ab illo + petis.” * Note: See the translation of the amusing Persian romance of + Hatim Tai, by Duncan Forbes, Esq., among the works published by the + Oriental Translation Fund.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The religion of the Arabs, <a href="#linknote-50.44" name="linknoteref-50.44" + id="linknoteref-50.44">44</a> as well as of the Indians, consisted in the + worship of the sun, the moon, and the fixed stars; a primitive and + specious mode of superstition. The bright luminaries of the sky display + the visible image of a Deity: their number and distance convey to a + philosophic, or even a vulgar, eye, the idea of boundless space: the + character of eternity is marked on these solid globes, that seem incapable + of corruption or decay: the regularity of their motions may be ascribed to + a principle of reason or instinct; and their real, or imaginary, influence + encourages the vain belief that the earth and its inhabitants are the + object of their peculiar care. The science of astronomy was cultivated at + Babylon; but the school of the Arabs was a clear firmament and a naked + plain. In their nocturnal marches, they steered by the guidance of the + stars: their names, and order, and daily station, were familiar to the + curiosity and devotion of the Bedoween; and he was taught by experience to + divide, in twenty-eight parts, the zodiac of the moon, and to bless the + constellations who refreshed, with salutary rains, the thirst of the + desert. The reign of the heavenly orbs could not be extended beyond the + visible sphere; and some metaphysical powers were necessary to sustain the + transmigration of souls and the resurrection of bodies: a camel was left + to perish on the grave, that he might serve his master in another life; + and the invocation of departed spirits implies that they were still + endowed with consciousness and power. I am ignorant, and I am careless, of + the blind mythology of the Barbarians; of the local deities, of the stars, + the air, and the earth, of their sex or titles, their attributes or + subordination. Each tribe, each family, each independent warrior, created + and changed the rites and the object of his fantastic worship; but the + nation, in every age, has bowed to the religion, as well as to the + language, of Mecca. The genuine antiquity of the Caaba ascends beyond the + Christian aera; in describing the coast of the Red Sea, the Greek + historian Diodorus <a href="#linknote-50.45" name="linknoteref-50.45" + id="linknoteref-50.45">45</a> has remarked, between the Thamudites and the + Sabaeans, a famous temple, whose superior sanctity was revered by all the + Arabians; the linen or silken veil, which is annually renewed by the + Turkish emperor, was first offered by a pious king of the Homerites, who + reigned seven hundred years before the time of Mahomet. <a + href="#linknote-50.46" name="linknoteref-50.46" id="linknoteref-50.46">46</a> + A tent, or a cavern, might suffice for the worship of the savages, but an + edifice of stone and clay has been erected in its place; and the art and + power of the monarchs of the East have been confined to the simplicity of + the original model. <a href="#linknote-50.47" name="linknoteref-50.47" + id="linknoteref-50.47">47</a> A spacious portico encloses the quadrangle of + the Caaba; a square chapel, twenty-four cubits long, twenty-three broad, + and twenty-seven high: a door and a window admit the light; the double + roof is supported by three pillars of wood; a spout (now of gold) + discharges the rain-water, and the well Zemzen is protected by a dome from + accidental pollution. The tribe of Koreish, by fraud and force, had + acquired the custody of the Caaba: the sacerdotal office devolved through + four lineal descents to the grandfather of Mahomet; and the family of the + Hashemites, from whence he sprung, was the most respectable and sacred in + the eyes of their country. <a href="#linknote-50.48" name="linknoteref-50.48" + id="linknoteref-50.48">48</a> The precincts of Mecca enjoyed the rights of + sanctuary; and, in the last month of each year, the city and the temple + were crowded with a long train of pilgrims, who presented their vows and + offerings in the house of God. The same rites which are now accomplished + by the faithful Mussulman, were invented and practised by the superstition + of the idolaters. At an awful distance they cast away their garments: + seven times, with hasty steps, they encircled the Caaba, and kissed the + black stone: seven times they visited and adored the adjacent mountains; + seven times they threw stones into the valley of Mina; and the pilgrimage + was achieved, as at the present hour, by a sacrifice of sheep and camels, + and the burial of their hair and nails in the consecrated ground. Each + tribe either found or introduced in the Caaba their domestic worship: the + temple was adorned, or defiled, with three hundred and sixty idols of men, + eagles, lions, and antelopes; and most conspicuous was the statue of + Hebal, of red agate, holding in his hand seven arrows, without heads or + feathers, the instruments and symbols of profane divination. But this + statue was a monument of Syrian arts: the devotion of the ruder ages was + content with a pillar or a tablet; and the rocks of the desert were hewn + into gods or altars, in imitation of the black stone <a + href="#linknote-50.49" name="linknoteref-50.49" id="linknoteref-50.49">49</a> + of Mecca, which is deeply tainted with the reproach of an idolatrous + origin. From Japan to Peru, the use of sacrifice has universally + prevailed; and the votary has expressed his gratitude, or fear, by + destroying or consuming, in honor of the gods, the dearest and most + precious of their gifts. The life of a man <a href="#linknote-50.50" + name="linknoteref-50.50" id="linknoteref-50.50">50</a> is the most precious + oblation to deprecate a public calamity: the altars of Phoenicia and + Egypt, of Rome and Carthage, have been polluted with human gore: the cruel + practice was long preserved among the Arabs; in the third century, a boy + was annually sacrificed by the tribe of the Dumatians; <a + href="#linknote-50.51" name="linknoteref-50.51" id="linknoteref-50.51">51</a> + and a royal captive was piously slaughtered by the prince of the Saracens, + the ally and soldier of the emperor Justinian. <a href="#linknote-50.52" + name="linknoteref-50.52" id="linknoteref-50.52">52</a> A parent who drags + his son to the altar, exhibits the most painful and sublime effort of + fanaticism: the deed, or the intention, was sanctified by the example of + saints and heroes; and the father of Mahomet himself was devoted by a rash + vow, and hardly ransomed for the equivalent of a hundred camels. In the + time of ignorance, the Arabs, like the Jews and Egyptians, abstained from + the taste of swine’s flesh; <a href="#linknote-50.53" + name="linknoteref-50.53" id="linknoteref-50.53">53</a> they circumcised <a + href="#linknote-50.54" name="linknoteref-50.54" id="linknoteref-50.54">54</a> + their children at the age of puberty: the same customs, without the + censure or the precept of the Koran, have been silently transmitted to + their posterity and proselytes. It has been sagaciously conjectured, that + the artful legislator indulged the stubborn prejudices of his countrymen. + It is more simple to believe that he adhered to the habits and opinions of + his youth, without foreseeing that a practice congenial to the climate of + Mecca might become useless or inconvenient on the banks of the Danube or + the Volga. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.44" id="linknote-50.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.44">return</a>)<br /> [ Whatever can now be + known of the idolatry of the ancient Arabians may be found in Pocock, + (Specimen, p. 89-136, 163, 164.) His profound erudition is more clearly + and concisely interpreted by Sale, (Preliminary Discourse, p. 14-24;) and + Assemanni (Bibliot. Orient tom. iv. p. 580-590) has added some valuable + remarks.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.45" id="linknote-50.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.45">return</a>)<br /> [ (Diodor. Sicul. tom. i. + l. iii. p. 211.) The character and position are so correctly apposite, + that I am surprised how this curious passage should have been read without + notice or application. Yet this famous temple had been overlooked by + Agatharcides, (de Mari Rubro, p. 58, in Hudson, tom. i.,) whom Diodorus + copies in the rest of the description. Was the Sicilian more knowing than + the Egyptian? Or was the Caaba built between the years of Rome 650 and + 746, the dates of their respective histories? (Dodwell, in Dissert. ad + tom. i. Hudson, p. 72. Fabricius, Bibliot. Graec. tom. ii. p. 770.) * + Note: Mr. Forster (Geography of Arabia, vol. ii. p. 118, et seq.) has + raised an objection, as I think, fatal to this hypothesis of Gibbon. The + temple, situated in the country of the Banizomeneis, was not between the + Thamudites and the Sabaeans, but higher up than the coast inhabited by the + former. Mr. Forster would place it as far north as Moiiah. I am not quite + satisfied that this will agree with the whole description of Diodorus—M. + 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.46" id="linknote-50.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.46">return</a>)<br /> [ Pocock, Specimen, p. + 60, 61. From the death of Mahomet we ascend to 68, from his birth to 129, + years before the Christian aera. The veil or curtain, which is now of silk + and gold, was no more than a piece of Egyptian linen, (Abulfeda, in Vit. + Mohammed. c. 6, p. 14.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.47" id="linknote-50.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.47">return</a>)<br /> [ The original plan of + the Caaba (which is servilely copied in Sale, the Universal History, &c.) + was a Turkish draught, which Reland (de Religione Mohammedica, p. 113-123) + has corrected and explained from the best authorities. For the description + and legend of the Caaba, consult Pocock, (Specimen, p. 115-122,) the + Bibliotheque Orientale of D’Herbelot, (Caaba, Hagir, Zemzem, &c.,) and + Sale (Preliminary Discourse, p. 114-122.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.48" id="linknote-50.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.48">return</a>)<br /> [ Cosa, the fifth + ancestor of Mahomet, must have usurped the Caaba A.D. 440; but the story + is differently told by Jannabi, (Gagnier, Vie de Mahomet, tom. i. p. + 65-69,) and by Abulfeda, (in Vit. Moham. c. 6, p. 13.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.49" id="linknote-50.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.49">return</a>)<br /> [ In the second century, + Maximus of Tyre attributes to the Arabs the worship of a stone, (Dissert. + viii. tom. i. p. 142, edit. Reiske;) and the reproach is furiously + reechoed by the Christians, (Clemens Alex. in Protreptico, p. 40. Arnobius + contra Gentes, l. vi. p. 246.) Yet these stones were no other than of + Syria and Greece, so renowned in sacred and profane antiquity, (Euseb. + Praep. Evangel. l. i. p. 37. Marsham, Canon. Chron. p. 54-56.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.50" id="linknote-50.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.50">return</a>)<br /> [ The two horrid subjects + are accurately discussed by the learned Sir John Marsham, (Canon. Chron. + p. 76-78, 301-304.) Sanchoniatho derives the Phoenician sacrifices from + the example of Chronus; but we are ignorant whether Chronus lived before, + or after, Abraham, or indeed whether he lived at all.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.51" id="linknote-50.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.51">return</a>)<br /> [ The reproach of + Porphyry; but he likewise imputes to the Roman the same barbarous custom, + which, A. U. C. 657, had been finally abolished. Dumaetha, Daumat al + Gendai, is noticed by Ptolemy (Tabul. p. 37, Arabia, p. 9-29) and + Abulfeda, (p. 57,) and may be found in D’Anville’s maps, in the mid-desert + between Chaibar and Tadmor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.52" id="linknote-50.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.52">return</a>)<br /> [ Prcoopius, (de Bell. + Persico, l. i. c. 28,) Evagrius, (l. vi. c. 21,) and Pocock, (Specimen, p. + 72, 86,) attest the human sacrifices of the Arabs in the vith century. The + danger and escape of Abdallah is a tradition rather than a fact, (Gagnier, + Vie de Mahomet, tom. i. p. 82-84.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.53" id="linknote-50.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.53">return</a>)<br /> [ Suillis carnibus + abstinent, says Solinus, (Polyhistor. c. 33,) who copies Pliny (l. viii. + c. 68) in the strange supposition, that hogs can not live in Arabia. The + Egyptians were actuated by a natural and superstitious horror for that + unclean beast, (Marsham, Canon. p. 205.) The old Arabians likewise + practised, post coitum, the rite of ablution, (Herodot. l. i. c. 80,) + which is sanctified by the Mahometan law, (Reland, p. 75, &c., + Chardin, or rather the Mollah of Shah Abbas, tom. iv. p. 71, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.54" id="linknote-50.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.54">return</a>)<br /> [ The Mahometan doctors + are not fond of the subject; yet they hold circumcision necessary to + salvation, and even pretend that Mahomet was miraculously born without a + foreskin, (Pocock, Specimen, p. 319, 320. Sale’s Preliminary Discourse, p. + 106, 107.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap50.3"></a> + Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + Arabia was free: the adjacent kingdoms were shaken by the storms of + conquest and tyranny, and the persecuted sects fled to the happy land + where they might profess what they thought, and practise what they + professed. The religions of the Sabians and Magians, of the Jews and + Christians, were disseminated from the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea. In a + remote period of antiquity, Sabianism was diffused over Asia by the + science of the Chaldaeans <a href="#linknote-50.55" name="linknoteref-50.55" + id="linknoteref-50.55">55</a> and the arms of the Assyrians. From the + observations of two thousand years, the priests and astronomers of Babylon + <a href="#linknote-50.56" name="linknoteref-50.56" id="linknoteref-50.56">56</a> + deduced the eternal laws of nature and providence. They adored the seven + gods or angels, who directed the course of the seven planets, and shed + their irresistible influence on the earth. The attributes of the seven + planets, with the twelve signs of the zodiac, and the twenty-four + constellations of the northern and southern hemisphere, were represented + by images and talismans; the seven days of the week were dedicated to + their respective deities; the Sabians prayed thrice each day; and the + temple of the moon at Haran was the term of their pilgrimage. <a + href="#linknote-50.57" name="linknoteref-50.57" id="linknoteref-50.57">57</a> + But the flexible genius of their faith was always ready either to teach or + to learn: in the tradition of the creation, the deluge, and the + patriarchs, they held a singular agreement with their Jewish captives; + they appealed to the secret books of Adam, Seth, and Enoch; and a slight + infusion of the gospel has transformed the last remnant of the Polytheists + into the Christians of St. John, in the territory of Bassora. <a + href="#linknote-50.58" name="linknoteref-50.58" id="linknoteref-50.58">58</a> + The altars of Babylon were overturned by the Magians; but the injuries of + the Sabians were revenged by the sword of Alexander; Persia groaned above + five hundred years under a foreign yoke; and the purest disciples of + Zoroaster escaped from the contagion of idolatry, and breathed with their + adversaries the freedom of the desert. <a href="#linknote-50.59" + name="linknoteref-50.59" id="linknoteref-50.59">59</a> Seven hundred years + before the death of Mahomet, the Jews were settled in Arabia; and a far + greater multitude was expelled from the Holy Land in the wars of Titus and + Hadrian. The industrious exiles aspired to liberty and power: they erected + synagogues in the cities, and castles in the wilderness, and their Gentile + converts were confounded with the children of Israel, whom they resembled + in the outward mark of circumcision. The Christian missionaries were still + more active and successful: the Catholics asserted their universal reign; + the sects whom they oppressed, successively retired beyond the limits of + the Roman empire; the Marcionites and Manichaeans dispersed their + fantastic opinions and apocryphal gospels; the churches of Yemen, and the + princes of Hira and Gassan, were instructed in a purer creed by the + Jacobite and Nestorian bishops. <a href="#linknote-50.60" + name="linknoteref-50.60" id="linknoteref-50.60">60</a> The liberty of choice + was presented to the tribes: each Arab was free to elect or to compose his + private religion: and the rude superstition of his house was mingled with + the sublime theology of saints and philosophers. A fundamental article of + faith was inculcated by the consent of the learned strangers; the + existence of one supreme God who is exalted above the powers of heaven and + earth, but who has often revealed himself to mankind by the ministry of + his angels and prophets, and whose grace or justice has interrupted, by + seasonable miracles, the order of nature. The most rational of the Arabs + acknowledged his power, though they neglected his worship; <a + href="#linknote-50.61" name="linknoteref-50.61" id="linknoteref-50.61">61</a> + and it was habit rather than conviction that still attached them to the + relics of idolatry. The Jews and Christians were the people of the Book; + the Bible was already translated into the Arabic language, <a + href="#linknote-50.62" name="linknoteref-50.62" id="linknoteref-50.62">62</a> + and the volume of the Old Testament was accepted by the concord of these + implacable enemies. In the story of the Hebrew patriarchs, the Arabs were + pleased to discover the fathers of their nation. They applauded the birth + and promises of Ismael; revered the faith and virtue of Abraham; traced + his pedigree and their own to the creation of the first man, and imbibed, + with equal credulity, the prodigies of the holy text, and the dreams and + traditions of the Jewish rabbis. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.55" id="linknote-50.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.55">return</a>)<br /> [ Diodorus Siculus (tom. + i. l. ii. p. 142-145) has cast on their religion the curious but + superficial glance of a Greek. Their astronomy would be far more valuable: + they had looked through the telescope of reason, since they could doubt + whether the sun were in the number of the planets or of the fixed stars.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.56" id="linknote-50.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.56">return</a>)<br /> [ Simplicius, (who quotes + Porphyry,) de Coelo, l. ii. com. xlvi p. 123, lin. 18, apud Marsham, + Canon. Chron. p. 474, who doubts the fact, because it is adverse to his + systems. The earliest date of the Chaldaean observations is the year 2234 + before Christ. After the conquest of Babylon by Alexander, they were + communicated at the request of Aristotle, to the astronomer Hipparchus. + What a moment in the annals of science!] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.57" id="linknote-50.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.57">return</a>)<br /> [ Pocock, (Specimen, p. + 138-146,) Hottinger, (Hist. Orient. p. 162-203,) Hyde, (de Religione Vet. + Persarum, p. 124, 128, &c.,) D’Herbelot, (Sabi, p. 725, 726,) and + Sale, (Preliminary Discourse, p. 14, 15,) rather excite than gratify our + curiosity; and the last of these writers confounds Sabianism with the + primitive religion of the Arabs.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.58" id="linknote-50.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.58">return</a>)<br /> [ D’Anville (l’Euphrate + et le Tigre, p. 130-137) will fix the position of these ambiguous + Christians; Assemannus (Bibliot. Oriental. tom. iv. p. 607-614) may + explain their tenets. But it is a slippery task to ascertain the creed of + an ignorant people afraid and ashamed to disclose their secret traditions. + * Note: The Codex Nasiraeus, their sacred book, has been published by + Norberg whose researches contain almost all that is known of this singular + people. But their origin is almost as obscure as ever: if ancient, their + creed has been so corrupted with mysticism and Mahometanism, that its + native lineaments are very indistinct.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.59" id="linknote-50.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.59">return</a>)<br /> [ The Magi were fixed in + the province of Bhrein, (Gagnier, Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. 114,) and + mingled with the old Arabians, (Pocock, Specimen, p. 146-150.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.60" id="linknote-50.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.60">return</a>)<br /> [ The state of the Jews + and Christians in Arabia is described by Pocock from Sharestani, &c., + (Specimen, p. 60, 134, &c.,) Hottinger, (Hist. Orient. p. 212-238,) + D’Herbelot, (Bibliot. Orient. p. 474-476,) Basnage, (Hist. des Juifs, tom. + vii. p. 185, tom. viii. p. 280,) and Sale, (Preliminary Discourse, p. 22, + &c., 33, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.61" id="linknote-50.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.61">return</a>)<br /> [ In their offerings, it + was a maxim to defraud God for the profit of the idol, not a more potent, + but a more irritable, patron, (Pocock, Specimen, p. 108, 109.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.62" id="linknote-50.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.62">return</a>)<br /> [ Our versions now + extant, whether Jewish or Christian, appear more recent than the Koran; + but the existence of a prior translation may be fairly inferred,—1. + From the perpetual practice of the synagogue of expounding the Hebrew + lesson by a paraphrase in the vulgar tongue of the country; 2. From the + analogy of the Armenian, Persian, Aethiopic versions, expressly quoted by + the fathers of the fifth century, who assert that the Scriptures were + translated into all the Barbaric languages, (Walton, Prolegomena ad Biblia + Polyglot, p. 34, 93-97. Simon, Hist. Critique du V. et du N. Testament, + tom. i. p. 180, 181, 282-286, 293, 305, 306, tom. iv. p. 206.)] + </p> + <p> + The base and plebeian origin of Mahomet is an unskilful calumny of the + Christians, <a href="#linknote-50.63" name="linknoteref-50.63" + id="linknoteref-50.63">63</a> who exalt instead of degrading the merit of + their adversary. His descent from Ismael was a national privilege or + fable; but if the first steps of the pedigree <a href="#linknote-50.64" + name="linknoteref-50.64" id="linknoteref-50.64">64</a> are dark and + doubtful, he could produce many generations of pure and genuine nobility: + he sprung from the tribe of Koreish and the family of Hashem, the most + illustrious of the Arabs, the princes of Mecca, and the hereditary + guardians of the Caaba. The grandfather of Mahomet was Abdol Motalleb, the + son of Hashem, a wealthy and generous citizen, who relieved the distress + of famine with the supplies of commerce. Mecca, which had been fed by the + liberality of the father, was saved by the courage of the son. The kingdom + of Yemen was subject to the Christian princes of Abyssinia; their vassal + Abrahah was provoked by an insult to avenge the honor of the cross; and + the holy city was invested by a train of elephants and an army of + Africans. A treaty was proposed; and, in the first audience, the + grandfather of Mahomet demanded the restitution of his cattle. “And why,” + said Abrahah, “do you not rather implore my clemency in favor of your + temple, which I have threatened to destroy?” “Because,” replied the + intrepid chief, “the cattle is my own; the Caaba belongs to the gods, and + they will defend their house from injury and sacrilege.” The want of + provisions, or the valor of the Koreish, compelled the Abyssinians to a + disgraceful retreat: their discomfiture has been adorned with a miraculous + flight of birds, who showered down stones on the heads of the infidels; + and the deliverance was long commemorated by the aera of the elephant. <a + href="#linknote-50.65" name="linknoteref-50.65" id="linknoteref-50.65">65</a> + The glory of Abdol Motalleb was crowned with domestic happiness; his life + was prolonged to the age of one hundred and ten years; and he became the + father of six daughters and thirteen sons. His best beloved Abdallah was + the most beautiful and modest of the Arabian youth; and in the first + night, when he consummated his marriage with Amina, <a + href="#linknote-50.651" name="linknoteref-50.651" id="linknoteref-50.651">651</a> + of the noble race of the Zahrites, two hundred virgins are said to have + expired of jealousy and despair. Mahomet, or more properly Mohammed, the + only son of Abdallah and Amina, was born at Mecca, four years after the + death of Justinian, and two months after the defeat of the Abyssinians, <a + href="#linknote-50.66" name="linknoteref-50.66" id="linknoteref-50.66">66</a> + whose victory would have introduced into the Caaba the religion of the + Christians. In his early infancy, he was deprived of his father, his + mother, and his grandfather; his uncles were strong and numerous; and, in + the division of the inheritance, the orphan’s share was reduced to five + camels and an Aethiopian maid-servant. At home and abroad, in peace and + war, Abu Taleb, the most respectable of his uncles, was the guide and + guardian of his youth; in his twenty-fifth year, he entered into the + service of Cadijah, a rich and noble widow of Mecca, who soon rewarded his + fidelity with the gift of her hand and fortune. The marriage contract, in + the simple style of antiquity, recites the mutual love of Mahomet and + Cadijah; describes him as the most accomplished of the tribe of Koreish; + and stipulates a dowry of twelve ounces of gold and twenty camels, which + was supplied by the liberality of his uncle. <a href="#linknote-50.67" + name="linknoteref-50.67" id="linknoteref-50.67">67</a> By this alliance, the + son of Abdallah was restored to the station of his ancestors; and the + judicious matron was content with his domestic virtues, till, in the + fortieth year of his age, <a href="#linknote-50.68" name="linknoteref-50.68" + id="linknoteref-50.68">68</a> he assumed the title of a prophet, and + proclaimed the religion of the Koran. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.63" id="linknote-50.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.63">return</a>)<br /> [ In eo conveniunt omnes, + ut plebeio vilique genere ortum, &c, (Hottinger, Hist. Orient. p. + 136.) Yet Theophanes, the most ancient of the Greeks, and the father of + many a lie, confesses that Mahomet was of the race of Ismael, + (Chronograph. p. 277.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.64" id="linknote-50.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulfeda (in Vit. + Mohammed. c. 1, 2) and Gagnier (Vie de Mahomet, p. 25-97) describe the + popular and approved genealogy of the prophet. At Mecca, I would not + dispute its authenticity: at Lausanne, I will venture to observe, 1. That + from Ismael to Mahomet, a period of 2500 years, they reckon thirty, + instead of seventy five, generations: 2. That the modern Bedoweens are + ignorant of their history, and careless of their pedigree, (Voyage de + D’Arvieux p. 100, 103.) * Note: The most orthodox Mahometans only reckon + back the ancestry of the prophet for twenty generations, to Adnan. Weil, + Mohammed der Prophet, p. 1.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.65" id="linknote-50.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.65">return</a>)<br /> [ The seed of this + history, or fable, is contained in the cvth chapter of the Koran; and + Gagnier (in Praefat. ad Vit. Moham. p. 18, &c.) has translated the + historical narrative of Abulfeda, which may be illustrated from D’Herbelot + (Bibliot. Orientale, p. 12) and Pocock, (Specimen, p. 64.) Prideaux (Life + of Mahomet, p. 48) calls it a lie of the coinage of Mahomet; but Sale, + (Koran, p. 501-503,) who is half a Mussulman, attacks the inconsistent + faith of the Doctor for believing the miracles of the Delphic Apollo. + Maracci (Alcoran, tom. i. part ii. p. 14, tom. ii. p. 823) ascribes the + miracle to the devil, and extorts from the Mahometans the confession, that + God would not have defended against the Christians the idols of the Caaba. + * Note: Dr. Weil says that the small-pox broke out in the army of Abrahah, + but he does not give his authority, p. 10.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.651" id="linknote-50.651"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 651 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.651">return</a>)<br /> [ Amina, or Emina, was + of Jewish birth. V. Hammer, Geschichte der Assass. p. 10.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.66" id="linknote-50.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.66">return</a>)<br /> [ The safest aeras of + Abulfeda, (in Vit. c. i. p. 2,) of Alexander, or the Greeks, 882, of Bocht + Naser, or Nabonassar, 1316, equally lead us to the year 569. The old + Arabian calendar is too dark and uncertain to support the Benedictines, + (Art. de Verifer les Dates, p. 15,) who, from the day of the month and + week, deduce a new mode of calculation, and remove the birth of Mahomet to + the year of Christ 570, the 10th of November. Yet this date would agree + with the year 882 of the Greeks, which is assigned by Elmacin (Hist. + Saracen. p. 5) and Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 101, and Errata, Pocock’s + version.) While we refine our chronology, it is possible that the + illiterate prophet was ignorant of his own age. * Note: The date of the + birth of Mahomet is not yet fixed with precision. It is only known from + Oriental authors that he was born on a Monday, the 10th Reby 1st, the + third month of the Mahometan year; the year 40 or 42 of Chosroes + Nushirvan, king of Persia; the year 881 of the Seleucidan aera; the year + 1316 of the aera of Nabonassar. This leaves the point undecided between + the years 569, 570, 571, of J. C. See the Memoir of M. Silv. de Sacy, on + divers events in the history of the Arabs before Mahomet, Mem. Acad. des + Loscript. vol. xlvii. p. 527, 531. St. Martin, vol. xi. p. 59.—M. + ——Dr. Weil decides on A.D. 571. Mahomet died in 632, aged 63; + but the Arabs reckoned his life by lunar years, which reduces his life + nearly to 61 (p. 21.)—M. 1845] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.67" id="linknote-50.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.67">return</a>)<br /> [ I copy the honorable + testimony of Abu Taleb to his family and nephew. Laus Dei, qui nos a + stirpe Abrahami et semine Ismaelis constituit, et nobis regionem sacram + dedit, et nos judices hominibus statuit. Porro Mohammed filius Abdollahi + nepotis mei (nepos meus) quo cum ex aequo librabitur e Koraishidis + quispiam cui non praeponderaturus est, bonitate et excellentia, et + intellectu et gloria, et acumine etsi opum inops fuerit, (et certe opes + umbra transiens sunt et depositum quod reddi debet,) desiderio Chadijae + filiae Chowailedi tenetur, et illa vicissim ipsius, quicquid autem dotis + vice petieritis, ego in me suscipiam, (Pocock, Specimen, e septima parte + libri Ebn Hamduni.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.68" id="linknote-50.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.68">return</a>)<br /> [ The private life of + Mahomet, from his birth to his mission, is preserved by Abulfeda, (in Vit. + c. 3-7,) and the Arabian writers of genuine or apocryphal note, who are + alleged by Hottinger, (Hist. Orient. p. 204-211) Maracci, (tom. i. p. + 10-14,) and Gagnier, (Vie de Mahomet, tom. i. p. 97-134.)] + </p> + <p> + According to the tradition of his companions, Mahomet <a + href="#linknote-50.69" name="linknoteref-50.69" id="linknoteref-50.69">69</a> + was distinguished by the beauty of his person, an outward gift which is + seldom despised, except by those to whom it has been refused. Before he + spoke, the orator engaged on his side the affections of a public or + private audience. They applauded his commanding presence, his majestic + aspect, his piercing eye, his gracious smile, his flowing beard, his + countenance that painted every sensation of the soul, and his gestures + that enforced each expression of the tongue. In the familiar offices of + life he scrupulously adhered to the grave and ceremonious politeness of + his country: his respectful attention to the rich and powerful was + dignified by his condescension and affability to the poorest citizens of + Mecca: the frankness of his manner concealed the artifice of his views; + and the habits of courtesy were imputed to personal friendship or + universal benevolence. His memory was capacious and retentive; his wit + easy and social; his imagination sublime; his judgment clear, rapid, and + decisive. He possessed the courage both of thought and action; and, + although his designs might gradually expand with his success, the first + idea which he entertained of his divine mission bears the stamp of an + original and superior genius. The son of Abdallah was educated in the + bosom of the noblest race, in the use of the purest dialect of Arabia; and + the fluency of his speech was corrected and enhanced by the practice of + discreet and seasonable silence. With these powers of eloquence, Mahomet + was an illiterate Barbarian: his youth had never been instructed in the + arts of reading and writing; <a href="#linknote-50.70" + name="linknoteref-50.70" id="linknoteref-50.70">70</a> the common ignorance + exempted him from shame or reproach, but he was reduced to a narrow circle + of existence, and deprived of those faithful mirrors, which reflect to our + mind the minds of sages and heroes. Yet the book of nature and of man was + open to his view; and some fancy has been indulged in the political and + philosophical observations which are ascribed to the Arabian traveller. <a + href="#linknote-50.71" name="linknoteref-50.71" id="linknoteref-50.71">71</a> + He compares the nations and the regions of the earth; discovers the + weakness of the Persian and Roman monarchies; beholds, with pity and + indignation, the degeneracy of the times; and resolves to unite under one + God and one king the invincible spirit and primitive virtues of the Arabs. + Our more accurate inquiry will suggest, that, instead of visiting the + courts, the camps, the temples, of the East, the two journeys of Mahomet + into Syria were confined to the fairs of Bostra and Damascus; that he was + only thirteen years of age when he accompanied the caravan of his uncle; + and that his duty compelled him to return as soon as he had disposed of + the merchandise of Cadijah. In these hasty and superficial excursions, the + eye of genius might discern some objects invisible to his grosser + companions; some seeds of knowledge might be cast upon a fruitful soil; + but his ignorance of the Syriac language must have checked his curiosity; + and I cannot perceive, in the life or writings of Mahomet, that his + prospect was far extended beyond the limits of the Arabian world. From + every region of that solitary world, the pilgrims of Mecca were annually + assembled, by the calls of devotion and commerce: in the free concourse of + multitudes, a simple citizen, in his native tongue, might study the + political state and character of the tribes, the theory and practice of + the Jews and Christians. Some useful strangers might be tempted, or + forced, to implore the rights of hospitality; and the enemies of Mahomet + have named the Jew, the Persian, and the Syrian monk, whom they accuse of + lending their secret aid to the composition of the Koran. <a + href="#linknote-50.72" name="linknoteref-50.72" id="linknoteref-50.72">72</a> + Conversation enriches the understanding, but solitude is the school of + genius; and the uniformity of a work denotes the hand of a single artist. + From his earliest youth Mahomet was addicted to religious contemplation; + each year, during the month of Ramadan, he withdrew from the world, and + from the arms of Cadijah: in the cave of Hera, three miles from Mecca, <a + href="#linknote-50.73" name="linknoteref-50.73" id="linknoteref-50.73">73</a> + he consulted the spirit of fraud or enthusiasm, whose abode is not in the + heavens, but in the mind of the prophet. The faith which, under the name + of Islam, he preached to his family and nation, is compounded of an + eternal truth, and a necessary fiction, That there is only one God, and + that Mahomet is the apostle of God. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.69" id="linknote-50.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.69">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulfeda, in Vit. c. + lxv. lxvi. Gagnier, Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. 272-289. The best + traditions of the person and conversation of the prophet are derived from + Ayesha, Ali, and Abu Horaira, (Gagnier, tom. ii. p. 267. Ockley’s Hist. of + the Saracens, vol. ii. p. 149,) surnamed the Father of a Cat, who died in + the year 59 of the Hegira. * Note: Compare, likewise, the new Life of + Mahomet (Mohammed der prophet) by Dr. Weil, (Stuttgart, 1843.) Dr. Weil + has a new tradition, that Mahomet was at one time a shepherd. This + assimilation to the life of Moses, instead of giving probability to the + story, as Dr. Weil suggests, makes it more suspicious. Note, p. 34.—M. + 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.70" id="linknote-50.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.70">return</a>)<br /> [ Those who believe that + Mahomet could read or write are incapable of reading what is written with + another pen, in the Suras, or chapters of the Koran, vii. xxix. xcvi. + These texts, and the tradition of the Sonna, are admitted, without doubt, + by Abulfeda, (in Vit. vii.,) Gagnier, (Not. ad Abulfed. p. 15,) Pocock, + (Specimen, p. 151,) Reland, (de Religione Mohammedica, p. 236,) and Sale, + (Preliminary Discourse, p. 42.) Mr. White, almost alone, denies the + ignorance, to accuse the imposture, of the prophet. His arguments are far + from satisfactory. Two short trading journeys to the fairs of Syria were + surely not sufficient to infuse a science so rare among the citizens of + Mecca: it was not in the cool, deliberate act of treaty, that Mahomet + would have dropped the mask; nor can any conclusion be drawn from the + words of disease and delirium. The lettered youth, before he aspired to + the prophetic character, must have often exercised, in private life, the + arts of reading and writing; and his first converts, of his own family, + would have been the first to detect and upbraid his scandalous hypocrisy, + (White’s Sermons, p. 203, 204, Notes, p. xxxvi.—xxxviii.) * Note: + (Academ. des Inscript. I. p. 295) has observed that the text of the seveth + Sura implies that Mahomet could read, the tradition alone denies it, and, + according to Dr. Weil, (p. 46,) there is another reading of the tradition, + that “he could not read well.” Dr. Weil is not quite so successful in + explaining away Sura xxix. It means, he thinks that he had not read any + books, from which he could have borrowed.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.71" id="linknote-50.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.71">return</a>)<br /> [ The count de + Boulainvilliers (Vie de Mahomet, p. 202-228) leads his Arabian pupil, like + the Telemachus of Fenelon, or the Cyrus of Ramsay. His journey to the + court of Persia is probably a fiction nor can I trace the origin of his + exclamation, “Les Grecs sont pour tant des hommes.” The two Syrian + journeys are expressed by almost all the Arabian writers, both Mahometans + and Christians, (Gagnier Abulfed. p. 10.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.72" id="linknote-50.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.72">return</a>)<br /> [ I am not at leisure to + pursue the fables or conjectures which name the strangers accused or + suspected by the infidels of Mecca, (Koran, c. 16, p. 223, c. 35, p. 297, + with Sale’s Remarks. Prideaux’s Life of Mahomet, p. 22-27. Gagnier, Not. + ad Abulfed. p. 11, 74. Maracci, tom. ii. p. 400.) Even Prideaux has + observed, that the transaction must have been secret, and that the scene + lay in the heart of Arabia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.73" id="linknote-50.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.73">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulfeda in Vit. c. 7, + p. 15. Gagnier, tom. i. p. 133, 135. The situation of Mount Hera is + remarked by Abulfeda (Geograph. Arab p. 4.) Yet Mahomet had never read of + the cave of Egeria, ubi nocturnae Numa constituebat amicae, of the Idaean + Mount, where Minos conversed with Jove, &c.] + </p> + <p> + It is the boast of the Jewish apologists, that while the learned nations + of antiquity were deluded by the fables of polytheism, their simple + ancestors of Palestine preserved the knowledge and worship of the true + God. The moral attributes of Jehovah may not easily be reconciled with the + standard of human virtue: his metaphysical qualities are darkly expressed; + but each page of the Pentateuch and the Prophets is an evidence of his + power: the unity of his name is inscribed on the first table of the law; + and his sanctuary was never defiled by any visible image of the invisible + essence. After the ruin of the temple, the faith of the Hebrew exiles was + purified, fixed, and enlightened, by the spiritual devotion of the + synagogue; and the authority of Mahomet will not justify his perpetual + reproach, that the Jews of Mecca or Medina adored Ezra as the son of God. + <a href="#linknote-50.74" name="linknoteref-50.74" id="linknoteref-50.74">74</a> + But the children of Israel had ceased to be a people; and the religions of + the world were guilty, at least in the eyes of the prophet, of giving + sons, or daughters, or companions, to the supreme God. In the rude + idolatry of the Arabs, the crime is manifest and audacious: the Sabians + are poorly excused by the preeminence of the first planet, or + intelligence, in their celestial hierarchy; and in the Magian system the + conflict of the two principles betrays the imperfection of the conqueror. + The Christians of the seventh century had insensibly relapsed into a + semblance of Paganism: their public and private vows were addressed to the + relics and images that disgraced the temples of the East: the throne of + the Almighty was darkened by a cloud of martyrs, and saints, and angels, + the objects of popular veneration; and the Collyridian heretics, who + flourished in the fruitful soil of Arabia, invested the Virgin Mary with + the name and honors of a goddess. <a href="#linknote-50.75" + name="linknoteref-50.75" id="linknoteref-50.75">75</a> The mysteries of the + Trinity and Incarnation appear to contradict the principle of the divine + unity. In their obvious sense, they introduce three equal deities, and + transform the man Jesus into the substance of the Son of God: <a + href="#linknote-50.76" name="linknoteref-50.76" id="linknoteref-50.76">76</a> + an orthodox commentary will satisfy only a believing mind: intemperate + curiosity and zeal had torn the veil of the sanctuary; and each of the + Oriental sects was eager to confess that all, except themselves, deserved + the reproach of idolatry and polytheism. The creed of Mahomet is free from + suspicion or ambiguity; and the Koran is a glorious testimony to the unity + of God. The prophet of Mecca rejected the worship of idols and men, of + stars and planets, on the rational principle that whatever rises must set, + that whatever is born must die, that whatever is corruptible must decay + and perish. <a href="#linknote-50.77" name="linknoteref-50.77" + id="linknoteref-50.77">77</a> In the Author of the universe, his rational + enthusiasm confessed and adored an infinite and eternal being, without + form or place, without issue or similitude, present to our most secret + thoughts, existing by the necessity of his own nature, and deriving from + himself all moral and intellectual perfection. These sublime truths, thus + announced in the language of the prophet, <a href="#linknote-50.78" + name="linknoteref-50.78" id="linknoteref-50.78">78</a> are firmly held by + his disciples, and defined with metaphysical precision by the interpreters + of the Koran. A philosophic theist might subscribe the popular creed of + the Mahometans; <a href="#linknote-50.79" name="linknoteref-50.79" + id="linknoteref-50.79">79</a> a creed too sublime, perhaps, for our present + faculties. What object remains for the fancy, or even the understanding, + when we have abstracted from the unknown substance all ideas of time and + space, of motion and matter, of sensation and reflection? The first + principle of reason and revolution was confirmed by the voice of Mahomet: + his proselytes, from India to Morocco, are distinguished by the name of + Unitarians; and the danger of idolatry has been prevented by the + interdiction of images. The doctrine of eternal decrees and absolute + predestination is strictly embraced by the Mahometans; and they struggle, + with the common difficulties, how to reconcile the prescience of God with + the freedom and responsibility of man; how to explain the permission of + evil under the reign of infinite power and infinite goodness. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.74" id="linknote-50.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.74">return</a>)<br /> [ Koran, c. 9, p. 153. Al + Beidawi, and the other commentators quoted by Sale, adhere to the charge; + but I do not understand that it is colored by the most obscure or absurd + tradition of the Talmud.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.75" id="linknote-50.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.75">return</a>)<br /> [ Hottinger, Hist. + Orient. p. 225-228. The Collyridian heresy was carried from Thrace to + Arabia by some women, and the name was borrowed from the cake, which they + offered to the goddess. This example, that of Beryllus bishop of Bostra, + (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. l. vi. c. 33,) and several others, may excuse the + reproach, Arabia haerese haersewn ferax.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.76" id="linknote-50.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.76">return</a>)<br /> [ The three gods in the + Koran (c. 4, p. 81, c. 5, p. 92) are obviously directed against our + Catholic mystery: but the Arabic commentators understand them of the + Father, the Son, and the Virgin Mary, an heretical Trinity, maintained, as + it is said, by some Barbarians at the Council of Nice, (Eutych. Annal. + tom. i. p. 440.) But the existence of the Marianites is denied by the + candid Beausobre, (Hist. de Manicheisme, tom. i. p. 532;) and he derives + the mistake from the word Roxah, the Holy Ghost, which in some Oriental + tongues is of the feminine gender, and is figuratively styled the mother + of Christ in the Gospel of the Nazarenes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.77" id="linknote-50.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.77">return</a>)<br /> [ This train of thought + is philosophically exemplified in the character of Abraham, who opposed in + Chaldaea the first introduction of idolatry, (Koran, c. 6, p. 106. + D’Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 13.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.78" id="linknote-50.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.78">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Koran, + particularly the second, (p. 30,) the fifty-seventh, (p. 437,) the + fifty-eighth (p. 441) chapters, which proclaim the omnipotence of the + Creator.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.79" id="linknote-50.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.79">return</a>)<br /> [ The most orthodox + creeds are translated by Pocock, (Specimen, p. 274, 284-292,) Ockley, + (Hist. of the Saracens, vol. ii. p. lxxxii.—xcv.,) Reland, (de + Religion. Moham. l. i. p. 7-13,) and Chardin, (Voyages en Perse, tom. iv. + p. 4-28.) The great truth, that God is without similitude, is foolishly + criticized by Maracci, (Alcoran, tom. i. part iii. p. 87-94,) because he + made man after his own image.] + </p> + <p> + The God of nature has written his existence on all his works, and his law + in the heart of man. To restore the knowledge of the one, and the practice + of the other, has been the real or pretended aim of the prophets of every + age: the liberality of Mahomet allowed to his predecessors the same credit + which he claimed for himself; and the chain of inspiration was prolonged + from the fall of Adam to the promulgation of the Koran. <a + href="#linknote-50.80" name="linknoteref-50.80" id="linknoteref-50.80">80</a> + During that period, some rays of prophetic light had been imparted to one + hundred and twenty-four thousand of the elect, discriminated by their + respective measure of virtue and grace; three hundred and thirteen + apostles were sent with a special commission to recall their country from + idolatry and vice; one hundred and four volumes have been dictated by the + Holy Spirit; and six legislators of transcendent brightness have announced + to mankind the six successive revelations of various rites, but of one + immutable religion. The authority and station of Adam, Noah, Abraham, + Moses, Christ, and Mahomet, rise in just gradation above each other; but + whosoever hates or rejects any one of the prophets is numbered with the + infidels. The writings of the patriarchs were extant only in the + apocryphal copies of the Greeks and Syrians: <a href="#linknote-50.81" + name="linknoteref-50.81" id="linknoteref-50.81">81</a> the conduct of Adam + had not entitled him to the gratitude or respect of his children; the + seven precepts of Noah were observed by an inferior and imperfect class of + the proselytes of the synagogue; <a href="#linknote-50.82" + name="linknoteref-50.82" id="linknoteref-50.82">82</a> and the memory of + Abraham was obscurely revered by the Sabians in his native land of + Chaldaea: of the myriads of prophets, Moses and Christ alone lived and + reigned; and the remnant of the inspired writings was comprised in the + books of the Old and the New Testament. The miraculous story of Moses is + consecrated and embellished in the Koran; <a href="#linknote-50.83" + name="linknoteref-50.83" id="linknoteref-50.83">83</a> and the captive Jews + enjoy the secret revenge of imposing their own belief on the nations whose + recent creeds they deride. For the author of Christianity, the Mahometans + are taught by the prophet to entertain a high and mysterious reverence. <a + href="#linknote-50.84" name="linknoteref-50.84" id="linknoteref-50.84">84</a> + “Verily, Christ Jesus, the son of Mary, is the apostle of God, and his + word, which he conveyed unto Mary, and a Spirit proceeding from him; + honorable in this world, and in the world to come, and one of those who + approach near to the presence of God.” <a href="#linknote-50.85" + name="linknoteref-50.85" id="linknoteref-50.85">85</a> The wonders of the + genuine and apocryphal gospels <a href="#linknote-50.86" + name="linknoteref-50.86" id="linknoteref-50.86">86</a> are profusely heaped + on his head; and the Latin church has not disdained to borrow from the + Koran the immaculate conception <a href="#linknote-50.87" + name="linknoteref-50.87" id="linknoteref-50.87">87</a> of his virgin mother. + Yet Jesus was a mere mortal; and, at the day of judgment, his testimony + will serve to condemn both the Jews, who reject him as a prophet, and the + Christians, who adore him as the Son of God. The malice of his enemies + aspersed his reputation, and conspired against his life; but their + intention only was guilty; a phantom or a criminal was substituted on the + cross; and the innocent saint was translated to the seventh heaven. <a + href="#linknote-50.88" name="linknoteref-50.88" id="linknoteref-50.88">88</a> + During six hundred years the gospel was the way of truth and salvation; + but the Christians insensibly forgot both the laws and example of their + founder; and Mahomet was instructed by the Gnostics to accuse the church, + as well as the synagogue, of corrupting the integrity of the sacred text. + <a href="#linknote-50.89" name="linknoteref-50.89" id="linknoteref-50.89">89</a> + The piety of Moses and of Christ rejoiced in the assurance of a future + prophet, more illustrious than themselves: the evangelical promise of the + Paraclete, or Holy Ghost, was prefigured in the name, and accomplished in + the person, of Mahomet, <a href="#linknote-50.90" name="linknoteref-50.90" + id="linknoteref-50.90">90</a> the greatest and the last of the apostles of + God. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.80" id="linknote-50.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.80">return</a>)<br /> [ Reland, de Relig. + Moham. l. i. p. 17-47. Sale’s Preliminary Discourse, p. 73-76. Voyage de + Chardin, tom. iv. p. 28-37, and 37-47, for the Persian addition, “Ali is + the vicar of God!” Yet the precise number of the prophets is not an + article of faith.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.81" id="linknote-50.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.81">return</a>)<br /> [ For the apocryphal + books of Adam, see Fabricius, Codex Pseudepigraphus V. T. p. 27-29; of + Seth, p. 154-157; of Enoch, p. 160-219. But the book of Enoch is + consecrated, in some measure, by the quotation of the apostle St. Jude; + and a long legendary fragment is alleged by Syncellus and Scaliger. * + Note: The whole book has since been recovered in the Ethiopic language,—and + has been edited and translated by Archbishop Lawrence, Oxford, 1881—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.82" id="linknote-50.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.82">return</a>)<br /> [ The seven precepts of + Noah are explained by Marsham, (Canon Chronicus, p. 154-180,) who adopts, + on this occasion, the learning and credulity of Selden.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.83" id="linknote-50.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.83">return</a>)<br /> [ The articles of Adam, + Noah, Abraham, Moses, &c., in the Bibliotheque of D’Herbelot, are + gayly bedecked with the fanciful legends of the Mahometans, who have built + on the groundwork of Scripture and the Talmud.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.84" id="linknote-50.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.84">return</a>)<br /> [ Koran, c. 7, p. 128, + &c., c. 10, p. 173, &c. D’Herbelot, p. 647, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.85" id="linknote-50.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.85">return</a>)<br /> [ Koran, c. 3, p. 40, c. + 4. p. 80. D’Herbelot, p. 399, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.86" id="linknote-50.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.86">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Gospel of St. + Thomas, or of the Infancy, in the Codex Apocryphus N. T. of Fabricius, who + collects the various testimonies concerning it, (p. 128-158.) It was + published in Greek by Cotelier, and in Arabic by Sike, who thinks our + present copy more recent than Mahomet. Yet his quotations agree with the + original about the speech of Christ in his cradle, his living birds of + clay, &c. (Sike, c. i. p. 168, 169, c. 36, p. 198, 199, c. 46, p. 206. + Cotelier, c. 2, p. 160, 161.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.87" id="linknote-50.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.87">return</a>)<br /> [ It is darkly hinted in + the Koran, (c. 3, p. 39,) and more clearly explained by the tradition of + the Sonnites, (Sale’s Note, and Maracci, tom. ii. p. 112.) In the xiith + century, the immaculate conception was condemned by St. Bernard as a + presumptuous novelty, (Fra Paolo, Istoria del Concilio di Trento, l. ii.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.88" id="linknote-50.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.88">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Koran, c. 3, v. + 53, and c. 4, v. 156, of Maracci’s edition. Deus est praestantissimus + dolose agentium (an odd praise)... nec crucifixerunt eum, sed objecta est + eis similitudo; an expression that may suit with the system of the + Docetes; but the commentators believe (Maracci, tom. ii. p. 113-115, 173. + Sale, p. 42, 43, 79) that another man, a friend or an enemy, was crucified + in the likeness of Jesus; a fable which they had read in the Gospel of St. + Barnabus, and which had been started as early as the time of Irenaeus, by + some Ebionite heretics, (Beausobre, Hist. du Manicheisme, tom. ii. p. 25, + Mosheim. de Reb. Christ. p. 353.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.89" id="linknote-50.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.89">return</a>)<br /> [ This charge is + obscurely urged in the Koran, (c. 3, p. 45;) but neither Mahomet, nor his + followers, are sufficiently versed in languages and criticism to give any + weight or color to their suspicions. Yet the Arians and Nestorians could + relate some stories, and the illiterate prophet might listen to the bold + assertions of the Manichaeans. See Beausobre, tom. i. p. 291-305.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.90" id="linknote-50.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.90">return</a>)<br /> [ Among the prophecies of + the Old and New Testament, which are perverted by the fraud or ignorance + of the Mussulmans, they apply to the prophet the promise of the Paraclete, + or Comforter, which had been already usurped by the Montanists and + Manichaeans, (Beausobre, Hist. Critique du Manicheisme, tom. i. p. 263, + &c.;) and the easy change of letters affords the etymology of the name + of Mohammed, (Maracci, tom. i. part i. p. 15-28.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap50.4"></a> + Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + The communication of ideas requires a similitude of thought and language: + the discourse of a philosopher would vibrate without effect on the ear of + a peasant; yet how minute is the distance of their understandings, if it + be compared with the contact of an infinite and a finite mind, with the + word of God expressed by the tongue or the pen of a mortal! The + inspiration of the Hebrew prophets, of the apostles and evangelists of + Christ, might not be incompatible with the exercise of their reason and + memory; and the diversity of their genius is strongly marked in the style + and composition of the books of the Old and New Testament. But Mahomet was + content with a character, more humble, yet more sublime, of a simple + editor; the substance of the Koran, <a href="#linknote-50.91" + name="linknoteref-50.91" id="linknoteref-50.91">91</a> according to himself + or his disciples, is uncreated and eternal; subsisting in the essence of + the Deity, and inscribed with a pen of light on the table of his + everlasting decrees. A paper copy, in a volume of silk and gems, was + brought down to the lowest heaven by the angel Gabriel, who, under the + Jewish economy, had indeed been despatched on the most important errands; + and this trusty messenger successively revealed the chapters and verses to + the Arabian prophet. Instead of a perpetual and perfect measure of the + divine will, the fragments of the Koran were produced at the discretion of + Mahomet; each revelation is suited to the emergencies of his policy or + passion; and all contradiction is removed by the saving maxim, that any + text of Scripture is abrogated or modified by any subsequent passage. The + word of God, and of the apostle, was diligently recorded by his disciples + on palm-leaves and the shoulder-bones of mutton; and the pages, without + order or connection, were cast into a domestic chest, in the custody of + one of his wives. Two years after the death of Mahomet, the sacred volume + was collected and published by his friend and successor Abubeker: the work + was revised by the caliph Othman, in the thirtieth year of the Hegira; and + the various editions of the Koran assert the same miraculous privilege of + a uniform and incorruptible text. In the spirit of enthusiasm or vanity, + the prophet rests the truth of his mission on the merit of his book; + audaciously challenges both men and angels to imitate the beauties of a + single page; and presumes to assert that God alone could dictate this + incomparable performance. <a href="#linknote-50.92" name="linknoteref-50.92" + id="linknoteref-50.92">92</a> This argument is most powerfully addressed to + a devout Arabian, whose mind is attuned to faith and rapture; whose ear is + delighted by the music of sounds; and whose ignorance is incapable of + comparing the productions of human genius. <a href="#linknote-50.93" + name="linknoteref-50.93" id="linknoteref-50.93">93</a> The harmony and + copiousness of style will not reach, in a version, the European infidel: + he will peruse with impatience the endless incoherent rhapsody of fable, + and precept, and declamation, which seldom excites a sentiment or an idea, + which sometimes crawls in the dust, and is sometimes lost in the clouds. + The divine attributes exalt the fancy of the Arabian missionary; but his + loftiest strains must yield to the sublime simplicity of the book of Job, + composed in a remote age, in the same country, and in the same language. + <a href="#linknote-50.94" name="linknoteref-50.94" id="linknoteref-50.94">94</a> + If the composition of the Koran exceed the faculties of a man to what + superior intelligence should we ascribe the Iliad of Homer, or the + Philippics of Demosthenes? In all religions, the life of the founder + supplies the silence of his written revelation: the sayings of Mahomet + were so many lessons of truth; his actions so many examples of virtue; and + the public and private memorials were preserved by his wives and + companions. At the end of two hundred years, the Sonna, or oral law, was + fixed and consecrated by the labors of Al Bochari, who discriminated seven + thousand two hundred and seventy-five genuine traditions, from a mass of + three hundred thousand reports, of a more doubtful or spurious character. + Each day the pious author prayed in the temple of Mecca, and performed his + ablutions with the water of Zemzem: the pages were successively deposited + on the pulpit and the sepulchre of the apostle; and the work has been + approved by the four orthodox sects of the Sonnites. <a + href="#linknote-50.95" name="linknoteref-50.95" id="linknoteref-50.95">95</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.91" id="linknote-50.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.91">return</a>)<br /> [ For the Koran, see + D’Herbelot, p. 85-88. Maracci, tom. i. in Vit. Mohammed. p. 32-45. Sale, + Preliminary Discourse, p. 58-70.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.92" id="linknote-50.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.92">return</a>)<br /> [ Koran, c. 17, v. 89. In + Sale, p. 235, 236. In Maracci, p. 410. * Note: Compare Von Hammer + Geschichte der Assassinen p. 11.-M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.93" id="linknote-50.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.93">return</a>)<br /> [ Yet a sect of Arabians + was persuaded, that it might be equalled or surpassed by a human pen, + (Pocock, Specimen, p. 221, &c.;) and Maracci (the polemic is too hard + for the translator) derides the rhyming affectation of the most applauded + passage, (tom. i. part ii. p. 69-75.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.94" id="linknote-50.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.94">return</a>)<br /> [ Colloquia (whether real + or fabulous) in media Arabia atque ab Arabibus habita, (Lowth, de Poesi + Hebraeorum. Praelect. xxxii. xxxiii. xxxiv, with his German editor, + Michaelis, Epimetron iv.) Yet Michaelis (p. 671-673) has detected many + Egyptian images, the elephantiasis, papyrus, Nile, crocodile, &c. The + language is ambiguously styled Arabico-Hebraea. The resemblance of the + sister dialects was much more visible in their childhood, than in their + mature age, (Michaelis, p. 682. Schultens, in Praefat. Job.) * Note: The + age of the book of Job is still and probably will still be disputed. + Rosenmuller thus states his own opinion: “Certe serioribus reipublicae + temporibus assignandum esse librum, suadere videtur ad Chaldaismum vergens + sermo.” Yet the observations of Kosegarten, which Rosenmuller has given in + a note, and common reason, suggest that this Chaldaism may be the native + form of a much earlier dialect; or the Chaldaic may have adopted the + poetical archaisms of a dialect, differing from, but not less ancient + than, the Hebrew. See Rosenmuller, Proleg. on Job, p. 41. The poetry + appears to me to belong to a much earlier period.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.95" id="linknote-50.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.95">return</a>)<br /> [ Ali Bochari died A. H. + 224. See D’Herbelot, p. 208, 416, 827. Gagnier, Not. ad Abulfed. c. 19, p. + 33.] + </p> + <p> + The mission of the ancient prophets, of Moses and of Jesus had been + confirmed by many splendid prodigies; and Mahomet was repeatedly urged, by + the inhabitants of Mecca and Medina, to produce a similar evidence of his + divine legation; to call down from heaven the angel or the volume of his + revelation, to create a garden in the desert, or to kindle a conflagration + in the unbelieving city. As often as he is pressed by the demands of the + Koreish, he involves himself in the obscure boast of vision and prophecy, + appeals to the internal proofs of his doctrine, and shields himself behind + the providence of God, who refuses those signs and wonders that would + depreciate the merit of faith, and aggravate the guilt of infidelity But + the modest or angry tone of his apologies betrays his weakness and + vexation; and these passages of scandal established, beyond suspicion, the + integrity of the Koran. <a href="#linknote-50.96" name="linknoteref-50.96" + id="linknoteref-50.96">96</a> The votaries of Mahomet are more assured than + himself of his miraculous gifts; and their confidence and credulity + increase as they are farther removed from the time and place of his + spiritual exploits. They believe or affirm that trees went forth to meet + him; that he was saluted by stones; that water gushed from his fingers; + that he fed the hungry, cured the sick, and raised the dead; that a beam + groaned to him; that a camel complained to him; that a shoulder of mutton + informed him of its being poisoned; and that both animate and inanimate + nature were equally subject to the apostle of God. <a href="#linknote-50.97" + name="linknoteref-50.97" id="linknoteref-50.97">97</a> His dream of a + nocturnal journey is seriously described as a real and corporeal + transaction. A mysterious animal, the Borak, conveyed him from the temple + of Mecca to that of Jerusalem: with his companion Gabriel he successively + ascended the seven heavens, and received and repaid the salutations of the + patriarchs, the prophets, and the angels, in their respective mansions. + Beyond the seventh heaven, Mahomet alone was permitted to proceed; he + passed the veil of unity, approached within two bow-shots of the throne, + and felt a cold that pierced him to the heart, when his shoulder was + touched by the hand of God. After this familiar, though important + conversation, he again descended to Jerusalem, remounted the Borak, + returned to Mecca, and performed in the tenth part of a night the journey + of many thousand years. <a href="#linknote-50.98" name="linknoteref-50.98" + id="linknoteref-50.98">98</a> According to another legend, the apostle + confounded in a national assembly the malicious challenge of the Koreish. + His resistless word split asunder the orb of the moon: the obedient planet + stooped from her station in the sky, accomplished the seven revolutions + round the Caaba, saluted Mahomet in the Arabian tongue, and, suddenly + contracting her dimensions, entered at the collar, and issued forth + through the sleeve, of his shirt. <a href="#linknote-50.99" + name="linknoteref-50.99" id="linknoteref-50.99">99</a> The vulgar are amused + with these marvellous tales; but the gravest of the Mussulman doctors + imitate the modesty of their master, and indulge a latitude of faith or + interpretation. <a href="#linknote-50.100" name="linknoteref-50.100" + id="linknoteref-50.100">100</a> They might speciously allege, that in + preaching the religion it was needless to violate the harmony of nature; + that a creed unclouded with mystery may be excused from miracles; and that + the sword of Mahomet was not less potent than the rod of Moses. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.96" id="linknote-50.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.96">return</a>)<br /> [ See, more remarkably, + Koran, c. 2, 6, 12, 13, 17. Prideaux (Life of Mahomet, p. 18, 19) has + confounded the impostor. Maracci, with a more learned apparatus, has shown + that the passages which deny his miracles are clear and positive, + (Alcoran, tom. i. part ii. p. 7-12,) and those which seem to assert them + are ambiguous and insufficient, (p. 12-22.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.97" id="linknote-50.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.97">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Specimen Hist. + Arabum, the text of Abulpharagius, p. 17, the notes of Pocock, p. 187-190. + D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 76, 77. Voyages de Chardin, tom. + iv. p. 200-203. Maracci (Alcoran, tom. i. p. 22-64) has most laboriously + collected and confuted the miracles and prophecies of Mahomet, which, + according to some writers, amount to three thousand.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.98" id="linknote-50.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.98">return</a>)<br /> [ The nocturnal journey + is circumstantially related by Abulfeda (in Vit. Mohammed, c. 19, p. 33,) + who wishes to think it a vision; by Prideaux, (p. 31-40,) who aggravates + the absurdities; and by Gagnier (tom. i. p. 252-343,) who declares, from + the zealous Al Jannabi, that to deny this journey, is to disbelieve the + Koran. Yet the Koran without naming either heaven, or Jerusalem, or Mecca, + has only dropped a mysterious hint: Laus illi qui transtulit servum suum + ab oratorio Haram ad oratorium remotissimum, (Koran, c. 17, v. 1; in + Maracci, tom. ii. p. 407; for Sale’s version is more licentious.) A + slender basis for the aerial structure of tradition.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.99" id="linknote-50.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.99">return</a>)<br /> [ In the prophetic style, + which uses the present or past for the future, Mahomet had said, + Appropinquavit hora, et scissa est luna, (Koran, c. 54, v. 1; in Maracci, + tom. ii. p. 688.) This figure of rhetoric has been converted into a fact, + which is said to be attested by the most respectable eye-witnesses, + (Maracci, tom. ii. p. 690.) The festival is still celebrated by the + Persians, (Chardin, tom. iv. p. 201;) and the legend is tediously spun out + by Gagnier, (Vie de Mahomet, tom. i. p. 183-234,) on the faith, as it + should seem, of the credulous Al Jannabi. Yet a Mahometan doctor has + arraigned the credit of the principal witness, (apud Pocock, Specimen, p. + 187;) the best interpreters are content with the simple sense of the + Koran. (Al Beidawi, apud Hottinger, Hist. Orient. l. ii. p. 302;) and the + silence of Abulfeda is worthy of a prince and a philosopher. * Note: + Compare Hamaker Notes to Inc. Auct. Lib. de Exped. Memphides, p. 62—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.100" id="linknote-50.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.100">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulpharagius, in + Specimen Hist. Arab. p. 17; and his scepticism is justified in the notes + of Pocock, p. 190-194, from the purest authorities.] + </p> + <p> + The polytheist is oppressed and distracted by the variety of superstition: + a thousand rites of Egyptian origin were interwoven with the essence of + the Mosaic law; and the spirit of the gospel had evaporated in the + pageantry of the church. The prophet of Mecca was tempted by prejudice, or + policy, or patriotism, to sanctify the rites of the Arabians, and the + custom of visiting the holy stone of the Caaba. But the precepts of + Mahomet himself inculcates a more simple and rational piety: prayer, + fasting, and alms, are the religious duties of a Mussulman; and he is + encouraged to hope, that prayer will carry him half way to God, fasting + will bring him to the door of his palace, and alms will gain him + admittance. <a href="#linknote-50.101" name="linknoteref-50.101" + id="linknoteref-50.101">101</a> I. According to the tradition of the + nocturnal journey, the apostle, in his personal conference with the Deity, + was commanded to impose on his disciples the daily obligation of fifty + prayers. By the advice of Moses, he applied for an alleviation of this + intolerable burden; the number was gradually reduced to five; without any + dispensation of business or pleasure, or time or place: the devotion of + the faithful is repeated at daybreak, at noon, in the afternoon, in the + evening, and at the first watch of the night; and in the present decay of + religious fervor, our travellers are edified by the profound humility and + attention of the Turks and Persians. Cleanliness is the key of prayer: the + frequent lustration of the hands, the face, and the body, which was + practised of old by the Arabs, is solemnly enjoined by the Koran; and a + permission is formally granted to supply with sand the scarcity of water. + The words and attitudes of supplication, as it is performed either + sitting, or standing, or prostrate on the ground, are prescribed by custom + or authority; but the prayer is poured forth in short and fervent + ejaculations; the measure of zeal is not exhausted by a tedious liturgy; + and each Mussulman for his own person is invested with the character of a + priest. Among the theists, who reject the use of images, it has been found + necessary to restrain the wanderings of the fancy, by directing the eye + and the thought towards a kebla, or visible point of the horizon. The + prophet was at first inclined to gratify the Jews by the choice of + Jerusalem; but he soon returned to a more natural partiality; and five + times every day the eyes of the nations at Astracan, at Fez, at Delhi, are + devoutly turned to the holy temple of Mecca. Yet every spot for the + service of God is equally pure: the Mahometans indifferently pray in their + chamber or in the street. As a distinction from the Jews and Christians, + the Friday in each week is set apart for the useful institution of public + worship: the people is assembled in the mosch; and the imam, some + respectable elder, ascends the pulpit, to begin the prayer and pronounce + the sermon. But the Mahometan religion is destitute of priesthood or + sacrifice; and the independent spirit of fanaticism looks down with + contempt on the ministers and the slaves of superstition. <a + href="#linknote-50.1011" name="linknoteref-50.1011" id="linknoteref-50.1011">1011</a> + </p> + <p> + II. The voluntary <a href="#linknote-50.102" name="linknoteref-50.102" + id="linknoteref-50.102">102</a> penance of the ascetics, the torment and + glory of their lives, was odious to a prophet who censured in his + companions a rash vow of abstaining from flesh, and women, and sleep; and + firmly declared, that he would suffer no monks in his religion. <a + href="#linknote-50.103" name="linknoteref-50.103" id="linknoteref-50.103">103</a> + Yet he instituted, in each year, a fast of thirty days; and strenuously + recommended the observance as a discipline which purifies the soul and + subdues the body, as a salutary exercise of obedience to the will of God + and his apostle. During the month of Ramadan, from the rising to the + setting of the sun, the Mussulman abstains from eating, and drinking, and + women, and baths, and perfumes; from all nourishment that can restore his + strength, from all pleasure that can gratify his senses. In the revolution + of the lunar year, the Ramadan coincides, by turns, with the winter cold + and the summer heat; and the patient martyr, without assuaging his thirst + with a drop of water, must expect the close of a tedious and sultry day. + The interdiction of wine, peculiar to some orders of priests or hermits, + is converted by Mahomet alone into a positive and general law; <a + href="#linknote-50.104" name="linknoteref-50.104" id="linknoteref-50.104">104</a> + and a considerable portion of the globe has abjured, at his command, the + use of that salutary, though dangerous, liquor. These painful restraints + are, doubtless, infringed by the libertine, and eluded by the hypocrite; + but the legislator, by whom they are enacted, cannot surely be accused of + alluring his proselytes by the indulgence of their sensual appetites. III. + The charity of the Mahometans descends to the animal creation; and the + Koran repeatedly inculcates, not as a merit, but as a strict and + indispensable duty, the relief of the indigent and unfortunate. Mahomet, + perhaps, is the only lawgiver who has defined the precise measure of + charity: the standard may vary with the degree and nature of property, as + it consists either in money, in corn or cattle, in fruits or merchandise; + but the Mussulman does not accomplish the law, unless he bestows a tenth + of his revenue; and if his conscience accuses him of fraud or extortion, + the tenth, under the idea of restitution, is enlarged to a fifth. <a + href="#linknote-50.105" name="linknoteref-50.105" id="linknoteref-50.105">105</a> + Benevolence is the foundation of justice, since we are forbid to injure + those whom we are bound to assist. A prophet may reveal the secrets of + heaven and of futurity; but in his moral precepts he can only repeat the + lessons of our own hearts. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.101" id="linknote-50.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.101">return</a>)<br /> [ The most authentic + account of these precepts, pilgrimage, prayer, fasting, alms, and + ablutions, is extracted from the Persian and Arabian theologians by + Maracci, (Prodrom. part iv. p. 9-24,) Reland, (in his excellent treatise + de Religione Mohammedica, Utrecht, 1717, p. 67-123,) and Chardin, (Voyages + in Perse, tom. iv. p. 47-195.) Marace is a partial accuser; but the + jeweller, Chardin, had the eyes of a philosopher; and Reland, a judicious + student, had travelled over the East in his closet at Utrecht. The xivth + letter of Tournefort (Voyage du Levont, tom. ii. p. 325-360, in octavo) + describes what he had seen of the religion of the Turks.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1011" id="linknote-50.1011"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1011 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1011">return</a>)<br /> [ Such is + Mahometanism beyond the precincts of the Holy City. But Mahomet retained, + and the Koran sanctions, (Sale’s Koran, c. 5, in inlt. c. 22, vol. ii. p. + 171, 172,) the sacrifice of sheep and camels (probably according to the + old Arabian rites) at Mecca; and the pilgrims complete their ceremonial + with sacrifices, sometimes as numerous and costly as those of King + Solomon. Compare note, vol. iv. c. xxiii. p. 96, and Forster’s + Mahometanism Unveiled, vol. i. p. 420. This author quotes the questionable + authority of Benjamin of Tudela, for the sacrifice of a camel by the + caliph at Bosra; but sacrifice undoubtedly forms no part of the ordinary + Mahometan ritual; nor will the sanctity of the caliph, as the earthly + representative of the prophet, bear any close analogy to the priesthood of + the Mosaic or Gentila religions.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.102" id="linknote-50.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.102">return</a>)<br /> [ Mahomet (Sale’s + Koran, c. 9, p. 153) reproaches the Christians with taking their priests + and monks for their lords, besides God. Yet Maracci (Prodromus, part iii. + p. 69, 70) excuses the worship, especially of the pope, and quotes, from + the Koran itself, the case of Eblis, or Satan, who was cast from heaven + for refusing to adore Adam.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.103" id="linknote-50.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.103">return</a>)<br /> [ Koran, c. 5, p. 94, + and Sale’s note, which refers to the authority of Jallaloddin and Al + Beidawi. D’Herbelot declares, that Mahomet condemned la vie religieuse; + and that the first swarms of fakirs, dervises, &c., did not appear + till after the year 300 of the Hegira, (Bibliot. Orient. p. 292, 718.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.104" id="linknote-50.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.104">return</a>)<br /> [ See the double + prohibition, (Koran, c. 2, p. 25, c. 5, p. 94;) the one in the style of a + legislator, the other in that of a fanatic. The public and private motives + of Mahomet are investigated by Prideaux (Life of Mahomet, p. 62-64) and + Sale, (Preliminary Discourse, p. 124.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.105" id="linknote-50.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.105">return</a>)<br /> [ The jealousy of + Maracci (Prodromus, part iv. p. 33) prompts him to enumerate the more + liberal alms of the Catholics of Rome. Fifteen great hospitals are open to + many thousand patients and pilgrims; fifteen hundred maidens are annually + portioned; fifty-six charity schools are founded for both sexes; one + hundred and twenty confraternities relieve the wants of their brethren, + &c. The benevolence of London is still more extensive; but I am afraid + that much more is to be ascribed to the humanity, than to the religion, of + the people.] + </p> + <p> + The two articles of belief, and the four practical duties, of Islam, are + guarded by rewards and punishments; and the faith of the Mussulman is + devoutly fixed on the event of the judgment and the last day. The prophet + has not presumed to determine the moment of that awful catastrophe, though + he darkly announces the signs, both in heaven and earth, which will + precede the universal dissolution, when life shall be destroyed, and the + order of creation shall be confounded in the primitive chaos. At the blast + of the trumpet, new worlds will start into being: angels, genii, and men + will arise from the dead, and the human soul will again be united to the + body. The doctrine of the resurrection was first entertained by the + Egyptians; <a href="#linknote-50.106" name="linknoteref-50.106" + id="linknoteref-50.106">106</a> and their mummies were embalmed, their + pyramids were constructed, to preserve the ancient mansion of the soul, + during a period of three thousand years. But the attempt is partial and + unavailing; and it is with a more philosophic spirit that Mahomet relies + on the omnipotence of the Creator, whose word can reanimate the breathless + clay, and collect the innumerable atoms, that no longer retain their form + or substance. <a href="#linknote-50.107" name="linknoteref-50.107" + id="linknoteref-50.107">107</a> The intermediate state of the soul it is + hard to decide; and those who most firmly believe her immaterial nature, + are at a loss to understand how she can think or act without the agency of + the organs of sense. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.106" id="linknote-50.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.106">return</a>)<br /> [ See Herodotus (l. ii. + c. 123) and our learned countryman Sir John Marsham, (Canon. Chronicus, p. + 46.) The same writer (p. 254-274) is an elaborate sketch of the infernal + regions, as they were painted by the fancy of the Egyptians and Greeks, of + the poets and philosophers of antiquity.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.107" id="linknote-50.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.107">return</a>)<br /> [ The Koran (c. 2, p. + 259, &c.; of Sale, p. 32; of Maracci, p. 97) relates an ingenious + miracle, which satisfied the curiosity, and confirmed the faith, of + Abraham.] + </p> + <p> + The reunion of the soul and body will be followed by the final judgment of + mankind; and in his copy of the Magian picture, the prophet has too + faithfully represented the forms of proceeding, and even the slow and + successive operations, of an earthly tribunal. By his intolerant + adversaries he is upbraided for extending, even to themselves, the hope of + salvation, for asserting the blackest heresy, that every man who believes + in God, and accomplishes good works, may expect in the last day a + favorable sentence. Such rational indifference is ill adapted to the + character of a fanatic; nor is it probable that a messenger from heaven + should depreciate the value and necessity of his own revelation. In the + idiom of the Koran, <a href="#linknote-50.108" name="linknoteref-50.108" + id="linknoteref-50.108">108</a> the belief of God is inseparable from that + of Mahomet: the good works are those which he has enjoined, and the two + qualifications imply the profession of Islam, to which all nations and all + sects are equally invited. + </p> + <p> + Their spiritual blindness, though excused by ignorance and crowned with + virtue, will be scourged with everlasting torments; and the tears which + Mahomet shed over the tomb of his mother for whom he was forbidden to + pray, display a striking contrast of humanity and enthusiasm. <a + href="#linknote-50.109" name="linknoteref-50.109" id="linknoteref-50.109">109</a> + The doom of the infidels is common: the measure of their guilt and + punishment is determined by the degree of evidence which they have + rejected, by the magnitude of the errors which they have entertained: the + eternal mansions of the Christians, the Jews, the Sabians, the Magians, + and idolaters, are sunk below each other in the abyss; and the lowest hell + is reserved for the faithless hypocrites who have assumed the mask of + religion. After the greater part of mankind has been condemned for their + opinions, the true believers only will be judged by their actions. The + good and evil of each Mussulman will be accurately weighed in a real or + allegorical balance; and a singular mode of compensation will be allowed + for the payment of injuries: the aggressor will refund an equivalent of + his own good actions, for the benefit of the person whom he has wronged; + and if he should be destitute of any moral property, the weight of his + sins will be loaded with an adequate share of the demerits of the + sufferer. According as the shares of guilt or virtue shall preponderate, + the sentence will be pronounced, and all, without distinction, will pass + over the sharp and perilous bridge of the abyss; but the innocent, + treading in the footsteps of Mahomet, will gloriously enter the gates of + paradise, while the guilty will fall into the first and mildest of the + seven hells. The term of expiation will vary from nine hundred to seven + thousand years; but the prophet has judiciously promised, that all his + disciples, whatever may be their sins, shall be saved, by their own faith + and his intercession from eternal damnation. It is not surprising that + superstition should act most powerfully on the fears of her votaries, + since the human fancy can paint with more energy the misery than the bliss + of a future life. With the two simple elements of darkness and fire, we + create a sensation of pain, which may be aggravated to an infinite degree + by the idea of endless duration. But the same idea operates with an + opposite effect on the continuity of pleasure; and too much of our present + enjoyments is obtained from the relief, or the comparison, of evil. It is + natural enough that an Arabian prophet should dwell with rapture on the + groves, the fountains, and the rivers of paradise; but instead of + inspiring the blessed inhabitants with a liberal taste for harmony and + science, conversation and friendship, he idly celebrates the pearls and + diamonds, the robes of silk, palaces of marble, dishes of gold, rich + wines, artificial dainties, numerous attendants, and the whole train of + sensual and costly luxury, which becomes insipid to the owner, even in the + short period of this mortal life. Seventy-two Houris, or black-eyed girls, + of resplendent beauty, blooming youth, virgin purity, and exquisite + sensibility, will be created for the use of the meanest believer; a moment + of pleasure will be prolonged to a thousand years; and his faculties will + be increased a hundred fold, to render him worthy of his felicity. + Notwithstanding a vulgar prejudice, the gates of heaven will be open to + both sexes; but Mahomet has not specified the male companions of the + female elect, lest he should either alarm the jealousy of their former + husbands, or disturb their felicity, by the suspicion of an everlasting + marriage. This image of a carnal paradise has provoked the indignation, + perhaps the envy, of the monks: they declaim against the impure religion + of Mahomet; and his modest apologists are driven to the poor excuse of + figures and allegories. But the sounder and more consistent party adhere + without shame, to the literal interpretation of the Koran: useless would + be the resurrection of the body, unless it were restored to the possession + and exercise of its worthiest faculties; and the union of sensual and + intellectual enjoyment is requisite to complete the happiness of the + double animal, the perfect man. Yet the joys of the Mahometan paradise + will not be confined to the indulgence of luxury and appetite; and the + prophet has expressly declared that all meaner happiness will be forgotten + and despised by the saints and martyrs, who shall be admitted to the + beatitude of the divine vision. <a href="#linknote-50.110" + name="linknoteref-50.110" id="linknoteref-50.110">110</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.108" id="linknote-50.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.108">return</a>)<br /> [ The candid Reland has + demonstrated, that Mahomet damns all unbelievers, (de Religion. Moham. p. + 128-142;) that devils will not be finally saved, (p. 196-199;) that + paradise will not solely consist of corporeal delights, (p. 199-205;) and + that women’s souls are immortal. (p. 205-209.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.109" id="linknote-50.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.109">return</a>)<br /> [ A Beidawi, apud Sale. + Koran, c. 9, p. 164. The refusal to pray for an unbelieving kindred is + justified, according to Mahomet, by the duty of a prophet, and the example + of Abraham, who reprobated his own father as an enemy of God. Yet Abraham + (he adds, c. 9, v. 116. Maracci, tom. ii. p. 317) fuit sane pius, mitis.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.110" id="linknote-50.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.110">return</a>)<br /> [ For the day of + judgment, hell, paradise, &c., consult the Koran, (c. 2, v. 25, c. 56, + 78, &c.;) with Maracci’s virulent, but learned, refutation, (in his + notes, and in the Prodromus, part iv. p. 78, 120, 122, &c.;) + D’Herbelot, (Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 368, 375;) Reland, (p. 47-61;) and + Sale, (p. 76-103.) The original ideas of the Magi are darkly and + doubtfully explored by their apologist, Dr. Hyde, (Hist. Religionis + Persarum, c. 33, p. 402-412, Oxon. 1760.) In the article of Mahomet, Bayle + has shown how indifferently wit and philosophy supply the absence of + genuine information.] + </p> + <p> + The first and most arduous conquests of Mahomet <a href="#linknote-50.111" + name="linknoteref-50.111" id="linknoteref-50.111">111</a> were those of his + wife, his servant, his pupil, and his friend; <a href="#linknote-50.112" + name="linknoteref-50.112" id="linknoteref-50.112">112</a> since he presented + himself as a prophet to those who were most conversant with his + infirmities as a man. Yet Cadijah believed the words, and cherished the + glory, of her husband; the obsequious and affectionate Zeid was tempted by + the prospect of freedom; the illustrious Ali, the son of Abu Taleb, + embraced the sentiments of his cousin with the spirit of a youthful hero; + and the wealth, the moderation, the veracity of Abubeker confirmed the + religion of the prophet whom he was destined to succeed. By his + persuasion, ten of the most respectable citizens of Mecca were introduced + to the private lessons of Islam; they yielded to the voice of reason and + enthusiasm; they repeated the fundamental creed, “There is but one God, + and Mahomet is the apostle of God;” and their faith, even in this life, + was rewarded with riches and honors, with the command of armies and the + government of kingdoms. Three years were silently employed in the + conversion of fourteen proselytes, the first-fruits of his mission; but in + the fourth year he assumed the prophetic office, and resolving to impart + to his family the light of divine truth, he prepared a banquet, a lamb, as + it is said, and a bowl of milk, for the entertainment of forty guests of + the race of Hashem. “Friends and kinsmen,” said Mahomet to the assembly, + “I offer you, and I alone can offer, the most precious of gifts, the + treasures of this world and of the world to come. God has commanded me to + call you to his service. Who among you will support my burden? Who among + you will be my companion and my vizier?” <a href="#linknote-50.113" + name="linknoteref-50.113" id="linknoteref-50.113">113</a> No answer was + returned, till the silence of astonishment, and doubt, and contempt, was + at length broken by the impatient courage of Ali, a youth in the + fourteenth year of his age. “O prophet, I am the man: whosoever rises + against thee, I will dash out his teeth, tear out his eyes, break his + legs, rip up his belly. O prophet, I will be thy vizier over them.” + Mahomet accepted his offer with transport, and Abu Taled was ironically + exhorted to respect the superior dignity of his son. In a more serious + tone, the father of Ali advised his nephew to relinquish his impracticable + design. + </p> + <p> + “Spare your remonstrances,” replied the intrepid fanatic to his uncle and + benefactor; “if they should place the sun on my right hand, and the moon + on my left, they should not divert me from my course.” He persevered ten + years in the exercise of his mission; and the religion which has + overspread the East and the West advanced with a slow and painful progress + within the walls of Mecca. Yet Mahomet enjoyed the satisfaction of + beholding the increase of his infant congregation of Unitarians, who + revered him as a prophet, and to whom he seasonably dispensed the + spiritual nourishment of the Koran. The number of proselytes may be + esteemed by the absence of eighty-three men and eighteen women, who + retired to Aethiopia in the seventh year of his mission; and his party was + fortified by the timely conversion of his uncle Hamza, and of the fierce + and inflexible Omar, who signalized in the cause of Islam the same zeal, + which he had exerted for its destruction. Nor was the charity of Mahomet + confined to the tribe of Koreish, or the precincts of Mecca: on solemn + festivals, in the days of pilgrimage, he frequented the Caaba, accosted + the strangers of every tribe, and urged, both in private converse and + public discourse, the belief and worship of a sole Deity. Conscious of his + reason and of his weakness, he asserted the liberty of conscience, and + disclaimed the use of religious violence: <a href="#linknote-50.114" + name="linknoteref-50.114" id="linknoteref-50.114">114</a> but he called the + Arabs to repentance, and conjured them to remember the ancient idolaters + of Ad and Thamud, whom the divine justice had swept away from the face of + the earth. <a href="#linknote-50.115" name="linknoteref-50.115" + id="linknoteref-50.115">115</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.111" id="linknote-50.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.111">return</a>)<br /> [ Before I enter on the + history of the prophet, it is incumbent on me to produce my evidence. The + Latin, French, and English versions of the Koran are preceded by + historical discourses, and the three translators, Maracci, (tom. i. p. + 10-32,) Savary, (tom. i. p. 1-248,) and Sale, (Preliminary Discourse, p. + 33-56,) had accurately studied the language and character of their author. + Two professed Lives of Mahomet have been composed by Dr. Prideaux (Life of + Mahomet, seventh edition, London, 1718, in octavo) and the count de + Boulainvilliers, (Vie de Mahomed, Londres, 1730, in octavo: ) but the + adverse wish of finding an impostor or a hero, has too often corrupted the + learning of the doctor and the ingenuity of the count. The article in + D’Herbelot (Bibliot. Orient. p. 598-603) is chiefly drawn from Novairi and + Mirkond; but the best and most authentic of our guides is M. Gagnier, a + Frenchman by birth, and professor at Oxford of the Oriental tongues. In + two elaborate works, (Ismael Abulfeda de Vita et Rebus gestis Mohammedis, + &c. Latine vertit, Praefatione et Notis illustravit Johannes Gagnier, + Oxon. 1723, in folio. La Vie de Mahomet traduite et compilee de l’Alcoran, + des Traditions Authentiques de la Sonna et des meilleurs Auteurs Arabes; + Amsterdam, 1748, 3 vols. in 12mo.,) he has interpreted, illustrated, and + supplied the Arabic text of Abulfeda and Al Jannabi; the first, an + enlightened prince who reigned at Hamah, in Syria, A.D. 1310-1332, (see + Gagnier Praefat. ad Abulfed.;) the second, a credulous doctor, who visited + Mecca A.D. 1556. (D’Herbelot, p. 397. Gagnier, tom. iii. p. 209, 210.) + These are my general vouchers, and the inquisitive reader may follow the + order of time, and the division of chapters. Yet I must observe that both + Abulfeda and Al Jannabi are modern historians, and that they cannot appeal + to any writers of the first century of the Hegira. * Note: A new Life, by + Dr. Weil, (Stuttgart. 1843,) has added some few traditions unknown in + Europe. Of Dr. Weil’s Arabic scholarship, which professes to correct many + errors in Gagnier, in Maracci, and in M. von Hammer, I am no judge. But it + is remarkable that he does not seem acquainted with the passage of Tabari, + translated by Colonel Vans Kennedy, in the Bombay Transactions, (vol. + iii.,) the earliest and most important addition made to the traditionary + Life of Mahomet. I am inclined to think Colonel Vans Kennedy’s + appreciation of the prophet’s character, which may be overlooked in a + criticism on Voltaire’s Mahomet, the most just which I have ever read. The + work of Dr. Weil appears to me most valuable in its dissection and + chronological view of the Koran.—M. 1845] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.112" id="linknote-50.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.112">return</a>)<br /> [ After the Greeks, + Prideaux (p. 8) discloses the secret doubts of the wife of Mahomet. As if + he had been a privy counsellor of the prophet, Boulainvilliers (p. 272, + &c.) unfolds the sublime and patriotic views of Cadijah and the first + disciples.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.113" id="linknote-50.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.113">return</a>)<br /> [ Vezirus, portitor, + bajulus, onus ferens; and this plebeian name was transferred by an apt + metaphor to the pillars of the state, (Gagnier, Not. ad Abulfed. p. 19.) I + endeavor to preserve the Arabian idiom, as far as I can feel it myself in + a Latin or French translation.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.114" id="linknote-50.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.114">return</a>)<br /> [ The passages of the + Koran in behalf of toleration are strong and numerous: c. 2, v. 257, c. + 16, 129, c. 17, 54, c. 45, 15, c. 50, 39, c. 88, 21, &c., with the + notes of Maracci and Sale. This character alone may generally decide the + doubts of the learned, whether a chapter was revealed at Mecca or Medina.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.115" id="linknote-50.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.115">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Koran, + (passim, and especially c. 7, p. 123, 124, &c.,) and the tradition of + the Arabs, (Pocock, Specimen, p. 35-37.) The caverns of the tribe of + Thamud, fit for men of the ordinary stature, were shown in the midway + between Medina and Damascus. (Abulfed Arabiae Descript. p. 43, 44,) and + may be probably ascribed to the Throglodytes of the primitive world, + (Michaelis, ad Lowth de Poesi Hebraeor. p. 131-134. Recherches sur les + Egyptiens, tom. ii. p. 48, &c.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap50.5"></a> + Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + The people of Mecca were hardened in their unbelief by superstition and + envy. The elders of the city, the uncles of the prophet, affected to + despise the presumption of an orphan, the reformer of his country: the + pious orations of Mahomet in the Caaba were answered by the clamors of Abu + Taleb. “Citizens and pilgrims, listen not to the tempter, hearken not to + his impious novelties. Stand fast in the worship of Al Lata and Al Uzzah.” + Yet the son of Abdallah was ever dear to the aged chief: and he protected + the fame and person of his nephew against the assaults of the Koreishites, + who had long been jealous of the preeminence of the family of Hashem. + Their malice was colored with the pretence of religion: in the age of Job, + the crime of impiety was punished by the Arabian magistrate; <a + href="#linknote-50.116" name="linknoteref-50.116" id="linknoteref-50.116">116</a> + and Mahomet was guilty of deserting and denying the national deities. But + so loose was the policy of Mecca, that the leaders of the Koreish, instead + of accusing a criminal, were compelled to employ the measures of + persuasion or violence. They repeatedly addressed Abu Taleb in the style + of reproach and menace. “Thy nephew reviles our religion; he accuses our + wise forefathers of ignorance and folly; silence him quickly, lest he + kindle tumult and discord in the city. If he persevere, we shall draw our + swords against him and his adherents, and thou wilt be responsible for the + blood of thy fellow-citizens.” The weight and moderation of Abu Taleb + eluded the violence of religious faction; the most helpless or timid of + the disciples retired to Aethiopia, and the prophet withdrew himself to + various places of strength in the town and country. As he was still + supported by his family, the rest of the tribe of Koreish engaged + themselves to renounce all intercourse with the children of Hashem, + neither to buy nor sell, neither to marry not to give in marriage, but to + pursue them with implacable enmity, till they should deliver the person of + Mahomet to the justice of the gods. The decree was suspended in the Caaba + before the eyes of the nation; the messengers of the Koreish pursued the + Mussulman exiles in the heart of Africa: they besieged the prophet and his + most faithful followers, intercepted their water, and inflamed their + mutual animosity by the retaliation of injuries and insults. A doubtful + truce restored the appearances of concord till the death of Abu Taleb + abandoned Mahomet to the power of his enemies, at the moment when he was + deprived of his domestic comforts by the loss of his faithful and generous + Cadijah. Abu Sophian, the chief of the branch of Ommiyah, succeeded to the + principality of the republic of Mecca. A zealous votary of the idols, a + mortal foe of the line of Hashem, he convened an assembly of the + Koreishites and their allies, to decide the fate of the apostle. His + imprisonment might provoke the despair of his enthusiasm; and the exile of + an eloquent and popular fanatic would diffuse the mischief through the + provinces of Arabia. His death was resolved; and they agreed that a sword + from each tribe should be buried in his heart, to divide the guilt of his + blood, and baffle the vengeance of the Hashemites. An angel or a spy + revealed their conspiracy; and flight was the only resource of Mahomet. <a + href="#linknote-50.117" name="linknoteref-50.117" id="linknoteref-50.117">117</a> + At the dead of night, accompanied by his friend Abubeker, he silently + escaped from his house: the assassins watched at the door; but they were + deceived by the figure of Ali, who reposed on the bed, and was covered + with the green vestment of the apostle. The Koreish respected the piety of + the heroic youth; but some verses of Ali, which are still extant, exhibit + an interesting picture of his anxiety, his tenderness, and his religious + confidence. Three days Mahomet and his companion were concealed in the + cave of Thor, at the distance of a league from Mecca; and in the close of + each evening, they received from the son and daughter of Abubeker a secret + supply of intelligence and food. The diligence of the Koreish explored + every haunt in the neighborhood of the city: they arrived at the entrance + of the cavern; but the providential deceit of a spider’s web and a + pigeon’s nest is supposed to convince them that the place was solitary and + inviolate. “We are only two,” said the trembling Abubeker. “There is a + third,” replied the prophet; “it is God himself.” No sooner was the + pursuit abated than the two fugitives issued from the rock, and mounted + their camels: on the road to Medina, they were overtaken by the emissaries + of the Koreish; they redeemed themselves with prayers and promises from + their hands. In this eventful moment, the lance of an Arab might have + changed the history of the world. The flight of the prophet from Mecca to + Medina has fixed the memorable aera of the Hegira, <a + href="#linknote-50.118" name="linknoteref-50.118" id="linknoteref-50.118">118</a> + which, at the end of twelve centuries, still discriminates the lunar years + of the Mahometan nations. <a href="#linknote-50.119" + name="linknoteref-50.119" id="linknoteref-50.119">119</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.116" id="linknote-50.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.116">return</a>)<br /> [ In the time of Job, + the crime of impiety was punished by the Arabian magistrate, (c. 21, v. + 26, 27, 28.) I blush for a respectable prelate (de Poesi Hebraeorum, p. + 650, 651, edit. Michaelis; and letter of a late professor in the + university of Oxford, p. 15-53,) who justifies and applauds this + patriarchal inquisition.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.117" id="linknote-50.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.117">return</a>)<br /> [ D’Herbelot, Bibliot. + Orient. p. 445. He quotes a particular history of the flight of Mahomet.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.118" id="linknote-50.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.118">return</a>)<br /> [ The Hegira was + instituted by Omar, the second caliph, in imitation of the aera of the + martyrs of the Christians, (D’Herbelot, p. 444;) and properly commenced + sixty-eight days before the flight of Mahomet, with the first of Moharren, + or first day of that Arabian year which coincides with Friday, July 16th, + A.D. 622, (Abulfeda, Vit Moham, c. 22, 23, p. 45-50; and Greaves’s edition + of Ullug Beg’s Epochae Arabum, &c., c. 1, p. 8, 10, &c.) * Note: + Chronologists dispute between the 15th and 16th of July. St. Martin + inclines to the 8th, ch. xi. p. 70.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.119" id="linknote-50.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.119">return</a>)<br /> [ Mahomet’s life, from + his mission to the Hegira, may be found in Abulfeda (p. 14-45) and + Gagnier, (tom. i. p. 134-251, 342-383.) The legend from p. 187-234 is + vouched by Al Jannabi, and disdained by Abulfeda.] + </p> + <p> + The religion of the Koran might have perished in its cradle, had not + Medina embraced with faith and reverence the holy outcasts of Mecca. + Medina, or the city, known under the name of Yathreb, before it was + sanctified by the throne of the prophet, was divided between the tribes of + the Charegites and the Awsites, whose hereditary feud was rekindled by the + slightest provocations: two colonies of Jews, who boasted a sacerdotal + race, were their humble allies, and without converting the Arabs, they + introduced the taste of science and religion, which distinguished Medina + as the city of the Book. Some of her noblest citizens, in a pilgrimage to + the Canaba, were converted by the preaching of Mahomet; on their return, + they diffused the belief of God and his prophet, and the new alliance was + ratified by their deputies in two secret and nocturnal interviews on a + hill in the suburbs of Mecca. In the first, ten Charegites and two Awsites + united in faith and love, protested, in the name of their wives, their + children, and their absent brethren, that they would forever profess the + creed, and observe the precepts, of the Koran. The second was a political + association, the first vital spark of the empire of the Saracens. <a + href="#linknote-50.120" name="linknoteref-50.120" id="linknoteref-50.120">120</a> + Seventy-three men and two women of Medina held a solemn conference with + Mahomet, his kinsman, and his disciples; and pledged themselves to each + other by a mutual oath of fidelity. They promised, in the name of the + city, that if he should be banished, they would receive him as a + confederate, obey him as a leader, and defend him to the last extremity, + like their wives and children. “But if you are recalled by your country,” + they asked with a flattering anxiety, “will you not abandon your new + allies?” “All things,” replied Mahomet with a smile, “are now common + between us; your blood is as my blood, your ruin as my ruin. We are bound + to each other by the ties of honor and interest. I am your friend, and the + enemy of your foes.” “But if we are killed in your service, what,” + exclaimed the deputies of Medina, “will be our reward?” “Paradise,” + replied the prophet. “Stretch forth thy hand.” He stretched it forth, and + they reiterated the oath of allegiance and fidelity. Their treaty was + ratified by the people, who unanimously embraced the profession of Islam; + they rejoiced in the exile of the apostle, but they trembled for his + safety, and impatiently expected his arrival. After a perilous and rapid + journey along the sea-coast, he halted at Koba, two miles from the city, + and made his public entry into Medina, sixteen days after his flight from + Mecca. Five hundred of the citizens advanced to meet him; he was hailed + with acclamations of loyalty and devotion; Mahomet was mounted on a + she-camel, an umbrella shaded his head, and a turban was unfurled before + him to supply the deficiency of a standard. His bravest disciples, who had + been scattered by the storm, assembled round his person; and the equal, + though various, merit of the Moslems was distinguished by the names of + Mohagerians and Ansars, the fugitives of Mecca, and the auxiliaries of + Medina. To eradicate the seeds of jealousy, Mahomet judiciously coupled + his principal followers with the rights and obligations of brethren; and + when Ali found himself without a peer, the prophet tenderly declared, that + he would be the companion and brother of the noble youth. The expedient + was crowned with success; the holy fraternity was respected in peace and + war, and the two parties vied with each other in a generous emulation of + courage and fidelity. Once only the concord was slightly ruffled by an + accidental quarrel: a patriot of Medina arraigned the insolence of the + strangers, but the hint of their expulsion was heard with abhorrence; and + his own son most eagerly offered to lay at the apostle’s feet the head of + his father. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.120" id="linknote-50.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.120">return</a>)<br /> [ The triple + inauguration of Mahomet is described by Abulfeda (p. 30, 33, 40, 86) and + Gagnier, (tom. i. p. 342, &c., 349, &c., tom. ii. p. 223 &c.)] + </p> + <p> + From his establishment at Medina, Mahomet assumed the exercise of the + regal and sacerdotal office; and it was impious to appeal from a judge + whose decrees were inspired by the divine wisdom. A small portion of + ground, the patrimony of two orphans, was acquired by gift or purchase; <a + href="#linknote-50.121" name="linknoteref-50.121" id="linknoteref-50.121">121</a> + on that chosen spot he built a house and a mosch, more venerable in their + rude simplicity than the palaces and temples of the Assyrian caliphs. His + seal of gold, or silver, was inscribed with the apostolic title; when he + prayed and preached in the weekly assembly, he leaned against the trunk of + a palm-tree; and it was long before he indulged himself in the use of a + chair or pulpit of rough timber. <a href="#linknote-50.122" + name="linknoteref-50.122" id="linknoteref-50.122">122</a> After a reign of + six years, fifteen hundred Moslems, in arms and in the field, renewed + their oath of allegiance; and their chief repeated the assurance of + protection till the death of the last member, or the final dissolution of + the party. It was in the same camp that the deputy of Mecca was astonished + by the attention of the faithful to the words and looks of the prophet, by + the eagerness with which they collected his spittle, a hair that dropped + on the ground, the refuse water of his lustrations, as if they + participated in some degree of the prophetic virtue. “I have seen,” said + he, “the Chosroes of Persia and the Caesar of Rome, but never did I behold + a king among his subjects like Mahomet among his companions.” The devout + fervor of enthusiasm acts with more energy and truth than the cold and + formal servility of courts. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.121" id="linknote-50.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.121">return</a>)<br /> [ Prideaux (Life of + Mahomet, p. 44) reviles the wickedness of the impostor, who despoiled two + poor orphans, the sons of a carpenter; a reproach which he drew from the + Disputatio contra Saracenos, composed in Arabic before the year 1130; but + the honest Gagnier (ad Abulfed. p. 53) has shown that they were deceived + by the word Al Nagjar, which signifies, in this place, not an obscure + trade, but a noble tribe of Arabs. The desolate state of the ground is + described by Abulfeda; and his worthy interpreter has proved, from Al + Bochari, the offer of a price; from Al Jannabi, the fair purchase; and + from Ahmeq Ben Joseph, the payment of the money by the generous Abubeker + On these grounds the prophet must be honorably acquitted.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.122" id="linknote-50.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.122">return</a>)<br /> [ Al Jannabi (apud + Gagnier, tom. ii. p. 246, 324) describes the seal and pulpit, as two + venerable relics of the apostle of God; and the portrait of his court is + taken from Abulfeda, (c. 44, p. 85.)] + </p> + <p> + In the state of nature, every man has a right to defend, by force of arms, + his person and his possessions; to repel, or even to prevent, the violence + of his enemies, and to extend his hostilities to a reasonable measure of + satisfaction and retaliation. In the free society of the Arabs, the duties + of subject and citizen imposed a feeble restraint; and Mahomet, in the + exercise of a peaceful and benevolent mission, had been despoiled and + banished by the injustice of his countrymen. The choice of an independent + people had exalted the fugitive of Mecca to the rank of a sovereign; and + he was invested with the just prerogative of forming alliances, and of + waging offensive or defensive war. The imperfection of human rights was + supplied and armed by the plenitude of divine power: the prophet of Medina + assumed, in his new revelations, a fiercer and more sanguinary tone, which + proves that his former moderation was the effect of weakness: <a + href="#linknote-50.123" name="linknoteref-50.123" id="linknoteref-50.123">123</a> + the means of persuasion had been tried, the season of forbearance was + elapsed, and he was now commanded to propagate his religion by the sword, + to destroy the monuments of idolatry, and, without regarding the sanctity + of days or months, to pursue the unbelieving nations of the earth. The + same bloody precepts, so repeatedly inculcated in the Koran, are ascribed + by the author to the Pentateuch and the Gospel. But the mild tenor of the + evangelic style may explain an ambiguous text, that Jesus did not bring + peace on the earth, but a sword: his patient and humble virtues should not + be confounded with the intolerant zeal of princes and bishops, who have + disgraced the name of his disciples. In the prosecution of religious war, + Mahomet might appeal with more propriety to the example of Moses, of the + Judges, and the kings of Israel. The military laws of the Hebrews are + still more rigid than those of the Arabian legislator. <a + href="#linknote-50.124" name="linknoteref-50.124" id="linknoteref-50.124">124</a> + The Lord of hosts marched in person before the Jews: if a city resisted + their summons, the males, without distinction, were put to the sword: the + seven nations of Canaan were devoted to destruction; and neither + repentance nor conversion, could shield them from the inevitable doom, + that no creature within their precincts should be left alive. <a + href="#linknote-50.1241" name="linknoteref-50.1241" id="linknoteref-50.1241">1241</a> + The fair option of friendship, or submission, or battle, was proposed to + the enemies of Mahomet. If they professed the creed of Islam, they were + admitted to all the temporal and spiritual benefits of his primitive + disciples, and marched under the same banner to extend the religion which + they had embraced. The clemency of the prophet was decided by his + interest: yet he seldom trampled on a prostrate enemy; and he seems to + promise, that on the payment of a tribute, the least guilty of his + unbelieving subjects might be indulged in their worship, or at least in + their imperfect faith. In the first months of his reign he practised the + lessons of holy warfare, and displayed his white banner before the gates + of Medina: the martial apostle fought in person at nine battles or sieges; + <a href="#linknote-50.125" name="linknoteref-50.125" id="linknoteref-50.125">125</a> + and fifty enterprises of war were achieved in ten years by himself or his + lieutenants. The Arab continued to unite the professions of a merchant and + a robber; and his petty excursions for the defence or the attack of a + caravan insensibly prepared his troops for the conquest of Arabia. The + distribution of the spoil was regulated by a divine law: <a + href="#linknote-50.126" name="linknoteref-50.126" id="linknoteref-50.126">126</a> + the whole was faithfully collected in one common mass: a fifth of the gold + and silver, the prisoners and cattle, the movables and immovables, was + reserved by the prophet for pious and charitable uses; the remainder was + shared in adequate portions by the soldiers who had obtained the victory + or guarded the camp: the rewards of the slain devolved to their widows and + orphans; and the increase of cavalry was encouraged by the allotment of a + double share to the horse and to the man. From all sides the roving Arabs + were allured to the standard of religion and plunder: the apostle + sanctified the license of embracing the female captives as their wives or + concubines, and the enjoyment of wealth and beauty was a feeble type of + the joys of paradise prepared for the valiant martyrs of the faith. “The + sword,” says Mahomet, “is the key of heaven and of hell; a drop of blood + shed in the cause of God, a night spent in arms, is of more avail than two + months of fasting or prayer: whosoever falls in battle, his sins are + forgiven: at the day of judgment his wounds shall be resplendent as + vermilion, and odoriferous as musk; and the loss of his limbs shall be + supplied by the wings of angels and cherubim.” The intrepid souls of the + Arabs were fired with enthusiasm: the picture of the invisible world was + strongly painted on their imagination; and the death which they had always + despised became an object of hope and desire. The Koran inculcates, in the + most absolute sense, the tenets of fate and predestination, which would + extinguish both industry and virtue, if the actions of man were governed + by his speculative belief. Yet their influence in every age has exalted + the courage of the Saracens and Turks. The first companions of Mahomet + advanced to battle with a fearless confidence: there is no danger where + there is no chance: they were ordained to perish in their beds; or they + were safe and invulnerable amidst the darts of the enemy. <a + href="#linknote-50.127" name="linknoteref-50.127" id="linknoteref-50.127">127</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.123" id="linknote-50.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.123">return</a>)<br /> [ The viiith and ixth + chapters of the Koran are the loudest and most vehement; and Maracci + (Prodromus, part iv. p. 59-64) has inveighed with more justice than + discretion against the double dealing of the impostor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.124" id="linknote-50.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.124">return</a>)<br /> [ The xth and xxth + chapters of Deuteronomy, with the practical comments of Joshua, David, + &c., are read with more awe than satisfaction by the pious Christians + of the present age. But the bishops, as well as the rabbis of former + times, have beat the drum-ecclesiastic with pleasure and success. (Sale’s + Preliminary Discourse, p. 142, 143.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1241" id="linknote-50.1241"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1241 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1241">return</a>)<br /> [ The editor’s + opinions on this subject may be read in the History of the Jews vol. i. p. + 137.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.125" id="linknote-50.125"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.125">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulfeda, in Vit. + Moham. p. 156. The private arsenal of the apostle consisted of nine + swords, three lances, seven pikes or half-pikes, a quiver and three bows, + seven cuirasses, three shields, and two helmets, (Gagnier, tom. iii. p. + 328-334,) with a large white standard, a black banner, (p. 335,) twenty + horses, (p. 322, &c.) Two of his martial sayings are recorded by + tradition, (Gagnier, tom. ii. p. 88, 334.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.126" id="linknote-50.126"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.126">return</a>)<br /> [ The whole subject de + jure belli Mohammedanorum is exhausted in a separate dissertation by the + learned Reland, (Dissertationes Miscellaneae, tom. iii. Dissertat. x. p. + 3-53.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.127" id="linknote-50.127"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.127">return</a>)<br /> [ The doctrine of + absolute predestination, on which few religions can reproach each other, + is sternly exposed in the Koran, (c. 3, p. 52, 53, c. 4, p. 70, &c., + with the notes of Sale, and c. 17, p. 413, with those of Maracci.) Reland + (de Relig. Moham. p. 61-64) and Sale (Prelim. Discourse, p. 103) represent + the opinions of the doctors, and our modern travellers the confidence, the + fading confidence, of the Turks] + </p> + <p> + Perhaps the Koreish would have been content with the dight of Mahomet, had + they not been provoked and alarmed by the vengeance of an enemy, who could + intercept their Syrian trade as it passed and repassed through the + territory of Medina. Abu Sophian himself, with only thirty or forty + followers, conducted a wealthy caravan of a thousand camels; the fortune + or dexterity of his march escaped the vigilance of Mahomet; but the chief + of the Koreish was informed that the holy robbers were placed in ambush to + await his return. He despatched a messenger to his brethren of Mecca, and + they were roused, by the fear of losing their merchandise and their + provisions, unless they hastened to his relief with the military force of + the city. The sacred band of Mahomet was formed of three hundred and + thirteen Moslems, of whom seventy-seven were fugitives, and the rest + auxiliaries; they mounted by turns a train of seventy camels, (the camels + of Yathreb were formidable in war;) but such was the poverty of his first + disciples, that only two could appear on horseback in the field. <a + href="#linknote-50.128" name="linknoteref-50.128" id="linknoteref-50.128">128</a> + In the fertile and famous vale of Beder, <a href="#linknote-50.129" + name="linknoteref-50.129" id="linknoteref-50.129">129</a> three stations + from Medina, he was informed by his scouts of the caravan that approached + on one side; of the Koreish, one hundred horse, eight hundred and fifty + foot, who advanced on the other. After a short debate, he sacrificed the + prospect of wealth to the pursuit of glory and revenge, and a slight + intrenchment was formed, to cover his troops, and a stream of fresh water, + that glided through the valley. “O God,” he exclaimed, as the numbers of + the Koreish descended from the hills, “O God, if these are destroyed, by + whom wilt thou be worshipped on the earth?—Courage, my children; + close your ranks; discharge your arrows, and the day is your own.” At + these words he placed himself, with Abubeker, on a throne or pulpit, <a + href="#linknote-50.130" name="linknoteref-50.130" id="linknoteref-50.130">130</a> + and instantly demanded the succor of Gabriel and three thousand angels. + His eye was fixed on the field of battle: the Mussulmans fainted and were + pressed: in that decisive moment the prophet started from his throne, + mounted his horse, and cast a handful of sand into the air: “Let their + faces be covered with confusion.” Both armies heard the thunder of his + voice: their fancy beheld the angelic warriors: <a href="#linknote-50.131" + name="linknoteref-50.131" id="linknoteref-50.131">131</a> the Koreish + trembled and fled: seventy of the bravest were slain; and seventy captives + adorned the first victory of the faithful. The dead bodies of the Koreish + were despoiled and insulted: two of the most obnoxious prisoners were + punished with death; and the ransom of the others, four thousand drams of + silver, compensated in some degree the escape of the caravan. But it was + in vain that the camels of Abu Sophian explored a new road through the + desert and along the Euphrates: they were overtaken by the diligence of + the Mussulmans; and wealthy must have been the prize, if twenty thousand + drams could be set apart for the fifth of the apostle. The resentment of + the public and private loss stimulated Abu Sophian to collect a body of + three thousand men, seven hundred of whom were armed with cuirasses, and + two hundred were mounted on horseback; three thousand camels attended his + march; and his wife Henda, with fifteen matrons of Mecca, incessantly + sounded their timbrels to animate the troops, and to magnify the greatness + of Hobal, the most popular deity of the Caaba. The standard of God and + Mahomet was upheld by nine hundred and fifty believers: the disproportion + of numbers was not more alarming than in the field of Beder; and their + presumption of victory prevailed against the divine and human sense of the + apostle. The second battle was fought on Mount Ohud, six miles to the + north of Medina; <a href="#linknote-50.132" name="linknoteref-50.132" + id="linknoteref-50.132">132</a> the Koreish advanced in the form of a + crescent; and the right wing of cavalry was led by Caled, the fiercest and + most successful of the Arabian warriors. The troops of Mahomet were + skilfully posted on the declivity of the hill; and their rear was guarded + by a detachment of fifty archers. The weight of their charge impelled and + broke the centre of the idolaters: but in the pursuit they lost the + advantage of their ground: the archers deserted their station: the + Mussulmans were tempted by the spoil, disobeyed their general, and + disordered their ranks. The intrepid Caled, wheeling his cavalry on their + flank and rear, exclaimed, with a loud voice, that Mahomet was slain. He + was indeed wounded in the face with a javelin: two of his teeth were + shattered with a stone; yet, in the midst of tumult and dismay, he + reproached the infidels with the murder of a prophet; and blessed the + friendly hand that stanched his blood, and conveyed him to a place of + safety. Seventy martyrs died for the sins of the people; they fell, said + the apostle, in pairs, each brother embracing his lifeless companion; <a + href="#linknote-50.133" name="linknoteref-50.133" id="linknoteref-50.133">133</a> + their bodies were mangled by the inhuman females of Mecca; and the wife of + Abu Sophian tasted the entrails of Hamza, the uncle of Mahomet. They might + applaud their superstition, and satiate their fury; but the Mussulmans + soon rallied in the field, and the Koreish wanted strength or courage to + undertake the siege of Medina. It was attacked the ensuing year by an army + of ten thousand enemies; and this third expedition is variously named from + the nations, which marched under the banner of Abu Sophian, from the ditch + which was drawn before the city, and a camp of three thousand Mussulmans. + The prudence of Mahomet declined a general engagement: the valor of Ali + was signalized in single combat; and the war was protracted twenty days, + till the final separation of the confederates. A tempest of wind, rain, + and hail, overturned their tents: their private quarrels were fomented by + an insidious adversary; and the Koreish, deserted by their allies, no + longer hoped to subvert the throne, or to check the conquests, of their + invincible exile. <a href="#linknote-50.134" name="linknoteref-50.134" + id="linknoteref-50.134">134</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.128" id="linknote-50.128"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.128">return</a>)<br /> [ Al Jannabi (apud + Gagnier, tom. ii. p. 9) allows him seventy or eighty horse; and on two + other occasions, prior to the battle of Ohud, he enlists a body of thirty + (p. 10) and of 500 (p. 66) troopers. Yet the Mussulmans, in the field of + Ohud, had no more than two horses, according to the better sense of + Abulfeda, (in Vit. Moham. c. xxxi. p. 65.) In the Stony province, the + camels were numerous; but the horse appears to have been less numerous + than in the Happy or the Desert Arabia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.129" id="linknote-50.129"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.129">return</a>)<br /> [ Bedder Houneene, + twenty miles from Medina, and forty from Mecca, is on the high road of the + caravan of Egypt; and the pilgrims annually commemorate the prophet’s + victory by illuminations, rockets, &c. Shaw’s Travels, p. 477.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.130" id="linknote-50.130"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.130">return</a>)<br /> [ The place to which + Mahomet retired during the action is styled by Gagnier (in Abulfeda, c. + 27, p. 58. Vie de Mahomet, tom. ii. p. 30, 33) Umbraculum, une loge de + bois avec une porte. The same Arabic word is rendered by Reiske (Annales + Moslemici Abulfedae, p. 23) by Solium, Suggestus editior; and the + difference is of the utmost moment for the honor both of the interpreter + and of the hero. I am sorry to observe the pride and acrimony with which + Reiske chastises his fellow-laborer. Saepi sic vertit, ut integrae paginae + nequeant nisi una litura corrigi Arabice non satis callebat, et carebat + judicio critico. J. J. Reiske, Prodidagmata ad Hagji Chalisae Tabulas, p. + 228, ad calcero Abulfedae Syriae Tabulae; Lipsiae, 1766, in 4to.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.131" id="linknote-50.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.131">return</a>)<br /> [ The loose expressions + of the Koran (c. 3, p. 124, 125, c. 8, p. 9) allow the commentators to + fluctuate between the numbers of 1000, 3000, or 9000 angels; and the + smallest of these might suffice for the slaughter of seventy of the + Koreish, (Maracci, Alcoran, tom. ii. p. 131.) Yet the same scholiasts + confess that this angelic band was not visible to any mortal eye, + (Maracci, p. 297.) They refine on the words (c. 8, 16) “not thou, but + God,” &c. (D’Herbelot. Bibliot. Orientale p. 600, 601.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.132" id="linknote-50.132"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.132">return</a>)<br /> [ Geograph. Nubiensis, + p. 47.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.133" id="linknote-50.133"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.133">return</a>)<br /> [ In the iiid chapter + of the Koran, (p. 50-53) with Sale’s notes, the prophet alleges some poor + excuses for the defeat of Ohud. * Note: Dr. Weil has added some curious + circumstances, which he gives as on good traditional authority, on the + rescue of Mahomet. The prophet was attacked by Ubeijj Ibn Challaf, whom he + struck on the neck with a mortal wound. This was the only time, it is + added, that Mahomet personally engaged in battle. (p. 128.)—M. + 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.134" id="linknote-50.134"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.134">return</a>)<br /> [ For the detail of the + three Koreish wars, of Beder, of Ohud, and of the ditch, peruse Abulfeda, + (p. 56-61, 64-69, 73-77,) Gagnier (tom. i. p. 23-45, 70-96, 120-139,) with + the proper articles of D’Herbelot, and the abridgments of Elmacin (Hist. + Saracen. p. 6, 7) and Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 102.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap50.6"></a> + Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part VI. + </h2> + <p> + The choice of Jerusalem for the first kebla of prayer discovers the early + propensity of Mahomet in favor of the Jews; and happy would it have been + for their temporal interest, had they recognized, in the Arabian prophet, + the hope of Israel and the promised Messiah. Their obstinacy converted his + friendship into implacable hatred, with which he pursued that unfortunate + people to the last moment of his life; and in the double character of an + apostle and a conqueror, his persecution was extended to both worlds. <a + href="#linknote-50.135" name="linknoteref-50.135" id="linknoteref-50.135">135</a> + The Kainoka dwelt at Medina under the protection of the city; he seized + the occasion of an accidental tumult, and summoned them to embrace his + religion, or contend with him in battle. “Alas!” replied the trembling + Jews, “we are ignorant of the use of arms, but we persevere in the faith + and worship of our fathers; why wilt thou reduce us to the necessity of a + just defence?” The unequal conflict was terminated in fifteen days; and it + was with extreme reluctance that Mahomet yielded to the importunity of his + allies, and consented to spare the lives of the captives. But their riches + were confiscated, their arms became more effectual in the hands of the + Mussulmans; and a wretched colony of seven hundred exiles was driven, with + their wives and children, to implore a refuge on the confines of Syria. + The Nadhirites were more guilty, since they conspired, in a friendly + interview, to assassinate the prophet. He besieged their castle, three + miles from Medina; but their resolute defence obtained an honorable + capitulation; and the garrison, sounding their trumpets and beating their + drums, was permitted to depart with the honors of war. The Jews had + excited and joined the war of the Koreish: no sooner had the nations + retired from the ditch, than Mahomet, without laying aside his armor, + marched on the same day to extirpate the hostile race of the children of + Koraidha. After a resistance of twenty-five days, they surrendered at + discretion. They trusted to the intercession of their old allies of + Medina; they could not be ignorant that fanaticism obliterates the + feelings of humanity. A venerable elder, to whose judgment they appealed, + pronounced the sentence of their death; seven hundred Jews were dragged in + chains to the market-place of the city; they descended alive into the + grave prepared for their execution and burial; and the apostle beheld with + an inflexible eye the slaughter of his helpless enemies. Their sheep and + camels were inherited by the Mussulmans: three hundred cuirasses, five + hundred pikes, a thousand lances, composed the most useful portion of the + spoil. Six days’ journey to the north-east of Medina, the ancient and + wealthy town of Chaibar was the seat of the Jewish power in Arabia: the + territory, a fertile spot in the desert, was covered with plantations and + cattle, and protected by eight castles, some of which were esteemed of + impregnable strength. The forces of Mahomet consisted of two hundred horse + and fourteen hundred foot: in the succession of eight regular and painful + sieges they were exposed to danger, and fatigue, and hunger; and the most + undaunted chiefs despaired of the event. The apostle revived their faith + and courage by the example of Ali, on whom he bestowed the surname of the + Lion of God: perhaps we may believe that a Hebrew champion of gigantic + stature was cloven to the chest by his irresistible cimeter; but we cannot + praise the modesty of romance, which represents him as tearing from its + hinges the gate of a fortress and wielding the ponderous buckler in his + left hand. <a href="#linknote-50.136" name="linknoteref-50.136" + id="linknoteref-50.136">136</a> After the reduction of the castles, the + town of Chaibar submitted to the yoke. The chief of the tribe was + tortured, in the presence of Mahomet, to force a confession of his hidden + treasure: the industry of the shepherds and husbandmen was rewarded with a + precarious toleration: they were permitted, so long as it should please + the conqueror, to improve their patrimony, in equal shares, for his + emolument and their own. Under the reign of Omar, the Jews of Chaibar were + transported to Syria; and the caliph alleged the injunction of his dying + master; that one and the true religion should be professed in his native + land of Arabia. <a href="#linknote-50.137" name="linknoteref-50.137" + id="linknoteref-50.137">137</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.135" id="linknote-50.135"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.135">return</a>)<br /> [ The wars of Mahomet + against the Jewish tribes of Kainoka, the Nadhirites, Koraidha, and + Chaibar, are related by Abulfeda (p. 61, 71, 77, 87, &c.) and Gagnier, + (tom. ii. p. 61-65, 107-112, 139-148, 268-294.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.136" id="linknote-50.136"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.136">return</a>)<br /> [ Abu Rafe, the servant + of Mahomet, is said to affirm that he himself, and seven other men, + afterwards tried, without success, to move the same gate from the ground, + (Abulfeda, p. 90.) Abu Rafe was an eye-witness, but who will be witness + for Abu Rafe?] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.137" id="linknote-50.137"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.137">return</a>)<br /> [ The banishment of the + Jews is attested by Elmacin (Hist. Saracen, p. 9) and the great Al Zabari, + (Gagnier, tom. ii. p. 285.) Yet Niebuhr (Description de l’Arabie, p. 324) + believes that the Jewish religion, and Karaite sect, are still professed + by the tribe of Chaibar; and that, in the plunder of the caravans, the + disciples of Moses are the confederates of those of Mahomet.] + </p> + <p> + Five times each day the eyes of Mahomet were turned towards Mecca, <a + href="#linknote-50.138" name="linknoteref-50.138" id="linknoteref-50.138">138</a> + and he was urged by the most sacred and powerful motives to revisit, as a + conqueror, the city and the temple from whence he had been driven as an + exile. The Caaba was present to his waking and sleeping fancy: an idle + dream was translated into vision and prophecy; he unfurled the holy + banner; and a rash promise of success too hastily dropped from the lips of + the apostle. His march from Medina to Mecca displayed the peaceful and + solemn pomp of a pilgrimage: seventy camels, chosen and bedecked for + sacrifice, preceded the van; the sacred territory was respected; and the + captives were dismissed without ransom to proclaim his clemency and + devotion. But no sooner did Mahomet descend into the plain, within a day’s + journey of the city, than he exclaimed, “They have clothed themselves with + the skins of tigers:” the numbers and resolution of the Koreish opposed + his progress; and the roving Arabs of the desert might desert or betray a + leader whom they had followed for the hopes of spoil. The intrepid fanatic + sunk into a cool and cautious politician: he waived in the treaty his + title of apostle of God; concluded with the Koreish and their allies a + truce of ten years; engaged to restore the fugitives of Mecca who should + embrace his religion; and stipulated only, for the ensuing year, the + humble privilege of entering the city as a friend, and of remaining three + days to accomplish the rites of the pilgrimage. A cloud of shame and + sorrow hung on the retreat of the Mussulmans, and their disappointment + might justly accuse the failure of a prophet who had so often appealed to + the evidence of success. The faith and hope of the pilgrims were rekindled + by the prospect of Mecca: their swords were sheathed; <a + href="#linknote-50.1381" name="linknoteref-50.1381" id="linknoteref-50.1381">1381</a> + seven times in the footsteps of the apostle they encompassed the Caaba: + the Koreish had retired to the hills, and Mahomet, after the customary + sacrifice, evacuated the city on the fourth day. The people was edified by + his devotion; the hostile chiefs were awed, or divided, or seduced; and + both Kaled and Amrou, the future conquerors of Syria and Egypt, most + seasonably deserted the sinking cause of idolatry. The power of Mahomet + was increased by the submission of the Arabian tribes; ten thousand + soldiers were assembled for the conquest of Mecca; and the idolaters, the + weaker party, were easily convicted of violating the truce. Enthusiasm and + discipline impelled the march, and preserved the secret till the blaze of + ten thousand fires proclaimed to the astonished Koreish the design, the + approach, and the irresistible force of the enemy. The haughty Abu Sophian + presented the keys of the city, admired the variety of arms and ensigns + that passed before him in review; observed that the son of Abdallah had + acquired a mighty kingdom, and confessed, under the cimeter of Omar, that + he was the apostle of the true God. The return of Marius and Scylla was + stained with the blood of the Romans: the revenge of Mahomet was + stimulated by religious zeal, and his injured followers were eager to + execute or to prevent the order of a massacre. Instead of indulging their + passions and his own, <a href="#linknote-50.139" name="linknoteref-50.139" + id="linknoteref-50.139">139</a> the victorious exile forgave the guilt, and + united the factions, of Mecca. His troops, in three divisions, marched + into the city: eight-and-twenty of the inhabitants were slain by the sword + of Caled; eleven men and six women were proscribed by the sentence of + Mahomet; but he blamed the cruelty of his lieutenant; and several of the + most obnoxious victims were indebted for their lives to his clemency or + contempt. The chiefs of the Koreish were prostrate at his feet. “What + mercy can you expect from the man whom you have wronged?” “We confide in + the generosity of our kinsman.” “And you shall not confide in vain: + begone! you are safe, you are free” The people of Mecca deserved their + pardon by the profession of Islam; and after an exile of seven years, the + fugitive missionary was enthroned as the prince and prophet of his native + country. <a href="#linknote-50.140" name="linknoteref-50.140" + id="linknoteref-50.140">140</a> But the three hundred and sixty idols of + the Caaba were ignominiously broken: the house of God was purified and + adorned: as an example to future times, the apostle again fulfilled the + duties of a pilgrim; and a perpetual law was enacted that no unbeliever + should dare to set his foot on the territory of the holy city. <a + href="#linknote-50.141" name="linknoteref-50.141" id="linknoteref-50.141">141</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.138" id="linknote-50.138"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.138">return</a>)<br /> [ The successive steps + of the reduction of Mecca are related by Abulfeda (p. 84-87, 97-100, + 102-111) and Gagnier, (tom. ii. p. 202-245, 309-322, tom. iii. p. 1-58,) + Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 8, 9, 10,) Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 103.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1381" id="linknote-50.1381"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1381 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1381">return</a>)<br /> [ This peaceful + entrance into Mecca took place, according to the treaty the following + year. Weil, p. 202—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.139" id="linknote-50.139"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.139">return</a>)<br /> [ After the conquest of + Mecca, the Mahomet of Voltaire imagines and perpetuates the most horrid + crimes. The poet confesses, that he is not supported by the truth of + history, and can only allege, que celui qui fait la guerre a sa patrie au + nom de Dieu, est capable de tout, (Oeuvres de Voltaire, tom. xv. p. 282.) + The maxim is neither charitable nor philosophic; and some reverence is + surely due to the fame of heroes and the religion of nations. I am + informed that a Turkish ambassador at Paris was much scandalized at the + representation of this tragedy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.140" id="linknote-50.140"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.140">return</a>)<br /> [ The Mahometan doctors + still dispute, whether Mecca was reduced by force or consent, (Abulfeda, + p. 107, et Gagnier ad locum;) and this verbal controversy is of as much + moment as our own about William the Conqueror.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.141" id="linknote-50.141"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 141 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.141">return</a>)<br /> [ In excluding the + Christians from the peninsula of Arabia, the province of Hejaz, or the + navigation of the Red Sea, Chardin (Voyages en Perse, tom. iv. p. 166) and + Reland (Dissertat. Miscell. tom. iii. p. 61) are more rigid than the + Mussulmans themselves. The Christians are received without scruple into + the ports of Mocha, and even of Gedda; and it is only the city and + precincts of Mecca that are inaccessible to the profane, (Niebuhr, + Description de l’Arabie, p. 308, 309, Voyage en Arabie, tom. i. p. 205, + 248, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + The conquest of Mecca determined the faith and obedience of the Arabian + tribes; <a href="#linknote-50.142" name="linknoteref-50.142" + id="linknoteref-50.142">142</a> who, according to the vicissitudes of + fortune, had obeyed, or disregarded, the eloquence or the arms of the + prophet. Indifference for rites and opinions still marks the character of + the Bedoweens; and they might accept, as loosely as they hold, the + doctrine of the Koran. Yet an obstinate remnant still adhered to the + religion and liberty of their ancestors, and the war of Honain derived a + proper appellation from the idols, whom Mahomet had vowed to destroy, and + whom the confederates of Tayef had sworn to defend. <a + href="#linknote-50.143" name="linknoteref-50.143" id="linknoteref-50.143">143</a> + Four thousand Pagans advanced with secrecy and speed to surprise the + conqueror: they pitied and despised the supine negligence of the Koreish, + but they depended on the wishes, and perhaps the aid, of a people who had + so lately renounced their gods, and bowed beneath the yoke of their enemy. + The banners of Medina and Mecca were displayed by the prophet; a crowd of + Bedoweens increased the strength or numbers of the army, and twelve + thousand Mussulmans entertained a rash and sinful presumption of their + invincible strength. They descended without precaution into the valley of + Honain: the heights had been occupied by the archers and slingers of the + confederates; their numbers were oppressed, their discipline was + confounded, their courage was appalled, and the Koreish smiled at their + impending destruction. The prophet, on his white mule, was encompassed by + the enemies: he attempted to rush against their spears in search of a + glorious death: ten of his faithful companions interposed their weapons + and their breasts; three of these fell dead at his feet: “O my brethren,” + he repeatedly cried, with sorrow and indignation, “I am the son of + Abdallah, I am the apostle of truth! O man, stand fast in the faith! O + God, send down thy succor!” His uncle Abbas, who, like the heroes of + Homer, excelled in the loudness of his voice, made the valley resound with + the recital of the gifts and promises of God: the flying Moslems returned + from all sides to the holy standard; and Mahomet observed with pleasure + that the furnace was again rekindled: his conduct and example restored the + battle, and he animated his victorious troops to inflict a merciless + revenge on the authors of their shame. From the field of Honain, he + marched without delay to the siege of Tayef, sixty miles to the south-east + of Mecca, a fortress of strength, whose fertile lands produce the fruits + of Syria in the midst of the Arabian desert. A friendly tribe, instructed + (I know not how) in the art of sieges, supplied him with a train of + battering-rams and military engines, with a body of five hundred + artificers. But it was in vain that he offered freedom to the slaves of + Tayef; that he violated his own laws by the extirpation of the + fruit-trees; that the ground was opened by the miners; that the breach was + assaulted by the troops. After a siege of twenty-days, the prophet sounded + a retreat; but he retreated with a song of devout triumph, and affected to + pray for the repentance and safety of the unbelieving city. The spoils of + this fortunate expedition amounted to six thousand captives, twenty-four + thousand camels, forty thousand sheep, and four thousand ounces of silver: + a tribe who had fought at Hoinan redeemed their prisoners by the sacrifice + of their idols; but Mahomet compensated the loss, by resigning to the + soldiers his fifth of the plunder, and wished, for their sake, that he + possessed as many head of cattle as there were trees in the province of + Tehama. Instead of chastising the disaffection of the Koreish, he + endeavored to cut out their tongues, (his own expression,) and to secure + their attachment by a superior measure of liberality: Abu Sophian alone + was presented with three hundred camels and twenty ounces of silver; and + Mecca was sincerely converted to the profitable religion of the Koran. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.142" id="linknote-50.142"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 142 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.142">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulfeda, p. 112-115. + Gagnier, tom. iii. p. 67-88. D’Herbelot, Mohammed.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.143" id="linknote-50.143"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 143 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.143">return</a>)<br /> [ The siege of Tayef, + division of the spoil, &c., are related by Abulfeda (p. 117-123) and + Gagnier, (tom. iii. p. 88-111.) It is Al Jannabi who mentions the engines + and engineers of the tribe of Daws. The fertile spot of Tayef was supposed + to be a piece of the land of Syria detached and dropped in the general + deluge] + </p> + <p> + The fugitives and auxiliaries complained, that they who had borne the + burden were neglected in the season of victory “Alas!” replied their + artful leader, “suffer me to conciliate these recent enemies, these + doubtful proselytes, by the gift of some perishable goods. To your guard I + intrust my life and fortunes. You are the companions of my exile, of my + kingdom, of my paradise.” He was followed by the deputies of Tayef, who + dreaded the repetition of a siege. “Grant us, O apostle of God! a truce of + three years, with the toleration of our ancient worship.” “Not a month, + not an hour.” “Excuse us at least from the obligation of prayer.” “Without + prayer religion is of no avail.” They submitted in silence: their temples + were demolished, and the same sentence of destruction was executed on all + the idols of Arabia. His lieutenants, on the shores of the Red Sea, the + Ocean, and the Gulf of Persia, were saluted by the acclamations of a + faithful people; and the ambassadors, who knelt before the throne of + Medina, were as numerous (says the Arabian proverb) as the dates that fall + from the maturity of a palm-tree. The nation submitted to the God and the + sceptre of Mahomet: the opprobrious name of tribute was abolished: the + spontaneous or reluctant oblations of arms and tithes were applied to the + service of religion; and one hundred and fourteen thousand Moslems + accompanied the last pilgrimage of the apostle. <a href="#linknote-50.144" + name="linknoteref-50.144" id="linknoteref-50.144">144</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.144" id="linknote-50.144"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 144 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.144">return</a>)<br /> [ The last conquests + and pilgrimage of Mahomet are contained in Abulfeda, (p. 121, 133,) + Gagnier, (tom. iii. p. 119-219,) Elmacin, (p. 10, 11,) Abulpharagius, (p. + 103.) The ixth of the Hegira was styled the Year of Embassies, (Gagnier, + Not. ad Abulfed. p. 121.)] + </p> + <p> + When Heraclius returned in triumph from the Persian war, he entertained, + at Emesa, one of the ambassadors of Mahomet, who invited the princes and + nations of the earth to the profession of Islam. On this foundation the + zeal of the Arabians has supposed the secret conversion of the Christian + emperor: the vanity of the Greeks has feigned a personal visit of the + prince of Medina, who accepted from the royal bounty a rich domain, and a + secure retreat, in the province of Syria. <a href="#linknote-50.145" + name="linknoteref-50.145" id="linknoteref-50.145">145</a> But the friendship + of Heraclius and Mahomet was of short continuance: the new religion had + inflamed rather than assuaged the rapacious spirit of the Saracens, and + the murder of an envoy afforded a decent pretence for invading, with three + thousand soldiers, the territory of Palestine, that extends to the + eastward of the Jordan. The holy banner was intrusted to Zeid; and such + was the discipline or enthusiasm of the rising sect, that the noblest + chiefs served without reluctance under the slave of the prophet. On the + event of his decease, Jaafar and Abdallah were successively substituted to + the command; and if the three should perish in the war, the troops were + authorized to elect their general. The three leaders were slain in the + battle of Muta, <a href="#linknote-50.146" name="linknoteref-50.146" + id="linknoteref-50.146">146</a> the first military action, which tried the + valor of the Moslems against a foreign enemy. Zeid fell, like a soldier, + in the foremost ranks: the death of Jaafar was heroic and memorable: he + lost his right hand: he shifted the standard to his left: the left was + severed from his body: he embraced the standard with his bleeding stumps, + till he was transfixed to the ground with fifty honorable wounds. <a + href="#linknote-50.1461" name="linknoteref-50.1461" id="linknoteref-50.1461">1461</a> + “Advance,” cried Abdallah, who stepped into the vacant place, “advance + with confidence: either victory or paradise is our own.” The lance of a + Roman decided the alternative; but the falling standard was rescued by + Caled, the proselyte of Mecca: nine swords were broken in his hand; and + his valor withstood and repulsed the superior numbers of the Christians. + In the nocturnal council of the camp he was chosen to command: his skilful + evolutions of the ensuing day secured either the victory or the retreat of + the Saracens; and Caled is renowned among his brethren and his enemies by + the glorious appellation of the Sword of God. In the pulpit, Mahomet + described, with prophetic rapture, the crowns of the blessed martyrs; but + in private he betrayed the feelings of human nature: he was surprised as + he wept over the daughter of Zeid: “What do I see?” said the astonished + votary. “You see,” replied the apostle, “a friend who is deploring the + loss of his most faithful friend.” After the conquest of Mecca, the + sovereign of Arabia affected to prevent the hostile preparations of + Heraclius; and solemnly proclaimed war against the Romans, without + attempting to disguise the hardships and dangers of the enterprise. <a + href="#linknote-50.147" name="linknoteref-50.147" id="linknoteref-50.147">147</a> + The Moslems were discouraged: they alleged the want of money, or horses, + or provisions; the season of harvest, and the intolerable heat of the + summer: “Hell is much hotter,” said the indignant prophet. He disdained to + compel their service: but on his return he admonished the most guilty, by + an excommunication of fifty days. Their desertion enhanced the merit of + Abubeker, Othman, and the faithful companions who devoted their lives and + fortunes; and Mahomet displayed his banner at the head of ten thousand + horse and twenty thousand foot. Painful indeed was the distress of the + march: lassitude and thirst were aggravated by the scorching and + pestilential winds of the desert: ten men rode by turns on one camel; and + they were reduced to the shameful necessity of drinking the water from the + belly of that useful animal. In the mid-way, ten days’ journey from Medina + and Damascus, they reposed near the grove and fountain of Tabuc. Beyond + that place Mahomet declined the prosecution of the war: he declared + himself satisfied with the peaceful intentions, he was more probably + daunted by the martial array, of the emperor of the East. But the active + and intrepid Caled spread around the terror of his name; and the prophet + received the submission of the tribes and cities, from the Euphrates to + Ailah, at the head of the Red Sea. To his Christian subjects, Mahomet + readily granted the security of their persons, the freedom of their trade, + the property of their goods, and the toleration of their worship. <a + href="#linknote-50.148" name="linknoteref-50.148" id="linknoteref-50.148">148</a> + The weakness of their Arabian brethren had restrained them from opposing + his ambition; the disciples of Jesus were endeared to the enemy of the + Jews; and it was the interest of a conqueror to propose a fair + capitulation to the most powerful religion of the earth. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.145" id="linknote-50.145"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 145 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.145">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare the bigoted + Al Jannabi (apud Gagnier, tom. ii. p. 232-255) with the no less bigoted + Greeks, Theophanes, (p. 276-227,) Zonaras (tom. ii. l. xiv. p. 86,) and + Cedrenus, (p. 421.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.146" id="linknote-50.146"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 146 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.146">return</a>)<br /> [ For the battle of + Muta, and its consequences, see Abulfeda (p 100-102) and Gagnier, (tom. + ii. p. 327-343.).] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1461" id="linknote-50.1461"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1461 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1461">return</a>)<br /> [ To console the + afflicted relatives of his kinsman Jauffer, he (Mahomet) represented that, + in Paradise, in exchange for the arms which he had lost, he had been + furnished with a pair of wings, resplendent with the blushing glories of + the ruby, and with which he was become the inseparable companion of the + archangal Gabriel, in his volitations through the regions of eternal + bliss. Hence, in the catalogue of the martyrs, he has been denominated + Jauffer teyaur, the winged Jauffer. Price, Chronological Retrospect of + Mohammedan History, vol. i. p. 5.-M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.147" id="linknote-50.147"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 147 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.147">return</a>)<br /> [ The expedition of + Tabuc is recorded by our ordinary historians Abulfeda (Vit. Moham. p. + 123-127) and Gagnier, (Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. 147-163: ) but we have + the advantage of appealing to the original evidence of the Koran, (c. 9, + p. 154, 165,) with Sale’s learned and rational notes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.148" id="linknote-50.148"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 148 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.148">return</a>)<br /> [ The Diploma + securitatis Ailensibus is attested by Ahmed Ben Joseph, and the author + Libri Splendorum, (Gagnier, Not. ad Abulfe dam, p. 125;) but Abulfeda + himself, as well as Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 11,) though he owns + Mahomet’s regard for the Christians, (p 13,) only mentions peace and + tribute. In the year 1630, Sionita published at Paris the text and version + of Mahomet’s patent in favor of the Christians; which was admitted and + reprobated by the opposite taste of Salmasius and Grotius, (Bayle, + Mahomet, Rem. Aa.) Hottinger doubts of its authenticity, (Hist. Orient. p. + 237;) Renaudot urges the consent of the Mohametans, (Hist. Patriarch. + Alex. p. 169;) but Mosheim (Hist. Eccles. p. 244) shows the futility of + their opinion and inclines to believe it spurious. Yet Abulpharagius + quotes the impostor’s treaty with the Nestorian patriarch, (Asseman. + Bibliot. Orient. tom. ii. p. 418;) but Abulpharagius was primate of the + Jacobites.] + </p> + <p> + Till the age of sixty-three years, the strength of Mahomet was equal to + the temporal and spiritual fatigues of his mission. His epileptic fits, an + absurd calumny of the Greeks, would be an object of pity rather than + abhorrence; <a href="#linknote-50.149" name="linknoteref-50.149" + id="linknoteref-50.149">149</a> but he seriously believed that he was + poisoned at Chaibar by the revenge of a Jewish female. <a + href="#linknote-50.150" name="linknoteref-50.150" id="linknoteref-50.150">150</a> + During four years, the health of the prophet declined; his infirmities + increased; but his mortal disease was a fever of fourteen days, which + deprived him by intervals of the use of reason. As soon as he was + conscious of his danger, he edified his brethren by the humility of his + virtue or penitence. “If there be any man,” said the apostle from the + pulpit, “whom I have unjustly scourged, I submit my own back to the lash + of retaliation. Have I aspersed the reputation of a Mussulman? let him + proclaim my thoughts in the face of the congregation. Has any one been + despoiled of his goods? the little that I possess shall compensate the + principal and the interest of the debt.” “Yes,” replied a voice from the + crowd, “I am entitled to three drams of silver.” Mahomet heard the + complaint, satisfied the demand, and thanked his creditor for accusing him + in this world rather than at the day of judgment. He beheld with temperate + firmness the approach of death; enfranchised his slaves (seventeen men, as + they are named, and eleven women;) minutely directed the order of his + funeral, and moderated the lamentations of his weeping friends, on whom he + bestowed the benediction of peace. Till the third day before his death, he + regularly performed the function of public prayer: the choice of Abubeker + to supply his place, appeared to mark that ancient and faithful friend as + his successor in the sacerdotal and regal office; but he prudently + declined the risk and envy of a more explicit nomination. At a moment when + his faculties were visibly impaired, he called for pen and ink to write, + or, more properly, to dictate, a divine book, the sum and accomplishment + of all his revelations: a dispute arose in the chamber, whether he should + be allowed to supersede the authority of the Koran; and the prophet was + forced to reprove the indecent vehemence of his disciples. If the + slightest credit may be afforded to the traditions of his wives and + companions, he maintained, in the bosom of his family, and to the last + moments of his life, the dignity <a href="#linknote-50.1501" + name="linknoteref-50.1501" id="linknoteref-50.1501">1501</a> of an apostle, + and the faith of an enthusiast; described the visits of Gabriel, who bade + an everlasting farewell to the earth, and expressed his lively confidence, + not only of the mercy, but of the favor, of the Supreme Being. In a + familiar discourse he had mentioned his special prerogative, that the + angel of death was not allowed to take his soul till he had respectfully + asked the permission of the prophet. The request was granted; and Mahomet + immediately fell into the agony of his dissolution: his head was reclined + on the lap of Ayesha, the best beloved of all his wives; he fainted with + the violence of pain; recovering his spirits, he raised his eyes towards + the roof of the house, and, with a steady look, though a faltering voice, + uttered the last broken, though articulate, words: “O God!..... pardon my + sins....... Yes, ...... I come,...... among my fellow-citizens on high;” + and thus peaceably expired on a carpet spread upon the floor. An + expedition for the conquest of Syria was stopped by this mournful event; + the army halted at the gates of Medina; the chiefs were assembled round + their dying master. The city, more especially the house, of the prophet, + was a scene of clamorous sorrow of silent despair: fanaticism alone could + suggest a ray of hope and consolation. “How can he be dead, our witness, + our intercessor, our mediator, with God? By God he is not dead: like Moses + and Jesus, he is wrapped in a holy trance, and speedily will he return to + his faithful people.” The evidence of sense was disregarded; and Omar, + unsheathing his cimeter, threatened to strike off the heads of the + infidels, who should dare to affirm that the prophet was no more. The + tumult was appeased by the weight and moderation of Abubeker. “Is it + Mahomet,” said he to Omar and the multitude, “or the God of Mahomet, whom + you worship? The God of Mahomet liveth forever; but the apostle was a + mortal like ourselves, and according to his own prediction, he has + experienced the common fate of mortality.” He was piously interred by the + hands of his nearest kinsman, on the same spot on which he expired: <a + href="#linknote-50.151" name="linknoteref-50.151" id="linknoteref-50.151">151</a> + Medina has been sanctified by the death and burial of Mahomet; and the + innumerable pilgrims of Mecca often turn aside from the way, to bow, in + voluntary devotion, <a href="#linknote-50.152" name="linknoteref-50.152" + id="linknoteref-50.152">152</a> before the simple tomb of the prophet. <a + href="#linknote-50.153" name="linknoteref-50.153" id="linknoteref-50.153">153</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.149" id="linknote-50.149"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 149 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.149">return</a>)<br /> [ The epilepsy, or + falling-sickness, of Mahomet is asserted by Theophanes, Zonaras, and the + rest of the Greeks; and is greedily swallowed by the gross bigotry of + Hottinger, (Hist. Orient. p. 10, 11,) Prideaux, (Life of Mahomet, p. 12,) + and Maracci, (tom. ii. Alcoran, p. 762, 763.) The titles (the wrapped-up, + the covered) of two chapters of the Koran, (73, 74) can hardly be strained + to such an interpretation: the silence, the ignorance of the Mahometan + commentators, is more conclusive than the most peremptory denial; and the + charitable side is espoused by Ockley, (Hist. of the Saracens, tom. i. p. + 301,) Gagnier, (ad Abulfedam, p. 9. Vie de Mahomet, tom. i. p. 118,) and + Sale, (Koran, p. 469-474.) * Note: Dr Weil believes in the epilepsy, and + adduces strong evidence for it; and surely it may be believed, in perfect + charity; and that the prophet’s visions were connected, as they appear to + have been, with these fits. I have little doubt that he saw and believed + these visions, and visions they were. Weil, p. 43.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.150" id="linknote-50.150"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 150 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.150">return</a>)<br /> [ This poison (more + ignominious since it was offered as a test of his prophetic knowledge) is + frankly confessed by his zealous votaries, Abulfeda (p. 92) and Al + Jannabi, (apud Gagnier, tom. ii. p. 286-288.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1501" id="linknote-50.1501"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1501 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1501">return</a>)<br /> [ Major Price, who + writes with the authority of one widely conversant with the original + sources of Eastern knowledge, and in a very candid tone, takes a very + different view of the prophet’s death. “In tracing the circumstances of + Mahommed’s illness, we look in vain for any proofs of that meek and heroic + firmness which might be expected to dignify and embellish the last moments + of the apostle of God. On some occasions he betrayed such want of + fortitude, such marks of childish impatience, as are in general to be + found in men only of the most ordinary stamp; and such as extorted from + his wife Ayesha, in particular, the sarcastic remark, that in herself, or + any of her family, a similar demeanor would long since have incurred his + severe displeasure. * * * He said that the acuteness and violence of his + sufferings were necessarily in the proportion of those honors with which + it had ever pleased the hand of Omnipotence to distinguish its peculiar + favorites.” Price, vol. i. p. 13.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.151" id="linknote-50.151"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 151 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.151">return</a>)<br /> [ The Greeks and Latins + have invented and propagated the vulgar and ridiculous story, that + Mahomet’s iron tomb is suspended in the air at Mecca, (Laonicus + Chalcondyles, de Rebus Turcicis, l. iii. p. 66,) by the action of equal + and potent loadstones, (Dictionnaire de Bayle, Mahomet, Rem. Ee. Ff.) + Without any philosophical inquiries, it may suffice, that, 1. The prophet + was not buried at Mecca; and, 2. That his tomb at Medina, which has been + visited by millions, is placed on the ground, (Reland, de Relig. Moham. l. + ii. c. 19, p. 209-211. Gagnier, Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. 263-268.) * + Note: According to the testimony of all the Eastern authors, Mahomet died + on Monday the 12th Reby 1st, in the year 11 of the Hegira, which answers + in reality to the 8th June, 632, of J. C. We find in Ockley (Hist. of + Saracens) that it was on Monday the 6th June, 632. This is a mistake; for + the 6th June of that year was a Saturday, not a Monday; the 8th June, + therefore, was a Monday. It is easy to discover that the lunar year, in + this calculation has been confounded with the solar. St. Martin vol. xi. + p. 186.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.152" id="linknote-50.152"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 152 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.152">return</a>)<br /> [ Al Jannabi enumerates + (Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. 372-391) the multifarious duties of a + pilgrim who visits the tombs of the prophet and his companions; and the + learned casuist decides, that this act of devotion is nearest in + obligation and merit to a divine precept. The doctors are divided which, + of Mecca or Medina, be the most excellent, (p. 391-394.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.153" id="linknote-50.153"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 153 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.153">return</a>)<br /> [ The last sickness, + death, and burial of Mahomet, are described by Abulfeda and Gagnier, (Vit. + Moham. p. 133-142. —Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. 220-271.) The most + private and interesting circumstances were originally received from + Ayesha, Ali, the sons of Abbas, &c.; and as they dwelt at Medina, and + survived the prophet many years, they might repeat the pious tale to a + second or third generation of pilgrims.] + </p> + <p> + At the conclusion of the life of Mahomet, it may perhaps be expected, that + I should balance his faults and virtues, that I should decide whether the + title of enthusiast or impostor more properly belongs to that + extraordinary man. Had I been intimately conversant with the son of + Abdallah, the task would still be difficult, and the success uncertain: at + the distance of twelve centuries, I darkly contemplate his shade through a + cloud of religious incense; and could I truly delineate the portrait of an + hour, the fleeting resemblance would not equally apply to the solitary of + Mount Hera, to the preacher of Mecca, and to the conqueror of Arabia. The + author of a mighty revolution appears to have been endowed with a pious + and contemplative disposition: so soon as marriage had raised him above + the pressure of want, he avoided the paths of ambition and avarice; and + till the age of forty he lived with innocence, and would have died without + a name. The unity of God is an idea most congenial to nature and reason; + and a slight conversation with the Jews and Christians would teach him to + despise and detest the idolatry of Mecca. It was the duty of a man and a + citizen to impart the doctrine of salvation, to rescue his country from + the dominion of sin and error. The energy of a mind incessantly bent on + the same object, would convert a general obligation into a particular + call; the warm suggestions of the understanding or the fancy would be felt + as the inspirations of Heaven; the labor of thought would expire in + rapture and vision; and the inward sensation, the invisible monitor, would + be described with the form and attributes of an angel of God. <a + href="#linknote-50.154" name="linknoteref-50.154" id="linknoteref-50.154">154</a> + From enthusiasm to imposture, the step is perilous and slippery: the + daemon of Socrates <a href="#linknote-50.155" name="linknoteref-50.155" + id="linknoteref-50.155">155</a> affords a memorable instance, how a wise + man may deceive himself, how a good man may deceive others, how the + conscience may slumber in a mixed and middle state between self-illusion + and voluntary fraud. Charity may believe that the original motives of + Mahomet were those of pure and genuine benevolence; but a human missionary + is incapable of cherishing the obstinate unbelievers who reject his claims + despise his arguments, and persecute his life; he might forgive his + personal adversaries, he may lawfully hate the enemies of God; the stern + passions of pride and revenge were kindled in the bosom of Mahomet, and he + sighed, like the prophet of Nineveh, for the destruction of the rebels + whom he had condemned. The injustice of Mecca and the choice of Medina, + transformed the citizen into a prince, the humble preacher into the leader + of armies; but his sword was consecrated by the example of the saints; and + the same God who afflicts a sinful world with pestilence and earthquakes, + might inspire for their conversion or chastisement the valor of his + servants. In the exercise of political government, he was compelled to + abate of the stern rigor of fanaticism, to comply in some measure with the + prejudices and passions of his followers, and to employ even the vices of + mankind as the instruments of their salvation. The use of fraud and + perfidy, of cruelty and injustice, were often subservient to the + propagation of the faith; and Mahomet commanded or approved the + assassination of the Jews and idolaters who had escaped from the field of + battle. By the repetition of such acts, the character of Mahomet must have + been gradually stained; and the influence of such pernicious habits would + be poorly compensated by the practice of the personal and social virtues + which are necessary to maintain the reputation of a prophet among his + sectaries and friends. Of his last years, ambition was the ruling passion; + and a politician will suspect, that he secretly smiled (the victorious + impostor!) at the enthusiasm of his youth, and the credulity of his + proselytes. <a href="#linknote-50.156" name="linknoteref-50.156" + id="linknoteref-50.156">156</a> A philosopher will observe, that their + credulity and his success would tend more strongly to fortify the + assurance of his divine mission, that his interest and religion were + inseparably connected, and that his conscience would be soothed by the + persuasion, that he alone was absolved by the Deity from the obligation of + positive and moral laws. If he retained any vestige of his native + innocence, the sins of Mahomet may be allowed as an evidence of his + sincerity. In the support of truth, the arts of fraud and fiction may be + deemed less criminal; and he would have started at the foulness of the + means, had he not been satisfied of the importance and justice of the end. + Even in a conqueror or a priest, I can surprise a word or action of + unaffected humanity; and the decree of Mahomet, that, in the sale of + captives, the mothers should never be separated from their children, may + suspend, or moderate, the censure of the historian. <a + href="#linknote-50.157" name="linknoteref-50.157" id="linknoteref-50.157">157</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.154" id="linknote-50.154"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 154 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.154">return</a>)<br /> [ The Christians, + rashly enough, have assigned to Mahomet a tame pigeon, that seemed to + descend from heaven and whisper in his ear. As this pretended miracle is + urged by Grotius, (de Veritate Religionis Christianae,) his Arabic + translator, the learned Pocock, inquired of him the names of his authors; + and Grotius confessed, that it is unknown to the Mahometans themselves. + Lest it should provoke their indignation and laughter, the pious lie is + suppressed in the Arabic version; but it has maintained an edifying place + in the numerous editions of the Latin text, (Pocock, Specimen, Hist. + Arabum, p. 186, 187. Reland, de Religion. Moham. l. ii. c. 39, p. + 259-262.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.155" id="linknote-50.155"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 155 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.155">return</a>)<br /> [ (Plato, in Apolog. + Socrat. c. 19, p. 121, 122, edit. Fischer.) The familiar examples, which + Socrates urges in his Dialogue with Theages, (Platon. Opera, tom. i. p. + 128, 129, edit. Hen. Stephan.) are beyond the reach of human foresight; + and the divine inspiration of the philosopher is clearly taught in the + Memorabilia of Xenophon. The ideas of the most rational Platonists are + expressed by Cicero, (de Divinat. i. 54,) and in the xivth and xvth + Dissertations of Maximus of Tyre, (p. 153-172, edit. Davis.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.156" id="linknote-50.156"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 156 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.156">return</a>)<br /> [ In some passage of + his voluminous writings, Voltaire compares the prophet, in his old age, to + a fakir, “qui detache la chaine de son cou pour en donner sur les oreilles + a ses confreres.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.157" id="linknote-50.157"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 157 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.157">return</a>)<br /> [ Gagnier relates, with + the same impartial pen, this humane law of the prophet, and the murders of + Caab, and Sophian, which he prompted and approved, (Vie de Mahomet, tom. + ii. p. 69, 97, 208.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap50.7"></a> + Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part VII. + </h2> + <p> + The good sense of Mahomet <a href="#linknote-50.158" + name="linknoteref-50.158" id="linknoteref-50.158">158</a> despised the pomp + of royalty: the apostle of God submitted to the menial offices of the + family: he kindled the fire, swept the floor, milked the ewes, and mended + with his own hands his shoes and his woollen garment. Disdaining the + penance and merit of a hermit, he observed, without effort or vanity, the + abstemious diet of an Arab and a soldier. On solemn occasions he feasted + his companions with rustic and hospitable plenty; but in his domestic + life, many weeks would elapse without a fire being kindled on the hearth + of the prophet. The interdiction of wine was confirmed by his example; his + hunger was appeased with a sparing allowance of barley-bread: he delighted + in the taste of milk and honey; but his ordinary food consisted of dates + and water. Perfumes and women were the two sensual enjoyments which his + nature required, and his religion did not forbid; and Mahomet affirmed, + that the fervor of his devotion was increased by these innocent pleasures. + The heat of the climate inflames the blood of the Arabs; and their + libidinous complexion has been noticed by the writers of antiquity. <a + href="#linknote-50.159" name="linknoteref-50.159" id="linknoteref-50.159">159</a> + Their incontinence was regulated by the civil and religious laws of the + Koran: their incestuous alliances were blamed; the boundless license of + polygamy was reduced to four legitimate wives or concubines; their rights + both of bed and of dowry were equitably determined; the freedom of divorce + was discouraged, adultery was condemned as a capital offence; and + fornication, in either sex, was punished with a hundred stripes. <a + href="#linknote-50.160" name="linknoteref-50.160" id="linknoteref-50.160">160</a> + Such were the calm and rational precepts of the legislator: but in his + private conduct, Mahomet indulged the appetites of a man, and abused the + claims of a prophet. A special revelation dispensed him from the laws + which he had imposed on his nation: the female sex, without reserve, was + abandoned to his desires; and this singular prerogative excited the envy, + rather than the scandal, the veneration, rather than the envy, of the + devout Mussulmans. If we remember the seven hundred wives and three + hundred concubines of the wise Solomon, we shall applaud the modesty of + the Arabian, who espoused no more than seventeen or fifteen wives; eleven + are enumerated who occupied at Medina their separate apartments round the + house of the apostle, and enjoyed in their turns the favor of his conjugal + society. What is singular enough, they were all widows, excepting only + Ayesha, the daughter of Abubeker. She was doubtless a virgin, since + Mahomet consummated his nuptials (such is the premature ripeness of the + climate) when she was only nine years of age. The youth, the beauty, the + spirit of Ayesha, gave her a superior ascendant: she was beloved and + trusted by the prophet; and, after his death, the daughter of Abubeker was + long revered as the mother of the faithful. Her behavior had been + ambiguous and indiscreet: in a nocturnal march she was accidentally left + behind; and in the morning Ayesha returned to the camp with a man. The + temper of Mahomet was inclined to jealousy; but a divine revelation + assured him of her innocence: he chastised her accusers, and published a + law of domestic peace, that no woman should be condemned unless four male + witnesses had seen her in the act of adultery. <a href="#linknote-50.161" + name="linknoteref-50.161" id="linknoteref-50.161">161</a> In his adventures + with Zeineb, the wife of Zeid, and with Mary, an Egyptian captive, the + amorous prophet forgot the interest of his reputation. At the house of + Zeid, his freedman and adopted son, he beheld, in a loose undress, the + beauty of Zeineb, and burst forth into an ejaculation of devotion and + desire. The servile, or grateful, freedman understood the hint, and + yielded without hesitation to the love of his benefactor. But as the + filial relation had excited some doubt and scandal, the angel Gabriel + descended from heaven to ratify the deed, to annul the adoption, and + gently to reprove the apostle for distrusting the indulgence of his God. + One of his wives, Hafna, the daughter of Omar, surprised him on her own + bed, in the embraces of his Egyptian captive: she promised secrecy and + forgiveness, he swore that he would renounce the possession of Mary. Both + parties forgot their engagements; and Gabriel again descended with a + chapter of the Koran, to absolve him from his oath, and to exhort him + freely to enjoy his captives and concubines, without listening to the + clamors of his wives. In a solitary retreat of thirty days, he labored, + alone with Mary, to fulfil the commands of the angel. When his love and + revenge were satiated, he summoned to his presence his eleven wives, + reproached their disobedience and indiscretion, and threatened them with a + sentence of divorce, both in this world and in the next; a dreadful + sentence, since those who had ascended the bed of the prophet were forever + excluded from the hope of a second marriage. Perhaps the incontinence of + Mahomet may be palliated by the tradition of his natural or preternatural + gifts; <a href="#linknote-50.162" name="linknoteref-50.162" + id="linknoteref-50.162">162</a> he united the manly virtue of thirty of the + children of Adam: and the apostle might rival the thirteenth labor <a + href="#linknote-50.163" name="linknoteref-50.163" id="linknoteref-50.163">163</a> + of the Grecian Hercules. <a href="#linknote-50.164" name="linknoteref-50.164" + id="linknoteref-50.164">164</a> A more serious and decent excuse may be + drawn from his fidelity to Cadijah. During the twenty-four years of their + marriage, her youthful husband abstained from the right of polygamy, and + the pride or tenderness of the venerable matron was never insulted by the + society of a rival. After her death, he placed her in the rank of the four + perfect women, with the sister of Moses, the mother of Jesus, and Fatima, + the best beloved of his daughters. “Was she not old?” said Ayesha, with + the insolence of a blooming beauty; “has not God given you a better in her + place?” “No, by God,” said Mahomet, with an effusion of honest gratitude, + “there never can be a better! She believed in me when men despised me; she + relieved my wants, when I was poor and persecuted by the world.” <a + href="#linknote-50.165" name="linknoteref-50.165" id="linknoteref-50.165">165</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.158" id="linknote-50.158"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 158 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.158">return</a>)<br /> [ For the domestic life + of Mahomet, consult Gagnier, and the corresponding chapters of Abulfeda; + for his diet, (tom. iii. p. 285-288;) his children, (p. 189, 289;) his + wives, (p. 290-303;) his marriage with Zeineb, (tom. ii. p. 152-160;) his + amour with Mary, (p. 303-309;) the false accusation of Ayesha, (p. + 186-199.) The most original evidence of the three last transactions is + contained in the xxivth, xxxiiid, and lxvith chapters of the Koran, with + Sale’s Commentary. Prideaux (Life of Mahomet, p. 80-90) and Maracci + (Prodrom. Alcoran, part iv. p. 49-59) have maliciously exaggerated the + frailties of Mahomet.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.159" id="linknote-50.159"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 159 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.159">return</a>)<br /> [ Incredibile est quo + ardore apud eos in Venerem uterque solvitur sexus, (Ammian. Marcellin. l. + xiv. c. 4.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.160" id="linknote-50.160"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 160 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.160">return</a>)<br /> [ Sale (Preliminary + Discourse, p. 133-137) has recapitulated the laws of marriage, divorce, + &c.; and the curious reader of Selden’s Uror Hebraica will recognize + many Jewish ordinances.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.161" id="linknote-50.161"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 161 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.161">return</a>)<br /> [ In a memorable case, + the Caliph Omar decided that all presumptive evidence was of no avail; and + that all the four witnesses must have actually seen stylum in pyxide, + (Abulfedae Annales Moslemici, p. 71, vers. Reiske.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.162" id="linknote-50.162"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 162 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.162">return</a>)<br /> [ Sibi robur ad + generationem, quantum triginta viri habent, inesse jacteret: ita ut unica + hora posset undecim foeminis satisfacere, ut ex Arabum libris refert Stus. + Petrus Paschasius, c. 2., (Maracci, Prodromus Alcoran, p. iv. p. 55. See + likewise Observations de Belon, l. iii. c. 10, fol. 179, recto.) Al + Jannabi (Gagnier, tom. iii. p. 287) records his own testimony, that he + surpassed all men in conjugal vigor; and Abulfeda mentions the exclamation + of Ali, who washed the body after his death, “O propheta, certe penis tuus + coelum versus erectus est,” in Vit. Mohammed, p. 140.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.163" id="linknote-50.163"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 163 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.163">return</a>)<br /> [ I borrow the style of + a father of the church, (Greg. Nazianzen, Orat. iii. p. 108.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.164" id="linknote-50.164"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 164 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.164">return</a>)<br /> [ The common and most + glorious legend includes, in a single night the fifty victories of + Hercules over the virgin daughters of Thestius, (Diodor. Sicul. tom. i. l. + iv. p. 274. Pausanias, l. ix. p. 763. Statius Sylv. l. i. eleg. iii. v. + 42.) But Athenaeus allows seven nights, (Deipnosophist, l. xiii. p. 556,) + and Apollodorus fifty, for this arduous achievement of Hercules, who was + then no more than eighteen years of age, (Bibliot. l. ii. c. 4, p. 111, + cum notis Heyne, part i. p. 332.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.165" id="linknote-50.165"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 165 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.165">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulfeda in Vit. + Moham. p. 12, 13, 16, 17, cum Notis Gagnier] + </p> + <p> + In the largest indulgence of polygamy, the founder of a religion and + empire might aspire to multiply the chances of a numerous posterity and a + lineal succession. The hopes of Mahomet were fatally disappointed. The + virgin Ayesha, and his ten widows of mature age and approved fertility, + were barren in his potent embraces. The four sons of Cadijah died in their + infancy. Mary, his Egyptian concubine, was endeared to him by the birth of + Ibrahim. At the end of fifteen months the prophet wept over his grave; but + he sustained with firmness the raillery of his enemies, and checked the + adulation or credulity of the Moslems, by the assurance that an eclipse of + the sun was not occasioned by the death of the infant. Cadijah had + likewise given him four daughters, who were married to the most faithful + of his disciples: the three eldest died before their father; but Fatima, + who possessed his confidence and love, became the wife of her cousin Ali, + and the mother of an illustrious progeny. The merit and misfortunes of Ali + and his descendants will lead me to anticipate, in this place, the series + of the Saracen caliphs, a title which describes the commanders of the + faithful as the vicars and successors of the apostle of God. <a + href="#linknote-50.166" name="linknoteref-50.166" id="linknoteref-50.166">166</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.166" id="linknote-50.166"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 166 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.166">return</a>)<br /> [ This outline of the + Arabian history is drawn from the Bibliotheque Orientale of D’Herbelot, + (under the names of Aboubecre, Omar Othman, Ali, &c.;) from the Annals + of Abulfeda, Abulpharagius, and Elmacin, (under the proper years of the + Hegira,) and especially from Ockley’s History of the Saracens, (vol. i. p. + 1-10, 115-122, 229, 249, 363-372, 378-391, and almost the whole of the + second volume.) Yet we should weigh with caution the traditions of the + hostile sects; a stream which becomes still more muddy as it flows farther + from the source. Sir John Chardin has too faithfully copied the fables and + errors of the modern Persians, (Voyages, tom. ii. p. 235-250, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + The birth, the alliance, the character of Ali, which exalted him above the + rest of his countrymen, might justify his claim to the vacant throne of + Arabia. The son of Abu Taleb was, in his own right, the chief of the + family of Hashem, and the hereditary prince or guardian of the city and + temple of Mecca. The light of prophecy was extinct; but the husband of + Fatima might expect the inheritance and blessing of her father: the Arabs + had sometimes been patient of a female reign; and the two grandsons of the + prophet had often been fondled in his lap, and shown in his pulpit as the + hope of his age, and the chief of the youth of paradise. The first of the + true believers might aspire to march before them in this world and in the + next; and if some were of a graver and more rigid cast, the zeal and + virtue of Ali were never outstripped by any recent proselyte. He united + the qualifications of a poet, a soldier, and a saint: his wisdom still + breathes in a collection of moral and religious sayings; <a + href="#linknote-50.167" name="linknoteref-50.167" id="linknoteref-50.167">167</a> + and every antagonist, in the combats of the tongue or of the sword, was + subdued by his eloquence and valor. From the first hour of his mission to + the last rites of his funeral, the apostle was never forsaken by a + generous friend, whom he delighted to name his brother, his vicegerent, + and the faithful Aaron of a second Moses. The son of Abu Taleb was + afterwards reproached for neglecting to secure his interest by a solemn + declaration of his right, which would have silenced all competition, and + sealed his succession by the decrees of Heaven. But the unsuspecting hero + confided in himself: the jealousy of empire, and perhaps the fear of + opposition, might suspend the resolutions of Mahomet; and the bed of + sickness was besieged by the artful Ayesha, the daughter of Abubeker, and + the enemy of Ali. <a href="#linknote-50.1671" name="linknoteref-50.1671" + id="linknoteref-50.1671">1671</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.167" id="linknote-50.167"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 167 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.167">return</a>)<br /> [ Ockley (at the end of + his second volume) has given an English version of 169 sentences, which he + ascribes, with some hesitation, to Ali, the son of Abu Taleb. His preface + is colored by the enthusiasm of a translator; yet these sentences + delineate a characteristic, though dark, picture of human life.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1671" id="linknote-50.1671"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1671 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1671">return</a>)<br /> [ Gibbon wrote + chiefly from the Arabic or Sunnite account of these transactions, the only + sources accessible at the time when he composed his History. Major Price, + writing from Persian authorities, affords us the advantage of comparing + throughout what may be fairly considered the Shiite Version. The glory of + Ali is the constant burden of their strain. He was destined, and, + according to some accounts, designated, for the caliphate by the prophet; + but while the others were fiercely pushing their own interests, Ali was + watching the remains of Mahomet with pious fidelity. His disinterested + magnanimity, on each separate occasion, declined the sceptre, and gave the + noble example of obedience to the appointed caliph. He is described, in + retirement, on the throne, and in the field of battle, as transcendently + pious, magnanimous, valiant, and humane. He lost his empire through his + excess of virtue and love for the faithful his life through his confidence + in God, and submission to the decrees of fate. Compare the curious account + of this apathy in Price, chapter ii. It is to be regretted, I must add, + that Major Price has contented himself with quoting the names of the + Persian works which he follows, without any account of their character, + age, and authority.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The silence and death of the prophet restored the liberty of the people; + and his companions convened an assembly to deliberate on the choice of his + successor. The hereditary claim and lofty spirit of Ali were offensive to + an aristocracy of elders, desirous of bestowing and resuming the sceptre + by a free and frequent election: the Koreish could never be reconciled to + the proud preeminence of the line of Hashem; the ancient discord of the + tribes was rekindled, the fugitives of Mecca and the auxiliaries of Medina + asserted their respective merits; and the rash proposal of choosing two + independent caliphs would have crushed in their infancy the religion and + empire of the Saracens. The tumult was appeased by the disinterested + resolution of Omar, who, suddenly renouncing his own pretensions, + stretched forth his hand, and declared himself the first subject of the + mild and venerable Abubeker. <a href="#linknote-50.1672" + name="linknoteref-50.1672" id="linknoteref-50.1672">1672</a> The urgency of + the moment, and the acquiescence of the people, might excuse this illegal + and precipitate measure; but Omar himself confessed from the pulpit, that + if any Mulsulman should hereafter presume to anticipate the suffrage of + his brethren, both the elector and the elected would be worthy of death. + <a href="#linknote-50.168" name="linknoteref-50.168" id="linknoteref-50.168">168</a> + After the simple inauguration of Abubeker, he was obeyed in Medina, Mecca, + and the provinces of Arabia: the Hashemites alone declined the oath of + fidelity; and their chief, in his own house, maintained, above six months, + a sullen and independent reserve; without listening to the threats of + Omar, who attempted to consume with fire the habitation of the daughter of + the apostle. The death of Fatima, and the decline of his party, subdued + the indignant spirit of Ali: he condescended to salute the commander of + the faithful, accepted his excuse of the necessity of preventing their + common enemies, and wisely rejected his courteous offer of abdicating the + government of the Arabians. After a reign of two years, the aged caliph + was summoned by the angel of death. In his testament, with the tacit + approbation of his companions, he bequeathed the sceptre to the firm and + intrepid virtue of Omar. “I have no occasion,” said the modest candidate, + “for the place.” “But the place has occasion for you,” replied Abubeker; + who expired with a fervent prayer, that the God of Mahomet would ratify + his choice, and direct the Mussulmans in the way of concord and obedience. + The prayer was not ineffectual, since Ali himself, in a life of privacy + and prayer, professed to revere the superior worth and dignity of his + rival; who comforted him for the loss of empire, by the most flattering + marks of confidence and esteem. In the twelfth year of his reign, Omar + received a mortal wound from the hand of an assassin: he rejected with + equal impartiality the names of his son and of Ali, refused to load his + conscience with the sins of his successor, and devolved on six of the most + respectable companions the arduous task of electing a commander of the + faithful. On this occasion, Ali was again blamed by his friends <a + href="#linknote-50.169" name="linknoteref-50.169" id="linknoteref-50.169">169</a> + for submitting his right to the judgment of men, for recognizing their + jurisdiction by accepting a place among the six electors. He might have + obtained their suffrage, had he deigned to promise a strict and servile + conformity, not only to the Koran and tradition, but likewise to the + determinations of two seniors. <a href="#linknote-50.170" + name="linknoteref-50.170" id="linknoteref-50.170">170</a> With these + limitations, Othman, the secretary of Mahomet, accepted the government; + nor was it till after the third caliph, twenty-four years after the death + of the prophet, that Ali was invested, by the popular choice, with the + regal and sacerdotal office. The manners of the Arabians retained their + primitive simplicity, and the son of Abu Taleb despised the pomp and + vanity of this world. At the hour of prayer, he repaired to the mosch of + Medina, clothed in a thin cotton gown, a coarse turban on his head, his + slippers in one hand, and his bow in the other, instead of a + walking-staff. The companions of the prophet, and the chiefs of the + tribes, saluted their new sovereign, and gave him their right hands as a + sign of fealty and allegiance. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1672" id="linknote-50.1672"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1672 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1672">return</a>)<br /> [ Abubeker, the + father of the virgin Ayesha. St. Martin, vol. XL, p. 88—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.168" id="linknote-50.168"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 168 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.168">return</a>)<br /> [ Ockley, (Hist. of the + Saracens, vol. i. p. 5, 6,) from an Arabian Ms., represents Ayesha as + adverse to the substitution of her father in the place of the apostle. + This fact, so improbable in itself, is unnoticed by Abulfeda, Al Jannabi, + and Al Bochari, the last of whom quotes the tradition of Ayesha herself, + (Vit. Mohammed, p. 136 Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. 236.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.169" id="linknote-50.169"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 169 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.169">return</a>)<br /> [ Particularly by his + friend and cousin Abdallah, the son of Abbas, who died A.D. 687, with the + title of grand doctor of the Moslems. In Abulfeda he recapitulates the + important occasions in which Ali had neglected his salutary advice, (p. + 76, vers. Reiske;) and concludes, (p. 85,) O princeps fidelium, absque + controversia tu quidem vere fortis es, at inops boni consilii, et rerum + gerendarum parum callens.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.170" id="linknote-50.170"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 170 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.170">return</a>)<br /> [ I suspect that the + two seniors (Abulpharagius, p. 115. Ockley, tom. i. p. 371,) may signify + not two actual counsellors, but his two predecessors, Abubeker and Omar.] + </p> + <p> + The mischiefs that flow from the contests of ambition are usually confined + to the times and countries in which they have been agitated. But the + religious discord of the friends and enemies of Ali has been renewed in + every age of the Hegira, and is still maintained in the immortal hatred of + the Persians and Turks. <a href="#linknote-50.171" name="linknoteref-50.171" + id="linknoteref-50.171">171</a> The former, who are branded with the + appellation of Shiites or sectaries, have enriched the Mahometan creed + with a new article of faith; and if Mahomet be the apostle, his companion + Ali is the vicar, of God. In their private converse, in their public + worship, they bitterly execrate the three usurpers who intercepted his + indefeasible right to the dignity of Imam and Caliph; and the name of Omar + expresses in their tongue the perfect accomplishment of wickedness and + impiety. <a href="#linknote-50.172" name="linknoteref-50.172" + id="linknoteref-50.172">172</a> The Sonnites, who are supported by the + general consent and orthodox tradition of the Mussulmans, entertain a more + impartial, or at least a more decent, opinion. They respect the memory of + Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and Ali, the holy and legitimate successors of the + prophet. But they assign the last and most humble place to the husband of + Fatima, in the persuasion that the order of succession was determined by + the decrees of sanctity. <a href="#linknote-50.173" name="linknoteref-50.173" + id="linknoteref-50.173">173</a> An historian who balances the four caliphs + with a hand unshaken by superstition, will calmly pronounce that their + manners were alike pure and exemplary; that their zeal was fervent, and + probably sincere; and that, in the midst of riches and power, their lives + were devoted to the practice of moral and religious duties. But the public + virtues of Abubeker and Omar, the prudence of the first, the severity of + the second, maintained the peace and prosperity of their reigns. The + feeble temper and declining age of Othman were incapable of sustaining the + weight of conquest and empire. He chose, and he was deceived; he trusted, + and he was betrayed: the most deserving of the faithful became useless or + hostile to his government, and his lavish bounty was productive only of + ingratitude and discontent. The spirit of discord went forth in the + provinces: their deputies assembled at Medina; and the Charegites, the + desperate fanatics who disclaimed the yoke of subordination and reason, + were confounded among the free-born Arabs, who demanded the redress of + their wrongs and the punishment of their oppressors. From Cufa, from + Bassora, from Egypt, from the tribes of the desert, they rose in arms, + encamped about a league from Medina, and despatched a haughty mandate to + their sovereign, requiring him to execute justice, or to descend from the + throne. His repentance began to disarm and disperse the insurgents; but + their fury was rekindled by the arts of his enemies; and the forgery of a + perfidious secretary was contrived to blast his reputation and precipitate + his fall. The caliph had lost the only guard of his predecessors, the + esteem and confidence of the Moslems: during a siege of six weeks his + water and provisions were intercepted, and the feeble gates of the palace + were protected only by the scruples of the more timorous rebels. Forsaken + by those who had abused his simplicity, the hopeless and venerable caliph + expected the approach of death: the brother of Ayesha marched at the head + of the assassins; and Othman, with the Koran in his lap, was pierced with + a multitude of wounds. <a href="#linknote-50.1731" name="linknoteref-50.1731" + id="linknoteref-50.1731">1731</a> A tumultuous anarchy of five days was + appeased by the inauguration of Ali: his refusal would have provoked a + general massacre. In this painful situation he supported the becoming + pride of the chief of the Hashemites; declared that he had rather serve + than reign; rebuked the presumption of the strangers; and required the + formal, if not the voluntary, assent of the chiefs of the nation. He has + never been accused of prompting the assassin of Omar; though Persia + indiscreetly celebrates the festival of that holy martyr. The quarrel + between Othman and his subjects was assuaged by the early mediation of + Ali; and Hassan, the eldest of his sons, was insulted and wounded in the + defence of the caliph. Yet it is doubtful whether the father of Hassan was + strenuous and sincere in his opposition to the rebels; and it is certain + that he enjoyed the benefit of their crime. The temptation was indeed of + such magnitude as might stagger and corrupt the most obdurate virtue. The + ambitious candidate no longer aspired to the barren sceptre of Arabia; the + Saracens had been victorious in the East and West; and the wealthy + kingdoms of Persia, Syria, and Egypt were the patrimony of the commander + of the faithful. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.171" id="linknote-50.171"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 171 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.171">return</a>)<br /> [ The schism of the + Persians is explained by all our travellers of the last century, + especially in the iid and ivth volumes of their master, Chardin. Niebuhr, + though of inferior merit, has the advantage of writing so late as the year + 1764, (Voyages en Arabie, &c., tom. ii. p. 208-233,) since the + ineffectual attempt of Nadir Shah to change the religion of the nation, + (see his Persian History translated into French by Sir William Jones, tom. + ii. p. 5, 6, 47, 48, 144-155.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.172" id="linknote-50.172"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 172 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.172">return</a>)<br /> [ Omar is the name of + the devil; his murderer is a saint. When the Persians shoot with the bow, + they frequently cry, “May this arrow go to the heart of Omar!” (Voyages de + Chardin, tom. ii. p 239, 240, 259, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.173" id="linknote-50.173"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 173 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.173">return</a>)<br /> [ This gradation of + merit is distinctly marked in a creed illustrated by Reland, (de Relig. + Mohamm. l. i. p. 37;) and a Sonnite argument inserted by Ockley, (Hist. of + the Saracens, tom. ii. p. 230.) The practice of cursing the memory of Ali + was abolished, after forty years, by the Ommiades themselves, (D’Herbelot, + p. 690;) and there are few among the Turks who presume to revile him as an + infidel, (Voyages de Chardin, tom. iv. p. 46.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1731" id="linknote-50.1731"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1731 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1731">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare Price, p. + 180.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap50.8"></a> + Chapter L: Description Of Arabia And Its Inhabitants.—Part VIII. + </h2> + <p> + A life of prayer and contemplation had not chilled the martial activity of + Ali; but in a mature age, after a long experience of mankind, he still + betrayed in his conduct the rashness and indiscretion of youth. <a + href="#linknote-50.1732" name="linknoteref-50.1732" id="linknoteref-50.1732">1732</a> + In the first days of his reign, he neglected to secure, either by gifts or + fetters, the doubtful allegiance of Telha and Zobeir, two of the most + powerful of the Arabian chiefs. They escaped from Medina to Mecca, and + from thence to Bassora; erected the standard of revolt; and usurped the + government of Irak, or Assyria, which they had vainly solicited as the + reward of their services. The mask of patriotism is allowed to cover the + most glaring inconsistencies; and the enemies, perhaps the assassins, of + Othman now demanded vengeance for his blood. They were accompanied in + their flight by Ayesha, the widow of the prophet, who cherished, to the + last hour of her life, an implacable hatred against the husband and the + posterity of Fatima. The most reasonable Moslems were scandalized, that + the mother of the faithful should expose in a camp her person and + character; <a href="#linknote-50.1733" name="linknoteref-50.1733" + id="linknoteref-50.1733">1733</a> but the superstitious crowd was confident + that her presence would sanctify the justice, and assure the success, of + their cause. At the head of twenty thousand of his loyal Arabs, and nine + thousand valiant auxiliaries of Cufa, the caliph encountered and defeated + the superior numbers of the rebels under the walls of Bassora. <a + href="#linknote-50.1734" name="linknoteref-50.1734" id="linknoteref-50.1734">1734</a> + Their leaders, Telha and Zobeir, <a href="#linknote-50.1735" + name="linknoteref-50.1735" id="linknoteref-50.1735">1735</a> were slain in + the first battle that stained with civil blood the arms of the Moslems. <a + href="#linknote-50.1736" name="linknoteref-50.1736" id="linknoteref-50.1736">1736</a> + After passing through the ranks to animate the troops, Ayesha had chosen + her post amidst the dangers of the field. In the heat of the action, + seventy men, who held the bridle of her camel, were successively killed or + wounded; and the cage or litter, in which she sat, was stuck with javelins + and darts like the quills of a porcupine. The venerable captive sustained + with firmness the reproaches of the conqueror, and was speedily dismissed + to her proper station at the tomb of Mahomet, with the respect and + tenderness that was still due to the widow of the apostle. <a + href="#linknote-50.1737" name="linknoteref-50.1737" id="linknoteref-50.1737">1737</a> + After this victory, which was styled the Day of the Camel, Ali marched + against a more formidable adversary; against Moawiyah, the son of Abu + Sophian, who had assumed the title of caliph, and whose claim was + supported by the forces of Syria and the interest of the house of Ommiyah. + From the passage of Thapsacus, the plain of Siffin <a + href="#linknote-50.174" name="linknoteref-50.174" id="linknoteref-50.174">174</a> + extends along the western bank of the Euphrates. On this spacious and + level theatre, the two competitors waged a desultory war of one hundred + and ten days. In the course of ninety actions or skirmishes, the loss of + Ali was estimated at twenty-five, that of Moawiyah at forty-five, thousand + soldiers; and the list of the slain was dignified with the names of + five-and-twenty veterans who had fought at Beder under the standard of + Mahomet. In this sanguinary contest the lawful caliph displayed a superior + character of valor and humanity. <a href="#linknote-50.1741" + name="linknoteref-50.1741" id="linknoteref-50.1741">1741</a> His troops were + strictly enjoined to await the first onset of the enemy, to spare their + flying brethren, and to respect the bodies of the dead, and the chastity + of the female captives. He generously proposed to save the blood of the + Moslems by a single combat; but his trembling rival declined the challenge + as a sentence of inevitable death. The ranks of the Syrians were broken by + the charge of a hero who was mounted on a piebald horse, and wielded with + irresistible force his ponderous and two-edged sword. As often as he smote + a rebel, he shouted the Allah Acbar, “God is victorious!” and in the + tumult of a nocturnal battle, he was heard to repeat four hundred times + that tremendous exclamation. The prince of Damascus already meditated his + flight; but the certain victory was snatched from the grasp of Ali by the + disobedience and enthusiasm of his troops. Their conscience was awed by + the solemn appeal to the books of the Koran which Moawiyah exposed on the + foremost lances; and Ali was compelled to yield to a disgraceful truce and + an insidious compromise. He retreated with sorrow and indignation to Cufa; + his party was discouraged; the distant provinces of Persia, of Yemen, and + of Egypt, were subdued or seduced by his crafty rival; and the stroke of + fanaticism, which was aimed against the three chiefs of the nation, was + fatal only to the cousin of Mahomet. In the temple of Mecca, three + Charegites or enthusiasts discoursed of the disorders of the church and + state: they soon agreed, that the deaths of Ali, of Moawiyah, and of his + friend Amrou, the viceroy of Egypt, would restore the peace and unity of + religion. Each of the assassins chose his victim, poisoned his dagger, + devoted his life, and secretly repaired to the scene of action. Their + resolution was equally desperate: but the first mistook the person of + Amrou, and stabbed the deputy who occupied his seat; the prince of + Damascus was dangerously hurt by the second; the lawful caliph, in the + mosch of Cufa, received a mortal wound from the hand of the third. He + expired in the sixty-third year of his age, and mercifully recommended to + his children, that they would despatch the murderer by a single stroke. <a + href="#linknote-50.1742" name="linknoteref-50.1742" id="linknoteref-50.1742">1742</a> + The sepulchre of Ali <a href="#linknote-50.175" name="linknoteref-50.175" + id="linknoteref-50.175">175</a> was concealed from the tyrants of the house + of Ommiyah; <a href="#linknote-50.176" name="linknoteref-50.176" + id="linknoteref-50.176">176</a> but in the fourth age of the Hegira, a + tomb, a temple, a city, arose near the ruins of Cufa. <a + href="#linknote-50.177" name="linknoteref-50.177" id="linknoteref-50.177">177</a> + Many thousands of the Shiites repose in holy ground at the feet of the + vicar of God; and the desert is vivified by the numerous and annual visits + of the Persians, who esteem their devotion not less meritorious than the + pilgrimage of Mecca. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1732" id="linknote-50.1732"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1732 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1732">return</a>)<br /> [ Ali had determined + to supersede all the lieutenants in the different provinces. Price, p. + 191. Compare, on the conduct of Telha and Zobeir, p. 193—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1733" id="linknote-50.1733"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1733 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1733">return</a>)<br /> [ See the very + curious circumstances which took place before and during her flight. + Price, p. 196.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1734" id="linknote-50.1734"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1734 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1734">return</a>)<br /> [ The reluctance of + Ali to shed the blood of true believers is strikingly described by Major + Price’s Persian historians. Price, p. 222.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1735" id="linknote-50.1735"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1735 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1735">return</a>)<br /> [ See (in Price) the + singular adventures of Zobeir. He was murdered after having abandoned the + army of the insurgents. Telha was about to do the same, when his leg was + pierced with an arrow by one of his own party The wound was mortal. Price, + p. 222.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1736" id="linknote-50.1736"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1736 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1736">return</a>)<br /> [ According to Price, + two hundred and eighty of the Benni Beianziel alone lost a right hand in + this service, (p. 225.)—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1737" id="linknote-50.1737"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1737 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1737">return</a>)<br /> [ She was escorted by + a guard of females disguised as soldiers. When she discovered this, Ayesha + was as much gratified by the delicacy of the arrangement, as she had been + offended by the familiar approach of so many men. Price, p. 229.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.174" id="linknote-50.174"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 174 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.174">return</a>)<br /> [ The plain of Siffin + is determined by D’Anville (l’Euphrate et le Tigre, p. 29) to be the + Campus Barbaricus of Procopius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1741" id="linknote-50.1741"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1741 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1741">return</a>)<br /> [ The Shiite authors + have preserved a noble instance of Ali’s magnanimity. The superior + generalship of Moawiyah had cut off the army of Ali from the Euphrates; + his soldiers were perishing from want of water. Ali sent a message to his + rival to request free access to the river, declaring that under the same + circumstances he would not allow any of the faithful, though his + adversaries, to perish from thirst. After some debate, Moawiyah determined + to avail himself of the advantage of his situation, and to reject the + demand of Ali. The soldiers of Ali became desperate; forced their way + through that part of the hostile army which commanded the river, and in + their turn entirely cut off the troops of Moawiyah from the water. + Moawiyah was reduced to make the same supplication to Ali. The generous + caliph instantly complied; and both armies, with their cattle enjoyed free + and unmolested access to the river. Price, vol. i. p. 268, 272—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1742" id="linknote-50.1742"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1742 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1742">return</a>)<br /> [ His son Hassan was + recognized as caliph in Arabia and Irak; but voluntarily abdicated the + throne, after six or seven months, in favor of Moawiyah St. Martin, vol. + xi. p 375.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.175" id="linknote-50.175"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 175 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.175">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulfeda, a moderate + Sonnite, relates the different opinions concerning the burial of Ali, but + adopts the sepulchre of Cufa, hodie fama numeroque religiose + frequentantium celebratum. This number is reckoned by Niebuhr to amount + annually to 2000 of the dead, and 5000 of the living, (tom. ii. p. 208, + 209.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.176" id="linknote-50.176"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 176 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.176">return</a>)<br /> [ All the tyrants of + Persia, from Adhad el Dowlat (A.D. 977, D’Herbelot, p. 58, 59, 95) to + Nadir Shah, (A.D. 1743, Hist. de Nadir Shah, tom. ii. p. 155,) have + enriched the tomb of Ali with the spoils of the people. The dome is + copper, with a bright and massy gilding, which glitters to the sun at the + distance of many a mile.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.177" id="linknote-50.177"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 177 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.177">return</a>)<br /> [ The city of Meshed + Ali, five or six miles from the ruins of Cufa, and one hundred and twenty + to the south of Bagdad, is of the size and form of the modern Jerusalem. + Meshed Hosein, larger and more populous, is at the distance of thirty + miles.] + </p> + <p> + The persecutors of Mahomet usurped the inheritance of his children; and + the champions of idolatry became the supreme heads of his religion and + empire. The opposition of Abu Sophian had been fierce and obstinate; his + conversion was tardy and reluctant; his new faith was fortified by + necessity and interest; he served, he fought, perhaps he believed; and the + sins of the time of ignorance were expiated by the recent merits of the + family of Ommiyah. Moawiyah, the son of Abu Sophian, and of the cruel + Henda, was dignified, in his early youth, with the office or title of + secretary of the prophet: the judgment of Omar intrusted him with the + government of Syria; and he administered that important province above + forty years, either in a subordinate or supreme rank. Without renouncing + the fame of valor and liberality, he affected the reputation of humanity + and moderation: a grateful people was attached to their benefactor; and + the victorious Moslems were enriched with the spoils of Cyprus and Rhodes. + The sacred duty of pursuing the assassins of Othman was the engine and + pretence of his ambition. The bloody shirt of the martyr was exposed in + the mosch of Damascus: the emir deplored the fate of his injured kinsman; + and sixty thousand Syrians were engaged in his service by an oath of + fidelity and revenge. Amrou, the conqueror of Egypt, himself an army, was + the first who saluted the new monarch, and divulged the dangerous secret, + that the Arabian caliphs might be created elsewhere than in the city of + the prophet. <a href="#linknote-50.178" name="linknoteref-50.178" + id="linknoteref-50.178">178</a> The policy of Moawiyah eluded the valor of + his rival; and, after the death of Ali, he negotiated the abdication of + his son Hassan, whose mind was either above or below the government of the + world, and who retired without a sigh from the palace of Cufa to an humble + cell near the tomb of his grandfather. The aspiring wishes of the caliph + were finally crowned by the important change of an elective to an + hereditary kingdom. Some murmurs of freedom or fanaticism attested the + reluctance of the Arabs, and four citizens of Medina refused the oath of + fidelity; but the designs of Moawiyah were conducted with vigor and + address; and his son Yezid, a feeble and dissolute youth, was proclaimed + as the commander of the faithful and the successor of the apostle of God. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.178" id="linknote-50.178"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 178 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.178">return</a>)<br /> [ I borrow, on this + occasion, the strong sense and expression of Tacitus, (Hist. i. 4: ) + Evulgato imperii arcano posse imperatorem alni quam Romae fieri.] + </p> + <p> + A familiar story is related of the benevolence of one of the sons of Ali. + In serving at table, a slave had inadvertently dropped a dish of scalding + broth on his master: the heedless wretch fell prostrate, to deprecate his + punishment, and repeated a verse of the Koran: “Paradise is for those who + command their anger: “—“I am not angry: “—“and for those who + pardon offences: “—“I pardon your offence: “—“and for those + who return good for evil: “—”I give you your liberty and four + hundred pieces of silver.” With an equal measure of piety, Hosein, the + younger brother of Hassan, inherited a remnant of his father’s spirit, and + served with honor against the Christians in the siege of Constantinople. + The primogeniture of the line of Hashem, and the holy character of + grandson of the apostle, had centred in his person, and he was at liberty + to prosecute his claim against Yezid, the tyrant of Damascus, whose vices + he despised, and whose title he had never deigned to acknowledge. A list + was secretly transmitted from Cufa to Medina, of one hundred and forty + thousand Moslems, who professed their attachment to his cause, and who + were eager to draw their swords so soon as he should appear on the banks + of the Euphrates. Against the advice of his wisest friends, he resolved to + trust his person and family in the hands of a perfidious people. He + traversed the desert of Arabia with a timorous retinue of women and + children; but as he approached the confines of Irak he was alarmed by the + solitary or hostile face of the country, and suspected either the + defection or ruin of his party. His fears were just: Obeidollah, the + governor of Cufa, had extinguished the first sparks of an insurrection; + and Hosein, in the plain of Kerbela, was encompassed by a body of five + thousand horse, who intercepted his communication with the city and the + river. He might still have escaped to a fortress in the desert, that had + defied the power of Caesar and Chosroes, and confided in the fidelity of + the tribe of Tai, which would have armed ten thousand warriors in his + defence. + </p> + <p> + In a conference with the chief of the enemy, he proposed the option of + three honorable conditions: that he should be allowed to return to Medina, + or be stationed in a frontier garrison against the Turks, or safely + conducted to the presence of Yezid. But the commands of the caliph, or his + lieutenant, were stern and absolute; and Hosein was informed that he must + either submit as a captive and a criminal to the commander of the + faithful, or expect the consequences of his rebellion. “Do you think,” + replied he, “to terrify me with death?” And, during the short respite of a + night, <a href="#linknote-50.1781" name="linknoteref-50.1781" + id="linknoteref-50.1781">1781</a> he prepared with calm and solemn + resignation to encounter his fate. He checked the lamentations of his + sister Fatima, who deplored the impending ruin of his house. “Our trust,” + said Hosein, “is in God alone. All things, both in heaven and earth, must + perish and return to their Creator. My brother, my father, my mother, were + better than me, and every Mussulman has an example in the prophet.” He + pressed his friends to consult their safety by a timely flight: they + unanimously refused to desert or survive their beloved master: and their + courage was fortified by a fervent prayer and the assurance of paradise. + On the morning of the fatal day, he mounted on horseback, with his sword + in one hand and the Koran in the other: his generous band of martyrs + consisted only of thirty-two horse and forty foot; but their flanks and + rear were secured by the tent-ropes, and by a deep trench which they had + filled with lighted fagots, according to the practice of the Arabs. The + enemy advanced with reluctance, and one of their chiefs deserted, with + thirty followers, to claim the partnership of inevitable death. In every + close onset, or single combat, the despair of the Fatimites was + invincible; but the surrounding multitudes galled them from a distance + with a cloud of arrows, and the horses and men were successively slain; a + truce was allowed on both sides for the hour of prayer; and the battle at + length expired by the death of the last companions of Hosein. Alone, + weary, and wounded, he seated himself at the door of his tent. As he + tasted a drop of water, he was pierced in the mouth with a dart; and his + son and nephew, two beautiful youths, were killed in his arms. He lifted + his hands to heaven; they were full of blood; and he uttered a funeral + prayer for the living and the dead. In a transport of despair his sister + issued from the tent, and adjured the general of the Cufians, that he + would not suffer Hosein to be murdered before his eyes: a tear trickled + down his venerable beard; and the boldest of his soldiers fell back on + every side as the dying hero threw himself among them. The remorseless + Shamer, a name detested by the faithful, reproached their cowardice; and + the grandson of Mahomet was slain with three-and-thirty strokes of lances + and swords. After they had trampled on his body, they carried his head to + the castle of Cufa, and the inhuman Obeidollah struck him on the mouth + with a cane: “Alas,” exclaimed an aged Mussulman, “on these lips have I + seen the lips of the apostle of God!” In a distant age and climate, the + tragic scene of the death of Hosein will awaken the sympathy of the + coldest reader. <a href="#linknote-50.179" name="linknoteref-50.179" + id="linknoteref-50.179">179</a> <a href="#linknote-50.1791" + name="linknoteref-50.1791" id="linknoteref-50.1791">1791</a> On the annual + festival of his martyrdom, in the devout pilgrimage to his sepulchre, his + Persian votaries abandon their souls to the religious frenzy of sorrow and + indignation. <a href="#linknote-50.180" name="linknoteref-50.180" + id="linknoteref-50.180">180</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1781" id="linknote-50.1781"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1781 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1781">return</a>)<br /> [ According to Major + Price’s authorities a much longer time elapsed (p. 198 &c.)—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.179" id="linknote-50.179"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 179 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.179">return</a>)<br /> [ I have abridged the + interesting narrative of Ockley, (tom. ii. p. 170-231.) It is long and + minute: but the pathetic, almost always, consists in the detail of little + circumstances.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.1791" id="linknote-50.1791"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1791 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.1791">return</a>)<br /> [ The account of + Hosein’s death, in the Persian Tarikh Tebry, is much longer; in some + circumstances, more pathetic, than that of Ockley, followed by Gibbon. His + family, after his defenders were all slain, perished in succession before + his eyes. They had been cut off from the water, and suffered all the + agonies of thirst. His eldest son, Ally Akbar, after ten different + assaults on the enemy, in each of which he slew two or three, complained + bitterly of his sufferings from heat and thirst. “His father arose, and + introducing his own tongue within the parched lips of his favorite child, + thus endeavored to alleviate his sufferings by the only means of which his + enemies had not yet been able to deprive him.” Ally was slain and cut to + pieces in his sight: this wrung from him his first and only cry; then it + was that his sister Zeyneb rushed from the tent. The rest, including his + nephew, fell in succession. Hosein’s horse was wounded—he fell to + the ground. The hour of prayer, between noon and sunset, had arrived; the + Imaun began the religious duties:—as Hosein prayed, he heard the + cries of his infant child Abdallah, only twelve months old. The child was, + at his desire, placed on his bosom: as he wept over it, it was transfixed + by an arrow. Hosein dragged himself to the Euphrates: as he slaked his + burning thirst, his mouth was pierced by an arrow: he drank his own blood. + Wounded in four-and-thirty places, he still gallantly resisted. A soldier + named Zeraiah gave the fatal wound: his head was cut off by Ziliousheng. + Price, p. 402, 410.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.180" id="linknote-50.180"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 180 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.180">return</a>)<br /> [ Niebuhr the Dane + (Voyages en Arabie, &c., tom. ii. p. 208, &c.) is, perhaps, the + only European traveller who has dared to visit Meshed Ali and Meshed + Hosein. The two sepulchres are in the hands of the Turks, who tolerate and + tax the devotion of the Persian heretics. The festival of the death of + Hosein is amply described by Sir John Chardin, a traveller whom I have + often praised.] + </p> + <p> + When the sisters and children of Ali were brought in chains to the throne + of Damascus, the caliph was advised to extirpate the enmity of a popular + and hostile race, whom he had injured beyond the hope of reconciliation. + But Yezid preferred the councils of mercy; and the mourning family was + honorably dismissed to mingle their tears with their kindred at Medina. + The glory of martyrdom superseded the right of primogeniture; and the + twelve imams, <a href="#linknote-50.181" name="linknoteref-50.181" + id="linknoteref-50.181">181</a> or pontiffs, of the Persian creed, are Ali, + Hassan, Hosein, and the lineal descendants of Hosein to the ninth + generation. Without arms, or treasures, or subjects, they successively + enjoyed the veneration of the people, and provoked the jealousy of the + reigning caliphs: their tombs, at Mecca or Medina, on the banks of the + Euphrates, or in the province of Chorasan, are still visited by the + devotion of their sect. Their names were often the pretence of sedition + and civil war; but these royal saints despised the pomp of the world: + submitted to the will of God and the injustice of man; and devoted their + innocent lives to the study and practice of religion. The twelfth and last + of the Imams, conspicuous by the title of Mahadi, or the Guide, surpassed + the solitude and sanctity of his predecessors. He concealed himself in a + cavern near Bagdad: the time and place of his death are unknown; and his + votaries pretend that he still lives, and will appear before the day of + judgment to overthrow the tyranny of Dejal, or the Antichrist. <a + href="#linknote-50.182" name="linknoteref-50.182" id="linknoteref-50.182">182</a> + In the lapse of two or three centuries, the posterity of Abbas, the uncle + of Mahomet, had multiplied to the number of thirty-three thousand: <a + href="#linknote-50.183" name="linknoteref-50.183" id="linknoteref-50.183">183</a> + the race of Ali might be equally prolific: the meanest individual was + above the first and greatest of princes; and the most eminent were + supposed to excel the perfection of angels. But their adverse fortune, and + the wide extent of the Mussulman empire, allowed an ample scope for every + bold and artful imposture, who claimed affinity with the holy seed: the + sceptre of the Almohades, in Spain and Africa; of the Fatimites, in Egypt + and Syria; <a href="#linknote-50.184" name="linknoteref-50.184" + id="linknoteref-50.184">184</a> of the Sultans of Yemen; and of the Sophis + of Persia; <a href="#linknote-50.185" name="linknoteref-50.185" + id="linknoteref-50.185">185</a> has been consecrated by this vague and + ambiguous title. Under their reigns it might be dangerous to dispute the + legitimacy of their birth; and one of the Fatimite caliphs silenced an + indiscreet question by drawing his cimeter: “This,” said Moez, “is my + pedigree; and these,” casting a handful of gold to his soldiers,—“and + these are my kindred and my children.” In the various conditions of + princes, or doctors, or nobles, or merchants, or beggars, a swarm of the + genuine or fictitious descendants of Mahomet and Ali is honored with the + appellation of sheiks, or sherifs, or emirs. In the Ottoman empire they + are distinguished by a green turban; receive a stipend from the treasury; + are judged only by their chief; and, however debased by fortune or + character, still assert the proud preeminence of their birth. A family of + three hundred persons, the pure and orthodox branch of the caliph Hassan, + is preserved without taint or suspicion in the holy cities of Mecca and + Medina, and still retains, after the revolutions of twelve centuries, the + custody of the temple, and the sovereignty of their native land. The fame + and merit of Mahomet would ennoble a plebeian race, and the ancient blood + of the Koreish transcends the recent majesty of the kings of the earth. <a + href="#linknote-50.186" name="linknoteref-50.186" id="linknoteref-50.186">186</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.181" id="linknote-50.181"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 181 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.181">return</a>)<br /> [ The general article + of Imam, in D’Herbelot’s Bibliotheque, will indicate the succession; and + the lives of the twelve are given under their respective names.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.182" id="linknote-50.182"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 182 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.182">return</a>)<br /> [ The name of + Antichrist may seem ridiculous, but the Mahometans have liberally borrowed + the fables of every religion, (Sale’s Preliminary Discourse, p. 80, 82.) + In the royal stable of Ispahan, two horses were always kept saddled, one + for the Mahadi himself, the other for his lieutenant, Jesus the son of + Mary.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.183" id="linknote-50.183"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 183 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.183">return</a>)<br /> [ In the year of the + Hegira 200, (A.D. 815.) See D’Herbelot, p. 146] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.184" id="linknote-50.184"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 184 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.184">return</a>)<br /> [ D’Herbelot, p. 342. + The enemies of the Fatimites disgraced them by a Jewish origin. Yet they + accurately deduced their genealogy from Jaafar, the sixth Imam; and the + impartial Abulfeda allows (Annal. Moslem. p. 230) that they were owned by + many, qui absque controversia genuini sunt Alidarum, homines propaginum + suae gentis exacte callentes. He quotes some lines from the celebrated + Scherif or Rahdi, Egone humilitatem induam in terris hostium? (I suspect + him to be an Edrissite of Sicily,) cum in Aegypto sit Chalifa de gente + Alii, quocum ego communem habeo patrem et vindicem.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.185" id="linknote-50.185"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 185 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.185">return</a>)<br /> [ The kings of Persia + in the last century are descended from Sheik Sefi, a saint of the xivth + century, and through him, from Moussa Cassem, the son of Hosein, the son + of Ali, (Olearius, p. 957. Chardin, tom. iii. p. 288.) But I cannot trace + the intermediate degrees in any genuine or fabulous pedigree. If they were + truly Fatimites, they might draw their origin from the princes of + Mazanderan, who reigned in the ixth century, (D’Herbelot, p. 96.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.186" id="linknote-50.186"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 186 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.186">return</a>)<br /> [ The present state of + the family of Mahomet and Ali is most accurately described by Demetrius + Cantemir (Hist. of the Othmae Empire, p. 94) and Niebuhr, (Description de + l’Arabie, p. 9-16, 317 &c.) It is much to be lamented, that the Danish + traveller was unable to purchase the chronicles of Arabia.] + </p> + <p> + The talents of Mahomet are entitled to our applause; but his success has, + perhaps, too strongly attracted our admiration. Are we surprised that a + multitude of proselytes should embrace the doctrine and the passions of an + eloquent fanatic? In the heresies of the church, the same seduction has + been tried and repeated from the time of the apostles to that of the + reformers. Does it seem incredible that a private citizen should grasp the + sword and the sceptre, subdue his native country, and erect a monarchy by + his victorious arms? In the moving picture of the dynasties of the East, a + hundred fortunate usurpers have arisen from a baser origin, surmounted + more formidable obstacles, and filled a larger scope of empire and + conquest. Mahomet was alike instructed to preach and to fight; and the + union of these opposite qualities, while it enhanced his merit, + contributed to his success: the operation of force and persuasion, of + enthusiasm and fear, continually acted on each other, till every barrier + yielded to their irresistible power. His voice invited the Arabs to + freedom and victory, to arms and rapine, to the indulgence of their + darling passions in this world and the other: the restraints which he + imposed were requisite to establish the credit of the prophet, and to + exercise the obedience of the people; and the only objection to his + success was his rational creed of the unity and perfections of God. It is + not the propagation, but the permanency, of his religion, that deserves + our wonder: the same pure and perfect impression which he engraved at + Mecca and Medina, is preserved, after the revolutions of twelve centuries, + by the Indian, the African, and the Turkish proselytes of the Koran. If + the Christian apostles, St. Peter or St. Paul, could return to the + Vatican, they might possibly inquire the name of the Deity who is + worshipped with such mysterious rites in that magnificent temple: at + Oxford or Geneva, they would experience less surprise; but it might still + be incumbent on them to peruse the catechism of the church, and to study + the orthodox commentators on their own writings and the words of their + Master. But the Turkish dome of St. Sophia, with an increase of splendor + and size, represents the humble tabernacle erected at Medina by the hands + of Mahomet. The Mahometans have uniformly withstood the temptation of + reducing the object of their faith and devotion to a level with the senses + and imagination of man. “I believe in one God, and Mahomet the apostle of + God,” is the simple and invariable profession of Islam. The intellectual + image of the Deity has never been degraded by any visible idol; the honors + of the prophet have never transgressed the measure of human virtue; and + his living precepts have restrained the gratitude of his disciples within + the bounds of reason and religion. The votaries of Ali have, indeed, + consecrated the memory of their hero, his wife, and his children; and some + of the Persian doctors pretend that the divine essence was incarnate in + the person of the Imams; but their superstition is universally condemned + by the Sonnites; and their impiety has afforded a seasonable warning + against the worship of saints and martyrs. The metaphysical questions on + the attributes of God, and the liberty of man, have been agitated in the + schools of the Mahometans, as well as in those of the Christians; but + among the former they have never engaged the passions of the people, or + disturbed the tranquillity of the state. The cause of this important + difference may be found in the separation or union of the regal and + sacerdotal characters. It was the interest of the caliphs, the successors + of the prophet and commanders of the faithful, to repress and discourage + all religious innovations: the order, the discipline, the temporal and + spiritual ambition of the clergy, are unknown to the Moslems; and the + sages of the law are the guides of their conscience and the oracles of + their faith. From the Atlantic to the Ganges, the Koran is acknowledged as + the fundamental code, not only of theology, but of civil and criminal + jurisprudence; and the laws which regulate the actions and the property of + mankind are guarded by the infallible and immutable sanction of the will + of God. This religious servitude is attended with some practical + disadvantage; the illiterate legislator had been often misled by his own + prejudices and those of his country; and the institutions of the Arabian + desert may be ill adapted to the wealth and numbers of Ispahan and + Constantinople. On these occasions, the Cadhi respectfully places on his + head the holy volume, and substitutes a dexterous interpretation more + apposite to the principles of equity, and the manners and policy of the + times. + </p> + <p> + His beneficial or pernicious influence on the public happiness is the last + consideration in the character of Mahomet. The most bitter or most bigoted + of his Christian or Jewish foes will surely allow that he assumed a false + commission to inculcate a salutary doctrine, less perfect only than their + own. He piously supposed, as the basis of his religion, the truth and + sanctity of their prior revolutions, the virtues and miracles of their + founders. The idols of Arabia were broken before the throne of God; the + blood of human victims was expiated by prayer, and fasting, and alms, the + laudable or innocent arts of devotion; and his rewards and punishments of + a future life were painted by the images most congenial to an ignorant and + carnal generation. Mahomet was, perhaps, incapable of dictating a moral + and political system for the use of his countrymen: but he breathed among + the faithful a spirit of charity and friendship; recommended the practice + of the social virtues; and checked, by his laws and precepts, the thirst + of revenge, and the oppression of widows and orphans. The hostile tribes + were united in faith and obedience, and the valor which had been idly + spent in domestic quarrels was vigorously directed against a foreign + enemy. Had the impulse been less powerful, Arabia, free at home and + formidable abroad, might have flourished under a succession of her native + monarchs. Her sovereignty was lost by the extent and rapidity of conquest. + The colonies of the nation were scattered over the East and West, and + their blood was mingled with the blood of their converts and captives. + After the reign of three caliphs, the throne was transported from Medina + to the valley of Damascus and the banks of the Tigris; the holy cities + were violated by impious war; Arabia was ruled by the rod of a subject, + perhaps of a stranger; and the Bedoweens of the desert, awakening from + their dream of dominion, resumed their old and solitary independence. <a + href="#linknote-50.187" name="linknoteref-50.187" id="linknoteref-50.187">187</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-50.187" id="linknote-50.187"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 187 (<a href="#linknoteref-50.187">return</a>)<br /> [ The writers of the + Modern Universal History (vols. i. and ii.) have compiled, in 850 folio + pages, the life of Mahomet and the annals of the caliphs. They enjoyed the + advantage of reading, and sometimes correcting, the Arabic text; yet, + notwithstanding their high-sounding boasts, I cannot find, after the + conclusion of my work, that they have afforded me much (if any) additional + information. The dull mass is not quickened by a spark of philosophy or + taste; and the compilers indulge the criticism of acrimonious bigotry + against Boulainvilliers, Sale, Gagnier, and all who have treated Mahomet + with favor, or even justice.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap51.1"></a> + Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Conquest Of Persia, Syria, Egypt, Africa, And Spain, By + The Arabs Or Saracens.—Empire Of The Caliphs, Or Successors + Of Mahomet.—State Of The Christians, &c., Under Their + Government. +</pre> + <p> + The revolution of Arabia had not changed the character of the Arabs: the + death of Mahomet was the signal of independence; and the hasty structure + of his power and religion tottered to its foundations. A small and + faithful band of his primitive disciples had listened to his eloquence, + and shared his distress; had fled with the apostle from the persecution of + Mecca, or had received the fugitive in the walls of Medina. The increasing + myriads, who acknowledged Mahomet as their king and prophet, had been + compelled by his arms, or allured by his prosperity. The polytheists were + confounded by the simple idea of a solitary and invisible God; the pride + of the Christians and Jews disdained the yoke of a mortal and contemporary + legislator. The habits of faith and obedience were not sufficiently + confirmed; and many of the new converts regretted the venerable antiquity + of the law of Moses, or the rites and mysteries of the Catholic church; or + the idols, the sacrifices, the joyous festivals, of their Pagan ancestors. + The jarring interests and hereditary feuds of the Arabian tribes had not + yet coalesced in a system of union and subordination; and the Barbarians + were impatient of the mildest and most salutary laws that curbed their + passions, or violated their customs. They submitted with reluctance to the + religious precepts of the Koran, the abstinence from wine, the fast of the + Ramadan, and the daily repetition of five prayers; and the alms and + tithes, which were collected for the treasury of Medina, could be + distinguished only by a name from the payment of a perpetual and + ignominious tribute. The example of Mahomet had excited a spirit of + fanaticism or imposture, and several of his rivals presumed to imitate the + conduct, and defy the authority, of the living prophet. At the head of the + fugitives and auxiliaries, the first caliph was reduced to the cities of + Mecca, Medina, and Tayef; and perhaps the Koreish would have restored the + idols of the Caaba, if their levity had not been checked by a seasonable + reproof. “Ye men of Mecca, will ye be the last to embrace, and the first + to abandon, the religion of Islam?” After exhorting the Moslems to confide + in the aid of God and his apostle, Abubeker resolved, by a vigorous + attack, to prevent the junction of the rebels. The women and children were + safely lodged in the cavities of the mountains: the warriors, marching + under eleven banners, diffused the terror of their arms; and the + appearance of a military force revived and confirmed the loyalty of the + faithful. The inconstant tribes accepted, with humble repentance, the + duties of prayer, and fasting, and alms; and, after some examples of + success and severity, the most daring apostates fell prostrate before the + sword of the Lord and of Caled. In the fertile province of Yemanah, <a + href="#linknote-51.1" name="linknoteref-51.1" id="linknoteref-51.1">1</a> + between the Red Sea and the Gulf of Persia, in a city not inferior to + Medina itself, a powerful chief (his name was Moseilama) had assumed the + character of a prophet, and the tribe of Hanifa listened to his voice. A + female prophetess <a href="#linknote-51.1111" name="linknoteref-51.1111" + id="linknoteref-51.1111">1111</a> was attracted by his reputation; the + decencies of words and actions were spurned by these favorites of Heaven; + <a href="#linknote-51.2" name="linknoteref-51.2" id="linknoteref-51.2">2</a> + and they employed several days in mystic and amorous converse. An obscure + sentence of his Koran, or book, is yet extant; <a href="#linknote-51.3" + name="linknoteref-51.3" id="linknoteref-51.3">3</a> and in the pride of his + mission, Moseilama condescended to offer a partition of the earth. The + proposal was answered by Mahomet with contempt; but the rapid progress of + the impostor awakened the fears of his successor: forty thousand Moslems + were assembled under the standard of Caled; and the existence of their + faith was resigned to the event of a decisive battle. <a + href="#linknote-51.3111" name="linknoteref-51.3111" id="linknoteref-51.3111">3111</a> + In the first action they were repulsed by the loss of twelve hundred men; + but the skill and perseverance of their general prevailed; their defeat + was avenged by the slaughter of ten thousand infidels; and Moseilama + himself was pierced by an Aethiopian slave with the same javelin which had + mortally wounded the uncle of Mahomet. The various rebels of Arabia + without a chief or a cause, were speedily suppressed by the power and + discipline of the rising monarchy; and the whole nation again professed, + and more steadfastly held, the religion of the Koran. The ambition of the + caliphs provided an immediate exercise for the restless spirit of the + Saracens: their valor was united in the prosecution of a holy war; and + their enthusiasm was equally confirmed by opposition and victory. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.1" id="linknote-51.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.1">return</a>)<br /> [ See the description of + the city and country of Al Yamanah, in Abulfeda, Descript. Arabiae, p. 60, + 61. In the xiiith century, there were some ruins, and a few palms; but in + the present century, the same ground is occupied by the visions and arms + of a modern prophet, whose tenets are imperfectly known, (Niebuhr, + Description de l’Arabie, p. 296-302.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.1111" id="linknote-51.1111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1111 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.1111">return</a>)<br /> [ This extraordinary + woman was a Christian; she was at the head of a numerous and flourishing + sect; Moseilama professed to recognize her inspiration. In a personal + interview he proposed their marriage and the union of their sects. The + handsome person, the impassioned eloquence, and the arts of Moseilama, + triumphed over the virtue of the prophetesa who was rejected with scorn by + her lover, and by her notorious unchastity ost her influence with her own + followers. Gibbon, with that propensity too common, especially in his + later volumes, has selected only the grosser part of this singular + adventure.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.2" id="linknote-51.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.2">return</a>)<br /> [ The first salutation may + be transcribed, but cannot be translated. It was thus that Moseilama said + or sung:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Surge tandem itaque strenue permolenda; nam stratus tibi thorus est. + Aut in propatulo tentorio si velis, aut in abditiore cubiculo si malis; + Aut supinam te humi exporrectam fustigabo, si velis, + Aut si malis manibus pedibusque nixam. + Aut si velis ejus (Priapi) gemino triente aut si malis totus veniam. + Imo, totus venito, O Apostole Dei, clamabat foemina. + Id ipsum, dicebat + Moseilama, mihi quoque suggessit Deus. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + The prophetess Segjah, after the fall of her lover, returned to idolatry; + but under the reign of Moawiyah, she became a Mussulman, and died at + Bassora, (Abulfeda, Annal. vers. Reiske, p. 63.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.3" id="linknote-51.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.3">return</a>)<br /> [ See this text, which + demonstrates a God from the work of generation, in Abulpharagius (Specimen + Hist. Arabum, p. 13, and Dynast. p. 103) and Abulfeda, (Annal. p. 63.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.3111" id="linknote-51.3111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3111 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.3111">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare a long + account of this battle in Price, p. 42.—M.] + </p> + <p> + From the rapid conquests of the Saracens a presumption will naturally + arise, that the caliphs <a href="#linknote-51.311" name="linknoteref-51.311" + id="linknoteref-51.311">311</a> commanded in person the armies of the + faithful, and sought the crown of martyrdom in the foremost ranks of the + battle. The courage of Abubeker, <a href="#linknote-51.4" + name="linknoteref-51.4" id="linknoteref-51.4">4</a> Omar, <a + href="#linknote-51.5" name="linknoteref-51.5" id="linknoteref-51.5">5</a> and + Othman, <a href="#linknote-51.6" name="linknoteref-51.6" id="linknoteref-51.6">6</a> + had indeed been tried in the persecution and wars of the prophet; and the + personal assurance of paradise must have taught them to despise the + pleasures and dangers of the present world. But they ascended the throne + in a venerable or mature age; and esteemed the domestic cares of religion + and justice the most important duties of a sovereign. Except the presence + of Omar at the siege of Jerusalem, their longest expeditions were the + frequent pilgrimage from Medina to Mecca; and they calmly received the + tidings of victory as they prayed or preached before the sepulchre of the + prophet. The austere and frugal measure of their lives was the effect of + virtue or habit, and the pride of their simplicity insulted the vain + magnificence of the kings of the earth. When Abubeker assumed the office + of caliph, he enjoined his daughter Ayesha to take a strict account of his + private patrimony, that it might be evident whether he were enriched or + impoverished by the service of the state. He thought himself entitled to a + stipend of three pieces of gold, with the sufficient maintenance of a + single camel and a black slave; but on the Friday of each week he + distributed the residue of his own and the public money, first to the most + worthy, and then to the most indigent, of the Moslems. The remains of his + wealth, a coarse garment, and five pieces of gold, were delivered to his + successor, who lamented with a modest sigh his own inability to equal such + an admirable model. Yet the abstinence and humility of Omar were not + inferior to the virtues of Abubeker: his food consisted of barley bread or + dates; his drink was water; he preached in a gown that was torn or + tattered in twelve places; and the Persian satrap, who paid his homage to + the conqueror, found him asleep among the beggars on the steps of the + mosch of Medina. Oeeconomy is the source of liberality, and the increase + of the revenue enabled Omar to establish a just and perpetual reward for + the past and present services of the faithful. Careless of his own + emolument, he assigned to Abbas, the uncle of the prophet, the first and + most ample allowance of twenty-five thousand drachms or pieces of silver. + Five thousand were allotted to each of the aged warriors, the relics of + the field of Beder; and the last and meanest of the companions of Mahomet + was distinguished by the annual reward of three thousand pieces. One + thousand was the stipend of the veterans who had fought in the first + battles against the Greeks and Persians; and the decreasing pay, as low as + fifty pieces of silver, was adapted to the respective merit and seniority + of the soldiers of Omar. Under his reign, and that of his predecessor, the + conquerors of the East were the trusty servants of God and the people; the + mass of the public treasure was consecrated to the expenses of peace and + war; a prudent mixture of justice and bounty maintained the discipline of + the Saracens, and they united, by a rare felicity, the despatch and + execution of despotism with the equal and frugal maxims of a republican + government. The heroic courage of Ali, <a href="#linknote-51.7" + name="linknoteref-51.7" id="linknoteref-51.7">7</a> the consummate prudence + of Moawiyah, <a href="#linknote-51.8" name="linknoteref-51.8" + id="linknoteref-51.8">8</a> excited the emulation of their subjects; and + the talents which had been exercised in the school of civil discord were + more usefully applied to propagate the faith and dominion of the prophet. + In the sloth and vanity of the palace of Damascus, the succeeding princes + of the house of Ommiyah were alike destitute of the qualifications of + statesmen and of saints. <a href="#linknote-51.9" name="linknoteref-51.9" + id="linknoteref-51.9">9</a> Yet the spoils of unknown nations were + continually laid at the foot of their throne, and the uniform ascent of + the Arabian greatness must be ascribed to the spirit of the nation rather + than the abilities of their chiefs. A large deduction must be allowed for + the weakness of their enemies. The birth of Mahomet was fortunately placed + in the most degenerate and disorderly period of the Persians, the Romans, + and the Barbarians of Europe: the empires of Trajan, or even of + Constantine or Charlemagne, would have repelled the assault of the naked + Saracens, and the torrent of fanaticism might have been obscurely lost in + the sands of Arabia. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.311" id="linknote-51.311"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 311 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.311">return</a>)<br /> [ In Arabic, + “successors.” V. Hammer Geschichte der Assas. p. 14—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.4" id="linknote-51.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.4">return</a>)<br /> [ His reign in Eutychius, + tom. ii. p. 251. Elmacin, p. 18. Abulpharagius, p. 108. Abulfeda, p. 60. + D’Herbelot, p. 58.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.5" id="linknote-51.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.5">return</a>)<br /> [ His reign in Eutychius, + p. 264. Elmacin, p. 24. Abulpharagius, p. 110. Abulfeda, p. 66. + D’Herbelot, p. 686.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.6" id="linknote-51.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.6">return</a>)<br /> [ His reign in Eutychius, + p. 323. Elmacin, p. 36. Abulpharagius, p. 115. Abulfeda, p. 75. + D’Herbelot, p. 695.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.7" id="linknote-51.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.7">return</a>)<br /> [ His reign in Eutychius, + p. 343. Elmacin, p. 51. Abulpharagius, p. 117. Abulfeda, p. 83. + D’Herbelot, p. 89.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.8" id="linknote-51.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.8">return</a>)<br /> [ His reign in Eutychius, + p. 344. Elmacin, p. 54. Abulpharagius, p. 123. Abulfeda, p. 101. + D’Herbelot, p. 586.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.9" id="linknote-51.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.9">return</a>)<br /> [ Their reigns in + Eutychius, tom. ii. p. 360-395. Elmacin, p. 59-108. Abulpharagius, Dynast. + ix. p. 124-139. Abulfeda, p. 111-141. D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, + p. 691, and the particular articles of the Ommiades.] + </p> + <p> + In the victorious days of the Roman republic, it had been the aim of the + senate to confine their councils and legions to a single war, and + completely to suppress a first enemy before they provoked the hostilities + of a second. These timid maxims of policy were disdained by the + magnanimity or enthusiasm of the Arabian caliphs. With the same vigor and + success they invaded the successors of Augustus and those of Artaxerxes; + and the rival monarchies at the same instant became the prey of an enemy + whom they had been so long accustomed to despise. In the ten years of the + administration of Omar, the Saracens reduced to his obedience thirty-six + thousand cities or castles, destroyed four thousand churches or temples of + the unbelievers, and edified fourteen hundred moschs for the exercise of + the religion of Mahomet. One hundred years after his flight from Mecca, + the arms and the reign of his successors extended from India to the + Atlantic Ocean, over the various and distant provinces, which may be + comprised under the names of, I. Persia; II. Syria; III. Egypt; IV. + Africa; and, V. Spain. Under this general division, I shall proceed to + unfold these memorable transactions; despatching with brevity the remote + and less interesting conquests of the East, and reserving a fuller + narrative for those domestic countries which had been included within the + pale of the Roman empire. Yet I must excuse my own defects by a just + complaint of the blindness and insufficiency of my guides. The Greeks, so + loquacious in controversy, have not been anxious to celebrate the triumphs + of their enemies. <a href="#linknote-51.10" name="linknoteref-51.10" + id="linknoteref-51.10">10</a> After a century of ignorance, the first + annals of the Mussulmans were collected in a great measure from the voice + of tradition. <a href="#linknote-51.11" name="linknoteref-51.11" + id="linknoteref-51.11">11</a> Among the numerous productions of Arabic and + Persian literature, <a href="#linknote-51.12" name="linknoteref-51.12" + id="linknoteref-51.12">12</a> our interpreters have selected the imperfect + sketches of a more recent age. <a href="#linknote-51.13" + name="linknoteref-51.13" id="linknoteref-51.13">13</a> The art and genius of + history have ever been unknown to the Asiatics; <a href="#linknote-51.14" + name="linknoteref-51.14" id="linknoteref-51.14">14</a> they are ignorant of + the laws of criticism; and our monkish chronicle of the same period may be + compared to their most popular works, which are never vivified by the + spirit of philosophy and freedom. + </p> + <p> + The Oriental library of a Frenchman <a href="#linknote-51.15" + name="linknoteref-51.15" id="linknoteref-51.15">15</a> would instruct the + most learned mufti of the East; and perhaps the Arabs might not find in a + single historian so clear and comprehensive a narrative of their own + exploits as that which will be deduced in the ensuing sheets. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.10" id="linknote-51.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.10">return</a>)<br /> [ For the viith and + viiith century, we have scarcely any original evidence of the Byzantine + historians, except the chronicles of Theophanes (Theophanis Confessoris + Chronographia, Gr. et Lat. cum notis Jacobi Goar. Paris, 1665, in folio) + and the Abridgment of Nicephorus, (Nicephori Patriarchae C. P. Breviarium + Historicum, Gr. et Lat. Paris, 1648, in folio,) who both lived in the + beginning of the ixth century, (see Hanckius de Scriptor. Byzant. p. + 200-246.) Their contemporary, Photius, does not seem to be more opulent. + After praising the style of Nicephorus, he adds, and only complains of his + extreme brevity, (Phot. Bibliot. Cod. lxvi. p. 100.) Some additions may be + gleaned from the more recent histories of Cedrenus and Zonaras of the + xiith century.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.11" id="linknote-51.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.11">return</a>)<br /> [ Tabari, or Al Tabari, a + native of Taborestan, a famous Imam of Bagdad, and the Livy of the + Arabians, finished his general history in the year of the Hegira 302, + (A.D. 914.) At the request of his friends, he reduced a work of 30,000 + sheets to a more reasonable size. But his Arabic original is known only by + the Persian and Turkish versions. The Saracenic history of Ebn Amid, or + Elmacin, is said to be an abridgment of the great Tabari, (Ockley’s Hist. + of the Saracens, vol. ii. preface, p. xxxix. and list of authors, + D’Herbelot, p. 866, 870, 1014.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.12" id="linknote-51.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.12">return</a>)<br /> [ Besides the list of + authors framed by Prideaux, (Life of Mahomet, p. 179-189,) Ockley, (at the + end of his second volume,) and Petit de la Croix, (Hist. de Gengiscan, p. + 525-550,) we find in the Bibliotheque Orientale Tarikh, a catalogue of two + or three hundred histories or chronicles of the East, of which not more + than three or four are older than Tabari. A lively sketch of Oriental + literature is given by Reiske, (in his Prodidagmata ad Hagji Chalifae + librum memorialem ad calcem Abulfedae Tabulae Syriae, Lipsiae, 1776;) but + his project and the French version of Petit de la Croix (Hist. de Timur + Bec, tom. i. preface, p. xlv.) have fallen to the ground.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.13" id="linknote-51.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.13">return</a>)<br /> [ The particular + historians and geographers will be occasionally introduced. The four + following titles represent the Annals which have guided me in this general + narrative. 1. Annales Eutychii, Patriarchoe Alexandrini, ab Edwardo + Pocockio, Oxon. 1656, 2 vols. in 4to. A pompous edition of an indifferent + author, translated by Pocock to gratify the Presbyterian prejudices of his + friend Selden. 2. Historia Saracenica Georgii Elmacini, opera et studio + Thomae Erpenii, in 4to., Lugd. Batavorum, 1625. He is said to have hastily + translated a corrupt Ms., and his version is often deficient in style and + sense. 3. Historia compendiosa Dynastiarum a Gregorio Abulpharagio, + interprete Edwardo Pocockio, in 4to., Oxon. 1663. More useful for the + literary than the civil history of the East. 4. Abulfedoe Annales + Moslemici ad Ann. Hegiroe ccccvi. a Jo. Jac. Reiske, in 4to., Lipsioe, + 1754. The best of our chronicles, both for the original and version, yet + how far below the name of Abulfeda! We know that he wrote at Hamah in the + xivth century. The three former were Christians of the xth, xiith, and + xiiith centuries; the two first, natives of Egypt; a Melchite patriarch, + and a Jacobite scribe.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.14" id="linknote-51.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.14">return</a>)<br /> [ M. D. Guignes (Hist. + des Huns, tom. i. pref. p. xix. xx.) has characterized, with truth and + knowledge, the two sorts of Arabian historians—the dry annalist, and + the tumid and flowery orator.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.15" id="linknote-51.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.15">return</a>)<br /> [ Bibliotheque Orientale, + par M. D’Herbelot, in folio, Paris, 1697. For the character of the + respectable author, consult his friend Thevenot, (Voyages du Levant, part + i. chap. 1.) His work is an agreeable miscellany, which must gratify every + taste; but I never can digest the alphabetical order; and I find him more + satisfactory in the Persian than the Arabic history. The recent supplement + from the papers of Mm. Visdelou, and Galland, (in folio, La Haye, 1779,) + is of a different cast, a medley of tales, proverbs, and Chinese + antiquities.] + </p> + <p> + I. In the first year of the first caliph, his lieutenant Caled, the Sword + of God, and the scourge of the infidels, advanced to the banks of the + Euphrates, and reduced the cities of Anbar and Hira. Westward of the ruins + of Babylon, a tribe of sedentary Arabs had fixed themselves on the verge + of the desert; and Hira was the seat of a race of kings who had embraced + the Christian religion, and reigned above six hundred years under the + shadow of the throne of Persia. <a href="#linknote-51.16" + name="linknoteref-51.16" id="linknoteref-51.16">16</a> The last of the + Mondars <a href="#linknote-51.1611" name="linknoteref-51.1611" + id="linknoteref-51.1611">1611</a> was defeated and slain by Caled; his son + was sent a captive to Medina; his nobles bowed before the successor of the + prophet; the people was tempted by the example and success of their + countrymen; and the caliph accepted as the first-fruits of foreign + conquest an annual tribute of seventy thousand pieces of gold. The + conquerors, and even their historians, were astonished by the dawn of + their future greatness: “In the same year,” says Elmacin, “Caled fought + many signal battles: an immense multitude of the infidels was slaughtered; + and spoils infinite and innumerable were acquired by the victorious + Moslems.” <a href="#linknote-51.17" name="linknoteref-51.17" + id="linknoteref-51.17">17</a> But the invincible Caled was soon transferred + to the Syrian war: the invasion of the Persian frontier was conducted by + less active or less prudent commanders: the Saracens were repulsed with + loss in the passage of the Euphrates; and, though they chastised the + insolent pursuit of the Magians, their remaining forces still hovered in + the desert of Babylon. <a href="#linknote-51.1711" name="linknoteref-51.1711" + id="linknoteref-51.1711">1711</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.16" id="linknote-51.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.16">return</a>)<br /> [ Pocock will explain the + chronology, (Specimen Hist. Arabum, p. 66-74,) and D’Anville the + geography, (l’Euphrate, et le Tigre, p. 125,) of the dynasty of the + Almondars. The English scholar understood more Arabic than the mufti of + Aleppo, (Ockley, vol. ii. p. 34: ) the French geographer is equally at + home in every age and every climate of the world.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.1611" id="linknote-51.1611"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1611 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.1611">return</a>)<br /> [ Eichhorn and + Silvestre de Sacy have written on the obscure history of the Mondars.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.17" id="linknote-51.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.17">return</a>)<br /> [ Fecit et Chaled plurima + in hoc anno praelia, in quibus vicerunt Muslimi, et infidelium immensa + multitudine occisa spolia infinita et innumera sunt nacti, (Hist. + Saracenica, p. 20.) The Christian annalist slides into the national and + compendious term of infidels, and I often adopt (I hope without scandal) + this characteristic mode of expression.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.1711" id="linknote-51.1711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1711 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.1711">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare throughout + Malcolm, vol. ii. p. 136.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The indignation and fears of the Persians suspended for a moment their + intestine divisions. By the unanimous sentence of the priests and nobles, + their queen Arzema was deposed; the sixth of the transient usurpers, who + had arisen and vanished in three or four years since the death of + Chosroes, and the retreat of Heraclius. Her tiara was placed on the head + of Yezdegerd, the grandson of Chosroes; and the same aera, which coincides + with an astronomical period, <a href="#linknote-51.18" + name="linknoteref-51.18" id="linknoteref-51.18">18</a> has recorded the fall + of the Sassanian dynasty and the religion of Zoroaster. <a + href="#linknote-51.19" name="linknoteref-51.19" id="linknoteref-51.19">19</a> + The youth and inexperience of the prince (he was only fifteen years of + age) declined a perilous encounter: the royal standard was delivered into + the hands of his general Rustam; and a remnant of thirty thousand regular + troops was swelled in truth, or in opinion, to one hundred and twenty + thousand subjects, or allies, of the great king. The Moslems, whose + numbers were reenforced from twelve to thirty thousand, had pitched their + camp in the plains of Cadesia: <a href="#linknote-51.20" + name="linknoteref-51.20" id="linknoteref-51.20">20</a> and their line, + though it consisted of fewer men, could produce more soldiers, than the + unwieldy host of the infidels. I shall here observe, what I must often + repeat, that the charge of the Arabs was not, like that of the Greeks and + Romans, the effort of a firm and compact infantry: their military force + was chiefly formed of cavalry and archers; and the engagement, which was + often interrupted and often renewed by single combats and flying + skirmishes, might be protracted without any decisive event to the + continuance of several days. The periods of the battle of Cadesia were + distinguished by their peculiar appellations. The first, from the + well-timed appearance of six thousand of the Syrian brethren, was + denominated the day of succor. The day of concussion might express the + disorder of one, or perhaps of both, of the contending armies. The third, + a nocturnal tumult, received the whimsical name of the night of barking, + from the discordant clamors, which were compared to the inarticulate + sounds of the fiercest animals. The morning of the succeeding day <a + href="#linknote-51.2011" name="linknoteref-51.2011" id="linknoteref-51.2011">2011</a> + determined the fate of Persia; and a seasonable whirlwind drove a cloud of + dust against the faces of the unbelievers. The clangor of arms was + reechoed to the tent of Rustam, who, far unlike the ancient hero of his + name, was gently reclining in a cool and tranquil shade, amidst the + baggage of his camp, and the train of mules that were laden with gold and + silver. On the sound of danger he started from his couch; but his flight + was overtaken by a valiant Arab, who caught him by the foot, struck off + his head, hoisted it on a lance, and instantly returning to the field of + battle, carried slaughter and dismay among the thickest ranks of the + Persians. The Saracens confess a loss of seven thousand five hundred men; + <a href="#linknote-51.2012" name="linknoteref-51.2012" + id="linknoteref-51.2012">2012</a> and the battle of Cadesia is justly + described by the epithets of obstinate and atrocious. <a + href="#linknote-51.21" name="linknoteref-51.21" id="linknoteref-51.21">21</a> + The standard of the monarchy was overthrown and captured in the field—a + leathern apron of a blacksmith, who in ancient times had arisen the + deliverer of Persia; but this badge of heroic poverty was disguised, and + almost concealed, by a profusion of precious gems. <a href="#linknote-51.22" + name="linknoteref-51.22" id="linknoteref-51.22">22</a> After this victory, + the wealthy province of Irak, or Assyria, submitted to the caliph, and his + conquests were firmly established by the speedy foundation of Bassora, <a + href="#linknote-51.23" name="linknoteref-51.23" id="linknoteref-51.23">23</a> + a place which ever commands the trade and navigation of the Persians. As + the distance of fourscore miles from the Gulf, the Euphrates and Tigris + unite in a broad and direct current, which is aptly styled the river of + the Arabs. In the midway, between the junction and the mouth of these + famous streams, the new settlement was planted on the western bank: the + first colony was composed of eight hundred Moslems; but the influence of + the situation soon reared a flourishing and populous capital. The air, + though excessively hot, is pure and healthy: the meadows are filled with + palm-trees and cattle; and one of the adjacent valleys has been celebrated + among the four paradises or gardens of Asia. Under the first caliphs the + jurisdiction of this Arabian colony extended over the southern provinces + of Persia: the city has been sanctified by the tombs of the companions and + martyrs; and the vessels of Europe still frequent the port of Bassora, as + a convenient station and passage of the Indian trade. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.18" id="linknote-51.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.18">return</a>)<br /> [ A cycle of 120 years, + the end of which an intercalary month of 30 days supplied the use of our + Bissextile, and restored the integrity of the solar year. In a great + revolution of 1440 years this intercalation was successively removed from + the first to the twelfth month; but Hyde and Freret are involved in a + profound controversy, whether the twelve, or only eight of these changes + were accomplished before the aera of Yezdegerd, which is unanimously fixed + to the 16th of June, A.D. 632. How laboriously does the curious spirit of + Europe explore the darkest and most distant antiquities! (Hyde de + Religione Persarum, c. 14-18, p. 181-211. Freret in the Mem. de l’Academie + des Inscriptions, tom. xvi. p. 233-267.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.19" id="linknote-51.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.19">return</a>)<br /> [ Nine days after the + death of Mahomet (7th June, A.D. 632) we find the aera of Yezdegerd, (16th + June, A.D. 632,) and his accession cannot be postponed beyond the end of + the first year. His predecessors could not therefore resist the arms of + the caliph Omar; and these unquestionable dates overthrow the thoughtless + chronology of Abulpharagius. See Ockley’s Hist. of the Saracens, vol. i. + p. 130. * Note: The Rezont Uzzuffa (Price, p. 105) has a strange account + of an embassy to Yezdegerd. The Oriental historians take great delight in + these embassies, which give them an opportunity of displaying their + Asiatic eloquence—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.20" id="linknote-51.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.20">return</a>)<br /> [ Cadesia, says the + Nubian geographer, (p. 121,) is in margine solitudinis, 61 leagues from + Bagdad, and two stations from Cufa. Otter (Voyage, tom. i. p. 163) reckons + 15 leagues, and observes, that the place is supplied with dates and + water.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.2011" id="linknote-51.2011"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2011 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.2011">return</a>)<br /> [ The day of + cormorants, or according to another reading the day of reinforcements. It + was the night which was called the night of snarling. Price, p. 114.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.2012" id="linknote-51.2012"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2012 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.2012">return</a>)<br /> [ According to + Malcolm’s authorities, only three thousand; but he adds “This is the + report of Mahomedan historians, who have a great disposition of the + wonderful, in relating the first actions of the faithful” Vol. i. p. 39.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.21" id="linknote-51.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.21">return</a>)<br /> [ Atrox, contumax, plus + semel renovatum, are the well-chosen expressions of the translator of + Abulfeda, (Reiske, p. 69.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.22" id="linknote-51.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.22">return</a>)<br /> [ D’Herbelot, + Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 297, 348.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.23" id="linknote-51.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.23">return</a>)<br /> [ The reader may satisfy + himself on the subject of Bassora by consulting the following writers: + Geograph, Nubiens. p. 121. D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 192. + D’Anville, l’Euphrate et le Tigre, p. 130, 133, 145. Raynal, Hist. + Philosophique des deux Indes, tom. ii. p. 92-100. Voyages di Pietro della + Valle, tom. iv. p. 370-391. De Tavernier, tom. i. p. 240-247. De Thevenot, + tom. ii. p. 545-584. D Otter, tom. ii. p. 45-78. De Niebuhr, tom. ii. p. + 172-199.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap51.2"></a> + Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + After the defeat of Cadesia, a country intersected by rivers and canals + might have opposed an insuperable barrier to the victorious cavalry; and + the walls of Ctesiphon or Madayn, which had resisted the battering-rams of + the Romans, would not have yielded to the darts of the Saracens. But the + flying Persians were overcome by the belief, that the last day of their + religion and empire was at hand; the strongest posts were abandoned by + treachery or cowardice; and the king, with a part of his family and + treasures, escaped to Holwan at the foot of the Median hills. + </p> + <p> + In the third month after the battle, Said, the lieutenant of Omar, passed + the Tigris without opposition; the capital was taken by assault; and the + disorderly resistance of the people gave a keener edge to the sabres of + the Moslems, who shouted with religious transport, “This is the white + palace of Chosroes; this is the promise of the apostle of God!” The naked + robbers of the desert were suddenly enriched beyond the measure of their + hope or knowledge. Each chamber revealed a new treasure secreted with art, + or ostentatiously displayed; the gold and silver, the various wardrobes + and precious furniture, surpassed (says Abulfeda) the estimate of fancy or + numbers; and another historian defines the untold and almost infinite + mass, by the fabulous computation of three thousands of thousands of + thousands of pieces of gold. <a href="#linknote-51.24" + name="linknoteref-51.24" id="linknoteref-51.24">24</a> Some minute though + curious facts represent the contrast of riches and ignorance. From the + remote islands of the Indian Ocean a large provision of camphire <a + href="#linknote-51.25" name="linknoteref-51.25" id="linknoteref-51.25">25</a> + had been imported, which is employed with a mixture of wax to illuminate + the palaces of the East. Strangers to the name and properties of that + odoriferous gum, the Saracens, mistaking it for salt, mingled the camphire + in their bread, and were astonished at the bitterness of the taste. One of + the apartments of the palace was decorated with a carpet of silk, sixty + cubits in length, and as many in breadth: a paradise or garden was + depictured on the ground: the flowers, fruits, and shrubs, were imitated + by the figures of the gold embroidery, and the colors of the precious + stones; and the ample square was encircled by a variegated and verdant + border. <a href="#linknote-51.251" name="linknoteref-51.251" + id="linknoteref-51.251">251</a> The Arabian general persuaded his soldiers + to relinquish their claim, in the reasonable hope that the eyes of the + caliph would be delighted with the splendid workmanship of nature and + industry. Regardless of the merit of art, and the pomp of royalty, the + rigid Omar divided the prize among his brethren of Medina: the picture was + destroyed; but such was the intrinsic value of the materials, that the + share of Ali alone was sold for twenty thousand drams. A mule that carried + away the tiara and cuirass, the belt and bracelets of Chosroes, was + overtaken by the pursuers; the gorgeous trophy was presented to the + commander of the faithful; and the gravest of the companions condescended + to smile when they beheld the white beard, the hairy arms, and uncouth + figure of the veteran, who was invested with the spoils of the Great King. + <a href="#linknote-51.26" name="linknoteref-51.26" id="linknoteref-51.26">26</a> + The sack of Ctesiphon was followed by its desertion and gradual decay. The + Saracens disliked the air and situation of the place, and Omar was advised + by his general to remove the seat of government to the western side of the + Euphrates. In every age, the foundation and ruin of the Assyrian cities + has been easy and rapid: the country is destitute of stone and timber; and + the most solid structures <a href="#linknote-51.27" name="linknoteref-51.27" + id="linknoteref-51.27">27</a> are composed of bricks baked in the sun, and + joined by a cement of the native bitumen. The name of Cufa <a + href="#linknote-51.28" name="linknoteref-51.28" id="linknoteref-51.28">28</a> + describes a habitation of reeds and earth; but the importance of the new + capital was supported by the numbers, wealth, and spirit, of a colony of + veterans; and their licentiousness was indulged by the wisest caliphs, who + were apprehensive of provoking the revolt of a hundred thousand swords: + “Ye men of Cufa,” said Ali, who solicited their aid, “you have been always + conspicuous by your valor. You conquered the Persian king, and scattered + his forces, till you had taken possession of his inheritance.” This mighty + conquest was achieved by the battles of Jalula and Nehavend. After the + loss of the former, Yezdegerd fled from Holwan, and concealed his shame + and despair in the mountains of Farsistan, from whence Cyrus had descended + with his equal and valiant companions. The courage of the nation survived + that of the monarch: among the hills to the south of Ecbatana or Hamadan, + one hundred and fifty thousand Persians made a third and final stand for + their religion and country; and the decisive battle of Nehavend was styled + by the Arabs the victory of victories. If it be true that the flying + general of the Persians was stopped and overtaken in a crowd of mules and + camels laden with honey, the incident, however slight and singular, will + denote the luxurious impediments of an Oriental army. <a + href="#linknote-51.29" name="linknoteref-51.29" id="linknoteref-51.29">29</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.24" id="linknote-51.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.24">return</a>)<br /> [ Mente vix potest + numerove comprehendi quanta spolia nostris cesserint. Abulfeda, p. 69. Yet + I still suspect, that the extravagant numbers of Elmacin may be the error, + not of the text, but of the version. The best translators from the Greek, + for instance, I find to be very poor arithmeticians. * Note: Ockley (Hist. + of Saracens, vol. i. p. 230) translates in the same manner three thousand + million of ducats. See Forster’s Mahometanism Unveiled, vol. ii. p. 462; + who makes this innocent doubt of Gibbon, in which, is to the amount of the + plunder, I venture to concur, a grave charge of inaccuracy and disrespect + to the memory of Erpenius. The Persian authorities of Price (p. 122) make + the booty worth three hundred and thirty millions sterling!—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.25" id="linknote-51.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.25">return</a>)<br /> [ The camphire-tree grows + in China and Japan; but many hundred weight of those meaner sorts are + exchanged for a single pound of the more precious gum of Borneo and + Sumatra, (Raynal, Hist. Philosoph. tom. i. p. 362-365. Dictionnaire + d’Hist. Naturelle par Bomare Miller’s Gardener’s Dictionary.) These may be + the islands of the first climate from whence the Arabians imported their + camphire (Geograph. Nub. p. 34, 35. D’Herbelot, p. 232.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.251" id="linknote-51.251"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 251 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.251">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare Price, p. + 122.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.26" id="linknote-51.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.26">return</a>)<br /> [ See Gagnier, Vie de + Mahomet, tom. i. p. 376, 377. I may credit the fact, without believing the + prophecy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.27" id="linknote-51.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.27">return</a>)<br /> [ The most considerable + ruins of Assyria are the tower of Belus, at Babylon, and the hall of + Chosroes, at Ctesiphon: they have been visited by that vain and curious + traveller Pietro della Valle, (tom. i. p. 713-718, 731-735.) * Note: The + best modern account is that of Claudius Rich Esq. Two Memoirs of Babylon. + London, 1818.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.28" id="linknote-51.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.28">return</a>)<br /> [ Consult the article of + Coufah in the Bibliotheque of D’Herbelot ( p. 277, 278,) and the second + volume of Ockley’s History, particularly p. 40 and 153.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.29" id="linknote-51.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.29">return</a>)<br /> [ See the article of + Nehavend, in D’Herbelot, p. 667, 668; and Voyages en Turquie et en Perse, + par Otter, tom. i. 191. * Note: Malcolm vol. i. p. 141.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The geography of Persia is darkly delineated by the Greeks and Latins; but + the most illustrious of her cities appear to be more ancient than the + invasion of the Arabs. By the reduction of Hamadan and Ispahan, of Caswin, + Tauris, and Rei, they gradually approached the shores of the Caspian Sea: + and the orators of Mecca might applaud the success and spirit of the + faithful, who had already lost sight of the northern bear, and had almost + transcended the bounds of the habitable world. <a href="#linknote-51.30" + name="linknoteref-51.30" id="linknoteref-51.30">30</a> Again, turning + towards the West and the Roman empire, they repassed the Tigris over the + bridge of Mosul, and, in the captive provinces of Armenia and Mesopotamia, + embraced their victorious brethren of the Syrian army. From the palace of + Madayn their Eastern progress was not less rapid or extensive. They + advanced along the Tigris and the Gulf; penetrated through the passes of + the mountains into the valley of Estachar or Persepolis, and profaned the + last sanctuary of the Magian empire. The grandson of Chosroes was nearly + surprised among the falling columns and mutilated figures; a sad emblem of + the past and present fortune of Persia: <a href="#linknote-51.31" + name="linknoteref-51.31" id="linknoteref-51.31">31</a> he fled with + accelerated haste over the desert of Kirman, implored the aid of the + warlike Segestans, and sought an humble refuge on the verge of the Turkish + and Chinese power. But a victorious army is insensible of fatigue: the + Arabs divided their forces in the pursuit of a timorous enemy; and the + caliph Othman promised the government of Chorasan to the first general who + should enter that large and populous country, the kingdom of the ancient + Bactrians. The condition was accepted; the prize was deserved; the + standard of Mahomet was planted on the walls of Herat, Merou, and Balch; + and the successful leader neither halted nor reposed till his foaming + cavalry had tasted the waters of the Oxus. In the public anarchy, the + independent governors of the cities and castles obtained their separate + capitulations: the terms were granted or imposed by the esteem, the + prudence, or the compassion, of the victors; and a simple profession of + faith established the distinction between a brother and a slave. After a + noble defence, Harmozan, the prince or satrap of Ahwaz and Susa, was + compelled to surrender his person and his state to the discretion of the + caliph; and their interview exhibits a portrait of the Arabian manners. In + the presence, and by the command, of Omar, the gay Barbarian was despoiled + of his silken robes embroidered with gold, and of his tiara bedecked with + rubies and emeralds: “Are you now sensible,” said the conqueror to his + naked captive—“are you now sensible of the judgment of God, and of + the different rewards of infidelity and obedience?” “Alas!” replied + Harmozan, “I feel them too deeply. In the days of our common ignorance, we + fought with the weapons of the flesh, and my nation was superior. God was + then neuter: since he has espoused your quarrel, you have subverted our + kingdom and religion.” Oppressed by this painful dialogue, the Persian + complained of intolerable thirst, but discovered some apprehension lest he + should be killed whilst he was drinking a cup of water. “Be of good + courage,” said the caliph; “your life is safe till you have drunk this + water:” the crafty satrap accepted the assurance, and instantly dashed the + vase against the ground. Omar would have avenged the deceit, but his + companions represented the sanctity of an oath; and the speedy conversion + of Harmozan entitled him not only to a free pardon, but even to a stipend + of two thousand pieces of gold. The administration of Persia was regulated + by an actual survey of the people, the cattle, and the fruits of the + earth; <a href="#linknote-51.32" name="linknoteref-51.32" + id="linknoteref-51.32">32</a> and this monument, which attests the + vigilance of the caliphs, might have instructed the philosophers of every + age. <a href="#linknote-51.33" name="linknoteref-51.33" id="linknoteref-51.33">33</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.30" id="linknote-51.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.30">return</a>)<br /> [ It is in such a style + of ignorance and wonder that the Athenian orator describes the Arctic + conquests of Alexander, who never advanced beyond the shores of the + Caspian. Aeschines contra Ctesiphontem, tom. iii. p. 554, edit. Graec. + Orator. Reiske. This memorable cause was pleaded at Athens, Olymp. cxii. + 3, (before Christ 330,) in the autumn, (Taylor, praefat. p. 370, &c.,) + about a year after the battle of Arbela; and Alexander, in the pursuit of + Darius, was marching towards Hyrcania and Bactriana.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.31" id="linknote-51.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.31">return</a>)<br /> [ We are indebted for + this curious particular to the Dynasties of Abulpharagius, p. 116; but it + is needless to prove the identity of Estachar and Persepolis, (D’Herbelot, + p. 327;) and still more needless to copy the drawings and descriptions of + Sir John Chardin, or Corneillo le Bruyn.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.32" id="linknote-51.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.32">return</a>)<br /> [ After the conquest of + Persia, Theophanes adds, (Chronograph p. 283.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.33" id="linknote-51.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.33">return</a>)<br /> [ Amidst our meagre + relations, I must regret that D’Herbelot has not found and used a Persian + translation of Tabari, enriched, as he says, with many extracts from the + native historians of the Ghebers or Magi, (Bibliotheque Orientale, p. + 1014.)] + </p> + <p> + The flight of Yezdegerd had carried him beyond the Oxus, and as far as the + Jaxartes, two rivers <a href="#linknote-51.34" name="linknoteref-51.34" + id="linknoteref-51.34">34</a> of ancient and modern renown, which descend + from the mountains of India towards the Caspian Sea. He was hospitably + entertained by Takhan, prince of Fargana, <a href="#linknote-51.35" + name="linknoteref-51.35" id="linknoteref-51.35">35</a> a fertile province on + the Jaxartes: the king of Samarcand, with the Turkish tribes of Sogdiana + and Scythia, were moved by the lamentations and promises of the fallen + monarch; and he solicited, by a suppliant embassy, the more solid and + powerful friendship of the emperor of China. <a href="#linknote-51.36" + name="linknoteref-51.36" id="linknoteref-51.36">36</a> The virtuous + Taitsong, <a href="#linknote-51.37" name="linknoteref-51.37" + id="linknoteref-51.37">37</a> the first of the dynasty of the Tang may be + justly compared with the Antonines of Rome: his people enjoyed the + blessings of prosperity and peace; and his dominion was acknowledged by + forty-four hordes of the Barbarians of Tartary. His last garrisons of + Cashgar and Khoten maintained a frequent intercourse with their neighbors + of the Jaxartes and Oxus; a recent colony of Persians had introduced into + China the astronomy of the Magi; and Taitsong might be alarmed by the + rapid progress and dangerous vicinity of the Arabs. The influence, and + perhaps the supplies, of China revived the hopes of Yezdegerd and the zeal + of the worshippers of fire; and he returned with an army of Turks to + conquer the inheritance of his fathers. The fortunate Moslems, without + unsheathing their swords, were the spectators of his ruin and death. The + grandson of Chosroes was betrayed by his servant, insulted by the + seditious inhabitants of Merou, and oppressed, defeated, and pursued by + his Barbarian allies. He reached the banks of a river, and offered his + rings and bracelets for an instant passage in a miller’s boat. Ignorant or + insensible of royal distress, the rustic replied, that four drams of + silver were the daily profit of his mill, and that he would not suspend + his work unless the loss were repaid. In this moment of hesitation and + delay, the last of the Sassanian kings was overtaken and slaughtered by + the Turkish cavalry, in the nineteenth year of his unhappy reign. <a + href="#linknote-51.38" name="linknoteref-51.38" id="linknoteref-51.38">38</a> + <a href="#linknote-51.3811" name="linknoteref-51.3811" + id="linknoteref-51.3811">3811</a> His son Firuz, an humble client of the + Chinese emperor, accepted the station of captain of his guards; and the + Magian worship was long preserved by a colony of loyal exiles in the + province of Bucharia. <a href="#linknote-51.3812" name="linknoteref-51.3812" + id="linknoteref-51.3812">3812</a> His grandson inherited the regal name; + but after a faint and fruitless enterprise, he returned to China, and + ended his days in the palace of Sigan. The male line of the Sassanides was + extinct; but the female captives, the daughters of Persia, were given to + the conquerors in servitude, or marriage; and the race of the caliphs and + imams was ennobled by the blood of their royal mothers. <a + href="#linknote-51.39" name="linknoteref-51.39" id="linknoteref-51.39">39</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.34" id="linknote-51.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.34">return</a>)<br /> [ The most authentic + accounts of the two rivers, the Sihon (Jaxartes) and the Gihon, (Oxus,) + may be found in Sherif al Edrisi (Geograph. Nubiens. p. 138,) Abulfeda, + (Descript. Chorasan. in Hudson, tom. iii. p. 23,) Abulghazi Khan, who + reigned on their banks, (Hist. Genealogique des Tatars, p. 32, 57, 766,) + and the Turkish Geographer, a MS. in the king of France’s library, (Examen + Critique des Historiens d’Alexandre, p. 194-360.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.35" id="linknote-51.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.35">return</a>)<br /> [ The territory of + Fergana is described by Abulfeda, p. 76, 77.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.36" id="linknote-51.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.36">return</a>)<br /> [ Eo redegit angustiarum + eundem regem exsulem, ut Turcici regis, et Sogdiani, et Sinensis, auxilia + missis literis imploraret, (Abulfed. Annal. p. 74) The connection of the + Persian and Chinese history is illustrated by Freret (Mem. de l’Academie, + tom. xvi. p. 245-255) and De Guignes, (Hist. des Huns, tom. i. p. 54-59,) + and for the geography of the borders, tom. ii. p. 1-43.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.37" id="linknote-51.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.37">return</a>)<br /> [ Hist. Sinica, p. 41-46, + in the iiid part of the Relations Curieuses of Thevenot.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.38" id="linknote-51.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.38">return</a>)<br /> [ I have endeavored to + harmonize the various narratives of Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 37,) + Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 116,) Abulfeda, (Annal. p. 74, 79,) and + D’Herbelot, (p. 485.) The end of Yezdegerd, was not only unfortunate but + obscure.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.3811" id="linknote-51.3811"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3811 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.3811">return</a>)<br /> [ The account of + Yezdegerd’s death in the Habeib ‘usseyr and Rouzut uzzuffa (Price, p. 162) + is much more probable. On the demand of the few dhirems, he offered to the + miller his sword, and royal girdle, of inesturable value. This awoke the + cupidity of the miller, who murdered him, and threw the body into the + stream.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.3812" id="linknote-51.3812"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3812 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.3812">return</a>)<br /> [ Firouz died leaving + a son called Ni-ni-cha by the Chinese, probably Narses. Yezdegerd had two + sons, Firouz and Bahram St. Martin, vol. xi. p. 318.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.39" id="linknote-51.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.39">return</a>)<br /> [ The two daughters of + Yezdegerd married Hassan, the son of Ali, and Mohammed, the son of + Abubeker; and the first of these was the father of a numerous progeny. The + daughter of Phirouz became the wife of the caliph Walid, and their son + Yezid derived his genuine or fabulous descent from the Chosroes of Persia, + the Caesars of Rome, and the Chagans of the Turks or Avars, (D’Herbelot, + Bibliot. Orientale, p. 96, 487.)] + </p> + <p> + After the fall of the Persian kingdom, the River Oxus divided the + territories of the Saracens and of the Turks. This narrow boundary was + soon overleaped by the spirit of the Arabs; the governors of Chorasan + extended their successive inroads; and one of their triumphs was adorned + with the buskin of a Turkish queen, which she dropped in her precipitate + flight beyond the hills of Bochara. <a href="#linknote-51.40" + name="linknoteref-51.40" id="linknoteref-51.40">40</a> But the final + conquest of Transoxiana, <a href="#linknote-51.41" name="linknoteref-51.41" + id="linknoteref-51.41">41</a> as well as of Spain, was reserved for the + glorious reign of the inactive Walid; and the name of Catibah, the camel + driver, declares the origin and merit of his successful lieutenant. While + one of his colleagues displayed the first Mahometan banner on the banks of + the Indus, the spacious regions between the Oxus, the Jaxartes, and the + Caspian Sea, were reduced by the arms of Catibah to the obedience of the + prophet and of the caliph. <a href="#linknote-51.42" name="linknoteref-51.42" + id="linknoteref-51.42">42</a> A tribute of two millions of pieces of gold + was imposed on the infidels; their idols were burnt or broken; the + Mussulman chief pronounced a sermon in the new mosch of Carizme; after + several battles, the Turkish hordes were driven back to the desert; and + the emperors of China solicited the friendship of the victorious Arabs. To + their industry, the prosperity of the province, the Sogdiana of the + ancients, may in a great measure be ascribed; but the advantages of the + soil and climate had been understood and cultivated since the reign of the + Macedonian kings. Before the invasion of the Saracens, Carizme, Bochara, + and Samarcand were rich and populous under the yoke of the shepherds of + the north. <a href="#linknote-51.4211" name="linknoteref-51.4211" + id="linknoteref-51.4211">4211</a> These cities were surrounded with a + double wall; and the exterior fortification, of a larger circumference, + enclosed the fields and gardens of the adjacent district. The mutual wants + of India and Europe were supplied by the diligence of the Sogdian + merchants; and the inestimable art of transforming linen into paper has + been diffused from the manufacture of Samarcand over the western world. <a + href="#linknote-51.43" name="linknoteref-51.43" id="linknoteref-51.43">43</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.40" id="linknote-51.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.40">return</a>)<br /> [ It was valued at 2000 + pieces of gold, and was the prize of Obeidollah, the son of Ziyad, a name + afterwards infamous by the murder of Hosein, (Ockley’s History of the + Saracens, vol. ii. p. 142, 143,) His brother Salem was accompanied by his + wife, the first Arabian woman (A.D. 680) who passed the Oxus: she + borrowed, or rather stole, the crown and jewels of the princess of the + Sogdians, (p. 231, 232.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.41" id="linknote-51.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.41">return</a>)<br /> [ A part of Abulfeda’s + geography is translated by Greaves, inserted in Hudson’s collection of the + minor geographers, (tom. iii.,) and entitled Descriptio Chorasmiae et + Mawaralnahroe, id est, regionum extra fluvium, Oxum, p. 80. The name of + Transoxiana, softer in sound, equivalent in sense, is aptly used by Petit + de la Croix, (Hist. de Gengiscan, &c.,) and some modern Orientalists, + but they are mistaken in ascribing it to the writers of antiquity.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.42" id="linknote-51.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.42">return</a>)<br /> [ The conquests of + Catibah are faintly marked by Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 84,) D’Herbelot, + (Bibliot. Orient. Catbah, Samarcand Valid.,) and De Guignes, (Hist. des + Huns, tom. i. p. 58, 59.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.4211" id="linknote-51.4211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4211 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.4211">return</a>)<br /> [ The manuscripts + Arabian and Persian writers in the royal library contain very + circumstantial details on the contest between the Persians and Arabians. + M. St. Martin declined this addition to the work of Le Beau, as extending + to too great a length. St. Martin vol. xi. p. 320.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.43" id="linknote-51.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.43">return</a>)<br /> [ A curious description + of Samarcand is inserted in the Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana, tom. i. p. + 208, &c. The librarian Casiri (tom. ii. 9) relates, from credible + testimony, that paper was first imported from China to Samarcand, A. H. + 30, and invented, or rather introduced, at Mecca, A. H. 88. The Escurial + library contains paper Mss. as old as the ivth or vth century of the + Hegira.] + </p> + <p> + II. No sooner had Abubeker restored the unity of faith and government, + than he despatched a circular letter to the Arabian tribes. “In the name + of the most merciful God, to the rest of the true believers. Health and + happiness, and the mercy and blessing of God, be upon you. I praise the + most high God, and I pray for his prophet Mahomet. This is to acquaint + you, that I intend to send the true believers into Syria <a + href="#linknote-51.44" name="linknoteref-51.44" id="linknoteref-51.44">44</a> + to take it out of the hands of the infidels. And I would have you know, + that the fighting for religion is an act of obedience to God.” His + messengers returned with the tidings of pious and martial ardor which they + had kindled in every province; and the camp of Medina was successively + filled with the intrepid bands of the Saracens, who panted for action, + complained of the heat of the season and the scarcity of provisions, and + accused with impatient murmurs the delays of the caliph. As soon as their + numbers were complete, Abubeker ascended the hill, reviewed the men, the + horses, and the arms, and poured forth a fervent prayer for the success of + their undertaking. In person, and on foot, he accompanied the first day’s + march; and when the blushing leaders attempted to dismount, the caliph + removed their scruples by a declaration, that those who rode, and those + who walked, in the service of religion, were equally meritorious. His + instructions <a href="#linknote-51.45" name="linknoteref-51.45" + id="linknoteref-51.45">45</a> to the chiefs of the Syrian army were + inspired by the warlike fanaticism which advances to seize, and affects to + despise, the objects of earthly ambition. “Remember,” said the successor + of the prophet, “that you are always in the presence of God, on the verge + of death, in the assurance of judgment, and the hope of paradise. Avoid + injustice and oppression; consult with your brethren, and study to + preserve the love and confidence of your troops. When you fight the + battles of the Lord, acquit yourselves like men, without turning your + backs; but let not your victory be stained with the blood of women or + children. Destroy no palm-trees, nor burn any fields of corn. Cut down no + fruit-trees, nor do any mischief to cattle, only such as you kill to eat. + When you make any covenant or article, stand to it, and be as good as your + word. As you go on, you will find some religious persons who live retired + in monasteries, and propose to themselves to serve God that way: let them + alone, and neither kill them nor destroy their monasteries: <a + href="#linknote-51.46" name="linknoteref-51.46" id="linknoteref-51.46">46</a> + And you will find another sort of people, that belong to the synagogue of + Satan, who have shaven crowns; <a href="#linknote-51.47" + name="linknoteref-51.47" id="linknoteref-51.47">47</a> be sure you cleave + their skulls, and give them no quarter till they either turn Mahometans or + pay tribute.” All profane or frivolous conversation, all dangerous + recollection of ancient quarrels, was severely prohibited among the Arabs: + in the tumult of a camp, the exercises of religion were assiduously + practised; and the intervals of action were employed in prayer, + meditation, and the study of the Koran. The abuse, or even the use, of + wine was chastised by fourscore strokes on the soles of the feet, and in + the fervor of their primitive zeal, many secret sinners revealed their + fault, and solicited their punishment. After some hesitation, the command + of the Syrian army was delegated to Abu Obeidah, one of the fugitives of + Mecca, and companions of Mahomet; whose zeal and devotion was assuaged, + without being abated, by the singular mildness and benevolence of his + temper. But in all the emergencies of war, the soldiers demanded the + superior genius of Caled; and whoever might be the choice of the prince, + the Sword of God was both in fact and fame the foremost leader of the + Saracens. He obeyed without reluctance; <a href="#linknote-51.4711" + name="linknoteref-51.4711" id="linknoteref-51.4711">4711</a> he was + consulted without jealousy; and such was the spirit of the man, or rather + of the times, that Caled professed his readiness to serve under the banner + of the faith, though it were in the hands of a child or an enemy. Glory, + and riches, and dominion, were indeed promised to the victorious + Mussulman; but he was carefully instructed, that if the goods of this life + were his only incitement, they likewise would be his only reward. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.44" id="linknote-51.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.44">return</a>)<br /> [ A separate history of + the conquest of Syria has been composed by Al Wakidi, cadi of Bagdad, who + was born A.D. 748, and died A.D. 822; he likewise wrote the conquest of + Egypt, of Diarbekir, &c. Above the meagre and recent chronicles of the + Arabians, Al Wakidi has the double merit of antiquity and copiousness. His + tales and traditions afford an artless picture of the men and the times. + Yet his narrative is too often defective, trifling, and improbable. Till + something better shall be found, his learned and spiritual interpreter + (Ockley, in his History of the Saracens, vol. i. p. 21-342) will not + deserve the petulant animadversion of Reiske, (Prodidagmata ad Magji + Chalifae Tabulas, p. 236.) I am sorry to think that the labors of Ockley + were consummated in a jail, (see his two prefaces to the 1st A.D. 1708, to + the 2d, 1718, with the list of authors at the end.) * Note: M. Hamaker has + clearly shown that neither of these works can be inscribed to Al Wakidi: + they are not older than the end of the xith century or later than the + middle of the xivth. Praefat. in Inc. Auct. LIb. de Expugnatione + Memphidis, c. ix. x.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.45" id="linknote-51.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.45">return</a>)<br /> [ The instructions, &c., + of the Syrian war are described by Al Wakidi and Ockley, tom. i. p. 22-27, + &c. In the sequel it is necessary to contract, and needless to quote, + their circumstantial narrative. My obligations to others shall be + noticed.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.46" id="linknote-51.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.46">return</a>)<br /> [ Notwithstanding this + precept, M. Pauw (Recherches sur les Egyptiens, tom. ii. p. 192, edit. + Lausanne) represents the Bedoweens as the implacable enemies of the + Christian monks. For my own part, I am more inclined to suspect the + avarice of the Arabian robbers, and the prejudices of the German + philosopher. * Note: Several modern travellers (Mr. Fazakerley, in + Walpole’s Travels in the East, vol. xi. 371) give very amusing accounts of + the terms on which the monks of Mount Sinai live with the neighboring + Bedoweens. Such, probably, was their relative state in older times, + wherever the Arab retained his Bedoween habits.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.47" id="linknote-51.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.47">return</a>)<br /> [ Even in the seventh + century, the monks were generally laymen: They wore their hair long and + dishevelled, and shaved their heads when they were ordained priests. The + circular tonsure was sacred and mysterious; it was the crown of thorns; + but it was likewise a royal diadem, and every priest was a king, &c., + (Thomassin, Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. i. p. 721-758, especially p. 737, + 738.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.4711" id="linknote-51.4711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4711 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.4711">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare Price, p. + 90.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap51.3"></a> + Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + One of the fifteen provinces of Syria, the cultivated lands to the + eastward of the Jordan, had been decorated by Roman vanity with the name + of <i>Arabia</i>; and the first arms of the Saracens were justified by the + semblance of a national right. The country was enriched by the various + benefits of trade; by the vigilance of the emperors it was covered with a + line of forts; and the populous cities of Gerasa, Philadelphia, and Bosra, + were secure, at least from a surprise, by the solid structure of their + walls. The last of these cities was the eighteenth station from Medina: + the road was familiar to the caravans of Hejaz and Irak, who annually + visited this plenteous market of the province and the desert: the + perpetual jealousy of the Arabs had trained the inhabitants to arms; and + twelve thousand horse could sally from the gates of Bosra, an appellation + which signifies, in the Syriac language, a strong tower of defence. + Encouraged by their first success against the open towns and flying + parties of the borders, a detachment of four thousand Moslems presumed to + summon and attack the fortress of Bosra. They were oppressed by the + numbers of the Syrians; they were saved by the presence of Caled, with + fifteen hundred horse: he blamed the enterprise, restored the battle, and + rescued his friend, the venerable Serjabil, who had vainly invoked the + unity of God and the promises of the apostle. After a short repose, the + Moslems performed their ablutions with sand instead of water; and the + morning prayer was recited by Caled before they mounted on horseback. + Confident in their strength, the people of Bosra threw open their gates, + drew their forces into the plain, and swore to die in the defence of their + religion. But a religion of peace was incapable of withstanding the + fanatic cry of “Fight, fight! Paradise, paradise!” that reechoed in the + ranks of the Saracens; and the uproar of the town, the ringing of bells, + and the exclamations of the priests and monks increased the dismay and + disorder of the Christians. With the loss of two hundred and thirty men, + the Arabs remained masters of the field; and the ramparts of Bosra, in + expectation of human or divine aid, were crowded with holy crosses and + consecrated banners. The governor Romanus had recommended an early + submission: despised by the people, and degraded from his office, he still + retained the desire and opportunity of revenge. In a nocturnal interview, + he informed the enemy of a subterraneous passage from his house under the + wall of the city; the son of the caliph, with a hundred volunteers, were + committed to the faith of this new ally, and their successful intrepidity + gave an easy entrance to their companions. After Caled had imposed the + terms of servitude and tribute, the apostate or convert avowed in the + assembly of the people his meritorious treason: “I renounce your society,” + said Romanus, “both in this world and the world to come. And I deny him + that was crucified, and whosoever worships him. And I choose God for my + Lord, Islam for my faith, Mecca for my temple, the Moslems for my + brethren, and Mahomet for my prophet; who was sent to lead us into the + right way, and to exalt the true religion in spite of those who join + partners with God.” + </p> + <p> + The conquest of Bosra, four days’ journey from Damascus, encouraged the + Arabs to besiege the ancient capital of Syria. At some distance from the + walls, they encamped among the groves and fountains of that delicious + territory, and the usual option of the Mahometan faith, of tribute or of + war, was proposed to the resolute citizens, who had been lately + strengthened by a reenforcement of five thousand Greeks. In the decline, + as in the infancy, of the military art, a hostile defiance was frequently + offered and accepted by the generals themselves: many a lance was shivered + in the plain of Damascus, and the personal prowess of Caled was signalized + in the first sally of the besieged. After an obstinate combat, he had + overthrown and made prisoner one of the Christian leaders, a stout and + worthy antagonist. He instantly mounted a fresh horse, the gift of the + governor of Palmyra, and pushed forwards to the front of the battle. + “Repose yourself for a moment,” said his friend Derar, “and permit me to + supply your place: you are fatigued with fighting with this dog.” “O + Dear!” replied the indefatigable Saracen, “we shall rest in the world to + come. He that labors to-day shall rest to-morrow.” With the same unabated + ardor, Caled answered, encountered, and vanquished a second champion; and + the heads of his two captives who refused to abandon their religion were + indignantly hurled into the midst of the city. The event of some general + and partial actions reduced the Damascenes to a closer defence: but a + messenger, whom they dropped from the walls, returned with the promise of + speedy and powerful succor, and their tumultuous joy conveyed the + intelligence to the camp of the Arabs. After some debate, it was resolved + by the generals to raise, or rather to suspend, the siege of Damascus, + till they had given battle to the forces of the emperor. In the retreat, + Caled would have chosen the more perilous station of the rear-guard; he + modestly yielded to the wishes of Abu Obeidah. But in the hour of danger + he flew to the rescue of his companion, who was rudely pressed by a sally + of six thousand horse and ten thousand foot, and few among the Christians + could relate at Damascus the circumstances of their defeat. The importance + of the contest required the junction of the Saracens, who were dispersed + on the frontiers of Syria and Palestine; and I shall transcribe one of the + circular mandates which was addressed to Amrou, the future conqueror of + Egypt. “In the name of the most merciful God: from Caled to Amrou, health + and happiness. Know that thy brethren the Moslems design to march to + Aiznadin, where there is an army of seventy thousand Greeks, who purpose + to come against us, <i>that they may extinguish the light of God with + their mouths; but God preserveth his light in spite of the infidels</i>. + As soon therefore as this letter of mine shall be delivered to thy hands, + come with those that are with thee to Aiznadin, where thou shalt find us + if it please the most high God.” The summons was cheerfully obeyed, and + the forty-five thousand Moslems, who met on the same day, on the same spot + ascribed to the blessing of Providence the effects of their activity and + zeal. + </p> + <p> + About four years after the triumph of the Persian war, the repose of + Heraclius and the empire was again disturbed by a new enemy, the power of + whose religion was more strongly felt, than it was clearly understood, by + the Christians of the East. In his palace of Constantinople or Antioch, he + was awakened by the invasion of Syria, the loss of Bosra, and the danger + of Damascus. An army of seventy thousand veterans, or new levies, was + assembled at Hems or Emesa, under the command of his general Werdan: and + these troops consisting chiefly of cavalry, might be indifferently styled + either Syrians, or Greeks, or Romans: <i>Syrians</i>, from the place of + their birth or warfare; <i>Greeks</i> from the religion and language of + their sovereign; and <i>Romans</i>, from the proud appellation which was + still profaned by the successors of Constantine. On the plain of Aiznadin, + as Werdan rode on a white mule decorated with gold chains, and surrounded + with ensigns and standards, he was surprised by the near approach of a + fierce and naked warrior, who had undertaken to view the state of the + enemy. The adventurous valor of Derar was inspired, and has perhaps been + adorned, by the enthusiasm of his age and country. The hatred of the + Christians, the love of spoil, and the contempt of danger, were the ruling + passions of the audacious Saracen; and the prospect of instant death could + never shake his religious confidence, or ruffle the calmness of his + resolution, or even suspend the frank and martial pleasantry of his humor. + In the most hopeless enterprises, he was bold, and prudent, and fortunate: + after innumerable hazards, after being thrice a prisoner in the hands of + the infidels, he still survived to relate the achievements, and to enjoy + the rewards, of the Syrian conquest. On this occasion, his single lance + maintained a flying fight against thirty Romans, who were detached by + Werdan; and, after killing or unhorsing seventeen of their number, Derar + returned in safety to his applauding brethren. When his rashness was + mildly censured by the general, he excused himself with the simplicity of + a soldier. “Nay,” said Derar, “I did not begin first: but they came out to + take me, and I was afraid that God should see me turn my back: and indeed + I fought in good earnest, and without doubt God assisted me against them; + and had I not been apprehensive of disobeying your orders, I should not + have come away as I did; and I perceive already that they will fall into + our hands.” In the presence of both armies, a venerable Greek advanced + from the ranks with a liberal offer of peace; and the departure of the + Saracens would have been purchased by a gift to each soldier, of a turban, + a robe, and a piece of gold; ten robes and a hundred pieces to their + leader; one hundred robes and a thousand pieces to the caliph. A smile of + indignation expressed the refusal of Caled. “Ye Christian dogs, you know + your option; the Koran, the tribute, or the sword. We are a people whose + delight is in war, rather than in peace: and we despise your pitiful alms, + since we shall be speedily masters of your wealth, your families, and your + persons.” Notwithstanding this apparent disdain, he was deeply conscious + of the public danger: those who had been in Persia, and had seen the + armies of Chosroes confessed that they never beheld a more formidable + array. From the superiority of the enemy, the artful Saracen derived a + fresh incentive of courage: “You see before you,” said he, “the united + force of the Romans; you cannot hope to escape, but you may conquer Syria + in a single day. The event depends on your discipline and patience. + Reserve yourselves till the evening. It was in the evening that the + Prophet was accustomed to vanquish.” During two successive engagements, + his temperate firmness sustained the darts of the enemy, and the murmurs + of his troops. At length, when the spirits and quivers of the adverse line + were almost exhausted, Caled gave the signal of onset and victory. The + remains of the Imperial army fled to Antioch, or Cæsarea, or Damascus; and + the death of four hundred and seventy Moslems was compensated by the + opinion that they had sent to hell above fifty thousand of the infidels. + The spoil was inestimable; many banners and crosses of gold and silver, + precious stones, silver and gold chains, and innumerable suits of the + richest armor and apparel. The general distribution was postponed till + Damascus should be taken; but the seasonable supply of arms became the + instrument of new victories. The glorious intelligence was transmitted to + the throne of the caliph; and the Arabian tribes, the coldest or most + hostile to the prophet’s mission, were eager and importunate to share the + harvest of Syria. + </p> + <p> + The sad tidings were carried to Damascus by the speed of grief and terror; + and the inhabitants beheld from their walls the return of the heroes of + Aiznadin. Amrou led the van at the head of nine thousand horse: the bands + of the Saracens succeeded each other in formidable review; and the rear + was closed by Caled in person, with the standard of the black eagle. To + the activity of Derar he intrusted the commission of patrolling round the + city with two thousand horse, of scouring the plain, and of intercepting + all succor or intelligence. The rest of the Arabian chiefs were fixed in + their respective stations before the seven gates of Damascus; and the + siege was renewed with fresh vigor and confidence. The art, the labor, the + military engines, of the Greeks and Romans are seldom to be found in the + simple, though successful, operations of the Saracens: it was sufficient + for them to invest a city with arms, rather than with trenches; to repel + the allies of the besieged; to attempt a stratagem or an assault; or to + expect the progress of famine and discontent. Damascus would have + acquiesced in the trial of Aiznadin, as a final and peremptory sentence + between the emperor and the caliph; her courage was rekindled by the + example and authority of Thomas, a noble Greek, illustrious in a private + condition by the alliance of Heraclius. The tumult and illumination of the + night proclaimed the design of the morning sally; and the Christian hero, + who affected to despise the enthusiasm of the Arabs, employed the resource + of a similar superstition. At the principal gate, in the sight of both + armies, a lofty crucifix was erected; the bishop, with his clergy, + accompanied the march, and laid the volume of the New Testament before the + image of Jesus; and the contending parties were scandalized or edified by + a prayer that the Son of God would defend his servants and vindicate his + truth. The battle raged with incessant fury; and the dexterity of Thomas, + an incomparable archer, was fatal to the boldest Saracens, till their + death was revenged by a female heroine. The wife of Aban, who had followed + him to the holy war, embraced her expiring husband. “Happy,” said she, + “happy art thou, my dear: thou art gone to thy Lord, who first joined us + together, and then parted us asunder. I will revenge thy death, and + endeavor to the utmost of my power to come to the place where thou art, + because I love thee. Henceforth shall no man ever touch me more, for I + have dedicated myself to the service of God.” Without a groan, without a + tear, she washed the corpse of her husband, and buried him with the usual + rites. Then grasping the manly weapons, which in her native land she was + accustomed to wield, the intrepid widow of Aban sought the place where his + murderer fought in the thickest of the battle. Her first arrow pierced the + hand of his standard-bearer; her second wounded Thomas in the eye; and the + fainting Christians no longer beheld their ensign or their leader. Yet the + generous champion of Damascus refused to withdraw to his palace: his wound + was dressed on the rampart; the fight was continued till the evening; and + the Syrians rested on their arms. In the silence of the night, the signal + was given by a stroke on the great bell; the gates were thrown open, and + each gate discharged an impetuous column on the sleeping camp of the + Saracens. Caled was the first in arms: at the head of four hundred horse + he flew to the post of danger, and the tears trickled down his iron + cheeks, as he uttered a fervent ejaculation; “O God, who never sleepest, + look upon they servants, and do not deliver them into the hands of their + enemies.” The valor and victory of Thomas were arrested by the presence of + the <i>Sword of God</i>; with the knowledge of the peril, the Moslems + recovered their ranks, and charged the assailants in the flank and rear. + After the loss of thousands, the Christian general retreated with a sigh + of despair, and the pursuit of the Saracens was checked by the military + engines of the rampart. + </p> + <p> + After a siege of seventy days, the patience, and perhaps the provisions, + of the Damascenes were exhausted; and the bravest of their chiefs + submitted to the hard dictates of necessity. In the occurrences of peace + and war, they had been taught to dread the fierceness of Caled, and to + revere the mild virtues of Abu Obeidah. At the hour of midnight, one + hundred chosen deputies of the clergy and people were introduced to the + tent of that venerable commander. He received and dismissed them with + courtesy. They returned with a written agreement, on the faith of a + companion of Mahomet, that all hostilities should cease; that the + voluntary emigrants might depart in safety, with as much as they could + carry away of their effects; and that the tributary subjects of the caliph + should enjoy their lands and houses, with the use and possession of seven + churches. On these terms, the most respectable hostages, and the gate + nearest to his camp, were delivered into his hands: his soldiers imitated + the moderation of their chief; and he enjoyed the submissive gratitude of + a people whom he had rescued from destruction. But the success of the + treaty had relaxed their vigilance, and in the same moment the opposite + quarter of the city was betrayed and taken by assault. A party of a + hundred Arabs had opened the eastern gate to a more inexorable foe. “No + quarter,” cried the rapacious and sanguinary Caled, “no quarter to the + enemies of the Lord:” his trumpets sounded, and a torrent of Christian + blood was poured down the streets of Damascus. When he reached the church + of St. Mary, he was astonished and provoked by the peaceful aspect of his + companions; their swords were in the scabbard, and they were surrounded by + a multitude of priests and monks. Abu Obeidah saluted the general: “God,” + said he, “has delivered the city into my hands by way of surrender, and + has saved the believers the trouble of fighting.” “And am I not,” replied + the indignant Caled, “am I not the lieutenant of the commander of the + faithful? Have I not taken the city by storm? The unbelievers shall perish + by the sword. Fall on.” The hungry and cruel Arabs would have obeyed the + welcome command; and Damascus was lost, if the benevolence of Abu Obeidah + had not been supported by a decent and dignified firmness. Throwing + himself between the trembling citizens and the most eager of the + Barbarians, he adjured them, by the holy name of God, to respect his + promise, to suspend their fury, and to wait the determination of their + chiefs. The chiefs retired into the church of St. Mary; and after a + vehement debate, Caled submitted in some measure to the reason and + authority of his colleague; who urged the sanctity of a covenant, the + advantage as well as the honor which the Moslems would derive from the + punctual performance of their word, and the obstinate resistance which + they must encounter from the distrust and despair of the rest of the + Syrian cities. It was agreed that the sword should be sheathed, that the + part of Damascus which had surrendered to Abu Obeidah, should be + immediately entitled to the benefit of his capitulation, and that the + final decision should be referred to the justice and wisdom of the caliph. + A large majority of the people accepted the terms of toleration and + tribute; and Damascus is still peopled by twenty thousand Christians. But + the valiant Thomas, and the free-born patriots who had fought under his + banner, embraced the alternative of poverty and exile. In the adjacent + meadow, a numerous encampment was formed of priests and laymen, of + soldiers and citizens, of women and children: they collected, with haste + and terror, their most precious movables; and abandoned, with loud + lamentations, or silent anguish, their native homes, and the pleasant + banks of the Pharpar. The inflexible soul of Caled was not touched by the + spectacle of their distress: he disputed with the Damascenes the property + of a magazine of corn; endeavored to exclude the garrison from the benefit + of the treaty; consented, with reluctance, that each of the fugitives + should arm himself with a sword, or a lance, or a bow; and sternly + declared, that, after a respite of three days, they might be pursued and + treated as the enemies of the Moslems. + </p> + <p> + The passion of a Syrian youth completed the ruin of the exiles of + Damascus. A nobleman of the city, of the name of Jonas, was betrothed to a + wealthy maiden; but her parents delayed the consummation of his nuptials, + and their daughter was persuaded to escape with the man whom she had + chosen. They corrupted the nightly watchmen of the gate Keisan; the lover, + who led the way, was encompassed by a squadron of Arabs; but his + exclamation in the Greek tongue, “The bird is taken,” admonished his + mistress to hasten her return. In the presence of Caled, and of death, the + unfortunate Jonas professed his belief in one God and his apostle Mahomet; + and continued, till the season of his martyrdom, to discharge the duties + of a brave and sincere Mussulman. When the city was taken, he flew to the + monastery, where Eudocia had taken refuge; but the lover was forgotten; + the apostate was scorned; she preferred her religion to her country; and + the justice of Caled, though deaf to mercy, refused to detain by force a + male or female inhabitant of Damascus. Four days was the general confined + to the city by the obligation of the treaty, and the urgent cares of his + new conquest. His appetite for blood and rapine would have been + extinguished by the hopeless computation of time and distance; but he + listened to the importunities of Jonas, who assured him that the weary + fugitives might yet be overtaken. At the head of four thousand horse, in + the disguise of Christian Arabs, Caled undertook the pursuit. They halted + only for the moments of prayer; and their guide had a perfect knowledge of + the country. For a long way the footsteps of the Damascenes were plain and + conspicuous: they vanished on a sudden; but the Saracens were comforted by + the assurance that the caravan had turned aside into the mountains, and + must speedily fall into their hands. In traversing the ridges of the + Libanus, they endured intolerable hardships, and the sinking spirits of + the veteran fanatics were supported and cheered by the unconquerable ardor + of a lover. From a peasant of the country, they were informed that the + emperor had sent orders to the colony of exiles to pursue without delay + the road of the sea-coast, and of Constantinople, apprehensive, perhaps, + that the soldiers and people of Antioch might be discouraged by the sight + and the story of their sufferings. The Saracens were conducted through the + territories of Gabala and Laodicea, at a cautious distance from the walls + of the cities; the rain was incessant, the night was dark, a single + mountain separated them from the Roman army; and Caled, ever anxious for + the safety of his brethren, whispered an ominous dream in the ear of his + companion. With the dawn of day, the prospect again cleared, and they saw + before them, in a pleasant valley, the tents of Damascus. After a short + interval of repose and prayer, Caled divided his cavalry into four + squadrons, committing the first to his faithful Derar, and reserving the + last for himself. They successively rushed on the promiscuous multitude, + insufficiently provided with arms, and already vanquished by sorrow and + fatigue. Except a captive, who was pardoned and dismissed, the Arabs + enjoyed the satisfaction of believing that not a Christian of either sex + escaped the edge of their cimeters. The gold and silver of Damascus was + scattered over the camp, and a royal wardrobe of three hundred load of + silk might clothe an army of naked Barbarians. In the tumult of the + battle, Jonas sought and found the object of his pursuit: but her + resentment was inflamed by the last act of his perfidy; and as Eudocia + struggled in his hateful embraces, she struck a dagger to her heart. + Another female, the widow of Thomas, and the real or supposed daughter of + Heraclius, was spared and released without a ransom; but the generosity of + Caled was the effect of his contempt; and the haughty Saracen insulted, by + a message of defiance, the throne of the Cæsars. Caled had penetrated + above a hundred and fifty miles into the heart of the Roman province: he + returned to Damascus with the same secrecy and speed On the accession of + Omar, the <i>Sword of God</i> was removed from the command; but the + caliph, who blamed the rashness, was compelled to applaud the vigor and + conduct, of the enterprise. + </p> + <p> + Another expedition of the conquerors of Damascus will equally display + their avidity and their contempt for the riches of the present world. They + were informed that the produce and manufactures of the country were + annually collected in the fair of Abyla, <a href="#linknote-51.64" + name="linknoteref-51.64" id="linknoteref-51.64">64</a> about thirty miles + from the city; that the cell of a devout hermit was visited at the same + time by a multitude of pilgrims; and that the festival of trade and + superstition would be ennobled by the nuptials of the daughter of the + governor of Tripoli. Abdallah, the son of Jaafar, a glorious and holy + martyr, undertook, with a banner of five hundred horse, the pious and + profitable commission of despoiling the infidels. As he approached the + fair of Abyla, he was astonished by the report of this mighty concourse of + Jews and Christians, Greeks, and Armenians, of natives of Syria and of + strangers of Egypt, to the number of ten thousand, besides a guard of five + thousand horse that attended the person of the bride. The Saracens paused: + “For my own part,” said Abdallah, “I dare not go back: our foes are many, + our danger is great, but our reward is splendid and secure, either in this + life or in the life to come. Let every man, according to his inclination, + advance or retire.” Not a Mussulman deserted his standard. “Lead the way,” + said Abdallah to his Christian guide, “and you shall see what the + companions of the prophet can perform.” They charged in five squadrons; + but after the first advantage of the surprise, they were encompassed and + almost overwhelmed by the multitude of their enemies; and their valiant + band is fancifully compared to a white spot in the skin of a black camel. + <a href="#linknote-51.65" name="linknoteref-51.65" id="linknoteref-51.65">65</a> + About the hour of sunset, when their weapons dropped from their hands, + when they panted on the verge of eternity, they discovered an approaching + cloud of dust; they heard the welcome sound of the tecbir, <a + href="#linknote-51.66" name="linknoteref-51.66" id="linknoteref-51.66">66</a> + and they soon perceived the standard of Caled, who flew to their relief + with the utmost speed of his cavalry. The Christians were broken by his + attack, and slaughtered in their flight, as far as the river of Tripoli. + They left behind them the various riches of the fair; the merchandises + that were exposed for sale, the money that was brought for purchase, the + gay decorations of the nuptials, and the governor’s daughter, with forty + of her female attendants. + </p> + <p> + The fruits, provisions, and furniture, the money, plate, and jewels, were + diligently laden on the backs of horses, asses, and mules; and the holy + robbers returned in triumph to Damascus. The hermit, after a short and + angry controversy with Caled, declined the crown of martyrdom, and was + left alive in the solitary scene of blood and devastation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.64" id="linknote-51.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Dair Abil Kodos. After + retrenching the last word, the epithet, holy, I discover the Abila of + Lysanias between Damascus and Heliopolis: the name (Abil signifies a + vineyard) concurs with the situation to justify my conjecture, (Reland, + Palestin. tom. i. p 317, tom. ii. p. 526, 527.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.65" id="linknote-51.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.65">return</a>)<br /> [ I am bolder than Mr. + Ockley, (vol. i. p. 164,) who dares not insert this figurative expression + in the text, though he observes in a marginal note, that the Arabians + often borrow their similes from that useful and familiar animal. The + reindeer may be equally famous in the songs of the Laplanders.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.66" id="linknote-51.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.66">return</a>)<br /> [ We hear the tecbir; so + the Arabs call Their shout of onset, when with loud appeal They challenge + heaven, as if demanding conquest. This word, so formidable in their holy + wars, is a verb active, (says Ockley in his index,) of the second + conjugation, from Kabbara, which signifies saying Alla Acbar, God is most + mighty!] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap51.4"></a> + Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + Syria, <a href="#linknote-51.67" name="linknoteref-51.67" + id="linknoteref-51.67">67</a> one of the countries that have been improved + by the most early cultivation, is not unworthy of the preference. <a + href="#linknote-51.68" name="linknoteref-51.68" id="linknoteref-51.68">68</a> + The heat of the climate is tempered by the vicinity of the sea and + mountains, by the plenty of wood and water; and the produce of a fertile + soil affords the subsistence, and encourages the propagation, of men and + animals. From the age of David to that of Heraclius, the country was + overspread with ancient and flourishing cities: the inhabitants were + numerous and wealthy; and, after the slow ravage of despotism and + superstition, after the recent calamities of the Persian war, Syria could + still attract and reward the rapacious tribes of the desert. A plain, of + ten days’ journey, from Damascus to Aleppo and Antioch, is watered, on the + western side, by the winding course of the Orontes. The hills of Libanus + and Anti-Libanus are planted from north to south, between the Orontes and + the Mediterranean; and the epithet of hollow (Coelesyria) was applied to a + long and fruitful valley, which is confined in the same direction, by the + two ridges of snowy mountains. <a href="#linknote-51.69" + name="linknoteref-51.69" id="linknoteref-51.69">69</a> Among the cities, + which are enumerated by Greek and Oriental names in the geography and + conquest of Syria, we may distinguish Emesa or Hems, Heliopolis or + Baalbec, the former as the metropolis of the plain, the latter as the + capital of the valley. Under the last of the Caesars, they were strong and + populous; the turrets glittered from afar: an ample space was covered with + public and private buildings; and the citizens were illustrious by their + spirit, or at least by their pride; by their riches, or at least by their + luxury. In the days of Paganism, both Emesa and Heliopolis were addicted + to the worship of Baal, or the sun; but the decline of their superstition + and splendor has been marked by a singular variety of fortune. Not a + vestige remains of the temple of Emesa, which was equalled in poetic style + to the summits of Mount Libanus, <a href="#linknote-51.70" + name="linknoteref-51.70" id="linknoteref-51.70">70</a> while the ruins of + Baalbec, invisible to the writers of antiquity, excite the curiosity and + wonder of the European traveller. <a href="#linknote-51.71" + name="linknoteref-51.71" id="linknoteref-51.71">71</a> The measure of the + temple is two hundred feet in length, and one hundred in breadth: the + front is adorned with a double portico of eight columns; fourteen may be + counted on either side; and each column, forty-five feet in height, is + composed of three massy blocks of stone or marble. The proportions and + ornaments of the Corinthian order express the architecture of the Greeks: + but as Baalbec has never been the seat of a monarch, we are at a loss to + conceive how the expense of these magnificent structures could be supplied + by private or municipal liberality. <a href="#linknote-51.72" + name="linknoteref-51.72" id="linknoteref-51.72">72</a> From the conquest of + Damascus the Saracens proceeded to Heliopolis and Emesa: but I shall + decline the repetition of the sallies and combats which have been already + shown on a larger scale. In the prosecution of the war, their policy was + not less effectual than their sword. By short and separate truces they + dissolved the union of the enemy; accustomed the Syrians to compare their + friendship with their enmity; familiarized the idea of their language, + religion, and manners; and exhausted, by clandestine purchase, the + magazines and arsenals of the cities which they returned to besiege. They + aggravated the ransom of the more wealthy, or the more obstinate; and + Chalcis alone was taxed at five thousand ounces of gold, five thousand + ounces of silver, two thousand robes of silk, and as many figs and olives + as would load five thousand asses. But the terms of truce or capitulation + were faithfully observed; and the lieutenant of the caliph, who had + promised not to enter the walls of the captive Baalbec, remained tranquil + and immovable in his tent till the jarring factions solicited the + interposition of a foreign master. The conquest of the plain and valley of + Syria was achieved in less than two years. Yet the commander of the + faithful reproved the slowness of their progress; and the Saracens, + bewailing their fault with tears of rage and repentance, called aloud on + their chiefs to lead them forth to fight the battles of the Lord. In a + recent action, under the walls of Emesa, an Arabian youth, the cousin of + Caled, was heard aloud to exclaim, “Methinks I see the black-eyed girls + looking upon me; one of whom, should she appear in this world, all mankind + would die for love of her. And I see in the hand of one of them a + handkerchief of green silk, and a cap of precious stones, and she beckons + me, and calls out, Come hither quickly, for I love thee.” With these + words, charging the Christians, he made havoc wherever he went, till, + observed at length by the governor of Hems, he was struck through with a + javelin. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.67" id="linknote-51.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.67">return</a>)<br /> [ In the Geography of + Abulfeda, the description of Syria, his native country, is the most + interesting and authentic portion. It was published in Arabic and Latin, + Lipsiae, 1766, in quarto, with the learned notes of Kochler and Reiske, + and some extracts of geography and natural history from Ibn Ol Wardii. + Among the modern travels, Pocock’s Description of the East (of Syria and + Mesopotamia, vol. ii. p. 88-209) is a work of superior learning and + dignity; but the author too often confounds what he had seen and what he + had read.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.68" id="linknote-51.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.68">return</a>)<br /> [ The praises of + Dionysius are just and lively. Syria, (in Periegesi, v. 902, in tom. iv. + Geograph. Minor. Hudson.) In another place he styles the country + differently, (v. 898.) This poetical geographer lived in the age of + Augustus, and his description of the world is illustrated by the Greek + commentary of Eustathius, who paid the same compliment to Homer and + Dionysius, (Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. l. iv. c. 2, tom. iii. p. 21, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.69" id="linknote-51.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.69">return</a>)<br /> [ The topography of the + Libanus and Anti-Libanus is excellently described by the learning and + sense of Reland, (Palestin. tom. i. p. 311-326)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.70" id="linknote-51.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.70">return</a>)<br /> [ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + —Emesae fastigia celsa renident. + Nam diffusa solo latus explicat; ac subit auras + Turribus in coelum nitentibus: incola claris + Cor studiis acuit... + Denique flammicomo devoti pectora soli + Vitam agitant. Libanus frondosa cacumina turget. + Et tamen his certant celsi fastigia templi. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + These verses of the Latin version of Rufus Avienus are wanting in the + Greek original of Dionysius; and since they are likewise unnoticed by + Eustathius, I must, with Fabricius, (Bibliot. Latin. tom. iii. p. 153, + edit. Ernesti,) and against Salmasius, (ad Vopiscum, p. 366, 367, in Hist. + August.,) ascribed them to the fancy, rather than the Mss., of Avienus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.71" id="linknote-51.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.71">return</a>)<br /> [ I am much better + satisfied with Maundrell’s slight octavo, (Journey, p. 134-139), than with + the pompous folio of Dr. Pocock, (Description of the East, vol. ii. p. + 106-113;) but every preceding account is eclipsed by the magnificent + description and drawings of Mm. Dawkins and Wood, who have transported + into England the ruins of Pamyra and Baalbec.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.72" id="linknote-51.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.72">return</a>)<br /> [ The Orientals explain + the prodigy by a never-failing expedient. The edifices of Baalbec were + constructed by the fairies or the genii, (Hist. de Timour Bec, tom. iii. + l. v. c. 23, p. 311, 312. Voyage d’Otter, tom. i. p. 83.) With less + absurdity, but with equal ignorance, Abulfeda and Ibn Chaukel ascribe them + to the Sabaeans or Aadites Non sunt in omni Syria aedificia + magnificentiora his, (Tabula Syria p. 108.)] + </p> + <p> + It was incumbent on the Saracens to exert the full powers of their valor + and enthusiasm against the forces of the emperor, who was taught, by + repeated losses, that the rovers of the desert had undertaken, and would + speedily achieve, a regular and permanent conquest. From the provinces of + Europe and Asia, fourscore thousand soldiers were transported by sea and + land to Antioch and Caesarea: the light troops of the army consisted of + sixty thousand Christian Arabs of the tribe of Gassan. Under the banner of + Jabalah, the last of their princes, they marched in the van; and it was a + maxim of the Greeks, that for the purpose of cutting diamond, a diamond + was the most effectual. Heraclius withheld his person from the dangers of + the field; but his presumption, or perhaps his despondency, suggested a + peremptory order, that the fate of the province and the war should be + decided by a single battle. The Syrians were attached to the standard of + Rome and of the cross: but the noble, the citizen, the peasant, were + exasperated by the injustice and cruelty of a licentious host, who + oppressed them as subjects, and despised them as strangers and aliens. <a + href="#linknote-51.73" name="linknoteref-51.73" id="linknoteref-51.73">73</a> + A report of these mighty preparations was conveyed to the Saracens in + their camp of Emesa, and the chiefs, though resolved to fight, assembled a + council: the faith of Abu Obeidah would have expected on the same spot the + glory of martyrdom; the wisdom of Caled advised an honorable retreat to + the skirts of Palestine and Arabia, where they might await the succors of + their friends, and the attack of the unbelievers. A speedy messenger soon + returned from the throne of Medina, with the blessings of Omar and Ali, + the prayers of the widows of the prophet, and a reenforcement of eight + thousand Moslems. In their way they overturned a detachment of Greeks, and + when they joined at Yermuk the camp of their brethren, they found the + pleasing intelligence, that Caled had already defeated and scattered the + Christian Arabs of the tribe of Gassan. In the neighborhood of Bosra, the + springs of Mount Hermon descend in a torrent to the plain of Decapolis, or + ten cities; and the Hieromax, a name which has been corrupted to Yermuk, + is lost, after a short course, in the Lake of Tiberias. <a + href="#linknote-51.74" name="linknoteref-51.74" id="linknoteref-51.74">74</a> + The banks of this obscure stream were illustrated by a long and bloody + encounter. <a href="#linknote-51.7411" name="linknoteref-51.7411" + id="linknoteref-51.7411">7411</a> On this momentous occasion, the public + voice, and the modesty of Abu Obeidah, restored the command to the most + deserving of the Moslems. Caled assumed his station in the front, his + colleague was posted in the rear, that the disorder of the fugitive might + be checked by his venerable aspect, and the sight of the yellow banner + which Mahomet had displayed before the walls of Chaibar. The last line was + occupied by the sister of Derar, with the Arabian women who had enlisted + in this holy war, who were accustomed to wield the bow and the lance, and + who in a moment of captivity had defended, against the uncircumcised + ravishers, their chastity and religion. <a href="#linknote-51.75" + name="linknoteref-51.75" id="linknoteref-51.75">75</a> The exhortation of + the generals was brief and forcible: “Paradise is before you, the devil + and hell-fire in your rear.” Yet such was the weight of the Roman cavalry, + that the right wing of the Arabs was broken and separated from the main + body. Thrice did they retreat in disorder, and thrice were they driven + back to the charge by the reproaches and blows of the women. In the + intervals of action, Abu Obeidah visited the tents of his brethren, + prolonged their repose by repeating at once the prayers of two different + hours, bound up their wounds with his own hands, and administered the + comfortable reflection, that the infidels partook of their sufferings + without partaking of their reward. Four thousand and thirty of the Moslems + were buried in the field of battle; and the skill of the Armenian archers + enabled seven hundred to boast that they had lost an eye in that + meritorious service. The veterans of the Syrian war acknowledged that it + was the hardest and most doubtful of the days which they had seen. But it + was likewise the most decisive: many thousands of the Greeks and Syrians + fell by the swords of the Arabs; many were slaughtered, after the defeat, + in the woods and mountains; many, by mistaking the ford, were drowned in + the waters of the Yermuk; and however the loss may be magnified, <a + href="#linknote-51.76" name="linknoteref-51.76" id="linknoteref-51.76">76</a> + the Christian writers confess and bewail the bloody punishment of their + sins. <a href="#linknote-51.77" name="linknoteref-51.77" + id="linknoteref-51.77">77</a> Manuel, the Roman general, was either killed + at Damascus, or took refuge in the monastery of Mount Sinai. An exile in + the Byzantine court, Jabalah lamented the manners of Arabia, and his + unlucky preference of the Christian cause. <a href="#linknote-51.78" + name="linknoteref-51.78" id="linknoteref-51.78">78</a> He had once inclined + to the profession of Islam; but in the pilgrimage of Mecca, Jabalah was + provoked to strike one of his brethren, and fled with amazement from the + stern and equal justice of the caliph. These victorious Saracens enjoyed at + Damascus a month of pleasure and repose: the spoil was divided by the + discretion of Abu Obeidah: an equal share was allotted to a soldier and to + his horse, and a double portion was reserved for the noble coursers of the + Arabian breed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.73" id="linknote-51.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.73">return</a>)<br /> [ I have read somewhere + in Tacitus, or Grotius, Subjectos habent tanquam suos, viles tanquam + alienos. Some Greek officers ravished the wife, and murdered the child, of + their Syrian landlord; and Manuel smiled at his undutiful complaint.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.74" id="linknote-51.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.74">return</a>)<br /> [ See Reland, Palestin. + tom. i. p. 272, 283, tom. ii. p. 773, 775. This learned professor was + equal to the task of describing the Holy Land, since he was alike + conversant with Greek and Latin, with Hebrew and Arabian literature. The + Yermuk, or Hieromax, is noticed by Cellarius (Geograph. Antiq. tom. ii. p. + 392) and D’Anville, (Geographie Ancienne, tom. ii. p. 185.) The Arabs, and + even Abulfeda himself, do not seem to recognize the scene of their + victory.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.7411" id="linknote-51.7411"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7411 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.7411">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare Price, p. + 79. The army of the Romans is swoller to 400,000 men of which 70,000 + perished.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.75" id="linknote-51.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.75">return</a>)<br /> [ These women were of the + tribe of the Hamyarites, who derived their origin from the ancient + Amalekites. Their females were accustomed to ride on horseback, and to + fight like the Amazons of old, (Ockley, vol. i. p. 67.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.76" id="linknote-51.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.76">return</a>)<br /> [ We killed of them, says + Abu Obeidah to the caliph, one hundred and fifty thousand, and made + prisoners forty thousand, (Ockley vol. i. p. 241.) As I cannot doubt his + veracity, nor believe his computation, I must suspect that the Arabic + historians indulge themselves in the practice of comparing speeches and + letters for their heroes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.77" id="linknote-51.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.77">return</a>)<br /> [ After deploring the + sins of the Christians, Theophanes, adds, (Chronograph. p. 276,) does he + mean Aiznadin? His account is brief and obscure, but he accuses the + numbers of the enemy, the adverse wind, and the cloud of dust. + (Chronograph. p. 280.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.78" id="linknote-51.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.78">return</a>)<br /> [ See Abulfeda, (Annal. + Moslem. p. 70, 71,) who transcribes the poetical complaint of Jabalah + himself, and some panegyrical strains of an Arabian poet, to whom the + chief of Gassan sent from Constantinople a gift of five hundred pieces of + gold by the hands of the ambassador of Omar.] + </p> + <p> + After the battle of Yermuk, the Roman army no longer appeared in the + field; and the Saracens might securely choose, among the fortified towns + of Syria, the first object of their attack. They consulted the caliph + whether they should march to Caesarea or Jerusalem; and the advice of Ali + determined the immediate siege of the latter. To a profane eye, Jerusalem + was the first or second capital of Palestine; but after Mecca and Medina, + it was revered and visited by the devout Moslems, as the temple of the + Holy Land which had been sanctified by the revelation of Moses, of Jesus, + and of Mahomet himself. The son of Abu Sophian was sent with five thousand + Arabs to try the first experiment of surprise or treaty; but on the + eleventh day, the town was invested by the whole force of Abu Obeidah. He + addressed the customary summons to the chief commanders and people of + Aelia. <a href="#linknote-51.79" name="linknoteref-51.79" + id="linknoteref-51.79">79</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.79" id="linknote-51.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.79">return</a>)<br /> [ In the name of the + city, the profane prevailed over the sacred Jerusalem was known to the + devout Christians, (Euseb. de Martyr Palest. c xi.;) but the legal and + popular appellation of Aelia (the colony of Aelius Hadrianus) has passed + from the Romans to the Arabs. (Reland, Palestin. tom. i. p. 207, tom. ii. + p. 835. D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, Cods, p. 269, Ilia, p. 420.) + The epithet of Al Cods, the Holy, is used as the proper name of + Jerusalem.] + </p> + <p> + “Health and happiness to every one that follows the right way! We require + of you to testify that there is but one God, and that Mahomet is his + apostle. If you refuse this, consent to pay tribute, and be under us + forthwith. Otherwise I shall bring men against you who love death better + than you do the drinking of wine or eating hog’s flesh. Nor will I ever + stir from you, if it please God, till I have destroyed those that fight + for you, and made slaves of your children.” But the city was defended on + every side by deep valleys and steep ascents; since the invasion of Syria, + the walls and towers had been anxiously restored; the bravest of the + fugitives of Yermuk had stopped in the nearest place of refuge; and in the + defence of the sepulchre of Christ, the natives and strangers might feel + some sparks of the enthusiasm, which so fiercely glowed in the bosoms of + the Saracens. The siege of Jerusalem lasted four months; not a day was + lost without some action of sally or assault; the military engines + incessantly played from the ramparts; and the inclemency of the winter was + still more painful and destructive to the Arabs. The Christians yielded at + length to the perseverance of the besiegers. The patriarch Sophronius + appeared on the walls, and by the voice of an interpreter demanded a + conference. <a href="#linknote-51.7911" name="linknoteref-51.7911" + id="linknoteref-51.7911">7911</a> After a vain attempt to dissuade the + lieutenant of the caliph from his impious enterprise, he proposed, in the + name of the people, a fair capitulation, with this extraordinary clause, + that the articles of security should be ratified by the authority and + presence of Omar himself. The question was debated in the council of + Medina; the sanctity of the place, and the advice of Ali, persuaded the + caliph to gratify the wishes of his soldiers and enemies; and the + simplicity of his journey is more illustrious than the royal pageants of + vanity and oppression. The conqueror of Persia and Syria was mounted on a + red camel, which carried, besides his person, a bag of corn, a bag of + dates, a wooden dish, and a leathern bottle of water. Wherever he halted, + the company, without distinction, was invited to partake of his homely + fare, and the repast was consecrated by the prayer and exhortation of the + commander of the faithful. <a href="#linknote-51.80" name="linknoteref-51.80" + id="linknoteref-51.80">80</a> But in this expedition or pilgrimage, his + power was exercised in the administration of justice: he reformed the + licentious polygamy of the Arabs, relieved the tributaries from extortion + and cruelty, and chastised the luxury of the Saracens, by despoiling them + of their rich silks, and dragging them on their faces in the dirt. When he + came within sight of Jerusalem, the caliph cried with a loud voice, “God + is victorious. O Lord, give us an easy conquest!” and, pitching his tent + of coarse hair, calmly seated himself on the ground. After signing the + capitulation, he entered the city without fear or precaution; and + courteously discoursed with the patriarch concerning its religious + antiquities. <a href="#linknote-51.81" name="linknoteref-51.81" + id="linknoteref-51.81">81</a> Sophronius bowed before his new master, and + secretly muttered, in the words of Daniel, “The abomination of desolation + is in the holy place.” <a href="#linknote-51.82" name="linknoteref-51.82" + id="linknoteref-51.82">82</a> At the hour of prayer they stood together in + the church of the resurrection; but the caliph refused to perform his + devotions, and contented himself with praying on the steps of the church + of Constantine. To the patriarch he disclosed his prudent and honorable + motive. “Had I yielded,” said Omar, “to your request, the Moslems of a + future age would have infringed the treaty under color of imitating my + example.” By his command the ground of the temple of Solomon was prepared + for the foundation of a mosch; <a href="#linknote-51.83" + name="linknoteref-51.83" id="linknoteref-51.83">83</a> and, during a + residence of ten days, he regulated the present and future state of his + Syrian conquests. Medina might be jealous, lest the caliph should be + detained by the sanctity of Jerusalem or the beauty of Damascus; her + apprehensions were dispelled by his prompt and voluntary return to the + tomb of the apostle. <a href="#linknote-51.84" name="linknoteref-51.84" + id="linknoteref-51.84">84</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.7911" id="linknote-51.7911"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7911 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.7911">return</a>)<br /> [ See the explanation + of this in Price, with the prophecy which was hereby fulfilled, p 85.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.80" id="linknote-51.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.80">return</a>)<br /> [ The singular journey + and equipage of Omar are described (besides Ockley, vol. i. p. 250) by + Murtadi, (Merveilles de l’Egypte, p. 200-202.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.81" id="linknote-51.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.81">return</a>)<br /> [ The Arabs boast of an + old prophecy preserved at Jerusalem, and describing the name, the + religion, and the person of Omar, the future conqueror. By such arts the + Jews are said to have soothed the pride of their foreign masters, Cyrus + and Alexander, (Joseph. Ant. Jud. l. xi c. 1, 8, p. 447, 579-582.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.82" id="linknote-51.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.82">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophan. Chronograph. + p. 281. This prediction, which had already served for Antiochus and the + Romans, was again refitted for the present occasion, by the economy of + Sophronius, one of the deepest theologians of the Monothelite + controversy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.83" id="linknote-51.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.83">return</a>)<br /> [ According to the + accurate survey of D’Anville, (Dissertation sun l’ancienne Jerusalem, p. + 42-54,) the mosch of Omar, enlarged and embellished by succeeding caliphs, + covered the ground of the ancient temple, (says Phocas,) a length of 215, + a breadth of 172, toises. The Nubian geographer declares, that this + magnificent structure was second only in size and beauty to the great + mosch of Cordova, (p. 113,) whose present state Mr. Swinburne has so + elegantly represented, (Travels into Spain, p. 296-302.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.84" id="linknote-51.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.84">return</a>)<br /> [ Of the many Arabic + tarikhs or chronicles of Jerusalem, (D’Herbelot, p. 867,) Ockley found one + among the Pocock Mss. of Oxford, (vol. i. p. 257,) which he has used to + supply the defective narrative of Al Wakidi.] + </p> + <p> + To achieve what yet remained of the Syrian war the caliph had formed two + separate armies; a chosen detachment, under Amrou and Yezid, was left in + the camp of Palestine; while the larger division, under the standard of + Abu Obeidah and Caled, marched away to the north against Antioch and + Aleppo. The latter of these, the Beraea of the Greeks, was not yet + illustrious as the capital of a province or a kingdom; and the + inhabitants, by anticipating their submission and pleading their poverty, + obtained a moderate composition for their lives and religion. But the + castle of Aleppo, <a href="#linknote-51.85" name="linknoteref-51.85" + id="linknoteref-51.85">85</a> distinct from the city, stood erect on a + lofty artificial mound; the sides were sharpened to a precipice, and faced + with free-stone; and the breadth of the ditch might be filled with water + from the neighboring springs. After the loss of three thousand men, the + garrison was still equal to the defence; and Youkinna, their valiant and + hereditary chief, had murdered his brother, a holy monk, for daring to + pronounce the name of peace. In a siege of four or five months, the + hardest of the Syrian war, great numbers of the Saracens were killed and + wounded: their removal to the distance of a mile could not seduce the + vigilance of Youkinna; nor could the Christians be terrified by the + execution of three hundred captives, whom they beheaded before the castle + wall. The silence, and at length the complaints, of Abu Obeidah informed + the caliph that their hope and patience were consumed at the foot of this + impregnable fortress. “I am variously affected,” replied Omar, “by the + difference of your success; but I charge you by no means to raise the + siege of the castle. Your retreat would diminish the reputation of our + arms, and encourage the infidels to fall upon you on all sides. Remain + before Aleppo till God shall determine the event, and forage with your + horse round the adjacent country.” The exhortation of the commander of the + faithful was fortified by a supply of volunteers from all the tribes of + Arabia, who arrived in the camp on horses or camels. Among these was + Dames, of a servile birth, but of gigantic size and intrepid resolution. + The forty-seventh day of his service he proposed, with only thirty men, to + make an attempt on the castle. The experience and testimony of Caled + recommended his offer; and Abu Obeidah admonished his brethren not to + despise the baser origin of Dames, since he himself, could he relinquish + the public care, would cheerfully serve under the banner of the slave. His + design was covered by the appearance of a retreat; and the camp of the + Saracens was pitched about a league from Aleppo. The thirty adventurers + lay in ambush at the foot of the hill; and Dames at length succeeded in + his inquiries, though he was provoked by the ignorance of his Greek + captives. “God curse these dogs,” said the illiterate Arab; “what a + strange barbarous language they speak!” At the darkest hour of the night, + he scaled the most accessible height, which he had diligently surveyed, a + place where the stones were less entire, or the slope less perpendicular, + or the guard less vigilant. Seven of the stoutest Saracens mounted on each + other’s shoulders, and the weight of the column was sustained on the broad + and sinewy back of the gigantic slave. The foremost in this painful ascent + could grasp and climb the lowest part of the battlements; they silently + stabbed and cast down the sentinels; and the thirty brethren, repeating a + pious ejaculation, “O apostle of God, help and deliver us!” were + successively drawn up by the long folds of their turbans. With bold and + cautious footsteps, Dames explored the palace of the governor, who + celebrated, in riotous merriment, the festival of his deliverance. From + thence, returning to his companions, he assaulted on the inside the + entrance of the castle. They overpowered the guard, unbolted the gate, let + down the drawbridge, and defended the narrow pass, till the arrival of + Caled, with the dawn of day, relieved their danger and assured their + conquest. Youkinna, a formidable foe, became an active and useful + proselyte; and the general of the Saracens expressed his regard for the + most humble merit, by detaining the army at Aleppo till Dames was cured of + his honorable wounds. The capital of Syria was still covered by the castle + of Aazaz and the iron bridge of the Orontes. After the loss of those + important posts, and the defeat of the last of the Roman armies, the + luxury of Antioch <a href="#linknote-51.86" name="linknoteref-51.86" + id="linknoteref-51.86">86</a> trembled and obeyed. Her safety was ransomed + with three hundred thousand pieces of gold; but the throne of the + successors of Alexander, the seat of the Roman government of the East, + which had been decorated by Caesar with the titles of free, and holy, and + inviolate was degraded under the yoke of the caliphs to the secondary rank + of a provincial town. <a href="#linknote-51.87" name="linknoteref-51.87" + id="linknoteref-51.87">87</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.85" id="linknote-51.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.85">return</a>)<br /> [ The Persian historian + of Timur (tom. iii. l. v. c. 21, p. 300) describes the castle of Aleppo as + founded on a rock one hundred cubits in height; a proof, says the French + translator, that he had never visited the place. It is now in the midst of + the city, of no strength with a single gate; the circuit is about 500 or + 600 paces, and the ditch half full of stagnant water, (Voyages de + Tavernier, tom. i. p. 149 Pocock, vol. ii. part i. p. 150.) The fortresses + of the East are contemptible to a European eye.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.86" id="linknote-51.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.86">return</a>)<br /> [ The date of the + conquest of Antioch by the Arabs is of some importance. By comparing the + years of the world in the chronography of Theophanes with the years of the + Hegira in the history of Elmacin, we shall determine, that it was taken + between January 23d and September 1st of the year of Christ 638, (Pagi, + Critica, in Baron. Annal. tom. ii. p. 812, 813.) Al Wakidi (Ockley, vol. + i. p. 314) assigns that event to Tuesday, August 21st, an inconsistent + date; since Easter fell that year on April 5th, the 21st of August must + have been a Friday, (see the Tables of the Art de Verifier les Dates.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.87" id="linknote-51.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.87">return</a>)<br /> [ His bounteous edict, + which tempted the grateful city to assume the victory of Pharsalia for a + perpetual aera, is given. John Malala, in Chron. p. 91, edit. Venet. We + may distinguish his authentic information of domestic facts from his gross + ignorance of general history.] + </p> + <p> + In the life of Heraclius, the glories of the Persian war are clouded on + either hand by the disgrace and weakness of his more early and his later + days. When the successors of Mahomet unsheathed the sword of war and + religion, he was astonished at the boundless prospect of toil and danger; + his nature was indolent, nor could the infirm and frigid age of the + emperor be kindled to a second effort. The sense of shame, and the + importunities of the Syrians, prevented the hasty departure from the scene + of action; but the hero was no more; and the loss of Damascus and + Jerusalem, the bloody fields of Aiznadin and Yermuk, may be imputed in + some degree to the absence or misconduct of the sovereign. Instead of + defending the sepulchre of Christ, he involved the church and state in a + metaphysical controversy for the unity of his will; and while Heraclius + crowned the offspring of his second nuptials, he was tamely stripped of + the most valuable part of their inheritance. In the cathedral of Antioch, + in the presence of the bishops, at the foot of the crucifix, he bewailed + the sins of the prince and people; but his confession instructed the + world, that it was vain, and perhaps impious, to resist the judgment of + God. The Saracens were invincible in fact, since they were invincible in + opinion; and the desertion of Youkinna, his false repentance and repeated + perfidy, might justify the suspicion of the emperor, that he was + encompassed by traitors and apostates, who conspired to betray his person + and their country to the enemies of Christ. In the hour of adversity, his + superstition was agitated by the omens and dreams of a falling crown; and + after bidding an eternal farewell to Syria, he secretly embarked with a + few attendants, and absolved the faith of his subjects. <a + href="#linknote-51.88" name="linknoteref-51.88" id="linknoteref-51.88">88</a> + Constantine, his eldest son, had been stationed with forty thousand men at + Caesarea, the civil metropolis of the three provinces of Palestine. But + his private interest recalled him to the Byzantine court; and, after the + flight of his father, he felt himself an unequal champion to the united + force of the caliph. His vanguard was boldly attacked by three hundred + Arabs and a thousand black slaves, who, in the depth of winter, had + climbed the snowy mountains of Libanus, and who were speedily followed by + the victorious squadrons of Caled himself. From the north and south the + troops of Antioch and Jerusalem advanced along the sea-shore till their + banners were joined under the walls of the Phoenician cities: Tripoli and + Tyre were betrayed; and a fleet of fifty transports, which entered without + distrust the captive harbors, brought a seasonable supply of arms and + provisions to the camp of the Saracens. Their labors were terminated by + the unexpected surrender of Caesarea: the Roman prince had embarked in the + night; <a href="#linknote-51.89" name="linknoteref-51.89" + id="linknoteref-51.89">89</a> and the defenceless citizens solicited their + pardon with an offering of two hundred thousand pieces of gold. The + remainder of the province, Ramlah, Ptolemais or Acre, Sichem or Neapolis, + Gaza, Ascalon, Berytus, Sidon, Gabala, Laodicea, Apamea, Hierapolis, no + longer presumed to dispute the will of the conqueror; and Syria bowed + under the sceptre of the caliphs seven hundred years after Pompey had + despoiled the last of the Macedonian kings. <a href="#linknote-51.90" + name="linknoteref-51.90" id="linknoteref-51.90">90</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.88" id="linknote-51.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.88">return</a>)<br /> [ See Ockley, (vol. i. p. + 308, 312,) who laughs at the credulity of his author. When Heraclius bade + farewell to Syria, Vale Syria et ultimum vale, he prophesied that the + Romans should never reenter the province till the birth of an inauspicious + child, the future scourge of the empire. Abulfeda, p. 68. I am perfectly + ignorant of the mystic sense, or nonsense, of this prediction.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.89" id="linknote-51.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.89">return</a>)<br /> [ In the loose and + obscure chronology of the times, I am guided by an authentic record, (in + the book of ceremonies of Constantine Porphyrogenitus,) which certifies + that, June 4, A.D. 638, the emperor crowned his younger son Heraclius, in + the presence of his eldest, Constantine, and in the palace of Constantinople; + that January 1, A.D. 639, the royal procession visited the great church, + and on the 4th of the same month, the hippodrome.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.90" id="linknote-51.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.90">return</a>)<br /> [ Sixty-five years before + Christ, Syria Pontusque monumenta sunt Cn. Pompeii virtutis, (Vell. + Patercul. ii. 38,) rather of his fortune and power: he adjudged Syria to + be a Roman province, and the last of the Seleucides were incapable of + drawing a sword in the defence of their patrimony (see the original texts + collected by Usher, Annal. p. 420)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap51.5"></a> + Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + The sieges and battles of six campaigns had consumed many thousands of the + Moslems. They died with the reputation and the cheerfulness of martyrs; + and the simplicity of their faith may be expressed in the words of an + Arabian youth, when he embraced, for the last time, his sister and mother: + “It is not,” said he, “the delicacies of Syria, or the fading delights of + this world, that have prompted me to devote my life in the cause of + religion. But I seek the favor of God and his apostle; and I have heard, + from one of the companions of the prophet, that the spirits of the martyrs + will be lodged in the crops of green birds, who shall taste the fruits, + and drink of the rivers, of paradise. Farewell, we shall meet again among + the groves and fountains which God has provided for his elect.” The + faithful captives might exercise a passive and more arduous resolution; + and a cousin of Mahomet is celebrated for refusing, after an abstinence of + three days, the wine and pork, the only nourishment that was allowed by + the malice of the infidels. The frailty of some weaker brethren + exasperated the implacable spirit of fanaticism; and the father of Amer + deplored, in pathetic strains, the apostasy and damnation of a son, who + had renounced the promises of God, and the intercession of the prophet, to + occupy, with the priests and deacons, the lowest mansions of hell. The + more fortunate Arabs, who survived the war and persevered in the faith, + were restrained by their abstemious leader from the abuse of prosperity. + After a refreshment of three days, Abu Obeidah withdrew his troops from + the pernicious contagion of the luxury of Antioch, and assured the caliph + that their religion and virtue could only be preserved by the hard + discipline of poverty and labor. But the virtue of Omar, however rigorous + to himself, was kind and liberal to his brethren. After a just tribute of + praise and thanksgiving, he dropped a tear of compassion; and sitting down + on the ground, wrote an answer, in which he mildly censured the severity + of his lieutenant: “God,” said the successor of the prophet, “has not + forbidden the use of the good things of this worl to faithful men, and + such as have performed good works. Therefore you ought to have given them + leave to rest themselves, and partake freely of those good things which + the country affordeth. If any of the Saracens have no family in Arabia, + they may marry in Syria; and whosoever of them wants any female slaves, he + may purchase as many as he hath occasion for.” The conquerors prepared to + use, or to abuse, this gracious permission; but the year of their triumph + was marked by a mortality of men and cattle; and twenty-five thousand + Saracens were snatched away from the possession of Syria. The death of Abu + Obeidah might be lamented by the Christians; but his brethren recollected + that he was one of the ten elect whom the prophet had named as the heirs + of paradise. <a href="#linknote-51.91" name="linknoteref-51.91" + id="linknoteref-51.91">91</a> Caled survived his brethren about three + years: and the tomb of the Sword of God is shown in the neighborhood of + Emesa. His valor, which founded in Arabia and Syria the empire of the + caliphs, was fortified by the opinion of a special providence; and as long + as he wore a cap, which had been blessed by Mahomet, he deemed himself + invulnerable amidst the darts of the infidels. <a href="#linknote-51.9111" + name="linknoteref-51.9111" id="linknoteref-51.9111">9111</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.91" id="linknote-51.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.91">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulfeda, Annal. + Moslem. p. 73. Mahomet could artfully vary the praises of his disciples. + Of Omar he was accustomed to say, that if a prophet could arise after + himself, it would be Omar; and that in a general calamity, Omar would be + accepted by the divine justice, (Ockley, vol. i. p. 221.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.9111" id="linknote-51.9111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9111 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.9111">return</a>)<br /> [ Khaled, according + to the Rouzont Uzzuffa, (Price, p. 90,) after having been deprived of his + ample share of the plunder of Syria by the jealousy of Omar, died, + possessed only of his horse, his arms, and a single slave. Yet Omar was + obliged to acknowledge to his lamenting parent. that never mother had + produced a son like Khaled.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The place of the first conquerors was supplied by a new generation of + their children and countrymen: Syria became the seat and support of the + house of Ommiyah; and the revenue, the soldiers, the ships of that + powerful kingdom were consecrated to enlarge on every side the empire of + the caliphs. But the Saracens despise a superfluity of fame; and their + historians scarcely condescend to mention the subordinate conquests which + are lost in the splendor and rapidity of their victorious career. + </p> + <p> + To the north of Syria, they passed Mount Taurus, and reduced to their + obedience the province of Cilicia, with its capital Tarsus, the ancient + monument of the Assyrian kings. Beyond a second ridge of the same + mountains, they spread the flame of war, rather than the light of + religion, as far as the shores of the Euxine, and the neighborhood of + Constantinople. To the east they advanced to the banks and sources of the + Euphrates and Tigris: <a href="#linknote-51.92" name="linknoteref-51.92" + id="linknoteref-51.92">92</a> the long disputed barrier of Rome and Persia + was forever confounded; the walls of Edessa and Amida, of Dara and Nisibis, + which had resisted the arms and engines of Sapor or Nushirvan, were + levelled in the dust; and the holy city of Abgarus might vainly produce + the epistle or the image of Christ to an unbelieving conqueror. To the + west the Syrian kingdom is bounded by the sea: and the ruin of Aradus, a + small island or peninsula on the coast, was postponed during ten years. + But the hills of Libanus abounded in timber; the trade of Phoenicia was + populous in mariners; and a fleet of seventeen hundred barks was equipped + and manned by the natives of the desert. The Imperial navy of the Romans + fled before them from the Pamphylian rocks to the Hellespont; but the + spirit of the emperor, a grandson of Heraclius, had been subdued before + the combat by a dream and a pun. <a href="#linknote-51.93" + name="linknoteref-51.93" id="linknoteref-51.93">93</a> The Saracens rode + masters of the sea; and the islands of Cyprus, Rhodes, and the Cyclades, + were successively exposed to their rapacious visits. Three hundred years + before the Christian aera, the memorable though fruitless siege of Rhodes + <a href="#linknote-51.94" name="linknoteref-51.94" id="linknoteref-51.94">94</a> + by Demetrius had furnished that maritime republic with the materials and + the subject of a trophy. A gigantic statue of Apollo, or the sun, seventy + cubits in height, was erected at the entrance of the harbor, a monument of + the freedom and the arts of Greece. After standing fifty-six years, the + colossus of Rhodes was overthrown by an earthquake; but the massy trunk, + and huge fragments, lay scattered eight centuries on the ground, and are + often described as one of the wonders of the ancient world. They were + collected by the diligence of the Saracens, and sold to a Jewish merchant + of Edessa, who is said to have laden nine hundred camels with the weight + of the brass metal; an enormous weight, though we should include the + hundred colossal figures, <a href="#linknote-51.95" name="linknoteref-51.95" + id="linknoteref-51.95">95</a> and the three thousand statues, which adorned + the prosperity of the city of the sun. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.92" id="linknote-51.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.92">return</a>)<br /> [ Al Wakidi had likewise + written a history of the conquest of Diarbekir, or Mesopotamia, (Ockley, + at the end of the iid vol.,) which our interpreters do not appear to have + seen. The Chronicle of Dionysius of Telmar, the Jacobite patriarch, + records the taking of Edessa A.D. 637, and of Dara A.D. 641, (Asseman. + Bibliot. Orient. tom. ii. p. 103;) and the attentive may glean some + doubtful information from the Chronography of Theophanes, (p. 285-287.) + Most of the towns of Mesopotamia yielded by surrender, (Abulpharag. p. + 112.) * Note: It has been published in Arabic by M. Ewald St. Martin, vol. + xi p 248; but its authenticity is doubted.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.93" id="linknote-51.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.93">return</a>)<br /> [ He dreamt that he was + at Thessalonica, a harmless and unmeaning vision; but his soothsayer, or + his cowardice, understood the sure omen of a defeat concealed in that + inauspicious word, Give to another the victory, (Theoph. p. 286. Zonaras, + tom. ii. l. xiv. p. 88.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.94" id="linknote-51.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.94">return</a>)<br /> [ Every passage and every + fact that relates to the isle, the city, and the colossus of Rhodes, are + compiled in the laborious treatise of Meursius, who has bestowed the same + diligence on the two larger islands of the Crete and Cyprus. See, in the + iiid vol. of his works, the Rhodus of Meursius, (l. i. c. 15, p. 715-719.) + The Byzantine writers, Theophanes and Constantine, have ignorantly + prolonged the term to 1360 years, and ridiculously divide the weight among + 30,000 camels.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.95" id="linknote-51.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.95">return</a>)<br /> [ Centum colossi alium + nobilitaturi locum, says Pliny, with his usual spirit. Hist. Natur. xxxiv. + 18.] + </p> + <p> + III. The conquest of Egypt may be explained by the character of the + victorious Saracen, one of the first of his nation, in an age when the + meanest of the brethren was exalted above his nature by the spirit of + enthusiasm. The birth of Amrou was at once base and illustrious; his + mother, a notorious prostitute, was unable to decide among five of the + Koreish; but the proof of resemblance adjudged the child to Aasi, the + oldest of her lovers. <a href="#linknote-51.96" name="linknoteref-51.96" + id="linknoteref-51.96">96</a> The youth of Amrou was impelled by the + passions and prejudices of his kindred: his poetic genius was exercised in + satirical verses against the person and doctrine of Mahomet; his dexterity + was employed by the reigning faction to pursue the religious exiles who + had taken refuge in the court of the Aethiopian king. <a + href="#linknote-51.97" name="linknoteref-51.97" id="linknoteref-51.97">97</a> + Yet he returned from this embassy a secret proselyte; his reason or his + interest determined him to renounce the worship of idols; he escaped from + Mecca with his friend Caled; and the prophet of Medina enjoyed at the same + moment the satisfaction of embracing the two firmest champions of his + cause. The impatience of Amrou to lead the armies of the faithful was + checked by the reproof of Omar, who advised him not to seek power and + dominion, since he who is a subject to-day, may be a prince to-morrow. Yet + his merit was not overlooked by the two first successors of Mahomet; they + were indebted to his arms for the conquest of Palestine; and in all the + battles and sieges of Syria, he united with the temper of a chief the + valor of an adventurous soldier. In a visit to Medina, the caliph + expressed a wish to survey the sword which had cut down so many Christian + warriors; the son of Aasi unsheathed a short and ordinary cimeter; and as + he perceived the surprise of Omar, “Alas,” said the modest Saracen, “the + sword itself, without the arm of its master, is neither sharper nor more + weighty than the sword of Pharezdak the poet.” <a href="#linknote-51.98" + name="linknoteref-51.98" id="linknoteref-51.98">98</a> After the conquest of + Egypt, he was recalled by the jealousy of the caliph Othman; but in the + subsequent troubles, the ambition of a soldier, a statesman, and an + orator, emerged from a private station. His powerful support, both in + council and in the field, established the throne of the Ommiades; the + administration and revenue of Egypt were restored by the gratitude of + Moawiyah to a faithful friend who had raised himself above the rank of a + subject; and Amrou ended his days in the palace and city which he had + founded on the banks of the Nile. His dying speech to his children is + celebrated by the Arabians as a model of eloquence and wisdom: he deplored + the errors of his youth but if the penitent was still infected by the + vanity of a poet, he might exaggerate the venom and mischief of his + impious compositions. <a href="#linknote-51.99" name="linknoteref-51.99" + id="linknoteref-51.99">99</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.96" id="linknote-51.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.96">return</a>)<br /> [ We learn this anecdote + from a spirited old woman, who reviled to their faces, the caliph and his + friend. She was encouraged by the silence of Amrou and the liberality of + Moawiyah, (Abulfeda, Annal Moslem. p. 111.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.97" id="linknote-51.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.97">return</a>)<br /> [ Gagnier, Vie de + Mahomet, tom. ii. p. 46, &c., who quotes the Abyssinian history, or + romance of Abdel Balcides. Yet the fact of the embassy and ambassador may + be allowed.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.98" id="linknote-51.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.98">return</a>)<br /> [ This saying is + preserved by Pocock, (Not. ad Carmen Tograi, p 184,) and justly applauded + by Mr. Harris, (Philosophical Arrangements, p. 850.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.99" id="linknote-51.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.99">return</a>)<br /> [ For the life and + character of Amrou, see Ockley (Hist. of the Saracens, vol. i. p. 28, 63, + 94, 328, 342, 344, and to the end of the volume; vol. ii. p. 51, 55, 57, + 74, 110-112, 162) and Otter, (Mem. de l’Academie des Inscriptions, tom. + xxi. p. 131, 132.) The readers of Tacitus may aptly compare Vespasian and + Mucianus with Moawiyah and Amrou. Yet the resemblance is still more in the + situation, than in the characters, of the men.] + </p> + <p> + From his camp in Palestine, Amrou had surprised or anticipated the + caliph’s leave for the invasion of Egypt. <a href="#linknote-51.100" + name="linknoteref-51.100" id="linknoteref-51.100">100</a> The magnanimous + Omar trusted in his God and his sword, which had shaken the thrones of + Chosroes and Caesar: but when he compared the slender force of the Moslems + with the greatness of the enterprise, he condemned his own rashness, and + listened to his timid companions. The pride and the greatness of Pharaoh + were familiar to the readers of the Koran; and a tenfold repetition of + prodigies had been scarcely sufficient to effect, not the victory, but the + flight, of six hundred thousand of the children of Israel: the cities of + Egypt were many and populous; their architecture was strong and solid; the + Nile, with its numerous branches, was alone an insuperable barrier; and + the granary of the Imperial city would be obstinately defended by the + Roman powers. In this perplexity, the commander of the faithful resigned + himself to the decision of chance, or, in his opinion, of Providence. At + the head of only four thousand Arabs, the intrepid Amrou had marched away + from his station of Gaza when he was overtaken by the messenger of Omar. + “If you are still in Syria,” said the ambiguous mandate, “retreat without + delay; but if, at the receipt of this epistle, you have already reached + the frontiers of Egypt, advance with confidence, and depend on the succor + of God and of your brethren.” The experience, perhaps the secret + intelligence, of Amrou had taught him to suspect the mutability of courts; + and he continued his march till his tents were unquestionably pitched on + Egyptian ground. He there assembled his officers, broke the seal, perused + the epistle, gravely inquired the name and situation of the place, and + declared his ready obedience to the commands of the caliph. After a siege + of thirty days, he took possession of Farmah or Pelusium; and that key of + Egypt, as it has been justly named, unlocked the entrance of the country + as far as the ruins of Heliopolis and the neighborhood of the modern + Cairo. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.100" id="linknote-51.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.100">return</a>)<br /> [ Al Wakidi had + likewise composed a separate history of the conquest of Egypt, which Mr. + Ockley could never procure; and his own inquiries (vol. i. 344-362) have + added very little to the original text of Eutychius, (Annal. tom. ii. p. + 296-323, vers. Pocock,) the Melchite patriarch of Alexandria, who lived + three hundred years after the revolution.] + </p> + <p> + On the Western side of the Nile, at a small distance to the east of the + Pyramids, at a small distance to the south of the Delta, Memphis, one + hundred and fifty furlongs in circumference, displayed the magnificence of + ancient kings. Under the reign of the Ptolemies and Caesars, the seat of + government was removed to the sea-coast; the ancient capital was eclipsed + by the arts and opulence of Alexandria; the palaces, and at length the + temples, were reduced to a desolate and ruinous condition: yet, in the age + of Augustus, and even in that of Constantine, Memphis was still numbered + among the greatest and most populous of the provincial cities. <a + href="#linknote-51.101" name="linknoteref-51.101" id="linknoteref-51.101">101</a> + The banks of the Nile, in this place of the breadth of three thousand + feet, were united by two bridges of sixty and of thirty boats, connected + in the middle stream by the small island of Rouda, which was covered with + gardens and habitations. <a href="#linknote-51.102" name="linknoteref-51.102" + id="linknoteref-51.102">102</a> The eastern extremity of the bridge was + terminated by the town of Babylon and the camp of a Roman legion, which + protected the passage of the river and the second capital of Egypt. This + important fortress, which might fairly be described as a part of Memphis + or Misrah, was invested by the arms of the lieutenant of Omar: a + reenforcement of four thousand Saracens soon arrived in his camp; and the + military engines, which battered the walls, may be imputed to the art and + labor of his Syrian allies. Yet the siege was protracted to seven months; + and the rash invaders were encompassed and threatened by the inundation of + the Nile. <a href="#linknote-51.103" name="linknoteref-51.103" + id="linknoteref-51.103">103</a> Their last assault was bold and successful: + they passed the ditch, which had been fortified with iron spikes, applied + their scaling ladders, entered the fortress with the shout of “God is + victorious!” and drove the remnant of the Greeks to their boats and the + Isle of Rouda. The spot was afterwards recommended to the conqueror by the + easy communication with the gulf and the peninsula of Arabia; the remains + of Memphis were deserted; the tents of the Arabs were converted into + permanent habitations; and the first mosch was blessed by the presence of + fourscore companions of Mahomet. <a href="#linknote-51.104" + name="linknoteref-51.104" id="linknoteref-51.104">104</a> A new city arose + in their camp, on the eastward bank of the Nile; and the contiguous + quarters of Babylon and Fostat are confounded in their present decay by + the appellation of old Misrah, or Cairo, of which they form an extensive + suburb. But the name of Cairo, the town of victory, more strictly belongs + to the modern capital, which was founded in the tenth century by the + Fatimite caliphs. <a href="#linknote-51.105" name="linknoteref-51.105" + id="linknoteref-51.105">105</a> It has gradually receded from the river; + but the continuity of buildings may be traced by an attentive eye from the + monuments of Sesostris to those of Saladin. <a href="#linknote-51.106" + name="linknoteref-51.106" id="linknoteref-51.106">106</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.101" id="linknote-51.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.101">return</a>)<br /> [ Strabo, an accurate + and attentive spectator, observes of Heliopolis, (Geograph. l. xvii. p. + 1158;) but of Memphis he notices, however, the mixture of inhabitants, and + the ruin of the palaces. In the proper Egypt, Ammianus enumerates Memphis + among the four cities, maximis urbibus quibus provincia nitet, (xxii. 16;) + and the name of Memphis appears with distinction in the Roman Itinerary + and episcopal lists.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.102" id="linknote-51.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.102">return</a>)<br /> [ These rare and + curious facts, the breadth (2946 feet) and the bridge of the Nile, are + only to be found in the Danish traveller and the Nubian geographer, (p. + 98.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.103" id="linknote-51.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.103">return</a>)<br /> [ From the month of + April, the Nile begins imperceptibly to rise; the swell becomes strong and + visible in the moon after the summer solstice, (Plin. Hist. Nat. v. 10,) + and is usually proclaimed at Cairo on St. Peter’s day, (June 29.) A + register of thirty successive years marks the greatest height of the + waters between July 25 and August 18, (Maillet, Description de l’Egypte, + lettre xi. p. 67, &c. Pocock’s Description of the East, vol. i. p. + 200. Shaw’s Travels, p. 383.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.104" id="linknote-51.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.104">return</a>)<br /> [ Murtadi, Merveilles + de l’Egypte, 243, 259. He expatiates on the subject with the zeal and + minuteness of a citizen and a bigot, and his local traditions have a + strong air of truth and accuracy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.105" id="linknote-51.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.105">return</a>)<br /> [ D’Herbelot, + Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 233.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.106" id="linknote-51.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.106">return</a>)<br /> [ The position of New + and of Old Cairo is well known, and has been often described. Two writers, + who were intimately acquainted with ancient and modern Egypt, have fixed, + after a learned inquiry, the city of Memphis at Gizeh, directly opposite + the Old Cairo, (Sicard, Nouveaux Memoires des Missions du Levant, tom. vi. + p. 5, 6. Shaw’s Observations and Travels, p. 296-304.) Yet we may not + disregard the authority or the arguments of Pocock, (vol. i. p. 25-41,) + Niebuhr, (Voyage, tom. i. p. 77-106,) and above all, of D’Anville, + (Description de l’Egypte, p. 111, 112, 130-149,) who have removed Memphis + towards the village of Mohannah, some miles farther to the south. In their + heat, the disputants have forgot that the ample space of a metropolis + covers and annihilates the far greater part of the controversy.] + </p> + <p> + Yet the Arabs, after a glorious and profitable enterprise, must have + retreated to the desert, had they not found a powerful alliance in the + heart of the country. The rapid conquest of Alexander was assisted by the + superstition and revolt of the natives: they abhorred their Persian + oppressors, the disciples of the Magi, who had burnt the temples of Egypt, + and feasted with sacrilegious appetite on the flesh of the god Apis. <a + href="#linknote-51.107" name="linknoteref-51.107" id="linknoteref-51.107">107</a> + After a period of ten centuries, the same revolution was renewed by a + similar cause; and in the support of an incomprehensible creed, the zeal + of the Coptic Christians was equally ardent. I have already explained the + origin and progress of the Monophysite controversy, and the persecution of + the emperors, which converted a sect into a nation, and alienated Egypt + from their religion and government. The Saracens were received as the + deliverers of the Jacobite church; and a secret and effectual treaty was + opened during the siege of Memphis between a victorious army and a people + of slaves. A rich and noble Egyptian, of the name of Mokawkas, had + dissembled his faith to obtain the administration of his province: in the + disorders of the Persian war he aspired to independence: the embassy of + Mahomet ranked him among princes; but he declined, with rich gifts and + ambiguous compliments, the proposal of a new religion. <a + href="#linknote-51.108" name="linknoteref-51.108" id="linknoteref-51.108">108</a> + The abuse of his trust exposed him to the resentment of Heraclius: his + submission was delayed by arrogance and fear; and his conscience was + prompted by interest to throw himself on the favor of the nation and the + support of the Saracens. In his first conference with Amrou, he heard + without indignation the usual option of the Koran, the tribute, or the + sword. “The Greeks,” replied Mokawkas, “are determined to abide the + determination of the sword; but with the Greeks I desire no communion, + either in this world or in the next, and I abjure forever the Byzantine + tyrant, his synod of Chalcedon, and his Melchite slaves. For myself and my + brethren, we are resolved to live and die in the profession of the gospel + and unity of Christ. It is impossible for us to embrace the revelations of + your prophet; but we are desirous of peace, and cheerfully submit to pay + tribute and obedience to his temporal successors.” The tribute was + ascertained at two pieces of gold for the head of every Christian; but old + men, monks, women, and children, of both sexes, under sixteen years of + age, were exempted from this personal assessment: the Copts above and + below Memphis swore allegiance to the caliph, and promised a hospitable + entertainment of three days to every Mussulman who should travel through + their country. By this charter of security, the ecclesiastical and civil + tyranny of the Melchites was destroyed: <a href="#linknote-51.109" + name="linknoteref-51.109" id="linknoteref-51.109">109</a> the anathemas of + St. Cyril were thundered from every pulpit; and the sacred edifices, with + the patrimony of the church, were restored to the national communion of + the Jacobites, who enjoyed without moderation the moment of triumph and + revenge. At the pressing summons of Amrou, their patriarch Benjamin + emerged from his desert; and after the first interview, the courteous Arab + affected to declare that he had never conversed with a Christian priest of + more innocent manners and a more venerable aspect. <a + href="#linknote-51.110" name="linknoteref-51.110" id="linknoteref-51.110">110</a> + In the march from Memphis to Alexandria, the lieutenant of Omar intrusted + his safety to the zeal and gratitude of the Egyptians: the roads and + bridges were diligently repaired; and in every step of his progress, he + could depend on a constant supply of provisions and intelligence. The + Greeks of Egypt, whose numbers could scarcely equal a tenth of the + natives, were overwhelmed by the universal defection: they had ever been + hated, they were no longer feared: the magistrate fled from his tribunal, + the bishop from his altar; and the distant garrisons were surprised or + starved by the surrounding multitudes. Had not the Nile afforded a safe + and ready conveyance to the sea, not an individual could have escaped, who + by birth, or language, or office, or religion, was connected with their + odious name. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.107" id="linknote-51.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.107">return</a>)<br /> [ See Herodotus, l. + iii. c. 27, 28, 29. Aelian, Hist. Var. l. iv. c. 8. Suidas in, tom. ii. p. + 774. Diodor. Sicul. tom. ii. l. xvii. p. 197, edit. Wesseling. Says the + last of these historians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.108" id="linknote-51.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.108">return</a>)<br /> [ Mokawkas sent the + prophet two Coptic damsels, with two maids and one eunuch, an alabaster + vase, an ingot of pure gold, oil, honey, and the finest white linen of + Egypt, with a horse, a mule, and an ass, distinguished by their respective + qualifications. The embassy of Mahomet was despatched from Medina in the + seventh year of the Hegira, (A.D. 628.) See Gagnier, (Vie de Mahomet, tom. + ii. p. 255, 256, 303,) from Al Jannabi.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.109" id="linknote-51.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.109">return</a>)<br /> [ The praefecture of + Egypt, and the conduct of the war, had been trusted by Heraclius to the + patriarch Cyrus, (Theophan. p. 280, 281.) “In Spain,” said James II., “do + you not consult your priests?” “We do,” replied the Catholic ambassador, + “and our affairs succeed accordingly.” I know not how to relate the plans + of Cyrus, of paying tribute without impairing the revenue, and of + converting Omar by his marriage with the Emperor’s daughter, (Nicephor. + Breviar. p. 17, 18.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.110" id="linknote-51.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.110">return</a>)<br /> [ See the life of + Benjamin, in Renaudot, (Hist. Patriarch. Alexandrin. p. 156-172,) who has + enriched the conquest of Egypt with some facts from the Arabic text of + Severus the Jacobite historian] + </p> + <p> + By the retreat of the Greeks from the provinces of Upper Egypt, a + considerable force was collected in the Island of Delta; the natural and + artificial channels of the Nile afforded a succession of strong and + defensible posts; and the road to Alexandria was laboriously cleared by + the victory of the Saracens in two-and-twenty days of general or partial + combat. In their annals of conquest, the siege of Alexandria <a + href="#linknote-51.111" name="linknoteref-51.111" id="linknoteref-51.111">111</a> + is perhaps the most arduous and important enterprise. The first trading + city in the world was abundantly replenished with the means of subsistence + and defence. Her numerous inhabitants fought for the dearest of human + rights, religion and property; and the enmity of the natives seemed to + exclude them from the common benefit of peace and toleration. The sea was + continually open; and if Heraclius had been awake to the public distress, + fresh armies of Romans and Barbarians might have been poured into the + harbor to save the second capital of the empire. A circumference of ten + miles would have scattered the forces of the Greeks, and favored the + stratagems of an active enemy; but the two sides of an oblong square were + covered by the sea and the Lake Maraeotis, and each of the narrow ends + exposed a front of no more than ten furlongs. The efforts of the Arabs + were not inadequate to the difficulty of the attempt and the value of the + prize. From the throne of Medina, the eyes of Omar were fixed on the camp + and city: his voice excited to arms the Arabian tribes and the veterans of + Syria; and the merit of a holy war was recommended by the peculiar fame + and fertility of Egypt. Anxious for the ruin or expulsion of their + tyrants, the faithful natives devoted their labors to the service of + Amrou: some sparks of martial spirit were perhaps rekindled by the example + of their allies; and the sanguine hopes of Mokawkas had fixed his + sepulchre in the church of St. John of Alexandria. Eutychius the patriarch + observes, that the Saracens fought with the courage of lions: they + repulsed the frequent and almost daily sallies of the besieged, and soon + assaulted in their turn the walls and towers of the city. In every attack, + the sword, the banner of Amrou, glittered in the van of the Moslems. On a + memorable day, he was betrayed by his imprudent valor: his followers who + had entered the citadel were driven back; and the general, with a friend + and slave, remained a prisoner in the hands of the Christians. When Amrou + was conducted before the praefect, he remembered his dignity, and forgot + his situation: a lofty demeanor, and resolute language, revealed the + lieutenant of the caliph, and the battle-axe of a soldier was already + raised to strike off the head of the audacious captive. His life was saved + by the readiness of his slave, who instantly gave his master a blow on the + face, and commanded him, with an angry tone, to be silent in the presence + of his superiors. The credulous Greek was deceived: he listened to the + offer of a treaty, and his prisoners were dismissed in the hope of a more + respectable embassy, till the joyful acclamations of the camp announced + the return of their general, and insulted the folly of the infidels. At + length, after a siege of fourteen months, <a href="#linknote-51.112" + name="linknoteref-51.112" id="linknoteref-51.112">112</a> and the loss of + three-and-twenty thousand men, the Saracens prevailed: the Greeks embarked + their dispirited and diminished numbers, and the standard of Mahomet was + planted on the walls of the capital of Egypt. “I have taken,” said Amrou + to the caliph, “the great city of the West. It is impossible for me to + enumerate the variety of its riches and beauty; and I shall content myself + with observing, that it contains four thousand palaces, four thousand + baths, four hundred theatres or places of amusement, twelve thousand shops + for the sale of vegetable food, and forty thousand tributary Jews. The + town has been subdued by force of arms, without treaty or capitulation, + and the Moslems are impatient to seize the fruits of their victory.” <a + href="#linknote-51.113" name="linknoteref-51.113" id="linknoteref-51.113">113</a> + The commander of the faithful rejected with firmness the idea of pillage, + and directed his lieutenant to reserve the wealth and revenue of + Alexandria for the public service and the propagation of the faith: the + inhabitants were numbered; a tribute was imposed, the zeal and resentment + of the Jacobites were curbed, and the Melchites who submitted to the + Arabian yoke were indulged in the obscure but tranquil exercise of their + worship. The intelligence of this disgraceful and calamitous event + afflicted the declining health of the emperor; and Heraclius died of a + dropsy about seven weeks after the loss of Alexandria. <a + href="#linknote-51.114" name="linknoteref-51.114" id="linknoteref-51.114">114</a> + Under the minority of his grandson, the clamors of a people, deprived of + their daily sustenance, compelled the Byzantine court to undertake the + recovery of the capital of Egypt. In the space of four years, the harbor + and fortifications of Alexandria were twice occupied by a fleet and army + of Romans. They were twice expelled by the valor of Amrou, who was + recalled by the domestic peril from the distant wars of Tripoli and Nubia. + But the facility of the attempt, the repetition of the insult, and the + obstinacy of the resistance, provoked him to swear, that if a third time + he drove the infidels into the sea, he would render Alexandria as + accessible on all sides as the house of a prostitute. Faithful to his + promise, he dismantled several parts of the walls and towers; but the + people was spared in the chastisement of the city, and the mosch of Mercy + was erected on the spot where the victorious general had stopped the fury + of his troops. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.111" id="linknote-51.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.111">return</a>)<br /> [ The local description + of Alexandria is perfectly ascertained by the master hand of the first of + geographers, (D’Anville, Memoire sur l’Egypte, p. 52-63;) but we may + borrow the eyes of the modern travellers, more especially of Thevenot, + (Voyage au Levant, part i. p. 381-395,) Pocock, (vol. i. p. 2-13,) and + Niebuhr, (Voyage en Arabie, tom. i. p. 34-43.) Of the two modern rivals, + Savary and Volmey, the one may amuse, the other will instruct.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.112" id="linknote-51.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.112">return</a>)<br /> [ Both Eutychius + (Annal. tom. ii. p. 319) and Elmacin (Hist. Saracen. p. 28) concur in + fixing the taking of Alexandria to Friday of the new moon of Moharram of + the twentieth year of the Hegira, (December 22, A.D. 640.) In reckoning + backwards fourteen months spent before Alexandria, seven months before + Babylon, &c., Amrou might have invaded Egypt about the end of the year + 638; but we are assured that he entered the country the 12th of Bayni, 6th + of June, (Murtadi, Merveilles de l’Egypte, p. 164. Severus, apud Renaudot, + p. 162.) The Saracen, and afterwards Lewis IX. of France, halted at + Pelusium, or Damietta, during the season of the inundation of the Nile.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.113" id="linknote-51.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.113">return</a>)<br /> [ Eutych. Annal. tom. + ii. p. 316, 319.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.114" id="linknote-51.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.114">return</a>)<br /> [ Notwithstanding some + inconsistencies of Theophanes and Cedrenus, the accuracy of Pagi (Critica, + tom. ii. p. 824) has extracted from Nicephorus and the Chronicon Orientale + the true date of the death of Heraclius, February 11th, A.D. 641, fifty + days after the loss of Alexandria. A fourth of that time was sufficient to + convey the intelligence.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap51.6"></a> + Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.—Part VI. + </h2> + <p> + I should deceive the expectation of the reader, if I passed in silence the + fate of the Alexandrian library, as it is described by the learned + Abulpharagius. The spirit of Amrou was more curious and liberal than that + of his brethren, and in his leisure hours, the Arabian chief was pleased + with the conversation of John, the last disciple of Ammonius, and who + derived the surname of Philoponus from his laborious studies of grammar + and philosophy. <a href="#linknote-51.115" name="linknoteref-51.115" + id="linknoteref-51.115">115</a> Emboldened by this familiar intercourse, + Philoponus presumed to solicit a gift, inestimable in his opinion, + contemptible in that of the Barbarians—the royal library, which + alone, among the spoils of Alexandria, had not been appropriated by the + visit and the seal of the conqueror. + </p> + <p> + Amrou was inclined to gratify the wish of the grammarian, but his rigid + integrity refused to alienate the minutest object without the consent of + the caliph; and the well-known answer of Omar was inspired by the + ignorance of a fanatic. “If these writings of the Greeks agree with the + book of God, they are useless, and need not be preserved: if they + disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed.” The sentence + was executed with blind obedience: the volumes of paper or parchment were + distributed to the four thousand baths of the city; and such was their + incredible multitude, that six months were barely sufficient for the + consumption of this precious fuel. Since the Dynasties of Abulpharagius <a + href="#linknote-51.116" name="linknoteref-51.116" id="linknoteref-51.116">116</a> + have been given to the world in a Latin version, the tale has been + repeatedly transcribed; and every scholar, with pious indignation, has + deplored the irreparable shipwreck of the learning, the arts, and the + genius, of antiquity. For my own part, I am strongly tempted to deny both + the fact and the consequences. <a href="#linknote-51.1161" + name="linknoteref-51.1161" id="linknoteref-51.1161">1161</a> The fact is + indeed marvellous. “Read and wonder!” says the historian himself: and the + solitary report of a stranger who wrote at the end of six hundred years on + the confines of Media, is overbalanced by the silence of two annalist of a + more early date, both Christians, both natives of Egypt, and the most + ancient of whom, the patriarch Eutychius, has amply described the conquest + of Alexandria. <a href="#linknote-51.117" name="linknoteref-51.117" + id="linknoteref-51.117">117</a> The rigid sentence of Omar is repugnant to + the sound and orthodox precept of the Mahometan casuists they expressly + declare, that the religious books of the Jews and Christians, which are + acquired by the right of war, should never be committed to the flames; and + that the works of profane science, historians or poets, physicians or + philosophers, may be lawfully applied to the use of the faithful. <a + href="#linknote-51.118" name="linknoteref-51.118" id="linknoteref-51.118">118</a> + A more destructive zeal may perhaps be attributed to the first successors + of Mahomet; yet in this instance, the conflagration would have speedily + expired in the deficiency of materials. I should not recapitulate the + disasters of the Alexandrian library, the involuntary flame that was + kindled by Caesar in his own defence, <a href="#linknote-51.119" + name="linknoteref-51.119" id="linknoteref-51.119">119</a> or the mischievous + bigotry of the Christians, who studied to destroy the monuments of + idolatry. <a href="#linknote-51.120" name="linknoteref-51.120" + id="linknoteref-51.120">120</a> But if we gradually descend from the age of + the Antonines to that of Theodosius, we shall learn from a chain of + contemporary witnesses, that the royal palace and the temple of Serapis no + longer contained the four, or the seven, hundred thousand volumes, which + had been assembled by the curiosity and magnificence of the Ptolemies. <a + href="#linknote-51.121" name="linknoteref-51.121" id="linknoteref-51.121">121</a> + Perhaps the church and seat of the patriarchs might be enriched with a + repository of books; but if the ponderous mass of Arian and Monophysite + controversy were indeed consumed in the public baths, <a + href="#linknote-51.122" name="linknoteref-51.122" id="linknoteref-51.122">122</a> + a philosopher may allow, with a smile, that it was ultimately devoted to + the benefit of mankind. I sincerely regret the more valuable libraries + which have been involved in the ruin of the Roman empire; but when I + seriously compute the lapse of ages, the waste of ignorance, and the + calamities of war, our treasures, rather than our losses, are the objects + of my surprise. Many curious and interesting facts are buried in oblivion: + the three great historians of Rome have been transmitted to our hands in a + mutilated state, and we are deprived of many pleasing compositions of the + lyric, iambic, and dramatic poetry of the Greeks. Yet we should gratefully + remember, that the mischances of time and accident have spared the classic + works to which the suffrage of antiquity <a href="#linknote-51.123" + name="linknoteref-51.123" id="linknoteref-51.123">123</a> had adjudged the + first place of genius and glory: the teachers of ancient knowledge, who + are still extant, had perused and compared the writings of their + predecessors; <a href="#linknote-51.124" name="linknoteref-51.124" + id="linknoteref-51.124">124</a> nor can it fairly be presumed that any + important truth, any useful discovery in art or nature, has been snatched + away from the curiosity of modern ages. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.115" id="linknote-51.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.115">return</a>)<br /> [ Many treatises of + this lover of labor are still extant, but for readers of the present age, + the printed and unpublished are nearly in the same predicament. Moses and + Aristotle are the chief objects of his verbose commentaries, one of which + is dated as early as May 10th, A.D. 617, (Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. tom. ix. + p. 458-468.) A modern, (John Le Clerc,) who sometimes assumed the same + name was equal to old Philoponus in diligence, and far superior in good + sense and real knowledge.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.116" id="linknote-51.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.116">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulpharag. Dynast. + p. 114, vers. Pocock. Audi quid factum sit et mirare. It would be endless + to enumerate the moderns who have wondered and believed, but I may + distinguish with honor the rational scepticism of Renaudot, (Hist. Alex. + Patriarch, p. 170: ) historia... habet aliquid ut Arabibus familiare est.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.1161" id="linknote-51.1161"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1161 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.1161">return</a>)<br /> [ Since this period + several new Mahometan authorities have been adduced to support the + authority of Abulpharagius. That of, I. Abdollatiph by Professor White: + II. Of Makrizi; I have seen a Ms. extract from this writer: III. Of Ibn + Chaledun: and after them Hadschi Chalfa. See Von Hammer, Geschichte der + Assassinen, p. 17. Reinhard, in a German Dissertation, printed at + Gottingen, 1792, and St. Croix, (Magasin Encyclop. tom. iv. p. 433,) have + examined the question. Among Oriental scholars, Professor White, M. St. + Martin, Von Hammer. and Silv. de Sacy, consider the fact of the burning + the library, by the command of Omar, beyond question. Compare St. Martin’s + note. vol. xi. p. 296. A Mahometan writer brings a similar charge against + the Crusaders. The library of Tripoli is said to have contained the + incredible number of three millions of volumes. On the capture of the + city, Count Bertram of St. Giles, entering the first room, which contained + nothing but the Koran, ordered the whole to be burnt, as the works of the + false prophet of Arabia. See Wilken. Gesch der Kreux zuge, vol. ii. p. + 211.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.117" id="linknote-51.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.117">return</a>)<br /> [ This curious anecdote + will be vainly sought in the annals of Eutychius, and the Saracenic + history of Elmacin. The silence of Abulfeda, Murtadi, and a crowd of + Moslems, is less conclusive from their ignorance of Christian literature.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.118" id="linknote-51.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.118">return</a>)<br /> [ See Reland, de Jure + Militari Mohammedanorum, in his iiid volume of Dissertations, p. 37. The + reason for not burning the religious books of the Jews or Christians, is + derived from the respect that is due to the name of God.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.119" id="linknote-51.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.119">return</a>)<br /> [ Consult the + collections of Frensheim (Supplement. Livian, c. 12, 43) and Usher, (Anal. + p. 469.) Livy himself had styled the Alexandrian library, elegantiae regum + curaeque egregium opus; a liberal encomium, for which he is pertly + criticized by the narrow stoicism of Seneca, (De Tranquillitate Animi, c. + 9,) whose wisdom, on this occasion, deviates into nonsense.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.120" id="linknote-51.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.120">return</a>)<br /> [ See this History, + vol. iii. p. 146.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.121" id="linknote-51.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.121">return</a>)<br /> [ Aulus Gellius, + (Noctes Atticae, vi. 17,) Ammianus Marcellinua, (xxii. 16,) and Orosius, + (l. vi. c. 15.) They all speak in the past tense, and the words of + Ammianus are remarkably strong: fuerunt Bibliothecae innumerabiles; et + loquitum monumentorum veterum concinens fides, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.122" id="linknote-51.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.122">return</a>)<br /> [ Renaudot answers for + versions of the Bible, Hexapla, Catenoe Patrum, Commentaries, &c., (p. + 170.) Our Alexandrian Ms., if it came from Egypt, and not from + Constantinople or Mount Athos, (Wetstein, Prolegom. ad N. T. p. 8, &c.,) + might possibly be among them.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.123" id="linknote-51.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.123">return</a>)<br /> [ I have often perused + with pleasure a chapter of Quintilian, (Institut. Orator. x. i.,) in which + that judicious critic enumerates and appreciates the series of Greek and + Latin classics.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.124" id="linknote-51.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.124">return</a>)<br /> [ Such as Galen, Pliny, + Aristotle, &c. On this subject Wotton (Reflections on Ancient and + Modern Learning, p. 85-95) argues, with solid sense, against the lively + exotic fancies of Sir William Temple. The contempt of the Greeks for + Barbaric science would scarcely admit the Indian or Aethiopic books into + the library of Alexandria; nor is it proved that philosophy has sustained + any real loss from their exclusion.] + </p> + <p> + In the administration of Egypt, <a href="#linknote-51.125" + name="linknoteref-51.125" id="linknoteref-51.125">125</a> Amrou balanced the + demands of justice and policy; the interest of the people of the law, who + were defended by God; and of the people of the alliance, who were + protected by man. In the recent tumult of conquest and deliverance, the + tongue of the Copts and the sword of the Arabs were most adverse to the + tranquillity of the province. To the former, Amrou declared, that faction + and falsehood would be doubly chastised; by the punishment of the + accusers, whom he should detest as his personal enemies, and by the + promotion of their innocent brethren, whom their envy had labored to + injure and supplant. He excited the latter by the motives of religion and + honor to sustain the dignity of their character, to endear themselves by a + modest and temperate conduct to God and the caliph, to spare and protect a + people who had trusted to their faith, and to content themselves with the + legitimate and splendid rewards of their victory. In the management of the + revenue, he disapproved the simple but oppressive mode of a capitation, + and preferred with reason a proportion of taxes deducted on every branch + from the clear profits of agriculture and commerce. A third part of the + tribute was appropriated to the annual repairs of the dikes and canals, so + essential to the public welfare. Under his administration, the fertility + of Egypt supplied the dearth of Arabia; and a string of camels, laden with + corn and provisions, covered almost without an interval the long road from + Memphis to Medina. <a href="#linknote-51.126" name="linknoteref-51.126" + id="linknoteref-51.126">126</a> But the genius of Amrou soon renewed the + maritime communication which had been attempted or achieved by the + Pharaohs the Ptolemies, or the Caesars; and a canal, at least eighty miles + in length, was opened from the Nile to the Red Sea. <a + href="#linknote-51.1261" name="linknoteref-51.1261" id="linknoteref-51.1261">1261</a> + This inland navigation, which would have joined the Mediterranean and the + Indian Ocean, was soon discontinued as useless and dangerous: the throne + was removed from Medina to Damascus, and the Grecian fleets might have + explored a passage to the holy cities of Arabia. <a href="#linknote-51.127" + name="linknoteref-51.127" id="linknoteref-51.127">127</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.125" id="linknote-51.125"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.125">return</a>)<br /> [ This curious and + authentic intelligence of Murtadi (p. 284-289) has not been discovered + either by Mr. Ockley, or by the self-sufficient compilers of the Modern + Universal History.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.126" id="linknote-51.126"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.126">return</a>)<br /> [ Eutychius, Annal. + tom. ii. p. 320. Elmacin, Hist. Saracen. p. 35.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.1261" id="linknote-51.1261"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1261 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.1261">return</a>)<br /> [ Many learned men + have doubted the existence of a communication by water between the Red Sea + and the Mediterranean by the Nile. Yet the fact is positively asserted by + the ancients. Diodorus Siculus (l. i. p. 33) speaks of it in the most + distinct manner as existing in his time. So, also, Strabo, (l. xvii. p. + 805.) Pliny (vol. vi. p. 29) says that the canal which united the two seas + was navigable, (alveus navigabilis.) The indications furnished by Ptolemy + and by the Arabic historian, Makrisi, show that works were executed under + the reign of Hadrian to repair the canal and extend the navigation; it + then received the name of the River of Trajan Lucian, (in his + Pseudomantis, p. 44,) says that he went by water from Alexandria to + Clysma, on the Red Sea. Testimonies of the 6th and of the 8th century show + that the communication was not interrupted at that time. See the French + translation of Strabo, vol. v. p. 382. St. Martin vol. xi. p. 299.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.127" id="linknote-51.127"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.127">return</a>)<br /> [ On these obscure + canals, the reader may try to satisfy himself from D’Anville, (Mem. sur + l’Egypte, p. 108-110, 124, 132,) and a learned thesis, maintained and + printed at Strasburg in the year 1770, (Jungendorum marium fluviorumque + molimina, p. 39-47, 68-70.) Even the supine Turks have agitated the old + project of joining the two seas. (Memoires du Baron de Tott, tom. iv.)] + </p> + <p> + Of his new conquest, the caliph Omar had an imperfect knowledge from the + voice of fame and the legends of the Koran. He requested that his + lieutenant would place before his eyes the realm of Pharaoh and the + Amalekites; and the answer of Amrou exhibits a lively and not unfaithful + picture of that singular country. <a href="#linknote-51.128" + name="linknoteref-51.128" id="linknoteref-51.128">128</a> “O commander of + the faithful, Egypt is a compound of black earth and green plants, between + a pulverized mountain and a red sand. The distance from Syene to the sea + is a month’s journey for a horseman. Along the valley descends a river, on + which the blessing of the Most High reposes both in the evening and + morning, and which rises and falls with the revolutions of the sun and + moon. When the annual dispensation of Providence unlocks the springs and + fountains that nourish the earth, the Nile rolls his swelling and sounding + waters through the realm of Egypt: the fields are overspread by the + salutary flood; and the villages communicate with each other in their + painted barks. The retreat of the inundation deposits a fertilizing mud + for the reception of the various seeds: the crowds of husbandmen who + blacken the land may be compared to a swarm of industrious ants; and their + native indolence is quickened by the lash of the task-master, and the + promise of the flowers and fruits of a plentiful increase. Their hope is + seldom deceived; but the riches which they extract from the wheat, the + barley, and the rice, the legumes, the fruit-trees, and the cattle, are + unequally shared between those who labor and those who possess. According + to the vicissitudes of the seasons, the face of the country is adorned + with a silver wave, a verdant emerald, and the deep yellow of a golden + harvest.” <a href="#linknote-51.129" name="linknoteref-51.129" + id="linknoteref-51.129">129</a> Yet this beneficial order is sometimes + interrupted; and the long delay and sudden swell of the river in the first + year of the conquest might afford some color to an edifying fable. It is + said, that the annual sacrifice of a virgin <a href="#linknote-51.130" + name="linknoteref-51.130" id="linknoteref-51.130">130</a> had been + interdicted by the piety of Omar; and that the Nile lay sullen and + inactive in his shallow bed, till the mandate of the caliph was cast into + the obedient stream, which rose in a single night to the height of sixteen + cubits. The admiration of the Arabs for their new conquest encouraged the + license of their romantic spirit. We may read, in the gravest authors, + that Egypt was crowded with twenty thousand cities or villages: <a + href="#linknote-51.131" name="linknoteref-51.131" id="linknoteref-51.131">131</a> + that, exclusive of the Greeks and Arabs, the Copts alone were found, on + the assessment, six millions of tributary subjects, <a + href="#linknote-51.132" name="linknoteref-51.132" id="linknoteref-51.132">132</a> + or twenty millions of either sex, and of every age: that three hundred + millions of gold or silver were annually paid to the treasury of the + caliphs. <a href="#linknote-51.133" name="linknoteref-51.133" + id="linknoteref-51.133">133</a> Our reason must be startled by these + extravagant assertions; and they will become more palpable, if we assume + the compass and measure the extent of habitable ground: a valley from the + tropic to Memphis seldom broader than twelve miles, and the triangle of + the Delta, a flat surface of two thousand one hundred square leagues, + compose a twelfth part of the magnitude of France. <a + href="#linknote-51.134" name="linknoteref-51.134" id="linknoteref-51.134">134</a> + A more accurate research will justify a more reasonable estimate. The + three hundred millions, created by the error of a scribe, are reduced to + the decent revenue of four millions three hundred thousand pieces of gold, + of which nine hundred thousand were consumed by the pay of the soldiers. + <a href="#linknote-51.135" name="linknoteref-51.135" id="linknoteref-51.135">135</a> + Two authentic lists, of the present and of the twelfth century, are + circumscribed within the respectable number of two thousand seven hundred + villages and towns. <a href="#linknote-51.136" name="linknoteref-51.136" + id="linknoteref-51.136">136</a> After a long residence at Cairo, a French + consul has ventured to assign about four millions of Mahometans, + Christians, and Jews, for the ample, though not incredible, scope of the + population of Egypt. <a href="#linknote-51.137" name="linknoteref-51.137" + id="linknoteref-51.137">137</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.128" id="linknote-51.128"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.128">return</a>)<br /> [ A small volume, des + Merveilles, &c., de l’Egypte, composed in the xiiith century by + Murtadi of Cairo, and translated from an Arabic Ms. of Cardinal Mazarin, + was published by Pierre Vatier, Paris, 1666. The antiquities of Egypt are + wild and legendary; but the writer deserves credit and esteem for his + account of the conquest and geography of his native country, (see the + correspondence of Amrou and Omar, p. 279-289.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.129" id="linknote-51.129"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.129">return</a>)<br /> [ In a twenty years’ + residence at Cairo, the consul Maillet had contemplated that varying + scene, the Nile, (lettre ii. particularly p. 70, 75;) the fertility of the + land, (lettre ix.) From a college at Cambridge, the poetic eye of Gray had + seen the same objects with a keener glance:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + What wonder in the sultry climes that spread, + + Where Nile, redundant o’er his summer bed, + + From his broad bosom life and verdure flings, + + And broods o’er Egypt with his watery wings: + + If with adventurous oar, and ready sail, + + The dusky people drive before the gale: + + Or on frail floats to neighboring cities ride. + + That rise and glitter o’er the ambient tide. + + (Mason’s Works and Memoirs of Gray, p. 199, 200.)] +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.130" id="linknote-51.130"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.130">return</a>)<br /> [ Murtadi, p. 164-167. + The reader will not easily credit a human sacrifice under the Christian + emperors, or a miracle of the successors of Mahomet.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.131" id="linknote-51.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.131">return</a>)<br /> [ Maillet, Description + de l’Egypte, p. 22. He mentions this number as the common opinion; and + adds, that the generality of these villages contain two or three thousand + persons, and that many of them are more populous than our large cities.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.132" id="linknote-51.132"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.132">return</a>)<br /> [ Eutych. Annal. tom. + ii. p. 308, 311. The twenty millions are computed from the following data: + one twelfth of mankind above sixty, one third below sixteen, the + proportion of men to women as seventeen or sixteen, (Recherches sur la + Population de la France, p. 71, 72.) The president Goguet (Origine des + Arts, &c., tom. iii. p. 26, &c.) Bestows twenty-seven millions on + ancient Egypt, because the seventeen hundred companions of Sesostris were + born on the same day.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.133" id="linknote-51.133"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.133">return</a>)<br /> [ Elmacin, Hist. + Saracen. p. 218; and this gross lump is swallowed without scruple by + D’Herbelot, (Bibliot. Orient. p. 1031,) Ar. buthnot, (Tables of Ancient + Coins, p. 262,) and De Guignes, (Hist. des Huns, tom. iii. p. 135.) They + might allege the not less extravagant liberality of Appian in favor of the + Ptolemies (in praefat.) of seventy four myriads, 740,000 talents, an + annual income of 185, or near 300 millions of pounds sterling, according + as we reckon by the Egyptian or the Alexandrian talent, (Bernard, de + Ponderibus Antiq. p. 186.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.134" id="linknote-51.134"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.134">return</a>)<br /> [ See the measurement + of D’Anville, (Mem. sur l’Egypte, p. 23, &c.) After some peevish + cavils, M. Pauw (Recherches sur les Egyptiens, tom. i. p. 118-121) can + only enlarge his reckoning to 2250 square leagues.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.135" id="linknote-51.135"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.135">return</a>)<br /> [ Renaudot, Hist. + Patriarch. Alexand. p. 334, who calls the common reading or version of + Elmacin, error librarii. His own emendation, of 4,300,000 pieces, in the + ixth century, maintains a probable medium between the 3,000,000 which the + Arabs acquired by the conquest of Egypt, (idem, p. 168.) and the 2,400,000 + which the sultan of Constantinople levied in the last century, (Pietro + della Valle, tom. i. p. 352 Thevenot, part i. p. 824.) Pauw (Recherches, + tom. ii. p. 365-373) gradually raises the revenue of the Pharaohs, the + Ptolemies, and the Caesars, from six to fifteen millions of German + crowns.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.136" id="linknote-51.136"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.136">return</a>)<br /> [ The list of Schultens + (Index Geograph. ad calcem Vit. Saladin. p. 5) contains 2396 places; that + of D’Anville, (Mem. sur l’Egypte, p. 29,) from the divan of Cairo, + enumerates 2696.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.137" id="linknote-51.137"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.137">return</a>)<br /> [ See Maillet, + (Description de l’Egypte, p. 28,) who seems to argue with candor and + judgment. I am much better satisfied with the observations than with the + reading of the French consul. He was ignorant of Greek and Latin + literature, and his fancy is too much delighted with the fictions of the + Arabs. Their best knowledge is collected by Abulfeda, (Descript. Aegypt. + Arab. et Lat. a Joh. David Michaelis, Gottingae, in 4to., 1776;) and in + two recent voyages into Egypt, we are amused by Savary, and instructed by + Volney. I wish the latter could travel over the globe.] + </p> + <p> + IV. The conquest of Africa, from the Nile to the Atlantic Ocean, <a + href="#linknote-51.138" name="linknoteref-51.138" id="linknoteref-51.138">138</a> + was first attempted by the arms of the caliph Othman. + </p> + <p> + The pious design was approved by the companions of Mahomet and the chiefs + of the tribes; and twenty thousand Arabs marched from Medina, with the + gifts and the blessing of the commander of the faithful. They were joined + in the camp of Memphis by twenty thousand of their countrymen; and the + conduct of the war was intrusted to Abdallah, <a href="#linknote-51.139" + name="linknoteref-51.139" id="linknoteref-51.139">139</a> the son of Said + and the foster-brother of the caliph, who had lately supplanted the + conqueror and lieutenant of Egypt. Yet the favor of the prince, and the + merit of his favorite, could not obliterate the guilt of his apostasy. The + early conversion of Abdallah, and his skilful pen, had recommended him to + the important office of transcribing the sheets of the Koran: he betrayed + his trust, corrupted the text, derided the errors which he had made, and + fled to Mecca to escape the justice, and expose the ignorance, of the + apostle. After the conquest of Mecca, he fell prostrate at the feet of + Mahomet; his tears, and the entreaties of Othman, extorted a reluctant + pardon; but the prophet declared that he had so long hesitated, to allow + time for some zealous disciple to avenge his injury in the blood of the + apostate. With apparent fidelity and effective merit, he served the + religion which it was no longer his interest to desert: his birth and + talents gave him an honorable rank among the Koreish; and, in a nation of + cavalry, Abdallah was renowned as the boldest and most dexterous horseman + of Arabia. At the head of forty thousand Moslems, he advanced from Egypt + into the unknown countries of the West. The sands of Barca might be + impervious to a Roman legion but the Arabs were attended by their faithful + camels; and the natives of the desert beheld without terror the familiar + aspect of the soil and climate. After a painful march, they pitched their + tents before the walls of Tripoli, <a href="#linknote-51.140" + name="linknoteref-51.140" id="linknoteref-51.140">140</a> a maritime city in + which the name, the wealth, and the inhabitants of the province had + gradually centred, and which now maintains the third rank among the states + of Barbary. A reenforcement of Greeks was surprised and cut in pieces on + the sea-shore; but the fortifications of Tripoli resisted the first + assaults; and the Saracens were tempted by the approach of the praefect + Gregory <a href="#linknote-51.141" name="linknoteref-51.141" + id="linknoteref-51.141">141</a> to relinquish the labors of the siege for + the perils and the hopes of a decisive action. If his standard was + followed by one hundred and twenty thousand men, the regular bands of the + empire must have been lost in the naked and disorderly crowd of Africans + and Moors, who formed the strength, or rather the numbers, of his host. He + rejected with indignation the option of the Koran or the tribute; and + during several days the two armies were fiercely engaged from the dawn of + light to the hour of noon, when their fatigue and the excessive heat + compelled them to seek shelter and refreshment in their respective camps. + The daughter of Gregory, a maid of incomparable beauty and spirit, is said + to have fought by his side: from her earliest youth she was trained to + mount on horseback, to draw the bow, and to wield the cimeter; and the + richness of her arms and apparel were conspicuous in the foremost ranks of + the battle. Her hand, with a hundred thousand pieces of gold, was offered + for the head of the Arabian general, and the youths of Africa were excited + by the prospect of the glorious prize. At the pressing solicitation of his + brethren, Abdallah withdrew his person from the field; but the Saracens + were discouraged by the retreat of their leader, and the repetition of + these equal or unsuccessful conflicts. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.138" id="linknote-51.138"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.138">return</a>)<br /> [ My conquest of Africa + is drawn from two French interpreters of Arabic literature, Cardonne + (Hist. de l’Afrique et de l’Espagne sous la Domination des Arabes, tom. i. + p. 8-55) and Otter, (Hist. de l’Academie des Inscriptions, tom. xxi. p. + 111-125, and 136.) They derive their principal information from Novairi, + who composed, A.D. 1331 an Encyclopaedia in more than twenty volumes. The + five general parts successively treat of, 1. Physics; 2. Man; 3. Animals; + 4. Plants; and, 5. History; and the African affairs are discussed in the + vith chapter of the vth section of this last part, (Reiske, Prodidagmata + ad Hagji Chalifae Tabulas, p. 232-234.) Among the older historians who are + quoted by Navairi we may distinguish the original narrative of a soldier + who led the van of the Moslems.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.139" id="linknote-51.139"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.139">return</a>)<br /> [ See the history of + Abdallah, in Abulfeda (Vit. Mohammed. p. 108) and Gagnier, (Vie de + Mahomet, tom. iii. 45-48.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.140" id="linknote-51.140"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.140">return</a>)<br /> [ The province and city + of Tripoli are described by Leo Africanus (in Navigatione et Viaggi di + Ramusio, tom. i. Venetia, 1550, fol. 76, verso) and Marmol, (Description + de l’Afrique, tom. ii. p. 562.) The first of these writers was a Moor, a + scholar, and a traveller, who composed or translated his African geography + in a state of captivity at Rome, where he had assumed the name and + religion of Pope Leo X. In a similar captivity among the Moors, the + Spaniard Marmol, a soldier of Charles V., compiled his Description of + Africa, translated by D’Ablancourt into French, (Paris, 1667, 3 vols. in + 4to.) Marmol had read and seen, but he is destitute of the curious and + extensive observation which abounds in the original work of Leo the + African.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.141" id="linknote-51.141"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 141 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.141">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophanes, who + mentions the defeat, rather than the death, of Gregory. He brands the + praefect with the name: he had probably assumed the purple, (Chronograph. + p. 285.)] + </p> + <p> + A noble Arabian, who afterwards became the adversary of Ali, and the + father of a caliph, had signalized his valor in Egypt, and Zobeir <a + href="#linknote-51.142" name="linknoteref-51.142" id="linknoteref-51.142">142</a> + was the first who planted the scaling-ladder against the walls of Babylon. + In the African war he was detached from the standard of Abdallah. On the + news of the battle, Zobeir, with twelve companions, cut his way through + the camp of the Greeks, and pressed forwards, without tasting either food + or repose, to partake of the dangers of his brethren. He cast his eyes + round the field: “Where,” said he, “is our general?” “In his tent.” “Is + the tent a station for the general of the Moslems?” Abdallah represented + with a blush the importance of his own life, and the temptation that was + held forth by the Roman praefect. “Retort,” said Zobeir, “on the infidels + their ungenerous attempt. Proclaim through the ranks that the head of + Gregory shall be repaid with his captive daughter, and the equal sum of + one hundred thousand pieces of gold.” To the courage and discretion of + Zobeir the lieutenant of the caliph intrusted the execution of his own + stratagem, which inclined the long-disputed balance in favor of the + Saracens. Supplying by activity and artifice the deficiency of numbers, a + part of their forces lay concealed in their tents, while the remainder + prolonged an irregular skirmish with the enemy till the sun was high in + the heavens. On both sides they retired with fainting steps: their horses + were unbridled, their armor was laid aside, and the hostile nations + prepared, or seemed to prepare, for the refreshment of the evening, and + the encounter of the ensuing day. On a sudden the charge was sounded; the + Arabian camp poured forth a swarm of fresh and intrepid warriors; and the + long line of the Greeks and Africans was surprised, assaulted, overturned, + by new squadrons of the faithful, who, to the eye of fanaticism, might + appear as a band of angels descending from the sky. The praefect himself + was slain by the hand of Zobeir: his daughter, who sought revenge and + death, was surrounded and made prisoner; and the fugitives involved in + their disaster the town of Sufetula, to which they escaped from the sabres + and lances of the Arabs. Sufetula was built one hundred and fifty miles to + the south of Carthage: a gentle declivity is watered by a running stream, + and shaded by a grove of juniper-trees; and, in the ruins of a triumpha + arch, a portico, and three temples of the Corinthian order, curiosity may + yet admire the magnificence of the Romans. <a href="#linknote-51.143" + name="linknoteref-51.143" id="linknoteref-51.143">143</a> After the fall of + this opulent city, the provincials and Barbarians implored on all sides + the mercy of the conqueror. His vanity or his zeal might be flattered by + offers of tribute or professions of faith: but his losses, his fatigues, + and the progress of an epidemical disease, prevented a solid + establishment; and the Saracens, after a campaign of fifteen months, + retreated to the confines of Egypt, with the captives and the wealth of + their African expedition. The caliph’s fifth was granted to a favorite, on + the nominal payment of five hundred thousand pieces of gold; <a + href="#linknote-51.144" name="linknoteref-51.144" id="linknoteref-51.144">144</a> + but the state was doubly injured by this fallacious transaction, if each + foot-soldier had shared one thousand, and each horseman three thousand, + pieces, in the real division of the plunder. The author of the death of + Gregory was expected to have claimed the most precious reward of the + victory: from his silence it might be presumed that he had fallen in the + battle, till the tears and exclamations of the praefect’s daughter at the + sight of Zobeir revealed the valor and modesty of that gallant soldier. + The unfortunate virgin was offered, and almost rejected as a slave, by her + father’s murderer, who coolly declared that his sword was consecrated to + the service of religion; and that he labored for a recompense far above + the charms of mortal beauty, or the riches of this transitory life. A + reward congenial to his temper was the honorable commission of announcing + to the caliph Othman the success of his arms. The companions the chiefs, + and the people, were assembled in the mosch of Medina, to hear the + interesting narrative of Zobeir; and as the orator forgot nothing except + the merit of his own counsels and actions, the name of Abdallah was joined + by the Arabians with the heroic names of Caled and Amrou. <a + href="#linknote-51.145" name="linknoteref-51.145" id="linknoteref-51.145">145</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.142" id="linknote-51.142"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 142 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.142">return</a>)<br /> [ See in Ockley (Hist. + of the Saracens, vol. ii. p. 45) the death of Zobeir, which was honored + with the tears of Ali, against whom he had rebelled. His valor at the + siege of Babylon, if indeed it be the same person, is mentioned by + Eutychius, (Annal. tom. ii. p. 308)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.143" id="linknote-51.143"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 143 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.143">return</a>)<br /> [ Shaw’s Travels, p. + 118, 119.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.144" id="linknote-51.144"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 144 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.144">return</a>)<br /> [ Mimica emptio, says + Abulfeda, erat haec, et mira donatio; quandoquidem Othman, ejus nomine + nummos ex aerario prius ablatos aerario praestabat, (Annal. Moslem. p. + 78.) Elmacin (in his cloudy version, p. 39) seems to report the same job. + When the Arabs be sieged the palace of Othman, it stood high in their + catalogue of grievances.`] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.145" id="linknote-51.145"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 145 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.145">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophan. + Chronograph. p. 235 edit. Paris. His chronology is loose and inaccurate.] + </p> + <p> + [A. D. 665-689.] The western conquests of the Saracens were suspended near + twenty years, till their dissensions were composed by the establishment of + the house of Ommiyah; and the caliph Moawiyah was invited by the cries of + the Africans themselves. The successors of Heraclius had been informed of + the tribute which they had been compelled to stipulate with the Arabs; but + instead of being moved to pity and relieve their distress, they imposed, + as an equivalent or a fine, a second tribute of a similar amount. The ears + of the zantine ministers were shut against the complaints of their poverty + and ruin their despair was reduced to prefer the dominion of a single + master; and the extortions of the patriarch of Carthage, who was invested + with civil and military power, provoked the sectaries, and even the + Catholics, of the Roman province to abjure the religion as well as the + authority of their tyrants. The first lieutenant of Moawiyah acquired a + just renown, subdued an important city, defeated an army of thirty + thousand Greeks, swept away fourscore thousand captives, and enriched with + their spoils the bold adventurers of Syria and Egypt.<a + href="#linknote-51.146" name="linknoteref-51.146" id="linknoteref-51.146">146</a> + But the title of conqueror of Africa is more justly due to his successor + Akbah. He marched from Damascus at the head of ten thousand of the bravest + Arabs; and the genuine force of the Moslems was enlarged by the doubtful + aid and conversion of many thousand Barbarians. It would be difficult, nor + is it necessary, to trace the accurate line of the progress of Akbah. The + interior regions have been peopled by the Orientals with fictitious armies + and imaginary citadels. In the warlike province of Zab or Numidia, + fourscore thousand of the natives might assemble in arms; but the number + of three hundred and sixty towns is incompatible with the ignorance or + decay of husbandry;<a href="#linknote-51.147" name="linknoteref-51.147" + id="linknoteref-51.147">147</a> and a circumference of three leagues will + not be justified by the ruins of Erbe or Lambesa, the ancient metropolis + of that inland country. As we approach the seacoast, the well-known titles + of Bugia,<a href="#linknote-51.148" name="linknoteref-51.148" + id="linknoteref-51.148">148</a> and Tangier<a href="#linknote-51.149" + name="linknoteref-51.149" id="linknoteref-51.149">149</a> define the more + certain limits of the Saracen victories. A remnant of trade still adheres + to the commodious harbour of Bugia, which, in a more prosperous age, is + said to have contained about twenty thousand houses; and the plenty of + iron which is dug from the adjacent mountains might have supplied a braver + people with the instruments of defence. The remote position and venerable + antiquity of Tingi, or Tangier, have been decorated by the Greek and + Arabian fables; but the figurative expressions of the latter, that the + walls were constructed of brass, and that the roofs were covered with gold + and silver, may be interpreted as the emblems of strength and opulence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.146" id="linknote-51.146"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 146 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.146">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophanes (in + Chronograph. p. 293.) inserts the vague rumours that might reach + Constantinople, of the western conquests of the Arabs; and I learn from + Paul Warnefrid, deacon of Aquileia (de Gestis Langobard. 1. v. c. 13), + that at this time they sent a fleet from Alexandria into the Sicilian and + African seas.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.147" id="linknote-51.147"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 147 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.147">return</a>)<br /> [ See Novairi (apud + Otter, p. 118), Leo Africanus (fol. 81, verso), who reckoned only cinque + citta e infinite casal, Marmol (Description de l’Afrique, tom. iii. p. + 33,) and Shaw (Travels, p. 57, 65-68)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.148" id="linknote-51.148"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 148 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.148">return</a>)<br /> [ Leo African. fol. 58, + verso, 59, recto. Marmol, tom. ii. p. 415. Shaw, p. 43] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.149" id="linknote-51.149"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 149 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.149">return</a>)<br /> [ Leo African. fol. 52. + Marmol, tom. ii. p. 228.] + </p> + <p> + The province of Mauritania Tingitana,<a href="#linknote-51.150" + name="linknoteref-51.150" id="linknoteref-51.150">150</a> which assumed the + name of the capital had been imperfectly discovered and settled by the + Romans; the five colonies were confined to a narrow pale, and the more + southern parts were seldom explored except by the agents of luxury, who + searched the forests for ivory and the citron wood,<a + href="#linknote-51.151" name="linknoteref-51.151" id="linknoteref-51.151">151</a> + and the shores of the ocean for the purple shellfish. The fearless Akbah + plunged into the heart of the country, traversed the wilderness in which + his successors erected the splendid capitals of Fez and Morocco,<a + href="#linknote-51.152" name="linknoteref-51.152" id="linknoteref-51.152">152</a> + and at length penetrated to the verge of the Atlantic and the great + desert. The river Suz descends from the western sides of mount Atlas, + fertilizes, like the Nile, the adjacent soil, and falls into the sea at a + moderate distance from the Canary, or adjacent islands. Its banks were + inhabited by the last of the Moors, a race of savages, without laws, or + discipline, or religion: they were astonished by the strange and + irresistible terrors of the Oriental arms; and as they possessed neither + gold nor silver, the richest spoil was the beauty of the female captives, + some of whom were afterward sold for a thousand pieces of gold. The + career, though not the zeal, of Akbah was checked by the prospect of a + boundless ocean. He spurred his horse into the waves, and raising his eyes + to heaven, exclaimed with the tone of a fanatic: “Great God! if my course + were not stopped by this sea, I would still go on, to the unknown kingdoms + of the West, preaching the unity of thy holy name, and putting to the + sword the rebellious nations who worship another gods than thee.” <a + href="#linknote-51.153" name="linknoteref-51.153" id="linknoteref-51.153">153</a> + Yet this Mahometan Alexander, who sighed for new worlds, was unable to + preserve his recent conquests. By the universal defection of the Greeks + and Africans he was recalled from the shores of the Atlantic, and the + surrounding multitudes left him only the resource of an honourable death. + The last scene was dignified by an example of national virtue. An + ambitious chief, who had disputed the command and failed in the attempt, + was led about as a prisoner in the camp of the Arabian general. The + insurgents had trusted to his discontent and revenge; he disdained their + offers and revealed their designs. In the hour of danger, the grateful + Akbah unlocked his fetters, and advised him to retire; he chose to die + under the banner of his rival. Embracing as friends and martyrs, they + unsheathed their scimeters, broke their scabbards, and maintained an + obstinate combat, till they fell by each other’s side on the last of their + slaughtered countrymen. The third general or governor of Africa, Zuheir, + avenged and encountered the fate of his predecessor. He vanquished the + natives in many battles; he was overthrown by a powerful army, which + Constantinople had sent to the relief of Carthage. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.150" id="linknote-51.150"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 150 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.150">return</a>)<br /> [ Regio ignobilis, et + vix quicquam illustre sortita, parvis oppidis habitatur, parva flumina + emittit, solo quam viris meleor et segnitie gentis obscura. Pomponius + Mela, i. 5, iii. 10. Mela deserves the more credit, since his own + Phoenician ancestors had migrated from Tingitana to Spain (see, in ii. 6, + a passage of that geographer so cruelly tortured by Salmasius, Isaac + Vossius, and the most virulent of critics, James Gronovius). He lived at + the time of the final reduction of that country by the emperor Claudius: + yet almost thirty years afterward, Pliny (Hist. Nat. v. i.) complains of + his authors, to lazy to inquire, too proud to confess their ignorance of + that wild and remote province.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.151" id="linknote-51.151"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 151 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.151">return</a>)<br /> [ The foolish fashion + of this citron wood prevailed at Rome among the men, as much as the taste + for pearls among the women. A round board or table, four or five feet in + diameter, sold for the price of an estate (latefundii taxatione), eight, + ten, or twelve thousand pounds sterling (Plin. Hist. Natur. xiii. 29). I + conceive that I must not confound the tree citrus, with that of the fruit + citrum. But I am not botanist enough to define the former (it is like the + wild cypress) by the vulgar or Linnaean name; nor will I decide whether + the citrum be the orange or the lemon. Salmasius appears to exhaust the + subject, but he too often involves himself in the web of his disorderly + erudition. (Flinian. Exercitat. tom. ii. p 666, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.152" id="linknote-51.152"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 152 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.152">return</a>)<br /> [ Leo African. fol. 16, + verso. Marmol, tom. ii. p. 28. This province, the first scene of the + exploits and greatness of the cherifs is often mentioned in the curious + history of that dynasty at the end of the third volume of Marmol, + Description de l’Afrique. The third vol. of The Recherches Historiques sur + les Maures (lately published at Paris) illustrates the history and + geography of the kingdoms of Fez and Morocco.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.153" id="linknote-51.153"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 153 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.153">return</a>)<br /> [ Otter (p. 119,) has + given the strong tone of fanaticism to this exclamation, which Cardonne + (p. 37,) has softened to a pious wish of preaching the Koran. Yet they had + both the same text of Novairi before their eyes.] + </p> + <p> + [A. D. 670-675.] It had been the frequent practice of the Moorish tribes + to join the invaders, to share the plunder, to profess the faith, and to + revolt in their savage state of independence and idolatry, on the first + retreat or misfortune of the Moslems. The prudence of Akbah had proposed + to found an Arabian colony in the heart of Africa; a citadel that might + curb the levity of the Barbarians, a place of refuge to secure, against + the accidents of war, the wealth and the families of the Saracens. With + this view, and under the modest title of the station of a caravan, he + planted this colony in the fiftieth year of the Hegira. In its present + decay, Cairoan<a href="#linknote-51.154" name="linknoteref-51.154" + id="linknoteref-51.154">154</a> still holds the second rank in the kingdom + of Tunis, from which it is distant about fifty miles to the south;<a + href="#linknote-51.155" name="linknoteref-51.155" id="linknoteref-51.155">155</a> + its inland situation, twelve miles westward of the sea, has protected the + city from the Greek and Sicilian fleets. When the wild beasts and serpents + were extirpated, when the forest, or rather wilderness, was cleared, the + vestiges of a Roman town were discovered in a sandy plain: the vegetable + food of Cairoan is brought from afar; and the scarcity of springs + constrains the inhabitants to collect in cisterns and reservoirs a + precarious supply of rain water. These obstacles were subdued by the + industry of Akbah; he traced a circumference of three thousand and six + hundred paces, which he encompassed with a brick wall; in the space of + five years, the governor’s palace was surrounded with a sufficient number + of private habitations; a spacious mosque was supported by five hundred + columns of granite, porphyry, and Numidian marble; and Cairoan became the + seat of learning as well as of empire. But these were the glories of a + later age; the new colony was shaken by the successive defeats of Akbah + and Zuheir, and the western expeditions were again interrupted by the + civil discord of the Arabian monarchy. The son of the valiant Zobeir + maintained a war of twelve years, a siege of seven months against the + house of Ommiyah. Abdallah was said to unite the fierceness of the lion + with the subtlety of the fox; but if he inherited the courage, he was + devoid of the generosity, of his father.<a href="#linknote-51.156" + name="linknoteref-51.156" id="linknoteref-51.156">156</a> + </p> + <p> + [A. D. 692-698.] The return of domestic peace allowed the caliph + Abdalmalek to resume the conquest of Africa; the standard was delivered to + Hassan governor of Egypt, and the revenue of that kingdom, with an army of + forty thousand men, was consecrated to the important service. In the + vicissitudes of war, the interior provinces had been alternately won and + lost by the Saracens. But the seacoast still remained in the hands of the + Greeks; the predecessors of Hassan had respected the name and + fortifications of Carthage; and the number of its defenders was recruited + by the fugitives of Cabes and Tripoli. The arms of Hassan were bolder and + more fortunate: he reduced and pillaged the metropolis of Africa; and the + mention of scaling-ladders may justify the suspicion, that he anticipated, + by a sudden assault, the more tedious operations of a regular siege. But + the joy of the conquerors was soon disturbed by the appearance of the + Christian succours. The praefect and patrician John, a general of + experience and renown, embarked at Constantinople the forces of the + Eastern empire;<a href="#linknote-51.157" name="linknoteref-51.157" + id="linknoteref-51.157">157</a> they were joined by the ships and soldiers + of Sicily, and a powerful reinforcement of Goths<a href="#linknote-51.158" + name="linknoteref-51.158" id="linknoteref-51.158">158</a> was obtained from + the fears and religion of the Spanish monarch. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.154" id="linknote-51.154"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 154 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.154">return</a>)<br /> [ The foundation of + Cairoan is mentioned by Ockley (Hist. of the Saracens, vol. ii. p. 129, + 130); and the situation, mosque, &c. of the city are described by Leo + Africanus (fol. 75), Marmol (tom. ii. p. 532), and Shaw (p. 115).] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.155" id="linknote-51.155"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 155 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.155">return</a>)<br /> [ A portentous, though + frequent mistake, has been the confounding, from a slight similitude of + name, the Cyrene of the Greeks, and the Cairoan of the Arabs, two cities + which are separated by an interval of a thousand miles along the seacoast. + The great Thuanus has not escaped this fault, the less excusable as it is + connected with a formal and elaborate description of Africa (Historiar. l. + vii. c. 2, in tom. i. p. 240, edit. Buckley).] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.156" id="linknote-51.156"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 156 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.156">return</a>)<br /> [ Besides the Arabic + Chronicles of Abulfeda, Elmacin, and Abulpharagius, under the lxxiiid year + of the Hegira, we may consult nd’Herbelot (Bibliot. Orient. p. 7,) and + Ockley (Hist. of the Saracens, vol. ii. p. 339-349). The latter has given + the last and pathetic dialogue between Abdallah and his mother; but he has + forgot a physical effect of her grief for his death, the return, at the + age of ninety, and fatal consequences of her menses.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.157" id="linknote-51.157"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 157 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.157">return</a>)<br /> [ The patriarch of + Constantinople, with Theophanes (Chronograph. p. 309,) have slightly + mentioned this last attempt for the relief or Africa. Pagi (Critica, tom. + iii. p. 129. 141,) has nicely ascertained the chronology by a strict + comparison of the Arabic and Byzantine historians, who often disagree both + in time and fact. See likewise a note of Otter (p. 121).] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.158" id="linknote-51.158"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 158 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.158">return</a>)<br /> [ Dove s’erano ridotti + i nobili Romani e i Gotti; and afterward, i Romani suggirono e i Gotti + lasciarono Carthagine. (Leo African. for. 72, recto) I know not from what + Arabic writer the African derived his Goths; but the fact, though new, is + so interesting and so probable, that I will accept it on the slightest + authority.] + </p> + <p> + The weight of the confederate navy broke the chain that guarded the + entrance of the harbour; the Arabs retired to Cairoan, or Tripoli; the + Christians landed; the citizens hailed the ensign of the cross, and the + winter was idly wasted in the dream of victory or deliverance. But Africa + was irrecoverably lost: the zeal and resentment of the commander of the + faithful<a href="#linknote-51.159" name="linknoteref-51.159" + id="linknoteref-51.159">159</a> prepared in the ensuing spring a more + numerous armament by sea and land; and the patrician in his turn was + compelled to evacuate the post and fortifications of Carthage. A second + battle was fought in the neighbourhood of Utica; and the Greeks and Goths + were again defeated; and their timely embarkation saved them from the + sword of Hassan, who had invested the slight and insufficient rampart of + their camp. Whatever yet remained of Carthage was delivered to the flames, + and the colony of Dido<a href="#linknote-51.160" name="linknoteref-51.160" + id="linknoteref-51.160">160</a> and Cesar lay desolate above two hundred + years, till a part, perhaps a twentieth, of the old circumference was + repeopled by the first of the Fatimite caliphs. In the beginning of the + sixteenth century, the second capital of the West was represented by a + mosque, a college without students, twenty-five or thirty shops, and the + huts of five hundred peasants, who, in their abject poverty, displayed the + arrogance of the Punic senators. Even that paltry village was swept away + by the Spaniards whom Charles the Fifth had stationed in the fortress of + the Goletta. The ruins of Carthage have perished; and the place might be + unknown if some broken arches of an aqueduct did not guide the footsteps + of the inquisitive traveller.<a href="#linknote-51.161" + name="linknoteref-51.161" id="linknoteref-51.161">161</a> + </p> + <p> + [A. D. 698-709.] The Greeks were expelled, but the Arabians were not yet + masters of the country. In the interior provinces the Moors or Berbers,<a + href="#linknote-51.162" name="linknoteref-51.162" id="linknoteref-51.162">162</a> + so feeble under the first Cesars, so formidable to the Byzantine princes, + maintained a disorderly resistance to the religion and power of the + successors of Mahomet. Under the standard of their queen Cahina, the + independent tribes acquired some degree of union and discipline; and as + the Moors respected in their females the character of a prophetess, they + attacked the invaders with an enthusiasm similar to their own. The veteran + bands of Hassan were inadequate to the defence of Africa: the conquests of + an age were lost in a single day; and the Arabian chief, overwhelmed by + the torrent, retired to the confines of Egypt, and expected, five years, + the promised succours of the caliph. After the retreat of the Saracens, + the victorious prophetess assembled the Moorish chiefs, and recommended a + measure of strange and savage policy. “Our cities,” said she, “and the + gold and silver which they contain, perpetually attract the arms of the + Arabs. These vile metals are not the objects of OUR ambition; we content + ourselves with the simple productions of the earth. Let us destroy these + cities; let us bury in their ruins those pernicious treasures; and when + the avarice of our foes shall be destitute of temptation, perhaps they + will cease to disturb the tranquillity of a warlike people.” The proposal + was accepted with unanimous applause. From Tangier to Tripoli the + buildings, or at least the fortifications, were demolished, the + fruit-trees were cut down, the means of subsistence were extirpated, a + fertile and populous garden was changed into a desert, and the historians + of a more recent period could discern the frequent traces of the + prosperity and devastation of their ancestors. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.159" id="linknote-51.159"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 159 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.159">return</a>)<br /> [ This commander is + styled by Nicephorus, ———— a vague though not + improper definition of the caliph. Theophanes introduces the strange + appellation of —————, which his interpreter + Goar explains by Vizir Azem. They may approach the truth, in assigning the + active part to the minister, rather than the prince; but they forget that + the Ommiades had only a kaleb, or secretary, and that the office of Vizir + was not revived or instituted till the 132d year of the Hegira + (d’Herbelot, 912).] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.160" id="linknote-51.160"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 160 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.160">return</a>)<br /> [ According to Solinus + (1.27, p. 36, edit. Salmas), the Carthage of Dido stood either 677 or 737 + years; a various reading, which proceeds from the difference of MSS. or + editions (Salmas, Plinian. Exercit tom i. p. 228) The former of these + accounts, which gives 823 years before Christ, is more consistent with the + well-weighed testimony of Velleius Paterculus: but the latter is preferred + by our chronologists (Marsham, Canon. Chron. p. 398,) as more agreeable to + the Hebrew and Syrian annals.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.161" id="linknote-51.161"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 161 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.161">return</a>)<br /> [ Leo African. fo1. 71, + verso; 72, recto. Marmol, tom. ii. p.445-447. Shaw, p.80.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.162" id="linknote-51.162"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 162 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.162">return</a>)<br /> [ The history of the + word Barbar may be classed under four periods, 1. In the time of Homer, + when the Greeks and Asiatics might probably use a common idiom, the + imitative sound of Barbar was applied to the ruder tribes, whose + pronunciation was most harsh, whose grammar was most defective. 2. From + the time, at least, of Herodotus, it was extended to all the nations who + were strangers to the language and manners of the Greeks. 3. In the age, + of Plautus, the Romans submitted to the insult (Pompeius Festus, l. ii. p. + 48, edit. Dacier), and freely gave themselves the name of Barbarians. They + insensibly claimed an exemption for Italy, and her subject provinces; and + at length removed the disgraceful appellation to the savage or hostile + nations beyond the pale of the empire. 4. In every sense, it was due to + the Moors; the familiar word was borrowed from the Latin Provincials by + the Arabian conquerors, and has justly settled as a local denomination + (Barbary) along the northern coast of Africa.] + </p> + <p> + Such is the tale of the modern Arabians. Yet I strongly suspect that their + ignorance of antiquity, the love of the marvellous, and the fashion of + extolling the philosophy of Barbarians, has induced them to describe, as + one voluntary act, the calamities of three hundred years since the first + fury of the Donatists and Vandals. In the progress of the revolt, Cahina + had most probably contributed her share of destruction; and the alarm of + universal ruin might terrify and alienate the cities that had reluctantly + yielded to her unworthy yoke. They no longer hoped, perhaps they no longer + wished, the return of their Byzantine sovereigns: their present servitude + was not alleviated by the benefits of order and justice; and the most + zealous Catholic must prefer the imperfect truths of the Koran to the + blind and rude idolatry of the Moors. The general of the Saracens was + again received as the saviour of the province; the friends of civil + society conspired against the savages of the land; and the royal + prophetess was slain in the first battle which overturned the baseless + fabric of her superstition and empire. The same spirit revived under the + successor of Hassan; it was finally quelled by the activity of Musa and + his two sons; but the number of the rebels may be presumed from that of + three hundred thousand captives; sixty thousand of whom, the caliph’s + fifth, were sold for the profit of thee public treasury. Thirty thousand + of the Barbarian youth were enlisted in the troops; and the pious labours + of Musa to inculcate the knowledge and practice of the Koran, accustomed + the Africans to obey the apostle of God and the commander of the faithful. + In their climate and government, their diet and habitation, the wandering + Moors resembled the Bedoweens of the desert. With the religion, they were + proud to adopt the language, name, and origin of Arabs: the blood of the + strangers and natives was insensibly mingled; and from the Euphrates to + the Atlantic the same nation might seem to be diffused over the sandy + plains of Asia and Africa. Yet I will not deny that fifty thousand tents + of pure Arabians might be transported over the Nile, and scattered through + the Lybian desert: and I am not ignorant that five of the Moorish tribes + still retain their barbarous idiom, with the appellation and character of + white Africans.<a href="#linknote-51.163" name="linknoteref-51.163" + id="linknoteref-51.163">163</a> + </p> + <p> + [A. D. 709.] V. In the progress of conquest from the north and south, the + Goths and the Saracens encountered each other on the confines of Europe + and Africa. In the opinion of the latter, the difference of religion is a + reasonable ground of enmity and warfare.<a href="#linknote-51.164" + name="linknoteref-51.164" id="linknoteref-51.164">164</a> As early as the + time of Othman<a href="#linknote-51.165" name="linknoteref-51.165" + id="linknoteref-51.165">165</a> their piratical squadrons had ravaged the + coast of Andalusia;<a href="#linknote-51.166" name="linknoteref-51.166" + id="linknoteref-51.166">166</a> nor had they forgotten the relief of + Carthage by the Gothic succours. In that age, as well as in the present, + the kings of Spain were possessed of the fortress of Ceuta; one of the + columns of Hercules, which is divided by a narrow strait from the opposite + pillar or point of Europe. A small portion of Mauritania was still wanting + to the African conquest; but Musa, in the pride of victory, was repulsed + from the walls of Ceuta, by the vigilance and courage of count Julian, the + general of the Goths. From his disappointment and perplexity, Musa was + relieved by an unexpected message of the Christian chief, who offered his + place, his person, and his sword, to the successors of Mahomet, and + solicited the disgraceful honour of introducing their arms into the heart + of Spain.<a href="#linknote-51.167" name="linknoteref-51.167" + id="linknoteref-51.167">167</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.163" id="linknote-51.163"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 163 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.163">return</a>)<br /> [ The first book of Leo + Africanus, and the observations of Dr. Shaw (p. 220. 223. 227. 247, &c.) + will throw some light on the roving tribes of Barbary, of Arabian or + Moorish descent. But Shaw had seen these savages with distant terror; and + Leo, a captive in the Vatican, appears to have lost more of his Arabic, + than he could acquire of Greek or Roman, learning. Many of his gross + mistakes might be detected in the first period of the Mahometan history.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.164" id="linknote-51.164"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 164 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.164">return</a>)<br /> [ In a conference with + a prince of the Greeks, Amrou observed that their religion was different; + upon which score it was lawful for brothers to quarrel. Ockley’s History + of the Saracens, vol. i. p. 328.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.165" id="linknote-51.165"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 165 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.165">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulfeda, Annal. + Moslem. p 78, vers. Reiske.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.166" id="linknote-51.166"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 166 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.166">return</a>)<br /> [ The name of Andalusia + is applied by the Arabs not only to the modern province, but to the whole + peninsula of Spain (Geograph. Nub. p. 151, d’Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. + 114, 115). The etymology has been most improbably deduced from Vandalusia, + country of the Vandals. (d’Anville Etats de l’Europe, p. 146, 147, &c.) + But the Handalusia of Casiri, which signifies, in Arabic, the region of + the evening, of the West, in a word, the Hesperia of the Greeks, is + perfectly apposite. (Bibliot. Arabico-Hispana, tom. ii. p. 327, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.167" id="linknote-51.167"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 167 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.167">return</a>)<br /> [ The fall and + resurrection of the Gothic monarchy are related by Mariana (tom. l. p. + 238-260, l. vi. c. 19-26, l. vii. c. 1, 2). That historian has infused + into his noble work (Historic de Rebus Hispaniae, libri xxx. Hagae Comitum + 1733, in four volumes, folio, with the continuation of Miniana), the style + and spirit of a Roman classic; and after the twelfth century, his + knowledge and judgment may be safely trusted. But the Jesuit is not exempt + from the prejudices of his order; he adopts and adorns, like his rival + Buchanan, the most absurd of the national legends; he is too careless of + criticism and chronology, and supplies, from a lively fancy, the chasms of + historical evidence. These chasms are large and frequent; Roderic + archbishop of Toledo, the father of the Spanish history, lived five + hundred years after the conquest of the Arabs; and the more early accounts + are comprised in some meagre lines of the blind chronicles of Isidore of + Badajoz (Pacensis,) and of Alphonso III. king of Leon, which I have seen + only in the Annals of Pagi.] + </p> + <p> + If we inquire into the cause of this treachery, the Spaniards will repeat + the popular story of his daughter Cava;<a href="#linknote-51.168" + name="linknoteref-51.168" id="linknoteref-51.168">168</a> of a virgin who + was seduced, or ravished, by her sovereign; of a father who sacrificed his + religion and country to the thirst of revenge. The passions of princes + have often been licentious and destructive; but this well-known tale, + romantic in itself, is indifferently supported by external evidence; and + the history of Spain will suggest some motives of interest and policy more + congenial to the breast of a veteran statesman.<a href="#linknote-51.169" + name="linknoteref-51.169" id="linknoteref-51.169">169</a> After the decease + or deposition of Witiza, his two sons were supplanted by the ambition of + Roderic, a noble Goth, whose father, the duke or governor of a province, + had fallen a victim to the preceding tyranny. The monarchy was still + elective; but the sons of Witiza, educated on the steps of the throne, + were impatient of a private station. Their resentment was the more + dangerous, as it was varnished with the dissimulation of courts: their + followers were excited by the remembrance of favours and the promise of a + revolution: and their uncle Oppas, archbishop of Toledo and Seville, was + the first person in the church, and the second in the state. It is + probable that Julian was involved in the disgrace of the unsuccessful + faction, that he had little to hope and much to fear from the new reign; + and that the imprudent king could not forget or forgive the injuries which + Roderic and his family had sustained. The merit and influence of the count + rendered him a useful or formidable subject: his estates were ample, his + followers bold and numerous, and it was too fatally shown that, by his + Andalusian and Mauritanian commands, he held in his hands the keys of the + Spanish monarchy. Too feeble, however, to meet his sovereign in arms, he + sought the aid of a foreign power; and his rash invitation of the Moors + and Arabs produced the calamities of eight hundred years. In his epistles, + or in a personal interview, he revealed the wealth and nakedness of his + country; the weakness of an unpopular prince; the degeneracy of an + effeminate people. The Goths were no longer the victorious Barbarians, who + had humbled the pride of Rome, despoiled the queen of nations, and + penetrated from the Danube to the Atlantic ocean. Secluded from the world + by the Pyrenean mountains, the successors of Alaric had slumbered in a + long peace: the walls of the city were mouldered into dust: the youth had + abandoned the exercise of arms; and the presumption of their ancient + renown would expose them in a field of battle to the first assault of the + invaders. The ambitious Saracen was fired by the ease and importance of + the attempt; but the execution was delayed till he had consulted the + commander of the faithful; and his messenger returned with the permission + of Walid to annex the unknown kingdoms of the West to the religion and + throne of the caliphs. In his residence of Tangier, Musa, with secrecy and + caution, continued his correspondence and hastened his preparations. But + the remorse of the conspirators was soothed by the fallacious assurance + that he should content himself with the glory and spoil, without aspiring + to establish the Moslems beyond the sea that separates Africa from Europe.<a + href="#linknote-51.170" name="linknoteref-51.170" id="linknoteref-51.170">170</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.168" id="linknote-51.168"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 168 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.168">return</a>)<br /> [ Le viol (says + Voltaire) est aussi difficile a faire qu’a prouver. Des Eveques se + seroient ils lignes pour une fille? (Hist. Generale, c. xxvi.) His + argument is not logically conclusive.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.169" id="linknote-51.169"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 169 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.169">return</a>)<br /> [ In the story of Cava, + Mariana (I. vi. c. 21, p. 241, 242,) seems to vie with the Lucretia of + Livy. Like the ancients, he seldom quotes; and the oldest testimony of + Baronius (Annal. Eccles. A.D. 713, No. 19), that of Lucus Tudensis, a + Gallician deacon of the thirteenth century, only says, Cava quam pro + concubina utebatur.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.170" id="linknote-51.170"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 170 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.170">return</a>)<br /> [ The Orientals, + Elmacin, Abulpharagins, Abolfeda, pass over the conquest of Spain in + silence, or with a single word. The text of Novairi, and the other Arabian + writers, is represented, though with some foreign alloy, by M. de Cardonne + (Hist. de l’Afrique et de l’Espagne sous la Domination des Arabes, Paris, + 1765, 3 vols. 12mo. tom. i. p. 55-114), and more concisely by M. de + Guignes (Hist. des Hune. tom. i. p. 347-350). The librarian of the + Escurial has not satisfied my hopes: yet he appears to have searched with + diligence his broken materials; and the history of the conquest is + illustrated by some valuable fragments of the genuine Razis (who wrote at. + Corduba, A. H. 300), of Ben Hazil, &c. See Bibliot. Arabico-Hispana, + tom. ii. p. 32. 105, 106. 182. 252. 315-332. On this occasion, the + industry of Pagi has been aided by the Arabic learning of his friend the + Abbe de Longuerue, and to their joint labours I am deeply indebted.] + </p> + <p> + [A. D. 710.] Before Musa would trust an army of the faithful to the + traitors and infidels of a foreign land, he made a less dangerous trial of + their strength and veracity. One hundred Arabs and four hundred Africans, + passed over, in four vessels, from Tangier or Ceuta; the place of their + descent on the opposite shore of the strait, is marked by the name of + Tarif their chief; and the date of this memorable event<a + href="#linknote-51.171" name="linknoteref-51.171" id="linknoteref-51.171">171</a> + is fixed to the month of Ramandan, of the ninety-first year of the Hegira, + to the month of July, seven hundred and forty-eight years from the Spanish + era of Cesar,<a href="#linknote-51.172" name="linknoteref-51.172" + id="linknoteref-51.172">172</a> seven hundred and ten after the birth of + Christ. From their first station, they marched eighteen miles through a + hilly country to the castle and town of Julian;<a href="#linknote-51.173" + name="linknoteref-51.173" id="linknoteref-51.173">173</a> on which (it is + still called Algezire) they bestowed the name of the Green Island, from a + verdant cape that advances into the sea. Their hospitable entertainment, + the Christians who joined their standard, their inroad into a fertile and + unguarded province, the richness of their spoil and the safety of their + return, announced to their brethren the most favourable omens of victory. + In the ensuing spring, five thousand veterans and volunteers were embarked + under the command of Tarik, a dauntless and skilful soldier, who surpassed + the expectation of his chief; and the necessary transports were provided + by the industry of their too faithful ally. The Saracens landed<a + href="#linknote-51.174" name="linknoteref-51.174" id="linknoteref-51.174">174</a> + at the pillar or point of Europe; the corrupt and familiar appellation of + Gibraltar (Gebel el Tarik) describes the mountain of Tarik; and the + intrenchments of his camp were the first outline of those fortifications, + which, in the hands of our countrymen, have resisted the art and power of + the house of Bourbon. The adjacent governors informed the court of Toledo + of the descent and progress of the Arabs; and the defeat of his lieutenant + Edeco, who had been commanded to seize and bind the presumptuous + strangers, admonished Roderic of the magnitude of the danger. At the royal + summons, the dukes and counts, the bishops and nobles of the Gothic + monarchy assembled at the head of their followers; and the title of king + of the Romans, which is employed by an Arabic historian, may be excused by + the close affinity of language, religion, and manners, between the nations + of Spain. His army consisted of ninety or a hundred thousand men: a + formidable power, if their fidelity and discipline had been adequate to + their numbers. The troops of Tarik had been augmented to twelve thousand + Saracens; but the Christian malcontents were attracted by the influence + of Julian, and a crowd of Africans most greedily tasted the temporal + blessings of the Koran. In the neighbourhood of Cadiz, the town of Xeres<a + href="#linknote-51.175" name="linknoteref-51.175" id="linknoteref-51.175">175</a> + has been illustrated by the encounter which determined the fate of the + kingdom; the stream of the Guadalete, which falls into the bay, divided + the two camps, and marked the advancing and retreating skirmishes of three + successive and bloody days. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.171" id="linknote-51.171"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 171 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.171">return</a>)<br /> [ A mistake of Roderic + of Toledo, in comparing the lunar years of the Hegira with the Julian + years of the Era, has determined Baronius, Mariana, and the crowd of + Spanish historians, to place the first invasion in the year 713, and the + battle of Xeres in November, 714. This anachronism of three years has been + detected by the more correct industry of modern chronologists, above all, + of Pagi (Critics, tom. iii. p. 164. 171-174), who have restored the + genuine state of the revolution. At the present time, an Arabian scholar, + like Cardonne, who adopts the ancient error (tom. i. p. 75), is + inexcusably ignorant or careless.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.172" id="linknote-51.172"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 172 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.172">return</a>)<br /> [ The Era of Cesar, + which in Spain was in legal and popular use till the xivth century, begins + thirty-eight years before the birth of Christ. I would refer the origin to + the general peace by sea and land, which confirmed the power and partition + of the triumvirs. (Dion. Cassius, l. xlviii. p. 547. 553. Appian de Bell. + Civil. l. v. p. 1034, edit. fol.) Spain was a province of Cesar Octavian; + and Tarragona, which raised the first temple to Augustus (Tacit Annal. i. + 78), might borrow from the orientals this mode of flattery.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.173" id="linknote-51.173"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 173 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.173">return</a>)<br /> [ The road, the + country, the old castle of count Julian, and the superstitious belief of + the Spaniards of hidden treasures, &c. are described by Pere Labat + (Voyages en Espagne et en Italie, tom i. p. 207-217), with his usual + pleasantry.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.174" id="linknote-51.174"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 174 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.174">return</a>)<br /> [ The Nubian geographer + (p. 154,) explains the topography of the war; but it is highly incredible + that the lieutenant of Musa should execute the desperate and useless + measure of burning his ships.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.175" id="linknote-51.175"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 175 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.175">return</a>)<br /> [ Xeres (the Roman + colony of Asta Regia) is only two leagues from Cadiz. In the xvith century + It was a granary of corn; and the wine of Xeres is familiar to the nations + of Europe (Lud. Nonii Hispania, c. 13, p. 54-56, a work of correct and + concise knowledge; d’Anville, Etats de l’Europe &c p 154).] + </p> + <p> + On the fourth day, the two armies joined a more serious and decisive + issue; but Alaric would have blushed at the sight of his unworthy + successor, sustaining on his head a diadem of pearls, encumbered with a + flowing robe of gold and silken embroidery, and reclining on a litter, or + car of ivory, drawn by two white mules. Notwithstanding the valour of the + Saracens, they fainted under the weight of multitudes, and the plain of + Xeres was overspread with sixteen thousand of their dead bodies. “My + brethren,” said Tarik to his surviving companions, “the enemy is before + you, the sea is behind; whither would ye fly? Follow your general I am + resolved either to lose my life, or to trample on the prostrate king of + the Romans.” Besides the resource of despair, he confided in the secret + correspondence and nocturnal interviews of count Julian, with the sons and + the brother of Witiza. The two princes and the archbishop of Toledo + occupied the most important post; their well-timed defection broke the + ranks of the Christians; each warrior was prompted by fear or suspicion to + consult his personal safety; and the remains of the Gothic army were + scattered or destroyed to the flight and pursuit of the three following + days. Amidst the general disorder, Roderic started from his car, and + mounted Orelia, the fleetest of his Horses; but he escaped from a + soldier’s death to perish more ignobly in the waters of the Boetis or + Guadalquiver. His diadem, his robes, and his courser, were found on the + bank; but as the body of the Gothic prince was lost in the waves, the + pride and ignorance of the caliph must have been gratified with some + meaner head, which was exposed in triumph before the palace of Damascus. + “And such,” continues a valiant historian of the Arabs, “is the fate of + those kings who withdraw themselves from a field of battle.” <a + href="#linknote-51.176" name="linknoteref-51.176" id="linknoteref-51.176">176</a> + </p> + <p> + [A. D. 711.] Count Julian had plunged so deep into guilt and infamy, that + his only hope was in the ruin of his country. After the battle of Xeres he + recommended the most effectual measures to the victorious Saracens. “The + king of the Goths is slain; their princes are fled before you, the army is + routed, the nation is astonished. Secure with sufficient detachments the + cities of Boetica; but in person and without delay, march to the royal + city of Toledo, and allow not the distracted Christians either time or + tranquillity for the election of a new monarch.” Tarik listened to his + advice. A Roman captive and proselyte, who had been enfranchised by the + caliph himself, assaulted Cordova with seven hundred horse: he swam the + river, surprised the town, and drove the Christians into the great church, + where they defended themselves above three months. Another detachment + reduced the seacoast of Boetica, which in the last period of the Moorish + power has comprised in a narrow space the populous kingdom of Grenada. The + march of Tarik from the Boetis to the Tagus,<a href="#linknote-51.177" + name="linknoteref-51.177" id="linknoteref-51.177">177</a> was directed + through the Sierra Morena, that separates Andalusia and Castille, till he + appeared in arms under the walls of Toledo.<a href="#linknote-51.178" + name="linknoteref-51.178" id="linknoteref-51.178">178</a> The most zealous + of the Catholics had escaped with the relics of their saints; and if the + gates were shut, it was only till the victor had subscribed a fair and + reasonable capitulation. The voluntary exiles were allowed to depart with + their effects; seven churches were appropriated to the Christian worship; + the archbishop and his clergy were at liberty to exercise their functions, + the monks to practise or neglect their penance; and the Goths and Romans + were left in all civil or criminal cases to the subordinate jurisdiction + of their own laws and magistrates. But if the justice of Tarik protected + the Christians, his gratitude and policy rewarded the Jews, to whose + secret or open aid he was indebted for his most important acquisitions. + Persecuted by the kings and synods of Spain, who had often pressed the + alternative of banishment or baptism, that outcast nation embraced the + moment of revenge: the comparison of their past and present state was the + pledge of their fidelity; and the alliance between the disciples of Moses + and those of Mahomet, was maintained till the final era of their common + expulsion. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.176" id="linknote-51.176"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 176 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.176">return</a>)<br /> [ Id sane infortunii + regibus pedem ex acie referentibus saepe contingit. Den Hazil of Grenada, + in Bibliot. Arabico-Hispana. tom. ii. p. 337. Some credulous Spaniards + believe that king Roderic, or Rodrigo, escaped to a hermit’s cell; and + others, that he was cast alive into a tub full of serpents, from whence he + exclaimed with a lamentable voice, “they devour the part with which I have + so grievously sinned.” (Don Quixote, part ii. l. iii. c. 1.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.177" id="linknote-51.177"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 177 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.177">return</a>)<br /> [ The direct road from + Corduba to Toledo was measured by Mr. Swinburne’s mules in 72 1/2 hours: + but a larger computation must be adopted for the slow and devious marches + of an army. The Arabs traversed the province of La Mancha, which the pen + of Cervantes has transformed into classic ground to the reader of every + nation.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.178" id="linknote-51.178"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 178 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.178">return</a>)<br /> [ The antiquities of + Toledo, Urbs Parva in the Punic wars, Urbs Regia in the sixth century, are + briefly described by Nonius (Hispania, c. 59, p. 181-136). He borrows from + Roderic the fatale palatium of Moorish portraits; but modestly insinuates, + that it was no more than a Roman amphitheatre.] + </p> + <p> + From the royal seat of Toledo, the Arabian leader spread his conquests to + the north, over the modern realms of Castille and Leon; but it is heedless + to enumerate the cities that yielded on his approach, or again to describe + the table of emerald,<a href="#linknote-51.179" name="linknoteref-51.179" + id="linknoteref-51.179">179</a> transported from the East by the Romans, + acquired by the Goths among the spoils of Rome, and presented by the Arabs + to the throne of Damascus. Beyond the Asturian mountains, the maritime + town of Gijon was the term<a href="#linknote-51.180" + name="linknoteref-51.180" id="linknoteref-51.180">180</a> of the lieutenant + of Musa, who had performed with the speed of a traveller, his victorious + march of seven hundred miles, from the rock of Gibraltar to the bay of + Biscay. The failure of land compelled him to retreat: and he was recalled + to Toledo, to excuse his presumption of subduing a kingdom in the absence + of his general. Spain, which in a more savage and disorderly state, had + resisted, two hundred years, the arms of the Romans, was overrun in a few + months by those of the Saracens; and such was the eagerness of submission + and treaty, that the governor of Cordova is recorded as the only chief who + fell, without conditions, a prisoner into their hands. The cause of the + Goths had been irrevocably judged in the field of Xeres; and in the + national dismay, each part of the monarchy declined a contest with the + antagonist who had vanquished the united strength of the whole.<a + href="#linknote-51.181" name="linknoteref-51.181" id="linknoteref-51.181">181</a> + That strength had been wasted by two successive seasons of famine and + pestilence; and the governors, who were impatient to surrender, might + exaggerate the difficulty of collecting the provisions of a siege. To + disarm the Christians, superstition likewise contributed her terrors: and + the subtle Arab encouraged the report of dreams, omens, and prophecies, + and of the portraits of the destined conquerors of Spain, that were + discovered on the breaking open an apartment of the royal palace. Yet a + spark of the vital flame was still alive; some invincible fugitives + preferred a life of poverty and freedom in the Asturian valleys; the hardy + mountaineers repulsed the slaves of the caliph; and the sword of Pelagius + has been transformed into the sceptre of the Catholic kings.<a + href="#linknote-51.182" name="linknoteref-51.182" id="linknoteref-51.182">182</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.179" id="linknote-51.179"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 179 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.179">return</a>)<br /> [ In the Historia + Arabum (c. 9, p. 17, ad calcem Elmacin), Roderic of Toledo describes the + emerald tables, and inserts the name of Medinat Ahneyda in Arabic words + and letters. He appears to be conversant with the Mahometan writers; but I + cannot agree with M. de Guignes (Hist. des Huns, tom. i. p. 350) that he + had read and transcribed Novairi; because he was dead a hundred years + before Novairi composed his history. This mistake is founded on a still + grosser error. M. de Guignes confounds the governed historian Roderic + Ximines, archbishop of Toledo, in the xiiith century, with cardinal + Ximines, who governed Spain in the beginning of the xvith, and was the + subject, not the author, of historical compositions.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.180" id="linknote-51.180"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 180 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.180">return</a>)<br /> [ Tarik might have + inscribed on the last rock, the boast of Regnard and his companions in + their Lapland journey, “Hic tandem stetimus, nobis ubi defuit orbis.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.181" id="linknote-51.181"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 181 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.181">return</a>)<br /> [ Such was the argument + of the traitor Oppas, and every chief to whom it was addressed did not + answer with the spirit of Pelagius; Omnis Hispania dudum sub uno regimine + Gothorum, omnis exercitus Hispaniae in uno congregatus Ismaelitarum non + valuit sustinere impetum. Chron. Alphonsi Regis, apud Pagi, tom. iii. p. + 177.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.182" id="linknote-51.182"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 182 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.182">return</a>)<br /> [ The revival of tire + Gothic kingdom in the Asturias is distinctly though concisely noticed by + d’Anville (Etats de l’Europe, p. 159)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap51.7"></a> + Chapter LI: Conquests By The Arabs.—Part VII. + </h2> + <p> + On the intelligence of this rapid success, the applause of Musa + degenerated into envy; and he began, not to complain, but to fear, that + Tarik would leave him nothing to subdue. At the head of ten thousand Arabs + and eight thousand Africans, he passed over in person from Mauritania to + Spain: the first of his companions were the noblest of the Koreish; his + eldest son was left in the command of Africa; the three younger brethren + were of an age and spirit to second the boldest enterprises of their + father. At his landing in Algezire, he was respectfully entertained by + Count Julian, who stifled his inward remorse, and testified, both in words + and actions, that the victory of the Arabs had not impaired his attachment + to their cause. Some enemies yet remained for the sword of Musa. The tardy + repentance of the Goths had compared their own numbers and those of the + invaders; the cities from which the march of Tarik had declined considered + themselves as impregnable; and the bravest patriots defended the + fortifications of Seville and Merida. They were successively besieged and + reduced by the labor of Musa, who transported his camp from the Boetis to + the Anas, from the Guadalquivir to the Guadiana. When he beheld the works + of Roman magnificence, the bridge, the aqueducts, the triumphal arches, + and the theatre, of the ancient metropolis of Lusitania, “I should + imagine,” said he to his four companions, “that the human race must have + united their art and power in the foundation of this city: happy is the + man who shall become its master!” He aspired to that happiness, but the + Emeritans sustained on this occasion the honor of their descent from the + veteran legionaries of Augustus <a href="#linknote-51.183" + name="linknoteref-51.183" id="linknoteref-51.183">183</a> Disdaining the + confinement of their walls, they gave battle to the Arabs on the plain; + but an ambuscade rising from the shelter of a quarry, or a ruin, chastised + their indiscretion, and intercepted their return. + </p> + <p> + The wooden turrets of assault were rolled forwards to the foot of the + rampart; but the defence of Merida was obstinate and long; and the castle + of the martyrs was a perpetual testimony of the losses of the Moslems. The + constancy of the besieged was at length subdued by famine and despair; and + the prudent victor disguised his impatience under the names of clemency + and esteem. The alternative of exile or tribute was allowed; the churches + were divided between the two religions; and the wealth of those who had + fallen in the siege, or retired to Gallicia, was confiscated as the reward + of the faithful. In the midway between Merida and Toledo, the lieutenant + of Musa saluted the vicegerent of the caliph, and conducted him to the + palace of the Gothic kings. Their first interview was cold and formal: a + rigid account was exacted of the treasures of Spain: the character of + Tarik was exposed to suspicion and obloquy; and the hero was imprisoned, + reviled, and ignominiously scourged by the hand, or the command, of Musa. + Yet so strict was the discipline, so pure the zeal, or so tame the spirit, + of the primitive Moslems, that, after this public indignity, Tarik could + serve and be trusted in the reduction of the Tarragonest province. A mosch + was erected at Saragossa, by the liberality of the Koreish: the port of + Barcelona was opened to the vessels of Syria; and the Goths were pursued + beyond the Pyrenaean mountains into their Gallic province of Septimania or + Languedoc. <a href="#linknote-51.184" name="linknoteref-51.184" + id="linknoteref-51.184">184</a> In the church of St. Mary at Carcassone, + Musa found, but it is improbable that he left, seven equestrian statues of + massy silver; and from his term or column of Narbonne, he returned on his + footsteps to the Gallician and Lusitanian shores of the ocean. During the + absence of the father, his son Abdelaziz chastised the insurgents of + Seville, and reduced, from Malaga to Valentia, the sea-coast of the + Mediterranean: his original treaty with the discreet and valiant Theodemir + <a href="#linknote-51.185" name="linknoteref-51.185" id="linknoteref-51.185">185</a> + will represent the manners and policy of the times. “The conditions of + peace agreed and sworn between Abdelaziz, the son of Musa, the son of + Nassir, and Theodemir prince of the Goths. In the name of the most + merciful God, Abdelaziz makes peace on these conditions: that Theodemir + shall not be disturbed in his principality; nor any injury be offered to + the life or property, the wives and children, the religion and temples, of + the Christians: that Theodemir shall freely deliver his seven <a + href="#linknote-51.1851" name="linknoteref-51.1851" id="linknoteref-51.1851">1851</a> + cities, Orihuela, Valentola, Alicanti Mola, Vacasora, Bigerra, (now + Bejar,) Ora, (or Opta,) and Lorca: that he shall not assist or entertain + the enemies of the caliph, but shall faithfully communicate his knowledge + of their hostile designs: that himself, and each of the Gothic nobles, + shall annually pay one piece of gold, four measures of wheat, as many of + barley, with a certain proportion of honey, oil, and vinegar; and that + each of their vassals shall be taxed at one moiety of the said imposition. + Given the fourth of Regeb, in the year of the Hegira ninety-four, and + subscribed with the names of four Mussulman witnesses.” <a + href="#linknote-51.186" name="linknoteref-51.186" id="linknoteref-51.186">186</a> + Theodemir and his subjects were treated with uncommon lenity; but the rate + of tribute appears to have fluctuated from a tenth to a fifth, according + to the submission or obstinacy of the Christians. <a href="#linknote-51.187" + name="linknoteref-51.187" id="linknoteref-51.187">187</a> In this + revolution, many partial calamities were inflicted by the carnal or + religious passions of the enthusiasts: some churches were profaned by the + new worship: some relics or images were confounded with idols: the rebels + were put to the sword; and one town (an obscure place between Cordova and + Seville) was razed to its foundations. Yet if we compare the invasion of + Spain by the Goths, or its recovery by the kings of Castile and Arragon, + we must applaud the moderation and discipline of the Arabian conquerors. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.183" id="linknote-51.183"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 183 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.183">return</a>)<br /> [ The honorable relics + of the Cantabrian war (Dion Cassius, l. liii p. 720) were planted in this + metropolis of Lusitania, perhaps of Spain, (submittit cui tota suos + Hispania fasces.) Nonius (Hispania, c. 31, p. 106-110) enumerates the + ancient structures, but concludes with a sigh: Urbs haec olim nobilissima + ad magnam incolarum infrequentiam delapsa est, et praeter priscae + claritatis ruinas nihil ostendit.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.184" id="linknote-51.184"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 184 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.184">return</a>)<br /> [ Both the interpreters + of Novairi, De Guignes (Hist. des Huns, tom. i. p. 349) and Cardonne, + (Hist. de l’Afrique et de l’Espagne, tom. i. p. 93, 94, 104, 135,) lead + Musa into the Narbonnese Gaul. But I find no mention of this enterprise, + either in Roderic of Toledo, or the Mss. of the Escurial, and the invasion + of the Saracens is postponed by a French chronicle till the ixth year + after the conquest of Spain, A.D. 721, (Pagi, Critica, tom. iii. p. 177, + 195. Historians of France, tom. iii.) I much question whether Musa ever + passed the Pyrenees.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.185" id="linknote-51.185"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 185 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.185">return</a>)<br /> [ Four hundred years + after Theodemir, his territories of Murcia and Carthagena retain in the + Nubian geographer Edrisi (p, 154, 161) the name of Tadmir, (D’Anville, + Etats de l’Europe, p. 156. Pagi, tom. iii. p. 174.) In the present decay + of Spanish agriculture, Mr. Swinburne (Travels into Spain, p. 119) + surveyed with pleasure the delicious valley from Murcia to Orihuela, four + leagues and a half of the finest corn pulse, lucerne, oranges, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.1851" id="linknote-51.1851"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1851 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.1851">return</a>)<br /> [ Gibbon has made + eight cities: in Conde’s translation Bigera does not appear.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.186" id="linknote-51.186"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 186 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.186">return</a>)<br /> [ See the treaty in + Arabic and Latin, in the Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana, tom. ii. p. 105, + 106. It is signed the 4th of the month of Regeb, A. H. 94, the 5th of + April, A.D. 713; a date which seems to prolong the resistance of + Theodemir, and the government of Musa.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.187" id="linknote-51.187"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 187 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.187">return</a>)<br /> [ From the history of + Sandoval, p. 87. Fleury (Hist. Eccles. tom. ix. p. 261) has given the + substance of another treaty concluded A Ae. C. 782, A.D. 734, between an + Arabian chief and the Goths and Romans, of the territory of Conimbra in + Portugal. The tax of the churches is fixed at twenty-five pounds of gold; + of the monasteries, fifty; of the cathedrals, one hundred; the Christians + are judged by their count, but in capital cases he must consult the + alcaide. The church doors must be shut, and they must respect the name of + Mahomet. I have not the original before me; it would confirm or destroy a + dark suspicion, that the piece has been forged to introduce the immunity + of a neighboring convent.] + </p> + <p> + The exploits of Musa were performed in the evening of life, though he + affected to disguise his age by coloring with a red powder the whiteness + of his beard. But in the love of action and glory, his breast was still + fired with the ardor of youth; and the possession of Spain was considered + only as the first step to the monarchy of Europe. With a powerful armament + by sea and land, he was preparing to repass the Pyrenees, to extinguish in + Gaul and Italy the declining kingdoms of the Franks and Lombards, and to + preach the unity of God on the altar of the Vatican. From thence, subduing + the Barbarians of Germany, he proposed to follow the course of the Danube + from its source to the Euxine Sea, to overthrow the Greek or Roman empire + of Constantinople, and returning from Europe to Asia, to unite his new + acquisitions with Antioch and the provinces of Syria. <a + href="#linknote-51.188" name="linknoteref-51.188" id="linknoteref-51.188">188</a> + But his vast enterprise, perhaps of easy execution, must have seemed + extravagant to vulgar minds; and the visionary conqueror was soon reminded + of his dependence and servitude. The friends of Tarik had effectually + stated his services and wrongs: at the court of Damascus, the proceedings + of Musa were blamed, his intentions were suspected, and his delay in + complying with the first invitation was chastised by a harsher and more + peremptory summons. An intrepid messenger of the caliph entered his camp + at Lugo in Gallicia, and in the presence of the Saracens and Christians + arrested the bridle of his horse. His own loyalty, or that of his troops, + inculcated the duty of obedience: and his disgrace was alleviated by the + recall of his rival, and the permission of investing with his two + governments his two sons, Abdallah and Abdelaziz. His long triumph from + Ceuta to Damascus displayed the spoils of Africa and the treasures of + Spain: four hundred Gothic nobles, with gold coronets and girdles, were + distinguished in his train; and the number of male and female captives, + selected for their birth or beauty, was computed at eighteen, or even at + thirty, thousand persons. As soon as he reached Tiberias in Palestine, he + was apprised of the sickness and danger of the caliph, by a private + message from Soliman, his brother and presumptive heir; who wished to + reserve for his own reign the spectacle of victory. + </p> + <p> + Had Walid recovered, the delay of Musa would have been criminal: he + pursued his march, and found an enemy on the throne. In his trial before a + partial judge against a popular antagonist, he was convicted of vanity and + falsehood; and a fine of two hundred thousand pieces of gold either + exhausted his poverty or proved his rapaciousness. The unworthy treatment + of Tarik was revenged by a similar indignity; and the veteran commander, + after a public whipping, stood a whole day in the sun before the palace + gate, till he obtained a decent exile, under the pious name of a + pilgrimage to Mecca. The resentment of the caliph might have been satiated + with the ruin of Musa; but his fears demanded the extirpation of a potent + and injured family. A sentence of death was intimated with secrecy and + speed to the trusty servants of the throne both in Africa and Spain; and + the forms, if not the substance, of justice were superseded in this bloody + execution. In the mosch or palace of Cordova, Abdelaziz was slain by the + swords of the conspirators; they accused their governor of claiming the + honors of royalty; and his scandalous marriage with Egilona, the widow of + Roderic, offended the prejudices both of the Christians and Moslems. By a + refinement of cruelty, the head of the son was presented to the father, + with an insulting question, whether he acknowledged the features of the + rebel? “I know his features,” he exclaimed with indignation: “I assert his + innocence; and I imprecate the same, a juster fate, against the authors of + his death.” The age and despair of Musa raised him above the power of + kings; and he expired at Mecca of the anguish of a broken heart. His rival + was more favorably treated: his services were forgiven; and Tarik was + permitted to mingle with the crowd of slaves. <a href="#linknote-51.189" + name="linknoteref-51.189" id="linknoteref-51.189">189</a> I am ignorant + whether Count Julian was rewarded with the death which he deserved indeed, + though not from the hands of the Saracens; but the tale of their + ingratitude to the sons of Witiza is disproved by the most unquestionable + evidence. The two royal youths were reinstated in the private patrimony of + their father; but on the decease of Eba, the elder, his daughter was + unjustly despoiled of her portion by the violence of her uncle Sigebut. + The Gothic maid pleaded her cause before the caliph Hashem, and obtained + the restitution of her inheritance; but she was given in marriage to a + noble Arabian, and their two sons, Isaac and Ibrahim, were received in + Spain with the consideration that was due to their origin and riches. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.188" id="linknote-51.188"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 188 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.188">return</a>)<br /> [ This design, which is + attested by several Arabian historians, (Cardonne, tom. i. p. 95, 96,) may + be compared with that of Mithridates, to march from the Crimaea to Rome; + or with that of Caesar, to conquer the East, and return home by the North; + and all three are perhaps surpassed by the real and successful enterprise + of Hannibal.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.189" id="linknote-51.189"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 189 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.189">return</a>)<br /> [ I much regret our + loss, or my ignorance, of two Arabic works of the viiith century, a Life + of Musa, and a poem on the exploits of Tarik. Of these authentic pieces, + the former was composed by a grandson of Musa, who had escaped from the + massacre of his kindred; the latter, by the vizier of the first + Abdalrahman, caliph of Spain, who might have conversed with some of the + veterans of the conqueror, (Bibliot. Arabico-Hispana, tom. ii. p. 36, + 139.)] + </p> + <p> + A province is assimilated to the victorious state by the introduction of + strangers and the imitative spirit of the natives; and Spain, which had + been successively tinctured with Punic, and Roman, and Gothic blood, + imbibed, in a few generations, the name and manners of the Arabs. The + first conquerors, and the twenty successive lieutenants of the caliphs, + were attended by a numerous train of civil and military followers, who + preferred a distant fortune to a narrow home: the private and public + interest was promoted by the establishment of faithful colonies; and the + cities of Spain were proud to commemorate the tribe or country of their + Eastern progenitors. The victorious though motley bands of Tarik and Musa + asserted, by the name of Spaniards, their original claim of conquest; yet + they allowed their brethren of Egypt to share their establishments of + Murcia and Lisbon. The royal legion of Damascus was planted at Cordova; + that of Emesa at Seville; that of Kinnisrin or Chalcis at Jaen; that of + Palestine at Algezire and Medina Sidonia. The natives of Yemen and Persia + were scattered round Toledo and the inland country, and the fertile seats + of Grenada were bestowed on ten thousand horsemen of Syria and Irak, the + children of the purest and most noble of the Arabian tribes. <a + href="#linknote-51.190" name="linknoteref-51.190" id="linknoteref-51.190">190</a> + A spirit of emulation, sometimes beneficial, more frequently dangerous, + was nourished by these hereditary factions. Ten years after the conquest, + a map of the province was presented to the caliph: the seas, the rivers, + and the harbors, the inhabitants and cities, the climate, the soil, and + the mineral productions of the earth. <a href="#linknote-51.191" + name="linknoteref-51.191" id="linknoteref-51.191">191</a> In the space of + two centuries, the gifts of nature were improved by the agriculture, <a + href="#linknote-51.192" name="linknoteref-51.192" id="linknoteref-51.192">192</a> + the manufactures, and the commerce, of an industrious people; and the + effects of their diligence have been magnified by the idleness of their + fancy. The first of the Ommiades who reigned in Spain solicited the + support of the Christians; and in his edict of peace and protection, he + contents himself with a modest imposition of ten thousand ounces of gold, + ten thousand pounds of silver, ten thousand horses, as many mules, one + thousand cuirasses, with an equal number of helmets and lances. <a + href="#linknote-51.193" name="linknoteref-51.193" id="linknoteref-51.193">193</a> + The most powerful of his successors derived from the same kingdom the + annual tribute of twelve millions and forty-five thousand dinars or pieces + of gold, about six millions of sterling money; <a href="#linknote-51.194" + name="linknoteref-51.194" id="linknoteref-51.194">194</a> a sum which, in + the tenth century, most probably surpassed the united revenues of the + Christians monarchs. His royal seat of Cordova contained six hundred + moschs, nine hundred baths, and two hundred thousand houses; he gave laws + to eighty cities of the first, to three hundred of the second and third + order; and the fertile banks of the Guadalquivir were adorned with twelve + thousand villages and hamlets. The Arabs might exaggerate the truth, but + they created and they describe the most prosperous aera of the riches, the + cultivation, and the populousness of Spain. <a href="#linknote-51.195" + name="linknoteref-51.195" id="linknoteref-51.195">195</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.190" id="linknote-51.190"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 190 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.190">return</a>)<br /> [ Bibliot. Arab. + Hispana, tom. ii. p. 32, 252. The former of these quotations is taken from + a Biographia Hispanica, by an Arabian of Valentia, (see the copious + Extracts of Casiri, tom. ii. p. 30-121;) and the latter from a general + Chronology of the Caliphs, and of the African and Spanish Dynasties, with + a particular History of the kingdom of Grenada, of which Casiri has given + almost an entire version, (Bibliot. Arabico-Hispana, tom. ii. p. 177-319.) + The author, Ebn Khateb, a native of Grenada, and a contemporary of Novairi + and Abulfeda, (born A.D. 1313, died A.D. 1374,) was an historian, + geographer, physician, poet, &c., (tom. ii. p. 71, 72.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.191" id="linknote-51.191"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 191 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.191">return</a>)<br /> [ Cardonne, Hist. de + l’Afrique et de l’Espagne, tom. i. p. 116, 117.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.192" id="linknote-51.192"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 192 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.192">return</a>)<br /> [ A copious treatise of + husbandry, by an Arabian of Seville, in the xiith century, is in the + Escurial library, and Casiri had some thoughts of translating it. He gives + a list of the authors quoted, Arabs as well as Greeks, Latins, &c.; + but it is much if the Andalusian saw these strangers through the medium of + his countryman Columella, (Casiri, Bibliot. Arabico-Hispana, tom. i. p. + 323-338.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.193" id="linknote-51.193"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 193 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.193">return</a>)<br /> [ Bibliot. + Arabico-Hispana, tom. ii. p. 104. Casiri translates the original testimony + of the historian Rasis, as it is alleged in the Arabic Biographia + Hispanica, pars ix. But I am most exceedingly surprised at the address, + Principibus caeterisque Christianis, Hispanis suis Castellae. The name of + Castellae was unknown in the viiith century; the kingdom was not erected + till the year 1022, a hundred years after the time of Rasis, (Bibliot. + tom. ii. p. 330,) and the appellation was always expressive, not of a + tributary province, but of a line of castles independent of the Moorish + yoke, (D’Anville, Etats de l’Europe, p. 166-170.) Had Casiri been a + critic, he would have cleared a difficulty, perhaps of his own making.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.194" id="linknote-51.194"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 194 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.194">return</a>)<br /> [ Cardonne, tom. i. p. + 337, 338. He computes the revenue at 130,000,000 of French livres. The + entire picture of peace and prosperity relieves the bloody uniformity of + the Moorish annals.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.195" id="linknote-51.195"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 195 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.195">return</a>)<br /> [ I am happy enough to + possess a splendid and interesting work which has only been distributed in + presents by the court of Madrid Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis, + opera et studio Michaelis Casiri, Syro Maronitoe. Matriti, in folio, tomus + prior, 1760, tomus posterior, 1770. The execution of this work does honor + to the Spanish press; the Mss., to the number of MDCCCLI., are judiciously + classed by the editor, and his copious extracts throw some light on the + Mahometan literature and history of Spain. These relics are now secure, + but the task has been supinely delayed, till, in the year 1671, a fire + consumed the greatest part of the Escurial library, rich in the spoils of + Grenada and Morocco. * Note: Compare the valuable work of Conde, Historia + de la Dominacion de las Arabes en Espana. Madrid, 1820.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The wars of the Moslems were sanctified by the prophet; but among the + various precepts and examples of his life, the caliphs selected the + lessons of toleration that might tend to disarm the resistance of the + unbelievers. Arabia was the temple and patrimony of the God of Mahomet; + but he beheld with less jealousy and affection the nations of the earth. + The polytheists and idolaters, who were ignorant of his name, might be + lawfully extirpated by his votaries; <a href="#linknote-51.196" + name="linknoteref-51.196" id="linknoteref-51.196">196</a> but a wise policy + supplied the obligation of justice; and after some acts of intolerant + zeal, the Mahometan conquerors of Hindostan have spared the pagodas of that + devout and populous country. The disciples of Abraham, of Moses, and of + Jesus, were solemnly invited to accept the more perfect revelation of + Mahomet; but if they preferred the payment of a moderate tribute, they + were entitled to the freedom of conscience and religious worship. <a + href="#linknote-51.197" name="linknoteref-51.197" id="linknoteref-51.197">197</a> + In a field of battle the forfeit lives of the prisoners were redeemed by + the profession of Islam; the females were bound to embrace the religion of + their masters, and a race of sincere proselytes was gradually multiplied + by the education of the infant captives. But the millions of African and + Asiatic converts, who swelled the native band of the faithful Arabs, must + have been allured, rather than constrained, to declare their belief in one + God and the apostle of God. By the repetition of a sentence and the loss + of a foreskin, the subject or the slave, the captive or the criminal, + arose in a moment the free and equal companion of the victorious Moslems. + Every sin was expiated, every engagement was dissolved: the vow of + celibacy was superseded by the indulgence of nature; the active spirits + who slept in the cloister were awakened by the trumpet of the Saracens; + and in the convulsion of the world, every member of a new society ascended + to the natural level of his capacity and courage. The minds of the + multitude were tempted by the invisible as well as temporal blessings of + the Arabian prophet; and charity will hope that many of his proselytes + entertained a serious conviction of the truth and sanctity of his + revelation. In the eyes of an inquisitive polytheist, it must appear + worthy of the human and the divine nature. More pure than the system of + Zoroaster, more liberal than the law of Moses, the religion of Mahomet + might seem less inconsistent with reason than the creed of mystery and + superstition, which, in the seventh century, disgraced the simplicity of + the gospel. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.196" id="linknote-51.196"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 196 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.196">return</a>)<br /> [ The Harbii, as they + are styled, qui tolerari nequeunt, are, 1. Those who, besides God, worship + the sun, moon, or idols. 2. Atheists, Utrique, quamdiu princeps aliquis + inter Mohammedanos superest, oppugnari debent donec religionem + amplectantur, nec requies iis concedenda est, nec pretium acceptandum pro + obtinenda conscientiae libertate, (Reland, Dissertat. x. de Jure Militari + Mohammedan. tom. iii. p. 14;) a rigid theory!] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.197" id="linknote-51.197"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 197 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.197">return</a>)<br /> [ The distinction + between a proscribed and a tolerated sect, between the Harbii and the + people of the Book, the believers in some divine revelation, is correctly + defined in the conversation of the caliph Al Mamum with the idolaters or + Sabaeans of Charrae, (Hottinger, Hist. Orient. p. 107, 108.)] + </p> + <p> + In the extensive provinces of Persia and Africa, the national religion has + been eradicated by the Mahometan faith. The ambiguous theology of the Magi + stood alone among the sects of the East; but the profane writings of + Zoroaster <a href="#linknote-51.198" name="linknoteref-51.198" + id="linknoteref-51.198">198</a> might, under the reverend name of Abraham, + be dexterously connected with the chain of divine revelation. Their evil + principle, the daemon Ahriman, might be represented as the rival, or as + the creature, of the God of light. The temples of Persia were devoid of + images; but the worship of the sun and of fire might be stigmatized as a + gross and criminal idolatry. <a href="#linknote-51.199" + name="linknoteref-51.199" id="linknoteref-51.199">199</a> The milder + sentiment was consecrated by the practice of Mahomet <a + href="#linknote-51.200" name="linknoteref-51.200" id="linknoteref-51.200">200</a> + and the prudence of the caliphs; the Magians or Ghebers were ranked with + the Jews and Christians among the people of the written law; <a + href="#linknote-51.201" name="linknoteref-51.201" id="linknoteref-51.201">201</a> + and as late as the third century of the Hegira, the city of Herat will + afford a lively contrast of private zeal and public toleration. <a + href="#linknote-51.202" name="linknoteref-51.202" id="linknoteref-51.202">202</a> + Under the payment of an annual tribute, the Mahometan law secured to the + Ghebers of Herat their civil and religious liberties: but the recent and + humble mosch was overshadowed by the antique splendor of the adjoining + temple of fire. A fanatic Imam deplored, in his sermons, the scandalous + neighborhood, and accused the weakness or indifference of the faithful. + Excited by his voice, the people assembled in tumult; the two houses of + prayer were consumed by the flames, but the vacant ground was immediately + occupied by the foundations of a new mosch. The injured Magi appealed to + the sovereign of Chorasan; he promised justice and relief; when, behold! + four thousand citizens of Herat, of a grave character and mature age, + unanimously swore that the idolatrous fane had never existed; the + inquisition was silenced and their conscience was satisfied (says the + historian Mirchond <a href="#linknote-51.203" name="linknoteref-51.203" + id="linknoteref-51.203">203</a> with this holy and meritorious perjury. <a + href="#linknote-51.204" name="linknoteref-51.204" id="linknoteref-51.204">204</a> + But the greatest part of the temples of Persia were ruined by the + insensible and general desertion of their votaries. + </p> + <p> + It was insensible, since it is not accompanied with any memorial of time + or place, of persecution or resistance. It was general, since the whole + realm, from Shiraz to Samarcand, imbibed the faith of the Koran; and the + preservation of the native tongue reveals the descent of the Mahometans of + Persia. <a href="#linknote-51.205" name="linknoteref-51.205" + id="linknoteref-51.205">205</a> In the mountains and deserts, an obstinate + race of unbelievers adhered to the superstition of their fathers; and a + faint tradition of the Magian theology is kept alive in the province of + Kirman, along the banks of the Indus, among the exiles of Surat, and in + the colony which, in the last century, was planted by Shaw Abbas at the + gates of Ispahan. The chief pontiff has retired to Mount Elbourz, eighteen + leagues from the city of Yezd: the perpetual fire (if it continues to + burn) is inaccessible to the profane; but his residence is the school, the + oracle, and the pilgrimage of the Ghebers, whose hard and uniform features + attest the unmingled purity of their blood. Under the jurisdiction of + their elders, eighty thousand families maintain an innocent and + industrious life: their subsistence is derived from some curious + manufactures and mechanic trades; and they cultivate the earth with the + fervor of a religious duty. Their ignorance withstood the despotism of + Shaw Abbas, who demanded with threats and tortures the prophetic books of + Zoroaster; and this obscure remnant of the Magians is spared by the + moderation or contempt of their present sovereigns. <a + href="#linknote-51.206" name="linknoteref-51.206" id="linknoteref-51.206">206</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.198" id="linknote-51.198"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 198 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.198">return</a>)<br /> [ The Zend or Pazend, + the bible of the Ghebers, is reckoned by themselves, or at least by the + Mahometans, among the ten books which Abraham received from heaven; and + their religion is honorably styled the religion of Abraham, (D’Herblot, + Bibliot. Orient. p. 701; Hyde, de Religione veterum Persarum, c, iii. p. + 27, 28, &c.) I much fear that we do not possess any pure and free + description of the system of Zoroaster. <a href="#linknote-51.1981" + name="linknoteref-51.1981" id="linknoteref-51.1981">1981</a> Dr. Prideaux + (Connection, vol. i. p. 300, octavo) adopts the opinion, that he had been + the slave and scholar of some Jewish prophet in the captivity of Babylon. + Perhaps the Persians, who have been the masters of the Jews, would assert + the honor, a poor honor, of being their masters.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.1981" id="linknote-51.1981"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1981 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.1981">return</a>)<br /> [ Whatever the real + age of the Zendavesta, published by Anquetil du Perron, whether of the + time of Ardeschir Babeghan, according to Mr. Erskine, or of much higher + antiquity, it may be considered, I conceive, both a “pure and a free,” + though imperfect, description of Zoroastrianism; particularly with the + illustrations of the original translator, and of the German Kleuker—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.199" id="linknote-51.199"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 199 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.199">return</a>)<br /> [ The Arabian Nights, a + faithful and amusing picture of the Oriental world, represent in the most + odious colors of the Magians, or worshippers of fire, to whom they + attribute the annual sacrifice of a Mussulman. The religion of Zoroaster + has not the least affinity with that of the Hindoos, yet they are often + confounded by the Mahometans; and the sword of Timour was sharpened by + this mistake, (Hist. de Timour Bec, par Cherefeddin Ali Yezdi, l. v.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.200" id="linknote-51.200"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 200 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.200">return</a>)<br /> [ Vie de Mahomet, par + Gagnier, (tom. iii. p. 114, 115.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.201" id="linknote-51.201"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 201 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.201">return</a>)<br /> [ Hae tres sectae, + Judaei, Christiani, et qui inter Persas Magorum institutis addicti sunt, + populi libri dicuntur, (Reland, Dissertat. tom. iii. p. 15.) The caliph Al + Mamun confirms this honorable distinction in favor of the three sects, + with the vague and equivocal religion of the Sabaeans, under which the + ancient polytheists of Charrae were allowed to shelter their idolatrous + worship, (Hottinger, Hist. Orient p. 167, 168.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.202" id="linknote-51.202"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 202 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.202">return</a>)<br /> [ This singular story + is related by D’Herbelot, (Bibliot. Orient. p 448, 449,) on the faith of + Khondemir, and by Mirchond himself, (Hist priorum Regum Persarum, &c., + p. 9, 10, not. p. 88, 89.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.203" id="linknote-51.203"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 203 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.203">return</a>)<br /> [ Mirchond, (Mohammed + Emir Khoondah Shah,) a native of Herat, composed in the Persian language a + general history of the East, from the creation to the year of the Hegira + 875, (A.D. 1471.) In the year 904 (A.D. 1498) the historian obtained the + command of a princely library, and his applauded work, in seven or twelve + parts, was abbreviated in three volumes by his son Khondemir, A. H. 927, + A.D. 1520. The two writers, most accurately distinguished by Petit de la + Croix, (Hist. de Genghizcan, p.537, 538, 544, 545,) are loosely confounded + by D’Herbelot, (p. 358, 410, 994, 995: ) but his numerous extracts, under + the improper name of Khondemir, belong to the father rather than the son. + The historian of Genghizcan refers to a Ms. of Mirchond, which he received + from the hands of his friend D’Herbelot himself. A curious fragment (the + Taherian and Soffarian Dynasties) has been lately published in Persic and + Latin, (Viennae, 1782, in 4to., cum notis Bernard de Jenisch;) and the + editor allows us to hope for a continuation of Mirchond.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.204" id="linknote-51.204"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 204 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.204">return</a>)<br /> [ Quo testimonio boni + se quidpiam praestitisse opinabantur. Yet Mirchond must have condemned + their zeal, since he approved the legal toleration of the Magi, cui (the + fire temple) peracto singulis annis censu uti sacra Mohammedis lege + cautum, ab omnibus molestiis ac oneribus libero esse licuit.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.205" id="linknote-51.205"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 205 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.205">return</a>)<br /> [ The last Magian of + name and power appears to be Mardavige the Dilemite, who, in the beginning + of the 10th century, reigned in the northern provinces of Persia, near the + Caspian Sea, (D’Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 355.) But his soldiers and + successors, the Bowides either professed or embraced the Mahometan faith; + and under their dynasty (A.D. 933-1020) I should say the fall of the + religion of Zoroaster.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.206" id="linknote-51.206"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 206 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.206">return</a>)<br /> [ The present state of + the Ghebers in Persia is taken from Sir John Chardin, not indeed the most + learned, but the most judicious and inquisitive of our modern travellers, + (Voyages en Perse, tom. ii. p. 109, 179-187, in 4to.) His brethren, Pietro + della Valle, Olearius, Thevenot, Tavernier, &c., whom I have + fruitlessly searched, had neither eyes nor attention for this interesting + people.] + </p> + <p> + The Northern coast of Africa is the only land in which the light of the + gospel, after a long and perfect establishment, has been totally + extinguished. The arts, which had been taught by Carthage and Rome, were + involved in a cloud of ignorance; the doctrine of Cyprian and Augustin was + no longer studied. Five hundred episcopal churches were overturned by the + hostile fury of the Donatists, the Vandals, and the Moors. The zeal and + numbers of the clergy declined; and the people, without discipline, or + knowledge, or hope, submissively sunk under the yoke of the Arabian + prophet. Within fifty years after the expulsion of the Greeks, a lieutenant + of Africa informed the caliph that the tribute of the infidels was + abolished by their conversion; <a href="#linknote-51.207" + name="linknoteref-51.207" id="linknoteref-51.207">207</a> and, though he + sought to disguise his fraud and rebellion, his specious pretence was + drawn from the rapid and extensive progress of the Mahometan faith. In the + next age, an extraordinary mission of five bishops was detached from + Alexandria to Cairoan. They were ordained by the Jacobite patriarch to + cherish and revive the dying embers of Christianity: <a + href="#linknote-51.208" name="linknoteref-51.208" id="linknoteref-51.208">208</a> + but the interposition of a foreign prelate, a stranger to the Latins, an + enemy to the Catholics, supposes the decay and dissolution of the African + hierarchy. It was no longer the time when the successor of St. Cyprian, at + the head of a numerous synod, could maintain an equal contest with the + ambition of the Roman pontiff. In the eleventh century, the unfortunate + priest who was seated on the ruins of Carthage implored the arms and the + protection of the Vatican; and he bitterly complains that his naked body + had been scourged by the Saracens, and that his authority was disputed by + the four suffragans, the tottering pillars of his throne. Two epistles of + Gregory the Seventh <a href="#linknote-51.209" name="linknoteref-51.209" + id="linknoteref-51.209">209</a> are destined to soothe the distress of the + Catholics and the pride of a Moorish prince. The pope assures the sultan + that they both worship the same God, and may hope to meet in the bosom of + Abraham; but the complaint that three bishops could no longer be found to + consecrate a brother, announces the speedy and inevitable ruin of the + episcopal order. The Christians of Africa and Spain had long since + submitted to the practice of circumcision and the legal abstinence from + wine and pork; and the name of Mozarabes <a href="#linknote-51.210" + name="linknoteref-51.210" id="linknoteref-51.210">210</a> (adoptive Arabs) + was applied to their civil or religious conformity. <a + href="#linknote-51.211" name="linknoteref-51.211" id="linknoteref-51.211">211</a> + About the middle of the twelfth century, the worship of Christ and the + succession of pastors were abolished along the coast of Barbary, and in + the kingdoms of Cordova and Seville, of Valencia and Grenada. <a + href="#linknote-51.212" name="linknoteref-51.212" id="linknoteref-51.212">212</a> + The throne of the Almohades, or Unitarians, was founded on the blindest + fanaticism, and their extraordinary rigor might be provoked or justified + by the recent victories and intolerant zeal of the princes of Sicily and + Castille, of Arragon and Portugal. The faith of the Mozarabes was + occasionally revived by the papal missionaries; and, on the landing of + Charles the Fifth, some families of Latin Christians were encouraged to + rear their heads at Tunis and Algiers. But the seed of the gospel was + quickly eradicated, and the long province from Tripoli to the Atlantic has + lost all memory of the language and religion of Rome. <a + href="#linknote-51.213" name="linknoteref-51.213" id="linknoteref-51.213">213</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.207" id="linknote-51.207"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 207 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.207">return</a>)<br /> [ The letter of + Abdoulrahman, governor or tyrant of Africa, to the caliph Aboul Abbas, the + first of the Abbassides, is dated A. H. 132 Cardonne, (Hist. de l’Afrique + et de l’Espagne, tom. i. p. 168.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.208" id="linknote-51.208"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 208 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.208">return</a>)<br /> [ Bibliotheque + Orientale, p. 66. Renaudot, Hist. Patriarch. Alex. p. 287, 288.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.209" id="linknote-51.209"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 209 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.209">return</a>)<br /> [ Among the Epistles of + the Popes, see Leo IX. epist. 3; Gregor. VII. l. i. epist. 22, 23, l. iii. + epist. 19, 20, 21; and the criticisms of Pagi, (tom. iv. A.D. 1053, No. + 14, A.D. 1073, No. 13,) who investigates the name and family of the + Moorish prince, with whom the proudest of the Roman pontiffs so politely + corresponds.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.210" id="linknote-51.210"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 210 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.210">return</a>)<br /> [ Mozarabes, or + Mostarabes, adscititii, as it is interpreted in Latin, (Pocock, Specimen + Hist. Arabum, p. 39, 40. Bibliot. Arabico-Hispana, tom. ii. p. 18.) The + Mozarabic liturgy, the ancient ritual of the church of Toledo, has been + attacked by the popes, and exposed to the doubtful trials of the sword and + of fire, (Marian. Hist. Hispan. tom. i. l. ix. c. 18, p. 378.) It was, or + rather it is, in the Latin tongue; yet in the xith century it was found + necessary (A. Ae. C. 1687, A.D. 1039) to transcribe an Arabic version of + the canons of the councils of Spain, (Bibliot. Arab. Hisp. tom. i. p. + 547,) for the use of the bishops and clergy in the Moorish kingdoms.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.211" id="linknote-51.211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 211 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.211">return</a>)<br /> [ About the middle of + the xth century, the clergy of Cordova was reproached with this criminal + compliance, by the intrepid envoy of the Emperor Otho I., (Vit. Johan. + Gorz, in Secul. Benedict. V. No. 115, apud Fleury, Hist. Eccles. tom. xii. + p. 91.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.212" id="linknote-51.212"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 212 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.212">return</a>)<br /> [ Pagi, Critica, tom. + iv. A.D. 1149, No. 8, 9. He justly observes, that when Seville, &c., + were retaken by Ferdinand of Castille, no Christians, except captives, + were found in the place; and that the Mozarabic churches of Africa and + Spain, described by James a Vitriaco, A.D. 1218, (Hist. Hierosol. c. 80, + p. 1095, in Gest. Dei per Francos,) are copied from some older book. I + shall add, that the date of the Hegira 677 (A.D. 1278) must apply to the + copy, not the composition, of a treatise of a jurisprudence, which states + the civil rights of the Christians of Cordova, (Bibliot. Arab. Hisp. tom. + i. p. 471;) and that the Jews were the only dissenters whom Abul Waled, + king of Grenada, (A.D. 1313,) could either discountenance or tolerate, + (tom. ii. p. 288.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.213" id="linknote-51.213"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 213 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.213">return</a>)<br /> [ Renaudot, Hist. + Patriarch. Alex. p. 288. Leo Africanus would have flattered his Roman + masters, could he have discovered any latent relics of the Christianity of + Africa.] + </p> + <p> + After the revolution of eleven centuries, the Jews and Christians of the + Turkish empire enjoy the liberty of conscience which was granted by the + Arabian caliphs. During the first age of the conquest, they suspected the + loyalty of the Catholics, whose name of Melchites betrayed their secret + attachment to the Greek emperor, while the Nestorians and Jacobites, his + inveterate enemies, approved themselves the sincere and voluntary friends + of the Mahometan government. <a href="#linknote-51.214" + name="linknoteref-51.214" id="linknoteref-51.214">214</a> Yet this partial + jealousy was healed by time and submission; the churches of Egypt were + shared with the Catholics; <a href="#linknote-51.215" + name="linknoteref-51.215" id="linknoteref-51.215">215</a> and all the + Oriental sects were included in the common benefits of toleration. The + rank, the immunities, the domestic jurisdiction of the patriarchs, the + bishops, and the clergy, were protected by the civil magistrate: the + learning of individuals recommended them to the employments of secretaries + and physicians: they were enriched by the lucrative collection of the + revenue; and their merit was sometimes raised to the command of cities and + provinces. A caliph of the house of Abbas was heard to declare that the + Christians were most worthy of trust in the administration of Persia. “The + Moslems,” said he, “will abuse their present fortune; the Magians regret + their fallen greatness; and the Jews are impatient for their approaching + deliverance.” <a href="#linknote-51.216" name="linknoteref-51.216" + id="linknoteref-51.216">216</a> But the slaves of despotism are exposed to + the alternatives of favor and disgrace. The captive churches of the East + have been afflicted in every age by the avarice or bigotry of their + rulers; and the ordinary and legal restraints must be offensive to the + pride, or the zeal, of the Christians. <a href="#linknote-51.217" + name="linknoteref-51.217" id="linknoteref-51.217">217</a> About two hundred + years after Mahomet, they were separated from their fellow-subjects by a + turban or girdle of a less honorable color; instead of horses or mules. + they were condemned to ride on asses, in the attitude of women. Their + public and private building were measured by a diminutive standard; in the + streets or the baths it is their duty to give way or bow down before the + meanest of the people; and their testimony is rejected, if it may tend to + the prejudice of a true believer. The pomp of processions, the sound of + bells or of psalmody, is interdicted in their worship; a decent reverence + for the national faith is imposed on their sermons and conversations; and + the sacrilegious attempt to enter a mosch, or to seduce a Mussulman, will + not be suffered to escape with impunity. In a time, however, of + tranquillity and justice, the Christians have never been compelled to + renounce the Gospel, or to embrace the Koran; but the punishment of death + is inflicted upon the apostates who have professed and deserted the law of + Mahomet. The martyrs of Cordova provoked the sentence of the cadhi, by the + public confession of their inconstancy, or their passionate invectives + against the person and religion of the prophet. <a href="#linknote-51.218" + name="linknoteref-51.218" id="linknoteref-51.218">218</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.214" id="linknote-51.214"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 214 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.214">return</a>)<br /> [ Absit (said the + Catholic to the vizier of Bagdad) ut pari loco habeas Nestorianos, quorum + praeter Arabas nullus alius rex est, et Graecos quorum reges amovendo + Arabibus bello non desistunt, &c. See in the Collections of Assemannus + (Bibliot. Orient. tom. iv. p. 94-101) the state of the Nestorians under + the caliphs. That of the Jacobites is more concisely exposed in the + Preliminary Dissertation of the second volume of Assemannus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.215" id="linknote-51.215"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 215 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.215">return</a>)<br /> [ Eutych. Annal. tom. + ii. p. 384, 387, 388. Renaudot, Hist. Patriarch. Alex. p. 205, 206, 257, + 332. A taint of the Monothelite heresy might render the first of these + Greek patriarchs less loyal to the emperors and less obnoxious to the + Arabs.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.216" id="linknote-51.216"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 216 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.216">return</a>)<br /> [ Motadhed, who reigned + from A.D. 892 to 902. The Magians still held their name and rank among the + religions of the empire, (Assemanni, Bibliot. Orient. tom. iv. p. 97.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.217" id="linknote-51.217"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 217 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.217">return</a>)<br /> [ Reland explains the + general restraints of the Mahometan policy and jurisprudence, (Dissertat. + tom. iii. p. 16-20.) The oppressive edicts of the caliph Motawakkel, (A.D. + 847-861,) which are still in force, are noticed by Eutychius, (Annal. tom. + ii. p. 448,) and D’Herbelot, (Bibliot. Orient. p. 640.) A persecution of + the caliph Omar II. is related, and most probably magnified, by the Greek + Theophanes (Chron p. 334.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.218" id="linknote-51.218"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 218 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.218">return</a>)<br /> [ The martyrs of + Cordova (A.D. 850, &c.) are commemorated and justified by St. + Eulogius, who at length fell a victim himself. A synod, convened by the + caliph, ambiguously censured their rashness. The moderate Fleury cannot + reconcile their conduct with the discipline of antiquity, toutefois + l’autorite de l’eglise, &c. (Fleury, Hist. Eccles. tom. x. p. 415-522, + particularly p. 451, 508, 509.) Their authentic acts throw a strong, + though transient, light on the Spanish church in the ixth century.] + </p> + <p> + At the end of the first century of the Hegira, the caliphs were the most + potent and absolute monarchs of the globe. Their prerogative was not + circumscribed, either in right or in fact, by the power of the nobles, the + freedom of the commons, the privileges of the church, the votes of a + senate, or the memory of a free constitution. The authority of the + companions of Mahomet expired with their lives; and the chiefs or emirs of + the Arabian tribes left behind, in the desert, the spirit of equality and + independence. The regal and sacerdotal characters were united in the + successors of Mahomet; and if the Koran was the rule of their actions, + they were the supreme judges and interpreters of that divine book. They + reigned by the right of conquest over the nations of the East, to whom the + name of liberty was unknown, and who were accustomed to applaud in their + tyrants the acts of violence and severity that were exercised at their own + expense. Under the last of the Ommiades, the Arabian empire extended two + hundred days’ journey from east to west, from the confines of Tartary and + India to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. And if we retrench the sleeve + of the robe, as it is styled by their writers, the long and narrow + province of Africa, the solid and compact dominion from Fargana to Aden, + from Tarsus to Surat, will spread on every side to the measure of four or + five months of the march of a caravan. <a href="#linknote-51.219" + name="linknoteref-51.219" id="linknoteref-51.219">219</a> We should vainly + seek the indissoluble union and easy obedience that pervaded the + government of Augustus and the Antonines; but the progress of the + Mahometan religion diffused over this ample space a general resemblance of + manners and opinions. The language and laws of the Koran were studied with + equal devotion at Samarcand and Seville: the Moor and the Indian embraced + as countrymen and brothers in the pilgrimage of Mecca; and the Arabian + language was adopted as the popular idiom in all the provinces to the + westward of the Tigris. <a href="#linknote-51.220" name="linknoteref-51.220" + id="linknoteref-51.220">220</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.219" id="linknote-51.219"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 219 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.219">return</a>)<br /> [ See the article + Eslamiah, (as we say Christendom,) in the Bibliotheque Orientale, (p. + 325.) This chart of the Mahometan world is suited by the author, Ebn + Alwardi, to the year of the Hegira 385 (A.D. 995.) Since that time, the + losses in Spain have been overbalanced by the conquests in India, Tartary, + and the European Turkey.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-51.220" id="linknote-51.220"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 220 (<a href="#linknoteref-51.220">return</a>)<br /> [ The Arabic of the + Koran is taught as a dead language in the college of Mecca. By the Danish + traveller, this ancient idiom is compared to the Latin; the vulgar tongue + of Hejaz and Yemen to the Italian; and the Arabian dialects of Syria, + Egypt, Africa, &c., to the Provencal, Spanish, and Portuguese, + (Niebuhr, Description de l’Arabie, p. 74, &c.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap52.1"></a> + Chapter LII: More Conquests By The Arabs.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Two Sieges Of Constantinople By The Arabs.—Their + Invasion Of France, And Defeat By Charles Martel.—Civil War + Of The Ommiades And Abbassides.—Learning Of The Arabs.— + Luxury Of The Caliphs.—Naval Enterprises On Crete, Sicily, + And Rome.—Decay And Division Of The Empire Of The Caliphs. + —Defeats And Victories Of The Greek Emperors. +</pre> + <p> + When the Arabs first issued from the desert, they must have been surprised + at the ease and rapidity of their own success. But when they advanced in + the career of victory to the banks of the Indus and the summit of the + Pyrenees; when they had repeatedly tried the edge of their cimeters and + the energy of their faith, they might be equally astonished that any + nation could resist their invincible arms; that any boundary should + confine the dominion of the successor of the prophet. The confidence of + soldiers and fanatics may indeed be excused, since the calm historian of + the present hour, who strives to follow the rapid course of the Saracens, + must study to explain by what means the church and state were saved from + this impending, and, as it should seem, from this inevitable, danger. The + deserts of Scythia and Sarmatia might be guarded by their extent, their + climate, their poverty, and the courage of the northern shepherds; China + was remote and inaccessible; but the greatest part of the temperate zone + was subject to the Mahometan conquerors, the Greeks were exhausted by the + calamities of war and the loss of their fairest provinces, and the + Barbarians of Europe might justly tremble at the precipitate fall of the + Gothic monarchy. In this inquiry I shall unfold the events that rescued + our ancestors of Britain, and our neighbors of Gaul, from the civil and + religious yoke of the Koran; that protected the majesty of Rome, and + delayed the servitude of Constantinople; that invigorated the defence of + the Christians, and scattered among their enemies the seeds of division + and decay. + </p> + <p> + Forty-six years after the flight of Mahomet from Mecca, his disciples + appeared in arms under the walls of Constantinople. <a href="#linknote-52.1" + name="linknoteref-52.1" id="linknoteref-52.1">1</a> They were animated by a + genuine or fictitious saying of the prophet, that, to the first army which + besieged the city of the Caesars, their sins were forgiven: the long + series of Roman triumphs would be meritoriously transferred to the + conquerors of New Rome; and the wealth of nations was deposited in this + well-chosen seat of royalty and commerce. No sooner had the caliph + Moawiyah suppressed his rivals and established his throne, than he aspired + to expiate the guilt of civil blood, by the success and glory of this holy + expedition; <a href="#linknote-52.2" name="linknoteref-52.2" + id="linknoteref-52.2">2</a> his preparations by sea and land were adequate + to the importance of the object; his standard was intrusted to Sophian, a + veteran warrior, but the troops were encouraged by the example and + presence of Yezid, the son and presumptive heir of the commander of the + faithful. The Greeks had little to hope, nor had their enemies any reason + of fear, from the courage and vigilance of the reigning emperor, who + disgraced the name of Constantine, and imitated only the inglorious years + of his grandfather Heraclius. Without delay or opposition, the naval + forces of the Saracens passed through the unguarded channel of the + Hellespont, which even now, under the feeble and disorderly government of + the Turks, is maintained as the natural bulwark of the capital. <a + href="#linknote-52.3" name="linknoteref-52.3" id="linknoteref-52.3">3</a> The + Arabian fleet cast anchor, and the troops were disembarked near the palace + of Hebdomon, seven miles from the city. During many days, from the dawn of + light to the evening, the line of assault was extended from the golden + gate to the eastern promontory and the foremost warriors were impelled by + the weight and effort of the succeeding columns. But the besiegers had + formed an insufficient estimate of the strength and resources of + Constantinople. The solid and lofty walls were guarded by numbers and + discipline: the spirit of the Romans was rekindled by the last danger of + their religion and empire: the fugitives from the conquered provinces more + successfully renewed the defence of Damascus and Alexandria; and the + Saracens were dismayed by the strange and prodigious effects of artificial + fire. This firm and effectual resistance diverted their arms to the more + easy attempt of plundering the European and Asiatic coasts of the + Propontis; and, after keeping the sea from the month of April to that of + September, on the approach of winter they retreated fourscore miles from + the capital, to the Isle of Cyzicus, in which they had established their + magazine of spoil and provisions. So patient was their perseverance, or so + languid were their operations, that they repeated in the six following + summers the same attack and retreat, with a gradual abatement of hope and + vigor, till the mischances of shipwreck and disease, of the sword and of + fire, compelled them to relinquish the fruitless enterprise. They might + bewail the loss, or commemorate the martyrdom, of thirty thousand Moslems, + who fell in the siege of Constantinople; and the solemn funeral of Abu + Ayub, or Job, excited the curiosity of the Christians themselves. + </p> + <p> + That venerable Arab, one of the last of the companions of Mahomet, was + numbered among the ansars, or auxiliaries, of Medina, who sheltered the + head of the flying prophet. In his youth he fought, at Beder and Ohud, + under the holy standard: in his mature age he was the friend and follower + of Ali; and the last remnant of his strength and life was consumed in a + distant and dangerous war against the enemies of the Koran. His memory was + revered; but the place of his burial was neglected and unknown, during a + period of seven hundred and eighty years, till the conquest of + Constantinople by Mahomet the Second. A seasonable vision (for such are + the manufacture of every religion) revealed the holy spot at the foot of + the walls and the bottom of the harbor; and the mosch of Ayub has been + deservedly chosen for the simple and martial inauguration of the Turkish + sultans. <a href="#linknote-52.4" name="linknoteref-52.4" + id="linknoteref-52.4">4</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.1" id="linknote-52.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.1">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophanes places the + seven years of the siege of Constantinople in the year of our Christian + aera, 673 (of the Alexandrian 665, Sept. 1,) and the peace of the + Saracens, four years afterwards; a glaring inconsistency! which Petavius, + Goar, and Pagi, (Critica, tom. iv. p. 63, 64,) have struggled to remove. + Of the Arabians, the Hegira 52 (A.D. 672, January 8) is assigned by + Elmacin, the year 48 (A.D. 688, Feb. 20) by Abulfeda, whose testimony I + esteem the most convenient and credible.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.2" id="linknote-52.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.2">return</a>)<br /> [ For this first siege of + Constantinople, see Nicephorus, (Breviar. p. 21, 22;) Theophanes, + (Chronograph. p. 294;) Cedrenus, (Compend. p. 437;) Zonaras, (Hist. tom. + ii. l. xiv. p. 89;) Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 56, 57;) Abulfeda, (Annal. + Moslem. p. 107, 108, vers. Reiske;) D’Herbelot, (Bibliot. Orient. + Constantinah;) Ockley’s History of the Saracens, vol. ii. p. 127, 128.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.3" id="linknote-52.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.3">return</a>)<br /> [ The state and defence of + the Dardanelles is exposed in the Memoirs of the Baron de Tott, (tom. iii. + p. 39-97,) who was sent to fortify them against the Russians. From a + principal actor, I should have expected more accurate details; but he + seems to write for the amusement, rather than the instruction, of his + reader. Perhaps, on the approach of the enemy, the minister of Constantine + was occupied, like that of Mustapha, in finding two Canary birds who + should sing precisely the same note.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.4" id="linknote-52.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.4">return</a>)<br /> [ Demetrius Cantemir’s + Hist. of the Othman Empire, p. 105, 106. Rycaut’s State of the Ottoman + Empire, p. 10, 11. Voyages of Thevenot, part i. p. 189. The Christians, + who suppose that the martyr Abu Ayub is vulgarly confounded with the + patriarch Job, betray their own ignorance rather than that of the Turks.] + </p> + <p> + The event of the siege revived, both in the East and West, the reputation + of the Roman arms, and cast a momentary shade over the glories of the + Saracens. The Greek ambassador was favorably received at Damascus, a + general council of the emirs or Koreish: a peace, or truce, of thirty + years was ratified between the two empires; and the stipulation of an + annual tribute, fifty horses of a noble breed, fifty slaves, and three + thousand pieces of gold, degraded the majesty of the commander of the + faithful. <a href="#linknote-52.5" name="linknoteref-52.5" + id="linknoteref-52.5">5</a> The aged caliph was desirous of possessing his + dominions, and ending his days in tranquillity and repose: while the Moors + and Indians trembled at his name, his palace and city of Damascus was + insulted by the Mardaites, or Maronites, of Mount Libanus, the firmest + barrier of the empire, till they were disarmed and transplanted by the + suspicious policy of the Greeks. <a href="#linknote-52.6" + name="linknoteref-52.6" id="linknoteref-52.6">6</a> After the revolt of + Arabia and Persia, the house of Ommiyah was reduced to the kingdoms of + Syria and Egypt: their distress and fear enforced their compliance with + the pressing demands of the Christians; and the tribute was increased to a + slave, a horse, and a thousand pieces of gold, for each of the three + hundred and sixty-five days of the solar year. But as soon as the empire + was again united by the arms and policy of Abdalmalek, he disclaimed a + badge of servitude not less injurious to his conscience than to his pride; + he discontinued the payment of the tribute; and the resentment of the + Greeks was disabled from action by the mad tyranny of the second + Justinian, the just rebellion of his subjects, and the frequent change of + his antagonists and successors. <a href="#linknote-52.7" + name="linknoteref-52.7" id="linknoteref-52.7">7</a> Till the reign of + Abdalmalek, the Saracens had been content with the free possession of the + Persian and Roman treasures, in the coins of Chosroes and Caesar. By the + command of that caliph, a national mint was established, both for silver + and gold, and the inscription of the Dinar, though it might be censured by + some timorous casuists, proclaimed the unity of the God of Mahomet. <a + href="#linknote-52.8" name="linknoteref-52.8" id="linknoteref-52.8">8</a> + Under the reign of the caliph Walid, the Greek language and characters + were excluded from the accounts of the public revenue. <a + href="#linknote-52.9" name="linknoteref-52.9" id="linknoteref-52.9">9</a> If + this change was productive of the invention or familiar use of our present + numerals, the Arabic or Indian ciphers, as they are commonly styled, a + regulation of office has promoted the most important discoveries of + arithmetic, algebra, and the mathematical sciences. <a + href="#linknote-52.10" name="linknoteref-52.10" id="linknoteref-52.10">10</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.5" id="linknote-52.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.5">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophanes, though a + Greek, deserves credit for these tributes, (Chronograph. p. 295, 296, 300, + 301,) which are confirmed, with some variation, by the Arabic History of + Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 128, vers. Pocock.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.6" id="linknote-52.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.6">return</a>)<br /> [ The censure of Theophanes + is just and pointed, (Chronograph. p. 302, 303.) The series of these + events may be traced in the Annals of Theophanes, and in the Abridgment of + the patriarch Nicephorus, p. 22, 24.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.7" id="linknote-52.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.7">return</a>)<br /> [ These domestic + revolutions are related in a clear and natural style, in the second volume + of Ockley’s History of the Saracens, p. 253-370. Besides our printed + authors, he draws his materials from the Arabic Mss. of Oxford, which he + would have more deeply searched had he been confined to the Bodleian + library instead of the city jail a fate how unworthy of the man and of his + country!] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.8" id="linknote-52.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.8">return</a>)<br /> [ Elmacin, who dates the + first coinage A. H. 76, A.D. 695, five or six years later than the Greek + historians, has compared the weight of the best or common gold dinar to + the drachm or dirhem of Egypt, (p. 77,) which may be equal to two pennies + (48 grains) of our Troy weight, (Hooper’s Inquiry into Ancient Measures, + p. 24-36,) and equivalent to eight shillings of our sterling money. From + the same Elmacin and the Arabian physicians, some dinars as high as two + dirhems, as low as half a dirhem, may be deduced. The piece of silver was + the dirhem, both in value and weight; but an old, though fair coin, struck + at Waset, A. H. 88, and preserved in the Bodleian library, wants four + grains of the Cairo standard, (see the Modern Universal History, tom. i. + p. 548 of the French translation.) * Note: Up to this time the Arabs had + used the Roman or the Persian coins or had minted others which resembled + them. Nevertheless, it has been admitted of late years, that the Arabians, + before this epoch, had caused coin to be minted, on which, preserving the + Roman or the Persian dies, they added Arabian names or inscriptions. Some + of these exist in different collections. We learn from Makrizi, an Arabian + author of great learning and judgment, that in the year 18 of the Hegira, + under the caliphate of Omar, the Arabs had coined money of this + description. The same author informs us that the caliph Abdalmalek caused + coins to be struck representing himself with a sword by his side. These + types, so contrary to the notions of the Arabs, were disapproved by the + most influential persons of the time, and the caliph substituted for them, + after the year 76 of the Hegira, the Mahometan coins with which we are + acquainted. Consult, on the question of Arabic numismatics, the works of + Adler, of Fraehn, of Castiglione, and of Marsden, who have treated at + length this interesting point of historic antiquities. See, also, in the + Journal Asiatique, tom. ii. p. 257, et seq., a paper of M. Silvestre de + Sacy, entitled Des Monnaies des Khalifes avant l’An 75 de l’Hegire. See, + also the translation of a German paper on the Arabic medals of the + Chosroes, by M. Fraehn. in the same Journal Asiatique tom. iv. p. 331-347. + St. Martin, vol. xii. p. 19, —M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.9" id="linknote-52.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.9">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophan. Chronograph. p. + 314. This defect, if it really existed, must have stimulated the ingenuity + of the Arabs to invent or borrow.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.10" id="linknote-52.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.10">return</a>)<br /> [ According to a new, + though probable, notion, maintained by M de Villoison, (Anecdota Graeca, + tom. ii. p. 152-157,) our ciphers are not of Indian or Arabic invention. + They were used by the Greek and Latin arithmeticians long before the age + of Boethius. After the extinction of science in the West, they were + adopted by the Arabic versions from the original Mss., and restored to the + Latins about the xith century. * Note: Compare, on the Introduction of the + Arabic numerals, Hallam’s Introduction to the Literature of Europe, p. + 150, note, and the authors quoted therein.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Whilst the caliph Walid sat idle on the throne of Damascus, whilst his + lieutenants achieved the conquest of Transoxiana and Spain, a third army + of Saracens overspread the provinces of Asia Minor, and approached the + borders of the Byzantine capital. But the attempt and disgrace of the + second siege was reserved for his brother Soliman, whose ambition appears + to have been quickened by a more active and martial spirit. In the + revolutions of the Greek empire, after the tyrant Justinian had been + punished and avenged, an humble secretary, Anastasius or Artemius, was + promoted by chance or merit to the vacant purple. He was alarmed by the + sound of war; and his ambassador returned from Damascus with the + tremendous news, that the Saracens were preparing an armament by sea and + land, such as would transcend the experience of the past, or the belief of + the present age. The precautions of Anastasius were not unworthy of his + station, or of the impending danger. He issued a peremptory mandate, that + all persons who were not provided with the means of subsistence for a + three years’ siege should evacuate the city: the public granaries and + arsenals were abundantly replenished; the walls were restored and + strengthened; and the engines for casting stones, or darts, or fire, were + stationed along the ramparts, or in the brigantines of war, of which an + additional number was hastily constructed. To prevent is safer, as well as + more honorable, than to repel, an attack; and a design was meditated, + above the usual spirit of the Greeks, of burning the naval stores of the + enemy, the cypress timber that had been hewn in Mount Libanus, and was + piled along the sea-shore of Phoenicia, for the service of the Egyptian + fleet. This generous enterprise was defeated by the cowardice or treachery + of the troops, who, in the new language of the empire, were styled of the + Obsequian Theme. <a href="#linknote-52.11" name="linknoteref-52.11" + id="linknoteref-52.11">11</a> They murdered their chief, deserted their + standard in the Isle of Rhodes, dispersed themselves over the adjacent + continent, and deserved pardon or reward by investing with the purple a + simple officer of the revenue. The name of Theodosius might recommend him + to the senate and people; but, after some months, he sunk into a cloister, + and resigned, to the firmer hand of Leo the Isaurian, the urgent defence + of the capital and empire. The most formidable of the Saracens, Moslemah, + the brother of the caliph, was advancing at the head of one hundred and + twenty thousand Arabs and Persians, the greater part mounted on horses or + camels; and the successful sieges of Tyana, Amorium, and Pergamus, were of + sufficient duration to exercise their skill and to elevate their hopes. At + the well-known passage of Abydus, on the Hellespont, the Mahometan arms + were transported, for the first time, <a href="#linknote-52.1111" + name="linknoteref-52.1111" id="linknoteref-52.1111">1111</a> from Asia to + Europe. From thence, wheeling round the Thracian cities of the Propontis, + Moslemah invested Constantinople on the land side, surrounded his camp + with a ditch and rampart, prepared and planted his engines of assault, and + declared, by words and actions, a patient resolution of expecting the + return of seed-time and harvest, should the obstinacy of the besieged + prove equal to his own. <a href="#linknote-52.1112" + name="linknoteref-52.1112" id="linknoteref-52.1112">1112</a> The Greeks + would gladly have ransomed their religion and empire, by a fine or + assessment of a piece of gold on the head of each inhabitant of the city; + but the liberal offer was rejected with disdain, and the presumption of + Moslemah was exalted by the speedy approach and invincible force of the + natives of Egypt and Syria. They are said to have amounted to eighteen + hundred ships: the number betrays their inconsiderable size; and of the + twenty stout and capacious vessels, whose magnitude impeded their + progress, each was manned with no more than one hundred heavy-armed + soldiers. This huge armada proceeded on a smooth sea, and with a gentle + gale, towards the mouth of the Bosphorus; the surface of the strait was + overshadowed, in the language of the Greeks, with a moving forest, and the + same fatal night had been fixed by the Saracen chief for a general assault + by sea and land. To allure the confidence of the enemy, the emperor had + thrown aside the chain that usually guarded the entrance of the harbor; + but while they hesitated whether they should seize the opportunity, or + apprehend the snare, the ministers of destruction were at hand. The + fire-ships of the Greeks were launched against them; the Arabs, their + arms, and vessels, were involved in the same flames; the disorderly + fugitives were dashed against each other or overwhelmed in the waves; and + I no longer find a vestige of the fleet, that had threatened to extirpate + the Roman name. A still more fatal and irreparable loss was that of the + caliph Soliman, who died of an indigestion, <a href="#linknote-52.12" + name="linknoteref-52.12" id="linknoteref-52.12">12</a> in his camp near + Kinnisrin or Chalcis in Syria, as he was preparing to lead against + Constantinople the remaining forces of the East. The brother of Moslemah + was succeeded by a kinsman and an enemy; and the throne of an active and + able prince was degraded by the useless and pernicious virtues of a bigot. + <a href="#linknote-52.1211" name="linknoteref-52.1211" + id="linknoteref-52.1211">1211</a> While he started and satisfied the + scruples of a blind conscience, the siege was continued through the winter + by the neglect, rather than by the resolution of the caliph Omar. <a + href="#linknote-52.13" name="linknoteref-52.13" id="linknoteref-52.13">13</a> + The winter proved uncommonly rigorous: above a hundred days the ground was + covered with deep snow, and the natives of the sultry climes of Egypt and + Arabia lay torpid and almost lifeless in their frozen camp. They revived + on the return of spring; a second effort had been made in their favor; and + their distress was relieved by the arrival of two numerous fleets, laden + with corn, and arms, and soldiers; the first from Alexandria, of four + hundred transports and galleys; the second of three hundred and sixty + vessels from the ports of Africa. But the Greek fires were again kindled; + and if the destruction was less complete, it was owing to the experience + which had taught the Moslems to remain at a safe distance, or to the + perfidy of the Egyptian mariners, who deserted with their ships to the + emperor of the Christians. The trade and navigation of the capital were + restored; and the produce of the fisheries supplied the wants, and even + the luxury, of the inhabitants. But the calamities of famine and disease + were soon felt by the troops of Moslemah, and as the former was miserably + assuaged, so the latter was dreadfully propagated, by the pernicious + nutriment which hunger compelled them to extract from the most unclean or + unnatural food. The spirit of conquest, and even of enthusiasm, was + extinct: the Saracens could no longer struggle, beyond their lines, either + single or in small parties, without exposing themselves to the merciless + retaliation of the Thracian peasants. + </p> + <p> + An army of Bulgarians was attracted from the Danube by the gifts and + promises of Leo; and these savage auxiliaries made some atonement for the + evils which they had inflicted on the empire, by the defeat and slaughter + of twenty-two thousand Asiatics. A report was dexterously scattered, that + the Franks, the unknown nations of the Latin world, were arming by sea and + land in the defence of the Christian cause, and their formidable aid was + expected with far different sensations in the camp and city. At length, + after a siege of thirteen months, <a href="#linknote-52.14" + name="linknoteref-52.14" id="linknoteref-52.14">14</a> the hopeless Moslemah + received from the caliph the welcome permission of retreat. <a + href="#linknote-52.1411" name="linknoteref-52.1411" id="linknoteref-52.1411">1411</a> + The march of the Arabian cavalry over the Hellespont and through the + provinces of Asia, was executed without delay or molestation; but an army + of their brethren had been cut in pieces on the side of Bithynia, and the + remains of the fleet were so repeatedly damaged by tempest and fire, that + only five galleys entered the port of Alexandria to relate the tale of + their various and almost incredible disasters. <a href="#linknote-52.15" + name="linknoteref-52.15" id="linknoteref-52.15">15</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.11" id="linknote-52.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.11">return</a>)<br /> [ In the division of the + Themes, or provinces described by Constantine Porphyrogenitus, (de + Thematibus, l. i. p. 9, 10,) the Obsequium, a Latin appellation of the + army and palace, was the fourth in the public order. Nice was the + metropolis, and its jurisdiction extended from the Hellespont over the + adjacent parts of Bithynia and Phrygia, (see the two maps prefixed by + Delisle to the Imperium Orientale of Banduri.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.1111" id="linknote-52.1111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1111 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.1111">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare page 274. + It is singular that Gibbon should thus contradict himself in a few pages. + By his own account this was the second time.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.1112" id="linknote-52.1112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1112 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.1112">return</a>)<br /> [ The account of this + siege in the Tarikh Tebry is a very unfavorable specimen of Asiatic + history, full of absurd fables, and written with total ignorance of the + circumstances of time and place. Price, vol. i. p. 498—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.12" id="linknote-52.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.12">return</a>)<br /> [ The caliph had emptied + two baskets of eggs and of figs, which he swallowed alternately, and the + repast was concluded with marrow and sugar. In one of his pilgrimages to + Mecca, Soliman ate, at a single meal, seventy pomegranates, a kid, six + fowls, and a huge quantity of the grapes of Tayef. If the bill of fare be + correct, we must admire the appetite, rather than the luxury, of the + sovereign of Asia, (Abulfeda, Annal. Moslem. p. 126.) * Note: The Tarikh + Tebry ascribes the death of Soliman to a pleurisy. The same gross gluttony + in which Soliman indulged, though not fatal to the life, interfered with + the military duties, of his brother Moslemah. Price, vol. i. p. 511.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.1211" id="linknote-52.1211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1211 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.1211">return</a>)<br /> [ Major Price’s + estimate of Omar’s character is much more favorable. Among a race of + sanguinary tyrants, Omar was just and humane. His virtues as well as his + bigotry were active.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.13" id="linknote-52.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.13">return</a>)<br /> [ See the article of Omar + Ben Abdalaziz, in the Bibliotheque Orientale, (p. 689, 690,) praeferens, + says Elmacin, (p. 91,) religionem suam rebus suis mundanis. He was so + desirous of being with God, that he would not have anointed his ear (his + own saying) to obtain a perfect cure of his last malady. The caliph had + only one shirt, and in an age of luxury, his annual expense was no more + than two drachms, (Abulpharagius, p. 131.) Haud diu gavisus eo principe + fuit urbis Muslemus, (Abulfeda, p. 127.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.14" id="linknote-52.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.14">return</a>)<br /> [ Both Nicephorus and + Theophanes agree that the siege of Constantinople was raised the 15th of + August, (A.D. 718;) but as the former, our best witness, affirms that it + continued thirteen months, the latter must be mistaken in supposing that + it began on the same day of the preceding year. I do not find that Pagi + has remarked this inconsistency.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.1411" id="linknote-52.1411"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1411 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.1411">return</a>)<br /> [ The Tarikh Tebry + embellishes the retreat of Moslemah with some extraordinary and incredible + circumstances. Price, p. 514.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.15" id="linknote-52.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.15">return</a>)<br /> [ In the second siege of + Constantinople, I have followed Nicephorus, (Brev. p. 33-36,) Theophanes, + (Chronograph, p. 324-334,) Cedrenus, (Compend. p. 449-452,) Zonaras, (tom. + ii. p. 98-102,) Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen, p. 88,) Abulfeda, (Annal. Moslem. + p. 126,) and Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 130,) the most satisfactory of the + Arabs.] + </p> + <p> + In the two sieges, the deliverance of Constantinople may be chiefly + ascribed to the novelty, the terrors, and the real efficacy of the Greek + fire. <a href="#linknote-52.16" name="linknoteref-52.16" + id="linknoteref-52.16">16</a> The important secret of compounding and + directing this artificial flame was imparted by Callinicus, a native of + Heliopolis in Syria, who deserted from the service of the caliph to that + of the emperor. <a href="#linknote-52.17" name="linknoteref-52.17" + id="linknoteref-52.17">17</a> The skill of a chemist and engineer was + equivalent to the succor of fleets and armies; and this discovery or + improvement of the military art was fortunately reserved for the + distressful period, when the degenerate Romans of the East were incapable + of contending with the warlike enthusiasm and youthful vigor of the + Saracens. The historian who presumes to analyze this extraordinary + composition should suspect his own ignorance and that of his Byzantine + guides, so prone to the marvellous, so careless, and, in this instance, so + jealous of the truth. From their obscure, and perhaps fallacious, hints it + should seem that the principal ingredient of the Greek fire was the + naphtha, <a href="#linknote-52.18" name="linknoteref-52.18" + id="linknoteref-52.18">18</a> or liquid bitumen, a light, tenacious, and + inflammable oil, <a href="#linknote-52.19" name="linknoteref-52.19" + id="linknoteref-52.19">19</a> which springs from the earth, and catches + fire as soon as it comes in contact with the air. The naphtha was mingled, + I know not by what methods or in what proportions, with sulphur and with + the pitch that is extracted from evergreen firs. <a href="#linknote-52.20" + name="linknoteref-52.20" id="linknoteref-52.20">20</a> From this mixture, + which produced a thick smoke and a loud explosion, proceeded a fierce and + obstinate flame, which not only rose in perpendicular ascent, but likewise + burnt with equal vehemence in descent or lateral progress; instead of + being extinguished, it was nourished and quickened by the element of + water; and sand, urine, or vinegar, were the only remedies that could damp + the fury of this powerful agent, which was justly denominated by the + Greeks the liquid, or the maritime, fire. For the annoyance of the enemy, + it was employed with equal effect, by sea and land, in battles or in + sieges. It was either poured from the rampart in large boilers, or + launched in red-hot balls of stone and iron, or darted in arrows and + javelins, twisted round with flax and tow, which had deeply imbibed the + inflammable oil; sometimes it was deposited in fire-ships, the victims and + instruments of a more ample revenge, and was most commonly blown through + long tubes of copper which were planted on the prow of a galley, and + fancifully shaped into the mouths of savage monsters, that seemed to vomit + a stream of liquid and consuming fire. This important art was preserved at + Constantinople, as the palladium of the state: the galleys and artillery + might occasionally be lent to the allies of Rome; but the composition of + the Greek fire was concealed with the most jealous scruple, and the terror + of the enemies was increased and prolonged by their ignorance and + surprise. In the treaties of the administration of the empire, the royal + author <a href="#linknote-52.21" name="linknoteref-52.21" + id="linknoteref-52.21">21</a> suggests the answers and excuses that might + best elude the indiscreet curiosity and importunate demands of the + Barbarians. They should be told that the mystery of the Greek fire had + been revealed by an angel to the first and greatest of the Constantines, + with a sacred injunction, that this gift of Heaven, this peculiar blessing + of the Romans, should never be communicated to any foreign nation; that + the prince and the subject were alike bound to religious silence under the + temporal and spiritual penalties of treason and sacrilege; and that the + impious attempt would provoke the sudden and supernatural vengeance of the + God of the Christians. By these precautions, the secret was confined, + above four hundred years, to the Romans of the East; and at the end of the + eleventh century, the Pisans, to whom every sea and every art were + familiar, suffered the effects, without understanding the composition, of + the Greek fire. It was at length either discovered or stolen by the + Mahometans; and, in the holy wars of Syria and Egypt, they retorted an + invention, contrived against themselves, on the heads of the Christians. A + knight, who despised the swords and lances of the Saracens, relates, with + heartfelt sincerity, his own fears, and those of his companions, at the + sight and sound of the mischievous engine that discharged a torrent of the + Greek fire, the feu Gregeois, as it is styled by the more early of the + French writers. It came flying through the air, says Joinville, <a + href="#linknote-52.22" name="linknoteref-52.22" id="linknoteref-52.22">22</a> + like a winged long-tailed dragon, about the thickness of a hogshead, with + the report of thunder and the velocity of lightning; and the darkness of + the night was dispelled by this deadly illumination. The use of the Greek, + or, as it might now be called, of the Saracen fire, was continued to the + middle of the fourteenth century, <a href="#linknote-52.23" + name="linknoteref-52.23" id="linknoteref-52.23">23</a> when the scientific + or casual compound of nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, effected a new + revolution in the art of war and the history of mankind. <a + href="#linknote-52.24" name="linknoteref-52.24" id="linknoteref-52.24">24</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.16" id="linknote-52.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.16">return</a>)<br /> [ Our sure and + indefatigable guide in the middle ages and Byzantine history, Charles du + Fresne du Cange, has treated in several places of the Greek fire, and his + collections leave few gleanings behind. See particularly Glossar. Med. et + Infim. Graecitat. p. 1275, sub voce. Glossar. Med. et Infim. Latinitat. + Ignis Groecus. Observations sur Villehardouin, p. 305, 306. Observations + sur Joinville, p. 71, 72.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.17" id="linknote-52.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.17">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophanes styles him, + (p. 295.) Cedrenus (p. 437) brings this artist from (the ruins of) + Heliopolis in Egypt; and chemistry was indeed the peculiar science of the + Egyptians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.18" id="linknote-52.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.18">return</a>)<br /> [ The naphtha, the oleum + incendiarium of the history of Jerusalem, (Gest. Dei per Francos, p. + 1167,) the Oriental fountain of James de Vitry, (l. iii. c. 84,) is + introduced on slight evidence and strong probability. Cinanmus (l. vi. p. + 165) calls the Greek fire: and the naphtha is known to abound between the + Tigris and the Caspian Sea. According to Pliny, (Hist. Natur. ii. 109,) it + was subservient to the revenge of Medea, and in either etymology, (Procop. + de Bell. Gothic. l. iv. c. 11,) may fairly signify this liquid bitumen. * + Note: It is remarkable that the Syrian historian Michel gives the name of + naphtha to the newly-invented Greek fire, which seems to indicate that + this substance formed the base of the destructive compound. St. Martin, + tom. xi. p. 420.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.19" id="linknote-52.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.19">return</a>)<br /> [ On the different sorts + of oils and bitumens, see Dr. Watson’s (the present bishop of Llandaff’s) + Chemical Essays, vol. iii. essay i., a classic book, the best adapted to + infuse the taste and knowledge of chemistry. The less perfect ideas of the + ancients may be found in Strabo (Geograph. l. xvi. p. 1078) and Pliny, + (Hist. Natur. ii. 108, 109.) Huic (Naphthae) magna cognatio est ignium, + transiliuntque protinus in eam undecunque visam. Of our travellers I am + best pleased with Otter, (tom. i. p. 153, 158.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.20" id="linknote-52.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.20">return</a>)<br /> [ Anna Comnena has partly + drawn aside the curtain. (Alexiad. l. xiii. p. 383.) Elsewhere (l. xi. p. + 336) she mentions the property of burning. Leo, in the xixth chapter of + his Tactics, (Opera Meursii, tom. vi. p. 843, edit. Lami, Florent. 1745,) + speaks of the new invention. These are genuine and Imperial testimonies.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.21" id="linknote-52.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.21">return</a>)<br /> [ Constantin. + Porphyrogenit. de Administrat. Imperii, c. xiii. p. 64, 65.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.22" id="linknote-52.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.22">return</a>)<br /> [ Histoire de St. Louis, + p. 39. Paris, 1668, p. 44. Paris, de l’Imprimerie Royale, 1761. The former + of these editions is precious for the observations of Ducange; the latter + for the pure and original text of Joinville. We must have recourse to that + text to discover, that the feu Gregeois was shot with a pile or javelin, + from an engine that acted like a sling.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.23" id="linknote-52.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.23">return</a>)<br /> [ The vanity, or envy, of + shaking the established property of Fame, has tempted some moderns to + carry gunpowder above the xivth, (see Sir William Temple, Dutens, &c.,) + and the Greek fire above the viith century, (see the Saluste du President + des Brosses, tom. ii. p. 381.) But their evidence, which precedes the + vulgar aera of the invention, is seldom clear or satisfactory, and + subsequent writers may be suspected of fraud or credulity. In the earliest + sieges, some combustibles of oil and sulphur have been used, and the Greek + fire has some affinities with gunpowder both in its nature and effects: + for the antiquity of the first, a passage of Procopius, (de Bell. Goth. l. + iv. c. 11,) for that of the second, some facts in the Arabic history of + Spain, (A.D. 1249, 1312, 1332. Bibliot. Arab. Hisp. tom. ii. p. 6, 7, 8,) + are the most difficult to elude.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.24" id="linknote-52.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.24">return</a>)<br /> [ That extraordinary man, + Friar Bacon, reveals two of the ingredients, saltpetre and sulphur, and + conceals the third in a sentence of mysterious gibberish, as if he dreaded + the consequences of his own discovery, (Biog. Brit. vol. i. p. 430, new + edition.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap52.2"></a> + Chapter LII: More Conquests By The Arabs.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + Constantinople and the Greek fire might exclude the Arabs from the eastern + entrance of Europe; but in the West, on the side of the Pyrenees, the + provinces of Gaul were threatened and invaded by the conquerors of Spain. + <a href="#linknote-52.25" name="linknoteref-52.25" id="linknoteref-52.25">25</a> + The decline of the French monarchy invited the attack of these insatiate + fanatics. The descendants of Clovis had lost the inheritance of his + martial and ferocious spirit; and their misfortune or demerit has affixed + the epithet of lazy to the last kings of the Merovingian race. <a + href="#linknote-52.26" name="linknoteref-52.26" id="linknoteref-52.26">26</a> + They ascended the throne without power, and sunk into the grave without a + name. A country palace, in the neighborhood of Compiegne <a + href="#linknote-52.27" name="linknoteref-52.27" id="linknoteref-52.27">27</a> + was allotted for their residence or prison: but each year, in the month of + March or May, they were conducted in a wagon drawn by oxen to the assembly + of the Franks, to give audience to foreign ambassadors, and to ratify the + acts of the mayor of the palace. That domestic officer was become the + minister of the nation and the master of the prince. A public employment + was converted into the patrimony of a private family: the elder Pepin left + a king of mature years under the guardianship of his own widow and her + child; and these feeble regents were forcibly dispossessed by the most + active of his bastards. A government, half savage and half corrupt, was + almost dissolved; and the tributary dukes, and provincial counts, and the + territorial lords, were tempted to despise the weakness of the monarch, + and to imitate the ambition of the mayor. Among these independent chiefs, + one of the boldest and most successful was Eudes, duke of Aquitain, who in + the southern provinces of Gaul usurped the authority, and even the title + of king. The Goths, the Gascons, and the Franks, assembled under the + standard of this Christian hero: he repelled the first invasion of the + Saracens; and Zama, lieutenant of the caliph, lost his army and his life + under the walls of Thoulouse. The ambition of his successors was + stimulated by revenge; they repassed the Pyrenees with the means and the + resolution of conquest. The advantageous situation which had recommended + Narbonne <a href="#linknote-52.28" name="linknoteref-52.28" + id="linknoteref-52.28">28</a> as the first Roman colony, was again chosen + by the Moslems: they claimed the province of Septimania or Languedoc as a + just dependence of the Spanish monarchy: the vineyards of Gascony and the + city of Bourdeaux were possessed by the sovereign of Damascus and + Samarcand; and the south of France, from the mouth of the Garonne to that + of the Rhone, assumed the manners and religion of Arabia. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.25" id="linknote-52.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.25">return</a>)<br /> [ For the invasion of + France and the defeat of the Arabs by Charles Martel, see the Historia + Arabum (c. 11, 12, 13, 14) of Roderic Ximenes, archbishop of Toledo, who + had before him the Christian chronicle of Isidore Pacensis, and the + Mahometan history of Novairi. The Moslems are silent or concise in the + account of their losses; but M Cardonne (tom. i. p. 129, 130, 131) has + given a pure and simple account of all that he could collect from Ibn + Halikan, Hidjazi, and an anonymous writer. The texts of the chronicles of + France, and lives of saints, are inserted in the Collection of Bouquet, + (tom. iii.,) and the Annals of Pagi, who (tom. iii. under the proper + years) has restored the chronology, which is anticipated six years in the + Annals of Baronius. The Dictionary of Bayle (Abderame and Munuza) has more + merit for lively reflection than original research.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.26" id="linknote-52.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.26">return</a>)<br /> [ Eginhart, de Vita + Caroli Magni, c. ii. p. 13-78, edit. Schmink, Utrecht, 1711. Some modern + critics accuse the minister of Charlemagne of exaggerating the weakness of + the Merovingians; but the general outline is just, and the French reader + will forever repeat the beautiful lines of Boileau’s Lutrin.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.27" id="linknote-52.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.27">return</a>)<br /> [ Mamaccae, on the Oyse, + between Compiegne and Noyon, which Eginhart calls perparvi reditus villam, + (see the notes, and the map of ancient France for Dom. Bouquet’s + Collection.) Compendium, or Compiegne, was a palace of more dignity, + (Hadrian. Valesii Notitia Galliarum, p. 152,) and that laughing + philosopher, the Abbe Galliani, (Dialogues sur le Commerce des Bleds,) may + truly affirm, that it was the residence of the rois tres Chretiens en tres + chevelus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.28" id="linknote-52.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.28">return</a>)<br /> [ Even before that + colony, A. U. C. 630, (Velleius Patercul. i. 15,) In the time of Polybius, + (Hist. l. iii. p. 265, edit. Gronov.) Narbonne was a Celtic town of the + first eminence, and one of the most northern places of the known world, + (D’Anville, Notice de l’Ancienne Gaule, p. 473.)] + </p> + <p> + But these narrow limits were scorned by the spirit of Abdalraman, or + Abderame, who had been restored by the caliph Hashem to the wishes of the + soldiers and people of Spain. That veteran and daring commander adjudged + to the obedience of the prophet whatever yet remained of France or of + Europe; and prepared to execute the sentence, at the head of a formidable + host, in the full confidence of surmounting all opposition either of + nature or of man. His first care was to suppress a domestic rebel, who + commanded the most important passes of the Pyrenees: Manuza, a Moorish + chief, had accepted the alliance of the duke of Aquitain; and Eudes, from + a motive of private or public interest, devoted his beauteous daughter to + the embraces of the African misbeliever. But the strongest fortresses of + Cerdagne were invested by a superior force; the rebel was overtaken and + slain in the mountains; and his widow was sent a captive to Damascus, to + gratify the desires, or more probably the vanity, of the commander of the + faithful. From the Pyrenees, Abderame proceeded without delay to the + passage of the Rhone and the siege of Arles. + </p> + <p> + An army of Christians attempted the relief of the city: the tombs of their + leaders were yet visible in the thirteenth century; and many thousands of + their dead bodies were carried down the rapid stream into the + Mediterranean Sea. The arms of Abderame were not less successful on the + side of the ocean. He passed without opposition the Garonne and Dordogne, + which unite their waters in the Gulf of Bourdeaux; but he found, beyond + those rivers, the camp of the intrepid Eudes, who had formed a second army + and sustained a second defeat, so fatal to the Christians, that, according + to their sad confession, God alone could reckon the number of the slain. + The victorious Saracen overran the provinces of Aquitain, whose Gallic + names are disguised, rather than lost, in the modern appellations of + Perigord, Saintonge, and Poitou: his standards were planted on the walls, + or at least before the gates, of Tours and of Sens; and his detachments + overspread the kingdom of Burgundy as far as the well-known cities of + Lyons and Besançon. The memory of these devastations (for Abderame did not + spare the country or the people) was long preserved by tradition; and the + invasion of France by the Moors or Mahometans affords the groundwork of + those fables, which have been so wildly disfigured in the romances of + chivalry, and so elegantly adorned by the Italian muse. In the decline of + society and art, the deserted cities could supply a slender booty to the + Saracens; their richest spoil was found in the churches and monasteries, + which they stripped of their ornaments and delivered to the flames: and + the tutelar saints, both Hilary of Poitiers and Martin of Tours, forgot + their miraculous powers in the defence of their own sepulchres. <a + href="#linknote-52.29" name="linknoteref-52.29" id="linknoteref-52.29">29</a> + A victorious line of march had been prolonged above a thousand miles from + the rock of Gibraltar to the banks of the Loire; the repetition of an + equal space would have carried the Saracens to the confines of Poland and + the Highlands of Scotland; the Rhine is not more impassable than the Nile + or Euphrates, and the Arabian fleet might have sailed without a naval + combat into the mouth of the Thames. Perhaps the interpretation of the + Koran would now be taught in the schools of Oxford, and her pulpits might + demonstrate to a circumcised people the sanctity and truth of the + revelation of Mahomet. <a href="#linknote-52.30" name="linknoteref-52.30" + id="linknoteref-52.30">30</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.29" id="linknote-52.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.29">return</a>)<br /> [ With regard to the + sanctuary of St. Martin of Tours, Roderic Ximenes accuses the Saracens of + the deed. Turonis civitatem, ecclesiam et palatia vastatione et incendio + simili diruit et consumpsit. The continuator of Fredegarius imputes to + them no more than the intention. Ad domum beatissimi Martini evertendam + destinant. At Carolus, &c. The French annalist was more jealous of the + honor of the saint.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.30" id="linknote-52.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.30">return</a>)<br /> [ Yet I sincerely doubt + whether the Oxford mosch would have produced a volume of controversy so + elegant and ingenious as the sermons lately preached by Mr. White, the + Arabic professor, at Mr. Bampton’s lecture. His observations on the + character and religion of Mahomet are always adapted to his argument, and + generally founded in truth and reason. He sustains the part of a lively + and eloquent advocate; and sometimes rises to the merit of an historian + and philosopher.] + </p> + <p> + From such calamities was Christendom delivered by the genius and fortune + of one man. Charles, the illegitimate son of the elder Pepin, was content + with the titles of mayor or duke of the Franks; but he deserved to become + the father of a line of kings. In a laborious administration of + twenty-four years, he restored and supported the dignity of the throne, + and the rebels of Germany and Gaul were successively crushed by the + activity of a warrior, who, in the same campaign, could display his banner + on the Elbe, the Rhone, and the shores of the ocean. In the public danger + he was summoned by the voice of his country; and his rival, the duke of + Aquitain, was reduced to appear among the fugitives and suppliants. + “Alas!” exclaimed the Franks, “what a misfortune! what an indignity! We + have long heard of the name and conquests of the Arabs: we were + apprehensive of their attack from the East; they have now conquered Spain, + and invade our country on the side of the West. Yet their numbers, and + (since they have no buckler) their arms, are inferior to our own.” “If you + follow my advice,” replied the prudent mayor of the palace, “you will not + interrupt their march, nor precipitate your attack. They are like a + torrent, which it is dangerous to stem in its career. The thirst of + riches, and the consciousness of success, redouble their valor, and valor + is of more avail than arms or numbers. Be patient till they have loaded + themselves with the encumbrance of wealth. The possession of wealth will + divide their councils and assure your victory.” This subtile policy is + perhaps a refinement of the Arabian writers; and the situation of Charles + will suggest a more narrow and selfish motive of procrastination—the + secret desire of humbling the pride and wasting the provinces of the rebel + duke of Aquitain. It is yet more probable, that the delays of Charles were + inevitable and reluctant. A standing army was unknown under the first and + second race; more than half the kingdom was now in the hands of the + Saracens: according to their respective situation, the Franks of Neustria + and Austrasia were to conscious or too careless of the impending danger; + and the voluntary aids of the Gepidae and Germans were separated by a long + interval from the standard of the Christian general. No sooner had he + collected his forces, than he sought and found the enemy in the centre of + France, between Tours and Poitiers. His well-conducted march was covered + with a range of hills, and Abderame appears to have been surprised by his + unexpected presence. The nations of Asia, Africa, and Europe, advanced + with equal ardor to an encounter which would change the history of the + world. In the six first days of desultory combat, the horsemen and archers + of the East maintained their advantage: but in the closer onset of the + seventh day, the Orientals were oppressed by the strength and stature of + the Germans, who, with stout hearts and iron hands, <a + href="#linknote-52.31" name="linknoteref-52.31" id="linknoteref-52.31">31</a> + asserted the civil and religious freedom of their posterity. The epithet + of Martel, the Hammer, which has been added to the name of Charles, is + expressive of his weighty and irresistible strokes: the valor of Eudes was + excited by resentment and emulation; and their companions, in the eye of + history, are the true Peers and Paladins of French chivalry. After a + bloody field, in which Abderame was slain, the Saracens, in the close of + the evening, retired to their camp. In the disorder and despair of the + night, the various tribes of Yemen and Damascus, of Africa and Spain, were + provoked to turn their arms against each other: the remains of their host + were suddenly dissolved, and each emir consulted his safety by a hasty and + separate retreat. At the dawn of the day, the stillness of a hostile camp + was suspected by the victorious Christians: on the report of their spies, + they ventured to explore the riches of the vacant tents; but if we except + some celebrated relics, a small portion of the spoil was restored to the + innocent and lawful owners. The joyful tidings were soon diffused over the + Catholic world, and the monks of Italy could affirm and believe that three + hundred and fifty, or three hundred and seventy-five, thousand of the + Mahometans had been crushed by the hammer of Charles, <a + href="#linknote-52.32" name="linknoteref-52.32" id="linknoteref-52.32">32</a> + while no more than fifteen hundred Christians were slain in the field of + Tours. But this incredible tale is sufficiently disproved by the caution + of the French general, who apprehended the snares and accidents of a + pursuit, and dismissed his German allies to their native forests. + </p> + <p> + The inactivity of a conqueror betrays the loss of strength and blood, and + the most cruel execution is inflicted, not in the ranks of battle, but on + the backs of a flying enemy. Yet the victory of the Franks was complete + and final; Aquitain was recovered by the arms of Eudes; the Arabs never + resumed the conquest of Gaul, and they were soon driven beyond the + Pyrenees by Charles Martel and his valiant race. <a href="#linknote-52.33" + name="linknoteref-52.33" id="linknoteref-52.33">33</a> It might have been + expected that the savior of Christendom would have been canonized, or at + least applauded, by the gratitude of the clergy, who are indebted to his + sword for their present existence. But in the public distress, the mayor + of the palace had been compelled to apply the riches, or at least the + revenues, of the bishops and abbots, to the relief of the state and the + reward of the soldiers. His merits were forgotten, his sacrilege alone was + remembered, and, in an epistle to a Carlovingian prince, a Gallic synod + presumes to declare that his ancestor was damned; that on the opening of + his tomb, the spectators were affrighted by a smell of fire and the aspect + of a horrid dragon; and that a saint of the times was indulged with a + pleasant vision of the soul and body of Charles Martel, burning, to all + eternity, in the abyss of hell. <a href="#linknote-52.34" + name="linknoteref-52.34" id="linknoteref-52.34">34</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.31" id="linknote-52.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.31">return</a>)<br /> [ Gens Austriae membrorum + pre-eminentia valida, et gens Germana corde et corpore praestantissima, + quasi in ictu oculi, manu ferrea, et pectore arduo, Arabes extinxerunt, + (Roderic. Toletan. c. xiv.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.32" id="linknote-52.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.32">return</a>)<br /> [ These numbers are + stated by Paul Warnefrid, the deacon of Aquileia, (de Gestis Langobard. l. + vi. p. 921, edit. Grot.,) and Anastasius, the librarian of the Roman + church, (in Vit. Gregorii II.,) who tells a miraculous story of three + consecrated sponges, which rendered invulnerable the French soldiers, + among whom they had been shared It should seem, that in his letters to the + pope, Eudes usurped the honor of the victory, from which he is chastised + by the French annalists, who, with equal falsehood, accuse him of inviting + the Saracens.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.33" id="linknote-52.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.33">return</a>)<br /> [ Narbonne, and the rest + of Septimania, was recovered by Pepin the son of Charles Martel, A.D. 755, + (Pagi, Critica, tom. iii. p. 300.) Thirty-seven years afterwards, it was + pillaged by a sudden inroad of the Arabs, who employed the captives in the + construction of the mosch of Cordova, (De Guignes, Hist. des Huns, tom. i. + p. 354.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.34" id="linknote-52.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.34">return</a>)<br /> [ This pastoral letter, + addressed to Lewis the Germanic, the grandson of Charlemagne, and most + probably composed by the pen of the artful Hincmar, is dated in the year + 858, and signed by the bishops of the provinces of Rheims and Rouen, + (Baronius, Annal. Eccles. A.D. 741. Fleury, Hist. Eccles. tom. x. p. + 514-516.) Yet Baronius himself, and the French critics, reject with + contempt this episcopal fiction.] + </p> + <p> + The loss of an army, or a province, in the Western world, was less painful + to the court of Damascus, than the rise and progress of a domestic + competitor. Except among the Syrians, the caliphs of the house of Ommiyah + had never been the objects of the public favor. The life of Mahomet + recorded their perseverance in idolatry and rebellion: their conversion + had been reluctant, their elevation irregular and factious, and their + throne was cemented with the most holy and noble blood of Arabia. The best + of their race, the pious Omar, was dissatisfied with his own title: their + personal virtues were insufficient to justify a departure from the order + of succession; and the eyes and wishes of the faithful were turned towards + the line of Hashem, and the kindred of the apostle of God. Of these the + Fatimites were either rash or pusillanimous; but the descendants of Abbas + cherished, with courage and discretion, the hopes of their rising + fortunes. From an obscure residence in Syria, they secretly despatched + their agents and missionaries, who preached in the Eastern provinces their + hereditary indefeasible right; and Mohammed, the son of Ali, the son of + Abdallah, the son of Abbas, the uncle of the prophet, gave audience to the + deputies of Chorasan, and accepted their free gift of four hundred + thousand pieces of gold. After the death of Mohammed, the oath of + allegiance was administered in the name of his son Ibrahim to a numerous + band of votaries, who expected only a signal and a leader; and the + governor of Chorasan continued to deplore his fruitless admonitions and + the deadly slumber of the caliphs of Damascus, till he himself, with all + his adherents, was driven from the city and palace of Meru, by the + rebellious arms of Abu Moslem. <a href="#linknote-52.35" + name="linknoteref-52.35" id="linknoteref-52.35">35</a> That maker of kings, + the author, as he is named, of the call of the Abbassides, was at length + rewarded for his presumption of merit with the usual gratitude of courts. + A mean, perhaps a foreign, extraction could not repress the aspiring + energy of Abu Moslem. Jealous of his wives, liberal of his wealth, + prodigal of his own blood and of that of others, he could boast with + pleasure, and possibly with truth, that he had destroyed six hundred + thousand of his enemies; and such was the intrepid gravity of his mind and + countenance, that he was never seen to smile except on a day of battle. In + the visible separation of parties, the green was consecrated to the + Fatimites; the Ommiades were distinguished by the white; and the black, as + the most adverse, was naturally adopted by the Abbassides. Their turbans + and garments were stained with that gloomy color: two black standards, on + pike staves nine cubits long, were borne aloft in the van of Abu Moslem; + and their allegorical names of the night and the shadow obscurely + represented the indissoluble union and perpetual succession of the line of + Hashem. From the Indus to the Euphrates, the East was convulsed by the + quarrel of the white and the black factions: the Abbassides were most + frequently victorious; but their public success was clouded by the + personal misfortune of their chief. The court of Damascus, awakening from + a long slumber, resolved to prevent the pilgrimage of Mecca, which Ibrahim + had undertaken with a splendid retinue, to recommend himself at once to + the favor of the prophet and of the people. A detachment of cavalry + intercepted his march and arrested his person; and the unhappy Ibrahim, + snatched away from the promise of untasted royalty, expired in iron + fetters in the dungeons of Haran. His two younger brothers, Saffah <a + href="#linknote-52.3511" name="linknoteref-52.3511" id="linknoteref-52.3511">3511</a> + and Almansor, eluded the search of the tyrant, and lay concealed at Cufa, + till the zeal of the people and the approach of his Eastern friends + allowed them to expose their persons to the impatient public. On Friday, + in the dress of a caliph, in the colors of the sect, Saffah proceeded with + religious and military pomp to the mosch: ascending the pulpit, he prayed + and preached as the lawful successor of Mahomet; and after his departure, + his kinsmen bound a willing people by an oath of fidelity. But it was on + the banks of the Zab, and not in the mosch of Cufa, that this important + controversy was determined. Every advantage appeared to be on the side of + the white faction: the authority of established government; an army of a + hundred and twenty thousand soldiers, against a sixth part of that number; + and the presence and merit of the caliph Mervan, the fourteenth and last + of the house of Ommiyah. Before his accession to the throne, he had + deserved, by his Georgian warfare, the honorable epithet of the ass of + Mesopotamia; <a href="#linknote-52.36" name="linknoteref-52.36" + id="linknoteref-52.36">36</a> and he might have been ranked amongst the + greatest princes, had not, says Abulfeda, the eternal order decreed that + moment for the ruin of his family; a decree against which all human + fortitude and prudence must struggle in vain. The orders of Mervan were + mistaken, or disobeyed: the return of his horse, from which he had + dismounted on a necessary occasion, impressed the belief of his death; and + the enthusiasm of the black squadrons was ably conducted by Abdallah, the + uncle of his competitor. After an irretrievab defeat, the caliph escaped + to Mosul; but the colors of the Abbassides were displayed from the + rampart; he suddenly repassed the Tigris, cast a melancholy look on his + palace of Haran, crossed the Euphrates, abandoned the fortifications of + Damascus, and, without halting in Palestine, pitched his last and fatal + camp at Busir, on the banks of the Nile. <a href="#linknote-52.37" + name="linknoteref-52.37" id="linknoteref-52.37">37</a> His speed was urged + by the incessant diligence of Abdallah, who in every step of the pursuit + acquired strength and reputation: the remains of the white faction were + finally vanquished in Egypt; and the lance, which terminated the life and + anxiety of Mervan, was not less welcome perhaps to the unfortunate than to + the victorious chief. The merciless inquisition of the conqueror + eradicated the most distant branches of the hostile race: their bones were + scattered, their memory was accursed, and the martyrdom of Hossein was + abundantly revenged on the posterity of his tyrants. Fourscore of the + Ommiades, who had yielded to the faith or clemency of their foes, were + invited to a banquet at Damascus. The laws of hospitality were violated by + a promiscuous massacre: the board was spread over their fallen bodies; and + the festivity of the guests was enlivened by the music of their dying + groans. By the event of the civil war, the dynasty of the Abbassides was + firmly established; but the Christians only could triumph in the mutual + hatred and common loss of the disciples of Mahomet. <a + href="#linknote-52.38" name="linknoteref-52.38" id="linknoteref-52.38">38</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.35" id="linknote-52.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.35">return</a>)<br /> [ The steed and the + saddle which had carried any of his wives were instantly killed or burnt, + lest they should afterwards be mounted by a male. Twelve hundred mules or + camels were required for his kitchen furniture; and the daily consumption + amounted to three thousand cakes, a hundred sheep, besides oxen, poultry, + &c., (Abul pharagius, Hist. Dynast. p. 140.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.3511" id="linknote-52.3511"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3511 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.3511">return</a>)<br /> [ He is called + Abdullah or Abul Abbas in the Tarikh Tebry. Price vol. i. p. 600. Saffah + or Saffauh (the Sanguinary) was a name which be required after his bloody + reign, (vol. ii. p. 1.)—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.36" id="linknote-52.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.36">return</a>)<br /> [ Al Hemar. He had been + governor of Mesopotamia, and the Arabic proverb praises the courage of + that warlike breed of asses who never fly from an enemy. The surname of + Mervan may justify the comparison of Homer, (Iliad, A. 557, &c.,) and + both will silence the moderns, who consider the ass as a stupid and + ignoble emblem, (D’Herbelot, Bibliot. Orient. p. 558.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.37" id="linknote-52.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.37">return</a>)<br /> [ Four several places, + all in Egypt, bore the name of Busir, or Busiris, so famous in Greek + fable. The first, where Mervan was slain was to the west of the Nile, in + the province of Fium, or Arsinoe; the second in the Delta, in the + Sebennytic nome; the third near the pyramids; the fourth, which was + destroyed by Dioclesian, (see above, vol. ii. p. 130,) in the Thebais. I + shall here transcribe a note of the learned and orthodox Michaelis: + Videntur in pluribus Aegypti superioris urbibus Busiri Coptoque arma + sumpsisse Christiani, libertatemque de religione sentiendi defendisse, sed + succubuisse quo in bello Coptus et Busiris diruta, et circa Esnam magna + strages edita. Bellum narrant sed causam belli ignorant scriptores + Byzantini, alioqui Coptum et Busirim non rebellasse dicturi, sed causam + Christianorum suscepturi, (Not. 211, p. 100.) For the geography of the + four Busirs, see Abulfeda, (Descript. Aegypt. p. 9, vers. Michaelis, + Gottingae, 1776, in 4to.,) Michaelis, (Not. 122-127, p. 58-63,) and + D’Anville, (Memoire sua l’Egypte, p. 85, 147, 205.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.38" id="linknote-52.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.38">return</a>)<br /> [ See Abulfeda, (Annal. + Moslem. p. 136-145,) Eutychius, (Annal. tom. ii. p. 392, vers. Pocock,) + Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 109-121,) Abulpharagius, (Hist. Dynast. p. + 134-140,) Roderic of Toledo, (Hist. Arabum, c. xviii. p. 33,) Theophanes, + (Chronograph. p. 356, 357, who speaks of the Abbassides) and the + Bibliotheque of D’Herbelot, in the articles Ommiades, Abbassides, Moervan, + Ibrahim, Saffah, Abou Moslem.] + </p> + <p> + Yet the thousands who were swept away by the sword of war might have been + speedily retrieved in the succeeding generation, if the consequences of + the revolution had not tended to dissolve the power and unity of the + empire of the Saracens. In the proscription of the Ommiades, a royal youth + of the name of Abdalrahman alone escaped the rage of his enemies, who + hunted the wandering exile from the banks of the Euphrates to the valleys + of Mount Atlas. His presence in the neighborhood of Spain revived the zeal + of the white faction. The name and cause of the Abbassides had been first + vindicated by the Persians: the West had been pure from civil arms; and + the servants of the abdicated family still held, by a precarious tenure, + the inheritance of their lands and the offices of government. Strongly + prompted by gratitude, indignation, and fear, they invited the grandson of + the caliph Hashem to ascend the throne of his ancestors; and, in his + desperate condition, the extremes of rashness and prudence were almost the + same. The acclamations of the people saluted his landing on the coast of + Andalusia: and, after a successful struggle, Abdalrahman established the + throne of Cordova, and was the father of the Ommiades of Spain, who + reigned above two hundred and fifty years from the Atlantic to the + Pyrenees. <a href="#linknote-52.39" name="linknoteref-52.39" + id="linknoteref-52.39">39</a> He slew in battle a lieutenant of the + Abbassides, who had invaded his dominions with a fleet and army: the head + of Ala, in salt and camphire, was suspended by a daring messenger before + the palace of Mecca; and the caliph Almansor rejoiced in his safety, that + he was removed by seas and lands from such a formidable adversary. Their + mutual designs or declarations of offensive war evaporated without effect; + but instead of opening a door to the conquest of Europe, Spain was + dissevered from the trunk of the monarchy, engaged in perpetual hostility + with the East, and inclined to peace and friendship with the Christian + sovereigns of Constantinople and France. The example of the Ommiades was + imitated by the real or fictitious progeny of Ali, the Edrissites of + Mauritania, and the more powerful fatimites of Africa and Egypt. In the + tenth century, the chair of Mahomet was disputed by three caliphs or + commanders of the faithful, who reigned at Bagdad, Cairoan, and Cordova, + excommunicating each other, and agreed only in a principle of discord, + that a sectary is more odious and criminal than an unbeliever. <a + href="#linknote-52.40" name="linknoteref-52.40" id="linknoteref-52.40">40</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.39" id="linknote-52.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.39">return</a>)<br /> [ For the revolution of + Spain, consult Roderic of Toledo, (c. xviii. p. 34, &c.,) the + Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana, (tom. ii. p. 30, 198,) and Cardonne, (Hist. + de l’Afrique et de l’Espagne, tom. i. p. 180-197, 205, 272, 323, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.40" id="linknote-52.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.40">return</a>)<br /> [ I shall not stop to + refute the strange errors and fancies of Sir William Temple (his Works, + vol. iii. p. 371-374, octavo edition) and Voltaire (Histoire Generale, c. + xxviii. tom. ii. p. 124, 125, edition de Lausanne) concerning the division + of the Saracen empire. The mistakes of Voltaire proceeded from the want of + knowledge or reflection; but Sir William was deceived by a Spanish + impostor, who has framed an apocryphal history of the conquest of Spain by + the Arabs.] + </p> + <p> + Mecca was the patrimony of the line of Hashem, yet the Abbassides were + never tempted to reside either in the birthplace or the city of the + prophet. Damascus was disgraced by the choice, and polluted with the + blood, of the Ommiades; and, after some hesitation, Almansor, the brother + and successor of Saffah, laid the foundations of Bagdad, <a + href="#linknote-52.41" name="linknoteref-52.41" id="linknoteref-52.41">41</a> + the Imperial seat of his posterity during a reign of five hundred years. + <a href="#linknote-52.42" name="linknoteref-52.42" id="linknoteref-52.42">42</a> + The chosen spot is on the eastern bank of the Tigris, about fifteen miles + above the ruins of Modain: the double wall was of a circular form; and + such was the rapid increase of a capital, now dwindled to a provincial + town, that the funeral of a popular saint might be attended by eight + hundred thousand men and sixty thousand women of Bagdad and the adjacent + villages. In this city of peace, <a href="#linknote-52.43" + name="linknoteref-52.43" id="linknoteref-52.43">43</a> amidst the riches of + the East, the Abbassides soon disdained the abstinence and frugality of + the first caliphs, and aspired to emulate the magnificence of the Persian + kings. After his wars and buildings, Almansor left behind him in gold and + silver about thirty millions sterling: <a href="#linknote-52.44" + name="linknoteref-52.44" id="linknoteref-52.44">44</a> and this treasure was + exhausted in a few years by the vices or virtues of his children. His son + Mahadi, in a single pilgrimage to Mecca, expended six millions of dinars + of gold. A pious and charitable motive may sanctify the foundation of + cisterns and caravanseras, which he distributed along a measured road of + seven hundred miles; but his train of camels, laden with snow, could serve + only to astonish the natives of Arabia, and to refresh the fruits and + liquors of the royal banquet. <a href="#linknote-52.45" + name="linknoteref-52.45" id="linknoteref-52.45">45</a> The courtiers would + surely praise the liberality of his grandson Almamon, who gave away four + fifths of the income of a province, a sum of two millions four hundred + thousand gold dinars, before he drew his foot from the stirrup. At the + nuptials of the same prince, a thousand pearls of the largest size were + showered on the head of the bride, <a href="#linknote-52.46" + name="linknoteref-52.46" id="linknoteref-52.46">46</a> and a lottery of + lands and houses displayed the capricious bounty of fortune. The glories + of the court were brightened, rather than impaired, in the decline of the + empire, and a Greek ambassador might admire, or pity, the magnificence of + the feeble Moctader. “The caliph’s whole army,” says the historian + Abulfeda, “both horse and foot, was under arms, which together made a body + of one hundred and sixty thousand men. His state officers, the favorite + slaves, stood near him in splendid apparel, their belts glittering with + gold and gems. Near them were seven thousand eunuchs, four thousand of + them white, the remainder black. The porters or door-keepers were in + number seven hundred. Barges and boats, with the most superb decorations, + were seen swimming upon the Tigris. Nor was the palace itself less + splendid, in which were hung up thirty-eight thousand pieces of tapestry, + twelve thousand five hundred of which were of silk embroidered with gold. + The carpets on the floor were twenty-two thousand. A hundred lions were + brought out, with a keeper to each lion. <a href="#linknote-52.47" + name="linknoteref-52.47" id="linknoteref-52.47">47</a> Among the other + spectacles of rare and stupendous luxury was a tree of gold and silver + spreading into eighteen large branches, on which, and on the lesser + boughs, sat a variety of birds made of the same precious metals, as well + as the leaves of the tree. While the machinery affected spontaneous + motions, the several birds warbled their natural harmony. Through this + scene of magnificence, the Greek ambassador was led by the vizier to the + foot of the caliph’s throne.” <a href="#linknote-52.48" + name="linknoteref-52.48" id="linknoteref-52.48">48</a> In the West, the + Ommiades of Spain supported, with equal pomp, the title of commander of + the faithful. Three miles from Cordova, in honor of his favorite sultana, + the third and greatest of the Abdalrahmans constructed the city, palace, + and gardens of Zehra. Twenty-five years, and above three millions + sterling, were employed by the founder: his liberal taste invited the + artists of Constantinople, the most skilful sculptors and architects of + the age; and the buildings were sustained or adorned by twelve hundred + columns of Spanish and African, of Greek and Italian marble. The hall of + audience was incrusted with gold and pearls, and a great basin in the + centre was surrounded with the curious and costly figures of birds and + quadrupeds. In a lofty pavilion of the gardens, one of these basins and + fountains, so delightful in a sultry climate, was replenished not with + water, but with the purest quicksilver. The seraglio of Abdalrahman, his + wives, concubines, and black eunuchs, amounted to six thousand three + hundred persons: and he was attended to the field by a guard of twelve + thousand horse, whose belts and cimeters were studded with gold. <a + href="#linknote-52.49" name="linknoteref-52.49" id="linknoteref-52.49">49</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.41" id="linknote-52.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.41">return</a>)<br /> [ The geographer + D’Anville, (l’Euphrate et le Tigre, p. 121-123,) and the Orientalist + D’Herbelot, (Bibliotheque, p. 167, 168,) may suffice for the knowledge of + Bagdad. Our travellers, Pietro della Valle, (tom. i. p. 688-698,) + Tavernier, (tom. i. p. 230-238,) Thevenot, (part ii. p. 209-212,) Otter, + (tom. i. p. 162-168,) and Niebuhr, (Voyage en Arabie, tom. ii. p. + 239-271,) have seen only its decay; and the Nubian geographer, (p. 204,) + and the travelling Jew, Benjamin of Tuleda (Itinerarium, p. 112-123, a + Const. l’Empereur, apud Elzevir, 1633,) are the only writers of my + acquaintance, who have known Bagdad under the reign of the Abbassides.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.42" id="linknote-52.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.42">return</a>)<br /> [ The foundations of + Bagdad were laid A. H. 145, A.D. 762. Mostasem, the last of the + Abbassides, was taken and put to death by the Tartars, A. H. 656, A.D. + 1258, the 20th of February.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.43" id="linknote-52.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.43">return</a>)<br /> [ Medinat al Salem, Dar + al Salem. Urbs pacis, or, as it is more neatly compounded by the Byzantine + writers, (Irenopolis.) There is some dispute concerning the etymology of + Bagdad, but the first syllable is allowed to signify a garden in the + Persian tongue; the garden of Dad, a Christian hermit, whose cell had been + the only habitation on the spot.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.44" id="linknote-52.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.44">return</a>)<br /> [ Reliquit in aerario + sexcenties millies mille stateres. et quater et vicies millies mille + aureos aureos. Elmacin, Hist. Saracen. p. 126. I have reckoned the gold + pieces at eight shillings, and the proportion to the silver as twelve to + one. But I will never answer for the numbers of Erpenius; and the Latins + are scarcely above the savages in the language of arithmetic.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.45" id="linknote-52.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.45">return</a>)<br /> [ D’Herbelot, p. 530. + Abulfeda, p. 154. Nivem Meccam apportavit, rem ibi aut nunquam aut + rarissime visam.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.46" id="linknote-52.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.46">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulfeda (p. 184, 189) + describes the splendor and liberality of Almamon. Milton has alluded to + this Oriental custom:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand, + + Showers on her kings Barbaric pearls and gold. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + I have used the modern word lottery to express the word of the Roman + emperors, which entitled to some prize the person who caught them, as they + were thrown among the crowd.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.47" id="linknote-52.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.47">return</a>)<br /> [ When Bell of Antermony + (Travels, vol. i. p. 99) accompanied the Russian ambassador to the + audience of the unfortunate Shah Hussein of Persia, two lions were + introduced, to denote the power of the king over the fiercest animals.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.48" id="linknote-52.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.48">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulfeda, p. 237. + D’Herbelot, p. 590. This embassy was received at Bagdad, A. H. 305, A.D. + 917. In the passage of Abulfeda, I have used, with some variations, the + English translation of the learned and amiable Mr. Harris of Salisbury, + (Philological Enquiries p. 363, 364.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.49" id="linknote-52.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.49">return</a>)<br /> [ Cardonne, Histoire de + l’Afrique et de l’Espagne, tom. i. p. 330-336. A just idea of the taste + and architecture of the Arabians of Spain may be conceived from the + description and plates of the Alhambra of Grenada, (Swinburne’s Travels, + p. 171-188.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap52.3"></a> + Chapter LII: More Conquests By The Arabs.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + In a private condition, our desires are perpetually repressed by poverty + and subordination; but the lives and labors of millions are devoted to the + service of a despotic prince, whose laws are blindly obeyed, and whose + wishes are instantly gratified. Our imagination is dazzled by the splendid + picture; and whatever may be the cool dictates of reason, there are few + among us who would obstinately refuse a trial of the comforts and the + cares of royalty. It may therefore be of some use to borrow the experience + of the same Abdalrahman, whose magnificence has perhaps excited our + admiration and envy, and to transcribe an authentic memorial which was + found in the closet of the deceased caliph. “I have now reigned above + fifty years in victory or peace; beloved by my subjects, dreaded by my + enemies, and respected by my allies. Riches and honors, power and + pleasure, have waited on my call, nor does any earthly blessing appear to + have been wanting to my felicity. In this situation, I have diligently + numbered the days of pure and genuine happiness which have fallen to my + lot: they amount to Fourteen:—O man! place not thy confidence in + this present world!” <a href="#linknote-52.50" name="linknoteref-52.50" + id="linknoteref-52.50">50</a> The luxury of the caliphs, so useless to + their private happiness, relaxed the nerves, and terminated the progress, + of the Arabian empire. Temporal and spiritual conquest had been the sole + occupation of the first successors of Mahomet; and after supplying + themselves with the necessaries of life, the whole revenue was + scrupulously devoted to that salutary work. The Abbassides were + impoverished by the multitude of their wants, and their contempt of + oeconomy. Instead of pursuing the great object of ambition, their leisure, + their affections, the powers of their mind, were diverted by pomp and + pleasure: the rewards of valor were embezzled by women and eunuchs, and + the royal camp was encumbered by the luxury of the palace. A similar + temper was diffused among the subjects of the caliph. Their stern + enthusiasm was softened by time and prosperity. they sought riches in the + occupations of industry, fame in the pursuits of literature, and happiness + in the tranquillity of domestic life. War was no longer the passion of the + Saracens; and the increase of pay, the repetition of donatives, were + insufficient to allure the posterity of those voluntary champions who had + crowded to the standard of Abubeker and Omar for the hopes of spoil and of + paradise. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.50" id="linknote-52.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.50">return</a>)<br /> [ Cardonne, tom. i. p. + 329, 330. This confession, the complaints of Solomon of the vanity of this + world, (read Prior’s verbose but eloquent poem,) and the happy ten days of + the emperor Seghed, (Rambler, No. 204, 205,) will be triumphantly quoted + by the detractors of human life. Their expectations are commonly + immoderate, their estimates are seldom impartial. If I may speak of + myself, (the only person of whom I can speak with certainty,) my happy + hours have far exceeded, and far exceed, the scanty numbers of the caliph + of Spain; and I shall not scruple to add, that many of them are due to the + pleasing labor of the present composition.] + </p> + <p> + Under the reign of the Ommiades, the studies of the Moslems were confined + to the interpretation of the Koran, and the eloquence and poetry of their + native tongue. A people continually exposed to the dangers of the field + must esteem the healing powers of medicine, or rather of surgery; but the + starving physicians of Arabia murmured a complaint that exercise and + temperance deprived them of the greatest part of their practice. <a + href="#linknote-52.51" name="linknoteref-52.51" id="linknoteref-52.51">51</a> + After their civil and domestic wars, the subjects of the Abbassides, + awakening from this mental lethargy, found leisure and felt curiosity for + the acquisition of profane science. This spirit was first encouraged by + the caliph Almansor, who, besides his knowledge of the Mahometan law, had + applied himself with success to the study of astronomy. But when the + sceptre devolved to Almamon, the seventh of the Abbassides, he completed + the designs of his grandfather, and invited the muses from their ancient + seats. His ambassadors at Constantinople, his agents in Armenia, Syria, + and Egypt, collected the volumes of Grecian science; at his command they + were translated by the most skilful interpreters into the Arabic language: + his subjects were exhorted assiduously to peruse these instructive + writings; and the successor of Mahomet assisted with pleasure and modesty + at the assemblies and disputations of the learned. “He was not ignorant,” + says Abulpharagius, “that they are the elect of God, his best and most + useful servants, whose lives are devoted to the improvement of their + rational faculties. The mean ambition of the Chinese or the Turks may + glory in the industry of their hands or the indulgence of their brutal + appetites. Yet these dexterous artists must view, with hopeless emulation, + the hexagons and pyramids of the cells of a beehive: <a + href="#linknote-52.52" name="linknoteref-52.52" id="linknoteref-52.52">52</a> + these fortitudinous heroes are awed by the superior fierceness of the + lions and tigers; and in their amorous enjoyments they are much inferior + to the vigor of the grossest and most sordid quadrupeds. The teachers of + wisdom are the true luminaries and legislators of a world, which, without + their aid, would again sink in ignorance and barbarism.” <a + href="#linknote-52.53" name="linknoteref-52.53" id="linknoteref-52.53">53</a> + The zeal and curiosity of Almamon were imitated by succeeding princes of + the line of Abbas: their rivals, the Fatimites of Africa and the Ommiades + of Spain, were the patrons of the learned, as well as the commanders of + the faithful; the same royal prerogative was claimed by their independent + emirs of the provinces; and their emulation diffused the taste and the + rewards of science from Samarcand and Bochara to Fez and Cordova. The + vizier of a sultan consecrated a sum of two hundred thousand pieces of + gold to the foundation of a college at Bagdad, which he endowed with an + annual revenue of fifteen thousand dinars. The fruits of instruction were + communicated, perhaps at different times, to six thousand disciples of + every degree, from the son of the noble to that of the mechanic: a + sufficient allowance was provided for the indigent scholars; and the merit + or industry of the professors was repaid with adequate stipends. In every + city the productions of Arabic literature were copied and collected by the + curiosity of the studious and the vanity of the rich. A private doctor + refused the invitation of the sultan of Bochara, because the carriage of + his books would have required four hundred camels. The royal library of + the Fatimites consisted of one hundred thousand manuscripts, elegantly + transcribed and splendidly bound, which were lent, without jealousy or + avarice, to the students of Cairo. Yet this collection must appear + moderate, if we can believe that the Ommiades of Spain had formed a + library of six hundred thousand volumes, forty-four of which were employed + in the mere catalogue. Their capital, Cordova, with the adjacent towns of + Malaga, Almeria, and Murcia, had given birth to more than three hundred + writers, and above seventy public libraries were opened in the cities of + the Andalusian kingdom. The age of Arabian learning continued about five + hundred years, till the great eruption of the Moguls, and was coeval with + the darkest and most slothful period of European annals; but since the sun + of science has arisen in the West, it should seem that the Oriental + studies have languished and declined. <a href="#linknote-52.54" + name="linknoteref-52.54" id="linknoteref-52.54">54</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.51" id="linknote-52.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.51">return</a>)<br /> [ The Guliston (p. 29) + relates the conversation of Mahomet and a physician, (Epistol. Renaudot. + in Fabricius, Bibliot. Graec. tom. i. p. 814.) The prophet himself was + skilled in the art of medicine; and Gagnier (Vie de Mahomet, tom. iii. p. + 394-405) has given an extract of the aphorisms which are extant under his + name.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.52" id="linknote-52.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.52">return</a>)<br /> [ See their curious + architecture in Reaumur (Hist. des Insectes, tom. v. Memoire viii.) These + hexagons are closed by a pyramid; the angles of the three sides of a + similar pyramid, such as would accomplish the given end with the smallest + quantity possible of materials, were determined by a mathematician, at + 109] degrees 26 minutes for the larger, 70 degrees 34 minutes for the + smaller. The actual measure is 109 degrees 28 minutes, 70 degrees 32 + minutes. Yet this perfect harmony raises the work at the expense of the + artist he bees are not masters of transcendent geometry.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.53" id="linknote-52.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.53">return</a>)<br /> [ Saed Ebn Ahmed, cadhi + of Toledo, who died A. H. 462, A.D. 069, has furnished Abulpharagius + (Dynast. p. 160) with this curious passage, as well as with the text of + Pocock’s Specimen Historiae Arabum. A number of literary anecdotes of + philosophers, physicians, &c., who have flourished under each caliph, + form the principal merit of the Dynasties of Abulpharagius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.54" id="linknote-52.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.54">return</a>)<br /> [ These literary + anecdotes are borrowed from the Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana, (tom. ii. p. + 38, 71, 201, 202,) Leo Africanus, (de Arab. Medicis et Philosophis, in + Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. tom. xiii. p. 259-293, particularly p. 274,) and + Renaudot, (Hist. Patriarch. Alex. p. 274, 275, 536, 537,) besides the + chronological remarks of Abulpharagius.] + </p> + <p> + In the libraries of the Arabians, as in those of Europe, the far greater + part of the innumerable volumes were possessed only of local value or + imaginary merit. <a href="#linknote-52.55" name="linknoteref-52.55" + id="linknoteref-52.55">55</a> The shelves were crowded with orators and + poets, whose style was adapted to the taste and manners of their + countrymen; with general and partial histories, which each revolving + generation supplied with a new harvest of persons and events; with codes + and commentaries of jurisprudence, which derived their authority from the + law of the prophet; with the interpreters of the Koran, and orthodox + tradition; and with the whole theological tribe, polemics, mystics, + scholastics, and moralists, the first or the last of writers, according to + the different estimates of sceptics or believers. The works of speculation + or science may be reduced to the four classes of philosophy, mathematics, + astronomy, and physic. The sages of Greece were translated and illustrated + in the Arabic language, and some treatises, now lost in the original, have + been recovered in the versions of the East, <a href="#linknote-52.56" + name="linknoteref-52.56" id="linknoteref-52.56">56</a> which possessed and + studied the writings of Aristotle and Plato, of Euclid and Apollonius, of + Ptolemy, Hippocrates, and Galen. <a href="#linknote-52.57" + name="linknoteref-52.57" id="linknoteref-52.57">57</a> Among the ideal + systems which have varied with the fashion of the times, the Arabians + adopted the philosophy of the Stagirite, alike intelligible or alike + obscure for the readers of every age. Plato wrote for the Athenians, and + his allegorical genius is too closely blended with the language and + religion of Greece. After the fall of that religion, the Peripatetics, + emerging from their obscurity, prevailed in the controversies of the + Oriental sects, and their founder was long afterwards restored by the + Mahometans of Spain to the Latin schools. <a href="#linknote-52.58" + name="linknoteref-52.58" id="linknoteref-52.58">58</a> The physics, both of + the Academy and the Lycaeum, as they are built, not on observation, but on + argument, have retarded the progress of real knowledge. The metaphysics of + infinite, or finite, spirit, have too often been enlisted in the service + of superstition. But the human faculties are fortified by the art and + practice of dialectics; the ten predicaments of Aristotle collect and + methodize our ideas, <a href="#linknote-52.59" name="linknoteref-52.59" + id="linknoteref-52.59">59</a> and his syllogism is the keenest weapon of + dispute. It was dexterously wielded in the schools of the Saracens, but as + it is more effectual for the detection of error than for the investigation + of truth, it is not surprising that new generations of masters and + disciples should still revolve in the same circle of logical argument. The + mathematics are distinguished by a peculiar privilege, that, in the course + of ages, they may always advance, and can never recede. But the ancient + geometry, if I am not misinformed, was resumed in the same state by the + Italians of the fifteenth century; and whatever may be the origin of the + name, the science of algebra is ascribed to the Grecian Diophantus by the + modest testimony of the Arabs themselves. <a href="#linknote-52.60" + name="linknoteref-52.60" id="linknoteref-52.60">60</a> They cultivated with + more success the sublime science of astronomy, which elevates the mind of + man to disdain his diminutive planet and momentary existence. The costly + instruments of observation were supplied by the caliph Almamon, and the + land of the Chaldaeans still afforded the same spacious level, the same + unclouded horizon. In the plains of Sinaar, and a second time in those of + Cufa, his mathematicians accurately measured a degree of the great circle + of the earth, and determined at twenty-four thousand miles the entire + circumference of our globe. <a href="#linknote-52.61" + name="linknoteref-52.61" id="linknoteref-52.61">61</a> From the reign of the + Abbassides to that of the grandchildren of Tamerlane, the stars, without + the aid of glasses, were diligently observed; and the astronomical tables + of Bagdad, Spain, and Samarcand, <a href="#linknote-52.62" + name="linknoteref-52.62" id="linknoteref-52.62">62</a> correct some minute + errors, without daring to renounce the hypothesis of Ptolemy, without + advancing a step towards the discovery of the solar system. In the Eastern + courts, the truths of science could be recommended only by ignorance and + folly, and the astronomer would have been disregarded, had he not debased + his wisdom or honesty by the vain predictions of astrology. <a + href="#linknote-52.63" name="linknoteref-52.63" id="linknoteref-52.63">63</a> + But in the science of medicine, the Arabians have been deservedly + applauded. The names of Mesua and Geber, of Razis and Avicenna, are ranked + with the Grecian masters; in the city of Bagdad, eight hundred and sixty + physicians were licensed to exercise their lucrative profession: <a + href="#linknote-52.64" name="linknoteref-52.64" id="linknoteref-52.64">64</a> + in Spain, the life of the Catholic princes was intrusted to the skill of + the Saracens, <a href="#linknote-52.65" name="linknoteref-52.65" + id="linknoteref-52.65">65</a> and the school of Salerno, their legitimate + offspring, revived in Italy and Europe the precepts of the healing art. <a + href="#linknote-52.66" name="linknoteref-52.66" id="linknoteref-52.66">66</a> + The success of each professor must have been influenced by personal and + accidental causes; but we may form a less fanciful estimate of their + general knowledge of anatomy, <a href="#linknote-52.67" + name="linknoteref-52.67" id="linknoteref-52.67">67</a> botany, <a + href="#linknote-52.68" name="linknoteref-52.68" id="linknoteref-52.68">68</a> + and chemistry, <a href="#linknote-52.69" name="linknoteref-52.69" + id="linknoteref-52.69">69</a> the threefold basis of their theory and + practice. A superstitious reverence for the dead confined both the Greeks + and the Arabians to the dissection of apes and quadrupeds; the more solid + and visible parts were known in the time of Galen, and the finer scrutiny + of the human frame was reserved for the microscope and the injections of + modern artists. Botany is an active science, and the discoveries of the + torrid zone might enrich the herbal of Dioscorides with two thousand + plants. Some traditionary knowledge might be secreted in the temples and + monasteries of Egypt; much useful experience had been acquired in the + practice of arts and manufactures; but the science of chemistry owes its + origin and improvement to the industry of the Saracens. They first + invented and named the alembic for the purposes of distillation, analyzed + the substances of the three kingdoms of nature, tried the distinction and + affinities of alcalis and acids, and converted the poisonous minerals into + soft and salutary medicines. But the most eager search of Arabian + chemistry was the transmutation of metals, and the elixir of immortal + health: the reason and the fortunes of thousands were evaporated in the + crucibles of alchemy, and the consummation of the great work was promoted + by the worthy aid of mystery, fable, and superstition. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.55" id="linknote-52.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.55">return</a>)<br /> [ The Arabic catalogue of + the Escurial will give a just idea of the proportion of the classes. In + the library of Cairo, the Mss of astronomy and medicine amounted to 6500, + with two fair globes, the one of brass, the other of silver, (Bibliot. + Arab. Hisp. tom. i. p. 417.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.56" id="linknote-52.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.56">return</a>)<br /> [ As, for instance, the + fifth, sixth, and seventh books (the eighth is still wanting) of the Conic + Sections of Apollonius Pergaeus, which were printed from the Florence Ms. + 1661, (Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. tom. ii. p. 559.) Yet the fifth book had + been previously restored by the mathematical divination of Viviani, (see + his Eloge in Fontenelle, tom. v. p. 59, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.57" id="linknote-52.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.57">return</a>)<br /> [ The merit of these + Arabic versions is freely discussed by Renaudot, (Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. + tom. i. p. 812-816,) and piously defended by Casiri, (Bibliot. Arab. + Hispana, tom. i. p. 238-240.) Most of the versions of Plato, Aristotle, + Hippocrates, Galen, &c., are ascribed to Honain, a physician of the + Nestorian sect, who flourished at Bagdad in the court of the caliphs, and + died A.D. 876. He was at the head of a school or manufacture of + translations, and the works of his sons and disciples were published under + his name. See Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 88, 115, 171-174, and apud + Asseman. Bibliot. Orient. tom. ii. p. 438,) D’Herbelot, (Bibliot. + Orientale, p. 456,) Asseman. (Bibliot. Orient. tom. iii. p. 164,) and + Casiri, (Bibliot. Arab. Hispana, tom. i. p. 238, &c. 251, 286-290, + 302, 304, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.58" id="linknote-52.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.58">return</a>)<br /> [ See Mosheim, Institut. + Hist. Eccles. p. 181, 214, 236, 257, 315, 388, 396, 438, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.59" id="linknote-52.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.59">return</a>)<br /> [ The most elegant + commentary on the Categories or Predicaments of Aristotle may be found in + the Philosophical Arrangements of Mr. James Harris, (London, 1775, in + octavo,) who labored to revive the studies of Grecian literature and + philosophy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.60" id="linknote-52.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.60">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulpharagius, Dynast. + p. 81, 222. Bibliot. Arab. Hisp. tom. i. p. 370, 371. In quem (says the + primate of the Jacobites) si immiserit selector, oceanum hoc in genere + (algebrae) inveniet. The time of Diophantus of Alexandria is unknown; but + his six books are still extant, and have been illustrated by the Greek + Planudes and the Frenchman Meziriac, (Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. tom. iv. p. + 12-15.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.61" id="linknote-52.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.61">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulfeda (Annal. + Moslem. p. 210, 211, vers. Reiske) describes this operation according to + Ibn Challecan, and the best historians. This degree most accurately + contains 200,000 royal or Hashemite cubits which Arabia had derived from + the sacred and legal practice both of Palestine and Egypt. This ancient + cubit is repeated 400 times in each basis of the great pyramid, and seems + to indicate the primitive and universal measures of the East. See the + Metrologie of the laborions. M. Paucton, p. 101-195.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.62" id="linknote-52.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.62">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Astronomical + Tables of Ulugh Begh, with the preface of Dr. Hyde in the first volume of + his Syntagma Dissertationum, Oxon. 1767.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.63" id="linknote-52.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.63">return</a>)<br /> [ The truth of astrology + was allowed by Albumazar, and the best of the Arabian astronomers, who + drew their most certain predictions, not from Venus and Mercury, but from + Jupiter and the sun, (Abulpharag. Dynast. p. 161-163.) For the state and + science of the Persian astronomers, see Chardin, (Voyages en Perse, tom. + iii. p. 162-203.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.64" id="linknote-52.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Bibliot. + Arabico-Hispana, tom. i. p. 438. The original relates a pleasant tale of + an ignorant, but harmless, practitioner.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.65" id="linknote-52.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.65">return</a>)<br /> [ In the year 956, Sancho + the Fat, king of Leon, was cured by the physicians of Cordova, (Mariana, + l. viii. c. 7, tom. i. p. 318.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.66" id="linknote-52.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.66">return</a>)<br /> [ The school of Salerno, + and the introduction of the Arabian sciences into Italy, are discussed + with learning and judgment by Muratori (Antiquitat. Italiae Medii Aevi, + tom. iii. p. 932-940) and Giannone, (Istoria Civile di Napoli, tom. ii. p. + 119-127.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.67" id="linknote-52.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.67">return</a>)<br /> [ See a good view of the + progress of anatomy in Wotton, (Reflections on Ancient and Modern + Learning, p. 208-256.) His reputation has been unworthily depreciated by + the wits in the controversy of Boyle and Bentley.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.68" id="linknote-52.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.68">return</a>)<br /> [ Bibliot. Arab. Hispana, + tom. i. p. 275. Al Beithar, of Malaga, their greatest botanist, had + travelled into Africa, Persia, and India.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.69" id="linknote-52.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.69">return</a>)<br /> [ Dr. Watson, (Elements + of Chemistry, vol. i. p. 17, &c.) allows the original merit of the + Arabians. Yet he quotes the modest confession of the famous Geber of the + ixth century, (D’Herbelot, p. 387,) that he had drawn most of his science, + perhaps the transmutation of metals, from the ancient sages. Whatever + might be the origin or extent of their knowledge, the arts of chemistry + and alchemy appear to have been known in Egypt at least three hundred + years before Mahomet, (Wotton’s Reflections, p. 121-133. Pauw, Recherches + sur les Egyptiens et les Chinois, tom. i. p. 376-429.) * Note: Mr. Whewell + (Hist. of Inductive Sciences, vol. i. p. 336) rejects the claim of the + Arabians as inventors of the science of chemistry. “The formation and + realization of the notions of analysis and affinity were important steps + in chemical science; which, as I shall hereafter endeavor to show it + remained for the chemists of Europe to make at a much later period.”—M.] + </p> + <p> + But the Moslems deprived themselves of the principal benefits of a + familiar intercourse with Greece and Rome, the knowledge of antiquity, the + purity of taste, and the freedom of thought. Confident in the riches of + their native tongue, the Arabians disdained the study of any foreign + idiom. The Greek interpreters were chosen among their Christian subjects; + they formed their translations, sometimes on the original text, more + frequently perhaps on a Syriac version; and in the crowd of astronomers + and physicians, there is no example of a poet, an orator, or even an + historian, being taught to speak the language of the Saracens. <a + href="#linknote-52.70" name="linknoteref-52.70" id="linknoteref-52.70">70</a> + The mythology of Homer would have provoked the abhorrence of those stern + fanatics: they possessed in lazy ignorance the colonies of the + Macedonians, and the provinces of Carthage and Rome: the heroes of + Plutarch and Livy were buried in oblivion; and the history of the world + before Mahomet was reduced to a short legend of the patriarchs, the + prophets, and the Persian kings. Our education in the Greek and Latin + schools may have fixed in our minds a standard of exclusive taste; and I + am not forward to condemn the literature and judgment of nations, of whose + language I am ignorant. Yet I know that the classics have much to teach, + and I believe that the Orientals have much to learn; the temperate dignity + of style, the graceful proportions of art, the forms of visible and + intellectual beauty, the just delineation of character and passion, the + rhetoric of narrative and argument, the regular fabric of epic and + dramatic poetry. <a href="#linknote-52.71" name="linknoteref-52.71" + id="linknoteref-52.71">71</a> The influence of truth and reason is of a + less ambiguous complexion. The philosophers of Athens and Rome enjoyed the + blessings, and asserted the rights, of civil and religious freedom. Their + moral and political writings might have gradually unlocked the fetters of + Eastern despotism, diffused a liberal spirit of inquiry and toleration, + and encouraged the Arabian sages to suspect that their caliph was a + tyrant, and their prophet an impostor. <a href="#linknote-52.72" + name="linknoteref-52.72" id="linknoteref-52.72">72</a> The instinct of + superstition was alarmed by the introduction even of the abstract + sciences; and the more rigid doctors of the law condemned the rash and + pernicious curiosity of Almamon. <a href="#linknote-52.73" + name="linknoteref-52.73" id="linknoteref-52.73">73</a> To the thirst of + martyrdom, the vision of paradise, and the belief of predestination, we + must ascribe the invincible enthusiasm of the prince and people. And the + sword of the Saracens became less formidable when their youth was drawn + away from the camp to the college, when the armies of the faithful + presumed to read and to reflect. Yet the foolish vanity of the Greeks was + jealous of their studies, and reluctantly imparted the sacred fire to the + Barbarians of the East. <a href="#linknote-52.74" name="linknoteref-52.74" + id="linknoteref-52.74">74</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.70" id="linknote-52.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.70">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulpharagius (Dynast. + p. 26, 148) mentions a Syriac version of Homer’s two poems, by Theophilus, + a Christian Maronite of Mount Libanus, who professed astronomy at Roha or + Edessa towards the end of the viiith century. His work would be a literary + curiosity. I have read somewhere, but I do not believe, that Plutarch’s + Lives were translated into Turkish for the use of Mahomet the Second.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.71" id="linknote-52.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.71">return</a>)<br /> [ I have perused, with + much pleasure, Sir William Jones’s Latin Commentary on Asiatic Poetry, + (London, 1774, in octavo,) which was composed in the youth of that + wonderful linguist. At present, in the maturity of his taste and judgment, + he would perhaps abate of the fervent, and even partial, praise which he + has bestowed on the Orientals.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.72" id="linknote-52.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.72">return</a>)<br /> [ Among the Arabian + philosophers, Averroes has been accused of despising the religions of the + Jews, the Christians, and the Mahometans, (see his article in Bayle’s + Dictionary.) Each of these sects would agree, that in two instances out of + three, his contempt was reasonable.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.73" id="linknote-52.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.73">return</a>)<br /> [ D’Herbelot, + Bibliotheque, Orientale, p. 546.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.74" id="linknote-52.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.74">return</a>)<br /> [ Cedrenus, p. 548, who + relates how manfully the emperor refused a mathematician to the instances + and offers of the caliph Almamon. This absurd scruple is expressed almost + in the same words by the continuator of Theophanes, (Scriptores post + Theophanem, p. 118.)] + </p> + <p> + In the bloody conflict of the Ommiades and Abbassides, the Greeks had + stolen the opportunity of avenging their wrongs and enlarging their + limits. But a severe retribution was exacted by Mohadi, the third caliph + of the new dynasty, who seized, in his turn, the favorable opportunity, + while a woman and a child, Irene and Constantine, were seated on the + Byzantine throne. An army of ninety-five thousand Persians and Arabs was + sent from the Tigris to the Thracian Bosphorus, under the command of + Harun, <a href="#linknote-52.75" name="linknoteref-52.75" + id="linknoteref-52.75">75</a> or Aaron, the second son of the commander of + the faithful. His encampment on the opposite heights of Chrysopolis, or + Scutari, informed Irene, in her palace of Constantinople, of the loss of + her troops and provinces. With the consent or connivance of their + sovereign, her ministers subscribed an ignominious peace; and the exchange + of some royal gifts could not disguise the annual tribute of seventy + thousand dinars of gold, which was imposed on the Roman empire. The + Saracens had too rashly advanced into the midst of a distant and hostile + land: their retreat was solicited by the promise of faithful guides and + plentiful markets; and not a Greek had courage to whisper, that their + weary forces might be surrounded and destroyed in their necessary passage + between a slippery mountain and the River Sangarius. Five years after this + expedition, Harun ascended the throne of his father and his elder brother; + the most powerful and vigorous monarch of his race, illustrious in the + West, as the ally of Charlemagne, and familiar to the most childish + readers, as the perpetual hero of the Arabian tales. His title to the name + of Al Rashid (the Just) is sullied by the extirpation of the generous, + perhaps the innocent, Barmecides; yet he could listen to the complaint of + a poor widow who had been pillaged by his troops, and who dared, in a + passage of the Koran, to threaten the inattentive despot with the judgment + of God and posterity. His court was adorned with luxury and science; but, + in a reign of three-and-twenty years, Harun repeatedly visited his + provinces from Chorasan to Egypt; nine times he performed the pilgrimage + of Mecca; eight times he invaded the territories of the Romans; and as + often as they declined the payment of the tribute, they were taught to + feel that a month of depredation was more costly than a year of + submission. But when the unnatural mother of Constantine was deposed and + banished, her successor, Nicephorus, resolved to obliterate this badge of + servitude and disgrace. The epistle of the emperor to the caliph was + pointed with an allusion to the game of chess, which had already spread + from Persia to Greece. “The queen (he spoke of Irene) considered you as a + rook, and herself as a pawn. That pusillanimous female submitted to pay a + tribute, the double of which she ought to have exacted from the + Barbarians. Restore therefore the fruits of your injustice, or abide the + determination of the sword.” At these words the ambassadors cast a bundle + of swords before the foot of the throne. The caliph smiled at the menace, + and drawing his cimeter, samsamah, a weapon of historic or fabulous + renown, he cut asunder the feeble arms of the Greeks, without turning the + edge, or endangering the temper, of his blade. He then dictated an epistle + of tremendous brevity: “In the name of the most merciful God, Harun al + Rashid, commander of the faithful, to Nicephorus, the Roman dog. I have + read thy letter, O thou son of an unbelieving mother. Thou shalt not hear, + thou shalt behold, my reply.” It was written in characters of blood and + fire on the plains of Phrygia; and the warlike celerity of the Arabs could + only be checked by the arts of deceit and the show of repentance. + </p> + <p> + The triumphant caliph retired, after the fatigues of the campaign, to his + favorite palace of Racca on the Euphrates: <a href="#linknote-52.76" + name="linknoteref-52.76" id="linknoteref-52.76">76</a> but the distance of + five hundred miles, and the inclemency of the season, encouraged his + adversary to violate the peace. Nicephorus was astonished by the bold and + rapid march of the commander of the faithful, who repassed, in the depth + of winter, the snows of Mount Taurus: his stratagems of policy and war + were exhausted; and the perfidious Greek escaped with three wounds from a + field of battle overspread with forty thousand of his subjects. Yet the + emperor was ashamed of submission, and the caliph was resolved on victory. + One hundred and thirty-five thousand regular soldiers received pay, and + were inscribed in the military roll; and above three hundred thousand + persons of every denomination marched under the black standard of the + Abbassides. They swept the surface of Asia Minor far beyond Tyana and + Ancyra, and invested the Pontic Heraclea, <a href="#linknote-52.77" + name="linknoteref-52.77" id="linknoteref-52.77">77</a> once a flourishing + state, now a paltry town; at that time capable of sustaining, in her + antique walls, a month’s siege against the forces of the East. The ruin + was complete, the spoil was ample; but if Harun had been conversant with + Grecian story, he would have regretted the statue of Hercules, whose + attributes, the club, the bow, the quiver, and the lion’s hide, were + sculptured in massy gold. The progress of desolation by sea and land, from + the Euxine to the Isle of Cyprus, compelled the emperor Nicephorus to + retract his haughty defiance. In the new treaty, the ruins of Heraclea + were left forever as a lesson and a trophy; and the coin of the tribute + was marked with the image and superscription of Harun and his three sons. + <a href="#linknote-52.78" name="linknoteref-52.78" id="linknoteref-52.78">78</a> + Yet this plurality of lords might contribute to remove the dishonor of the + Roman name. After the death of their father, the heirs of the caliph were + involved in civil discord, and the conqueror, the liberal Almamon, was + sufficiently engaged in the restoration of domestic peace and the + introduction of foreign science. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.75" id="linknote-52.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.75">return</a>)<br /> [ See the reign and + character of Harun Al Rashid, in the Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 431-433, + under his proper title; and in the relative articles to which M. + D’Herbelot refers. That learned collector has shown much taste in + stripping the Oriental chronicles of their instructive and amusing + anecdotes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.76" id="linknote-52.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.76">return</a>)<br /> [ For the situation of + Racca, the old Nicephorium, consult D’Anville, (l’Euphrate et le Tigre, p. + 24-27.) The Arabian Nights represent Harun al Rashid as almost stationary + in Bagdad. He respected the royal seat of the Abbassides: but the vices of + the inhabitants had driven him from the city, (Abulfed. Annal. p. 167.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.77" id="linknote-52.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.77">return</a>)<br /> [ M. de Tournefort, in + his coasting voyage from Constantinople to Trebizond, passed a night at + Heraclea or Eregri. His eye surveyed the present state, his reading + collected the antiquities, of the city (Voyage du Levant, tom. iii. lettre + xvi. p. 23-35.) We have a separate history of Heraclea in the fragments of + Memnon, which are preserved by Photius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.78" id="linknote-52.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.78">return</a>)<br /> [ The wars of Harun al + Rashid against the Roman empire are related by Theophanes, (p. 384, 385, + 391, 396, 407, 408.) Zonaras, (tom. iii. l. xv. p. 115, 124,) Cedrenus, + (p. 477, 478,) Eutycaius, (Annal. tom. ii. p. 407,) Elmacin, (Hist. + Saracen. p. 136, 151, 152,) Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 147, 151,) and + Abulfeda, (p. 156, 166-168.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap52.4"></a> + Chapter LII: More Conquests By The Arabs.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + Under the reign of Almamon at Bagdad, of Michael the Stammerer at + Constantinople, the islands of Crete <a href="#linknote-52.79" + name="linknoteref-52.79" id="linknoteref-52.79">79</a> and Sicily were + subdued by the Arabs. The former of these conquests is disdained by their + own writers, who were ignorant of the fame of Jupiter and Minos, but it + has not been overlooked by the Byzantine historians, who now begin to cast + a clearer light on the affairs of their own times. <a href="#linknote-52.80" + name="linknoteref-52.80" id="linknoteref-52.80">80</a> A band of Andalusian + volunteers, discontented with the climate or government of Spain, explored + the adventures of the sea; but as they sailed in no more than ten or + twenty galleys, their warfare must be branded with the name of piracy. As + the subjects and sectaries of the white party, they might lawfully invade + the dominions of the black caliphs. A rebellious faction introduced them + into Alexandria; <a href="#linknote-52.81" name="linknoteref-52.81" + id="linknoteref-52.81">81</a> they cut in pieces both friends and foes, + pillaged the churches and the moschs, sold above six thousand Christian + captives, and maintained their station in the capital of Egypt, till they + were oppressed by the forces and the presence of Almamon himself. From the + mouth of the Nile to the Hellespont, the islands and sea-coasts both of + the Greeks and Moslems were exposed to their depredations; they saw, they + envied, they tasted the fertility of Crete, and soon returned with forty + galleys to a more serious attack. The Andalusians wandered over the land + fearless and unmolested; but when they descended with their plunder to the + sea-shore, their vessels were in flames, and their chief, Abu Caab, + confessed himself the author of the mischief. Their clamors accused his + madness or treachery. “Of what do you complain?” replied the crafty emir. + “I have brought you to a land flowing with milk and honey. Here is your + true country; repose from your toils, and forget the barren place of your + nativity.” “And our wives and children?” “Your beauteous captives will + supply the place of your wives, and in their embraces you will soon become + the fathers of a new progeny.” The first habitation was their camp, with a + ditch and rampart, in the Bay of Suda; but an apostate monk led them to a + more desirable position in the eastern parts; and the name of Candax, + their fortress and colony, has been extended to the whole island, under + the corrupt and modern appellation of Candia. The hundred cities of the + age of Minos were diminished to thirty; and of these, only one, most + probably Cydonia, had courage to retain the substance of freedom and the + profession of Christianity. The Saracens of Crete soon repaired the loss + of their navy; and the timbers of Mount Ida were launched into the main. + During a hostile period of one hundred and thirty-eight years, the princes + of Constantinople attacked these licentious corsairs with fruitless curses + and ineffectual arms. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.79" id="linknote-52.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.79">return</a>)<br /> [ The authors from whom I + have learned the most of the ancient and modern state of Crete, are Belon, + (Observations, &c., c. 3-20, Paris, 1555,) Tournefort, (Voyage du + Levant, tom. i. lettre ii. et iii.,) and Meursius, (Creta, in his works, + tom. iii. p. 343-544.) Although Crete is styled by Homer, by Dionysius, I + cannot conceive that mountainous island to surpass, or even to equal, in + fertility the greater part of Spain.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.80" id="linknote-52.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.80">return</a>)<br /> [ The most authentic and + circumstantial intelligence is obtained from the four books of the + Continuation of Theophanes, compiled by the pen or the command of + Constantine Porphyrogenitus, with the Life of his father Basil, the + Macedonian, (Scriptores post Theophanem, p. 1-162, a Francisc. Combefis, + Paris, 1685.) The loss of Crete and Sicily is related, l. ii. p. 46-52. To + these we may add the secondary evidence of Joseph Genesius, (l. ii. p. 21, + Venet. 1733,) George Cedrenus, (Compend. p. 506-508,) and John Scylitzes + Curopalata, (apud Baron. Annal. Eccles. A.D. 827, No. 24, &c.) But the + modern Greeks are such notorious plagiaries, that I should only quote a + plurality of names.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.81" id="linknote-52.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.81">return</a>)<br /> [ Renaudot (Hist. + Patriarch. Alex. p. 251-256, 268-270) had described the ravages of the + Andalusian Arabs in Egypt, but has forgot to connect them with the + conquest of Crete.] + </p> + <p> + The loss of Sicily <a href="#linknote-52.82" name="linknoteref-52.82" + id="linknoteref-52.82">82</a> was occasioned by an act of superstitious + rigor. An amorous youth, who had stolen a nun from her cloister, was + sentenced by the emperor to the amputation of his tongue. Euphemius + appealed to the reason and policy of the Saracens of Africa; and soon + returned with the Imperial purple, a fleet of one hundred ships, and an + army of seven hundred horse and ten thousand foot. They landed at Mazara + near the ruins of the ancient Selinus; but after some partial victories, + Syracuse <a href="#linknote-52.83" name="linknoteref-52.83" + id="linknoteref-52.83">83</a> was delivered by the Greeks, the apostate was + slain before her walls, and his African friends were reduced to the + necessity of feeding on the flesh of their own horses. In their turn they + were relieved by a powerful reenforcement of their brethren of Andalusia; + the largest and western part of the island was gradually reduced, and the + commodious harbor of Palermo was chosen for the seat of the naval and + military power of the Saracens. Syracuse preserved about fifty years the + faith which she had sworn to Christ and to Caesar. In the last and fatal + siege, her citizens displayed some remnant of the spirit which had + formerly resisted the powers of Athens and Carthage. They stood above + twenty days against the battering-rams and catapultoe, the mines and + tortoises of the besiegers; and the place might have been relieved, if the + mariners of the Imperial fleet had not been detained at Constantinople in + building a church to the Virgin Mary. The deacon Theodosius, with the + bishop and clergy, was dragged in chains from the altar to Palermo, cast + into a subterraneous dungeon, and exposed to the hourly peril of death or + apostasy. His pathetic, and not inelegant, complaint may be read as the + epitaph of his country. <a href="#linknote-52.84" name="linknoteref-52.84" + id="linknoteref-52.84">84</a> From the Roman conquest to this final + calamity, Syracuse, now dwindled to the primitive Isle of Ortygea, had + insensibly declined. Yet the relics were still precious; the plate of the + cathedral weighed five thousand pounds of silver; the entire spoil was + computed at one million of pieces of gold, (about four hundred thousand + pounds sterling,) and the captives must outnumber the seventeen thousand + Christians, who were transported from the sack of Tauromenium into African + servitude. In Sicily, the religion and language of the Greeks were + eradicated; and such was the docility of the rising generation, that + fifteen thousand boys were circumcised and clothed on the same day with + the son of the Fatimite caliph. The Arabian squadrons issued from the + harbors of Palermo, Biserta, and Tunis; a hundred and fifty towns of + Calabria and Campania were attacked and pillaged; nor could the suburbs of + Rome be defended by the name of the Caesars and apostles. Had the + Mahometans been united, Italy must have fallen an easy and glorious + accession to the empire of the prophet. But the caliphs of Bagdad had lost + their authority in the West; the Aglabites and Fatimites usurped the + provinces of Africa, their emirs of Sicily aspired to independence; and + the design of conquest and dominion was degraded to a repetition of + predatory inroads. <a href="#linknote-52.85" name="linknoteref-52.85" + id="linknoteref-52.85">85</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.82" id="linknote-52.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.82">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophanes, l. ii. p. + 51. This history of the loss of Sicily is no longer extant. Muratori + (Annali d’ Italia, tom. vii. p. 719, 721, &c.) has added some + circumstances from the Italian chronicles.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.83" id="linknote-52.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.83">return</a>)<br /> [ The splendid and + interesting tragedy of Tancrede would adapt itself much better to this + epoch, than to the date (A.D. 1005) which Voltaire himself has chosen. But + I must gently reproach the poet for infusing into the Greek subjects the + spirit of modern knights and ancient republicans.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.84" id="linknote-52.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.84">return</a>)<br /> [ The narrative or + lamentation of Theodosius is transcribed and illustrated by Pagi, + (Critica, tom. iii. p. 719, &c.) Constantine Porphyrogenitus (in Vit. + Basil, c. 69, 70, p. 190-192) mentions the loss of Syracuse and the + triumph of the demons.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.85" id="linknote-52.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.85">return</a>)<br /> [ The extracts from the + Arabic histories of Sicily are given in Abulfeda, (Annal’ Moslem. p. + 271-273,) and in the first volume of Muratori’s Scriptores Rerum + Italicarum. M. de Guignes (Hist. des Huns, tom. i. p. 363, 364) has added + some important facts.] + </p> + <p> + In the sufferings of prostrate Italy, the name of Rome awakens a solemn + and mournful recollection. A fleet of Saracens from the African coast + presumed to enter the mouth of the Tyber, and to approach a city which + even yet, in her fallen state, was revered as the metropolis of the + Christian world. The gates and ramparts were guarded by a trembling + people; but the tombs and temples of St. Peter and St. Paul were left + exposed in the suburbs of the Vatican and of the Ostian way. Their + invisible sanctity had protected them against the Goths, the Vandals, and + the Lombards; but the Arabs disdained both the gospel and the legend; and + their rapacious spirit was approved and animated by the precepts of the + Koran. The Christian idols were stripped of their costly offerings; a + silver altar was torn away from the shrine of St. Peter; and if the bodies + or the buildings were left entire, their deliverance must be imputed to + the haste, rather than the scruples, of the Saracens. In their course + along the Appian way, they pillaged Fundi and besieged Gayeta; but they + had turned aside from the walls of Rome, and by their divisions, the + Capitol was saved from the yoke of the prophet of Mecca. The same danger + still impended on the heads of the Roman people; and their domestic force + was unequal to the assault of an African emir. They claimed the protection + of their Latin sovereign; but the Carlovingian standard was overthrown by + a detachment of the Barbarians: they meditated the restoration of the + Greek emperors; but the attempt was treasonable, and the succor remote and + precarious. <a href="#linknote-52.86" name="linknoteref-52.86" + id="linknoteref-52.86">86</a> Their distress appeared to receive some + aggravation from the death of their spiritual and temporal chief; but the + pressing emergency superseded the forms and intrigues of an election; and + the unanimous choice of Pope Leo the Fourth <a href="#linknote-52.87" + name="linknoteref-52.87" id="linknoteref-52.87">87</a> was the safety of the + church and city. This pontiff was born a Roman; the courage of the first + ages of the republic glowed in his breast; and, amidst the ruins of his + country, he stood erect, like one of the firm and lofty columns that rear + their heads above the fragments of the Roman forum. The first days of his + reign were consecrated to the purification and removal of relics, to + prayers and processions, and to all the solemn offices of religion, which + served at least to heal the imagination, and restore the hopes, of the + multitude. The public defence had been long neglected, not from the + presumption of peace, but from the distress and poverty of the times. As + far as the scantiness of his means and the shortness of his leisure would + allow, the ancient walls were repaired by the command of Leo; fifteen + towers, in the most accessible stations, were built or renewed; two of + these commanded on either side of the Tyber; and an iron chain was drawn + across the stream to impede the ascent of a hostile navy. The Romans were + assured of a short respite by the welcome news, that the siege of Gayeta + had been raised, and that a part of the enemy, with their sacrilegious + plunder, had perished in the waves. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.86" id="linknote-52.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.86">return</a>)<br /> [ One of the most eminent + Romans (Gratianus, magister militum et Romani palatii superista) was + accused of declaring, Quia Franci nihil nobis boni faciunt, neque + adjutorium praebent, sed magis quae nostra sunt violenter tollunt. Quare + non advocamus Graecos, et cum eis foedus pacis componentes, Francorum + regem et gentem de nostro regno et dominatione expellimus? Anastasius in + Leone IV. p. 199.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.87" id="linknote-52.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.87">return</a>)<br /> [ Voltaire (Hist. + Generale, tom. ii. c. 38, p. 124) appears to be remarkably struck with the + character of Pope Leo IV. I have borrowed his general expression, but the + sight of the forum has furnished me with a more distinct and lively + image.] + </p> + <p> + But the storm, which had been delayed, soon burst upon them with redoubled + violence. The Aglabite, <a href="#linknote-52.88" name="linknoteref-52.88" + id="linknoteref-52.88">88</a> who reigned in Africa, had inherited from his + father a treasure and an army: a fleet of Arabs and Moors, after a short + refreshment in the harbors of Sardinia, cast anchor before the mouth of + the Tyber, sixteen miles from the city: and their discipline and numbers + appeared to threaten, not a transient inroad, but a serious design of + conquest and dominion. But the vigilance of Leo had formed an alliance + with the vassals of the Greek empire, the free and maritime states of + Gayeta, Naples, and Amalfi; and in the hour of danger, their galleys + appeared in the port of Ostia under the command of Caesarius, the son of + the Neapolitan duke, a noble and valiant youth, who had already vanquished + the fleets of the Saracens. With his principal companions, Caesarius was + invited to the Lateran palace, and the dexterous pontiff affected to + inquire their errand, and to accept with joy and surprise their + providential succor. The city bands, in arms, attended their father to + Ostia, where he reviewed and blessed his generous deliverers. They kissed + his feet, received the communion with martial devotion, and listened to + the prayer of Leo, that the same God who had supported St. Peter and St. + Paul on the waves of the sea, would strengthen the hands of his champions + against the adversaries of his holy name. After a similar prayer, and with + equal resolution, the Moslems advanced to the attack of the Christian + galleys, which preserved their advantageous station along the coast. The + victory inclined to the side of the allies, when it was less gloriously + decided in their favor by a sudden tempest, which confounded the skill and + courage of the stoutest mariners. The Christians were sheltered in a + friendly harbor, while the Africans were scattered and dashed in pieces + among the rocks and islands of a hostile shore. Those who escaped from + shipwreck and hunger neither found, nor deserved, mercy at the hands of + their implacable pursuers. The sword and the gibbet reduced the dangerous + multitude of captives; and the remainder was more usefully employed, to + restore the sacred edifices which they had attempted to subvert. The + pontiff, at the head of the citizens and allies, paid his grateful + devotion at the shrines of the apostles; and, among the spoils of this + naval victory, thirteen Arabian bows of pure and massy silver were + suspended round the altar of the fishermen of Galilee. The reign of Leo + the Fourth was employed in the defence and ornament of the Roman state. + The churches were renewed and embellished: near four thousand pounds of + silver were consecrated to repair the losses of St. Peter; and his + sanctuary was decorated with a plate of gold of the weight of two hundred + and sixteen pounds, embossed with the portraits of the pope and emperor, + and encircled with a string of pearls. Yet this vain magnificence reflects + less glory on the character of Leo than the paternal care with which he + rebuilt the walls of Horta and Ameria; and transported the wandering + inhabitants of Centumcellae to his new foundation of Leopolis, twelve + miles from the sea-shore. <a href="#linknote-52.89" name="linknoteref-52.89" + id="linknoteref-52.89">89</a> By his liberality, a colony of Corsicans, + with their wives and children, was planted in the station of Porto, at the + mouth of the Tyber: the falling city was restored for their use, the + fields and vineyards were divided among the new settlers: their first + efforts were assisted by a gift of horses and cattle; and the hardy + exiles, who breathed revenge against the Saracens, swore to live and die + under the standard of St. Peter. The nations of the West and North who + visited the threshold of the apostles had gradually formed the large and + populous suburb of the Vatican, and their various habitations were + distinguished, in the language of the times, as the schools of the Greeks + and Goths, of the Lombards and Saxons. But this venerable spot was still + open to sacrilegious insult: the design of enclosing it with walls and + towers exhausted all that authority could command, or charity would + supply: and the pious labor of four years was animated in every season, + and at every hour, by the presence of the indefatigable pontiff. The love + of fame, a generous but worldly passion, may be detected in the name of + the Leonine city, which he bestowed on the Vatican; yet the pride of the + dedication was tempered with Christian penance and humility. The boundary + was trod by the bishop and his clergy, barefoot, in sackcloth and ashes; + the songs of triumph were modulated to psalms and litanies; the walls were + besprinkled with holy water; and the ceremony was concluded with a prayer, + that, under the guardian care of the apostles and the angelic host, both + the old and the new Rome might ever be preserved pure, prosperous, and + impregnable. <a href="#linknote-52.90" name="linknoteref-52.90" + id="linknoteref-52.90">90</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.88" id="linknote-52.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.88">return</a>)<br /> [ De Guignes, Hist. + Generale des Huns, tom. i. p. 363, 364. Cardonne, Hist. de l’Afrique et de + l’Espagne, sous la Domination des Arabs, tom. ii. p. 24, 25. I observe, + and cannot reconcile, the difference of these writers in the succession of + the Aglabites.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.89" id="linknote-52.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.89">return</a>)<br /> [ Beretti (Chorographia + Italiae Medii Evi, p. 106, 108) has illustrated Centumcellae, Leopolis, + Civitas Leonina, and the other places of the Roman duchy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.90" id="linknote-52.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.90">return</a>)<br /> [ The Arabs and the + Greeks are alike silent concerning the invasion of Rome by the Africans. + The Latin chronicles do not afford much instruction, (see the Annals of + Baronius and Pagi.) Our authentic and contemporary guide for the popes of + the ixth century is Anastasius, librarian of the Roman church. His Life of + Leo IV, contains twenty-four pages, (p. 175-199, edit. Paris;) and if a + great part consist of superstitious trifles, we must blame or command his + hero, who was much oftener in a church than in a camp.] + </p> + <p> + The emperor Theophilus, son of Michael the Stammerer, was one of the most + active and high-spirited princes who reigned at Constantinople during the + middle age. In offensive or defensive war, he marched in person five times + against the Saracens, formidable in his attack, esteemed by the enemy in + his losses and defeats. In the last of these expeditions he penetrated + into Syria, and besieged the obscure town of Sozopetra; the casual + birthplace of the caliph Motassem, whose father Harun was attended in + peace or war by the most favored of his wives and concubines. The revolt + of a Persian impostor employed at that moment the arms of the Saracen, and + he could only intercede in favor of a place for which he felt and + acknowledged some degree of filial affection. These solicitations + determined the emperor to wound his pride in so sensible a part. Sozopetra + was levelled with the ground, the Syrian prisoners were marked or + mutilated with ignominious cruelty, and a thousand female captives were + forced away from the adjacent territory. Among these a matron of the house + of Abbas invoked, in an agony of despair, the name of Motassem; and the + insults of the Greeks engaged the honor of her kinsman to avenge his + indignity, and to answer her appeal. Under the reign of the two elder + brothers, the inheritance of the youngest had been confined to Anatolia, + Armenia, Georgia, and Circassia; this frontier station had exercised his + military talents; and among his accidental claims to the name of Octonary, + <a href="#linknote-52.91" name="linknoteref-52.91" id="linknoteref-52.91">91</a> + the most meritorious are the eight battles which he gained or fought + against the enemies of the Koran. In this personal quarrel, the troops of + Irak, Syria, and Egypt, were recruited from the tribes of Arabia and the + Turkish hordes; his cavalry might be numerous, though we should deduct + some myriads from the hundred and thirty thousand horses of the royal + stables; and the expense of the armament was computed at four millions + sterling, or one hundred thousand pounds of gold. From Tarsus, the place + of assembly, the Saracens advanced in three divisions along the high road + of Constantinople: Motassem himself commanded the centre, and the vanguard + was given to his son Abbas, who, in the trial of the first adventures, + might succeed with the more glory, or fail with the least reproach. In the + revenge of his injury, the caliph prepared to retaliate a similar affront. + The father of Theophilus was a native of Amorium <a href="#linknote-52.92" + name="linknoteref-52.92" id="linknoteref-52.92">92</a> in Phrygia: the + original seat of the Imperial house had been adorned with privileges and + monuments; and, whatever might be the indifference of the people, + Constantinople itself was scarcely of more value in the eyes of the + sovereign and his court. The name of Amorium was inscribed on the shields + of the Saracens; and their three armies were again united under the walls + of the devoted city. It had been proposed by the wisest counsellors, to + evacuate Amorium, to remove the inhabitants, and to abandon the empty + structures to the vain resentment of the Barbarians. The emperor embraced + the more generous resolution of defending, in a siege and battle, the + country of his ancestors. When the armies drew near, the front of the + Mahometan line appeared to a Roman eye more closely planted with spears + and javelins; but the event of the action was not glorious on either side + to the national troops. The Arabs were broken, but it was by the swords of + thirty thousand Persians, who had obtained service and settlement in the + Byzantine empire. The Greeks were repulsed and vanquished, but it was by + the arrows of the Turkish cavalry; and had not their bowstrings been + damped and relaxed by the evening rain, very few of the Christians could + have escaped with the emperor from the field of battle. They breathed at + Dorylaeum, at the distance of three days; and Theophilus, reviewing his + trembling squadrons, forgave the common flight both of the prince and + people. After this discovery of his weakness, he vainly hoped to deprecate + the fate of Amorium: the inexorable caliph rejected with contempt his + prayers and promises; and detained the Roman ambassadors to be the + witnesses of his great revenge. They had nearly been the witnesses of his + shame. The vigorous assaults of fifty-five days were encountered by a + faithful governor, a veteran garrison, and a desperate people; and the + Saracens must have raised the siege, if a domestic traitor had not pointed + to the weakest part of the wall, a place which was decorated with the + statues of a lion and a bull. The vow of Motassem was accomplished with + unrelenting rigor: tired, rather than satiated, with destruction, he + returned to his new palace of Samara, in the neighborhood of Bagdad, while + the unfortunate <a href="#linknote-52.93" name="linknoteref-52.93" + id="linknoteref-52.93">93</a> Theophilus implored the tardy and doubtful + aid of his Western rival the emperor of the Franks. Yet in the siege of + Amorium about seventy thousand Moslems had perished: their loss had been + revenged by the slaughter of thirty thousand Christians, and the + sufferings of an equal number of captives, who were treated as the most + atrocious criminals. Mutual necessity could sometimes extort the exchange + or ransom of prisoners: <a href="#linknote-52.94" name="linknoteref-52.94" + id="linknoteref-52.94">94</a> but in the national and religious conflict of + the two empires, peace was without confidence, and war without mercy. + Quarter was seldom given in the field; those who escaped the edge of the + sword were condemned to hopeless servitude, or exquisite torture; and a + Catholic emperor relates, with visible satisfaction, the execution of the + Saracens of Crete, who were flayed alive, or plunged into caldrons of + boiling oil. <a href="#linknote-52.95" name="linknoteref-52.95" + id="linknoteref-52.95">95</a> To a point of honor Motassem had sacrificed a + flourishing city, two hundred thousand lives, and the property of + millions. The same caliph descended from his horse, and dirtied his robe, + to relieve the distress of a decrepit old man, who, with his laden ass, + had tumbled into a ditch. On which of these actions did he reflect with + the most pleasure, when he was summoned by the angel of death? <a + href="#linknote-52.96" name="linknoteref-52.96" id="linknoteref-52.96">96</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.91" id="linknote-52.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.91">return</a>)<br /> [ The same number was + applied to the following circumstance in the life of Motassem: he was the + eight of the Abbassides; he reigned eight years, eight months, and eight + days; left eight sons, eight daughters, eight thousand slaves, eight + millions of gold.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.92" id="linknote-52.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.92">return</a>)<br /> [ Amorium is seldom + mentioned by the old geographers, and to tally forgotten in the Roman + Itineraries. After the vith century, it became an episcopal see, and at + length the metropolis of the new Galatia, (Carol. Scto. Paulo, Geograph. + Sacra, p. 234.) The city rose again from its ruins, if we should read + Ammeria, not Anguria, in the text of the Nubian geographer. (p. 236.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.93" id="linknote-52.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.93">return</a>)<br /> [ In the East he was + styled, (Continuator Theophan. l. iii. p. 84;) but such was the ignorance + of the West, that his ambassadors, in public discourse, might boldly + narrate, de victoriis, quas adversus exteras bellando gentes coelitus + fuerat assecutus, (Annalist. Bertinian. apud Pagi, tom. iii. p. 720.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.94" id="linknote-52.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.94">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulpharagius (Dynast. + p. 167, 168) relates one of these singular transactions on the bridge of + the River Lamus in Cilicia, the limit of the two empires, and one day’s + journey westward of Tarsus, (D’Anville, Geographie Ancienne, tom. ii. p. + 91.) Four thousand four hundred and sixty Moslems, eight hundred women and + children, one hundred confederates, were exchanged for an equal number of + Greeks. They passed each other in the middle of the bridge, and when they + reached their respective friends, they shouted Allah Acbar, and Kyrie + Eleison. Many of the prisoners of Amorium were probably among them, but in + the same year, (A. H. 231,) the most illustrious of them, the forty two + martyrs, were beheaded by the caliph’s order.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.95" id="linknote-52.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.95">return</a>)<br /> [ Constantin. + Porphyrogenitus, in Vit. Basil. c. 61, p. 186. These Saracens were indeed + treated with peculiar severity as pirates and renegadoes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.96" id="linknote-52.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.96">return</a>)<br /> [ For Theophilus, + Motassem, and the Amorian war, see the Continuator of Theophanes, (l. iii. + p. 77-84,) Genesius (l. iii. p. 24-34.) Cedrenus, (p. 528-532,) Elmacin, + (Hist. Saracen, p. 180,) Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 165, 166,) Abulfeda, + (Annal. Moslem. p. 191,) D’Herbelot, (Bibliot. Orientale, p. 639, 640.)] + </p> + <p> + With Motassem, the eighth of the Abbassides, the glory of his family and + nation expired. When the Arabian conquerors had spread themselves over the + East, and were mingled with the servile crowds of Persia, Syria, and + Egypt, they insensibly lost the freeborn and martial virtues of the + desert. The courage of the South is the artificial fruit of discipline and + prejudice; the active power of enthusiasm had decayed, and the mercenary + forces of the caliphs were recruited in those climates of the North, of + which valor is the hardy and spontaneous production. Of the Turks <a + href="#linknote-52.97" name="linknoteref-52.97" id="linknoteref-52.97">97</a> + who dwelt beyond the Oxus and Jaxartes, the robust youths, either taken in + war or purchased in trade, were educated in the exercises of the field, + and the profession of the Mahometan faith. The Turkish guards stood in + arms round the throne of their benefactor, and their chiefs usurped the + dominion of the palace and the provinces. Motassem, the first author of + this dangerous example, introduced into the capital above fifty thousand + Turks: their licentious conduct provoked the public indignation, and the + quarrels of the soldiers and people induced the caliph to retire from + Bagdad, and establish his own residence and the camp of his Barbarian + favorites at Samara on the Tigris, about twelve leagues above the city of + Peace. <a href="#linknote-52.98" name="linknoteref-52.98" + id="linknoteref-52.98">98</a> His son Motawakkel was a jealous and cruel + tyrant: odious to his subjects, he cast himself on the fidelity of the + strangers, and these strangers, ambitious and apprehensive, were tempted + by the rich promise of a revolution. At the instigation, or at least in + the cause of his son, they burst into his apartment at the hour of supper, + and the caliph was cut into seven pieces by the same swords which he had + recently distributed among the guards of his life and throne. To this + throne, yet streaming with a father’s blood, Montasser was triumphantly + led; but in a reign of six months, he found only the pangs of a guilty + conscience. If he wept at the sight of an old tapestry which represented + the crime and punishment of the son of Chosroes, if his days were abridged + by grief and remorse, we may allow some pity to a parricide, who + exclaimed, in the bitterness of death, that he had lost both this world + and the world to come. After this act of treason, the ensigns of royalty, + the garment and walking-staff of Mahomet, were given and torn away by the + foreign mercenaries, who in four years created, deposed, and murdered, + three commanders of the faithful. As often as the Turks were inflamed by + fear, or rage, or avarice, these caliphs were dragged by the feet, exposed + naked to the scorching sun, beaten with iron clubs, and compelled to + purchase, by the abdication of their dignity, a short reprieve of + inevitable fate. <a href="#linknote-52.99" name="linknoteref-52.99" + id="linknoteref-52.99">99</a> At length, however, the fury of the tempest + was spent or diverted: the Abbassides returned to the less turbulent + residence of Bagdad; the insolence of the Turks was curbed with a firmer + and more skilful hand, and their numbers were divided and destroyed in + foreign warfare. But the nations of the East had been taught to trample on + the successors of the prophet; and the blessings of domestic peace were + obtained by the relaxation of strength and discipline. So uniform are the + mischiefs of military despotism, that I seem to repeat the story of the + praetorians of Rome. <a href="#linknote-52.100" name="linknoteref-52.100" + id="linknoteref-52.100">100</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.97" id="linknote-52.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.97">return</a>)<br /> [ M. de Guignes, who + sometimes leaps, and sometimes stumbles, in the gulf between Chinese and + Mahometan story, thinks he can see, that these Turks are the Hoei-ke, + alias the Kao-tche, or high-wagons; that they were divided into fifteen + hordes, from China and Siberia to the dominions of the caliphs and + Samanides, &c., (Hist. des Huns, tom. iii. p. 1-33, 124-131.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.98" id="linknote-52.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.98">return</a>)<br /> [ He changed the old name + of Sumera, or Samara, into the fanciful title of Sermen-rai, that which + gives pleasure at first sight, (D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p. + 808. D’Anville, l’Euphrate et le Tigre p. 97, 98.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.99" id="linknote-52.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.99">return</a>)<br /> [ Take a specimen, the + death of the caliph Motaz: Correptum pedibus pertrahunt, et sudibus probe + permulcant, et spoliatum laceris vestibus in sole collocant, prae cujus + acerrimo aestu pedes alternos attollebat et demittebat. Adstantium aliquis + misero colaphos continuo ingerebat, quos ille objectis manibus avertere + studebat..... Quo facto traditus tortori fuit, totoque triduo cibo potuque + prohibitus..... Suffocatus, &c. (Abulfeda, p. 206.) Of the caliph + Mohtadi, he says, services ipsi perpetuis ictibus contundebant, + testiculosque pedibus conculcabant, (p. 208.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.100" id="linknote-52.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.100">return</a>)<br /> [ See under the reigns + of Motassem, Motawakkel, Montasser, Mostain, Motaz, Mohtadi, and Motamed, + in the Bibliotheque of D’Herbelot, and the now familiar Annals of Elmacin, + Abulpharagius, and Abulfeda.] + </p> + <p> + While the flame of enthusiasm was damped by the business, the pleasure, + and the knowledge, of the age, it burnt with concentrated heat in the + breasts of the chosen few, the congenial spirits, who were ambitious of + reigning either in this world or in the next. How carefully soever the + book of prophecy had been sealed by the apostle of Mecca, the wishes, and + (if we may profane the word) even the reason, of fanaticism might believe + that, after the successive missions of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, + and Mahomet, the same God, in the fulness of time, would reveal a still + more perfect and permanent law. In the two hundred and seventy-seventh + year of the Hegira, and in the neighborhood of Cufa, an Arabian preacher, + of the name of Carmath, assumed the lofty and incomprehensible style of + the Guide, the Director, the Demonstration, the Word, the Holy Ghost, the + Camel, the Herald of the Messiah, who had conversed with him in a human + shape, and the representative of Mohammed the son of Ali, of St. John the + Baptist, and of the angel Gabriel. In his mystic volume, the precepts of + the Koran were refined to a more spiritual sense: he relaxed the duties of + ablution, fasting, and pilgrimage; allowed the indiscriminate use of wine + and forbidden food; and nourished the fervor of his disciples by the daily + repetition of fifty prayers. The idleness and ferment of the rustic crowd + awakened the attention of the magistrates of Cufa; a timid persecution + assisted the progress of the new sect; and the name of the prophet became + more revered after his person had been withdrawn from the world. His + twelve apostles dispersed themselves among the Bedoweens, “a race of men,” + says Abulfeda, “equally devoid of reason and of religion;” and the success + of their preaching seemed to threaten Arabia with a new revolution. The + Carmathians were ripe for rebellion, since they disclaimed the title of + the house of Abbas, and abhorred the worldly pomp of the caliphs of + Bagdad. They were susceptible of discipline, since they vowed a blind and + absolute submission to their Imam, who was called to the prophetic office + by the voice of God and the people. Instead of the legal tithes, he + claimed the fifth of their substance and spoil; the most flagitious sins + were no more than the type of disobedience; and the brethren were united + and concealed by an oath of secrecy. After a bloody conflict, they + prevailed in the province of Bahrein, along the Persian Gulf: far and + wide, the tribes of the desert were subject to the sceptre, or rather to + the sword of Abu Said and his son Abu Taher; and these rebellious imams + could muster in the field a hundred and seven thousand fanatics. The + mercenaries of the caliph were dismayed at the approach of an enemy who + neither asked nor accepted quarter; and the difference between, them in + fortitude and patience, is expressive of the change which three centuries + of prosperity had effected in the character of the Arabians. Such troops + were discomfited in every action; the cities of Racca and Baalbec, of Cufa + and Bassora, were taken and pillaged; Bagdad was filled with + consternation; and the caliph trembled behind the veils of his palace. In + a daring inroad beyond the Tigris, Abu Taher advanced to the gates of the + capital with no more than five hundred horse. By the special order of + Moctader, the bridges had been broken down, and the person or head of the + rebel was expected every hour by the commander of the faithful. His + lieutenant, from a motive of fear or pity, apprised Abu Taher of his + danger, and recommended a speedy escape. “Your master,” said the intrepid + Carmathian to the messenger, “is at the head of thirty thousand soldiers: + three such men as these are wanting in his host:” at the same instant, + turning to three of his companions, he commanded the first to plunge a + dagger into his breast, the second to leap into the Tigris, and the third + to cast himself headlong down a precipice. They obeyed without a murmur. + </p> + <p> + “Relate,” continued the imam, “what you have seen: before the evening your + general shall be chained among my dogs.” Before the evening, the camp was + surprised, and the menace was executed. The rapine of the Carmathians was + sanctified by their aversion to the worship of Mecca: they robbed a + caravan of pilgrims, and twenty thousand devout Moslems were abandoned on + the burning sands to a death of hunger and thirst. Another year they + suffered the pilgrims to proceed without interruption; but, in the + festival of devotion, Abu Taher stormed the holy city, and trampled on the + most venerable relics of the Mahometan faith. Thirty thousand citizens and + strangers were put to the sword; the sacred precincts were polluted by the + burial of three thousand dead bodies; the well of Zemzem overflowed with + blood; the golden spout was forced from its place; the veil of the Caaba + was divided among these impious sectaries; and the black stone, the first + monument of the nation, was borne away in triumph to their capital. After + this deed of sacrilege and cruelty, they continued to infest the confines + of Irak, Syria, and Egypt: but the vital principle of enthusiasm had + withered at the root. Their scruples, or their avarice, again opened the + pilgrimage of Mecca, and restored the black stone of the Caaba; and it is + needless to inquire into what factions they were broken, or by whose + swords they were finally extirpated. The sect of the Carmathians may be + considered as the second visible cause of the decline and fall of the + empire of the caliphs. <a href="#linknote-52.101" name="linknoteref-52.101" + id="linknoteref-52.101">101</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.101" id="linknote-52.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.101">return</a>)<br /> [ For the sect of the + Carmathians, consult Elmacin, (Hist. Sara cen, p. 219, 224, 229, 231, 238, + 241, 243,) Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 179-182,) Abulfeda, (Annal. Moslem. + p. 218, 219, &c., 245, 265, 274.) and D’Herbelot, (Bibliotheque + Orientale, p. 256-258, 635.) I find some inconsistencies of theology and + chronology, which it would not be easy nor of much importance to + reconcile. * Note: Compare Von Hammer, Geschichte der Assassinen, p. 44, + &c.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap52.5"></a> + Chapter LII: More Conquests By The Arabs.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + The third and most obvious cause was the weight and magnitude of the + empire itself. The caliph Almamon might proudly assert, that it was easier + for him to rule the East and the West, than to manage a chess-board of two + feet square: <a href="#linknote-52.102" name="linknoteref-52.102" + id="linknoteref-52.102">102</a> yet I suspect that in both those games he + was guilty of many fatal mistakes; and I perceive, that in the distant + provinces the authority of the first and most powerful of the Abbassides + was already impaired. The analogy of despotism invests the representative + with the full majesty of the prince; the division and balance of powers + might relax the habits of obedience, might encourage the passive subject + to inquire into the origin and administration of civil government. He who + is born in the purple is seldom worthy to reign; but the elevation of a + private man, of a peasant, perhaps, or a slave, affords a strong + presumption of his courage and capacity. The viceroy of a remote kingdom + aspires to secure the property and inheritance of his precarious trust; + the nations must rejoice in the presence of their sovereign; and the + command of armies and treasures are at once the object and the instrument + of his ambition. A change was scarcely visible as long as the lieutenants + of the caliph were content with their vicarious title; while they + solicited for themselves or their sons a renewal of the Imperial grant, + and still maintained on the coin and in the public prayers the name and + prerogative of the commander of the faithful. But in the long and + hereditary exercise of power, they assumed the pride and attributes of + royalty; the alternative of peace or war, of reward or punishment, + depended solely on their will; and the revenues of their government were + reserved for local services or private magnificence. Instead of a regular + supply of men and money, the successors of the prophet were flattered with + the ostentatious gift of an elephant, or a cast of hawks, a suit of silk + hangings, or some pounds of musk and amber. <a href="#linknote-52.103" + name="linknoteref-52.103" id="linknoteref-52.103">103</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.102" id="linknote-52.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.102">return</a>)<br /> [ Hyde, Syntagma + Dissertat. tom. ii. p. 57, in Hist. Shahiludii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.103" id="linknote-52.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.103">return</a>)<br /> [ The dynasties of the + Arabian empire may be studied in the Annals of Elmacin, Abulpharagius, and + Abulfeda, under the proper years, in the dictionary of D’Herbelot, under + the proper names. The tables of M. de Guignes (Hist. des Huns, tom. i.) + exhibit a general chronology of the East, interspersed with some + historical anecdotes; but his attachment to national blood has sometimes + confounded the order of time and place.] + </p> + <p> + After the revolt of Spain from the temporal and spiritual supremacy of the + Abbassides, the first symptoms of disobedience broke forth in the province + of Africa. Ibrahim, the son of Aglab, the lieutenant of the vigilant and + rigid Harun, bequeathed to the dynasty of the Aglabites the inheritance of + his name and power. The indolence or policy of the caliphs dissembled the + injury and loss, and pursued only with poison the founder of the + Edrisites, <a href="#linknote-52.104" name="linknoteref-52.104" + id="linknoteref-52.104">104</a> who erected the kingdom and city of Fez on + the shores of the Western ocean. <a href="#linknote-52.105" + name="linknoteref-52.105" id="linknoteref-52.105">105</a> In the East, the + first dynasty was that of the Taherites; <a href="#linknote-52.106" + name="linknoteref-52.106" id="linknoteref-52.106">106</a> the posterity of + the valiant Taher, who, in the civil wars of the sons of Harun, had served + with too much zeal and success the cause of Almamon, the younger brother. + He was sent into honorable exile, to command on the banks of the Oxus; and + the independence of his successors, who reigned in Chorasan till the + fourth generation, was palliated by their modest and respectful demeanor, + the happiness of their subjects and the security of their frontier. They + were supplanted by one of those adventures so frequent in the annals of + the East, who left his trade of a brazier (from whence the name of + Soffarides) for the profession of a robber. In a nocturnal visit to the + treasure of the prince of Sistan, Jacob, the son of Leith, stumbled over a + lump of salt, which he unwarily tasted with his tongue. Salt, among the + Orientals, is the symbol of hospitality, and the pious robber immediately + retired without spoil or damage. The discovery of this honorable behavior + recommended Jacob to pardon and trust; he led an army at first for his + benefactor, at last for himself, subdued Persia, and threatened the + residence of the Abbassides. On his march towards Bagdad, the conqueror + was arrested by a fever. He gave audience in bed to the ambassador of the + caliph; and beside him on a table were exposed a naked cimeter, a crust of + brown bread, and a bunch of onions. “If I die,” said he, “your master is + delivered from his fears. If I live, this must determine between us. If I + am vanquished, I can return without reluctance to the homely fare of my + youth.” From the height where he stood, the descent would not have been so + soft or harmless: a timely death secured his own repose and that of the + caliph, who paid with the most lavish concessions the retreat of his + brother Amrou to the palaces of Shiraz and Ispahan. The Abbassides were + too feeble to contend, too proud to forgive: they invited the powerful + dynasty of the Samanides, who passed the Oxus with ten thousand horse so + poor, that their stirrups were of wood: so brave, that they vanquished the + Soffarian army, eight times more numerous than their own. The captive + Amrou was sent in chains, a grateful offering to the court of Bagdad; and + as the victor was content with the inheritance of Transoxiana and + Chorasan, the realms of Persia returned for a while to the allegiance of + the caliphs. The provinces of Syria and Egypt were twice dismembered by + their Turkish slaves of the race of Toulon and Ilkshid. <a + href="#linknote-52.107" name="linknoteref-52.107" id="linknoteref-52.107">107</a> + These Barbarians, in religion and manners the countrymen of Mahomet, + emerged from the bloody factions of the palace to a provincial command and + an independent throne: their names became famous and formidable in their + time; but the founders of these two potent dynasties confessed, either in + words or actions, the vanity of ambition. The first on his death-bed + implored the mercy of God to a sinner, ignorant of the limits of his own + power: the second, in the midst of four hundred thousand soldiers and + eight thousand slaves, concealed from every human eye the chamber where he + attempted to sleep. Their sons were educated in the vices of kings; and + both Egypt and Syria were recovered and possessed by the Abbassides during + an interval of thirty years. In the decline of their empire, Mesopotamia, + with the important cities of Mosul and Aleppo, was occupied by the Arabian + princes of the tribe of Hamadan. The poets of their court could repeat + without a blush, that nature had formed their countenances for beauty, + their tongues for eloquence, and their hands for liberality and valor: but + the genuine tale of the elevation and reign of the Hamadanites exhibits a + scene of treachery, murder, and parricide. + </p> + <p> + At the same fatal period, the Persian kingdom was again usurped by the + dynasty of the Bowides, by the sword of three brothers, who, under various + names, were styled the support and columns of the state, and who, from the + Caspian Sea to the ocean, would suffer no tyrants but themselves. Under + their reign, the language and genius of Persia revived, and the Arabs, + three hundred and four years after the death of Mahomet, were deprived of + the sceptre of the East. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.104" id="linknote-52.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.104">return</a>)<br /> [ The Aglabites and + Edrisites are the professed subject of M. de Cardonne, (Hist. de l’Afrique + et de l’Espagne sous la Domination des Arabes, tom. ii. p. 1-63.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.105" id="linknote-52.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.105">return</a>)<br /> [ To escape the + reproach of error, I must criticize the inaccuracies of M. de Guignes + (tom. i. p. 359) concerning the Edrisites. 1. The dynasty and city of Fez + could not be founded in the year of the Hegira 173, since the founder was + a posthumous child of a descendant of Ali, who fled from Mecca in the year + 168. 2. This founder, Edris, the son of Edris, instead of living to the + improbable age of 120 years, A. H. 313, died A. H. 214, in the prime of + manhood. 3. The dynasty ended A. H. 307, twenty-three years sooner than it + is fixed by the historian of the Huns. See the accurate Annals of Abulfeda + p. 158, 159, 185, 238.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.106" id="linknote-52.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.106">return</a>)<br /> [ The dynasties of the + Taherites and Soffarides, with the rise of that of the Samanines, are + described in the original history and Latin version of Mirchond: yet the + most interesting facts had already been drained by the diligence of M. + D’Herbelot.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.107" id="linknote-52.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.107">return</a>)<br /> [ M. de Guignes (Hist. + des Huns, tom. iii. p. 124-154) has exhausted the Toulunides and + Ikshidites of Egypt, and thrown some light on the Carmathians and + Hamadanites.] + </p> + <p> + Rahadi, the twentieth of the Abbassides, and the thirty-ninth of the + successors of Mahomet, was the last who deserved the title of commander of + the faithful; <a href="#linknote-52.108" name="linknoteref-52.108" + id="linknoteref-52.108">108</a> the last (says Abulfeda) who spoke to the + people, or conversed with the learned; the last who, in the expense of his + household, represented the wealth and magnificence of the ancient caliphs. + After him, the lords of the Eastern world were reduced to the most abject + misery, and exposed to the blows and insults of a servile condition. The + revolt of the provinces circumscribed their dominions within the walls of + Bagdad: but that capital still contained an innumerable multitude, vain of + their past fortune, discontented with their present state, and oppressed + by the demands of a treasury which had formerly been replenished by the + spoil and tribute of nations. Their idleness was exercised by faction and + controversy. Under the mask of piety, the rigid followers of Hanbal <a + href="#linknote-52.109" name="linknoteref-52.109" id="linknoteref-52.109">109</a> + invaded the pleasures of domestic life, burst into the houses of plebeians + and princes, the wine, broke the instruments, beat the musicians, and + dishonored, with infamous suspicions, the associates of every handsome + youth. In each profession, which allowed room for two persons, the one was + a votary, the other an antagonist, of Ali; and the Abbassides were + awakened by the clamorous grief of the sectaries, who denied their title, + and cursed their progenitors. A turbulent people could only be repressed + by a military force; but who could satisfy the avarice or assert the + discipline of the mercenaries themselves? The African and the Turkish + guards drew their swords against each other, and the chief commanders, the + emirs al Omra, <a href="#linknote-52.110" name="linknoteref-52.110" + id="linknoteref-52.110">110</a> imprisoned or deposed their sovereigns, and + violated the sanctuary of the mosch and harem. If the caliphs escaped to + the camp or court of any neighboring prince, their deliverance was a + change of servitude, till they were prompted by despair to invite the + Bowides, the sultans of Persia, who silenced the factions of Bagdad by + their irresistible arms. The civil and military powers were assumed by + Moezaldowlat, the second of the three brothers, and a stipend of sixty + thousand pounds sterling was assigned by his generosity for the private + expense of the commander of the faithful. But on the fortieth day, at the + audience of the ambassadors of Chorasan, and in the presence of a + trembling multitude, the caliph was dragged from his throne to a dungeon, + by the command of the stranger, and the rude hands of his Dilamites. His + palace was pillaged, his eyes were put out, and the mean ambition of the + Abbassides aspired to the vacant station of danger and disgrace. In the + school of adversity, the luxurious caliphs resumed the grave and + abstemious virtues of the primitive times. Despoiled of their armor and + silken robes, they fasted, they prayed, they studied the Koran and the + tradition of the Sonnites: they performed, with zeal and knowledge, the + functions of their ecclesiastical character. The respect of nations still + waited on the successors of the apostle, the oracles of the law and + conscience of the faithful; and the weakness or division of their tyrants + sometimes restored the Abbassides to the sovereignty of Bagdad. But their + misfortunes had been imbittered by the triumph of the Fatimites, the real + or spurious progeny of Ali. Arising from the extremity of Africa, these + successful rivals extinguished, in Egypt and Syria, both the spiritual and + temporal authority of the Abbassides; and the monarch of the Nile insulted + the humble pontiff on the banks of the Tigris. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.108" id="linknote-52.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.108">return</a>)<br /> [ Hic est ultimus + chalifah qui multum atque saepius pro concione peroraret.... Fuit etiam + ultimus qui otium cum eruditis et facetis hominibus fallere hilariterque + agere soleret. Ultimus tandem chalifarum cui sumtus, stipendia, reditus, + et thesauri, culinae, caeteraque omnis aulica pompa priorum chalifarum ad + instar comparata fuerint. Videbimus enim paullo post quam indignis et + servilibius ludibriis exagitati, quam ad humilem fortunam altimumque + contemptum abjecti fuerint hi quondam potentissimi totius terrarum + Orientalium orbis domini. Abulfed. Annal. Moslem. p. 261. I have given + this passage as the manner and tone of Abulfeda, but the cast of Latin + eloquence belongs more properly to Reiske. The Arabian historian (p. 255, + 257, 261-269, 283, &c.) has supplied me with the most interesting + facts of this paragraph.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.109" id="linknote-52.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.109">return</a>)<br /> [ Their master, on a + similar occasion, showed himself of a more indulgent and tolerating + spirit. Ahmed Ebn Hanbal, the head of one of the four orthodox sects, was + born at Bagdad A. H. 164, and died there A. H. 241. He fought and suffered + in the dispute concerning the creation of the Koran.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.110" id="linknote-52.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.110">return</a>)<br /> [ The office of vizier + was superseded by the emir al Omra, Imperator Imperatorum, a title first + instituted by Radhi, and which merged at length in the Bowides and + Seljukides: vectigalibus, et tributis, et curiis per omnes regiones + praefecit, jussitque in omnibus suggestis nominis ejus in concionibus + mentionem fieri, (Abulpharagius, Dynart. p 199.) It is likewise mentioned + by Elmacin, (p. 254, 255.)] + </p> + <p> + In the declining age of the caliphs, in the century which elapsed after + the war of Theophilus and Motassem, the hostile transactions of the two + nations were confined to some inroads by sea and land, the fruits of their + close vicinity and indelible hatred. But when the Eastern world was + convulsed and broken, the Greeks were roused from their lethargy by the + hopes of conquest and revenge. The Byzantine empire, since the accession + of the Basilian race, had reposed in peace and dignity; and they might + encounter with their entire strength the front of some petty emir, whose + rear was assaulted and threatened by his national foes of the Mahometan + faith. The lofty titles of the morning star, and the death of the + Saracens, <a href="#linknote-52.111" name="linknoteref-52.111" + id="linknoteref-52.111">111</a> were applied in the public acclamations to + Nicephorus Phocas, a prince as renowned in the camp, as he was unpopular + in the city. In the subordinate station of great domestic, or general of + the East, he reduced the Island of Crete, and extirpated the nest of + pirates who had so long defied, with impunity, the majesty of the empire. + <a href="#linknote-52.112" name="linknoteref-52.112" id="linknoteref-52.112">112</a> + His military genius was displayed in the conduct and success of the + enterprise, which had so often failed with loss and dishonor. The Saracens + were confounded by the landing of his troops on safe and level bridges, + which he cast from the vessels to the shore. Seven months were consumed in + the siege of Candia; the despair of the native Cretans was stimulated by + the frequent aid of their brethren of Africa and Spain; and after the + massy wall and double ditch had been stormed by the Greeks a hopeless + conflict was still maintained in the streets and houses of the city. <a + href="#linknote-52.1121" name="linknoteref-52.1121" id="linknoteref-52.1121">1121</a> + The whole island was subdued in the capital, and a submissive people + accepted, without resistance, the baptism of the conqueror. <a + href="#linknote-52.113" name="linknoteref-52.113" id="linknoteref-52.113">113</a> + Constantinople applauded the long-forgotten pomp of a triumph; but the + Imperial diadem was the sole reward that could repay the services, or + satisfy the ambition, of Nicephorus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.111" id="linknote-52.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.111">return</a>)<br /> [ Liutprand, whose + choleric temper was imbittered by his uneasy situation, suggests the names + of reproach and contempt more applicable to Nicephorus than the vain + titles of the Greeks, Ecce venit stella matutina, surgit Eous, reverberat + obtutu solis radios, pallida Saracenorum mors, Nicephorus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.112" id="linknote-52.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.112">return</a>)<br /> [ Notwithstanding the + insinuation of Zonaras, &c., (tom. ii. l. xvi. p. 197,) it is an + undoubted fact, that Crete was completely and finally subdued by + Nicephorus Phocas, (Pagi, Critica, tom. iii. p. 873-875. Meursius, Creta, + l. iii. c. 7, tom. iii. p. 464, 465.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.1121" id="linknote-52.1121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1121 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.1121">return</a>)<br /> [ The Acroases of + Theodorus, de expugnatione Cretae, miserable iambics, relate the whole + campaign. Whoever would fairly estimate the merit of the poetic deacon, + may read the description of the slinging a jackass into the famishing + city. The poet is in a transport at the wit of the general, and revels in + the luxury of antithesis. Theodori Acroases, lib. iii. 172, in Niebuhr’s + Byzant. Hist.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.113" id="linknote-52.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.113">return</a>)<br /> [ A Greek Life of St. + Nicon the Armenian was found in the Sforza library, and translated into + Latin by the Jesuit Sirmond, for the use of Cardinal Baronius. This + contemporary legend casts a ray of light on Crete and Peloponnesus in the + 10th century. He found the newly-recovered island, foedis detestandae + Agarenorum superstitionis vestigiis adhuc plenam ac refertam.... but the + victorious missionary, perhaps with some carnal aid, ad baptismum omnes + veraeque fidei disciplinam pepulit. Ecclesiis per totam insulam + aedificatis, &c., (Annal. Eccles. A.D. 961.)] + </p> + <p> + After the death of the younger Romanus, the fourth in lineal descent of + the Basilian race, his widow Theophania successively married Nicephorus + Phocas and his assassin John Zimisces, the two heroes of the age. They + reigned as the guardians and colleagues of her infant sons; and the twelve + years of their military command form the most splendid period of the + Byzantine annals. The subjects and confederates, whom they led to war, + appeared, at least in the eyes of an enemy, two hundred thousand strong; + and of these about thirty thousand were armed with cuirasses: <a + href="#linknote-52.114" name="linknoteref-52.114" id="linknoteref-52.114">114</a> + a train of four thousand mules attended their march; and their evening + camp was regularly fortified with an enclosure of iron spikes. A series of + bloody and undecisive combats is nothing more than an anticipation of what + would have been effected in a few years by the course of nature; but I + shall briefly prosecute the conquests of the two emperors from the hills + of Cappadocia to the desert of Bagdad. The sieges of Mopsuestia and + Tarsus, in Cilicia, first exercised the skill and perseverance of their + troops, on whom, at this moment, I shall not hesitate to bestow the name + of Romans. In the double city of Mopsuestia, which is divided by the River + Sarus, two hundred thousand Moslems were predestined to death or slavery, + <a href="#linknote-52.115" name="linknoteref-52.115" id="linknoteref-52.115">115</a> + a surprising degree of population, which must at least include the + inhabitants of the dependent districts. They were surrounded and taken by + assault; but Tarsus was reduced by the slow progress of famine; and no + sooner had the Saracens yielded on honorable terms than they were + mortified by the distant and unprofitable view of the naval succors of + Egypt. They were dismissed with a safe-conduct to the confines of Syria: a + part of the old Christians had quietly lived under their dominion; and the + vacant habitations were replenished by a new colony. But the mosch was + converted into a stable; the pulpit was delivered to the flames; many rich + crosses of gold and gems, the spoils of Asiatic churches, were made a + grateful offering to the piety or avarice of the emperor; and he + transported the gates of Mopsuestia and Tarsus, which were fixed in the + walls of Constantinople, an eternal monument of his victory. After they + had forced and secured the narrow passes of Mount Amanus, the two Roman + princes repeatedly carried their arms into the heart of Syria. Yet, + instead of assaulting the walls of Antioch, the humanity or superstition + of Nicephorus appeared to respect the ancient metropolis of the East: he + contented himself with drawing round the city a line of circumvallation; + left a stationary army; and instructed his lieutenant to expect, without + impatience, the return of spring. But in the depth of winter, in a dark + and rainy night, an adventurous subaltern, with three hundred soldiers, + approached the rampart, applied his scaling-ladders, occupied two adjacent + towers, stood firm against the pressure of multitudes, and bravely + maintained his post till he was relieved by the tardy, though effectual, + support of his reluctant chief. The first tumult of slaughter and rapine + subsided; the reign of Caesar and of Christ was restored; and the efforts + of a hundred thousand Saracens, of the armies of Syria and the fleets of + Africa, were consumed without effect before the walls of Antioch. The + royal city of Aleppo was subject to Seifeddowlat, of the dynasty of + Hamadan, who clouded his past glory by the precipitate retreat which + abandoned his kingdom and capital to the Roman invaders. In his stately + palace, that stood without the walls of Aleppo, they joyfully seized a + well-furnished magazine of arms, a stable of fourteen hundred mules, and + three hundred bags of silver and gold. But the walls of the city withstood + the strokes of their battering-rams: and the besiegers pitched their tents + on the neighboring mountain of Jaushan. Their retreat exasperated the + quarrel of the townsmen and mercenaries; the guard of the gates and + ramparts was deserted; and while they furiously charged each other in the + market-place, they were surprised and destroyed by the sword of a common + enemy. The male sex was exterminated by the sword; ten thousand youths + were led into captivity; the weight of the precious spoil exceeded the + strength and number of the beasts of burden; the superfluous remainder was + burnt; and, after a licentious possession of ten days, the Romans marched + away from the naked and bleeding city. In their Syrian inroads they + commanded the husbandmen to cultivate their lands, that they themselves, + in the ensuing season, might reap the benefit; more than a hundred cities + were reduced to obedience; and eighteen pulpits of the principal moschs + were committed to the flames to expiate the sacrilege of the disciples of + Mahomet. The classic names of Hierapolis, Apamea, and Emesa, revive for a + moment in the list of conquest: the emperor Zimisces encamped in the + paradise of Damascus, and accepted the ransom of a submissive people; and + the torrent was only stopped by the impregnable fortress of Tripoli, on + the sea-coast of Phoenicia. Since the days of Heraclius, the Euphrates, + below the passage of Mount Taurus, had been impervious, and almost + invisible, to the Greeks. + </p> + <p> + The river yielded a free passage to the victorious Zimisces; and the + historian may imitate the speed with which he overran the once famous + cities of Samosata, Edessa, Martyropolis, Amida, <a href="#linknote-52.116" + name="linknoteref-52.116" id="linknoteref-52.116">116</a> and Nisibis, the + ancient limit of the empire in the neighborhood of the Tigris. His ardor + was quickened by the desire of grasping the virgin treasures of Ecbatana, + <a href="#linknote-52.117" name="linknoteref-52.117" id="linknoteref-52.117">117</a> + a well-known name, under which the Byzantine writer has concealed the + capital of the Abbassides. The consternation of the fugitives had already + diffused the terror of his name; but the fancied riches of Bagdad had + already been dissipated by the avarice and prodigality of domestic + tyrants. The prayers of the people, and the stern demands of the + lieutenant of the Bowides, required the caliph to provide for the defence + of the city. The helpless Mothi replied, that his arms, his revenues, and + his provinces, had been torn from his hands, and that he was ready to + abdicate a dignity which he was unable to support. The emir was + inexorable; the furniture of the palace was sold; and the paltry price of + forty thousand pieces of gold was instantly consumed in private luxury. + But the apprehensions of Bagdad were relieved by the retreat of the + Greeks: thirst and hunger guarded the desert of Mesopotamia; and the + emperor, satiated with glory, and laden with Oriental spoils, returned to + Constantinople, and displayed, in his triumph, the silk, the aromatics, + and three hundred myriads of gold and silver. Yet the powers of the East + had been bent, not broken, by this transient hurricane. After the + departure of the Greeks, the fugitive princes returned to their capitals; + the subjects disclaimed their involuntary oaths of allegiance; the Moslems + again purified their temples, and overturned the idols of the saints and + martyrs; the Nestorians and Jacobites preferred a Saracen to an orthodox + master; and the numbers and spirit of the Melchites were inadequate to the + support of the church and state. + </p> + <p> + Of these extensive conquests, Antioch, with the cities of Cilicia and the + Isle of Cyprus, was alone restored, a permanent and useful accession to + the Roman empire. <a href="#linknote-52.118" name="linknoteref-52.118" + id="linknoteref-52.118">118</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.114" id="linknote-52.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.114">return</a>)<br /> [ Elmacin, Hist. + Saracen. p. 278, 279. Liutprand was disposed to depreciate the Greek + power, yet he owns that Nicephorus led against Assyria an army of eighty + thousand men.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.115" id="linknote-52.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.115">return</a>)<br /> [ Ducenta fere millia + hominum numerabat urbs (Abulfeda, Annal. Moslem. p. 231) of Mopsuestia, or + Masifa, Mampsysta, Mansista, Mamista, as it is corruptly, or perhaps more + correctly, styled in the middle ages, (Wesseling, Itinerar. p. 580.) Yet I + cannot credit this extreme populousness a few years after the testimony of + the emperor Leo, (Tactica, c. xviii. in Meursii Oper. tom. vi. p. 817.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.116" id="linknote-52.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.116">return</a>)<br /> [ The text of Leo the + deacon, in the corrupt names of Emeta and Myctarsim, reveals the cities of + Amida and Martyropolis, (Mia farekin. See Abulfeda, Geograph. p. 245, + vers. Reiske.) Of the former, Leo observes, urbus munita et illustris; of + the latter, clara atque conspicua opibusque et pecore, reliquis ejus + provinciis urbibus atque oppidis longe praestans.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.117" id="linknote-52.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.117">return</a>)<br /> [ Ut et Ecbatana + pergeret Agarenorumque regiam everteret.... aiunt enim urbium quae usquam + sunt ac toto orbe existunt felicissimam esse auroque ditissimam, (Leo + Diacon. apud Pagium, tom. iv. p. 34.) This splendid description suits only + with Bagdad, and cannot possibly apply either to Hamadan, the true + Ecbatana, (D’Anville, Geog. Ancienne, tom. ii. p. 237,) or Tauris, which + has been commonly mistaken for that city. The name of Ecbatana, in the + same indefinite sense, is transferred by a more classic authority (Cicero + pro Lego Manilia, c. 4) to the royal seat of Mithridates, king of Pontus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-52.118" id="linknote-52.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-52.118">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Annals of + Elmacin, Abulpharagius, and Abulfeda, from A. H. 351 to A. H. 361; and the + reigns of Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces, in the Chronicles of + Zonaras (tom. ii. l. xvi. p. 199—l. xvii. 215) and Cedrenus, + (Compend. p. 649-684.) Their manifold defects are partly supplied by the + Ms. history of Leo the deacon, which Pagi obtained from the Benedictines, + and has inserted almost entire, in a Latin version, (Critica, tom. iii. p. + 873, tom. iv. 37.) * Note: The whole original work of Leo the Deacon has + been published by Hase, and is inserted in the new edition of the + Byzantine historians. M Lassen has added to the Arabian authorities of + this period some extracts from Kemaleddin’s account of the treaty for the + surrender of Aleppo.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap53.1"></a> + Chapter LIII: Fate Of The Eastern Empire.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Fate Of The Eastern Empire In The Tenth Century.—Extent And + Division.—Wealth And Revenue.—Palace Of Constantinople.— + Titles And Offices.—Pride And Power Of The Emperors.— + Tactics Of The Greeks, Arabs, And Franks.—Loss Of The Latin + Tongue.—Studies And Solitude Of The Greeks. +</pre> + <p> + A ray of historic light seems to beam from the darkness of the tenth + century. We open with curiosity and respect the royal volumes of + Constantine Porphyrogenitus, <a href="#linknote-53.1" name="linknoteref-53.1" + id="linknoteref-53.1">1</a> which he composed at a mature age for the + instruction of his son, and which promise to unfold the state of the + eastern empire, both in peace and war, both at home and abroad. In the + first of these works he minutely describes the pompous ceremonies of the + church and palace of Constantinople, according to his own practice, and + that of his predecessors. <a href="#linknote-53.2" name="linknoteref-53.2" + id="linknoteref-53.2">2</a> In the second, he attempts an accurate survey + of the provinces, the themes, as they were then denominated, both of + Europe and Asia. <a href="#linknote-53.3" name="linknoteref-53.3" + id="linknoteref-53.3">3</a> The system of Roman tactics, the discipline and + order of the troops, and the military operations by land and sea, are + explained in the third of these didactic collections, which may be + ascribed to Constantine or his father Leo. <a href="#linknote-53.4" + name="linknoteref-53.4" id="linknoteref-53.4">4</a> In the fourth, of the + administration of the empire, he reveals the secrets of the Byzantine + policy, in friendly or hostile intercourse with the nations of the earth. + The literary labors of the age, the practical systems of law, agriculture, + and history, might redound to the benefit of the subject and the honor of + the Macedonian princes. The sixty books of the Basilics, <a + href="#linknote-53.5" name="linknoteref-53.5" id="linknoteref-53.5">5</a> the + code and pandects of civil jurisprudence, were gradually framed in the + three first reigns of that prosperous dynasty. The art of agriculture had + amused the leisure, and exercised the pens, of the best and wisest of the + ancients; and their chosen precepts are comprised in the twenty books of + the Geoponics <a href="#linknote-53.6" name="linknoteref-53.6" + id="linknoteref-53.6">6</a> of Constantine. At his command, the historical + examples of vice and virtue were methodized in fifty-three books, <a + href="#linknote-53.7" name="linknoteref-53.7" id="linknoteref-53.7">7</a> and + every citizen might apply, to his contemporaries or himself, the lesson or + the warning of past times. From the august character of a legislator, the + sovereign of the East descends to the more humble office of a teacher and + a scribe; and if his successors and subjects were regardless of his + paternal cares, we may inherit and enjoy the everlasting legacy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.1" id="linknote-53.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.1">return</a>)<br /> [ The epithet of + Porphyrogenitus, born in the purple, is elegantly defined by Claudian:— + Ardua privatos nescit fortuna Penates; Et regnum cum luce dedit. Cognata + potestas Excepit Tyrio venerabile pignus in ostro. + </p> + <p> + And Ducange, in his Greek and Latin Glossaries, produces many passages + expressive of the same idea.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.2" id="linknote-53.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.2">return</a>)<br /> [ A splendid Ms. of + Constantine, de Caeremoniis Aulae et Ecclesiae Byzantinae, wandered from + Constantinople to Buda, Frankfort, and Leipsic, where it was published in + a splendid edition by Leich and Reiske, (A.D. 1751, in folio,) with such + lavish praise as editors never fail to bestow on the worthy or worthless + object of their toil.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.3" id="linknote-53.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.3">return</a>)<br /> [ See, in the first volume + of Banduri’s Imperium Orientale, Constantinus de Thematibus, p. 1-24, de + Administrando Imperio, p. 45-127, edit. Venet. The text of the old edition + of Meursius is corrected from a Ms. of the royal library of Paris, which + Isaac Casaubon had formerly seen, (Epist. ad Polybium, p. 10,) and the + sense is illustrated by two maps of William Deslisle, the prince of + geographers till the appearance of the greater D’Anville.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.4" id="linknote-53.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.4">return</a>)<br /> [ The Tactics of Leo and + Constantine are published with the aid of some new Mss. in the great + edition of the works of Meursius, by the learned John Lami, (tom. vi. p. + 531-920, 1211-1417, Florent. 1745,) yet the text is still corrupt and + mutilated, the version is still obscure and faulty. The Imperial library + of Vienna would afford some valuable materials to a new editor, (Fabric. + Bibliot. Graec. tom. vi. p. 369, 370.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.5" id="linknote-53.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.5">return</a>)<br /> [ On the subject of the + Basilics, Fabricius, (Bibliot. Graec. tom. xii. p. 425-514,) and + Heineccius, (Hist. Juris Romani, p. 396-399,) and Giannone, (Istoria + Civile di Napoli, tom. i. p. 450-458,) as historical civilians, may be + usefully consulted: xli. books of this Greek code have been published, + with a Latin version, by Charles Annibal Frabrottus, (Paris, 1647,) in + seven tomes in folio; iv. other books have been since discovered, and are + inserted in Gerard Meerman’s Novus Thesaurus Juris Civ. et Canon. tom. v. + Of the whole work, the sixty books, John Leunclavius has printed, (Basil, + 1575,) an eclogue or synopsis. The cxiii. novels, or new laws, of Leo, may + be found in the Corpus Juris Civilis.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.6" id="linknote-53.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.6">return</a>)<br /> [ I have used the last and + best edition of the Geoponics, (by Nicolas Niclas, Leipsic, 1781, 2 vols. + in octavo.) I read in the preface, that the same emperor restored the + long-forgotten systems of rhetoric and philosophy; and his two books of + Hippiatrica, or Horse-physic, were published at Paris, 1530, in folio, + (Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. tom. vi. p. 493-500.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.7" id="linknote-53.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.7">return</a>)<br /> [ Of these LIII. books, or + titles, only two have been preserved and printed, de Legationibus (by + Fulvius Ursinus, Antwerp, 1582, and Daniel Hoeschelius, August. Vindel. + 1603) and de Virtutibus et Vitiis, (by Henry Valesius, or de Valois, + Paris, 1634.)] + </p> + <p> + A closer survey will indeed reduce the value of the gift, and the + gratitude of posterity: in the possession of these Imperial treasures we + may still deplore our poverty and ignorance; and the fading glories of + their authors will be obliterated by indifference or contempt. The + Basilics will sink to a broken copy, a partial and mutilated version, in + the Greek language, of the laws of Justinian; but the sense of the old + civilians is often superseded by the influence of bigotry: and the + absolute prohibition of divorce, concubinage, and interest for money, + enslaves the freedom of trade and the happiness of private life. In the + historical book, a subject of Constantine might admire the inimitable + virtues of Greece and Rome: he might learn to what a pitch of energy and + elevation the human character had formerly aspired. But a contrary effect + must have been produced by a new edition of the lives of the saints, which + the great logothete, or chancellor of the empire, was directed to prepare; + and the dark fund of superstition was enriched by the fabulous and florid + legends of Simon the Metaphrast. <a href="#linknote-53.8" + name="linknoteref-53.8" id="linknoteref-53.8">8</a> The merits and miracles + of the whole calendar are of less account in the eyes of a sage, than the + toil of a single husbandman, who multiplies the gifts of the Creator, and + supplies the food of his brethren. Yet the royal authors of the Geoponics + were more seriously employed in expounding the precepts of the destroying + art, which had been taught since the days of Xenophon, <a + href="#linknote-53.9" name="linknoteref-53.9" id="linknoteref-53.9">9</a> as + the art of heroes and kings. But the Tactics of Leo and Constantine are + mingled with the baser alloy of the age in which they lived. It was + destitute of original genius; they implicitly transcribe the rules and + maxims which had been confirmed by victories. It was unskilled in the + propriety of style and method; they blindly confound the most distant and + discordant institutions, the phalanx of Sparta and that of Macedon, the + legions of Cato and Trajan, of Augustus and Theodosius. Even the use, or + at least the importance, of these military rudiments may be fairly + questioned: their general theory is dictated by reason; but the merit, as + well as difficulty, consists in the application. The discipline of a + soldier is formed by exercise rather than by study: the talents of a + commander are appropriated to those calm, though rapid, minds, which + nature produces to decide the fate of armies and nations: the former is + the habit of a life, the latter the glance of a moment; and the battles + won by lessons of tactics may be numbered with the epic poems created from + the rules of criticism. The book of ceremonies is a recital, tedious yet + imperfect, of the despicable pageantry which had infected the church and + state since the gradual decay of the purity of the one and the power of + the other. A review of the themes or provinces might promise such + authentic and useful information, as the curiosity of government only can + obtain, instead of traditionary fables on the origin of the cities, and + malicious epigrams on the vices of their inhabitants. <a + href="#linknote-53.10" name="linknoteref-53.10" id="linknoteref-53.10">10</a> + Such information the historian would have been pleased to record; nor + should his silence be condemned if the most interesting objects, the + population of the capital and provinces, the amount of the taxes and + revenues, the numbers of subjects and strangers who served under the + Imperial standard, have been unnoticed by Leo the philosopher, and his son + Constantine. His treatise of the public administration is stained with the + same blemishes; yet it is discriminated by peculiar merit; the antiquities + of the nations may be doubtful or fabulous; but the geography and manners + of the Barbaric world are delineated with curious accuracy. Of these + nations, the Franks alone were qualified to observe in their turn, and to + describe, the metropolis of the East. The ambassador of the great Otho, a + bishop of Cremona, has painted the state of Constantinople about the + middle of the tenth century: his style is glowing, his narrative lively, + his observation keen; and even the prejudices and passions of Liutprand + are stamped with an original character of freedom and genius. <a + href="#linknote-53.11" name="linknoteref-53.11" id="linknoteref-53.11">11</a> + From this scanty fund of foreign and domestic materials, I shall + investigate the form and substance of the Byzantine empire; the provinces + and wealth, the civil government and military force, the character and + literature, of the Greeks in a period of six hundred years, from the reign + of Heraclius to his successful invasion of the Franks or Latins. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.8" id="linknote-53.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.8">return</a>)<br /> [ The life and writings of + Simon Metaphrastes are described by Hankius, (de Scriptoribus Byzant. p. + 418-460.) This biographer of the saints indulged himself in a loose + paraphrase of the sense or nonsense of more ancient acts. His Greek + rhetoric is again paraphrased in the Latin version of Surius, and scarcely + a thread can be now visible of the original texture.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.9" id="linknote-53.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.9">return</a>)<br /> [ According to the first + book of the Cyropaedia, professors of tactics, a small part of the science + of war, were already instituted in Persia, by which Greece must be + understood. A good edition of all the Scriptores Tactici would be a task + not unworthy of a scholar. His industry might discover some new Mss., and + his learning might illustrate the military history of the ancients. But + this scholar should be likewise a soldier; and alas! Quintus Icilius is no + more. * Note: M. Guichardt, author of Memoires Militaires sur les Grecs et + sur les Romains. See Gibbon’s Extraits Raisonnees de mes Lectures, Misc. + Works vol. v. p. 219.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.10" id="linknote-53.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.10">return</a>)<br /> [ After observing that + the demerit of the Cappadocians rose in proportion to their rank and + riches, he inserts a more pointed epigram, which is ascribed to Demodocus. + The sting is precisely the same with the French epigram against Freron: Un + serpent mordit Jean Freron—Eh bien? Le serpent en mourut. But as the + Paris wits are seldom read in the Anthology, I should be curious to learn, + through what channel it was conveyed for their imitation, (Constantin. + Porphyrogen. de Themat. c. ii. Brunck Analect. Graec. tom. ii. p. 56. + Brodaei Anthologia, l. ii. p. 244.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.11" id="linknote-53.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.11">return</a>)<br /> [ The Legatio Liutprandi + Episcopi Cremonensis ad Nicephorum Phocam is inserted in Muratori, + Scriptores Rerum Italicarum, tom. ii. pars i.] + </p> + <p> + After the final division between the sons of Theodosius, the swarms of + Barbarians from Scythia and Germany over-spread the provinces and + extinguished the empire of ancient Rome. The weakness of Constantinople + was concealed by extent of dominion: her limits were inviolate, or at + least entire; and the kingdom of Justinian was enlarged by the splendid + acquisition of Africa and Italy. But the possession of these new conquests + was transient and precarious; and almost a moiety of the Eastern empire + was torn away by the arms of the Saracens. Syria and Egypt were oppressed + by the Arabian caliphs; and, after the reduction of Africa, their + lieutenants invaded and subdued the Roman province which had been changed + into the Gothic monarchy of Spain. The islands of the Mediterranean were + not inaccessible to their naval powers; and it was from their extreme + stations, the harbors of Crete and the fortresses of Cilicia, that the + faithful or rebel emirs insulted the majesty of the throne and capital. + The remaining provinces, under the obedience of the emperors, were cast + into a new mould; and the jurisdiction of the presidents, the consulars, + and the counts were superseded by the institution of the themes, <a + href="#linknote-53.12" name="linknoteref-53.12" id="linknoteref-53.12">12</a> + or military governments, which prevailed under the successors of + Heraclius, and are described by the pen of the royal author. Of the + twenty-nine themes, twelve in Europe and seventeen in Asia, the origin is + obscure, the etymology doubtful or capricious: the limits were arbitrary + and fluctuating; but some particular names, that sound the most strangely + to our ear, were derived from the character and attributes of the troops + that were maintained at the expense, and for the guard, of the respective + divisions. The vanity of the Greek princes most eagerly grasped the shadow + of conquest and the memory of lost dominion. A new Mesopotamia was created + on the western side of the Euphrates: the appellation and praetor of + Sicily were transferred to a narrow slip of Calabria; and a fragment of + the duchy of Beneventum was promoted to the style and title of the theme + of Lombardy. In the decline of the Arabian empire, the successors of + Constantine might indulge their pride in more solid advantages. The + victories of Nicephorus, John Zimisces, and Basil the Second, revived the + fame, and enlarged the boundaries, of the Roman name: the province of + Cilicia, the metropolis of Antioch, the islands of Crete and Cyprus, were + restored to the allegiance of Christ and Caesar: one third of Italy was + annexed to the throne of Constantinople: the kingdom of Bulgaria was + destroyed; and the last sovereigns of the Macedonian dynasty extended + their sway from the sources of the Tigris to the neighborhood of Rome. In + the eleventh century, the prospect was again clouded by new enemies and + new misfortunes: the relics of Italy were swept away by the Norman + adventures; and almost all the Asiatic branches were dissevered from the + Roman trunk by the Turkish conquerors. After these losses, the emperors of + the Comnenian family continued to reign from the Danube to Peloponnesus, + and from Belgrade to Nice, Trebizond, and the winding stream of the + Meander. The spacious provinces of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, were + obedient to their sceptre; the possession of Cyprus, Rhodes, and Crete, + was accompanied by the fifty islands of the Aegean or Holy Sea; <a + href="#linknote-53.13" name="linknoteref-53.13" id="linknoteref-53.13">13</a> + and the remnant of their empire transcends the measure of the largest of + the European kingdoms. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.12" id="linknote-53.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.12">return</a>)<br /> [ See Constantine de + Thematibus, in Banduri, tom. i. p. 1-30. It is used by Maurice (Strata + gem. l. ii. c. 2) for a legion, from whence the name was easily + transferred to its post or province, (Ducange, Gloss. Graec. tom. i. p. + 487-488.) Some etymologies are attempted for the Opiscian, Optimatian, + Thracesian, themes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.13" id="linknote-53.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.13">return</a>)<br /> [ It is styled by the + modern Greeks, from which the corrupt names of Archipelago, l’Archipel, + and the Arches, have been transformed by geographers and seamen, + (D’Anville, Geographie Ancienne, tom. i. p. 281. Analyse de la Carte de la + Greece, p. 60.) The numbers of monks or caloyers in all the islands and + the adjacent mountain of Athos, (Observations de Belon, fol. 32, verso,) + monte santo, might justify the epithet of holy, a slight alteration from + the original, imposed by the Dorians, who, in their dialect, gave the + figurative name of goats, to the bounding waves, (Vossius, apud Cellarium, + Geograph. Antiq. tom. i. p. 829.)] + </p> + <p> + The same princes might assert, with dignity and truth, that of all the + monarchs of Christendom they possessed the greatest city, <a + href="#linknote-53.14" name="linknoteref-53.14" id="linknoteref-53.14">14</a> + the most ample revenue, the most flourishing and populous state. With the + decline and fall of the empire, the cities of the West had decayed and + fallen; nor could the ruins of Rome, or the mud walls, wooden hovels, and + narrow precincts of Paris and London, prepare the Latin stranger to + contemplate the situation and extent of Constantinople, her stately + palaces and churches, and the arts and luxury of an innumerable people. + Her treasures might attract, but her virgin strength had repelled, and + still promised to repel, the audacious invasion of the Persian and + Bulgarian, the Arab and the Russian. The provinces were less fortunate and + impregnable; and few districts, few cities, could be discovered which had + not been violated by some fierce Barbarian, impatient to despoil, because + he was hopeless to possess. From the age of Justinian the Eastern empire + was sinking below its former level; the powers of destruction were more + active than those of improvement; and the calamities of war were + imbittered by the more permanent evils of civil and ecclesiastical + tyranny. The captive who had escaped from the Barbarians was often + stripped and imprisoned by the ministers of his sovereign: the Greek + superstition relaxed the mind by prayer, and emaciated the body by + fasting; and the multitude of convents and festivals diverted many hands + and many days from the temporal service of mankind. Yet the subjects of + the Byzantine empire were still the most dexterous and diligent of + nations; their country was blessed by nature with every advantage of soil, + climate, and situation; and, in the support and restoration of the arts, + their patient and peaceful temper was more useful than the warlike spirit + and feudal anarchy of Europe. The provinces that still adhered to the + empire were repeopled and enriched by the misfortunes of those which were + irrecoverably lost. From the yoke of the caliphs, the Catholics of Syria, + Egypt, and Africa retired to the allegiance of their prince, to the + society of their brethren: the movable wealth, which eludes the search of + oppression, accompanied and alleviated their exile, and Constantinople + received into her bosom the fugitive trade of Alexandria and Tyre. The + chiefs of Armenia and Scythia, who fled from hostile or religious + persecution, were hospitably entertained: their followers were encouraged + to build new cities and to cultivate waste lands; and many spots, both in + Europe and Asia, preserved the name, the manners, or at least the memory, + of these national colonies. Even the tribes of Barbarians, who had seated + themselves in arms on the territory of the empire, were gradually + reclaimed to the laws of the church and state; and as long as they were + separated from the Greeks, their posterity supplied a race of faithful and + obedient soldiers. Did we possess sufficient materials to survey the + twenty-nine themes of the Byzantine monarchy, our curiosity might be + satisfied with a chosen example: it is fortunate enough that the clearest + light should be thrown on the most interesting province, and the name of + Peloponnesus will awaken the attention of the classic reader. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.14" id="linknote-53.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.14">return</a>)<br /> [ According to the Jewish + traveller who had visited Europe and Asia, Constantinople was equalled + only by Bagdad, the great city of the Ismaelites, (Voyage de Benjamin de + Tudele, par Baratier, tom. l. c. v. p. 46.)] + </p> + <p> + As early as the eighth century, in the troubled reign of the Iconoclasts, + Greece, and even Peloponnesus, <a href="#linknote-53.15" + name="linknoteref-53.15" id="linknoteref-53.15">15</a> were overrun by some + Sclavonian bands who outstripped the royal standard of Bulgaria. The + strangers of old, Cadmus, and Danaus, and Pelops, had planted in that + fruitful soil the seeds of policy and learning; but the savages of the + north eradicated what yet remained of their sickly and withered roots. In + this irruption, the country and the inhabitants were transformed; the + Grecian blood was contaminated; and the proudest nobles of Peloponnesus + were branded with the names of foreigners and slaves. By the diligence of + succeeding princes, the land was in some measure purified from the + Barbarians; and the humble remnant was bound by an oath of obedience, + tribute, and military service, which they often renewed and often + violated. The siege of Patras was formed by a singular concurrence of the + Sclavonians of Peloponnesus and the Saracens of Africa. In their last + distress, a pious fiction of the approach of the praetor of Corinth + revived the courage of the citizens. Their sally was bold and successful; + the strangers embarked, the rebels submitted, and the glory of the day was + ascribed to a phantom or a stranger, who fought in the foremost ranks + under the character of St. Andrew the Apostle. The shrine which contained + his relics was decorated with the trophies of victory, and the captive + race was forever devoted to the service and vassalage of the metropolitan + church of Patras. By the revolt of two Sclavonian tribes, in the + neighborhood of Helos and Lacedaemon, the peace of the peninsula was often + disturbed. They sometimes insulted the weakness, and sometimes resisted + the oppression, of the Byzantine government, till at length the approach + of their hostile brethren extorted a golden bull to define the rites and + obligations of the Ezzerites and Milengi, whose annual tribute was defined + at twelve hundred pieces of gold. From these strangers the Imperial + geographer has accurately distinguished a domestic, and perhaps original, + race, who, in some degree, might derive their blood from the much-injured + Helots. The liberality of the Romans, and especially of Augustus, had + enfranchised the maritime cities from the dominion of Sparta; and the + continuance of the same benefit ennobled them with the title of Eleuthero, + or Free-Laconians. <a href="#linknote-53.16" name="linknoteref-53.16" + id="linknoteref-53.16">16</a> In the time of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, + they had acquired the name of Mainotes, under which they dishonor the + claim of liberty by the inhuman pillage of all that is shipwrecked on + their rocky shores. Their territory, barren of corn, but fruitful of + olives, extended to the Cape of Malea: they accepted a chief or prince + from the Byzantine praetor, and a light tribute of four hundred pieces of + gold was the badge of their immunity, rather than of their dependence. The + freemen of Laconia assumed the character of Romans, and long adhered to + the religion of the Greeks. By the zeal of the emperor Basil, they were + baptized in the faith of Christ: but the altars of Venus and Neptune had + been crowned by these rustic votaries five hundred years after they were + proscribed in the Roman world. In the theme of Peloponnesus, <a + href="#linknote-53.17" name="linknoteref-53.17" id="linknoteref-53.17">17</a> + forty cities were still numbered, and the declining state of Sparta, + Argos, and Corinth, may be suspended in the tenth century, at an equal + distance, perhaps, between their antique splendor and their present + desolation. The duty of military service, either in person or by + substitute, was imposed on the lands or benefices of the province; a sum + of five pieces of gold was assessed on each of the substantial tenants; + and the same capitation was shared among several heads of inferior value. + On the proclamation of an Italian war, the Peloponnesians excused + themselves by a voluntary oblation of one hundred pounds of gold, (four + thousand pounds sterling,) and a thousand horses with their arms and + trappings. The churches and monasteries furnished their contingent; a + sacrilegious profit was extorted from the sale of ecclesiastical honors; + and the indigent bishop of Leucadia <a href="#linknote-53.18" + name="linknoteref-53.18" id="linknoteref-53.18">18</a> was made responsible + for a pension of one hundred pieces of gold. <a href="#linknote-53.19" + name="linknoteref-53.19" id="linknoteref-53.19">19</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.15" id="linknote-53.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.15">return</a>)<br /> [ Says Constantine, + (Thematibus, l. ii. c. vi. p. 25,) in a style as barbarous as the idea, + which he confirms, as usual, by a foolish epigram. The epitomizer of + Strabo likewise observes, (l. vii. p. 98, edit. Hudson. edit. Casaub. + 1251;) a passage which leads Dodwell a weary dance (Geograph, Minor. tom. + ii. dissert. vi. p. 170-191) to enumerate the inroads of the Sclavi, and + to fix the date (A.D. 980) of this petty geographer.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.16" id="linknote-53.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.16">return</a>)<br /> [ Strabon. Geograph. l. + viii. p. 562. Pausanius, Graec. Descriptio, l. c 21, p. 264, 265. Pliny, + Hist. Natur. l. iv. c. 8.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.17" id="linknote-53.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.17">return</a>)<br /> [ Constantin. de + Administrando Imperio, l. ii. c. 50, 51, 52.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.18" id="linknote-53.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.18">return</a>)<br /> [ The rock of Leucate was + the southern promontory of his island and diocese. Had he been the + exclusive guardian of the Lover’s Leap so well known to the readers of + Ovid (Epist. Sappho) and the Spectator, he might have been the richest + prelate of the Greek church.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.19" id="linknote-53.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.19">return</a>)<br /> [ Leucatensis mihi + juravit episcopus, quotannis ecclesiam suam debere Nicephoro aureos centum + persolvere, similiter et ceteras plus minusve secundum vires suos, + (Liutprand in Legat. p. 489.)] + </p> + <p> + But the wealth of the province, and the trust of the revenue, were founded + on the fair and plentiful produce of trade and manufacturers; and some + symptoms of liberal policy may be traced in a law which exempts from all + personal taxes the mariners of Peloponnesus, and the workmen in parchment + and purple. This denomination may be fairly applied or extended to the + manufacturers of linen, woollen, and more especially of silk: the two + former of which had flourished in Greece since the days of Homer; and the + last was introduced perhaps as early as the reign of Justinian. These + arts, which were exercised at Corinth, Thebes, and Argos, afforded food + and occupation to a numerous people: the men, women, and children were + distributed according to their age and strength; and, if many of these + were domestic slaves, their masters, who directed the work and enjoyed the + profit, were of a free and honorable condition. The gifts which a rich and + generous matron of Peloponnesus presented to the emperor Basil, her + adopted son, were doubtless fabricated in the Grecian looms. Danielis + bestowed a carpet of fine wool, of a pattern which imitated the spots of a + peacock’s tail, of a magnitude to overspread the floor of a new church, + erected in the triple name of Christ, of Michael the archangel, and of the + prophet Elijah. She gave six hundred pieces of silk and linen, of various + use and denomination: the silk was painted with the Tyrian dye, and + adorned by the labors of the needle; and the linen was so exquisitely + fine, that an entire piece might be rolled in the hollow of a cane. <a + href="#linknote-53.20" name="linknoteref-53.20" id="linknoteref-53.20">20</a> + In his description of the Greek manufactures, an historian of Sicily + discriminates their price, according to the weight and quality of the + silk, the closeness of the texture, the beauty of the colors, and the + taste and materials of the embroidery. A single, or even a double or + treble thread was thought sufficient for ordinary sale; but the union of + six threads composed a piece of stronger and more costly workmanship. + Among the colors, he celebrates, with affectation of eloquence, the fiery + blaze of the scarlet, and the softer lustre of the green. The embroidery + was raised either in silk or gold: the more simple ornament of stripes or + circles was surpassed by the nicer imitation of flowers: the vestments + that were fabricated for the palace or the altar often glittered with + precious stones; and the figures were delineated in strings of Oriental + pearls. <a href="#linknote-53.21" name="linknoteref-53.21" + id="linknoteref-53.21">21</a> Till the twelfth century, Greece alone, of + all the countries of Christendom, was possessed of the insect who is + taught by nature, and of the workmen who are instructed by art, to prepare + this elegant luxury. But the secret had been stolen by the dexterity and + diligence of the Arabs: the caliphs of the East and West scorned to borrow + from the unbelievers their furniture and apparel; and two cities of Spain, + Almeria and Lisbon, were famous for the manufacture, the use, and, + perhaps, the exportation, of silk. It was first introduced into Sicily by + the Normans; and this emigration of trade distinguishes the victory of + Roger from the uniform and fruitless hostilities of every age. After the + sack of Corinth, Athens, and Thebes, his lieutenant embarked with a + captive train of weavers and artificers of both sexes, a trophy glorious + to their master, and disgraceful to the Greek emperor. <a + href="#linknote-53.22" name="linknoteref-53.22" id="linknoteref-53.22">22</a> + The king of Sicily was not insensible of the value of the present; and, in + the restitution of the prisoners, he excepted only the male and female + manufacturers of Thebes and Corinth, who labor, says the Byzantine + historian, under a barbarous lord, like the old Eretrians in the service + of Darius. <a href="#linknote-53.23" name="linknoteref-53.23" + id="linknoteref-53.23">23</a> A stately edifice, in the palace of Palermo, + was erected for the use of this industrious colony; <a + href="#linknote-53.24" name="linknoteref-53.24" id="linknoteref-53.24">24</a> + and the art was propagated by their children and disciples to satisfy the + increasing demand of the western world. The decay of the looms of Sicily + may be ascribed to the troubles of the island, and the competition of the + Italian cities. In the year thirteen hundred and fourteen, Lucca alone, + among her sister republics, enjoyed the lucrative monopoly. <a + href="#linknote-53.25" name="linknoteref-53.25" id="linknoteref-53.25">25</a> + A domestic revolution dispersed the manufacturers to Florence, Bologna, + Venice, Milan, and even the countries beyond the Alps; and thirteen years + after this event the statutes of Modena enjoin the planting of + mulberry-trees, and regulate the duties on raw silk. <a + href="#linknote-53.26" name="linknoteref-53.26" id="linknoteref-53.26">26</a> + The northern climates are less propitious to the education of the + silkworm; but the industry of France and England <a href="#linknote-53.27" + name="linknoteref-53.27" id="linknoteref-53.27">27</a> is supplied and + enriched by the productions of Italy and China. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.20" id="linknote-53.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.20">return</a>)<br /> [ See Constantine, (in + Vit. Basil. c. 74, 75, 76, p. 195, 197, in Script. post Theophanem,) who + allows himself to use many technical or barbarous words: barbarous, says + he. Ducange labors on some: but he was not a weaver.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.21" id="linknote-53.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.21">return</a>)<br /> [ The manufactures of + Palermo, as they are described by Hugo Falcandus, (Hist. Sicula in proem. + in Muratori Script. Rerum Italicarum, tom. v. p. 256,) is a copy of those + of Greece. Without transcribing his declamatory sentences, which I have + softened in the text, I shall observe, that in this passage the strange + word exarentasmata is very properly changed for exanthemata by Carisius, + the first editor Falcandus lived about the year 1190.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.22" id="linknote-53.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.22">return</a>)<br /> [ Inde ad interiora + Graeciae progressi, Corinthum, Thebas, Athenas, antiqua nobilitate + celebres, expugnant; et, maxima ibidem praeda direpta, opifices etiam, qui + sericos pannos texere solent, ob ignominiam Imperatoris illius, suique + principis gloriam, captivos deducunt. Quos Rogerius, in Palermo Siciliae, + metropoli collocans, artem texendi suos edocere praecepit; et exhinc + praedicta ars illa, prius a Graecis tantum inter Christianos habita, + Romanis patere coepit ingeniis, (Otho Frisingen. de Gestis Frederici I. l. + i. c. 33, in Muratori Script. Ital. tom. vi. p. 668.) This exception + allows the bishop to celebrate Lisbon and Almeria in sericorum pannorum + opificio praenobilissimae, (in Chron. apud Muratori, Annali d’Italia, tom. + ix. p. 415.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.23" id="linknote-53.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.23">return</a>)<br /> [ Nicetas in Manuel, l. + ii. c. 8. p. 65. He describes these Greeks as skilled.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.24" id="linknote-53.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.24">return</a>)<br /> [ Hugo Falcandus styles + them nobiles officinas. The Arabs had not introduced silk, though they had + planted canes and made sugar in the plain of Palermo.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.25" id="linknote-53.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.25">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Life of + Castruccio Casticani, not by Machiavel, but by his more authentic + biographer Nicholas Tegrimi. Muratori, who has inserted it in the xith + volume of his Scriptores, quotes this curious passage in his Italian + Antiquities, (tom. i. dissert. xxv. p. 378.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.26" id="linknote-53.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.26">return</a>)<br /> [ From the Ms. statutes, + as they are quoted by Muratori in his Italian Antiquities, (tom. ii. + dissert. xxv. p. 46-48.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.27" id="linknote-53.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.27">return</a>)<br /> [ The broad silk + manufacture was established in England in the year 1620, (Anderson’s + Chronological Deduction, vol. ii. p. 4: ) but it is to the revocation of + the edict of Nantes that we owe the Spitalfields colony.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap53.2"></a> + Chapter LIII: Fate Of The Eastern Empire.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + I must repeat the complaint that the vague and scanty memorials of the + times will not afford any just estimate of the taxes, the revenue, and the + resources of the Greek empire. From every province of Europe and Asia the + rivulets of gold and silver discharged into the Imperial reservoir a + copious and perennial stream. The separation of the branches from the + trunk increased the relative magnitude of Constantinople; and the maxims + of despotism contracted the state to the capital, the capital to the + palace, and the palace to the royal person. A Jewish traveller, who + visited the East in the twelfth century, is lost in his admiration of the + Byzantine riches. “It is here,” says Benjamin of Tudela, “in the queen of + cities, that the tributes of the Greek empire are annually deposited and + the lofty towers are filled with precious magazines of silk, purple, and + gold. It is said, that Constantinople pays each day to her sovereign + twenty thousand pieces of gold; which are levied on the shops, taverns, + and markets, on the merchants of Persia and Egypt, of Russia and Hungary, + of Italy and Spain, who frequent the capital by sea and land.” <a + href="#linknote-53.28" name="linknoteref-53.28" id="linknoteref-53.28">28</a> + In all pecuniary matters, the authority of a Jew is doubtless respectable; + but as the three hundred and sixty-five days would produce a yearly income + exceeding seven millions sterling, I am tempted to retrench at least the + numerous festivals of the Greek calendar. The mass of treasure that was + saved by Theodora and Basil the Second will suggest a splendid, though + indefinite, idea of their supplies and resources. The mother of Michael, + before she retired to a cloister, attempted to check or expose the + prodigality of her ungrateful son, by a free and faithful account of the + wealth which he inherited; one hundred and nine thousand pounds of gold, + and three hundred thousand of silver, the fruits of her own economy and + that of her deceased husband. <a href="#linknote-53.29" + name="linknoteref-53.29" id="linknoteref-53.29">29</a> The avarice of Basil + is not less renowned than his valor and fortune: his victorious armies + were paid and rewarded without breaking into the mass of two hundred + thousand pounds of gold, (about eight millions sterling,) which he had + buried in the subterraneous vaults of the palace. <a href="#linknote-53.30" + name="linknoteref-53.30" id="linknoteref-53.30">30</a> Such accumulation of + treasure is rejected by the theory and practice of modern policy; and we + are more apt to compute the national riches by the use and abuse of the + public credit. Yet the maxims of antiquity are still embraced by a monarch + formidable to his enemies; by a republic respectable to her allies; and + both have attained their respective ends of military power and domestic + tranquillity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.28" id="linknote-53.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.28">return</a>)<br /> [ Voyage de Benjamin de + Tudele, tom. i. c. 5, p. 44-52. The Hebrew text has been translated into + French by that marvellous child Baratier, who has added a volume of crude + learning. The errors and fictions of the Jewish rabbi are not a sufficient + ground to deny the reality of his travels. * Note: I am inclined, with + Buegnot (Les Juifs d’Occident, part iii. p. 101 et seqq.) and Jost + (Geschichte der Israeliter, vol. vi. anhang. p. 376) to consider this work + a mere compilation, and to doubt the reality of the travels.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.29" id="linknote-53.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.29">return</a>)<br /> [ See the continuator of + Theophanes, (l. iv. p. 107,) Cedremis, (p. 544,) and Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. + xvi. p. 157.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.30" id="linknote-53.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.30">return</a>)<br /> [ Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. + xvii. p. 225,) instead of pounds, uses the more classic appellation of + talents, which, in a literal sense and strict computation, would multiply + sixty fold the treasure of Basil.] + </p> + <p> + Whatever might be consumed for the present wants, or reserved for the + future use, of the state, the first and most sacred demand was for the + pomp and pleasure of the emperor, and his discretion only could define the + measure of his private expense. The princes of Constantinople were far + removed from the simplicity of nature; yet, with the revolving seasons, + they were led by taste or fashion to withdraw to a purer air, from the + smoke and tumult of the capital. They enjoyed, or affected to enjoy, the + rustic festival of the vintage: their leisure was amused by the exercise + of the chase and the calmer occupation of fishing, and in the summer + heats, they were shaded from the sun, and refreshed by the cooling breezes + from the sea. The coasts and islands of Asia and Europe were covered with + their magnificent villas; but, instead of the modest art which secretly + strives to hide itself and to decorate the scenery of nature, the marble + structure of their gardens served only to expose the riches of the lord, + and the labors of the architect. The successive casualties of inheritance + and forfeiture had rendered the sovereign proprietor of many stately + houses in the city and suburbs, of which twelve were appropriated to the + ministers of state; but the great palace, <a href="#linknote-53.31" + name="linknoteref-53.31" id="linknoteref-53.31">31</a> the centre of the + Imperial residence, was fixed during eleven centuries to the same + position, between the hippodrome, the cathedral of St. Sophia, and the + gardens, which descended by many a terrace to the shores of the Propontis. + The primitive edifice of the first Constantine was a copy, or rival, of + ancient Rome; the gradual improvements of his successors aspired to + emulate the wonders of the old world, <a href="#linknote-53.32" + name="linknoteref-53.32" id="linknoteref-53.32">32</a> and in the tenth + century, the Byzantine palace excited the admiration, at least of the + Latins, by an unquestionable preeminence of strength, size, and + magnificence. <a href="#linknote-53.33" name="linknoteref-53.33" + id="linknoteref-53.33">33</a> But the toil and treasure of so many ages had + produced a vast and irregular pile: each separate building was marked with + the character of the times and of the founder; and the want of space might + excuse the reigning monarch, who demolished, perhaps with secret + satisfaction, the works of his predecessors. The economy of the emperor + Theophilus allowed a more free and ample scope for his domestic luxury and + splendor. A favorite ambassador, who had astonished the Abbassides + themselves by his pride and liberality, presented on his return the model + of a palace, which the caliph of Bagdad had recently constructed on the + banks of the Tigris. The model was instantly copied and surpassed: the new + buildings of Theophilus <a href="#linknote-53.34" name="linknoteref-53.34" + id="linknoteref-53.34">34</a> were accompanied with gardens, and with five + churches, one of which was conspicuous for size and beauty: it was crowned + with three domes, the roof of gilt brass reposed on columns of Italian + marble, and the walls were incrusted with marbles of various colors. In + the face of the church, a semicircular portico, of the figure and name of + the Greek sigma, was supported by fifteen columns of Phrygian marble, and + the subterraneous vaults were of a similar construction. The square before + the sigma was decorated with a fountain, and the margin of the basin was + lined and encompassed with plates of silver. In the beginning of each + season, the basin, instead of water, was replenished with the most + exquisite fruits, which were abandoned to the populace for the + entertainment of the prince. He enjoyed this tumultuous spectacle from a + throne resplendent with gold and gems, which was raised by a marble + staircase to the height of a lofty terrace. Below the throne were seated + the officers of his guards, the magistrates, the chiefs of the factions of + the circus; the inferior steps were occupied by the people, and the place + below was covered with troops of dancers, singers, and pantomimes. The + square was surrounded by the hall of justice, the arsenal, and the various + offices of business and pleasure; and the purple chamber was named from + the annual distribution of robes of scarlet and purple by the hand of the + empress herself. The long series of the apartments was adapted to the + seasons, and decorated with marble and porphyry, with painting, sculpture, + and mosaics, with a profusion of gold, silver, and precious stones. His + fanciful magnificence employed the skill and patience of such artists as + the times could afford: but the taste of Athens would have despised their + frivolous and costly labors; a golden tree, with its leaves and branches, + which sheltered a multitude of birds warbling their artificial notes, and + two lions of massy gold, and of natural size, who looked and roared like + their brethren of the forest. The successors of Theophilus, of the + Basilian and Comnenian dynasties, were not less ambitious of leaving some + memorial of their residence; and the portion of the palace most splendid + and august was dignified with the title of the golden triclinium. <a + href="#linknote-53.35" name="linknoteref-53.35" id="linknoteref-53.35">35</a> + With becoming modesty, the rich and noble Greeks aspired to imitate their + sovereign, and when they passed through the streets on horseback, in their + robes of silk and embroidery, they were mistaken by the children for + kings. <a href="#linknote-53.36" name="linknoteref-53.36" + id="linknoteref-53.36">36</a> A matron of Peloponnesus, <a + href="#linknote-53.37" name="linknoteref-53.37" id="linknoteref-53.37">37</a> + who had cherished the infant fortunes of Basil the Macedonian, was excited + by tenderness or vanity to visit the greatness of her adopted son. In a + journey of five hundred miles from Patras to Constantinople, her age or + indolence declined the fatigue of a horse or carriage: the soft litter or + bed of Danielis was transported on the shoulders of ten robust slaves; and + as they were relieved at easy distances, a band of three hundred were + selected for the performance of this service. She was entertained in the + Byzantine palace with filial reverence, and the honors of a queen; and + whatever might be the origin of her wealth, her gifts were not unworthy of + the regal dignity. I have already described the fine and curious + manufactures of Peloponnesus, of linen, silk, and woollen; but the most + acceptable of her presents consisted in three hundred beautiful youths, of + whom one hundred were eunuchs; <a href="#linknote-53.38" + name="linknoteref-53.38" id="linknoteref-53.38">38</a> “for she was not + ignorant,” says the historian, “that the air of the palace is more + congenial to such insects, than a shepherd’s dairy to the flies of the + summer.” During her lifetime, she bestowed the greater part of her estates + in Peloponnesus, and her testament instituted Leo, the son of Basil, her + universal heir. After the payment of the legacies, fourscore villas or + farms were added to the Imperial domain; and three thousand slaves of + Danielis were enfranchised by their new lord, and transplanted as a colony + to the Italian coast. From this example of a private matron, we may + estimate the wealth and magnificence of the emperors. Yet our enjoyments + are confined by a narrow circle; and, whatsoever may be its value, the + luxury of life is possessed with more innocence and safety by the master + of his own, than by the steward of the public, fortune. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.31" id="linknote-53.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.31">return</a>)<br /> [ For a copious and + minute description of the Imperial palace, see the Constantinop. + Christiana (l. ii. c. 4, p. 113-123) of Ducange, the Tillemont of the + middle ages. Never has laborious Germany produced two antiquarians more + laborious and accurate than these two natives of lively France.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.32" id="linknote-53.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.32">return</a>)<br /> [ The Byzantine palace + surpasses the Capitol, the palace of Pergamus, the Rufinian wood, the + temple of Adrian at Cyzicus, the pyramids, the Pharus, &c., according + to an epigram (Antholog. Graec. l. iv. p. 488, 489. Brodaei, apud Wechel) + ascribed to Julian, ex-praefect of Egypt. Seventy-one of his epigrams, + some lively, are collected in Brunck, (Analect. Graec. tom. ii. p. + 493-510; but this is wanting.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.33" id="linknote-53.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.33">return</a>)<br /> [ Constantinopolitanum + Palatium non pulchritudine solum, verum stiam fortitudine, omnibus quas + unquam videram munitionibus praestat, (Liutprand, Hist. l. v. c. 9, p. + 465.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.34" id="linknote-53.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.34">return</a>)<br /> [ See the anonymous + continuator of Theophanes, (p. 59, 61, 86,) whom I have followed in the + neat and concise abstract of Le Beau, (Hint. du Bas Empire, tom. xiv. p. + 436, 438.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.35" id="linknote-53.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.35">return</a>)<br /> [ In aureo triclinio quae + praestantior est pars potentissimus (the usurper Romanus) degens caeteras + partes (filiis) distribuerat, (Liutprand. Hist. l. v. c. 9, p. 469.) For + this last signification of Triclinium see Ducange (Gloss. Graec. et + Observations sur Joinville, p. 240) and Reiske, (ad Constantinum de + Ceremoniis, p. 7.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.36" id="linknote-53.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.36">return</a>)<br /> [ In equis vecti (says + Benjamin of Tudela) regum filiis videntur persimiles. I prefer the Latin + version of Constantine l’Empereur (p. 46) to the French of Baratier, (tom. + i. p. 49.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.37" id="linknote-53.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.37">return</a>)<br /> [ See the account of her + journey, munificence, and testament, in the life of Basil, by his grandson + Constantine, (p. 74, 75, 76, p. 195-197.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.38" id="linknote-53.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.38">return</a>)<br /> [ Carsamatium. Graeci + vocant, amputatis virilibus et virga, puerum eunuchum quos Verdunenses + mercatores obinmensum lucrum facere solent et in Hispaniam ducere, + (Liutprand, l. vi. c. 3, p. 470.)—The last abomination of the + abominable slave-trade! Yet I am surprised to find, in the xth century, + such active speculations of commerce in Lorraine.] + </p> + <p> + In an absolute government, which levels the distinctions of noble and + plebeian birth, the sovereign is the sole fountain of honor; and the rank, + both in the palace and the empire, depends on the titles and offices which + are bestowed and resumed by his arbitrary will. Above a thousand years, + from Vespasian to Alexius Comnenus, <a href="#linknote-53.39" + name="linknoteref-53.39" id="linknoteref-53.39">39</a> the Caesar was the + second person, or at least the second degree, after the supreme title of + Augustus was more freely communicated to the sons and brothers of the + reigning monarch. To elude without violating his promise to a powerful + associate, the husband of his sister, and, without giving himself an + equal, to reward the piety of his brother Isaac, the crafty Alexius + interposed a new and supereminent dignity. The happy flexibility of the + Greek tongue allowed him to compound the names of Augustus and Emperor + (Sebastos and Autocrator,) and the union produces the sonorous title of + Sebastocrator. He was exalted above the Caesar on the first step of the + throne: the public acclamations repeated his name; and he was only + distinguished from the sovereign by some peculiar ornaments of the head + and feet. The emperor alone could assume the purple or red buskins, and + the close diadem or tiara, which imitated the fashion of the Persian + kings. <a href="#linknote-53.40" name="linknoteref-53.40" + id="linknoteref-53.40">40</a> It was a high pyramidal cap of cloth or silk, + almost concealed by a profusion of pearls and jewels: the crown was formed + by a horizontal circle and two arches of gold: at the summit, the point of + their intersection, was placed a globe or cross, and two strings or + lappets of pearl depended on either cheek. Instead of red, the buskins of + the Sebastocrator and Caesar were green; and on their open coronets or + crowns, the precious gems were more sparingly distributed. Beside and + below the Caesar the fancy of Alexius created the Panhypersebastos and the + Protosebastos, whose sound and signification will satisfy a Grecian ear. + They imply a superiority and a priority above the simple name of Augustus; + and this sacred and primitive title of the Roman prince was degraded to + the kinsmen and servants of the Byzantine court. The daughter of Alexius + applauds, with fond complacency, this artful gradation of hopes and + honors; but the science of words is accessible to the meanest capacity; + and this vain dictionary was easily enriched by the pride of his + successors. To their favorite sons or brothers, they imparted the more + lofty appellation of Lord or Despot, which was illustrated with new + ornaments, and prerogatives, and placed immediately after the person of + the emperor himself. The five titles of, 1. Despot; 2. Sebastocrator; 3. + Caesar; 4. Panhypersebastos; and, 5. Protosebastos; were usually confined + to the princes of his blood: they were the emanations of his majesty; but + as they exercised no regular functions, their existence was useless, and + their authority precarious. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.39" id="linknote-53.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.39">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Alexiad (l. + iii. p. 78, 79) of Anna Comnena, who, except in filial piety, may be + compared to Mademoiselle de Montpensier. In her awful reverence for titles + and forms, she styles her father, the inventor of this royal art.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.40" id="linknote-53.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.40">return</a>)<br /> [ See Reiske, and + Ceremoniale, p. 14, 15. Ducange has given a learned dissertation on the + crowns of Constantinople, Rome, France, &c., (sur Joinville, xxv. p. + 289-303;) but of his thirty-four models, none exactly tally with Anne’s + description.] + </p> + <p> + But in every monarchy the substantial powers of government must be divided + and exercised by the ministers of the palace and treasury, the fleet and + army. The titles alone can differ; and in the revolution of ages, the + counts and praefects, the praetor and quaestor, insensibly descended, + while their servants rose above their heads to the first honors of the + state. 1. In a monarchy, which refers every object to the person of the + prince, the care and ceremonies of the palace form the most respectable + department. The Curopalata, <a href="#linknote-53.41" + name="linknoteref-53.41" id="linknoteref-53.41">41</a> so illustrious in the + age of Justinian, was supplanted by the Protovestiare, whose primitive + functions were limited to the custody of the wardrobe. From thence his + jurisdiction was extended over the numerous menials of pomp and luxury; + and he presided with his silver wand at the public and private audience. + 2. In the ancient system of Constantine, the name of Logothete, or + accountant, was applied to the receivers of the finances: the principal + officers were distinguished as the Logothetes of the domain, of the posts, + the army, the private and public treasure; and the great Logothete, the + supreme guardian of the laws and revenues, is compared with the chancellor + of the Latin monarchies. <a href="#linknote-53.42" name="linknoteref-53.42" + id="linknoteref-53.42">42</a> His discerning eye pervaded the civil + administration; and he was assisted, in due subordination, by the eparch + or praefect of the city, the first secretary, and the keepers of the privy + seal, the archives, and the red or purple ink which was reserved for the + sacred signature of the emperor alone. <a href="#linknote-53.43" + name="linknoteref-53.43" id="linknoteref-53.43">43</a> The introductor and + interpreter of foreign ambassadors were the great Chiauss <a + href="#linknote-53.44" name="linknoteref-53.44" id="linknoteref-53.44">44</a> + and the Dragoman, <a href="#linknote-53.45" name="linknoteref-53.45" + id="linknoteref-53.45">45</a> two names of Turkish origin, and which are + still familiar to the Sublime Porte. 3. From the humble style and service + of guards, the Domestics insensibly rose to the station of generals; the + military themes of the East and West, the legions of Europe and Asia, were + often divided, till the great Domestic was finally invested with the + universal and absolute command of the land forces. The Protostrator, in + his original functions, was the assistant of the emperor when he mounted + on horseback: he gradually became the lieutenant of the great Domestic in + the field; and his jurisdiction extended over the stables, the cavalry, + and the royal train of hunting and hawking. The Stratopedarch was the + great judge of the camp: the Protospathaire commanded the guards; the + Constable, <a href="#linknote-53.46" name="linknoteref-53.46" + id="linknoteref-53.46">46</a> the great Aeteriarch, and the Acolyth, were + the separate chiefs of the Franks, the Barbarians, and the Varangi, or + English, the mercenary strangers, who, at the decay of the national spirit, + formed the nerve of the Byzantine armies. 4. The naval powers were under + the command of the great Duke; in his absence they obeyed the great + Drungaire of the fleet; and, in his place, the Emir, or Admiral, a name of + Saracen extraction, <a href="#linknote-53.47" name="linknoteref-53.47" + id="linknoteref-53.47">47</a> but which has been naturalized in all the + modern languages of Europe. Of these officers, and of many more whom it + would be useless to enumerate, the civil and military hierarchy was + framed. Their honors and emoluments, their dress and titles, their mutual + salutations and respective preeminence, were balanced with more exquisite + labor than would have fixed the constitution of a free people; and the + code was almost perfect when this baseless fabric, the monument of pride + and servitude, was forever buried in the ruins of the empire. <a + href="#linknote-53.48" name="linknoteref-53.48" id="linknoteref-53.48">48</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.41" id="linknote-53.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.41">return</a>)<br /> [ Par exstans curis, solo + diademate dispar, Ordine pro rerum vocitatus Cura-Palati, says the African + Corippus, (de Laudibus Justini, l. i. 136,) and in the same century (the + vith) Cassiodorus represents him, who, virga aurea decoratus, inter + numerosa obsequia primus ante pedes regis incederet (Variar. vii. 5.) But + this great officer, (unknown,) exercising no function, was cast down by + the modern Greeks to the xvth rank, (Codin. c. 5, p. 65.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.42" id="linknote-53.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.42">return</a>)<br /> [ Nicetas (in Manuel, l. + vii. c. 1) defines him. Yet the epithet was added by the elder Andronicus, + (Ducange, tom. i. p. 822, 823.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.43" id="linknote-53.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.43">return</a>)<br /> [ From Leo I. (A.D. 470) + the Imperial ink, which is still visible on some original acts, was a + mixture of vermilion and cinnabar, or purple. The emperor’s guardians, who + shared in this prerogative, always marked in green ink the indiction and + the month. See the Dictionnaire Diplomatique, (tom. i. p. 511-513) a + valuable abridgment.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.44" id="linknote-53.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.44">return</a>)<br /> [ The sultan sent to + Alexius, (Anna Comnena, l. vi. p. 170. Ducange ad loc.;) and Pachymer + often speaks, (l. vii. c. 1, l. xii. c. 30, l. xiii. c. 22.) The Chiaoush + basha is now at the head of 700 officers, (Rycaut’s Ottoman Empire, p. + 349, octavo edition.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.45" id="linknote-53.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.45">return</a>)<br /> [ Tagerman is the Arabic + name of an interpreter, (D’Herbelot, p. 854, 855;), says Codinus, (c. v. + No. 70, p. 67.) See Villehardouin, (No. 96,) Bus, (Epist. iv. p. 338,) and + Ducange, (Observations sur Villehardouin, and Gloss. Graec. et Latin)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.46" id="linknote-53.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.46">return</a>)<br /> [ A corruption from the + Latin Comes stabuli, or the French Connetable. In a military sense, it was + used by the Greeks in the eleventh century, at least as early as in + France.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.47" id="linknote-53.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.47">return</a>)<br /> [ It was directly + borrowed from the Normans. In the xiith century, Giannone reckons the + admiral of Sicily among the great officers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.48" id="linknote-53.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.48">return</a>)<br /> [ This sketch of honors + and offices is drawn from George Cordinus Curopalata, who survived the + taking of Constantinople by the Turks: his elaborate, though trifling, + work (de Officiis Ecclesiae et Aulae C. P.) has been illustrated by the + notes of Goar, and the three books of Gretser, a learned Jesuit.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap53.3"></a> + Chapter LIII: Fate Of The Eastern Empire.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + The most lofty titles, and the most humble postures, which devotion has + applied to the Supreme Being, have been prostituted by flattery and fear + to creatures of the same nature with ourselves. The mode of adoration, <a + href="#linknote-53.49" name="linknoteref-53.49" id="linknoteref-53.49">49</a> + of falling prostrate on the ground, and kissing the feet of the emperor, + was borrowed by Diocletian from Persian servitude; but it was continued + and aggravated till the last age of the Greek monarchy. Excepting only on + Sundays, when it was waived, from a motive of religious pride, this + humiliating reverence was exacted from all who entered the royal presence, + from the princes invested with the diadem and purple, and from the + ambassadors who represented their independent sovereigns, the caliphs of + Asia, Egypt, or Spain, the kings of France and Italy, and the Latin + emperors of ancient Rome. In his transactions of business, Liutprand, + bishop of Cremona, <a href="#linknote-53.50" name="linknoteref-53.50" + id="linknoteref-53.50">50</a> asserted the free spirit of a Frank and the + dignity of his master Otho. Yet his sincerity cannot disguise the + abasement of his first audience. When he approached the throne, the birds + of the golden tree began to warble their notes, which were accompanied by + the roarings of the two lions of gold. With his two companions Liutprand + was compelled to bow and to fall prostrate; and thrice to touch the ground + with his forehead. He arose, but in the short interval, the throne had + been hoisted from the floor to the ceiling, the Imperial figure appeared + in new and more gorgeous apparel, and the interview was concluded in + haughty and majestic silence. In this honest and curious narrative, the + Bishop of Cremona represents the ceremonies of the Byzantine court, which + are still practised in the Sublime Porte, and which were preserved in the + last age by the dukes of Muscovy or Russia. After a long journey by sea + and land, from Venice to Constantinople, the ambassador halted at the + golden gate, till he was conducted by the formal officers to the + hospitable palace prepared for his reception; but this palace was a + prison, and his jealous keepers prohibited all social intercourse either + with strangers or natives. At his first audience, he offered the gifts of + his master, slaves, and golden vases, and costly armor. The ostentatious + payment of the officers and troops displayed before his eyes the riches of + the empire: he was entertained at a royal banquet, <a href="#linknote-53.51" + name="linknoteref-53.51" id="linknoteref-53.51">51</a> in which the + ambassadors of the nations were marshalled by the esteem or contempt of + the Greeks: from his own table, the emperor, as the most signal favor, + sent the plates which he had tasted; and his favorites were dismissed with + a robe of honor. <a href="#linknote-53.52" name="linknoteref-53.52" + id="linknoteref-53.52">52</a> In the morning and evening of each day, his + civil and military servants attended their duty in the palace; their + labors were repaid by the sight, perhaps by the smile, of their lord; his + commands were signified by a nod or a sign: but all earthly greatness + stood silent and submissive in his presence. In his regular or + extraordinary processions through the capital, he unveiled his person to + the public view: the rites of policy were connected with those of + religion, and his visits to the principal churches were regulated by the + festivals of the Greek calendar. On the eve of these processions, the + gracious or devout intention of the monarch was proclaimed by the heralds. + The streets were cleared and purified; the pavement was strewed with + flowers; the most precious furniture, the gold and silver plate, and + silken hangings, were displayed from the windows and balconies, and a + severe discipline restrained and silenced the tumult of the populace. The + march was opened by the military officers at the head of their troops: + they were followed in long order by the magistrates and ministers of the + civil government: the person of the emperor was guarded by his eunuchs and + domestics, and at the church door he was solemnly received by the + patriarch and his clergy. The task of applause was not abandoned to the + rude and spontaneous voices of the crowd. The most convenient stations + were occupied by the bands of the blue and green factions of the circus; + and their furious conflicts, which had shaken the capital, were insensibly + sunk to an emulation of servitude. From either side they echoed in + responsive melody the praises of the emperor; their poets and musicians + directed the choir, and long life <a href="#linknote-53.53" + name="linknoteref-53.53" id="linknoteref-53.53">53</a> and victory were the + burden of every song. The same acclamations were performed at the + audience, the banquet, and the church; and as an evidence of boundless + sway, they were repeated in the Latin, <a href="#linknote-53.54" + name="linknoteref-53.54" id="linknoteref-53.54">54</a> Gothic, Persian, + French, and even English language, <a href="#linknote-53.55" + name="linknoteref-53.55" id="linknoteref-53.55">55</a> by the mercenaries + who sustained the real or fictitious character of those nations. By the + pen of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, this science of form and flattery has + been reduced into a pompous and trifling volume, <a href="#linknote-53.56" + name="linknoteref-53.56" id="linknoteref-53.56">56</a> which the vanity of + succeeding times might enrich with an ample supplement. Yet the calmer + reflection of a prince would surely suggest that the same acclamations + were applied to every character and every reign: and if he had risen from + a private rank, he might remember, that his own voice had been the loudest + and most eager in applause, at the very moment when he envied the fortune, + or conspired against the life, of his predecessor. <a href="#linknote-53.57" + name="linknoteref-53.57" id="linknoteref-53.57">57</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.49" id="linknote-53.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.49">return</a>)<br /> [ The respectful + salutation of carrying the hand to the mouth, ad os, is the root of the + Latin word adoro, adorare. See our learned Selden, (vol. iii. p. 143-145, + 942,) in his Titles of Honor. It seems, from the 1st book of Herodotus, to + be of Persian origin.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.50" id="linknote-53.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.50">return</a>)<br /> [ The two embassies of + Liutprand to Constantinople, all that he saw or suffered in the Greek + capital, are pleasantly described by himself (Hist. l. vi. c. 1-4, p. + 469-471. Legatio ad Nicephorum Phocam, p. 479-489.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.51" id="linknote-53.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.51">return</a>)<br /> [ Among the amusements of + the feast, a boy balanced, on his forehead, a pike, or pole, twenty-four + feet long, with a cross bar of two cubits a little below the top. Two + boys, naked, though cinctured, (campestrati,) together, and singly, + climbed, stood, played, descended, &c., ita me stupidum reddidit: + utrum mirabilius nescio, (p. 470.) At another repast a homily of + Chrysostom on the Acts of the Apostles was read elata voce non Latine, (p. + 483.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.52" id="linknote-53.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.52">return</a>)<br /> [ Gala is not improbably + derived from Cala, or Caloat, in Arabic a robe of honor, (Reiske, Not. in + Ceremon. p. 84.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.53" id="linknote-53.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.53">return</a>)<br /> [ It is explained, + (Codin, c. 7. Ducange, Gloss. Graec. tom. i. p. 1199.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.54" id="linknote-53.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.54">return</a>)<br /> [ (Ceremon. c. 75, p. + 215.) The want of the Latin ‘V’ obliged the Greeks to employ their ‘beta’; + nor do they regard quantity. Till he recollected the true language, these + strange sentences might puzzle a professor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.55" id="linknote-53.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.55">return</a>)<br /> [ (Codin.p. 90.) I wish + he had preserved the words, however corrupt, of their English + acclamation.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.56" id="linknote-53.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.56">return</a>)<br /> [ For all these + ceremonies, see the professed work of Constantine Porphyrogenitus with the + notes, or rather dissertations, of his German editors, Leich and Reiske. + For the rank of standing courtiers, p. 80, not. 23, 62; for the adoration, + except on Sundays, p. 95, 240, not. 131; the processions, p. 2, &c., + not. p. 3, &c.; the acclamations passim not. 25 &c.; the factions + and Hippodrome, p. 177-214, not. 9, 93, &c.; the Gothic games, p. 221, + not. 111; vintage, p. 217, not 109: much more information is scattered + over the work.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.57" id="linknote-53.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.57">return</a>)<br /> [ Et privato Othoni et + nuper eadem dicenti nota adulatio, (Tacit. Hist. 1,85.)] + </p> + <p> + The princes of the North, of the nations, says Constantine, without faith + or fame, were ambitious of mingling their blood with the blood of the + Caesars, by their marriage with a royal virgin, or by the nuptials of + their daughters with a Roman prince. <a href="#linknote-53.58" + name="linknoteref-53.58" id="linknoteref-53.58">58</a> The aged monarch, in + his instructions to his son, reveals the secret maxims of policy and + pride; and suggests the most decent reasons for refusing these insolent + and unreasonable demands. Every animal, says the discreet emperor, is + prompted by the distinction of language, religion, and manners. A just + regard to the purity of descent preserves the harmony of public and + private life; but the mixture of foreign blood is the fruitful source of + disorder and discord. Such had ever been the opinion and practice of the + sage Romans: their jurisprudence proscribed the marriage of a citizen and + a stranger: in the days of freedom and virtue, a senator would have + scorned to match his daughter with a king: the glory of Mark Antony was + sullied by an Egyptian wife: <a href="#linknote-53.59" + name="linknoteref-53.59" id="linknoteref-53.59">59</a> and the emperor Titus + was compelled, by popular censure, to dismiss with reluctance the + reluctant Berenice. <a href="#linknote-53.60" name="linknoteref-53.60" + id="linknoteref-53.60">60</a> This perpetual interdict was ratified by the + fabulous sanction of the great Constantine. The ambassadors of the + nations, more especially of the unbelieving nations, were solemnly + admonished, that such strange alliances had been condemned by the founder + of the church and city. The irrevocable law was inscribed on the altar of + St. Sophia; and the impious prince who should stain the majesty of the + purple was excluded from the civil and ecclesiastical communion of the + Romans. If the ambassadors were instructed by any false brethren in the + Byzantine history, they might produce three memorable examples of the + violation of this imaginary law: the marriage of Leo, or rather of his + father Constantine the Fourth, with the daughter of the king of the + Chozars, the nuptials of the granddaughter of Romanus with a Bulgarian + prince, and the union of Bertha of France or Italy with young Romanus, the + son of Constantine Porphyrogenitus himself. To these objections three + answers were prepared, which solved the difficulty and established the + law. I. + </p> + <p> + The deed and the guilt of Constantine Copronymus were acknowledged. The + Isaurian heretic, who sullied the baptismal font, and declared war against + the holy images, had indeed embraced a Barbarian wife. By this impious + alliance he accomplished the measure of his crimes, and was devoted to the + just censure of the church and of posterity. II. Romanus could not be + alleged as a legitimate emperor; he was a plebeian usurper, ignorant of + the laws, and regardless of the honor, of the monarchy. His son + Christopher, the father of the bride, was the third in rank in the college + of princes, at once the subject and the accomplice of a rebellious parent. + The Bulgarians were sincere and devout Christians; and the safety of the + empire, with the redemption of many thousand captives, depended on this + preposterous alliance. Yet no consideration could dispense from the law of + Constantine: the clergy, the senate, and the people, disapproved the + conduct of Romanus; and he was reproached, both in his life and death, as + the author of the public disgrace. III. For the marriage of his own son + with the daughter of Hugo, king of Italy, a more honorable defence is + contrived by the wise Porphyrogenitus. Constantine, the great and holy, + esteemed the fidelity and valor of the Franks; <a href="#linknote-53.61" + name="linknoteref-53.61" id="linknoteref-53.61">61</a> and his prophetic + spirit beheld the vision of their future greatness. They alone were + excepted from the general prohibition: Hugo, king of France, was the + lineal descendant of Charlemagne; <a href="#linknote-53.62" + name="linknoteref-53.62" id="linknoteref-53.62">62</a> and his daughter + Bertha inherited the prerogatives of her family and nation. The voice of + truth and malice insensibly betrayed the fraud or error of the Imperial + court. The patrimonial estate of Hugo was reduced from the monarchy of + France to the simple county of Arles; though it was not denied, that, in + the confusion of the times, he had usurped the sovereignty of Provence, + and invaded the kingdom of Italy. His father was a private noble; and if + Bertha derived her female descent from the Carlovingian line, every step + was polluted with illegitimacy or vice. The grandmother of Hugo was the + famous Valdrada, the concubine, rather than the wife, of the second + Lothair; whose adultery, divorce, and second nuptials, had provoked + against him the thunders of the Vatican. His mother, as she was styled, + the great Bertha, was successively the wife of the count of Arles and of + the marquis of Tuscany: France and Italy were scandalized by her + gallantries; and, till the age of threescore, her lovers, of every degree, + were the zealous servants of her ambition. The example of maternal + incontinence was copied by the king of Italy; and the three favorite + concubines of Hugo were decorated with the classic names of Venus, Juno, + and Semele. <a href="#linknote-53.63" name="linknoteref-53.63" + id="linknoteref-53.63">63</a> The daughter of Venus was granted to the + solicitations of the Byzantine court: her name of Bertha was changed to + that of Eudoxia; and she was wedded, or rather betrothed, to young + Romanus, the future heir of the empire of the East. The consummation of + this foreign alliance was suspended by the tender age of the two parties; + and, at the end of five years, the union was dissolved by the death of the + virgin spouse. The second wife of the emperor Romanus was a maiden of + plebeian, but of Roman, birth; and their two daughters, Theophano and + Anne, were given in marriage to the princes of the earth. The eldest was + bestowed, as the pledge of peace, on the eldest son of the great Otho, who + had solicited this alliance with arms and embassies. It might legally be + questioned how far a Saxon was entitled to the privilege of the French + nation; but every scruple was silenced by the fame and piety of a hero who + had restored the empire of the West. After the death of her father-in-law + and husband, Theophano governed Rome, Italy, and Germany, during the + minority of her son, the third Otho; and the Latins have praised the + virtues of an empress, who sacrificed to a superior duty the remembrance + of her country. <a href="#linknote-53.64" name="linknoteref-53.64" + id="linknoteref-53.64">64</a> In the nuptials of her sister Anne, every + prejudice was lost, and every consideration of dignity was superseded, by + the stronger argument of necessity and fear. A Pagan of the North, + Wolodomir, great prince of Russia, aspired to a daughter of the Roman + purple; and his claim was enforced by the threats of war, the promise of + conversion, and the offer of a powerful succor against a domestic rebel. A + victim of her religion and country, the Grecian princess was torn from the + palace of her fathers, and condemned to a savage reign, and a hopeless + exile on the banks of the Borysthenes, or in the neighborhood of the Polar + circle. <a href="#linknote-53.65" name="linknoteref-53.65" + id="linknoteref-53.65">65</a> Yet the marriage of Anne was fortunate and + fruitful: the daughter of her grandson Joroslaus was recommended by her + Imperial descent; and the king of France, Henry I., sought a wife on the + last borders of Europe and Christendom. <a href="#linknote-53.66" + name="linknoteref-53.66" id="linknoteref-53.66">66</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.58" id="linknote-53.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.58">return</a>)<br /> [ The xiiith chapter, de + Administratione Imperii, may be explained and rectified by the Familiae + Byzantinae of Ducange.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.59" id="linknote-53.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.59">return</a>)<br /> [ Sequiturque nefas + Aegyptia conjux, (Virgil, Aeneid, viii. 688.) Yet this Egyptian wife was + the daughter of a long line of kings. Quid te mutavit (says Antony in a + private letter to Augustus) an quod reginam ineo? Uxor mea est, (Sueton. + in August. c. 69.) Yet I much question (for I cannot stay to inquire) + whether the triumvir ever dared to celebrate his marriage either with + Roman or Egyptian rites.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.60" id="linknote-53.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.60">return</a>)<br /> [ Berenicem invitus + invitam dimisit, (Suetonius in Tito, c. 7.) Have I observed elsewhere, + that this Jewish beauty was at this time above fifty years of age? The + judicious Racine has most discreetly suppressed both her age and her + country.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.61" id="linknote-53.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.61">return</a>)<br /> [ Constantine was made to + praise the the Franks, with whom he claimed a private and public alliance. + The French writers (Isaac Casaubon in Dedicat. Polybii) are highly + delighted with these compliments.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.62" id="linknote-53.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.62">return</a>)<br /> [ Constantine + Porphyrogenitus (de Administrat. Imp. c. 36) exhibits a pedigree and life + of the illustrious King Hugo. A more correct idea may be formed from the + Criticism of Pagi, the Annals of Muratori, and the Abridgment of St. Marc, + A.D. 925-946.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.63" id="linknote-53.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.63">return</a>)<br /> [ After the mention of + the three goddesses, Luitprand very naturally adds, et quoniam non rex + solus iis abutebatur, earum nati ex incertis patribus originera ducunt, + (Hist. l. iv. c. 6: ) for the marriage of the younger Bertha, see Hist. l. + v. c. 5; for the incontinence of the elder, dulcis exercipio Hymenaei, l. + ii. c. 15; for the virtues and vices of Hugo, l. iii. c. 5. Yet it must + not be forgot, that the bishop of Cremona was a lover of scandal.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.64" id="linknote-53.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Licet illa Imperatrix + Graeca sibi et aliis fuisset satis utilis, et optima, &c., is the + preamble of an inimical writer, apud Pagi, tom. iv. A.D. 989, No. 3. Her + marriage and principal actions may be found in Muratori, Pagi, and St. + Marc, under the proper years.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.65" id="linknote-53.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.65">return</a>)<br /> [ Cedrenus, tom. ii. p. + 699. Zonaras, tom. i. p. 221. Elmacin, Hist. Saracenica, l. iii. c. 6. + Nestor apud Levesque, tom. ii. p. 112 Pagi, Critica, A.D. 987, No. 6: a + singular concourse! Wolodomir and Anne are ranked among the saints of the + Russian church. Yet we know his vices, and are ignorant of her virtues.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.66" id="linknote-53.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.66">return</a>)<br /> [ Henricus primus duxit + uxorem Scythicam, Russam, filiam regis Jeroslai. An embassy of bishops was + sent into Russia, and the father gratanter filiam cum multis donis misit. + This event happened in the year 1051. See the passages of the original + chronicles in Bouquet’s Historians of France, (tom. xi. p. 29, 159, 161, + 319, 384, 481.) Voltaire might wonder at this alliance; but he should not + have owned his ignorance of the country, religion, &c., of Jeroslaus—a + name so conspicuous in the Russian annals.] + </p> + <p> + In the Byzantine palace, the emperor was the first slave of the ceremonies + which he imposed, of the rigid forms which regulated each word and + gesture, besieged him in the palace, and violated the leisure of his rural + solitude. But the lives and fortunes of millions hung on his arbitrary + will; and the firmest minds, superior to the allurements of pomp and + luxury, may be seduced by the more active pleasure of commanding their + equals. The legislative and executive powers were centred in the person of + the monarch, and the last remains of the authority of the senate were + finally eradicated by Leo the philosopher. <a href="#linknote-53.67" + name="linknoteref-53.67" id="linknoteref-53.67">67</a> A lethargy of + servitude had benumbed the minds of the Greeks: in the wildest tumults of + rebellion they never aspired to the idea of a free constitution; and the + private character of the prince was the only source and measure of their + public happiness. Superstition rivetted their chains; in the church of St. + Sophia he was solemnly crowned by the patriarch; at the foot of the altar, + they pledged their passive and unconditional obedience to his government + and family. On his side he engaged to abstain as much as possible from the + capital punishments of death and mutilation; his orthodox creed was + subscribed with his own hand, and he promised to obey the decrees of the + seven synods, and the canons of the holy church. <a href="#linknote-53.68" + name="linknoteref-53.68" id="linknoteref-53.68">68</a> But the assurance of + mercy was loose and indefinite: he swore, not to his people, but to an + invisible judge; and except in the inexpiable guilt of heresy, the + ministers of heaven were always prepared to preach the indefeasible right, + and to absolve the venial transgressions, of their sovereign. The Greek + ecclesiastics were themselves the subjects of the civil magistrate: at the + nod of a tyrant, the bishops were created, or transferred, or deposed, or + punished with an ignominious death: whatever might be their wealth or + influence, they could never succeed like the Latin clergy in the + establishment of an independent republic; and the patriarch of + Constantinople condemned, what he secretly envied, the temporal greatness + of his Roman brother. Yet the exercise of boundless despotism is happily + checked by the laws of nature and necessity. In proportion to his wisdom + and virtue, the master of an empire is confined to the path of his sacred + and laborious duty. In proportion to his vice and folly, he drops the + sceptre too weighty for his hands; and the motions of the royal image are + ruled by the imperceptible thread of some minister or favorite, who + undertakes for his private interest to exercise the task of the public + oppression. In some fatal moment, the most absolute monarch may dread the + reason or the caprice of a nation of slaves; and experience has proved, + that whatever is gained in the extent, is lost in the safety and solidity, + of regal power. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.67" id="linknote-53.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.67">return</a>)<br /> [ A constitution of Leo + the Philosopher (lxxviii.) ne senatus consulta amplius fiant, speaks the + language of naked despotism.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.68" id="linknote-53.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.68">return</a>)<br /> [ Codinus (de Officiis, + c. xvii. p. 120, 121) gives an idea of this oath so strong to the church, + so weak to the people.] + </p> + <p> + Whatever titles a despot may assume, whatever claims he may assert, it is + on the sword that he must ultimately depend to guard him against his + foreign and domestic enemies. From the age of Charlemagne to that of the + Crusades, the world (for I overlook the remote monarchy of China) was + occupied and disputed by the three great empires or nations of the Greeks, + the Saracens, and the Franks. Their military strength may be ascertained + by a comparison of their courage, their arts and riches, and their + obedience to a supreme head, who might call into action all the energies + of the state. The Greeks, far inferior to their rivals in the first, were + superior to the Franks, and at least equal to the Saracens, in the second + and third of these warlike qualifications. + </p> + <p> + The wealth of the Greeks enabled them to purchase the service of the + poorer nations, and to maintain a naval power for the protection of their + coasts and the annoyance of their enemies. <a href="#linknote-53.69" + name="linknoteref-53.69" id="linknoteref-53.69">69</a> A commerce of mutual + benefit exchanged the gold of Constantinople for the blood of Sclavonians + and Turks, the Bulgarians and Russians: their valor contributed to the + victories of Nicephorus and Zimisces; and if a hostile people pressed too + closely on the frontier, they were recalled to the defence of their + country, and the desire of peace, by the well-managed attack of a more + distant tribe. <a href="#linknote-53.70" name="linknoteref-53.70" + id="linknoteref-53.70">70</a> The command of the Mediterranean, from the + mouth of the Tanais to the columns of Hercules, was always claimed, and + often possessed, by the successors of Constantine. Their capital was + filled with naval stores and dexterous artificers: the situation of Greece + and Asia, the long coasts, deep gulfs, and numerous islands, accustomed + their subjects to the exercise of navigation; and the trade of Venice and + Amalfi supplied a nursery of seamen to the Imperial fleet. <a + href="#linknote-53.71" name="linknoteref-53.71" id="linknoteref-53.71">71</a> + Since the time of the Peloponnesian and Punic wars, the sphere of action + had not been enlarged; and the science of naval architecture appears to + have declined. The art of constructing those stupendous machines which + displayed three, or six, or ten, ranges of oars, rising above, or falling + behind, each other, was unknown to the ship-builders of Constantinople, as + well as to the mechanicians of modern days. <a href="#linknote-53.72" + name="linknoteref-53.72" id="linknoteref-53.72">72</a> The Dromones, <a + href="#linknote-53.73" name="linknoteref-53.73" id="linknoteref-53.73">73</a> + or light galleys of the Byzantine empire, were content with two tier of + oars; each tier was composed of five-and-twenty benches; and two rowers + were seated on each bench, who plied their oars on either side of the + vessel. To these we must add the captain or centurion, who, in time of + action, stood erect with his armor-bearer on the poop, two steersmen at + the helm, and two officers at the prow, the one to manage the anchor, the + other to point and play against the enemy the tube of liquid fire. The + whole crew, as in the infancy of the art, performed the double service of + mariners and soldiers; they were provided with defensive and offensive + arms, with bows and arrows, which they used from the upper deck, with long + pikes, which they pushed through the portholes of the lower tier. + Sometimes, indeed, the ships of war were of a larger and more solid + construction; and the labors of combat and navigation were more regularly + divided between seventy soldiers and two hundred and thirty mariners. But + for the most part they were of the light and manageable size; and as the + Cape of Malea in Peloponnesus was still clothed with its ancient terrors, + an Imperial fleet was transported five miles over land across the Isthmus + of Corinth. <a href="#linknote-53.74" name="linknoteref-53.74" + id="linknoteref-53.74">74</a> The principles of maritime tactics had not + undergone any change since the time of Thucydides: a squadron of galleys + still advanced in a crescent, charged to the front, and strove to impel + their sharp beaks against the feeble sides of their antagonists. A machine + for casting stones and darts was built of strong timbers, in the midst of + the deck; and the operation of boarding was effected by a crane that + hoisted baskets of armed men. The language of signals, so clear and + copious in the naval grammar of the moderns, was imperfectly expressed by + the various positions and colors of a commanding flag. In the darkness of + the night, the same orders to chase, to attack, to halt, to retreat, to + break, to form, were conveyed by the lights of the leading galley. By + land, the fire-signals were repeated from one mountain to another; a chain + of eight stations commanded a space of five hundred miles; and + Constantinople in a few hours was apprised of the hostile motions of the + Saracens of Tarsus. <a href="#linknote-53.75" name="linknoteref-53.75" + id="linknoteref-53.75">75</a> Some estimate may be formed of the power of + the Greek emperors, by the curious and minute detail of the armament which + was prepared for the reduction of Crete. A fleet of one hundred and twelve + galleys, and seventy-five vessels of the Pamphylian style, was equipped in + the capital, the islands of the Aegean Sea, and the seaports of Asia, + Macedonia, and Greece. It carried thirty-four thousand mariners, seven + thousand three hundred and forty soldiers, seven hundred Russians, and + five thousand and eighty-seven Mardaites, whose fathers had been + transplanted from the mountains of Libanus. Their pay, most probably of a + month, was computed at thirty-four centenaries of gold, about one hundred + and thirty-six thousand pounds sterling. Our fancy is bewildered by the + endless recapitulation of arms and engines, of clothes and linen, of bread + for the men and forage for the horses, and of stores and utensils of every + description, inadequate to the conquest of a petty island, but amply + sufficient for the establishment of a flourishing colony. <a + href="#linknote-53.76" name="linknoteref-53.76" id="linknoteref-53.76">76</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.69" id="linknote-53.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.69">return</a>)<br /> [ If we listen to the + threats of Nicephorus to the ambassador of Otho, Nec est in mari domino + tuo classium numerus. Navigantium fortitudo mihi soli inest, qui eum + classibus aggrediar, bello maritimas ejus civitates demoliar; et quae + fluminibus sunt vicina redigam in favillam. (Liutprand in Legat. ad + Nicephorum Phocam, in Muratori Scriptores Rerum Italicarum, tom. ii. pars + i. p. 481.) He observes in another place, qui caeteris praestant Venetici + sunt et Amalphitani.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.70" id="linknote-53.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.70">return</a>)<br /> [ Nec ipsa capiet eum + (the emperor Otho) in qua ortus est pauper et pellicea Saxonia: pecunia + qua pollemus omnes nationes super eum invitabimus: et quasi Keramicum + confringemus, (Liutprand in Legat. p. 487.) The two books, de + Administrando Imperio, perpetually inculcate the same policy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.71" id="linknote-53.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.71">return</a>)<br /> [ The xixth chapter of + the Tactics of Leo, (Meurs. Opera, tom. vi. p. 825-848,) which is given + more correct from a manuscript of Gudius, by the laborious Fabricius, + (Bibliot. Graec. tom. vi. p. 372-379,) relates to the Naumachia, or naval + war.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.72" id="linknote-53.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.72">return</a>)<br /> [ Even of fifteen and + sixteen rows of oars, in the navy of Demetrius Poliorcetes. These were for + real use: the forty rows of Ptolemy Philadelphus were applied to a + floating palace, whose tonnage, according to Dr. Arbuthnot, (Tables of + Ancient Coins, &c., p. 231-236,) is compared as 4 1/2 to 1 with an + English 100 gun ship.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.73" id="linknote-53.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.73">return</a>)<br /> [ The Dromones of Leo, + &c., are so clearly described with two tier of oars, that I must + censure the version of Meursius and Fabricius, who pervert the sense by a + blind attachment to the classic appellation of Triremes. The Byzantine + historians are sometimes guilty of the same inaccuracy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.74" id="linknote-53.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.74">return</a>)<br /> [ Constantin. + Porphyrogen. in Vit. Basil. c. lxi. p. 185. He calmly praises the + stratagem; but the sailing round Peloponnesus is described by his + terrified fancy as a circumnavigation of a thousand miles.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.75" id="linknote-53.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.75">return</a>)<br /> [ The continuator of + Theophanes (l. iv. p. 122, 123) names the successive stations, the castle + of Lulum near Tarsus, Mount Argaeus Isamus, Aegilus, the hill of Mamas, + Cyrisus, Mocilus, the hill of Auxentius, the sun-dial of the Pharus of the + great palace. He affirms that the news were transmitted in an indivisible + moment of time. Miserable amplification, which, by saying too much, says + nothing. How much more forcible and instructive would have been the + definition of three, or six, or twelve hours!] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.76" id="linknote-53.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.76">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Ceremoniale of + Constantine Porphyrogenitus, l. ii. c. 44, p. 176-192. A critical reader + will discern some inconsistencies in different parts of this account; but + they are not more obscure or more stubborn than the establishment and + effectives, the present and fit for duty, the rank and file and the + private, of a modern return, which retain in proper hands the knowledge of + these profitable mysteries.] + </p> + <p> + The invention of the Greek fire did not, like that of gun powder, produce + a total revolution in the art of war. To these liquid combustibles the + city and empire of Constantine owed their deliverance; and they were + employed in sieges and sea-fights with terrible effect. But they were + either less improved, or less susceptible of improvement: the engines of + antiquity, the catapultae, balistae, and battering-rams, were still of + most frequent and powerful use in the attack and defence of + fortifications; nor was the decision of battles reduced to the quick and + heavy fire of a line of infantry, whom it were fruitless to protect with + armor against a similar fire of their enemies. Steel and iron were still + the common instruments of destruction and safety; and the helmets, + cuirasses, and shields, of the tenth century did not, either in form or + substance, essentially differ from those which had covered the companions + of Alexander or Achilles. <a href="#linknote-53.77" name="linknoteref-53.77" + id="linknoteref-53.77">77</a> But instead of accustoming the modern Greeks, + like the legionaries of old, to the constant and easy use of this salutary + weight, their armor was laid aside in light chariots, which followed the + march, till, on the approach of an enemy, they resumed with haste and + reluctance the unusual encumbrance. Their offensive weapons consisted of + swords, battle-axes, and spears; but the Macedonian pike was shortened a + fourth of its length, and reduced to the more convenient measure of twelve + cubits or feet. The sharpness of the Scythian and Arabian arrows had been + severely felt; and the emperors lament the decay of archery as a cause of + the public misfortunes, and recommend, as an advice and a command, that + the military youth, till the age of forty, should assiduously practise the + exercise of the bow. <a href="#linknote-53.78" name="linknoteref-53.78" + id="linknoteref-53.78">78</a> The bands, or regiments, were usually three + hundred strong; and, as a medium between the extremes of four and sixteen, + the foot soldiers of Leo and Constantine were formed eight deep; but the + cavalry charged in four ranks, from the reasonable consideration, that the + weight of the front could not be increased by any pressure of the hindmost + horses. If the ranks of the infantry or cavalry were sometimes doubled, + this cautious array betrayed a secret distrust of the courage of the + troops, whose numbers might swell the appearance of the line, but of whom + only a chosen band would dare to encounter the spears and swords of the + Barbarians. The order of battle must have varied according to the ground, + the object, and the adversary; but their ordinary disposition, in two + lines and a reserve, presented a succession of hopes and resources most + agreeable to the temper as well as the judgment of the Greeks. <a + href="#linknote-53.79" name="linknoteref-53.79" id="linknoteref-53.79">79</a> + In case of a repulse, the first line fell back into the intervals of the + second; and the reserve, breaking into two divisions, wheeled round the + flanks to improve the victory or cover the retreat. Whatever authority + could enact was accomplished, at least in theory, by the camps and + marches, the exercises and evolutions, the edicts and books, of the + Byzantine monarch. <a href="#linknote-53.80" name="linknoteref-53.80" + id="linknoteref-53.80">80</a> Whatever art could produce from the forge, + the loom, or the laboratory, was abundantly supplied by the riches of the + prince, and the industry of his numerous workmen. But neither authority + nor art could frame the most important machine, the soldier himself; and + if the ceremonies of Constantine always suppose the safe and triumphal + return of the emperor, <a href="#linknote-53.81" name="linknoteref-53.81" + id="linknoteref-53.81">81</a> his tactics seldom soar above the means of + escaping a defeat, and procrastinating the war. <a href="#linknote-53.82" + name="linknoteref-53.82" id="linknoteref-53.82">82</a> Notwithstanding some + transient success, the Greeks were sunk in their own esteem and that of + their neighbors. A cold hand and a loquacious tongue was the vulgar + description of the nation: the author of the tactics was besieged in his + capital; and the last of the Barbarians, who trembled at the name of the + Saracens, or Franks, could proudly exhibit the medals of gold and silver + which they had extorted from the feeble sovereign of Constantinople. What + spirit their government and character denied, might have been inspired in + some degree by the influence of religion; but the religion of the Greeks + could only teach them to suffer and to yield. The emperor Nicephorus, who + restored for a moment the discipline and glory of the Roman name, was + desirous of bestowing the honors of martyrdom on the Christians who lost + their lives in a holy war against the infidels. But this political law was + defeated by the opposition of the patriarch, the bishops, and the + principal senators; and they strenuously urged the canons of St. Basil, + that all who were polluted by the bloody trade of a soldier should be + separated, during three years, from the communion of the faithful. <a + href="#linknote-53.83" name="linknoteref-53.83" id="linknoteref-53.83">83</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.77" id="linknote-53.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.77">return</a>)<br /> [ See the fifth, sixth, + and seventh chapters, and, in the Tactics of Leo, with the corresponding + passages in those of Constantine.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.78" id="linknote-53.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.78">return</a>)<br /> [ (Leo, Tactic. p. 581 + Constantin. p 1216.) Yet such were not the maxims of the Greeks and + Romans, who despised the loose and distant practice of archery.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.79" id="linknote-53.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.79">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare the passages of + the Tactics, p. 669 and 721, and the xiith with the xviiith chapter.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.80" id="linknote-53.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.80">return</a>)<br /> [ In the preface to his + Tactics, Leo very freely deplores the loss of discipline and the + calamities of the times, and repeats, without scruple, (Proem. p. 537,) + the reproaches, nor does it appear that the same censures were less + deserved in the next generation by the disciples of Constantine.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.81" id="linknote-53.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.81">return</a>)<br /> [ See in the Ceremonial + (l. ii. c. 19, p. 353) the form of the emperor’s trampling on the necks of + the captive Saracens, while the singers chanted, “Thou hast made my + enemies my footstool!” and the people shouted forty times the kyrie + eleison.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.82" id="linknote-53.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.82">return</a>)<br /> [ Leo observes (Tactic. + p. 668) that a fair open battle against any nation whatsoever: the words + are strong, and the remark is true: yet if such had been the opinion of + the old Romans, Leo had never reigned on the shores of the Thracian + Bosphorus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.83" id="linknote-53.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.83">return</a>)<br /> [ Zonaras (tom. ii. l. + xvi. p. 202, 203) and Cedrenus, (Compend p. 668,) who relate the design of + Nicephorus, most unfortunately apply the epithet to the opposition of the + patriarch.] + </p> + <p> + These scruples of the Greeks have been compared with the tears of the + primitive Moslems when they were held back from battle; and this contrast + of base superstition and high-spirited enthusiasm, unfolds to a + philosophic eye the history of the rival nations. The subjects of the last + caliphs <a href="#linknote-53.84" name="linknoteref-53.84" + id="linknoteref-53.84">84</a> had undoubtedly degenerated from the zeal and + faith of the companions of the prophet. Yet their martial creed still + represented the Deity as the author of war: <a href="#linknote-53.85" + name="linknoteref-53.85" id="linknoteref-53.85">85</a> the vital though + latent spark of fanaticism still glowed in the heart of their religion, + and among the Saracens, who dwelt on the Christian borders, it was + frequently rekindled to a lively and active flame. Their regular force was + formed of the valiant slaves who had been educated to guard the person and + accompany the standard of their lord: but the Mussulman people of Syria + and Cilicia, of Africa and Spain, was awakened by the trumpet which + proclaimed a holy war against the infidels. The rich were ambitious of + death or victory in the cause of God; the poor were allured by the hopes + of plunder; and the old, the infirm, and the women, assumed their share of + meritorious service by sending their substitutes, with arms and horses, + into the field. These offensive and defensive arms were similar in + strength and temper to those of the Romans, whom they far excelled in the + management of the horse and the bow: the massy silver of their belts, + their bridles, and their swords, displayed the magnificence of a + prosperous nation; and except some black archers of the South, the Arabs + disdained the naked bravery of their ancestors. Instead of wagons, they + were attended by a long train of camels, mules, and asses: the multitude + of these animals, whom they bedecked with flags and streamers, appeared to + swell the pomp and magnitude of their host; and the horses of the enemy + were often disordered by the uncouth figure and odious smell of the camels + of the East. Invincible by their patience of thirst and heat, their + spirits were frozen by a winter’s cold, and the consciousness of their + propensity to sleep exacted the most rigorous precautions against the + surprises of the night. Their order of battle was a long square of two + deep and solid lines; the first of archers, the second of cavalry. In + their engagements by sea and land, they sustained with patient firmness + the fury of the attack, and seldom advanced to the charge till they could + discern and oppress the lassitude of their foes. But if they were repulsed + and broken, they knew not how to rally or renew the combat; and their + dismay was heightened by the superstitious prejudice, that God had + declared himself on the side of their enemies. The decline and fall of the + caliphs countenanced this fearful opinion; nor were there wanting, among + the Mahometans and Christians, some obscure prophecies <a + href="#linknote-53.86" name="linknoteref-53.86" id="linknoteref-53.86">86</a> + which prognosticated their alternate defeats. The unity of the Arabian + empire was dissolved, but the independent fragments were equal to populous + and powerful kingdoms; and in their naval and military armaments, an emir + of Aleppo or Tunis might command no despicable fund of skill, and + industry, and treasure. In their transactions of peace and war with the + Saracens, the princes of Constantinople too often felt that these + Barbarians had nothing barbarous in their discipline; and that if they + were destitute of original genius, they had been endowed with a quick + spirit of curiosity and imitation. The model was indeed more perfect than + the copy; their ships, and engines, and fortifications, were of a less + skilful construction; and they confess, without shame, that the same God + who has given a tongue to the Arabians, had more nicely fashioned the + hands of the Chinese, and the heads of the Greeks. <a href="#linknote-53.87" + name="linknoteref-53.87" id="linknoteref-53.87">87</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.84" id="linknote-53.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.84">return</a>)<br /> [ The xviith chapter of + the tactics of the different nations is the most historical and useful of + the whole collection of Leo. The manners and arms of the Saracens (Tactic. + p. 809-817, and a fragment from the Medicean Ms. in the preface of the + vith volume of Meursius) the Roman emperor was too frequently called upon + to study.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.85" id="linknote-53.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.85">return</a>)<br /> [ Leon. Tactic. p. 809.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.86" id="linknote-53.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.86">return</a>)<br /> [ Liutprand (p. 484, 485) + relates and interprets the oracles of the Greeks and Saracens, in which, + after the fashion of prophecy, the past is clear and historical, the + future is dark, enigmatical, and erroneous. From this boundary of light + and shade an impartial critic may commonly determine the date of the + composition.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.87" id="linknote-53.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.87">return</a>)<br /> [ The sense of this + distinction is expressed by Abulpharagius (Dynast. p. 2, 62, 101;) but I + cannot recollect the passage in which it is conveyed by this lively + apothegm.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap53.4"></a> + Chapter LIII: Fate Of The Eastern Empire.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + A name of some German tribes between the Rhine and the Weser had spread + its victorious influence over the greatest part of Gaul, Germany, and + Italy; and the common appellation of Franks <a href="#linknote-53.88" + name="linknoteref-53.88" id="linknoteref-53.88">88</a> was applied by the + Greeks and Arabians to the Christians of the Latin church, the nations of + the West, who stretched beyond their knowledge to the shores of the + Atlantic Ocean. The vast body had been inspired and united by the soul of + Charlemagne; but the division and degeneracy of his race soon annihilated + the Imperial power, which would have rivalled the Caesars of Byzantium, + and revenged the indignities of the Christian name. The enemies no longer + feared, nor could the subjects any longer trust, the application of a + public revenue, the labors of trade and manufactures in the military + service, the mutual aid of provinces and armies, and the naval squadrons + which were regularly stationed from the mouth of the Elbe to that of the + Tyber. In the beginning of the tenth century, the family of Charlemagne + had almost disappeared; his monarchy was broken into many hostile and + independent states; the regal title was assumed by the most ambitious + chiefs; their revolt was imitated in a long subordination of anarchy and + discord, and the nobles of every province disobeyed their sovereign, + oppressed their vassals, and exercised perpetual hostilities against their + equals and neighbors. Their private wars, which overturned the fabric of + government, fomented the martial spirit of the nation. In the system of + modern Europe, the power of the sword is possessed, at least in fact, by + five or six mighty potentates; their operations are conducted on a distant + frontier, by an order of men who devote their lives to the study and + practice of the military art: the rest of the country and community enjoys + in the midst of war the tranquillity of peace, and is only made sensible + of the change by the aggravation or decrease of the public taxes. In the + disorders of the tenth and eleventh centuries, every peasant was a + soldier, and every village a fortification; each wood or valley was a + scene of murder and rapine; and the lords of each castle were compelled to + assume the character of princes and warriors. To their own courage and + policy they boldly trusted for the safety of their family, the protection + of their lands, and the revenge of their injuries; and, like the + conquerors of a larger size, they were too apt to transgress the privilege + of defensive war. The powers of the mind and body were hardened by the + presence of danger and necessity of resolution: the same spirit refused to + desert a friend and to forgive an enemy; and, instead of sleeping under + the guardian care of a magistrate, they proudly disdained the authority of + the laws. In the days of feudal anarchy, the instruments of agriculture + and art were converted into the weapons of bloodshed: the peaceful + occupations of civil and ecclesiastical society were abolished or + corrupted; and the bishop who exchanged his mitre for a helmet, was more + forcibly urged by the manners of the times than by the obligation of his + tenure. <a href="#linknote-53.89" name="linknoteref-53.89" + id="linknoteref-53.89">89</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.88" id="linknote-53.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.88">return</a>)<br /> [ Ex Francis, quo nomine + tam Latinos quam Teutones comprehendit, ludum habuit, (Liutprand in Legat + ad Imp. Nicephorum, p. 483, 484.) This extension of the name may be + confirmed from Constantine (de Administrando Imperio, l. 2, c. 27, 28) and + Eutychius, (Annal. tom. i. p. 55, 56,) who both lived before the Crusades. + The testimonies of Abulpharagius (Dynast. p. 69) and Abulfeda (Praefat. ad + Geograph.) are more recent] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.89" id="linknote-53.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.89">return</a>)<br /> [ On this subject of + ecclesiastical and beneficiary discipline, Father Thomassin, (tom. iii. l. + i. c. 40, 45, 46, 47) may be usefully consulted. A general law of + Charlemagne exempted the bishops from personal service; but the opposite + practice, which prevailed from the ixth to the xvth century, is + countenanced by the example or silence of saints and doctors.... You + justify your cowardice by the holy canons, says Ratherius of Verona; the + canons likewise forbid you to whore, and yet—] + </p> + <p> + The love of freedom and of arms was felt, with conscious pride, by the + Franks themselves, and is observed by the Greeks with some degree of + amazement and terror. “The Franks,” says the emperor Constantine, “are + bold and valiant to the verge of temerity; and their dauntless spirit is + supported by the contempt of danger and death. In the field and in close + onset, they press to the front, and rush headlong against the enemy, + without deigning to compute either his numbers or their own. Their ranks + are formed by the firm connections of consanguinity and friendship; and + their martial deeds are prompted by the desire of saving or revenging + their dearest companions. In their eyes, a retreat is a shameful flight; + and flight is indelible infamy.” <a href="#linknote-53.90" + name="linknoteref-53.90" id="linknoteref-53.90">90</a> A nation endowed with + such high and intrepid spirit, must have been secure of victory if these + advantages had not been counter-balanced by many weighty defects. The + decay of their naval power left the Greeks and Saracens in possession of + the sea, for every purpose of annoyance and supply. In the age which + preceded the institution of knighthood, the Franks were rude and unskilful + in the service of cavalry; <a href="#linknote-53.91" name="linknoteref-53.91" + id="linknoteref-53.91">91</a> and in all perilous emergencies, their + warriors were so conscious of their ignorance, that they chose to dismount + from their horses and fight on foot. Unpractised in the use of pikes, or + of missile weapons, they were encumbered by the length of their swords, + the weight of their armor, the magnitude of their shields, and, if I may + repeat the satire of the meagre Greeks, by their unwieldy intemperance. + Their independent spirit disdained the yoke of subordination, and + abandoned the standard of their chief, if he attempted to keep the field + beyond the term of their stipulation or service. On all sides they were + open to the snares of an enemy less brave but more artful than themselves. + They might be bribed, for the Barbarians were venal; or surprised in the + night, for they neglected the precautions of a close encampment or + vigilant sentinels. The fatigues of a summer’s campaign exhausted their + strength and patience, and they sunk in despair if their voracious + appetite was disappointed of a plentiful supply of wine and of food. This + general character of the Franks was marked with some national and local + shades, which I should ascribe to accident rather than to climate, but + which were visible both to natives and to foreigners. An ambassador of the + great Otho declared, in the palace of Constantinople, that the Saxons + could dispute with swords better than with pens, and that they preferred + inevitable death to the dishonor of turning their backs to an enemy. <a + href="#linknote-53.92" name="linknoteref-53.92" id="linknoteref-53.92">92</a> + It was the glory of the nobles of France, that, in their humble dwellings, + war and rapine were the only pleasure, the sole occupation, of their + lives. They affected to deride the palaces, the banquets, the polished + manner of the Italians, who in the estimate of the Greeks themselves had + degenerated from the liberty and valor of the ancient Lombards. <a + href="#linknote-53.93" name="linknoteref-53.93" id="linknoteref-53.93">93</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.90" id="linknote-53.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.90">return</a>)<br /> [ In the xviiith chapter + of his Tactics, the emperor Leo has fairly stated the military vices and + virtues of the Franks (whom Meursius ridiculously translates by Galli) and + the Lombards or Langobards. See likewise the xxvith Dissertation of + Muratori de Antiquitatibus Italiae Medii Aevi.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.91" id="linknote-53.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.91">return</a>)<br /> [ Domini tui milites + (says the proud Nicephorus) equitandi ignari pedestris pugnae sunt inscii: + scutorum magnitudo, loricarum gravitudo, ensium longitudo galearumque + pondus neutra parte pugnare cossinit; ac subridens, impedit, inquit, et + eos gastrimargia, hoc est ventris ingluvies, &c. Liutprand in Legat. + p. 480 481] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.92" id="linknote-53.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.92">return</a>)<br /> [ In Saxonia certe + scio.... decentius ensibus pugnare quam calanis, et prius mortem obire + quam hostibus terga dare, (Liutprand, p 482.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.93" id="linknote-53.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.93">return</a>)<br /> [ Leonis Tactica, c. 18, + p. 805. The emperor Leo died A.D. 911: an historical poem, which ends in + 916, and appears to have been composed in 910, by a native of Venetia, + discriminates in these verses the manners of Italy and France: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + —Quid inertia bello + + Pectora (Ubertus ait) duris praetenditis armis, + + O Itali? Potius vobis sacra pocula cordi; + + Saepius et stomachum nitidis laxare saginis + + Elatasque domos rutilo fulcire metallo. + + Non eadem Gallos similis vel cura remordet: + + Vicinas quibus est studium devincere terras, + + Depressumque larem spoliis hinc inde coactis + + Sustentare— +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + (Anonym. Carmen Panegyricum de Laudibus Berengarii Augusti, l. n. in + Muratori Script. Rerum Italic. tom. ii. pars i. p. 393.)] + </p> + <p> + By the well-known edict of Caracalla, his subjects, from Britain to Egypt, + were entitled to the name and privileges of Romans, and their national + sovereign might fix his occasional or permanent residence in any province + of their common country. In the division of the East and West, an ideal + unity was scrupulously observed, and in their titles, laws, and statutes, + the successors of Arcadius and Honorius announced themselves as the + inseparable colleagues of the same office, as the joint sovereigns of the + Roman world and city, which were bounded by the same limits. After the + fall of the Western monarchy, the majesty of the purple resided solely in + the princes of Constantinople; and of these, Justinian was the first who, + after a divorce of sixty years, regained the dominion of ancient Rome, and + asserted, by the right of conquest, the august title of Emperor of the + Romans. <a href="#linknote-53.94" name="linknoteref-53.94" + id="linknoteref-53.94">94</a> A motive of vanity or discontent solicited + one of his successors, Constans the Second, to abandon the Thracian + Bosphorus, and to restore the pristine honors of the Tyber: an extravagant + project, (exclaims the malicious Byzantine,) as if he had despoiled a + beautiful and blooming virgin, to enrich, or rather to expose, the + deformity of a wrinkled and decrepit matron. <a href="#linknote-53.95" + name="linknoteref-53.95" id="linknoteref-53.95">95</a> But the sword of the + Lombards opposed his settlement in Italy: he entered Rome not as a + conqueror, but as a fugitive, and, after a visit of twelve days, he + pillaged, and forever deserted, the ancient capital of the world. <a + href="#linknote-53.96" name="linknoteref-53.96" id="linknoteref-53.96">96</a> + The final revolt and separation of Italy was accomplished about two + centuries after the conquests of Justinian, and from his reign we may date + the gradual oblivion of the Latin tongue. That legislator had composed his + Institutes, his Code, and his Pandects, in a language which he celebrates + as the proper and public style of the Roman government, the consecrated + idiom of the palace and senate of Constantinople, of the campus and + tribunals of the East. <a href="#linknote-53.97" name="linknoteref-53.97" + id="linknoteref-53.97">97</a> But this foreign dialect was unknown to the + people and soldiers of the Asiatic provinces, it was imperfectly + understood by the greater part of the interpreters of the laws and the + ministers of the state. After a short conflict, nature and habit prevailed + over the obsolete institutions of human power: for the general benefit of + his subjects, Justinian promulgated his novels in the two languages: the + several parts of his voluminous jurisprudence were successively + translated; <a href="#linknote-53.98" name="linknoteref-53.98" + id="linknoteref-53.98">98</a> the original was forgotten, the version was + studied, and the Greek, whose intrinsic merit deserved indeed the + preference, obtained a legal, as well as popular establishment in the + Byzantine monarchy. The birth and residence of succeeding princes + estranged them from the Roman idiom: Tiberius by the Arabs, <a + href="#linknote-53.99" name="linknoteref-53.99" id="linknoteref-53.99">99</a> + and Maurice by the Italians, <a href="#linknote-53.100" + name="linknoteref-53.100" id="linknoteref-53.100">100</a> are distinguished + as the first of the Greek Caesars, as the founders of a new dynasty and + empire: the silent revolution was accomplished before the death of + Heraclius; and the ruins of the Latin speech were darkly preserved in the + terms of jurisprudence and the acclamations of the palace. After the + restoration of the Western empire by Charlemagne and the Othos, the names + of Franks and Latins acquired an equal signification and extent; and these + haughty Barbarians asserted, with some justice, their superior claim to + the language and dominion of Rome. They insulted the alien of the East who + had renounced the dress and idiom of Romans; and their reasonable practice + will justify the frequent appellation of Greeks. <a href="#linknote-53.101" + name="linknoteref-53.101" id="linknoteref-53.101">101</a> But this + contemptuous appellation was indignantly rejected by the prince and people + to whom it was applied. Whatsoever changes had been introduced by the + lapse of ages, they alleged a lineal and unbroken succession from Augustus + and Constantine; and, in the lowest period of degeneracy and decay, the + name of Romans adhered to the last fragments of the empire of + Constantinople. <a href="#linknote-53.102" name="linknoteref-53.102" + id="linknoteref-53.102">102</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.94" id="linknote-53.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.94">return</a>)<br /> [ Justinian, says the + historian Agathias, (l. v. p. 157,). Yet the specific title of Emperor of + the Romans was not used at Constantinople, till it had been claimed by the + French and German emperors of old Rome.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.95" id="linknote-53.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.95">return</a>)<br /> [ Constantine Manasses + reprobates this design in his barbarous verse, and it is confirmed by + Theophanes, Zonaras, Cedrenus, and the Historia Miscella: voluit in urbem + Romam Imperium transferre, (l. xix. p. 157 in tom. i. pars i. of the + Scriptores Rer. Ital. of Muratori.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.96" id="linknote-53.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.96">return</a>)<br /> [ Paul. Diacon. l. v. c. + 11, p. 480. Anastasius in Vitis Pontificum, in Muratori’s Collection, tom. + iii. pars i. p. 141.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.97" id="linknote-53.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.97">return</a>)<br /> [ Consult the preface of + Ducange, (ad Gloss, Graec. Medii Aevi) and the Novels of Justinian, (vii. + lxvi.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.98" id="linknote-53.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.98">return</a>)<br /> [ (Matth. Blastares, + Hist. Juris, apud Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. tom. xii. p. 369.) The Code and + Pandects (the latter by Thalelaeus) were translated in the time of + Justinian, (p. 358, 366.) Theophilus one of the original triumvirs, has + left an elegant, though diffuse, paraphrase of the Institutes. On the + other hand, Julian, antecessor of Constantinople, (A.D. 570,) cxx. + Novellas Graecas eleganti Latinitate donavit (Heineccius, Hist. J. R. p. + 396) for the use of Italy and Africa.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.99" id="linknote-53.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.99">return</a>)<br /> [ Abulpharagius assigns + the viith Dynasty to the Franks or Romans, the viiith to the Greeks, the + ixth to the Arabs. A tempore Augusti Caesaris donec imperaret Tiberius + Caesar spatio circiter annorum 600 fuerunt Imperatores C. P. Patricii, et + praecipua pars exercitus Romani: extra quod, conciliarii, scribae et + populus, omnes Graeci fuerunt: deinde regnum etiam Graecanicum factum est, + (p. 96, vers. Pocock.) The Christian and ecclesiastical studies of + Abulpharagius gave him some advantage over the more ignorant Moslems.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.100" id="linknote-53.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.100">return</a>)<br /> [ Primus ex Graecorum + genere in Imperio confirmatus est; or according to another Ms. of Paulus + Diaconus, (l. iii. c. 15, p. 443,) in Orasorum Imperio.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.101" id="linknote-53.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.101">return</a>)<br /> [ Quia linguam, mores, + vestesque mutastis, putavit Sanctissimus Papa. (an audacious irony,) ita + vos (vobis) displicere Romanorum nomen. His nuncios, rogabant Nicephorum + Imperatorem Graecorum, ut cum Othone Imperatore Romanorum amicitiam + faceret, (Liutprand in Legatione, p. 486.) * Note: Sicut et vestem. These + words follow in the text of Liutprand, (apud Murat. Script. Ital. tom. ii. + p. 486, to which Gibbon refers.) But with some inaccuracy or confusion, + which rarely occurs in Gibbon’s references, the rest of the quotation, + which as it stands is unintelligible, does not appear—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.102" id="linknote-53.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.102">return</a>)<br /> [ By Laonicus + Chalcocondyles, who survived the last siege of Constantinople, the account + is thus stated, (l. i. p. 3.) Constantine transplanted his Latins of Italy + to a Greek city of Thrace: they adopted the language and manners of the + natives, who were confounded with them under the name of Romans. The kings + of Constantinople, says the historian.] + </p> + <p> + While the government of the East was transacted in Latin, the Greek was + the language of literature and philosophy; nor could the masters of this + rich and perfect idiom be tempted to envy the borrowed learning and + imitative taste of their Roman disciples. After the fall of Paganism, the + loss of Syria and Egypt, and the extinction of the schools of Alexandria + and Athens, the studies of the Greeks insensibly retired to some regular + monasteries, and above all, to the royal college of Constantinople, which + was burnt in the reign of Leo the Isaurian. <a href="#linknote-53.103" + name="linknoteref-53.103" id="linknoteref-53.103">103</a> In the pompous + style of the age, the president of that foundation was named the Sun of + Science: his twelve associates, the professors in the different arts and + faculties, were the twelve signs of the zodiac; a library of thirty-six + thousand five hundred volumes was open to their inquiries; and they could + show an ancient manuscript of Homer, on a roll of parchment one hundred + and twenty feet in length, the intestines, as it was fabled, of a + prodigious serpent. <a href="#linknote-53.104" name="linknoteref-53.104" + id="linknoteref-53.104">104</a> But the seventh and eight centuries were a + period of discord and darkness: the library was burnt, the college was + abolished, the Iconoclasts are represented as the foes of antiquity; and a + savage ignorance and contempt of letters has disgraced the princes of the + Heraclean and Isaurian dynasties. <a href="#linknote-53.105" + name="linknoteref-53.105" id="linknoteref-53.105">105</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.103" id="linknote-53.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.103">return</a>)<br /> [ See Ducange, (C. P. + Christiana, l. ii. p. 150, 151,) who collects the testimonies, not of + Theophanes, but at least of Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. xv. p. 104,) Cedrenus, + (p. 454,) Michael Glycas, (p. 281,) Constantine Manasses, (p. 87.) After + refuting the absurd charge against the emperor, Spanheim, (Hist. Imaginum, + p. 99-111,) like a true advocate, proceeds to doubt or deny the reality of + the fire, and almost of the library.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.104" id="linknote-53.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.104">return</a>)<br /> [ According to Malchus, + (apud Zonar. l. xiv. p. 53,) this Homer was burnt in the time of + Basiliscus. The Ms. might be renewed—But on a serpent’s skin? Most + strange and incredible!] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.105" id="linknote-53.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.105">return</a>)<br /> [ The words of Zonaras, + and of Cedrenus, are strong words, perhaps not ill suited to those + reigns.] + </p> + <p> + In the ninth century we trace the first dawnings of the restoration of + science. <a href="#linknote-53.106" name="linknoteref-53.106" + id="linknoteref-53.106">106</a> After the fanaticism of the Arabs had + subsided, the caliphs aspired to conquer the arts, rather than the + provinces, of the empire: their liberal curiosity rekindled the emulation + of the Greeks, brushed away the dust from their ancient libraries, and + taught them to know and reward the philosophers, whose labors had been + hitherto repaid by the pleasure of study and the pursuit of truth. The + Caesar Bardas, the uncle of Michael the Third, was the generous protector + of letters, a title which alone has preserved his memory and excused his + ambition. A particle of the treasures of his nephew was sometimes diverted + from the indulgence of vice and folly; a school was opened in the palace + of Magnaura; and the presence of Bardas excited the emulation of the + masters and students. At their head was the philosopher Leo, archbishop of + Thessalonica: his profound skill in astronomy and the mathematics was + admired by the strangers of the East; and this occult science was + magnified by vulgar credulity, which modestly supposes that all knowledge + superior to its own must be the effect of inspiration or magic. At the + pressing entreaty of the Caesar, his friend, the celebrated Photius, <a + href="#linknote-53.107" name="linknoteref-53.107" id="linknoteref-53.107">107</a> + renounced the freedom of a secular and studious life, ascended the + patriarchal throne, and was alternately excommunicated and absolved by the + synods of the East and West. By the confession even of priestly hatred, no + art or science, except poetry, was foreign to this universal scholar, who + was deep in thought, indefatigable in reading, and eloquent in diction. + Whilst he exercised the office of protospathaire or captain of the guards, + Photius was sent ambassador to the caliph of Bagdad. <a + href="#linknote-53.108" name="linknoteref-53.108" id="linknoteref-53.108">108</a> + The tedious hours of exile, perhaps of confinement, were beguiled by the + hasty composition of his Library, a living monument of erudition and + criticism. Two hundred and fourscore writers, historians, orators, + philosophers, theologians, are reviewed without any regular method: he + abridges their narrative or doctrine, appreciates their style and + character, and judges even the fathers of the church with a discreet + freedom, which often breaks through the superstition of the times. The + emperor Basil, who lamented the defects of his own education, intrusted to + the care of Photius his son and successor, Leo the philosopher; and the + reign of that prince and of his son Constantine Porphyrogenitus forms one + of the most prosperous aeras of the Byzantine literature. By their + munificence the treasures of antiquity were deposited in the Imperial + library; by their pens, or those of their associates, they were imparted + in such extracts and abridgments as might amuse the curiosity, without + oppressing the indolence, of the public. Besides the Basilics, or code of + laws, the arts of husbandry and war, of feeding or destroying the human + species, were propagated with equal diligence; and the history of Greece + and Rome was digested into fifty-three heads or titles, of which two only + (of embassies, and of virtues and vices) have escaped the injuries of + time. In every station, the reader might contemplate the image of the past + world, apply the lesson or warning of each page, and learn to admire, + perhaps to imitate, the examples of a brighter period. I shall not + expatiate on the works of the Byzantine Greeks, who, by the assiduous + study of the ancients, have deserved, in some measure, the remembrance and + gratitude of the moderns. The scholars of the present age may still enjoy + the benefit of the philosophical commonplace book of Stobaeus, the + grammatical and historical lexicon of Suidas, the Chiliads of Tzetzes, + which comprise six hundred narratives in twelve thousand verses, and the + commentaries on Homer of Eustathius, archbishop of Thessalonica, who, from + his horn of plenty, has poured the names and authorities of four hundred + writers. From these originals, and from the numerous tribe of scholiasts + and critics, <a href="#linknote-53.109" name="linknoteref-53.109" + id="linknoteref-53.109">109</a> some estimate may be formed of the literary + wealth of the twelfth century: Constantinople was enlightened by the + genius of Homer and Demosthenes, of Aristotle and Plato: and in the + enjoyment or neglect of our present riches, we must envy the generation + that could still peruse the history of Theopompus, the orations of + Hyperides, the comedies of Menander, <a href="#linknote-53.110" + name="linknoteref-53.110" id="linknoteref-53.110">110</a> and the odes of + Alcaeus and Sappho. The frequent labor of illustration attests not only + the existence, but the popularity, of the Grecian classics: the general + knowledge of the age may be deduced from the example of two learned + females, the empress Eudocia, and the princess Anna Comnena, who + cultivated, in the purple, the arts of rhetoric and philosophy. <a + href="#linknote-53.111" name="linknoteref-53.111" id="linknoteref-53.111">111</a> + The vulgar dialect of the city was gross and barbarous: a more correct and + elaborate style distinguished the discourse, or at least the compositions, + of the church and palace, which sometimes affected to copy the purity of + the Attic models. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.106" id="linknote-53.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.106">return</a>)<br /> [ See Zonaras (l. xvi. + p. 160, 161) and Cedrenus, (p. 549, 550.) Like Friar Bacon, the + philosopher Leo has been transformed by ignorance into a conjurer; yet not + so undeservedly, if he be the author of the oracles more commonly ascribed + to the emperor of the same name. The physics of Leo in Ms. are in the + library of Vienna, (Fabricius, Bibliot. Graec. tom. vi. p 366, tom. xii. + p. 781.) Qui serant!] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.107" id="linknote-53.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.107">return</a>)<br /> [ The ecclesiastical + and literary character of Photius is copiously discussed by Hanckius (de + Scriptoribus Byzant. p. 269, 396) and Fabricius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.108" id="linknote-53.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.108">return</a>)<br /> [ It can only mean + Bagdad, the seat of the caliphs and the relation of his embassy might have + been curious and instructive. But how did he procure his books? A library + so numerous could neither be found at Bagdad, nor transported with his + baggage, nor preserved in his memory. Yet the last, however incredible, + seems to be affirmed by Photius himself. Camusat (Hist. Critique des + Journaux, p. 87-94) gives a good account of the Myriobiblon.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.109" id="linknote-53.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.109">return</a>)<br /> [ Of these modern + Greeks, see the respective articles in the Bibliotheca Graeca of Fabricius—a + laborious work, yet susceptible of a better method and many improvements; + of Eustathius, (tom. i. p. 289-292, 306-329,) of the Pselli, (a diatribe + of Leo Allatius, ad calcem tom. v., of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, tom. + vi. p. 486-509) of John Stobaeus, (tom. viii., 665-728,) of Suidas, (tom. + ix. p. 620-827,) John Tzetzes, (tom. xii. p. 245-273.) Mr. Harris, in his + Philological Arrangements, opus senile, has given a sketch of this + Byzantine learning, (p. 287-300.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.110" id="linknote-53.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.110">return</a>)<br /> [ From the obscure and + hearsay evidence, Gerard Vossius (de Poetis Graecis, c. 6) and Le Clerc + (Bibliotheque Choisie, tom. xix. p. 285) mention a commentary of Michael + Psellus on twenty-four plays of Menander, still extant in Ms. at + Constantinople. Yet such classic studies seem incompatible with the + gravity or dulness of a schoolman, who pored over the categories, (de + Psellis, p. 42;) and Michael has probably been confounded with Homerus + Sellius, who wrote arguments to the comedies of Menander. In the xth + century, Suidas quotes fifty plays, but he often transcribes the old + scholiast of Aristophanes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.111" id="linknote-53.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.111">return</a>)<br /> [ Anna Comnena may + boast of her Greek style, and Zonaras her contemporary, but not her + flatterer, may add with truth. The princess was conversant with the artful + dialogues of Plato; and had studied quadrivium of astrology, geometry, + arithmetic, and music, (see he preface to the Alexiad, with Ducange’s + notes)] + </p> + <p> + In our modern education, the painful though necessary attainment of two + languages, which are no longer living, may consume the time and damp the + ardor of the youthful student. The poets and orators were long imprisoned + in the barbarous dialects of our Western ancestors, devoid of harmony or + grace; and their genius, without precept or example, was abandoned to the + rule and native powers of their judgment and fancy. But the Greeks of + Constantinople, after purging away the impurities of their vulgar speech, + acquired the free use of their ancient language, the most happy + composition of human art, and a familiar knowledge of the sublime masters + who had pleased or instructed the first of nations. But these advantages + only tend to aggravate the reproach and shame of a degenerate people. They + held in their lifeless hands the riches of their fathers, without + inheriting the spirit which had created and improved that sacred + patrimony: they read, they praised, they compiled, but their languid souls + seemed alike incapable of thought and action. In the revolution of ten + centuries, not a single discovery was made to exalt the dignity or promote + the happiness of mankind. Not a single idea has been added to the + speculative systems of antiquity, and a succession of patient disciples + became in their turn the dogmatic teachers of the next servile generation. + Not a single composition of history, philosophy, or literature, has been + saved from oblivion by the intrinsic beauties of style or sentiment, of + original fancy, or even of successful imitation. In prose, the least + offensive of the Byzantine writers are absolved from censure by their + naked and unpresuming simplicity: but the orators, most eloquent <a + href="#linknote-53.112" name="linknoteref-53.112" id="linknoteref-53.112">112</a> + in their own conceit, are the farthest removed from the models whom they + affect to emulate. In every page our taste and reason are wounded by the + choice of gigantic and obsolete words, a stiff and intricate phraseology, + the discord of images, the childish play of false or unseasonable + ornament, and the painful attempt to elevate themselves, to astonish the + reader, and to involve a trivial meaning in the smoke of obscurity and + exaggeration. Their prose is soaring to the vicious affectation of poetry: + their poetry is sinking below the flatness and insipidity of prose. The + tragic, epic, and lyric muses, were silent and inglorious: the bards of + Constantinople seldom rose above a riddle or epigram, a panegyric or tale; + they forgot even the rules of prosody; and with the melody of Homer yet + sounding in their ears, they confound all measure of feet and syllables in + the impotent strains which have received the name of political or city + verses. <a href="#linknote-53.113" name="linknoteref-53.113" + id="linknoteref-53.113">113</a> The minds of the Greek were bound in the + fetters of a base and imperious superstition which extends her dominion + round the circle of profane science. Their understandings were bewildered + in metaphysical controversy: in the belief of visions and miracles, they + had lost all principles of moral evidence, and their taste was vitiated by + the homilies of the monks, an absurd medley of declamation and Scripture. + Even these contemptible studies were no longer dignified by the abuse of + superior talents: the leaders of the Greek church were humbly content to + admire and copy the oracles of antiquity, nor did the schools of pulpit + produce any rivals of the fame of Athanasius and Chrysostom. <a + href="#linknote-53.114" name="linknoteref-53.114" id="linknoteref-53.114">114</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.112" id="linknote-53.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.112">return</a>)<br /> [ To censure the + Byzantine taste. Ducange (Praefat. Gloss. Graec. p. 17) strings the + authorities of Aulus Gellius, Jerom, Petronius George Hamartolus, + Longinus; who give at once the precept and the example.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.113" id="linknote-53.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.113">return</a>)<br /> [ The versus politici, + those common prostitutes, as, from their easiness, they are styled by Leo + Allatius, usually consist of fifteen syllables. They are used by + Constantine Manasses, John Tzetzes, &c. (Ducange, Gloss. Latin. tom. + iii. p. i. p. 345, 346, edit. Basil, 1762.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.114" id="linknote-53.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.114">return</a>)<br /> [ As St. Bernard of the + Latin, so St. John Damascenus in the viiith century is revered as the last + father of the Greek, church.] + </p> + <p> + In all the pursuits of active and speculative life, the emulation of + states and individuals is the most powerful spring of the efforts and + improvements of mankind. The cities of ancient Greece were cast in the + happy mixture of union and independence, which is repeated on a larger + scale, but in a looser form, by the nations of modern Europe; the union of + language, religion, and manners, which renders them the spectators and + judges of each other’s merit; <a href="#linknote-53.115" + name="linknoteref-53.115" id="linknoteref-53.115">115</a> the independence + of government and interest, which asserts their separate freedom, and + excites them to strive for preeminence in the career of glory. The + situation of the Romans was less favorable; yet in the early ages of the + republic, which fixed the national character, a similar emulation was + kindled among the states of Latium and Italy; and in the arts and + sciences, they aspired to equal or surpass their Grecian masters. The + empire of the Caesars undoubtedly checked the activity and progress of the + human mind; its magnitude might indeed allow some scope for domestic + competition; but when it was gradually reduced, at first to the East and + at last to Greece and Constantinople, the Byzantine subjects were degraded + to an abject and languid temper, the natural effect of their solitary and + insulated state. From the North they were oppressed by nameless tribes of + Barbarians, to whom they scarcely imparted the appellation of men. The + language and religion of the more polished Arabs were an insurmountable + bar to all social intercourse. The conquerors of Europe were their + brethren in the Christian faith; but the speech of the Franks or Latins + was unknown, their manners were rude, and they were rarely connected, in + peace or war, with the successors of Heraclius. Alone in the universe, the + self-satisfied pride of the Greeks was not disturbed by the comparison of + foreign merit; and it is no wonder if they fainted in the race, since they + had neither competitors to urge their speed, nor judges to crown their + victory. The nations of Europe and Asia were mingled by the expeditions to + the Holy Land; and it is under the Comnenian dynasty that a faint + emulation of knowledge and military virtue was rekindled in the Byzantine + empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-53.115" id="linknote-53.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-53.115">return</a>)<br /> [Hume’s Essays, vol. i. + p. 125] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap54.1"></a> + Chapter LIV: Origin And Doctrine Of The Paulicians.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Origin And Doctrine Of The Paulicians.—Their Persecution By + The Greek Emperors.—Revolt In Armenia &c.—Transplantation + Into Thrace.—Propagation In The West.—The Seeds, + Character, And Consequences Of The Reformation. +</pre> + <p> + In the profession of Christianity, the variety of national characters may + be clearly distinguished. The natives of Syria and Egypt abandoned their + lives to lazy and contemplative devotion: Rome again aspired to the + dominion of the world; and the wit of the lively and loquacious Greeks was + consumed in the disputes of metaphysical theology. The incomprehensible + mysteries of the Trinity and Incarnation, instead of commanding their + silent submission, were agitated in vehement and subtile controversies, + which enlarged their faith at the expense, perhaps, of their charity and + reason. From the council of Nice to the end of the seventh century, the + peace and unity of the church was invaded by these spiritual wars; and so + deeply did they affect the decline and fall of the empire, that the + historian has too often been compelled to attend the synods, to explore + the creeds, and to enumerate the sects, of this busy period of + ecclesiastical annals. From the beginning of the eighth century to the + last ages of the Byzantine empire, the sound of controversy was seldom + heard: curiosity was exhausted, zeal was fatigued, and, in the decrees of + six councils, the articles of the Catholic faith had been irrevocably + defined. The spirit of dispute, however vain and pernicious, requires some + energy and exercise of the mental faculties; and the prostrate Greeks were + content to fast, to pray, and to believe in blind obedience to the + patriarch and his clergy. During a long dream of superstition, the Virgin + and the Saints, their visions and miracles, their relics and images, were + preached by the monks, and worshipped by the people; and the appellation + of people might be extended, without injustice, to the first ranks of + civil society. At an unseasonable moment, the Isaurian emperors attempted + somewhat rudely to awaken their subjects: under their influence reason + might obtain some proselytes, a far greater number was swayed by interest + or fear; but the Eastern world embraced or deplored their visible deities, + and the restoration of images was celebrated as the feast of orthodoxy. In + this passive and unanimous state the ecclesiastical rulers were relieved + from the toil, or deprived of the pleasure, of persecution. The Pagans had + disappeared; the Jews were silent and obscure; the disputes with the + Latins were rare and remote hostilities against a national enemy; and the + sects of Egypt and Syria enjoyed a free toleration under the shadow of the + Arabian caliphs. About the middle of the seventh century, a branch of + Manichaeans was selected as the victims of spiritual tyranny; their + patience was at length exasperated to despair and rebellion; and their + exile has scattered over the West the seeds of reformation. These + important events will justify some inquiry into the doctrine and story of + the Paulicians; <a href="#linknote-54.1" name="linknoteref-54.1" + id="linknoteref-54.1">1</a> and, as they cannot plead for themselves, our + candid criticism will magnify the good, and abate or suspect the evil, + that is reported by their adversaries. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.1" id="linknote-54.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.1">return</a>)<br /> [ The errors and virtues of + the Paulicians are weighed, with his usual judgment and candor, by the + learned Mosheim, (Hist. Ecclesiast. seculum ix. p. 311, &c.) He draws + his original intelligence from Photius (contra Manichaeos, l. i.) and + Peter Siculus, (Hist. Manichaeorum.) The first of these accounts has not + fallen into my hands; the second, which Mosheim prefers, I have read in a + Latin version inserted in the Maxima Bibliotheca Patrum, (tom. xvi. p. + 754-764,) from the edition of the Jesuit Raderus, (Ingolstadii, 1604, in + 4to.) * Note: Compare Hallam’s Middle Ages, p. 461-471. Mr. Hallam justly + observes that this chapter “appears to be accurate as well as luminous, + and is at least far superior to any modern work on the subject.”—M.] + </p> + <p> + The Gnostics, who had distracted the infancy, were oppressed by the + greatness and authority, of the church. Instead of emulating or surpassing + the wealth, learning, and numbers of the Catholics, their obscure remnant + was driven from the capitals of the East and West, and confined to the + villages and mountains along the borders of the Euphrates. Some vestige of + the Marcionites may be detected in the fifth century; <a + href="#linknote-54.2" name="linknoteref-54.2" id="linknoteref-54.2">2</a> but + the numerous sects were finally lost in the odious name of the + Manichaeans; and these heretics, who presumed to reconcile the doctrines + of Zoroaster and Christ, were pursued by the two religions with equal and + unrelenting hatred. Under the grandson of Heraclius, in the neighborhood + of Samosata, more famous for the birth of Lucian than for the title of a + Syrian kingdom, a reformer arose, esteemed by the Paulicians as the chosen + messenger of truth. In his humble dwelling of Mananalis, Constantine + entertained a deacon, who returned from Syrian captivity, and received the + inestimable gift of the New Testament, which was already concealed from + the vulgar by the prudence of the Greek, and perhaps of the Gnostic, + clergy. <a href="#linknote-54.3" name="linknoteref-54.3" id="linknoteref-54.3">3</a> + These books became the measure of his studies and the rule of his faith; + and the Catholics, who dispute his interpretation, acknowledge that his + text was genuine and sincere. But he attached himself with peculiar + devotion to the writings and character of St. Paul: the name of the + Paulicians is derived by their enemies from some unknown and domestic + teacher; but I am confident that they gloried in their affinity to the + apostle of the Gentiles. His disciples, Titus, Timothy, Sylvanus, + Tychicus, were represented by Constantine and his fellow-laborers: the + names of the apostolic churches were applied to the congregations which + they assembled in Armenia and Cappadocia; and this innocent allegory + revived the example and memory of the first ages. In the Gospel, and the + Epistles of St. Paul, his faithful follower investigated the Creed of + primitive Christianity; and, whatever might be the success, a Protestant + reader will applaud the spirit, of the inquiry. But if the Scriptures of + the Paulicians were pure, they were not perfect. Their founders rejected + the two Epistles of St. Peter, <a href="#linknote-54.4" + name="linknoteref-54.4" id="linknoteref-54.4">4</a> the apostle of the + circumcision, whose dispute with their favorite for the observance of the + law could not easily be forgiven. <a href="#linknote-54.5" + name="linknoteref-54.5" id="linknoteref-54.5">5</a> They agreed with their + Gnostic brethren in the universal contempt for the Old Testament, the + books of Moses and the prophets, which have been consecrated by the + decrees of the Catholic church. With equal boldness, and doubtless with + more reason, Constantine, the new Sylvanus, disclaimed the visions, which, + in so many bulky and splendid volumes, had been published by the Oriental + sects; <a href="#linknote-54.6" name="linknoteref-54.6" id="linknoteref-54.6">6</a> + the fabulous productions of the Hebrew patriarchs and the sages of the + East; the spurious gospels, epistles, and acts, which in the first age had + overwhelmed the orthodox code; the theology of Manes, and the authors of + the kindred heresies; and the thirty generations, or aeons, which had been + created by the fruitful fancy of Valentine. The Paulicians sincerely + condemned the memory and opinions of the Manichaean sect, and complained + of the injustice which impressed that invidious name on the simple + votaries of St. Paul and of Christ. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.2" id="linknote-54.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.2">return</a>)<br /> [ In the time of Theodoret, + the diocese of Cyrrhus, in Syria, contained eight hundred villages. Of + these, two were inhabited by Arians and Eunomians, and eight by + Marcionites, whom the laborious bishop reconciled to the Catholic church, + (Dupin, Bibliot. Ecclesiastique, tom. iv. p. 81, 82.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.3" id="linknote-54.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.3">return</a>)<br /> [ Nobis profanis ista + (sacra Evangelia) legere non licet sed sacerdotibus duntaxat, was the + first scruple of a Catholic when he was advised to read the Bible, (Petr. + Sicul. p. 761.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.4" id="linknote-54.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.4">return</a>)<br /> [ In rejecting the second + Epistle of St. Peter, the Paulicians are justified by some of the most + respectable of the ancients and moderns, (see Wetstein ad loc., Simon, + Hist. Critique du Nouveau Testament, c. 17.) They likewise overlooked the + Apocalypse, (Petr. Sicul. p. 756;) but as such neglect is not imputed as a + crime, the Greeks of the ixth century must have been careless of the + credit and honor of the Revelations.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.5" id="linknote-54.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.5">return</a>)<br /> [ This contention, which + has not escaped the malice of Porphyry, supposes some error and passion in + one or both of the apostles. By Chrysostom, Jerome, and Erasmus, it is + represented as a sham quarrel a pious fraud, for the benefit of the + Gentiles and the correction of the Jews, (Middleton’s Works, vol. ii. p. + 1-20.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.6" id="linknote-54.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.6">return</a>)<br /> [ Those who are curious of + this heterodox library, may consult the researches of Beausobre, (Hist. + Critique du Manicheisme, tom. i. p. 305-437.) Even in Africa, St. Austin + could describe the Manichaean books, tam multi, tam grandes, tam pretiosi + codices, (contra Faust. xiii. 14;) but he adds, without pity, Incendite + omnes illas membranas: and his advice had been rigorously followed.] + </p> + <p> + Of the ecclesiastical chain, many links had been broken by the Paulician + reformers; and their liberty was enlarged, as they reduced the number of + masters, at whose voice profane reason must bow to mystery and miracle. + The early separation of the Gnostics had preceded the establishment of the + Catholic worship; and against the gradual innovations of discipline and + doctrine they were as strongly guarded by habit and aversion, as by the + silence of St. Paul and the evangelists. The objects which had been + transformed by the magic of superstition, appeared to the eyes of the + Paulicians in their genuine and naked colors. An image made without hands + was the common workmanship of a mortal artist, to whose skill alone the + wood and canvas must be indebted for their merit or value. The miraculous + relics were a heap of bones and ashes, destitute of life or virtue, or of + any relation, perhaps, with the person to whom they were ascribed. The + true and vivifying cross was a piece of sound or rotten timber, the body + and blood of Christ, a loaf of bread and a cup of wine, the gifts of + nature and the symbols of grace. The mother of God was degraded from her + celestial honors and immaculate virginity; and the saints and angels were + no longer solicited to exercise the laborious office of mediation in + heaven, and ministry upon earth. In the practice, or at least in the + theory, of the sacraments, the Paulicians were inclined to abolish all + visible objects of worship, and the words of the gospel were, in their + judgment, the baptism and communion of the faithful. They indulged a + convenient latitude for the interpretation of Scripture: and as often as + they were pressed by the literal sense, they could escape to the intricate + mazes of figure and allegory. Their utmost diligence must have been + employed to dissolve the connection between the Old and the New Testament; + since they adored the latter as the oracles of God, and abhorred the + former as the fabulous and absurd invention of men or daemons. We cannot + be surprised, that they should have found in the Gospel the orthodox + mystery of the Trinity: but, instead of confessing the human nature and + substantial sufferings of Christ, they amused their fancy with a celestial + body that passed through the virgin like water through a pipe; with a + fantastic crucifixion, that eluded the vain and important malice of the + Jews. A creed thus simple and spiritual was not adapted to the genius of + the times; <a href="#linknote-54.7" name="linknoteref-54.7" + id="linknoteref-54.7">7</a> and the rational Christian, who might have been + contented with the light yoke and easy burden of Jesus and his apostles, + was justly offended, that the Paulicians should dare to violate the unity + of God, the first article of natural and revealed religion. Their belief + and their trust was in the Father, of Christ, of the human soul, and of + the invisible world. + </p> + <p> + But they likewise held the eternity of matter; a stubborn and rebellious + substance, the origin of a second principle of an active being, who has + created this visible world, and exercises his temporal reign till the + final consummation of death and sin. <a href="#linknote-54.8" + name="linknoteref-54.8" id="linknoteref-54.8">8</a> The appearances of moral + and physical evil had established the two principles in the ancient + philosophy and religion of the East; from whence this doctrine was + transfused to the various swarms of the Gnostics. A thousand shades may be + devised in the nature and character of Ahriman, from a rival god to a + subordinate daemon, from passion and frailty to pure and perfect + malevolence: but, in spite of our efforts, the goodness, and the power, of + Ormusd are placed at the opposite extremities of the line; and every step + that approaches the one must recede in equal proportion from the other. <a + href="#linknote-54.9" name="linknoteref-54.9" id="linknoteref-54.9">9</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.7" id="linknote-54.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.7">return</a>)<br /> [ The six capital errors of + the Paulicians are defined by Peter (p. 756,) with much prejudice and + passion.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.8" id="linknote-54.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.8">return</a>)<br /> [ Primum illorum axioma + est, duo rerum esse principia; Deum malum et Deum bonum, aliumque hujus + mundi conditorem et princi pem, et alium futuri aevi, (Petr. Sicul. 765.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.9" id="linknote-54.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.9">return</a>)<br /> [ Two learned critics, + Beausobre (Hist. Critique du Manicheisme, l. i. iv. v. vi.) and Mosheim, + (Institut. Hist. Eccles. and de Rebus Christianis ante Constantinum, sec. + i. ii. iii.,) have labored to explore and discriminate the various systems + of the Gnostics on the subject of the two principles.] + </p> + <p> + The apostolic labors of Constantine Sylvanus soon multiplied the number of + his disciples, the secret recompense of spiritual ambition. The remnant of + the Gnostic sects, and especially the Manichaeans of Armenia, were united + under his standard; many Catholics were converted or seduced by his + arguments; and he preached with success in the regions of Pontus <a + href="#linknote-54.10" name="linknoteref-54.10" id="linknoteref-54.10">10</a> + and Cappadocia, which had long since imbibed the religion of Zoroaster. + The Paulician teachers were distinguished only by their Scriptural names, + by the modest title of Fellow-pilgrims, by the austerity of their lives, + their zeal or knowledge, and the credit of some extraordinary gifts of the + Holy Spirit. But they were incapable of desiring, or at least of + obtaining, the wealth and honors of the Catholic prelacy; such + anti-Christian pride they bitterly censured; and even the rank of elders + or presbyters was condemned as an institution of the Jewish synagogue. The + new sect was loosely spread over the provinces of Asia Minor to the + westward of the Euphrates; six of their principal congregations + represented the churches to which St. Paul had addressed his epistles; and + their founder chose his residence in the neighborhood of Colonia, <a + href="#linknote-54.11" name="linknoteref-54.11" id="linknoteref-54.11">11</a> + in the same district of Pontus which had been celebrated by the altars of + Bellona <a href="#linknote-54.12" name="linknoteref-54.12" + id="linknoteref-54.12">12</a> and the miracles of Gregory. <a + href="#linknote-54.13" name="linknoteref-54.13" id="linknoteref-54.13">13</a> + After a mission of twenty-seven years, Sylvanus, who had retired from the + tolerating government of the Arabs, fell a sacrifice to Roman persecution. + The laws of the pious emperors, which seldom touched the lives of less + odious heretics, proscribed without mercy or disguise the tenets, the + books, and the persons of the Montanists and Manichaeans: the books were + delivered to the flames; and all who should presume to secrete such + writings, or to profess such opinions, were devoted to an ignominious + death. <a href="#linknote-54.14" name="linknoteref-54.14" + id="linknoteref-54.14">14</a> A Greek minister, armed with legal and + military powers, appeared at Colonia to strike the shepherd, and to + reclaim, if possible, the lost sheep. By a refinement of cruelty, Simeon + placed the unfortunate Sylvanus before a line of his disciples, who were + commanded, as the price of their pardon and the proof of their repentance, + to massacre their spiritual father. They turned aside from the impious + office; the stones dropped from their filial hands, and of the whole + number, only one executioner could be found, a new David, as he is styled + by the Catholics, who boldly overthrew the giant of heresy. This apostate + (Justin was his name) again deceived and betrayed his unsuspecting + brethren, and a new conformity to the acts of St. Paul may be found in the + conversion of Simeon: like the apostle, he embraced the doctrine which he + had been sent to persecute, renounced his honors and fortunes, and + required among the Paulicians the fame of a missionary and a martyr. They + were not ambitious of martyrdom, <a href="#linknote-54.15" + name="linknoteref-54.15" id="linknoteref-54.15">15</a> but in a calamitous + period of one hundred and fifty years, their patience sustained whatever + zeal could inflict; and power was insufficient to eradicate the obstinate + vegetation of fanaticism and reason. From the blood and ashes of the first + victims, a succession of teachers and congregations repeatedly arose: + amidst their foreign hostilities, they found leisure for domestic + quarrels: they preached, they disputed, they suffered; and the virtues, + the apparent virtues, of Sergius, in a pilgrimage of thirty-three years, + are reluctantly confessed by the orthodox historians. <a + href="#linknote-54.16" name="linknoteref-54.16" id="linknoteref-54.16">16</a> + The native cruelty of Justinian the Second was stimulated by a pious + cause; and he vainly hoped to extinguish, in a single conflagration, the + name and memory of the Paulicians. By their primitive simplicity, their + abhorrence of popular superstition, the Iconoclast princes might have been + reconciled to some erroneous doctrines; but they themselves were exposed + to the calumnies of the monks, and they chose to be the tyrants, lest they + should be accused as the accomplices, of the Manichaeans. Such a reproach + has sullied the clemency of Nicephorus, who relaxed in their favor the + severity of the penal statutes, nor will his character sustain the honor + of a more liberal motive. The feeble Michael the First, the rigid Leo the + Armenian, were foremost in the race of persecution; but the prize must + doubtless be adjudged to the sanguinary devotion of Theodora, who restored + the images to the Oriental church. Her inquisitors explored the cities and + mountains of the Lesser Asia, and the flatterers of the empress have + affirmed that, in a short reign, one hundred thousand Paulicians were + extirpated by the sword, the gibbet, or the flames. Her guilt or merit has + perhaps been stretched beyond the measure of truth: but if the account be + allowed, it must be presumed that many simple Iconoclasts were punished + under a more odious name; and that some who were driven from the church, + unwillingly took refuge in the bosom of heresy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.10" id="linknote-54.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.10">return</a>)<br /> [ The countries between + the Euphrates and the Halys were possessed above 350 years by the Medes + (Herodot. l. i. c. 103) and Persians; and the kings of Pontus were of the + royal race of the Achaemenides, (Sallust. Fragment. l. iii. with the + French supplement and notes of the president de Brosses.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.11" id="linknote-54.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.11">return</a>)<br /> [ Most probably founded + by Pompey after the conquest of Pontus. This Colonia, on the Lycus, above + Neo-Caesarea, is named by the Turks Coulei-hisar, or Chonac, a populous + town in a strong country, (D’Anville, Geographie Ancienne, tom. ii. p. 34. + Tournefort, Voyage du Levant, tom. iii. lettre xxi. p. 293.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.12" id="linknote-54.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.12">return</a>)<br /> [ The temple of Bellona, + at Comana in Pontus was a powerful and wealthy foundation, and the high + priest was respected as the second person in the kingdom. As the + sacerdotal office had been occupied by his mother’s family, Strabo (l. + xii. p. 809, 835, 836, 837) dwells with peculiar complacency on the + temple, the worship, and festival, which was twice celebrated every year. + But the Bellona of Pontus had the features and character of the goddess, + not of war, but of love.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.13" id="linknote-54.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.13">return</a>)<br /> [ Gregory, bishop of + Neo-Caesarea, (A.D. 240-265,) surnamed Thaumaturgus, or the Wonder-worker. + An hundred years afterwards, the history or romance of his life was + composed by Gregory of Nyssa, his namesake and countryman, the brother of + the great St. Basil.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.14" id="linknote-54.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.14">return</a>)<br /> [ Hoc caeterum ad sua + egregia facinora, divini atque orthodoxi Imperatores addiderunt, ut + Manichaeos Montanosque capitali puniri sententia juberent, eorumque + libros, quocunque in loco inventi essent, flammis tradi; quod siquis + uspiam eosdem occultasse deprehenderetur, hunc eundem mortis poenae + addici, ejusque bona in fiscum inferri, (Petr. Sicul. p. 759.) What more + could bigotry and persecution desire?] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.15" id="linknote-54.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.15">return</a>)<br /> [ It should seem, that + the Paulicians allowed themselves some latitude of equivocation and mental + reservation; till the Catholics discovered the pressing questions, which + reduced them to the alternative of apostasy or martyrdom, (Petr. Sicul. p. + 760.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.16" id="linknote-54.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.16">return</a>)<br /> [ The persecution is told + by Petrus Siculus (p. 579-763) with satisfaction and pleasantry. Justus + justa persolvit. See likewise Cedrenus, (p. 432-435.)] + </p> + <p> + The most furious and desperate of rebels are the sectaries of a religion + long persecuted, and at length provoked. In a holy cause they are no + longer susceptible of fear or remorse: the justice of their arms hardens + them against the feelings of humanity; and they revenge their fathers’ + wrongs on the children of their tyrants. Such have been the Hussites of + Bohemia and the Calvinists of France, and such, in the ninth century, were + the Paulicians of Armenia and the adjacent provinces. <a + href="#linknote-54.17" name="linknoteref-54.17" id="linknoteref-54.17">17</a> + They were first awakened to the massacre of a governor and bishop, who + exercised the Imperial mandate of converting or destroying the heretics; + and the deepest recesses of Mount Argaeus protected their independence and + revenge. A more dangerous and consuming flame was kindled by the + persecution of Theodora, and the revolt of Carbeas, a valiant Paulician, + who commanded the guards of the general of the East. His father had been + impaled by the Catholic inquisitors; and religion, or at least nature, + might justify his desertion and revenge. Five thousand of his brethren + were united by the same motives; they renounced the allegiance of + anti-Christian Rome; a Saracen emir introduced Carbeas to the caliph; and + the commander of the faithful extended his sceptre to the implacable enemy + of the Greeks. In the mountains between Siwas and Trebizond he founded or + fortified the city of Tephrice, <a href="#linknote-54.18" + name="linknoteref-54.18" id="linknoteref-54.18">18</a> which is still + occupied by a fierce or licentious people, and the neighboring hills were + covered with the Paulician fugitives, who now reconciled the use of the + Bible and the sword. During more than thirty years, Asia was afflicted by + the calamities of foreign and domestic war; in their hostile inroads, the + disciples of St. Paul were joined with those of Mahomet; and the peaceful + Christians, the aged parent and tender virgin, who were delivered into + barbarous servitude, might justly accuse the intolerant spirit of their + sovereign. So urgent was the mischief, so intolerable the shame, that even + the dissolute Michael, the son of Theodora, was compelled to march in + person against the Paulicians: he was defeated under the walls of + Samosata; and the Roman emperor fled before the heretics whom his mother + had condemned to the flames. The Saracens fought under the same banners, + but the victory was ascribed to Carbeas; and the captive generals, with + more than a hundred tribunes, were either released by his avarice, or + tortured by his fanaticism. The valor and ambition of Chrysocheir, <a + href="#linknote-54.19" name="linknoteref-54.19" id="linknoteref-54.19">19</a> + his successor, embraced a wider circle of rapine and revenge. In alliance + with his faithful Moslems, he boldly penetrated into the heart of Asia; + the troops of the frontier and the palace were repeatedly overthrown; the + edicts of persecution were answered by the pillage of Nice and Nicomedia, + of Ancyra and Ephesus; nor could the apostle St. John protect from + violation his city and sepulchre. The cathedral of Ephesus was turned into + a stable for mules and horses; and the Paulicians vied with the Saracens + in their contempt and abhorrence of images and relics. It is not + unpleasing to observe the triumph of rebellion over the same despotism + which had disdained the prayers of an injured people. The emperor Basil, + the Macedonian, was reduced to sue for peace, to offer a ransom for the + captives, and to request, in the language of moderation and charity, that + Chrysocheir would spare his fellow-Christians, and content himself with a + royal donative of gold and silver and silk garments. “If the emperor,” + replied the insolent fanatic, “be desirous of peace, let him abdicate the + East, and reign without molestation in the West. If he refuse, the + servants of the Lord will precipitate him from the throne.” The reluctant + Basil suspended the treaty, accepted the defiance, and led his army into + the land of heresy, which he wasted with fire and sword. The open country + of the Paulicians was exposed to the same calamities which they had + inflicted; but when he had explored the strength of Tephrice, the + multitude of the Barbarians, and the ample magazines of arms and + provisions, he desisted with a sigh from the hopeless siege. On his return + to Constantinople, he labored, by the foundation of convents and churches, + to secure the aid of his celestial patrons, of Michael the archangel and + the prophet Elijah; and it was his daily prayer that he might live to + transpierce, with three arrows, the head of his impious adversary. Beyond + his expectations, the wish was accomplished: after a successful inroad, + Chrysocheir was surprised and slain in his retreat; and the rebel’s head + was triumphantly presented at the foot of the throne. On the reception of + this welcome trophy, Basil instantly called for his bow, discharged three + arrows with unerring aim, and accepted the applause of the court, who + hailed the victory of the royal archer. With Chrysocheir, the glory of the + Paulicians faded and withered: <a href="#linknote-54.20" + name="linknoteref-54.20" id="linknoteref-54.20">20</a> on the second + expedition of the emperor, the impregnable Tephrice, was deserted by the + heretics, who sued for mercy or escaped to the borders. The city was + ruined, but the spirit of independence survived in the mountains: the + Paulicians defended, above a century, their religion and liberty, infested + the Roman limits, and maintained their perpetual alliance with the enemies + of the empire and the gospel. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.17" id="linknote-54.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.17">return</a>)<br /> [ Petrus Siculus, (p. + 763, 764,) the continuator of Theophanes, (l. iv. c. 4, p. 103, 104,) + Cedrenus, (p. 541, 542, 545,) and Zonaras, (tom. ii. l. xvi. p. 156,) + describe the revolt and exploits of Carbeas and his Paulicians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.18" id="linknote-54.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.18">return</a>)<br /> [ Otter (Voyage en + Turquie et en Perse, tom. ii.) is probably the only Frank who has visited + the independent Barbarians of Tephrice now Divrigni, from whom he + fortunately escaped in the train of a Turkish officer.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.19" id="linknote-54.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.19">return</a>)<br /> [ In the history of + Chrysocheir, Genesius (Chron. p. 67-70, edit. Venet.) has exposed the + nakedness of the empire. Constantine Porphyrogenitus (in Vit. Basil. c. + 37-43, p. 166-171) has displayed the glory of his grandfather. Cedrenus + (p. 570-573) is without their passions or their knowledge.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.20" id="linknote-54.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.20">return</a>)<br /> [ How elegant is the + Greek tongue, even in the mouth of Cedrenus!] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap54.2"></a> + Chapter LIV: Origin And Doctrine Of The Paulicians.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + About the middle of the eight century, Constantine, surnamed Copronymus by + the worshippers of images, had made an expedition into Armenia, and found, + in the cities of Melitene and Theodosiopolis, a great number of + Paulicians, his kindred heretics. As a favor, or punishment, he + transplanted them from the banks of the Euphrates to Constantinople and + Thrace; and by this emigration their doctrine was introduced and diffused + in Europe. <a href="#linknote-54.21" name="linknoteref-54.21" + id="linknoteref-54.21">21</a> If the sectaries of the metropolis were soon + mingled with the promiscuous mass, those of the country struck a deep root + in a foreign soil. The Paulicians of Thrace resisted the storms of + persecution, maintained a secret correspondence with their Armenian + brethren, and gave aid and comfort to their preachers, who solicited, not + without success, the infant faith of the Bulgarians. <a + href="#linknote-54.22" name="linknoteref-54.22" id="linknoteref-54.22">22</a> + In the tenth century, they were restored and multiplied by a more powerful + colony, which John Zimisces <a href="#linknote-54.23" + name="linknoteref-54.23" id="linknoteref-54.23">23</a> transported from the + Chalybian hills to the valleys of Mount Haemus. The Oriental clergy who + would have preferred the destruction, impatiently sighed for the absence, + of the Manichaeans: the warlike emperor had felt and esteemed their valor: + their attachment to the Saracens was pregnant with mischief; but, on the + side of the Danube, against the Barbarians of Scythia, their service might + be useful, and their loss would be desirable. Their exile in a distant + land was softened by a free toleration: the Paulicians held the city of + Philippopolis and the keys of Thrace; the Catholics were their subjects; + the Jacobite emigrants their associates: they occupied a line of villages + and castles in Macedonia and Epirus; and many native Bulgarians were + associated to the communion of arms and heresy. As long as they were awed + by power and treated with moderation, their voluntary bands were + distinguished in the armies of the empire; and the courage of these dogs, + ever greedy of war, ever thirsty of human blood, is noticed with + astonishment, and almost with reproach, by the pusillanimous Greeks. The + same spirit rendered them arrogant and contumacious: they were easily + provoked by caprice or injury; and their privileges were often violated by + the faithless bigotry of the government and clergy. In the midst of the + Norman war, two thousand five hundred Manichaeans deserted the standard of + Alexius Comnenus, <a href="#linknote-54.24" name="linknoteref-54.24" + id="linknoteref-54.24">24</a> and retired to their native homes. He + dissembled till the moment of revenge; invited the chiefs to a friendly + conference; and punished the innocent and guilty by imprisonment, + confiscation, and baptism. In an interval of peace, the emperor undertook + the pious office of reconciling them to the church and state: his winter + quarters were fixed at Philippopolis; and the thirteenth apostle, as he is + styled by his pious daughter, consumed whole days and nights in + theological controversy. His arguments were fortified, their obstinacy was + melted, by the honors and rewards which he bestowed on the most eminent + proselytes; and a new city, surrounded with gardens, enriched with + immunities, and dignified with his own name, was founded by Alexius for + the residence of his vulgar converts. The important station of + Philippopolis was wrested from their hands; the contumacious leaders were + secured in a dungeon, or banished from their country; and their lives were + spared by the prudence, rather than the mercy, of an emperor, at whose + command a poor and solitary heretic was burnt alive before the church of + St. Sophia. <a href="#linknote-54.25" name="linknoteref-54.25" + id="linknoteref-54.25">25</a> But the proud hope of eradicating the + prejudices of a nation was speedily overturned by the invincible zeal of + the Paulicians, who ceased to dissemble or refused to obey. After the + departure and death of Alexius, they soon resumed their civil and + religious laws. In the beginning of the thirteenth century, their pope or + primate (a manifest corruption) resided on the confines of Bulgaria, + Croatia, and Dalmatia, and governed, by his vicars, the filial + congregations of Italy and France. <a href="#linknote-54.26" + name="linknoteref-54.26" id="linknoteref-54.26">26</a> From that aera, a + minute scrutiny might prolong and perpetuate the chain of tradition. At + the end of the last age, the sect or colony still inhabited the valleys of + Mount Haemus, where their ignorance and poverty were more frequently + tormented by the Greek clergy than by the Turkish government. The modern + Paulicians have lost all memory of their origin; and their religion is + disgraced by the worship of the cross, and the practice of bloody + sacrifice, which some captives have imported from the wilds of Tartary. <a + href="#linknote-54.27" name="linknoteref-54.27" id="linknoteref-54.27">27</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.21" id="linknote-54.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.21">return</a>)<br /> [ Copronymus transported + his heretics; and thus says Cedrenus, (p. 463,) who has copied the annals + of Theophanes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.22" id="linknote-54.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.22">return</a>)<br /> [ Petrus Siculus, who + resided nine months at Tephrice (A.D. 870) for the ransom of captives, (p. + 764,) was informed of their intended mission, and addressed his + preservative, the Historia Manichaeorum to the new archbishop of the + Bulgarians, (p. 754.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.23" id="linknote-54.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.23">return</a>)<br /> [ The colony of + Paulicians and Jacobites transplanted by John Zimisces (A.D. 970) from + Armenia to Thrace, is mentioned by Zonaras (tom. ii. l. xvii. p. 209) and + Anna Comnena, (Alexiad, l. xiv. p. 450, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.24" id="linknote-54.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.24">return</a>)<br /> [ The Alexiad of Anna + Comnena (l. v. p. 131, l. vi. p. 154, 155, l. xiv. p. 450-457, with the + Annotations of Ducange) records the transactions of her apostolic father + with the Manichaeans, whose abominable heresy she was desirous of + refuting.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.25" id="linknote-54.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.25">return</a>)<br /> [ Basil, a monk, and the + author of the Bogomiles, a sect of Gnostics, who soon vanished, (Anna + Comnena, Alexiad, l. xv. p. 486-494 Mosheim, Hist. Ecclesiastica, p. + 420.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.26" id="linknote-54.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.26">return</a>)<br /> [ Matt. Paris, Hist. + Major, p. 267. This passage of our English historian is alleged by Ducange + in an excellent note on Villehardouin (No. 208,) who found the Paulicians + at Philippopolis the friends of the Bulgarians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.27" id="linknote-54.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.27">return</a>)<br /> [ See Marsigli, Stato + Militare dell’ Imperio Ottomano, p. 24.] + </p> + <p> + In the West, the first teachers of the Manichaean theology had been + repulsed by the people, or suppressed by the prince. The favor and success + of the Paulicians in the eleventh and twelfth centuries must be imputed to + the strong, though secret, discontent which armed the most pious + Christians against the church of Rome. Her avarice was oppressive, her + despotism odious; less degenerate perhaps than the Greeks in the worship + of saints and images, her innovations were more rapid and scandalous: she + had rigorously defined and imposed the doctrine of transubstantiation: the + lives of the Latin clergy were more corrupt, and the Eastern bishops might + pass for the successors of the apostles, if they were compared with the + lordly prelates, who wielded by turns the crosier, the sceptre, and the + sword. Three different roads might introduce the Paulicians into the heart + of Europe. After the conversion of Hungary, the pilgrims who visited + Jerusalem might safely follow the course of the Danube: in their journey + and return they passed through Philippopolis; and the sectaries, + disguising their name and heresy, might accompany the French or German + caravans to their respective countries. The trade and dominion of Venice + pervaded the coast of the Adriatic, and the hospitable republic opened her + bosom to foreigners of every climate and religion. Under the Byzantine + standard, the Paulicians were often transported to the Greek provinces of + Italy and Sicily: in peace and war, they freely conversed with strangers + and natives, and their opinions were silently propagated in Rome, Milan, + and the kingdoms beyond the Alps. <a href="#linknote-54.28" + name="linknoteref-54.28" id="linknoteref-54.28">28</a> It was soon + discovered, that many thousand Catholics of every rank, and of either sex, + had embraced the Manichaean heresy; and the flames which consumed twelve + canons of Orleans was the first act and signal of persecution. The + Bulgarians, <a href="#linknote-54.29" name="linknoteref-54.29" + id="linknoteref-54.29">29</a> a name so innocent in its origin, so odious + in its application, spread their branches over the face of Europe. United + in common hatred of idolatry and Rome, they were connected by a form of + episcopal and presbyterian government; their various sects were + discriminated by some fainter or darker shades of theology; but they + generally agreed in the two principles, the contempt of the Old Testament + and the denial of the body of Christ, either on the cross or in the + eucharist. A confession of simple worship and blameless manners is + extorted from their enemies; and so high was their standard of perfection, + that the increasing congregations were divided into two classes of + disciples, of those who practised, and of those who aspired. It was in the + country of the Albigeois, <a href="#linknote-54.30" name="linknoteref-54.30" + id="linknoteref-54.30">30</a> in the southern provinces of France, that the + Paulicians were most deeply implanted; and the same vicissitudes of + martyrdom and revenge which had been displayed in the neighborhood of the + Euphrates, were repeated in the thirteenth century on the banks of the + Rhone. The laws of the Eastern emperors were revived by Frederic the + Second. The insurgents of Tephrice were represented by the barons and + cities of Languedoc: Pope Innocent III. surpassed the sanguinary fame of + Theodora. It was in cruelty alone that her soldiers could equal the heroes + of the Crusades, and the cruelty of her priests was far excelled by the + founders of the Inquisition; <a href="#linknote-54.31" + name="linknoteref-54.31" id="linknoteref-54.31">31</a> an office more + adapted to confirm, than to refute, the belief of an evil principle. The + visible assemblies of the Paulicians, or Albigeois, were extirpated by + fire and sword; and the bleeding remnant escaped by flight, concealment, + or Catholic conformity. But the invincible spirit which they had kindled + still lived and breathed in the Western world. In the state, in the + church, and even in the cloister, a latent succession was preserved of the + disciples of St. Paul; who protested against the tyranny of Rome, embraced + the Bible as the rule of faith, and purified their creed from all the + visions of the Gnostic theology. <a href="#linknote-54.3111" + name="linknoteref-54.3111" id="linknoteref-54.3111">3111</a> The struggles + of Wickliff in England, of Huss in Bohemia, were premature and + ineffectual; but the names of Zuinglius, Luther, and Calvin, are + pronounced with gratitude as the deliverers of nations. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.28" id="linknote-54.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.28">return</a>)<br /> [ The introduction of the + Paulicians into Italy and France is amply discussed by Muratori + (Antiquitat. Italiae Medii Aevi, tom. v. dissert. lx. p. 81-152) and + Mosheim, (p. 379-382, 419-422.) Yet both have overlooked a curious passage + of William the Apulian, who clearly describes them in a battle between the + Greeks and Normans, A.D. 1040, (in Muratori, Script. Rerum Ital. tom. v. + p. 256:) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Cum Graecis aderant quidam, quos pessimus error + + Fecerat amentes, et ab ipso nomen habebant. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + But he is so ignorant of their doctrine as to make them a kind of + Sabellians or Patripassians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.29" id="linknote-54.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.29">return</a>)<br /> [ Bulgari, Boulgres, + Bougres, a national appellation, has been applied by the French as a term + of reproach to usurers and unnatural sinners. The Paterini, or Patelini, + has been made to signify a smooth and flattering hypocrite, such as + l’Avocat Patelin of that original and pleasant farce, (Ducange, Gloss. + Latinitat. Medii et Infimi Aevi.) The Manichaeans were likewise named + Cathari or the pure, by corruption. Gazari, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.30" id="linknote-54.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.30">return</a>)<br /> [ Of the laws, crusade, + and persecution against the Albigeois, a just, though general, idea is + expressed by Mosheim, (p. 477-481.) The detail may be found in the + ecclesiastical historians, ancient and modern, Catholics and Protestants; + and amongst these Fleury is the most impartial and moderate.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.31" id="linknote-54.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.31">return</a>)<br /> [ The Acts (Liber + Sententiarum) of the Inquisition of Tholouse (A.D. 1307-1323) have been + published by Limborch, (Amstelodami, 1692,) with a previous History of the + Inquisition in general. They deserved a more learned and critical editor. + As we must not calumniate even Satan, or the Holy Office, I will observe, + that of a list of criminals which fills nineteen folio pages, only fifteen + men and four women were delivered to the secular arm.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.3111" id="linknote-54.3111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3111 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.3111">return</a>)<br /> [ The popularity of + “Milner’s History of the Church” with some readers, may make it proper to + observe, that his attempt to exculpate the Paulicians from the charge of + Gnosticism or Manicheism is in direct defiance, if not in ignorance, of + all the original authorities. Gibbon himself, it appears, was not + acquainted with the work of Photius, “Contra Manicheos Repullulantes,” the + first book of which was edited by Montfaucon, Bibliotheca Coisliniana, + pars ii. p. 349, 375, the whole by Wolf, in his Anecdota Graeca. Hamburg + 1722. Compare a very sensible tract. Letter to Rev. S. R. Maitland, by J + G. Dowling, M. A. London, 1835.—M.] + </p> + <p> + A philosopher, who calculates the degree of their merit and the value of + their reformation, will prudently ask from what articles of faith, above + or against our reason, they have enfranchised the Christians; for such + enfranchisement is doubtless a benefit so far as it may be compatible with + truth and piety. After a fair discussion, we shall rather be surprised by + the timidity, than scandalized by the freedom, of our first reformers. <a + href="#linknote-54.32" name="linknoteref-54.32" id="linknoteref-54.32">32</a> + With the Jews, they adopted the belief and defence of all the Hebrew + Scriptures, with all their prodigies, from the garden of Eden to the + visions of the prophet Daniel; and they were bound, like the Catholics, to + justify against the Jews the abolition of a divine law. In the great + mysteries of the Trinity and Incarnation the reformers were severely + orthodox: they freely adopted the theology of the four, or the six first + councils; and with the Athanasian creed, they pronounced the eternal + damnation of all who did not believe the Catholic faith. + Transubstantiation, the invisible change of the bread and wine into the + body and blood of Christ, is a tenet that may defy the power of argument + and pleasantry; but instead of consulting the evidence of their senses, of + their sight, their feeling, and their taste, the first Protestants were + entangled in their own scruples, and awed by the words of Jesus in the + institution of the sacrament. Luther maintained a corporeal, and Calvin a + real, presence of Christ in the eucharist; and the opinion of Zuinglius, + that it is no more than a spiritual communion, a simple memorial, has + slowly prevailed in the reformed churches. <a href="#linknote-54.33" + name="linknoteref-54.33" id="linknoteref-54.33">33</a> But the loss of one + mystery was amply compensated by the stupendous doctrines of original sin, + redemption, faith, grace, and predestination, which have been strained + from the epistles of St. Paul. These subtile questions had most assuredly + been prepared by the fathers and schoolmen; but the final improvement and + popular use may be attributed to the first reformers, who enforced them as + the absolute and essential terms of salvation. Hitherto the weight of + supernatural belief inclines against the Protestants; and many a sober + Christian would rather admit that a wafer is God, than that God is a cruel + and capricious tyrant. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.32" id="linknote-54.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.32">return</a>)<br /> [ The opinions and + proceedings of the reformers are exposed in the second part of the general + history of Mosheim; but the balance, which he has held with so clear an + eye, and so steady a hand, begins to incline in favor of his Lutheran + brethren.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.33" id="linknote-54.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.33">return</a>)<br /> [ Under Edward VI. our + reformation was more bold and perfect, but in the fundamental articles of + the church of England, a strong and explicit declaration against the real + presence was obliterated in the original copy, to please the people or the + Lutherans, or Queen Elizabeth, (Burnet’s History of the Reformation, vol. + ii. p. 82, 128, 302.)] + </p> + <p> + Yet the services of Luther and his rivals are solid and important; and the + philosopher must own his obligations to these fearless enthusiasts. <a + href="#linknote-54.34" name="linknoteref-54.34" id="linknoteref-54.34">34</a> + I. By their hands the lofty fabric of superstition, from the abuse of + indulgences to the intercesson of the Virgin, has been levelled with the + ground. Myriads of both sexes of the monastic profession were restored to + the liberty and labors of social life. A hierarchy of saints and angels, + of imperfect and subordinate deities, were stripped of their temporal + power, and reduced to the enjoyment of celestial happiness; their images + and relics were banished from the church; and the credulity of the people + was no longer nourished with the daily repetition of miracles and visions. + The imitation of Paganism was supplied by a pure and spiritual worship of + prayer and thanksgiving, the most worthy of man, the least unworthy of the + Deity. It only remains to observe, whether such sublime simplicity be + consistent with popular devotion; whether the vulgar, in the absence of + all visible objects, will not be inflamed by enthusiasm, or insensibly + subside in languor and indifference. II. The chain of authority was + broken, which restrains the bigot from thinking as he pleases, and the + slave from speaking as he thinks: the popes, fathers, and councils, were + no longer the supreme and infallible judges of the world; and each + Christian was taught to acknowledge no law but the Scriptures, no + interpreter but his own conscience. This freedom, however, was the + consequence, rather than the design, of the Reformation. The patriot + reformers were ambitious of succeeding the tyrants whom they had + dethroned. They imposed with equal rigor their creeds and confessions; + they asserted the right of the magistrate to punish heretics with death. + The pious or personal animosity of Calvin proscribed in Servetus <a + href="#linknote-54.35" name="linknoteref-54.35" id="linknoteref-54.35">35</a> + the guilt of his own rebellion; <a href="#linknote-54.36" + name="linknoteref-54.36" id="linknoteref-54.36">36</a> and the flames of + Smithfield, in which he was afterwards consumed, had been kindled for the + Anabaptists by the zeal of Cranmer. <a href="#linknote-54.37" + name="linknoteref-54.37" id="linknoteref-54.37">37</a> The nature of the + tiger wa s the same, but he was gradually deprived of his teeth and fangs. + A spiritual and temporal kingdom was possessed by the Roman pontiff; the + Protestant doctors were subjects of an humble rank, without revenue or + jurisdiction. His decrees were consecrated by the antiquity of the + Catholic church: their arguments and disputes were submitted to the + people; and their appeal to private judgment was accepted beyond their + wishes, by curiosity and enthusiasm. Since the days of Luther and Calvin, + a secret reformation has been silently working in the bosom of the + reformed churches; many weeds of prejudice were eradicated; and the + disciples of Erasmus <a href="#linknote-54.38" name="linknoteref-54.38" + id="linknoteref-54.38">38</a> diffused a spirit of freedom and moderation. + The liberty of conscience has been claimed as a common benefit, an + inalienable right: <a href="#linknote-54.39" name="linknoteref-54.39" + id="linknoteref-54.39">39</a> the free governments of Holland <a + href="#linknote-54.40" name="linknoteref-54.40" id="linknoteref-54.40">40</a> + and England <a href="#linknote-54.41" name="linknoteref-54.41" + id="linknoteref-54.41">41</a> introduced the practice of toleration; and + the narrow allowance of the laws has been enlarged by the prudence and + humanity of the times. In the exercise, the mind has understood the limits + of its powers, and the words and shadows that might amuse the child can no + longer satisfy his manly reason. The volumes of controversy are overspread + with cobwebs: the doctrine of a Protestant church is far removed from the + knowledge or belief of its private members; and the forms of orthodoxy, + the articles of faith, are subscribed with a sigh, or a smile, by the + modern clergy. Yet the friends of Christianity are alarmed at the + boundless impulse of inquiry and scepticism. The predictions of the + Catholics are accomplished: the web of mystery is unravelled by the + Arminians, Arians, and Socinians, whose number must not be computed from + their separate congregations; and the pillars of Revelation are shaken by + those men who preserve the name without the substance of religion, who + indulge the license without the temper of philosophy. <a + href="#linknote-54.42" name="linknoteref-54.42" id="linknoteref-54.42">42</a> + <a href="#linknote-54.4211" name="linknoteref-54.4211" + id="linknoteref-54.4211">4211</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.34" id="linknote-54.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.34">return</a>)<br /> [ “Had it not been for + such men as Luther and myself,” said the fanatic Whiston to Halley the + philosopher, “you would now be kneeling before an image of St. Winifred.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.35" id="linknote-54.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.35">return</a>)<br /> [ The article of Servet + in the Dictionnaire Critique of Chauffepie is the best account which I + have seen of this shameful transaction. See likewise the Abbe d’Artigny, + Nouveaux Memoires d’Histoire, &c., tom. ii. p. 55-154.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.36" id="linknote-54.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.36">return</a>)<br /> [ I am more deeply + scandalized at the single execution of Servetus, than at the hecatombs + which have blazed in the Auto de Fes of Spain and Portugal. 1. The zeal of + Calvin seems to have been envenomed by personal malice, and perhaps envy. + He accused his adversary before their common enemies, the judges of + Vienna, and betrayed, for his destruction, the sacred trust of a private + correspondence. 2. The deed of cruelty was not varnished by the pretence + of danger to the church or state. In his passage through Geneva, Servetus + was a harmless stranger, who neither preached, nor printed, nor made + proselytes. 3. A Catholic inquisition yields the same obedience which he + requires, but Calvin violated the golden rule of doing as he would be done + by; a rule which I read in a moral treatise of Isocrates (in Nicocle, tom. + i. p. 93, edit. Battie) four hundred years before the publication of the + Gospel. * Note: Gibbon has not accurately rendered the sense of this + passage, which does not contain the maxim of charity Do unto others as you + would they should do unto you, but simply the maxim of justice, Do not to + others the which would offend you if they should do it to you.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.37" id="linknote-54.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.37">return</a>)<br /> [ See Burnet, vol. ii. p. + 84-86. The sense and humanity of the young king were oppressed by the + authority of the primate.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.38" id="linknote-54.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.38">return</a>)<br /> [ Erasmus may be + considered as the father of rational theology. After a slumber of a + hundred years, it was revived by the Arminians of Holland, Grotius, + Limborch, and Le Clerc; in England by Chillingworth, the latitudinarians + of Cambridge, (Burnet, Hist. of Own Times, vol. i. p. 261-268, octavo + edition.) Tillotson, Clarke, Hoadley, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.39" id="linknote-54.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.39">return</a>)<br /> [ I am sorry to observe, + that the three writers of the last age, by whom the rights of toleration + have been so nobly defended, Bayle, Leibnitz, and Locke, are all laymen + and philosophers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.40" id="linknote-54.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.40">return</a>)<br /> [ See the excellent + chapter of Sir William Temple on the Religion of the United Provinces. I + am not satisfied with Grotius, (de Rebus Belgicis, Annal. l. i. p. 13, 14, + edit. in 12mo.,) who approves the Imperial laws of persecution, and only + condemns the bloody tribunal of the inquisition.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.41" id="linknote-54.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.41">return</a>)<br /> [ Sir William Blackstone + (Commentaries, vol. iv. p. 53, 54) explains the law of England as it was + fixed at the Revolution. The exceptions of Papists, and of those who deny + the Trinity, would still have a tolerable scope for persecution if the + national spirit were not more effectual than a hundred statutes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.42" id="linknote-54.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.42">return</a>)<br /> [ I shall recommend to + public animadversion two passages in Dr. Priestley, which betray the + ultimate tendency of his opinions. At the first of these (Hist. of the + Corruptions of Christianity, vol. i. p. 275, 276) the priest, at the + second (vol. ii. p. 484) the magistrate, may tremble!] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-54.4211" id="linknote-54.4211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4211 (<a href="#linknoteref-54.4211">return</a>)<br /> [ There is something + ludicrous, if it were not offensive, in Gibbon holding up to “public + animadversion” the opinions of any believer in Christianity, however + imperfect his creed. The observations which the whole of this passage on + the effects of the reformation, in which much truth and justice is mingled + with much prejudice, would suggest, could not possibly be compressed into + a note; and would indeed embrace the whole religious and irreligious + history of the time which has elapsed since Gibbon wrote.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap55.1"></a> + Chapter LV: The Bulgarians, The Hungarians And The Russians.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Bulgarians.—Origin, Migrations, And Settlement Of The + Hungarians.—Their Inroads In The East And West.—The + Monarchy Of Russia.—Geography And Trade.—Wars Of The + Russians Against The Greek Empire.—Conversion Of The + Barbarians. +</pre> + <p> + Under the reign of Constantine the grandson of Heraclius, the ancient + barrier of the Danube, so often violated and so often restored, was + irretrievably swept away by a new deluge of Barbarians. Their progress was + favored by the caliphs, their unknown and accidental auxiliaries: the + Roman legions were occupied in Asia; and after the loss of Syria, Egypt, + and Africa, the Caesars were twice reduced to the danger and disgrace of + defending their capital against the Saracens. If, in the account of this + interesting people, I have deviated from the strict and original line of + my undertaking, the merit of the subject will hide my transgression, or + solicit my excuse. In the East, in the West, in war, in religion, in + science, in their prosperity, and in their decay, the Arabians press + themselves on our curiosity: the first overthrow of the church and empire + of the Greeks may be imputed to their arms; and the disciples of Mahomet + still hold the civil and religious sceptre of the Oriental world. But the + same labor would be unworthily bestowed on the swarms of savages, who, + between the seventh and the twelfth century, descended from the plains of + Scythia, in transient inroad or perpetual emigration. <a + href="#linknote-55.1" name="linknoteref-55.1" id="linknoteref-55.1">1</a> + Their names are uncouth, their origins doubtful, their actions obscure, + their superstition was blind, their valor brutal, and the uniformity of + their public and private lives was neither softened by innocence nor + refined by policy. The majesty of the Byzantine throne repelled and + survived their disorderly attacks; the greater part of these Barbarians + has disappeared without leaving any memorial of their existence, and the + despicable remnant continues, and may long continue, to groan under the + dominion of a foreign tyrant. From the antiquities of, I. Bulgarians, II. + Hungarians, and, III. Russians, I shall content myself with selecting such + facts as yet deserve to be remembered. The conquests of the, IV. Normans, + and the monarchy of the, V. Turks, will naturally terminate in the + memorable Crusades to the Holy Land, and the double fall of the city and + empire of Constantine. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.1" id="linknote-55.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.1">return</a>)<br /> [ All the passages of the + Byzantine history which relate to the Barbarians are compiled, methodized, + and transcribed, in a Latin version, by the laborious John Gotthelf + Stritter, in his “Memoriae Populorum, ad Danubium, Pontum Euxinum, Paludem + Maeotidem, Caucasum, Mare Caspium, et inde Magis ad Septemtriones + incolentium.” Petropoli, 1771-1779; in four tomes, or six volumes, in 4to. + But the fashion has not enhanced the price of these raw materials.] + </p> + <p> + I. In his march to Italy, Theodoric <a href="#linknote-55.2" + name="linknoteref-55.2" id="linknoteref-55.2">2</a> the Ostrogoth had + trampled on the arms of the Bulgarians. After this defeat, the name and + the nation are lost during a century and a half; and it may be suspected + that the same or a similar appellation was revived by strange colonies + from the Borysthenes, the Tanais, or the Volga. A king of the ancient + Bulgaria, <a href="#linknote-55.3" name="linknoteref-55.3" + id="linknoteref-55.3">3</a> bequeathed to his five sons a last lesson of + moderation and concord. It was received as youth has ever received the + counsels of age and experience: the five princes buried their father; + divided his subjects and cattle; forgot his advice; separated from each + other; and wandered in quest of fortune till we find the most adventurous + in the heart of Italy, under the protection of the exarch of Ravenna. <a + href="#linknote-55.4" name="linknoteref-55.4" id="linknoteref-55.4">4</a> But + the stream of emigration was directed or impelled towards the capital. The + modern Bulgaria, along the southern banks of the Danube, was stamped with + the name and image which it has retained to the present hour: the new + conquerors successively acquired, by war or treaty, the Roman provinces of + Dardania, Thessaly, and the two Epirus; <a href="#linknote-55.5" + name="linknoteref-55.5" id="linknoteref-55.5">5</a> the ecclesiastical + supremacy was translated from the native city of Justinian; and, in their + prosperous age, the obscure town of Lychnidus, or Achrida, was honored + with the throne of a king and a patriarch. <a href="#linknote-55.6" + name="linknoteref-55.6" id="linknoteref-55.6">6</a> The unquestionable + evidence of language attests the descent of the Bulgarians from the + original stock of the Sclavonian, or more properly Slavonian, race; <a + href="#linknote-55.7" name="linknoteref-55.7" id="linknoteref-55.7">7</a> and + the kindred bands of Servians, Bosnians, Rascians, Croatians, Walachians, + <a href="#linknote-55.8" name="linknoteref-55.8" id="linknoteref-55.8">8</a> + &c., followed either the standard or the example of the leading tribe. + From the Euxine to the Adriatic, in the state of captives, or subjects, or + allies, or enemies, of the Greek empire, they overspread the land; and the + national appellation of the slaves <a href="#linknote-55.9" + name="linknoteref-55.9" id="linknoteref-55.9">9</a> has been degraded by + chance or malice from the signification of glory to that of servitude. <a + href="#linknote-55.10" name="linknoteref-55.10" id="linknoteref-55.10">10</a> + Among these colonies, the Chrobatians, <a href="#linknote-55.11" + name="linknoteref-55.11" id="linknoteref-55.11">11</a> or Croats, who now + attend the motions of an Austrian army, are the descendants of a mighty + people, the conquerors and sovereigns of Dalmatia. The maritime cities, + and of these the infant republic of Ragusa, implored the aid and + instructions of the Byzantine court: they were advised by the magnanimous + Basil to reserve a small acknowledgment of their fidelity to the Roman + empire, and to appease, by an annual tribute, the wrath of these + irresistible Barbarians. The kingdom of Crotia was shared by eleven + Zoupans, or feudatory lords; and their united forces were numbered at + sixty thousand horse and one hundred thousand foot. A long sea-coast, + indented with capacious harbors, covered with a string of islands, and + almost in sight of the Italian shores, disposed both the natives and + strangers to the practice of navigation. The boats or brigantines of the + Croats were constructed after the fashion of the old Liburnians: one + hundred and eighty vessels may excite the idea of a respectable navy; but + our seamen will smile at the allowance of ten, or twenty, or forty, men + for each of these ships of war. They were gradually converted to the more + honorable service of commerce; yet the Sclavonian pirates were still + frequent and dangerous; and it was not before the close of the tenth + century that the freedom and sovereignty of the Gulf were effectually + vindicated by the Venetian republic. <a href="#linknote-55.12" + name="linknoteref-55.12" id="linknoteref-55.12">12</a> The ancestors of + these Dalmatian kings were equally removed from the use and abuse of + navigation: they dwelt in the White Croatia, in the inland regions of + Silesia and Little Poland, thirty days’ journey, according to the Greek + computation, from the sea of darkness. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.2" id="linknote-55.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.2">return</a>)<br /> [ Hist. vol. iv. p. 11.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.3" id="linknote-55.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.3">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophanes, p. 296-299. + Anastasius, p. 113. Nicephorus, C. P. p. 22, 23. Theophanes places the old + Bulgaria on the banks of the Atell or Volga; but he deprives himself of + all geographical credit by discharging that river into the Euxine Sea.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.4" id="linknote-55.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.4">return</a>)<br /> [ Paul. Diacon. de Gestis + Langobard. l. v. c. 29, p. 881, 882. The apparent difference between the + Lombard historian and the above-mentioned Greeks, is easily reconciled by + Camillo Pellegrino (de Ducatu Beneventano, dissert. vii. in the Scriptores + Rerum Ital. (tom. v. p. 186, 187) and Beretti, (Chorograph. Italiae Medii + Aevi, p. 273, &c. This Bulgarian colony was planted in a vacant + district of Samnium, and learned the Latin, without forgetting their + native language.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.5" id="linknote-55.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.5">return</a>)<br /> [ These provinces of the + Greek idiom and empire are assigned to the Bulgarian kingdom in the + dispute of ecclesiastical jurisdiction between the patriarchs of Rome and + Constantinople, (Baronius, Annal. Eccles. A.D. 869, No. 75.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.6" id="linknote-55.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.6">return</a>)<br /> [ The situation and royalty + of Lychnidus, or Achrida, are clearly expressed in Cedrenus, (p. 713.) The + removal of an archbishop or patriarch from Justinianea prima to Lychnidus, + and at length to Ternovo, has produced some perplexity in the ideas or + language of the Greeks, (Nicephorus Gregoras, l. ii. c. 2, p. 14, 15. + Thomassin, Discipline de l’Eglise, tom. i. l. i. c. 19, 23;) and a + Frenchman (D’Anville) is more accurately skilled in the geography of their + own country, (Hist. de l’Academie des Inscriptions, tom. xxxi.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.7" id="linknote-55.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.7">return</a>)<br /> [ Chalcocondyles, a + competent judge, affirms the identity of the language of the Dalmatians, + Bosnians, Servians, Bulgarians, Poles, (de Rebus Turcicis, l. x. p. 283,) + and elsewhere of the Bohemians, (l. ii. p. 38.) The same author has marked + the separate idiom of the Hungarians. * Note: The Slavonian languages are + no doubt Indo-European, though an original branch of that great family, + comprehending the various dialects named by Gibbon and others. Shafarik, + t. 33.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.8" id="linknote-55.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.8">return</a>)<br /> [ See the work of John + Christopher de Jordan, de Originibus Sclavicis, Vindobonae, 1745, in four + parts, or two volumes in folio. His collections and researches are useful + to elucidate the antiquities of Bohemia and the adjacent countries; but + his plan is narrow, his style barbarous, his criticism shallow, and the + Aulic counsellor is not free from the prejudices of a Bohemian. * Note: We + have at length a profound and satisfactory work on the Slavonian races. + Shafarik, Slawische Alterthumer. B. 2, Leipzig, 1843.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.9" id="linknote-55.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.9">return</a>)<br /> [ Jordan subscribes to the + well-known and probable derivation from Slava, laus, gloria, a word of + familiar use in the different dialects and parts of speech, and which + forms the termination of the most illustrious names, (de Originibus + Sclavicis, pars. i. p. 40, pars. iv. p. 101, 102)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.10" id="linknote-55.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.10">return</a>)<br /> [ This conversion of a + national into an appellative name appears to have arisen in the viiith + century, in the Oriental France, where the princes and bishops were rich + in Sclavonian captives, not of the Bohemian, (exclaims Jordan,) but of + Sorabian race. From thence the word was extended to the general use, to + the modern languages, and even to the style of the last Byzantines, (see + the Greek and Latin Glossaries and Ducange.) The confusion of the Servians + with the Latin Servi, was still more fortunate and familiar, (Constant. + Porphyr. de Administrando, Imperio, c. 32, p. 99.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.11" id="linknote-55.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.11">return</a>)<br /> [ The emperor Constantine + Porphyrogenitus, most accurate for his own times, most fabulous for + preceding ages, describes the Sclavonians of Dalmatia, (c. 29-36.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.12" id="linknote-55.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.12">return</a>)<br /> [ See the anonymous + Chronicle of the xith century, ascribed to John Sagorninus, (p. 94-102,) + and that composed in the xivth by the Doge Andrew Dandolo, (Script. Rerum. + Ital. tom. xii. p. 227-230,) the two oldest monuments of the history of + Venice.] + </p> + <p> + The glory of the Bulgarians <a href="#linknote-55.13" + name="linknoteref-55.13" id="linknoteref-55.13">13</a> was confined to a + narrow scope both of time and place. In the ninth and tenth centuries, + they reigned to the south of the Danube; but the more powerful nations + that had followed their emigration repelled all return to the north and + all progress to the west. Yet in the obscure catalogue of their exploits, + they might boast an honor which had hitherto been appropriated to the + Goths: that of slaying in battle one of the successors of Augustus and + Constantine. The emperor Nicephorus had lost his fame in the Arabian, he + lost his life in the Sclavonian, war. In his first operations he advanced + with boldness and success into the centre of Bulgaria, and burnt the royal + court, which was probably no more than an edifice and village of timber. + But while he searched the spoil and refused all offers of treaty, his + enemies collected their spirits and their forces: the passes of retreat + were insuperably barred; and the trembling Nicephorus was heard to + exclaim, “Alas, alas! unless we could assume the wings of birds, we cannot + hope to escape.” Two days he waited his fate in the inactivity of despair; + but, on the morning of the third, the Bulgarians surprised the camp, and + the Roman prince, with the great officers of the empire, were slaughtered + in their tents. The body of Valens had been saved from insult; but the + head of Nicephorus was exposed on a spear, and his skull, enchased with + gold, was often replenished in the feasts of victory. The Greeks bewailed + the dishonor of the throne; but they acknowledged the just punishment of + avarice and cruelty. This savage cup was deeply tinctured with the manners + of the Scythian wilderness; but they were softened before the end of the + same century by a peaceful intercourse with the Greeks, the possession of + a cultivated region, and the introduction of the Christian worship. The + nobles of Bulgaria were educated in the schools and palace of + Constantinople; and Simeon, <a href="#linknote-55.14" + name="linknoteref-55.14" id="linknoteref-55.14">14</a> a youth of the royal + line, was instructed in the rhetoric of Demosthenes and the logic of + Aristotle. He relinquished the profession of a monk for that of a king and + warrior; and in his reign of more than forty years, Bulgaria assumed a + rank among the civilized powers of the earth. The Greeks, whom he + repeatedly attacked, derived a faint consolation from indulging themselves + in the reproaches of perfidy and sacrilege. They purchased the aid of the + Pagan Turks; but Simeon, in a second battle, redeemed the loss of the + first, at a time when it was esteemed a victory to elude the arms of that + formidable nation. The Servians were overthrown, made captive and + dispersed; and those who visited the country before their restoration + could discover no more than fifty vagrants, without women or children, who + extorted a precarious subsistence from the chase. On classic ground, on + the banks of Achelous, the greeks were defeated; their horn was broken by + the strength of the Barbaric Hercules. <a href="#linknote-55.15" + name="linknoteref-55.15" id="linknoteref-55.15">15</a> He formed the siege + of Constantinople; and, in a personal conference with the emperor, Simeon + imposed the conditions of peace. They met with the most jealous + precautions: the royal gallery was drawn close to an artificial and + well-fortified platform; and the majesty of the purple was emulated by the + pomp of the Bulgarian. “Are you a Christian?” said the humble Romanus: “it + is your duty to abstain from the blood of your fellow-Christians. Has the + thirst of riches seduced you from the blessings of peace? Sheathe your + sword, open your hand, and I will satiate the utmost measure of your + desires.” The reconciliation was sealed by a domestic alliance; the + freedom of trade was granted or restored; the first honors of the court + were secured to the friends of Bulgaria, above the ambassadors of enemies + or strangers; <a href="#linknote-55.16" name="linknoteref-55.16" + id="linknoteref-55.16">16</a> and her princes were dignified with the high + and invidious title of Basileus, or emperor. But this friendship was soon + disturbed: after the death of Simeon, the nations were again in arms; his + feeble successors were divided and extinguished; and, in the beginning of + the eleventh century, the second Basil, who was born in the purple, + deserved the appellation of conqueror of the Bulgarians. His avarice was + in some measure gratified by a treasure of four hundred thousand pounds + sterling, (ten thousand pounds’ weight of gold,) which he found in the + palace of Lychnidus. His cruelty inflicted a cool and exquisite vengeance + on fifteen thousand captives who had been guilty of the defence of their + country. They were deprived of sight; but to one of each hundred a single + eye was left, that he might conduct his blind century to the presence of + their king. Their king is said to have expired of grief and horror; the + nation was awed by this terrible example; the Bulgarians were swept away + from their settlements, and circumscribed within a narrow province; the + surviving chiefs bequeathed to their children the advice of patience and + the duty of revenge. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.13" id="linknote-55.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.13">return</a>)<br /> [ The first kingdom of + the Bulgarians may be found, under the proper dates, in the Annals of + Cedrenus and Zonaras. The Byzantine materials are collected by Stritter, + (Memoriae Populorum, tom. ii. pars ii. p. 441-647;) and the series of + their kings is disposed and settled by Ducange, (Fam. Byzant. p. 305-318.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.14" id="linknote-55.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.14">return</a>)<br /> [ Simeonem semi-Graecum + esse aiebant, eo quod a pueritia Byzantii Demosthenis rhetoricam et + Aristotelis syllogismos didicerat, (Liutprand, l. iii. c. 8.) He says in + another place, Simeon, fortis bella tor, Bulgariae praeerat; Christianus, + sed vicinis Graecis valde inimicus, (l. i. c. 2.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.15" id="linknote-55.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.15">return</a>)<br /> [—Rigidum fera + dextera cornu Dum tenet, infregit, truncaque a fronte revellit. Ovid + (Metamorph. ix. 1-100) has boldly painted the combat of the river god and + the hero; the native and the stranger.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.16" id="linknote-55.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.16">return</a>)<br /> [ The ambassador of Otho + was provoked by the Greek excuses, cum Christophori filiam Petrus + Bulgarorum Vasileus conjugem duceret, Symphona, id est consonantia scripto + juramento firmata sunt, ut omnium gentium Apostolis, id est nunciis, penes + nos Bulgarorum Apostoli praeponantur, honorentur, diligantur, (Liutprand + in Legatione, p. 482.) See the Ceremoniale of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, + tom. i. p. 82, tom. ii. p. 429, 430, 434, 435, 443, 444, 446, 447, with + the annotations of Reiske.] + </p> + <p> + II. When the black swarm of Hungarians first hung over Europe, above nine + hundred years after the Christian aera, they were mistaken by fear and + superstition for the Gog and Magog of the Scriptures, the signs and + forerunners of the end of the world. <a href="#linknote-55.17" + name="linknoteref-55.17" id="linknoteref-55.17">17</a> Since the + introduction of letters, they have explored their own antiquities with a + strong and laudable impulse of patriotic curiosity. <a + href="#linknote-55.18" name="linknoteref-55.18" id="linknoteref-55.18">18</a> + Their rational criticism can no longer be amused with a vain pedigree of + Attila and the Huns; but they complain that their primitive records have + perished in the Tartar war; that the truth or fiction of their rustic + songs is long since forgotten; and that the fragments of a rude chronicle + <a href="#linknote-55.19" name="linknoteref-55.19" id="linknoteref-55.19">19</a> + must be painfully reconciled with the contemporary though foreign + intelligence of the imperial geographer. <a href="#linknote-55.20" + name="linknoteref-55.20" id="linknoteref-55.20">20</a> Magiar is the + national and oriental denomination of the Hungarians; but, among the + tribes of Scythia, they are distinguished by the Greeks under the proper + and peculiar name of Turks, as the descendants of that mighty people who + had conquered and reigned from China to the Volga. The Pannonian colony + preserved a correspondence of trade and amity with the eastern Turks on + the confines of Persia and after a separation of three hundred and fifty + years, the missionaries of the king of Hungary discovered and visited + their ancient country near the banks of the Volga. They were hospitably + entertained by a people of Pagans and Savages who still bore the name of + Hungarians; conversed in their native tongue, recollected a tradition of + their long-lost brethren, and listened with amazement to the marvellous + tale of their new kingdom and religion. The zeal of conversion was + animated by the interest of consanguinity; and one of the greatest of + their princes had formed the generous, though fruitless, design of + replenishing the solitude of Pannonia by this domestic colony from the + heart of Tartary. <a href="#linknote-55.21" name="linknoteref-55.21" + id="linknoteref-55.21">21</a> From this primitive country they were driven + to the West by the tide of war and emigration, by the weight of the more + distant tribes, who at the same time were fugitives and conquerors. <a + href="#linknote-55.2111" name="linknoteref-55.2111" id="linknoteref-55.2111">2111</a> + Reason or fortune directed their course towards the frontiers of the Roman + empire: they halted in the usual stations along the banks of the great + rivers; and in the territories of Moscow, Kiow, and Moldavia, some + vestiges have been discovered of their temporary residence. In this long + and various peregrination, they could not always escape the dominion of + the stronger; and the purity of their blood was improved or sullied by the + mixture of a foreign race: from a motive of compulsion, or choice, several + tribes of the Chazars were associated to the standard of their ancient + vassals; introduced the use of a second language; and obtained by their + superior renown the most honorable place in the front of battle. The + military force of the Turks and their allies marched in seven equal and + artificial divisions; each division was formed of thirty thousand eight + hundred and fifty-seven warriors, and the proportion of women, children, + and servants, supposes and requires at least a million of emigrants. Their + public counsels were directed by seven vayvods, or hereditary chiefs; but + the experience of discord and weakness recommended the more simple and + vigorous administration of a single person. The sceptre, which had been + declined by the modest Lebedias, was granted to the birth or merit of + Almus and his son Arpad, and the authority of the supreme khan of the + Chazars confirmed the engagement of the prince and people; of the people + to obey his commands, of the prince to consult their happiness and glory. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.17" id="linknote-55.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.17">return</a>)<br /> [ A bishop of Wurtzburgh + submitted his opinion to a reverend abbot; but he more gravely decided, + that Gog and Magog were the spiritual persecutors of the church; since Gog + signifies the root, the pride of the Heresiarchs, and Magog what comes + from the root, the propagation of their sects. Yet these men once + commanded the respect of mankind, (Fleury, Hist. Eccles. tom. xi. p. 594, + &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.18" id="linknote-55.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.18">return</a>)<br /> [ The two national + authors, from whom I have derived the mos assistance, are George Pray + (Dissertationes and Annales veterum Hun garorum, &c., Vindobonae, + 1775, in folio) and Stephen Katona, (Hist. Critica Ducum et Regum + Hungariae Stirpis Arpadianae, Paestini, 1778-1781, 5 vols. in octavo.) The + first embraces a large and often conjectural space; the latter, by his + learning, judgment, and perspicuity, deserves the name of a critical + historian. * Note: Compare Engel Geschichte des Ungrischen Reichs und + seiner Neben lander, Halle, 1797, and Mailath, Geschichte der Magyaren, + Wien, 1828. In an appendix to the latter work will be found a brief + abstract of the speculations (for it is difficult to consider them more) + which have been advanced by the learned, on the origin of the Magyar and + Hungarian names. Compare vol. vi. p. 35, note.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.19" id="linknote-55.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.19">return</a>)<br /> [ The author of this + Chronicle is styled the notary of King Bela. Katona has assigned him to + the xiith century, and defends his character against the hypercriticism of + Pray. This rude annalist must have transcribed some historical records, + since he could affirm with dignity, rejectis falsis fabulis rusticorum, et + garrulo cantu joculatorum. In the xvth century, these fables were + collected by Thurotzius, and embellished by the Italian Bonfinius. See the + Preliminary Discourse in the Hist. Critica Ducum, p. 7-33.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.20" id="linknote-55.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.20">return</a>)<br /> [ See Constantine de + Administrando Imperio, c. 3, 4, 13, 38-42, Katona has nicely fixed the + composition of this work to the years 949, 950, 951, (p. 4-7.) The + critical historian (p. 34-107) endeavors to prove the existence, and to + relate the actions, of a first duke Almus the father of Arpad, who is + tacitly rejected by Constantine.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.21" id="linknote-55.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.21">return</a>)<br /> [ Pray (Dissert. p. + 37-39, &c.) produces and illustrates the original passages of the + Hungarian missionaries, Bonfinius and Aeneas Sylvius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.2111" id="linknote-55.2111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2111 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.2111">return</a>)<br /> [ In the deserts to + the south-east of Astrakhan have been found the ruins of a city named + Madchar, which proves the residence of the Hungarians or Magiar in those + regions. Precis de la Geog. Univ. par Malte Brun, vol. i. p. 353.—G.——This + is contested by Klaproth in his Travels, c. xxi. Madschar, (he states) in + old Tartar, means “stone building.” This was a Tartar city mentioned by + the Mahometan writers.—M.] + </p> + <p> + With this narrative we might be reasonably content, if the penetration of + modern learning had not opened a new and larger prospect of the + antiquities of nations. The Hungarian language stands alone, and as it + were insulated, among the Sclavonian dialects; but it bears a close and + clear affinity to the idioms of the Fennic race, <a href="#linknote-55.22" + name="linknoteref-55.22" id="linknoteref-55.22">22</a> of an obsolete and + savage race, which formerly occupied the northern regions of Asia and + Europe. <a href="#linknote-55.2211" name="linknoteref-55.2211" + id="linknoteref-55.2211">2211</a> The genuine appellation of Ugri or Igours + is found on the western confines of China; <a href="#linknote-55.23" + name="linknoteref-55.23" id="linknoteref-55.23">23</a> their migration to + the banks of the Irtish is attested by Tartar evidence; <a + href="#linknote-55.24" name="linknoteref-55.24" id="linknoteref-55.24">24</a> + a similar name and language are detected in the southern parts of Siberia; + <a href="#linknote-55.25" name="linknoteref-55.25" id="linknoteref-55.25">25</a> + and the remains of the Fennic tribes are widely, though thinly scattered + from the sources of the Oby to the shores of Lapland. <a + href="#linknote-55.26" name="linknoteref-55.26" id="linknoteref-55.26">26</a> + The consanguinity of the Hungarians and Laplanders would display the + powerful energy of climate on the children of a common parent; the lively + contrast between the bold adventurers who are intoxicated with the wines + of the Danube, and the wretched fugitives who are immersed beneath the + snows of the polar circle. + </p> + <p> + Arms and freedom have ever been the ruling, though too often the + unsuccessful, passion of the Hungarians, who are endowed by nature with a + vigorous constitution of soul and body. <a href="#linknote-55.27" + name="linknoteref-55.27" id="linknoteref-55.27">27</a> Extreme cold has + diminished the stature and congealed the faculties of the Laplanders; and + the arctic tribes, alone among the sons of men, are ignorant of war, and + unconscious of human blood; a happy ignorance, if reason and virtue were + the guardians of their peace! <a href="#linknote-55.28" + name="linknoteref-55.28" id="linknoteref-55.28">28</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.22" id="linknote-55.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.22">return</a>)<br /> [ Fischer in the + Quaestiones Petropolitanae, de Origine Ungrorum, and Pray, Dissertat. i. + ii. iii. &c., have drawn up several comparative tables of the + Hungarian with the Fennic dialects. The affinity is indeed striking, but + the lists are short; the words are purposely chosen; and I read in the + learned Bayer, (Comment. Academ. Petropol. tom. x. p. 374,) that although + the Hungarian has adopted many Fennic words, (innumeras voces,) it + essentially differs toto genio et natura.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.2211" id="linknote-55.2211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2211 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.2211">return</a>)<br /> [ The connection + between the Magyar language and that of the Finns is now almost generally + admitted. Klaproth, Asia Polyglotta, p. 188, &c. Malte Bran, tom. vi. + p. 723, &c.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.23" id="linknote-55.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.23">return</a>)<br /> [ In the religion of + Turfan, which is clearly and minutely described by the Chinese + Geographers, (Gaubil, Hist. du Grand Gengiscan, 13; De Guignes, Hist. des + Huns, tom. ii. p. 31, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.24" id="linknote-55.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.24">return</a>)<br /> [ Hist. Genealogique des + Tartars, par Abulghazi Bahadur Khan partie ii. p. 90-98.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.25" id="linknote-55.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.25">return</a>)<br /> [ In their journey to + Pekin, both Isbrand Ives (Harris’s Collection of Voyages and Travels, vol. + ii. p. 920, 921) and Bell (Travels, vol. i p. 174) found the Vogulitz in + the neighborhood of Tobolsky. By the tortures of the etymological art, + Ugur and Vogul are reduced to the same name; the circumjacent mountains + really bear the appellation of Ugrian; and of all the Fennic dialects, the + Vogulian is the nearest to the Hungarian, (Fischer, Dissert. i. p. 20-30. + Pray. Dissert. ii. p. 31-34.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.26" id="linknote-55.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.26">return</a>)<br /> [ The eight tribes of the + Fennic race are described in the curious work of M. Leveque, (Hist. des + Peuples soumis a la Domination de la Russie, tom. ii. p. 361-561.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.27" id="linknote-55.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.27">return</a>)<br /> [ This picture of the + Hungarians and Bulgarians is chiefly drawn from the Tactics of Leo, p. + 796-801, and the Latin Annals, which are alleged by Baronius, Pagi, and + Muratori, A.D. 889, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.28" id="linknote-55.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.28">return</a>)<br /> [ Buffon, Hist. + Naturelle, tom. v. p. 6, in 12mo. Gustavus Adolphus attempted, without + success, to form a regiment of Laplanders. Grotius says of these arctic + tribes, arma arcus et pharetra, sed adversus feras, (Annal. l. iv. p. + 236;) and attempts, after the manner of Tacitus, to varnish with + philosophy their brutal ignorance.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap55.2"></a> + Chapter LV: The Bulgarians, The Hungarians And The Russians.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + It is the observation of the Imperial author of the Tactics, <a + href="#linknote-55.29" name="linknoteref-55.29" id="linknoteref-55.29">29</a> + that all the Scythian hordes resembled each other in their pastoral and + military life, that they all practised the same means of subsistence, and + employed the same instruments of destruction. But he adds, that the two + nations of Bulgarians and Hungarians were superior to their brethren, and + similar to each other in the improvements, however rude, of their + discipline and government: their visible likeness determines Leo to + confound his friends and enemies in one common description; and the + picture may be heightened by some strokes from their contemporaries of the + tenth century. Except the merit and fame of military prowess, all that is + valued by mankind appeared vile and contemptible to these Barbarians, + whose native fierceness was stimulated by the consciousness of numbers and + freedom. The tents of the Hungarians were of leather, their garments of + fur; they shaved their hair, and scarified their faces: in speech they + were slow, in action prompt, in treaty perfidious; and they shared the + common reproach of Barbarians, too ignorant to conceive the importance of + truth, too proud to deny or palliate the breach of their most solemn + engagements. Their simplicity has been praised; yet they abstained only + from the luxury they had never known; whatever they saw they coveted; + their desires were insatiate, and their sole industry was the hand of + violence and rapine. By the definition of a pastoral nation, I have + recalled a long description of the economy, the warfare, and the + government that prevail in that state of society; I may add, that to + fishing, as well as to the chase, the Hungarians were indebted for a part + of their subsistence; and since they seldom cultivated the ground, they + must, at least in their new settlements, have sometimes practised a slight + and unskilful husbandry. In their emigrations, perhaps in their + expeditions, the host was accompanied by thousands of sheep and oxen which + increased the cloud of formidable dust, and afforded a constant and + wholesale supply of milk and animal food. A plentiful command of forage + was the first care of the general, and if the flocks and herds were secure + of their pastures, the hardy warrior was alike insensible of danger and + fatigue. The confusion of men and cattle that overspread the country + exposed their camp to a nocturnal surprise, had not a still wider circuit + been occupied by their light cavalry, perpetually in motion to discover + and delay the approach of the enemy. After some experience of the Roman + tactics, they adopted the use of the sword and spear, the helmet of the + soldier, and the iron breastplate of his steed: but their native and + deadly weapon was the Tartar bow: from the earliest infancy their children + and servants were exercised in the double science of archery and + horsemanship; their arm was strong; their aim was sure; and in the most + rapid career, they were taught to throw themselves backwards, and to shoot + a volley of arrows into the air. In open combat, in secret ambush, in + flight, or pursuit, they were equally formidable; an appearance of order + was maintained in the foremost ranks, but their charge was driven forwards + by the impatient pressure of succeeding crowds. They pursued, headlong and + rash, with loosened reins and horrific outcries; but, if they fled, with + real or dissembled fear, the ardor of a pursuing foe was checked and + chastised by the same habits of irregular speed and sudden evolution. In + the abuse of victory, they astonished Europe, yet smarting from the wounds + of the Saracen and the Dane: mercy they rarely asked, and more rarely + bestowed: both sexes if accused is equally inaccessible to pity, and + their appetite for raw flesh might countenance the popular tale, that they + drank the blood, and feasted on the hearts of the slain. Yet the + Hungarians were not devoid of those principles of justice and humanity, + which nature has implanted in every bosom. The license of public and + private injuries was restrained by laws and punishments; and in the + security of an open camp, theft is the most tempting and most dangerous + offence. Among the Barbarians there were many, whose spontaneous virtue + supplied their laws and corrected their manners, who performed the duties, + and sympathized with the affections, of social life. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.29" id="linknote-55.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.29">return</a>)<br /> [ Leo has observed, that + the government of the Turks was monarchical, and that their punishments + were rigorous, (Tactic. p. 896) Rhegino (in Chron. A.D. 889) mentions + theft as a capital crime, and his jurisprudence is confirmed by the + original code of St. Stephen, (A.D. 1016.) If a slave were guilty, he was + chastised, for the first time, with the loss of his nose, or a fine of + five heifers; for the second, with the loss of his ears, or a similar + fine; for the third, with death; which the freeman did not incur till the + fourth offence, as his first penalty was the loss of liberty, (Katona, + Hist. Regum Hungar tom. i. p. 231, 232.)] + </p> + <p> + After a long pilgrimage of flight or victory, the Turkish hordes + approached the common limits of the French and Byzantine empires. Their + first conquests and final settlements extended on either side of the + Danube above Vienna, below Belgrade, and beyond the measure of the Roman + province of Pannonia, or the modern kingdom of Hungary. <a + href="#linknote-55.30" name="linknoteref-55.30" id="linknoteref-55.30">30</a> + That ample and fertile land was loosely occupied by the Moravians, a + Sclavonian name and tribe, which were driven by the invaders into the + compass of a narrow province. Charlemagne had stretched a vague and + nominal empire as far as the edge of Transylvania; but, after the failure + of his legitimate line, the dukes of Moravia forgot their obedience and + tribute to the monarchs of Oriental France. The bastard Arnulph was + provoked to invite the arms of the Turks: they rushed through the real or + figurative wall, which his indiscretion had thrown open; and the king of + Germany has been justly reproached as a traitor to the civil and + ecclesiastical society of the Christians. During the life of Arnulph, the + Hungarians were checked by gratitude or fear; but in the infancy of his + son Lewis they discovered and invaded Bavaria; and such was their Scythian + speed, that in a single day a circuit of fifty miles was stripped and + consumed. In the battle of Augsburgh the Christians maintained their + advantage till the seventh hour of the day, they were deceived and + vanquished by the flying stratagems of the Turkish cavalry. The + conflagration spread over the provinces of Bavaria, Swabia, and Franconia; + and the Hungarians <a href="#linknote-55.31" name="linknoteref-55.31" + id="linknoteref-55.31">31</a> promoted the reign of anarchy, by forcing the + stoutest barons to discipline their vassals and fortify their castles. The + origin of walled towns is ascribed to this calamitous period; nor could + any distance be secure against an enemy, who, almost at the same instant, + laid in ashes the Helvetian monastery of St. Gall, and the city of Bremen, + on the shores of the northern ocean. Above thirty years the Germanic + empire, or kingdom, was subject to the ignominy of tribute; and resistance + was disarmed by the menace, the serious and effectual menace of dragging + the women and children into captivity, and of slaughtering the males above + the age of ten years. I have neither power nor inclination to follow the + Hungarians beyond the Rhine; but I must observe with surprise, that the + southern provinces of France were blasted by the tempest, and that Spain, + behind her Pyrenees, was astonished at the approach of these formidable + strangers. <a href="#linknote-55.32" name="linknoteref-55.32" + id="linknoteref-55.32">32</a> The vicinity of Italy had tempted their early + inroads; but from their camp on the Brenta, they beheld with some terror + the apparent strength and populousness of the new discovered country. They + requested leave to retire; their request was proudly rejected by the + Italian king; and the lives of twenty thousand Christians paid the forfeit + of his obstinacy and rashness. Among the cities of the West, the royal + Pavia was conspicuous in fame and splendor; and the preeminence of Rome + itself was only derived from the relics of the apostles. The Hungarians + appeared; Pavia was in flames; forty-three churches were consumed; and, + after the massacre of the people, they spared about two hundred wretches + who had gathered some bushels of gold and silver (a vague exaggeration) + from the smoking ruins of their country. In these annual excursions from + the Alps to the neighborhood of Rome and Capua, the churches, that yet + escaped, resounded with a fearful litany: “O, save and deliver us from the + arrows of the Hungarians!” But the saints were deaf or inexorable; and the + torrent rolled forwards, till it was stopped by the extreme land of + Calabria. <a href="#linknote-55.33" name="linknoteref-55.33" + id="linknoteref-55.33">33</a> A composition was offered and accepted for + the head of each Italian subject; and ten bushels of silver were poured + forth in the Turkish camp. But falsehood is the natural antagonist of + violence; and the robbers were defrauded both in the numbers of the + assessment and the standard of the metal. On the side of the East, the + Hungarians were opposed in doubtful conflict by the equal arms of the + Bulgarians, whose faith forbade an alliance with the Pagans, and whose + situation formed the barrier of the Byzantine empire. The barrier was + overturned; the emperor of Constantinople beheld the waving banners of the + Turks; and one of their boldest warriors presumed to strike a battle-axe + into the golden gate. The arts and treasures of the Greeks diverted the + assault; but the Hungarians might boast, in their retreat, that they had + imposed a tribute on the spirit of Bulgaria and the majesty of the + Caesars. <a href="#linknote-55.34" name="linknoteref-55.34" + id="linknoteref-55.34">34</a> The remote and rapid operations of the same + campaign appear to magnify the power and numbers of the Turks; but their + courage is most deserving of praise, since a light troop of three or four + hundred horse would often attempt and execute the most daring inroads to + the gates of Thessalonica and Constantinople. At this disastrous aera of + the ninth and tenth centuries, Europe was afflicted by a triple scourge + from the North, the East, and the South: the Norman, the Hungarian, and + the Saracen, sometimes trod the same ground of desolation; and these + savage foes might have been compared by Homer to the two lions growling + over the carcass of a mangled stag. <a href="#linknote-55.35" + name="linknoteref-55.35" id="linknoteref-55.35">35</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.30" id="linknote-55.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.30">return</a>)<br /> [ See Katona, Hist. Ducum + Hungar. p. 321-352.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.31" id="linknote-55.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.31">return</a>)<br /> [ Hungarorum gens, cujus + omnes fere nationes expertae saevitium &c., is the preface of + Liutprand, (l. i. c. 2,) who frequently expatiated on the calamities of + his own times. See l. i. c. 5, l. ii. c. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7; l. iii. c. 1, + &c., l. v. c. 8, 15, in Legat. p. 485. His colors are glaring but his + chronology must be rectified by Pagi and Muratori.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.32" id="linknote-55.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.32">return</a>)<br /> [ The three bloody reigns + of Arpad, Zoltan, and Toxus, are critically illustrated by Katona, (Hist. + Ducum, &c. p. 107-499.) His diligence has searched both natives and + foreigners; yet to the deeds of mischief, or glory, I have been able to + add the destruction of Bremen, (Adam Bremensis, i. 43.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.33" id="linknote-55.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.33">return</a>)<br /> [ Muratori has considered + with patriotic care the danger and resources of Modena. The citizens + besought St. Geminianus, their patron, to avert, by his intercession, the + rabies, flagellum, &c. Nunc te rogamus, licet servi pessimi, Ab + Ungerorum nos defendas jaculis.The bishop erected walls for the public + defence, not contra dominos serenos, (Antiquitat. Ital. Med. Aevi, tom. i. + dissertat. i. p. 21, 22,) and the song of the nightly watch is not without + elegance or use, (tom. iii. dis. xl. p. 709.) The Italian annalist has + accurately traced the series of their inroads, (Annali d’ Italia, tom. + vii. p. 365, 367, 398, 401, 437, 440, tom. viii. p. 19, 41, 52, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.34" id="linknote-55.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.34">return</a>)<br /> [ Both the Hungarian and + Russian annals suppose, that they besieged, or attacked, or insulted + Constantinople, (Pray, dissertat. x. p. 239. Katona, Hist. Ducum, p. + 354-360;) and the fact is almost confessed by the Byzantine historians, + (Leo Grammaticus, p. 506. Cedrenus, tom. ii. p. 629: ) yet, however + glorious to the nation, it is denied or doubted by the critical historian, + and even by the notary of Bela. Their scepticism is meritorious; they + could not safely transcribe or believe the rusticorum fabulas: but Katona + might have given due attention to the evidence of Liutprand, Bulgarorum + gentem atque daecorum tributariam fecerant, (Hist. l. ii. c. 4, p. 435.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.35" id="linknote-55.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.35">return</a>)<br /> [—Iliad, xvi. 756.] + </p> + <p> + The deliverance of Germany and Christendom was achieved by the Saxon + princes, Henry the Fowler and Otho the Great, who, in two memorable + battles, forever broke the power of the Hungarians. <a + href="#linknote-55.36" name="linknoteref-55.36" id="linknoteref-55.36">36</a> + The valiant Henry was roused from a bed of sickness by the invasion of his + country; but his mind was vigorous and his prudence successful. “My + companions,” said he, on the morning of the combat, “maintain your ranks, + receive on your bucklers the first arrows of the Pagans, and prevent their + second discharge by the equal and rapid career of your lances.” They + obeyed and conquered: and the historical picture of the castle of + Merseburgh expressed the features, or at least the character, of Henry, + who, in an age of ignorance, intrusted to the finer arts the perpetuity of + his name. <a href="#linknote-55.37" name="linknoteref-55.37" + id="linknoteref-55.37">37</a> At the end of twenty years, the children of + the Turks who had fallen by his sword invaded the empire of his son; and + their force is defined, in the lowest estimate, at one hundred thousand + horse. They were invited by domestic faction; the gates of Germany were + treacherously unlocked; and they spread, far beyond the Rhine and the + Meuse, into the heart of Flanders. But the vigor and prudence of Otho + dispelled the conspiracy; the princes were made sensible that unless they + were true to each other, their religion and country were irrecoverably + lost; and the national powers were reviewed in the plains of Augsburgh. + They marched and fought in eight legions, according to the division of + provinces and tribes; the first, second, and third, were composed of + Bavarians; the fourth, of Franconians; the fifth, of Saxons, under the + immediate command of the monarch; the sixth and seventh consisted of + Swabians; and the eighth legion, of a thousand Bohemians, closed the rear + of the host. The resources of discipline and valor were fortified by the + arts of superstition, which, on this occasion, may deserve the epithets of + generous and salutary. The soldiers were purified with a fast; the camp + was blessed with the relics of saints and martyrs; and the Christian hero + girded on his side the sword of Constantine, grasped the invincible spear + of Charlemagne, and waved the banner of St. Maurice, the praefect of the + Thebaean legion. But his firmest confidence was placed in the holy lance, + <a href="#linknote-55.38" name="linknoteref-55.38" id="linknoteref-55.38">38</a> + whose point was fashioned of the nails of the cross, and which his father + had extorted from the king of Burgundy, by the threats of war, and the + gift of a province. The Hungarians were expected in the front; they + secretly passed the Lech, a river of Bavaria that falls into the Danube; + turned the rear of the Christian army; plundered the baggage, and + disordered the legion of Bohemia and Swabia. The battle was restored by + the Franconians, whose duke, the valiant Conrad, was pierced with an arrow + as he rested from his fatigues: the Saxons fought under the eyes of their + king; and his victory surpassed, in merit and importance, the triumphs of + the last two hundred years. The loss of the Hungarians was still greater + in the flight than in the action; they were encompassed by the rivers of + Bavaria; and their past cruelties excluded them from the hope of mercy. + Three captive princes were hanged at Ratisbon, the multitude of prisoners + was slain or mutilated, and the fugitives, who presumed to appear in the + face of their country, were condemned to everlasting poverty and disgrace. + <a href="#linknote-55.39" name="linknoteref-55.39" id="linknoteref-55.39">39</a> + Yet the spirit of the nation was humbled, and the most accessible passes + of Hungary were fortified with a ditch and rampart. Adversity suggested + the counsels of moderation and peace: the robbers of the West acquiesced + in a sedentary life; and the next generation was taught, by a discerning + prince, that far more might be gained by multiplying and exchanging the + produce of a fruitful soil. The native race, the Turkish or Fennic blood, + was mingled with new colonies of Scythian or Sclavonian origin; <a + href="#linknote-55.40" name="linknoteref-55.40" id="linknoteref-55.40">40</a> + many thousands of robust and industrious captives had been imported from + all the countries of Europe; <a href="#linknote-55.41" + name="linknoteref-55.41" id="linknoteref-55.41">41</a> and after the + marriage of Geisa with a Bavarian princess, he bestowed honors and estates + on the nobles of Germany. <a href="#linknote-55.42" name="linknoteref-55.42" + id="linknoteref-55.42">42</a> The son of Geisa was invested with the regal + title, and the house of Arpad reigned three hundred years in the kingdom + of Hungary. But the freeborn Barbarians were not dazzled by the lustre of + the diadem, and the people asserted their indefeasible right of choosing, + deposing, and punishing the hereditary servant of the state. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.36" id="linknote-55.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.36">return</a>)<br /> [ They are amply and + critically discussed by Katona, (Hist. Dacum, p. 360-368, 427-470.) + Liutprand (l. ii. c. 8, 9) is the best evidence for the former, and + Witichind (Annal. Saxon. l. iii.) of the latter; but the critical + historian will not even overlook the horn of a warrior, which is said to + be preserved at Jaz-berid.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.37" id="linknote-55.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.37">return</a>)<br /> [ Hunc vero triumphum, + tam laude quam memoria dignum, ad Meresburgum rex in superiori coenaculo + domus per Zeus, id est, picturam, notari praecepit, adeo ut rem veram + potius quam verisimilem videas: a high encomium, (Liutprand, l. ii. c. 9.) + Another palace in Germany had been painted with holy subjects by the order + of Charlemagne; and Muratori may justly affirm, nulla saecula fuere in + quibus pictores desiderati fuerint, (Antiquitat. Ital. Medii Aevi, tom. + ii. dissert. xxiv. p. 360, 361.) Our domestic claims to antiquity of + ignorance and original imperfection (Mr. Walpole’s lively words) are of a + much more recent date, (Anecdotes of Painting, vol. i. p. 2, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.38" id="linknote-55.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.38">return</a>)<br /> [ See Baronius, Annal. + Eccles. A.D. 929, No. 2-5. The lance of Christ is taken from the best + evidence, Liutprand, (l. iv. c. 12,) Sigebert, and the Acts of St. Gerard: + but the other military relics depend on the faith of the Gesta Anglorum + post Bedam, l. ii. c. 8.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.39" id="linknote-55.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.39">return</a>)<br /> [ Katona, Hist. Ducum + Hungariae, p. 500, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.40" id="linknote-55.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.40">return</a>)<br /> [ Among these colonies we + may distinguish, 1. The Chazars, or Cabari, who joined the Hungarians on + their march, (Constant. de Admin. Imp. c. 39, 40, p. 108, 109.) 2. The + Jazyges, Moravians, and Siculi, whom they found in the land; the last were + perhaps a remnant of the Huns of Attila, and were intrusted with the guard + of the borders. 3. The Russians, who, like the Swiss in France, imparted a + general name to the royal porters. 4. The Bulgarians, whose chiefs (A.D. + 956) were invited, cum magna multitudine Hismahelitarum. Had any of those + Sclavonians embraced the Mahometan religion? 5. The Bisseni and Cumans, a + mixed multitude of Patzinacites, Uzi, Chazars, &c., who had spread to + the Lower Danube. The last colony of 40,000 Cumans, A.D. 1239, was + received and converted by the kings of Hungary, who derived from that + tribe a new regal appellation, (Pray, Dissert. vi. vii. p. 109-173. + Katona, Hist. Ducum, p. 95-99, 259-264, 476, 479-483, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.41" id="linknote-55.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.41">return</a>)<br /> [ Christiani autem, + quorum pars major populi est, qui ex omni parte mundi illuc tracti sunt + captivi, &c. Such was the language of Piligrinus, the first missionary + who entered Hungary, A.D. 973. Pars major is strong. Hist. Ducum, p. 517.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.42" id="linknote-55.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.42">return</a>)<br /> [ The fideles Teutonici + of Geisa are authenticated in old charters: and Katona, with his usual + industry, has made a fair estimate of these colonies, which had been so + loosely magnified by the Italian Ranzanus, (Hist. Critic. Ducum. p, + 667-681.)] + </p> + <p> + III. The name of Russians <a href="#linknote-55.43" name="linknoteref-55.43" + id="linknoteref-55.43">43</a> was first divulged, in the ninth century, by + an embassy of Theophilus, emperor of the East, to the emperor of the West, + Lewis, the son of Charlemagne. The Greeks were accompanied by the envoys + of the great duke, or chagan, or czar, of the Russians. In their journey + to Constantinople, they had traversed many hostile nations; and they hoped + to escape the dangers of their return, by requesting the French monarch to + transport them by sea to their native country. A closer examination + detected their origin: they were the brethren of the Swedes and Normans, + whose name was already odious and formidable in France; and it might + justly be apprehended, that these Russian strangers were not the + messengers of peace, but the emissaries of war. They were detained, while + the Greeks were dismissed; and Lewis expected a more satisfactory account, + that he might obey the laws of hospitality or prudence, according to the + interest of both empires. <a href="#linknote-55.44" name="linknoteref-55.44" + id="linknoteref-55.44">44</a> This Scandinavian origin of the people, or at + least the princes, of Russia, may be confirmed and illustrated by the + national annals <a href="#linknote-55.45" name="linknoteref-55.45" + id="linknoteref-55.45">45</a> and the general history of the North. The + Normans, who had so long been concealed by a veil of impenetrable + darkness, suddenly burst forth in the spirit of naval and military + enterprise. The vast, and, as it is said, the populous regions of Denmark, + Sweden, and Norway, were crowded with independent chieftains and desperate + adventurers, who sighed in the laziness of peace, and smiled in the + agonies of death. Piracy was the exercise, the trade, the glory, and the + virtue, of the Scandinavian youth. Impatient of a bleak climate and narrow + limits, they started from the banquet, grasped their arms, sounded their + horn, ascended their vessels, and explored every coast that promised + either spoil or settlement. The Baltic was the first scene of their naval + achievements they visited the eastern shores, the silent residence of + Fennic and Sclavonic tribes, and the primitive Russians of the Lake Ladoga + paid a tribute, the skins of white squirrels, to these strangers, whom + they saluted with the title of Varangians <a href="#linknote-55.46" + name="linknoteref-55.46" id="linknoteref-55.46">46</a> or Corsairs. Their + superiority in arms, discipline, and renown, commanded the fear and + reverence of the natives. In their wars against the more inland savages, + the Varangians condescended to serve as friends and auxiliaries, and + gradually, by choice or conquest, obtained the dominion of a people whom + they were qualified to protect. Their tyranny was expelled, their valor + was again recalled, till at length Ruric, a Scandinavian chief, became the + father of a dynasty which reigned above seven hundred years. His brothers + extended his influence: the example of service and usurpation was imitated + by his companions in the southern provinces of Russia; and their + establishments, by the usual methods of war and assassination, were + cemented into the fabric of a powerful monarchy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.43" id="linknote-55.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.43">return</a>)<br /> [ Among the Greeks, this + national appellation has a singular form, as an undeclinable word, of + which many fanciful etymologies have been suggested. I have perused, with + pleasure and profit, a dissertation de Origine Russorum (Comment. Academ. + Petropolitanae, tom. viii. p. 388-436) by Theophilus Sigefrid Bayer, a + learned German, who spent his life and labors in the service of Russia. A + geographical tract of D’Anville, de l’Empire de Russie, son Origine, et + ses Accroissemens, (Paris, 1772, in 12mo.,) has likewise been of use. * + Note: The later antiquarians of Russia and Germany appear to aquiesce in + the authority of the monk Nestor, the earliest annalist of Russia, who + derives the Russians, or Vareques, from Scandinavia. The names of the + first founders of the Russian monarchy are Scandinavian or Norman. Their + language (according to Const. Porphyrog. de Administrat. Imper. c. 9) + differed essentially from the Sclavonian. The author of the Annals of St. + Bertin, who first names the Russians (Rhos) in the year 839 of his Annals, + assigns them Sweden for their country. So Liutprand calls the Russians the + same people as the Normans. The Fins, Laplanders, and Esthonians, call the + Swedes, to the present day, Roots, Rootsi, Ruotzi, Rootslaue. See Thunman, + Untersuchungen uber der Geschichte des Estlichen Europaischen Volker, p. + 374. Gatterer, Comm. Societ. Regbcient. Gotting. xiii. p. 126. Schlozer, + in his Nestor. Koch. Revolut. de ‘Europe, vol. i. p. 60. Malte-Brun, + Geograph. vol. vi. p. 378.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.44" id="linknote-55.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.44">return</a>)<br /> [ See the entire passage + (dignum, says Bayer, ut aureis in tabulis rigatur) in the Annales + Bertiniani Francorum, (in Script. Ital. Muratori, tom. ii. pars i. p. + 525,) A.D. 839, twenty-two years before the aera of Ruric. In the xth + century, Liutprand (Hist. l. v. c. 6) speaks of the Russians and Normans + as the same Aquilonares homines of a red complexion.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.45" id="linknote-55.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.45">return</a>)<br /> [ My knowledge of these + annals is drawn from M. Leveque, Histoire de Russie. Nestor, the first and + best of these ancient annalists, was a monk of Kiow, who died in the + beginning of the xiith century; but his Chronicle was obscure, till it was + published at Petersburgh, 1767, in 4to. Leveque, Hist. de Russie, tom. i. + p. xvi. Coxe’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 184. * Note: The late M. Schlozer has + translated and added a commentary to the Annals of Nestor; and his work is + the mine from which henceforth the history of the North must be drawn.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.46" id="linknote-55.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.46">return</a>)<br /> [ Theophil. Sig. Bayer de + Varagis, (for the name is differently spelt,) in Comment. Academ. + Petropolitanae, tom. iv. p. 275-311.] + </p> + <p> + As long as the descendants of Ruric were considered as aliens and + conquerors, they ruled by the sword of the Varangians, distributed estates + and subjects to their faithful captains, and supplied their numbers with + fresh streams of adventurers from the Baltic coast. <a + href="#linknote-55.47" name="linknoteref-55.47" id="linknoteref-55.47">47</a> + But when the Scandinavian chiefs had struck a deep and permanent root into + the soil, they mingled with the Russians in blood, religion, and language, + and the first Waladimir had the merit of delivering his country from these + foreign mercenaries. They had seated him on the throne; his riches were + insufficient to satisfy their demands; but they listened to his pleasing + advice, that they should seek, not a more grateful, but a more wealthy, + master; that they should embark for Greece, where, instead of the skins of + squirrels, silk and gold would be the recompense of their service. At the + same time, the Russian prince admonished his Byzantine ally to disperse + and employ, to recompense and restrain, these impetuous children of the + North. Contemporary writers have recorded the introduction, name, and + character, of the Varangians: each day they rose in confidence and esteem; + the whole body was assembled at Constantinople to perform the duty of + guards; and their strength was recruited by a numerous band of their + countrymen from the Island of Thule. On this occasion, the vague + appellation of Thule is applied to England; and the new Varangians were a + colony of English and Danes who fled from the yoke of the Norman + conqueror. The habits of pilgrimage and piracy had approximated the + countries of the earth; these exiles were entertained in the Byzantine + court; and they preserved, till the last age of the empire, the + inheritance of spotless loyalty, and the use of the Danish or English + tongue. With their broad and double-edged battle-axes on their shoulders, + they attended the Greek emperor to the temple, the senate, and the + hippodrome; he slept and feasted under their trusty guard; and the keys of + the palace, the treasury, and the capital, were held by the firm and + faithful hands of the Varangians. <a href="#linknote-55.48" + name="linknoteref-55.48" id="linknoteref-55.48">48</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.47" id="linknote-55.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.47">return</a>)<br /> [ Yet, as late as the + year 1018, Kiow and Russia were still guarded ex fugitivorum servorum + robore, confluentium et maxime Danorum. Bayer, who quotes (p. 292) the + Chronicle of Dithmar of Merseburgh, observes, that it was unusual for the + Germans to enlist in a foreign service.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.48" id="linknote-55.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.48">return</a>)<br /> [ Ducange has collected + from the original authors the state and history of the Varangi at + Constantinople, (Glossar. Med. et Infimae Graecitatis, sub voce. Med. et + Infimae Latinitatis, sub voce Vagri. Not. ad Alexiad. Annae Comnenae, p. + 256, 257, 258. Notes sur Villehardouin, p. 296-299.) See likewise the + annotations of Reiske to the Ceremoniale Aulae Byzant. of Constantine, + tom. ii. p. 149, 150. Saxo Grammaticus affirms that they spoke Danish; but + Codinus maintains them till the fifteenth century in the use of their + native English.] + </p> + <p> + In the tenth century, the geography of Scythia was extended far beyond the + limits of ancient knowledge; and the monarchy of the Russians obtains a + vast and conspicuous place in the map of Constantine. <a + href="#linknote-55.49" name="linknoteref-55.49" id="linknoteref-55.49">49</a> + The sons of Ruric were masters of the spacious province of Wolodomir, or + Moscow; and, if they were confined on that side by the hordes of the East, + their western frontier in those early days was enlarged to the Baltic Sea + and the country of the Prussians. Their northern reign ascended above the + sixtieth degree of latitude over the Hyperborean regions, which fancy had + peopled with monsters, or clouded with eternal darkness. To the south they + followed the course of the Borysthenes, and approached with that river the + neighborhood of the Euxine Sea. The tribes that dwelt, or wandered, in + this ample circuit were obedient to the same conqueror, and insensibly + blended into the same nation. The language of Russia is a dialect of the + Sclavonian; but in the tenth century, these two modes of speech were + different from each other; and, as the Sclavonian prevailed in the South, + it may be presumed that the original Russians of the North, the primitive + subjects of the Varangian chief, were a portion of the Fennic race. With + the emigration, union, or dissolution, of the wandering tribes, the loose + and indefinite picture of the Scythian desert has continually shifted. But + the most ancient map of Russia affords some places which still retain + their name and position; and the two capitals, Novogorod <a + href="#linknote-55.50" name="linknoteref-55.50" id="linknoteref-55.50">50</a> + and Kiow, <a href="#linknote-55.51" name="linknoteref-55.51" + id="linknoteref-55.51">51</a> are coeval with the first age of the + monarchy. Novogorod had not yet deserved the epithet of great, nor the + alliance of the Hanseatic League, which diffused the streams of opulence + and the principles of freedom. Kiow could not yet boast of three hundred + churches, an innumerable people, and a degree of greatness and splendor + which was compared with Constantinople by those who had never seen the + residence of the Caesars. In their origin, the two cities were no more + than camps or fairs, the most convenient stations in which the Barbarians + might assemble for the occasional business of war or trade. Yet even these + assemblies announce some progress in the arts of society; a new breed of + cattle was imported from the southern provinces; and the spirit of + commercial enterprise pervaded the sea and land, from the Baltic to the + Euxine, from the mouth of the Oder to the port of Constantinople. In the + days of idolatry and barbarism, the Sclavonic city of Julin was frequented + and enriched by the Normans, who had prudently secured a free mart of + purchase and exchange. <a href="#linknote-55.52" name="linknoteref-55.52" + id="linknoteref-55.52">52</a> From this harbor, at the entrance of the + Oder, the corsair, or merchant, sailed in forty-three days to the eastern + shores of the Baltic, the most distant nations were intermingled, and the + holy groves of Curland are said to have been decorated with Grecian and + Spanish gold. <a href="#linknote-55.53" name="linknoteref-55.53" + id="linknoteref-55.53">53</a> Between the sea and Novogorod an easy + intercourse was discovered; in the summer, through a gulf, a lake, and a + navigable river; in the winter season, over the hard and level surface of + boundless snows. From the neighborhood of that city, the Russians + descended the streams that fall into the Borysthenes; their canoes, of a + single tree, were laden with slaves of every age, furs of every species, + the spoil of their beehives, and the hides of their cattle; and the whole + produce of the North was collected and discharged in the magazines of + Kiow. The month of June was the ordinary season of the departure of the + fleet: the timber of the canoes was framed into the oars and benches of + more solid and capacious boats; and they proceeded without obstacle down + the Borysthenes, as far as the seven or thirteen ridges of rocks, which + traverse the bed, and precipitate the waters, of the river. At the more + shallow falls it was sufficient to lighten the vessels; but the deeper + cataracts were impassable; and the mariners, who dragged their vessels and + their slaves six miles over land, were exposed in this toilsome journey to + the robbers of the desert. <a href="#linknote-55.54" name="linknoteref-55.54" + id="linknoteref-55.54">54</a> At the first island below the falls, the + Russians celebrated the festival of their escape: at a second, near the + mouth of the river, they repaired their shattered vessels for the longer + and more perilous voyage of the Black Sea. If they steered along the + coast, the Danube was accessible; with a fair wind they could reach in + thirty-six or forty hours the opposite shores of Anatolia; and + Constantinople admitted the annual visit of the strangers of the North. + They returned at the stated season with a rich cargo of corn, wine, and + oil, the manufactures of Greece, and the spices of India. Some of their + countrymen resided in the capital and provinces; and the national treaties + protected the persons, effects, and privileges, of the Russian merchant. + <a href="#linknote-55.55" name="linknoteref-55.55" id="linknoteref-55.55">55</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.49" id="linknote-55.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.49">return</a>)<br /> [ The original record of + the geography and trade of Russia is produced by the emperor Constantine + Porphyrogenitus, (de Administrat. Imperii, c. 2, p. 55, 56, c. 9, p. + 59-61, c. 13, p. 63-67, c. 37, p. 106, c. 42, p. 112, 113,) and + illustrated by the diligence of Bayer, (de Geographia Russiae vicinarumque + Regionum circiter A. C. 948, in Comment. Academ. Petropol. tom. ix. p. + 367-422, tom. x. p. 371-421,) with the aid of the chronicles and + traditions of Russia, Scandinavia, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.50" id="linknote-55.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.50">return</a>)<br /> [ The haughty proverb, + “Who can resist God and the great Novogorod?” is applied by M. Leveque + (Hist. de Russie, tom. i. p. 60) even to the times that preceded the reign + of Ruric. In the course of his history he frequently celebrates this + republic, which was suppressed A.D. 1475, (tom. ii. p. 252-266.) That + accurate traveller Adam Olearius describes (in 1635) the remains of + Novogorod, and the route by sea and land of the Holstein ambassadors, tom. + i. p. 123-129.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.51" id="linknote-55.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.51">return</a>)<br /> [ In hac magna civitate, + quae est caput regni, plus trecentae ecclesiae habentur et nundinae octo, + populi etiam ignota manus (Eggehardus ad A.D. 1018, apud Bayer, tom. ix. + p. 412.) He likewise quotes (tom. x. p. 397) the words of the Saxon + annalist, Cujus (Russioe) metropolis est Chive, aemula sceptri + Constantinopolitani, quae est clarissimum decus Graeciae. The fame of + Kiow, especially in the xith century, had reached the German and Arabian + geographers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.52" id="linknote-55.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.52">return</a>)<br /> [ In Odorae ostio qua + Scythicas alluit paludes, nobilissima civitas Julinum, celeberrimam, + Barbaris et Graecis qui sunt in circuitu, praestans stationem, est sane + maxima omnium quas Europa claudit civitatum, (Adam Bremensis, Hist. + Eccles. p. 19;) a strange exaggeration even in the xith century. The trade + of the Baltic, and the Hanseatic League, are carefully treated in + Anderson’s Historical Deduction of Commerce; at least, in our language, I + am not acquainted with any book so satisfactory. * Note: The book of + authority is the “Geschichte des Hanseatischen Bundes,” by George + Sartorius, Gottingen, 1803, or rather the later edition of that work by M. + Lappenberg, 2 vols. 4to., Hamburgh, 1830.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.53" id="linknote-55.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.53">return</a>)<br /> [ According to Adam of + Bremen, (de Situ Daniae, p. 58,) the old Curland extended eight days’ + journey along the coast; and by Peter Teutoburgicus, (p. 68, A.D. 1326,) + Memel is defined as the common frontier of Russia, Curland, and Prussia. + Aurum ibi plurimum, (says Adam,) divinis auguribus atque necromanticis + omnes domus sunt plenae.... a toto orbe ibi responsa petuntur, maxime ab + Hispanis (forsan Zupanis, id est regulis Lettoviae) et Graecis. The name + of Greeks was applied to the Russians even before their conversion; an + imperfect conversion, if they still consulted the wizards of Curland, + (Bayer, tom. x. p. 378, 402, &c. Grotius, Prolegomen. ad Hist. Goth. + p. 99.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.54" id="linknote-55.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.54">return</a>)<br /> [ Constantine only + reckons seven cataracts, of which he gives the Russian and Sclavonic + names; but thirteen are enumerated by the Sieur de Beauplan, a French + engineer, who had surveyed the course and navigation of the Dnieper, or + Borysthenes, (Description de l’Ukraine, Rouen, 1660, a thin quarto;) but + the map is unluckily wanting in my copy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.55" id="linknote-55.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.55">return</a>)<br /> [ Nestor, apud Leveque, + Hist. de Russie, tom. i. p. 78-80. From the Dnieper, or Borysthenes, the + Russians went to Black Bulgaria, Chazaria, and Syria. To Syria, how? + where? when? The alteration is slight; the position of Suania, between + Chazaria and Lazica, is perfectly suitable; and the name was still used in + the xith century, (Cedren. tom. ii. p. 770.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap55.3"></a> + Chapter LV: The Bulgarians, The Hungarians And The Russians.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + But the same communication which had been opened for the benefit, was soon + abused for the injury, of mankind. In a period of one hundred and ninety + years, the Russians made four attempts to plunder the treasures of + Constantinople: the event was various, but the motive, the means, and the + object, were the same in these naval expeditions. <a href="#linknote-55.56" + name="linknoteref-55.56" id="linknoteref-55.56">56</a> The Russian traders + had seen the magnificence, and tasted the luxury of the city of the + Caesars. A marvellous tale, and a scanty supply, excited the desires of + their savage countrymen: they envied the gifts of nature which their + climate denied; they coveted the works of art, which they were too lazy to + imitate and too indigent to purchase; the Varangian princes unfurled the + banners of piratical adventure, and their bravest soldiers were drawn from + the nations that dwelt in the northern isles of the ocean. <a + href="#linknote-55.57" name="linknoteref-55.57" id="linknoteref-55.57">57</a> + The image of their naval armaments was revived in the last century, in the + fleets of the Cossacks, which issued from the Borysthenes, to navigate the + same seas for a similar purpose. <a href="#linknote-55.58" + name="linknoteref-55.58" id="linknoteref-55.58">58</a> The Greek appellation + of monoxyla, or single canoes, might justly be applied to the bottom of + their vessels. It was scooped out of the long stem of a beech or willow, + but the slight and narrow foundation was raised and continued on either + side with planks, till it attained the length of sixty, and the height of + about twelve, feet. These boats were built without a deck, but with two + rudders and a mast; to move with sails and oars; and to contain from forty + to seventy men, with their arms, and provisions of fresh water and salt + fish. The first trial of the Russians was made with two hundred boats; but + when the national force was exerted, they might arm against Constantinople + a thousand or twelve hundred vessels. Their fleet was not much inferior to + the royal navy of Agamemnon, but it was magnified in the eyes of fear to + ten or fifteen times the real proportion of its strength and numbers. Had + the Greek emperors been endowed with foresight to discern, and vigor to + prevent, perhaps they might have sealed with a maritime force the mouth of + the Borysthenes. Their indolence abandoned the coast of Anatolia to the + calamities of a piratical war, which, after an interval of six hundred + years, again infested the Euxine; but as long as the capital was + respected, the sufferings of a distant province escaped the notice both of + the prince and the historian. The storm which had swept along from the + Phasis and Trebizond, at length burst on the Bosphorus of Thrace; a strait + of fifteen miles, in which the rude vessels of the Russians might have + been stopped and destroyed by a more skilful adversary. In their first + enterprise <a href="#linknote-55.59" name="linknoteref-55.59" + id="linknoteref-55.59">59</a> under the princes of Kiow, they passed + without opposition, and occupied the port of Constantinople in the absence + of the emperor Michael, the son of Theophilus. Through a crowd of perils, + he landed at the palace-stairs, and immediately repaired to a church of + the Virgin Mary. <a href="#linknote-55.60" name="linknoteref-55.60" + id="linknoteref-55.60">60</a> By the advice of the patriarch, her garment, + a precious relic, was drawn from the sanctuary and dipped in the sea; and + a seasonable tempest, which determined the retreat of the Russians, was + devoutly ascribed to the mother of God. <a href="#linknote-55.61" + name="linknoteref-55.61" id="linknoteref-55.61">61</a> The silence of the + Greeks may inspire some doubt of the truth, or at least of the importance, + of the second attempt by Oleg, the guardian of the sons of Ruric. <a + href="#linknote-55.62" name="linknoteref-55.62" id="linknoteref-55.62">62</a> + A strong barrier of arms and fortifications defended the Bosphorus: they + were eluded by the usual expedient of drawing the boats over the isthmus; + and this simple operation is described in the national chronicles, as if + the Russian fleet had sailed over dry land with a brisk and favorable + gale. The leader of the third armament, Igor, the son of Ruric, had chosen + a moment of weakness and decay, when the naval powers of the empire were + employed against the Saracens. But if courage be not wanting, the + instruments of defence are seldom deficient. Fifteen broken and decayed + galleys were boldly launched against the enemy; but instead of the single + tube of Greek fire usually planted on the prow, the sides and stern of + each vessel were abundantly supplied with that liquid combustible. The + engineers were dexterous; the weather was propitious; many thousand + Russians, who chose rather to be drowned than burnt, leaped into the sea; + and those who escaped to the Thracian shore were inhumanly slaughtered by + the peasants and soldiers. Yet one third of the canoes escaped into + shallow water; and the next spring Igor was again prepared to retrieve his + disgrace and claim his revenge. <a href="#linknote-55.63" + name="linknoteref-55.63" id="linknoteref-55.63">63</a> After a long peace, + Jaroslaus, the great grandson of Igor, resumed the same project of a naval + invasion. A fleet, under the command of his son, was repulsed at the + entrance of the Bosphorus by the same artificial flames. But in the + rashness of pursuit, the vanguard of the Greeks was encompassed by an + irresistible multitude of boats and men; their provision of fire was + probably exhausted; and twenty-four galleys were either taken, sunk, or + destroyed. <a href="#linknote-55.64" name="linknoteref-55.64" + id="linknoteref-55.64">64</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.56" id="linknote-55.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.56">return</a>)<br /> [ The wars of the + Russians and Greeks in the ixth, xth, and xith centuries, are related in + the Byzantine annals, especially those of Zonaras and Cedrenus; and all + their testimonies are collected in the Russica of Stritter, tom. ii. pars + ii. p. 939-1044.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.57" id="linknote-55.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.57">return</a>)<br /> [ Cedrenus in Compend. p. + 758] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.58" id="linknote-55.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.58">return</a>)<br /> [ See Beauplan, + (Description de l’Ukraine, p. 54-61: ) his descriptions are lively, his + plans accurate, and except the circumstances of fire-arms, we may read old + Russians for modern Cosacks.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.59" id="linknote-55.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.59">return</a>)<br /> [ It is to be lamented, + that Bayer has only given a Dissertation de Russorum prima Expeditione + Constantinopolitana, (Comment. Academ. Petropol. tom. vi. p. 265-391.) + After disentangling some chronological intricacies, he fixes it in the + years 864 or 865, a date which might have smoothed some doubts and + difficulties in the beginning of M. Leveque’s history.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.60" id="linknote-55.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.60">return</a>)<br /> [ When Photius wrote his + encyclic epistle on the conversion of the Russians, the miracle was not + yet sufficiently ripe.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.61" id="linknote-55.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.61">return</a>)<br /> [ Leo Grammaticus, p. + 463, 464. Constantini Continuator in Script. post Theophanem, p. 121, 122. + Symeon Logothet. p. 445, 446. Georg. Monach. p. 535, 536. Cedrenus, tom. + ii. p. 551. Zonaras, tom. ii. p. 162.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.62" id="linknote-55.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.62">return</a>)<br /> [ See Nestor and Nicon, + in Leveque’s Hist. de Russie, tom. i. p. 74-80. Katona (Hist. Ducum, p. + 75-79) uses his advantage to disprove this Russian victory, which would + cloud the siege of Kiow by the Hungarians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.63" id="linknote-55.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.63">return</a>)<br /> [ Leo Grammaticus, p. + 506, 507. Incert. Contin. p. 263, 264 Symeon Logothet. p. 490, 491. Georg. + Monach. p. 588, 589. Cedren tom. ii. p. 629. Zonaras, tom. ii. p. 190, + 191, and Liutprand, l. v. c. 6, who writes from the narratives of his + father-in-law, then ambassador at Constantinople, and corrects the vain + exaggeration of the Greeks.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.64" id="linknote-55.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.64">return</a>)<br /> [ I can only appeal to + Cedrenus (tom. ii. p. 758, 759) and Zonaras, (tom. ii. p. 253, 254;) but + they grow more weighty and credible as they draw near to their own times.] + </p> + <p> + Yet the threats or calamities of a Russian war were more frequently + diverted by treaty than by arms. In these naval hostilities, every + disadvantage was on the side of the Greeks; their savage enemy afforded no + mercy: his poverty promised no spoil; his impenetrable retreat deprived + the conqueror of the hopes of revenge; and the pride or weakness of empire + indulged an opinion, that no honor could be gained or lost in the + intercourse with Barbarians. At first their demands were high and + inadmissible, three pounds of gold for each soldier or mariner of the + fleet: the Russian youth adhered to the design of conquest and glory; but + the counsels of moderation were recommended by the hoary sages. “Be + content,” they said, “with the liberal offers of Caesar; is it not far + better to obtain without a combat the possession of gold, silver, silks, + and all the objects of our desires? Are we sure of victory? Can we + conclude a treaty with the sea? We do not tread on the land; we float on + the abyss of water, and a common death hangs over our heads.” <a + href="#linknote-55.65" name="linknoteref-55.65" id="linknoteref-55.65">65</a> + The memory of these Arctic fleets that seemed to descend from the polar + circle left deep impression of terror on the Imperial city. By the vulgar + of every rank, it was asserted and believed, that an equestrian statue in + the square of Taurus was secretly inscribed with a prophecy, how the + Russians, in the last days, should become masters of Constantinople. <a + href="#linknote-55.66" name="linknoteref-55.66" id="linknoteref-55.66">66</a> + In our own time, a Russian armament, instead of sailing from the + Borysthenes, has circumnavigated the continent of Europe; and the Turkish + capital has been threatened by a squadron of strong and lofty ships of + war, each of which, with its naval science and thundering artillery, could + have sunk or scattered a hundred canoes, such as those of their ancestors. + Perhaps the present generation may yet behold the accomplishment of the + prediction, of a rare prediction, of which the style is unambiguous and + the date unquestionable. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.65" id="linknote-55.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.65">return</a>)<br /> [ Nestor, apud Leveque, + Hist. de Russie, tom. i. p. 87.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.66" id="linknote-55.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.66">return</a>)<br /> [ This brazen statue, + which had been brought from Antioch, and was melted down by the Latins, + was supposed to represent either Joshua or Bellerophon, an odd dilemma. + See Nicetas Choniates, (p. 413, 414,) Codinus, (de Originibus C. P. p. + 24,) and the anonymous writer de Antiquitat. C. P. (Banduri, Imp. Orient. + tom. i. p. 17, 18,) who lived about the year 1100. They witness the belief + of the prophecy the rest is immaterial.] + </p> + <p> + By land the Russians were less formidable than by sea; and as they fought + for the most part on foot, their irregular legions must often have been + broken and overthrown by the cavalry of the Scythian hordes. Yet their + growing towns, however slight and imperfect, presented a shelter to the + subject, and a barrier to the enemy: the monarchy of Kiow, till a fatal + partition, assumed the dominion of the North; and the nations from the + Volga to the Danube were subdued or repelled by the arms of Swatoslaus, <a + href="#linknote-55.67" name="linknoteref-55.67" id="linknoteref-55.67">67</a> + the son of Igor, the son of Oleg, the son of Ruric. The vigor of his mind + and body was fortified by the hardships of a military and savage life. + Wrapped in a bear-skin, Swatoslaus usually slept on the ground, his head + reclining on a saddle; his diet was coarse and frugal, and, like the + heroes of Homer, <a href="#linknote-55.68" name="linknoteref-55.68" + id="linknoteref-55.68">68</a> his meat (it was often horse-flesh) was + broiled or roasted on the coals. The exercise of war gave stability and + discipline to his army; and it may be presumed, that no soldier was + permitted to transcend the luxury of his chief. By an embassy from + Nicephorus, the Greek emperor, he was moved to undertake the conquest of + Bulgaria; and a gift of fifteen hundred pounds of gold was laid at his + feet to defray the expense, or reward the toils, of the expedition. An + army of sixty thousand men was assembled and embarked; they sailed from + the Borysthenes to the Danube; their landing was effected on the Maesian + shore; and, after a sharp encounter, the swords of the Russians prevailed + against the arrows of the Bulgarian horse. The vanquished king sunk into + the grave; his children were made captive; and his dominions, as far as + Mount Haemus, were subdued or ravaged by the northern invaders. But + instead of relinquishing his prey, and performing his engagements, the + Varangian prince was more disposed to advance than to retire; and, had his + ambition been crowned with success, the seat of empire in that early + period might have been transferred to a more temperate and fruitful + climate. Swatoslaus enjoyed and acknowledged the advantages of his new + position, in which he could unite, by exchange or rapine, the various + productions of the earth. By an easy navigation he might draw from Russia + the native commodities of furs, wax, and hydromed: Hungary supplied him + with a breed of horses and the spoils of the West; and Greece abounded + with gold, silver, and the foreign luxuries, which his poverty had + affected to disdain. The bands of Patzinacites, Chozars, and Turks, + repaired to the standard of victory; and the ambassador of Nicephorus + betrayed his trust, assumed the purple, and promised to share with his new + allies the treasures of the Eastern world. From the banks of the Danube + the Russian prince pursued his march as far as Adrianople; a formal + summons to evacuate the Roman province was dismissed with contempt; and + Swatoslaus fiercely replied, that Constantinople might soon expect the + presence of an enemy and a master. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.67" id="linknote-55.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.67">return</a>)<br /> [ The life of Swatoslaus, + or Sviatoslaf, or Sphendosthlabus, is extracted from the Russian + Chronicles by M. Levesque, (Hist. de Russie, tom. i. p. 94-107.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.68" id="linknote-55.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.68">return</a>)<br /> [ This resemblance may be + clearly seen in the ninth book of the Iliad, (205-221,) in the minute + detail of the cookery of Achilles. By such a picture, a modern epic poet + would disgrace his work, and disgust his reader; but the Greek verses are + harmonious—a dead language can seldom appear low or familiar; and at + the distance of two thousand seven hundred years, we are amused with the + primitive manners of antiquity.] + </p> + <p> + Nicephorus could no longer expel the mischief which he had introduced; but + his throne and wife were inherited by John Zimisces, <a + href="#linknote-55.69" name="linknoteref-55.69" id="linknoteref-55.69">69</a> + who, in a diminutive body, possessed the spirit and abilities of a hero. + The first victory of his lieutenants deprived the Russians of their + foreign allies, twenty thousand of whom were either destroyed by the + sword, or provoked to revolt, or tempted to desert. Thrace was delivered, + but seventy thousand Barbarians were still in arms; and the legions that + had been recalled from the new conquests of Syria, prepared, with the + return of the spring, to march under the banners of a warlike prince, who + declared himself the friend and avenger of the injured Bulgaria. The + passes of Mount Haemus had been left unguarded; they were instantly + occupied; the Roman vanguard was formed of the immortals, (a proud + imitation of the Persian style;) the emperor led the main body of ten + thousand five hundred foot; and the rest of his forces followed in slow + and cautious array, with the baggage and military engines. The first + exploit of Zimisces was the reduction of Marcianopolis, or Peristhlaba, <a + href="#linknote-55.70" name="linknoteref-55.70" id="linknoteref-55.70">70</a> + in two days; the trumpets sounded; the walls were scaled; eight thousand + five hundred Russians were put to the sword; and the sons of the Bulgarian + king were rescued from an ignominious prison, and invested with a nominal + diadem. After these repeated losses, Swatoslaus retired to the strong post + of Drista, on the banks of the Danube, and was pursued by an enemy who + alternately employed the arms of celerity and delay. The Byzantine galleys + ascended the river, the legions completed a line of circumvallation; and + the Russian prince was encompassed, assaulted, and famished, in the + fortifications of the camp and city. Many deeds of valor were performed; + several desperate sallies were attempted; nor was it till after a siege of + sixty-five days that Swatoslaus yielded to his adverse fortune. The + liberal terms which he obtained announce the prudence of the victor, who + respected the valor, and apprehended the despair, of an unconquered mind. + The great duke of Russia bound himself, by solemn imprecations, to + relinquish all hostile designs; a safe passage was opened for his return; + the liberty of trade and navigation was restored; a measure of corn was + distributed to each of his soldiers; and the allowance of twenty-two + thousand measures attests the loss and the remnant of the Barbarians. + After a painful voyage, they again reached the mouth of the Borysthenes; + but their provisions were exhausted; the season was unfavorable; they + passed the winter on the ice; and, before they could prosecute their + march, Swatoslaus was surprised and oppressed by the neighboring tribes + with whom the Greeks entertained a perpetual and useful correspondence. <a + href="#linknote-55.71" name="linknoteref-55.71" id="linknoteref-55.71">71</a> + Far different was the return of Zimisces, who was received in his capital + like Camillus or Marius, the saviors of ancient Rome. But the merit of the + victory was attributed by the pious emperor to the mother of God; and the + image of the Virgin Mary, with the divine infant in her arms, was placed + on a triumphal car, adorned with the spoils of war, and the ensigns of + Bulgarian royalty. Zimisces made his public entry on horseback; the diadem + on his head, a crown of laurel in his hand; and Constantinople was + astonished to applaud the martial virtues of her sovereign. <a + href="#linknote-55.72" name="linknoteref-55.72" id="linknoteref-55.72">72</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.69" id="linknote-55.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.69">return</a>)<br /> [ This singular epithet + is derived from the Armenian language. As I profess myself equally + ignorant of these words, I may be indulged in the question in the play, + “Pray, which of you is the interpreter?” From the context, they seem to + signify Adolescentulus, (Leo Diacon l. iv. Ms. apud Ducange, Glossar. + Graec. p. 1570.) * Note: Cerbied. the learned Armenian, gives another + derivation. There is a city called Tschemisch-gaizag, which means a bright + or purple sandal, such as women wear in the East. He was called + Tschemisch-ghigh, (for so his name is written in Armenian, from this city, + his native place.) Hase. Note to Leo Diac. p. 454, in Niebuhr’s Byzant. + Hist.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.70" id="linknote-55.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.70">return</a>)<br /> [ In the Sclavonic + tongue, the name of Peristhlaba implied the great or illustrious city, + says Anna Comnena, (Alexiad, l. vii. p. 194.) From its position between + Mount Haemus and the Lower Danube, it appears to fill the ground, or at + least the station, of Marcianopolis. The situation of Durostolus, or + Dristra, is well known and conspicuous, (Comment. Academ. Petropol. tom. + ix. p. 415, 416. D’Anville, Geographie Ancienne, tom. i. p. 307, 311.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.71" id="linknote-55.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.71">return</a>)<br /> [ The political + management of the Greeks, more especially with the Patzinacites, is + explained in the seven first chapters, de Administratione Imperii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.72" id="linknote-55.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.72">return</a>)<br /> [ In the narrative of + this war, Leo the Deacon (apud Pagi, Critica, tom. iv. A.D. 968-973) is + more authentic and circumstantial than Cedrenus (tom. ii. p. 660-683) and + Zonaras, (tom. ii. p. 205-214.) These declaimers have multiplied to + 308,000 and 330,000 men, those Russian forces, of which the contemporary + had given a moderate and consistent account.] + </p> + <p> + Photius of Constantinople, a patriarch, whose ambition was equal to his + curiosity, congratulates himself and the Greek church on the conversion of + the Russians. <a href="#linknote-55.73" name="linknoteref-55.73" + id="linknoteref-55.73">73</a> Those fierce and bloody Barbarians had been + persuaded, by the voice of reason and religion, to acknowledge Jesus for + their God, the Christian missionaries for their teachers, and the Romans + for their friends and brethren. His triumph was transient and premature. + In the various fortune of their piratical adventures, some Russian chiefs + might allow themselves to be sprinkled with the waters of baptism; and a + Greek bishop, with the name of metropolitan, might administer the + sacraments in the church of Kiow, to a congregation of slaves and natives. + But the seed of the gospel was sown on a barren soil: many were the + apostates, the converts were few; and the baptism of Olga may be fixed as + the aera of Russian Christianity. <a href="#linknote-55.74" + name="linknoteref-55.74" id="linknoteref-55.74">74</a> A female, perhaps of + the basest origin, who could revenge the death, and assume the sceptre, of + her husband Igor, must have been endowed with those active virtues which + command the fear and obedience of Barbarians. In a moment of foreign and + domestic peace, she sailed from Kiow to Constantinople; and the emperor + Constantine Porphyrogenitus has described, with minute diligence, the + ceremonial of her reception in his capital and palace. The steps, the + titles, the salutations, the banquet, the presents, were exquisitely + adjusted to gratify the vanity of the stranger, with due reverence to the + superior majesty of the purple. <a href="#linknote-55.75" + name="linknoteref-55.75" id="linknoteref-55.75">75</a> In the sacrament of + baptism, she received the venerable name of the empress Helena; and her + conversion might be preceded or followed by her uncle, two interpreters, + sixteen damsels of a higher, and eighteen of a lower rank, twenty-two + domestics or ministers, and forty-four Russian merchants, who composed the + retinue of the great princess Olga. After her return to Kiow and + Novogorod, she firmly persisted in her new religion; but her labors in the + propagation of the gospel were not crowned with success; and both her + family and nation adhered with obstinacy or indifference to the gods of + their fathers. Her son Swatoslaus was apprehensive of the scorn and + ridicule of his companions; and her grandson Wolodomir devoted his + youthful zeal to multiply and decorate the monuments of ancient worship. + The savage deities of the North were still propitiated with human + sacrifices: in the choice of the victim, a citizen was preferred to a + stranger, a Christian to an idolater; and the father, who defended his son + from the sacerdotal knife, was involved in the same doom by the rage of a + fanatic tumult. Yet the lessons and example of the pious Olga had made a + deep, though secret, impression in the minds of the prince and people: the + Greek missionaries continued to preach, to dispute, and to baptize: and + the ambassadors or merchants of Russia compared the idolatry of the woods + with the elegant superstition of Constantinople. They had gazed with + admiration on the dome of St. Sophia: the lively pictures of saints and + martyrs, the riches of the altar, the number and vestments of the priests, + the pomp and order of the ceremonies; they were edified by the alternate + succession of devout silence and harmonious song; nor was it difficult to + persuade them, that a choir of angels descended each day from heaven to + join in the devotion of the Christians. <a href="#linknote-55.76" + name="linknoteref-55.76" id="linknoteref-55.76">76</a> But the conversion of + Wolodomir was determined, or hastened, by his desire of a Roman bride. At + the same time, and in the city of Cherson, the rites of baptism and + marriage were celebrated by the Christian pontiff: the city he restored to + the emperor Basil, the brother of his spouse; but the brazen gates were + transported, as it is said, to Novogorod, and erected before the first + church as a trophy of his victory and faith. <a href="#linknote-55.77" + name="linknoteref-55.77" id="linknoteref-55.77">77</a> At his despotic + command, Peround, the god of thunder, whom he had so long adored, was + dragged through the streets of Kiow; and twelve sturdy Barbarians battered + with clubs the misshapen image, which was indignantly cast into the waters + of the Borysthenes. The edict of Wolodomir had proclaimed, that all who + should refuse the rites of baptism would be treated as the enemies of God + and their prince; and the rivers were instantly filled with many thousands + of obedient Russians, who acquiesced in the truth and excellence of a + doctrine which had been embraced by the great duke and his boyars. In the + next generation, the relics of Paganism were finally extirpated; but as + the two brothers of Wolodomir had died without baptism, their bones were + taken from the grave, and sanctified by an irregular and posthumous + sacrament. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.73" id="linknote-55.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.73">return</a>)<br /> [ Phot. Epistol. ii. No. + 35, p. 58, edit. Montacut. It was unworthy of the learning of the editor + to mistake the Russian nation, for a war-cry of the Bulgarians, nor did it + become the enlightened patriarch to accuse the Sclavonian idolaters. They + were neither Greeks nor Atheists.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.74" id="linknote-55.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.74">return</a>)<br /> [ M. Levesque has + extracted, from old chronicles and modern researches, the most + satisfactory account of the religion of the Slavi, and the conversion of + Russia, (Hist. de Russie, tom. i. p. 35-54, 59, 92, 92, 113-121, 124-129, + 148, 149, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.75" id="linknote-55.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.75">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Ceremoniale + Aulae Byzant. tom. ii. c. 15, p. 343-345: the style of Olga, or Elga. For + the chief of Barbarians the Greeks whimsically borrowed the title of an + Athenian magistrate, with a female termination, which would have + astonished the ear of Demosthenes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.76" id="linknote-55.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.76">return</a>)<br /> [ See an anonymous + fragment published by Banduri, (Imperium Orientale, tom. ii. p. 112, 113, + de Conversione Russorum.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.77" id="linknote-55.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.77">return</a>)<br /> [ Cherson, or Corsun, is + mentioned by Herberstein (apud Pagi tom. iv. p. 56) as the place of + Wolodomir’s baptism and marriage; and both the tradition and the gates are + still preserved at Novogorod. Yet an observing traveller transports the + brazen gates from Magdeburgh in Germany, (Coxe’s Travels into Russia, + &c., vol. i. p. 452;) and quotes an inscription, which seems to + justify his opinion. The modern reader must not confound this old Cherson + of the Tauric or Crimaean peninsula, with a new city of the same name, + which has arisen near the mouth of the Borysthenes, and was lately honored + by the memorable interview of the empress of Russia with the emperor of + the West.] + </p> + <p> + In the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries of the Christian aera, the + reign of the gospel and of the church was extended over Bulgaria, Hungary, + Bohemia, Saxony, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Poland, and Russia. <a + href="#linknote-55.78" name="linknoteref-55.78" id="linknoteref-55.78">78</a> + The triumphs of apostolic zeal were repeated in the iron age of + Christianity; and the northern and eastern regions of Europe submitted to + a religion, more different in theory than in practice, from the worship of + their native idols. A laudable ambition excited the monks both of Germany + and Greece, to visit the tents and huts of the Barbarians: poverty, + hardships, and dangers, were the lot of the first missionaries; their + courage was active and patient; their motive pure and meritorious; their + present reward consisted in the testimony of their conscience and the + respect of a grateful people; but the fruitful harvest of their toils was + inherited and enjoyed by the proud and wealthy prelates of succeeding + times. The first conversions were free and spontaneous: a holy life and an + eloquent tongue were the only arms of the missionaries; but the domestic + fables of the Pagans were silenced by the miracles and visions of the + strangers; and the favorable temper of the chiefs was accelerated by the + dictates of vanity and interest. The leaders of nations, who were saluted + with the titles of kings and saints, <a href="#linknote-55.79" + name="linknoteref-55.79" id="linknoteref-55.79">79</a> held it lawful and + pious to impose the Catholic faith on their subjects and neighbors; the + coast of the Baltic, from Holstein to the Gulf of Finland, was invaded + under the standard of the cross; and the reign of idolatry was closed by + the conversion of Lithuania in the fourteenth century. Yet truth and + candor must acknowledge, that the conversion of the North imparted many + temporal benefits both to the old and the new Christians. The rage of war, + inherent to the human species, could not be healed by the evangelic + precepts of charity and peace; and the ambition of Catholic princes has + renewed in every age the calamities of hostile contention. But the + admission of the Barbarians into the pale of civil and ecclesiastical + society delivered Europe from the depredations, by sea and land, of the + Normans, the Hungarians, and the Russians, who learned to spare their + brethren and cultivate their possessions. <a href="#linknote-55.80" + name="linknoteref-55.80" id="linknoteref-55.80">80</a> The establishment of + law and order was promoted by the influence of the clergy; and the + rudiments of art and science were introduced into the savage countries of + the globe. The liberal piety of the Russian princes engaged in their + service the most skilful of the Greeks, to decorate the cities and + instruct the inhabitants: the dome and the paintings of St. Sophia were + rudely copied in the churches of Kiow and Novogorod: the writings of the + fathers were translated into the Sclavonic idiom; and three hundred noble + youths were invited or compelled to attend the lessons of the college of + Jaroslaus. It should appear that Russia might have derived an early and + rapid improvement from her peculiar connection with the church and state + of Constantinople, which at that age so justly despised the ignorance of + the Latins. But the Byzantine nation was servile, solitary, and verging to + a hasty decline: after the fall of Kiow, the navigation of the Borysthenes + was forgotten; the great princes of Wolodomir and Moscow were separated + from the sea and Christendom; and the divided monarchy was oppressed by + the ignominy and blindness of Tartar servitude. <a href="#linknote-55.81" + name="linknoteref-55.81" id="linknoteref-55.81">81</a> The Sclavonic and + Scandinavian kingdoms, which had been converted by the Latin missionaries, + were exposed, it is true, to the spiritual jurisdiction and temporal + claims of the popes; <a href="#linknote-55.82" name="linknoteref-55.82" + id="linknoteref-55.82">82</a> but they were united in language and + religious worship, with each other, and with Rome; they imbibed the free + and generous spirit of the European republic, and gradually shared the + light of knowledge which arose on the western world. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.78" id="linknote-55.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.78">return</a>)<br /> [ Consult the Latin text, + or English version, of Mosheim’s excellent History of the Church, under + the first head or section of each of these centuries.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.79" id="linknote-55.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.79">return</a>)<br /> [ In the year 1000, the + ambassadors of St. Stephen received from Pope Silvester the title of King + of Hungary, with a diadem of Greek workmanship. It had been designed for + the duke of Poland: but the Poles, by their own confession, were yet too + barbarous to deserve an angelical and apostolical crown. (Katona, Hist. + Critic Regum Stirpis Arpadianae, tom. i. p. 1-20.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.80" id="linknote-55.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.80">return</a>)<br /> [ Listen to the + exultations of Adam of Bremen, (A.D. 1080,) of which the substance is + agreeable to truth: Ecce illa ferocissima Danorum, &c., natio..... + jamdudum novit in Dei laudibus Alleluia resonare..... Ecce populus ille + piraticus ..... suis nunc finibus contentus est. Ecce patria horribilis + semper inaccessa propter cultum idolorum... praedicatores veritatis ubique + certatim admittit, &c., &c., (de Situ Daniae, &c., p. 40, 41, + edit. Elzevir; a curious and original prospect of the north of Europe, and + the introduction of Christianity.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.81" id="linknote-55.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.81">return</a>)<br /> [ The great princes + removed in 1156 from Kiow, which was ruined by the Tartars in 1240. Moscow + became the seat of empire in the xivth century. See the 1st and 2d volumes + of Levesque’s History, and Mr. Coxe’s Travels into the North, tom. i. p. + 241, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-55.82" id="linknote-55.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-55.82">return</a>)<br /> [ The ambassadors of St. + Stephen had used the reverential expressions of regnum oblatum, debitam + obedientiam, &c., which were most rigorously interpreted by Gregory + VII.; and the Hungarian Catholics are distressed between the sanctity of + the pope and the independence of the crown, (Katona, Hist. Critica, tom. + i. p. 20-25, tom. ii. p. 304, 346, 360, &c.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap56.1"></a> + Chapter LVI: The Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Saracens, Franks, And Greeks, In Italy.—First + Adventures And Settlement Of The Normans.—Character And + Conquest Of Robert Guiscard, Duke Of Apulia—Deliverance Of + Sicily By His Brother Roger.—Victories Of Robert Over The + Emperors Of The East And West.—Roger, King Of Sicily, + Invades Africa And Greece.—The Emperor Manuel Comnenus.— + Wars Of The Greeks And Normans.—Extinction Of The Normans. +</pre> + <p> + The three great nations of the world, the Greeks, the Saracens, and the + Franks, encountered each other on the theatre of Italy. <a + href="#linknote-56.1" name="linknoteref-56.1" id="linknoteref-56.1">1</a> The + southern provinces, which now compose the kingdom of Naples, were subject, + for the most part, to the Lombard dukes and princes of Beneventum; <a + href="#linknote-56.2" name="linknoteref-56.2" id="linknoteref-56.2">2</a> so + powerful in war, that they checked for a moment the genius of Charlemagne; + so liberal in peace, that they maintained in their capital an academy of + thirty-two philosophers and grammarians. The division of this flourishing + state produced the rival principalities of Benevento, Salerno, and Capua; + and the thoughtless ambition or revenge of the competitors invited the + Saracens to the ruin of their common inheritance. During a calamitous + period of two hundred years, Italy was exposed to a repetition of wounds, + which the invaders were not capable of healing by the union and + tranquility of a perfect conquest. Their frequent and almost annual + squadrons issued from the port of Palermo, and were entertained with too + much indulgence by the Christians of Naples: the more formidable fleets + were prepared on the African coast; and even the Arabs of Andalusia were + sometimes tempted to assist or oppose the Moslems of an adverse sect. In + the revolution of human events, a new ambuscade was concealed in the + Caudine Forks, the fields of Cannae were bedewed a second time with the + blood of the Africans, and the sovereign of Rome again attacked or + defended the walls of Capua and Tarentum. A colony of Saracens had been + planted at Bari, which commands the entrance of the Adriatic Gulf; and + their impartial depredations provoked the resentment, and conciliated the + union of the two emperors. An offensive alliance was concluded between + Basil the Macedonian, the first of his race, and Lewis the great-grandson + of Charlemagne; <a href="#linknote-56.3" name="linknoteref-56.3" + id="linknoteref-56.3">3</a> and each party supplied the deficiencies of his + associate. It would have been imprudent in the Byzantine monarch to + transport his stationary troops of Asia to an Italian campaign; and the + Latin arms would have been insufficient if his superior navy had not + occupied the mouth of the Gulf. The fortress of Bari was invested by the + infantry of the Franks, and by the cavalry and galleys of the Greeks; and, + after a defence of four years, the Arabian emir submitted to the clemency + of Lewis, who commanded in person the operations of the siege. This + important conquest had been achieved by the concord of the East and West; + but their recent amity was soon imbittered by the mutual complaints of + jealousy and pride. The Greeks assumed as their own the merit of the + conquest and the pomp of the triumph; extolled the greatness of their + powers, and affected to deride the intemperance and sloth of the handful + of Barbarians who appeared under the banners of the Carlovingian prince. + His reply is expressed with the eloquence of indignation and truth: “We + confess the magnitude of your preparation,” says the great-grandson of + Charlemagne. “Your armies were indeed as numerous as a cloud of summer + locusts, who darken the day, flap their wings, and, after a short flight, + tumble weary and breathless to the ground. Like them, ye sunk after a + feeble effort; ye were vanquished by your own cowardice; and withdrew from + the scene of action to injure and despoil our Christian subjects of the + Sclavonian coast. We were few in number, and why were we few? Because, + after a tedious expectation of your arrival, I had dismissed my host, and + retained only a chosen band of warriors to continue the blockade of the + city. If they indulged their hospitable feasts in the face of danger and + death, did these feasts abate the vigor of their enterprise? Is it by your + fasting that the walls of Bari have been overturned? Did not these valiant + Franks, diminished as they were by languor and fatigue, intercept and + vanish the three most powerful emirs of the Saracens? and did not their + defeat precipitate the fall of the city? Bari is now fallen; Tarentum + trembles; Calabria will be delivered; and, if we command the sea, the + Island of Sicily may be rescued from the hands of the infidels. My + brother,” accelerate (a name most offensive to the vanity of the Greek,) + “accelerate your naval succors, respect your allies, and distrust your + flatterers.” <a href="#linknote-56.4" name="linknoteref-56.4" + id="linknoteref-56.4">4</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.1" id="linknote-56.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.1">return</a>)<br /> [ For the general history + of Italy in the ixth and xth centuries, I may properly refer to the vth, + vith, and viith books of Sigonius de Regno Italiae, (in the second volume + of his works, Milan, 1732;) the Annals of Baronius, with the criticism of + Pagi; the viith and viiith books of the Istoria Civile del Regno di Napoli + of Giannone; the viith and viiith volumes (the octavo edition) of the + Annali d’ Italia of Muratori, and the 2d volume of the Abrege + Chronologique of M. de St. Marc, a work which, under a superficial title, + contains much genuine learning and industry. But my long-accustomed reader + will give me credit for saying, that I myself have ascended to the + fountain head, as often as such ascent could be either profitable or + possible; and that I have diligently turned over the originals in the + first volumes of Muratori’s great collection of the Scriptores Rerum + Italicarum.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.2" id="linknote-56.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.2">return</a>)<br /> [ Camillo Pellegrino, a + learned Capuan of the last century, has illustrated the history of the + duchy of Beneventum, in his two books Historia Principum Longobardorum, in + the Scriptores of Muratori tom. ii. pars i. p. 221-345, and tom. v. p + 159-245.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.3" id="linknote-56.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.3">return</a>)<br /> [ See Constantin. + Porphyrogen. de Thematibus, l. ii. c xi. in Vit Basil. c. 55, p. 181.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.4" id="linknote-56.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.4">return</a>)<br /> [ The oriental epistle of + the emperor Lewis II. to the emperor Basil, a curious record of the age, + was first published by Baronius, (Annal. Eccles. A.D. 871, No. 51-71,) + from the Vatican Ms. of Erchempert, or rather of the anonymous historian + of Salerno.] These lofty hopes were soon extinguished by the death of + Lewis, and the decay of the Carlovingian house; and whoever might deserve + the honor, the Greek emperors, Basil, and his son Leo, secured the + advantage, of the reduction of Bari. The Italians of Apulia and Calabria + were persuaded or compelled to acknowledge their supremacy, and an ideal + line from Mount Garganus to the Bay of Salerno, leaves the far greater + part of the kingdom of Naples under the dominion of the Eastern empire. + Beyond that line, the dukes or republics of Amalfi <a href="#linknote-56.5" + name="linknoteref-56.5" id="linknoteref-56.5">5</a> and Naples, who had + never forfeited their voluntary allegiance, rejoiced in the neighborhood + of their lawful sovereign; and Amalfi was enriched by supplying Europe + with the produce and manufactures of Asia. But the Lombard princes of + Benevento, Salerno, and Capua, <a href="#linknote-56.6" + name="linknoteref-56.6" id="linknoteref-56.6">6</a> were reluctantly torn + from the communion of the Latin world, and too often violated their oaths + of servitude and tribute. The city of Bari rose to dignity and wealth, as + the metropolis of the new theme or province of Lombardy: the title of + patrician, and afterwards the singular name of Catapan, <a + href="#linknote-56.7" name="linknoteref-56.7" id="linknoteref-56.7">7</a> was + assigned to the supreme governor; and the policy both of the church and + state was modelled in exact subordination to the throne of Constantinople. + As long as the sceptre was disputed by the princes of Italy, their efforts + were feeble and adverse; and the Greeks resisted or eluded the forces of + Germany, which descended from the Alps under the Imperial standard of the + Othos. The first and greatest of those Saxon princes was compelled to + relinquish the siege of Bari: the second, after the loss of his stoutest + bishops and barons, escaped with honor from the bloody field of Crotona. + On that day the scale of war was turned against the Franks by the valor of + the Saracens. <a href="#linknote-56.8" name="linknoteref-56.8" + id="linknoteref-56.8">8</a> These corsairs had indeed been driven by the + Byzantine fleets from the fortresses and coasts of Italy; but a sense of + interest was more prevalent than superstition or resentment, and the + caliph of Egypt had transported forty thousand Moslems to the aid of his + Christian ally. The successors of Basil amused themselves with the belief, + that the conquest of Lombardy had been achieved, and was still preserved + by the justice of their laws, the virtues of their ministers, and the + gratitude of a people whom they had rescued from anarchy and oppression. A + series of rebellions might dart a ray of truth into the palace of + Constantinople; and the illusions of flattery were dispelled by the easy + and rapid success of the Norman adventurers. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.5" id="linknote-56.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.5">return</a>)<br /> [ See an excellent + Dissertation de Republica Amalphitana, in the Appendix (p. 1-42) of Henry + Brencman’s Historia Pandectarum, (Trajecti ad Rhenum, 1722, in 4to.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.6" id="linknote-56.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.6">return</a>)<br /> [ Your master, says + Nicephorus, has given aid and protection prinminibus Capuano et + Beneventano, servis meis, quos oppugnare dispono.... Nova (potius nota) + res est quod eorum patres et avi nostro Imperio tributa dederunt, + (Liutprand, in Legat. p. 484.) Salerno is not mentioned, yet the prince + changed his party about the same time, and Camillo Pellegrino (Script. + Rer. Ital. tom. ii. pars i. p. 285) has nicely discerned this change in + the style of the anonymous Chronicle. On the rational ground of history + and language, Liutprand (p. 480) had asserted the Latin claim to Apulia + and Calabria.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.7" id="linknote-56.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.7">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Greek and Latin + Glossaries of Ducange (catapanus,) and his notes on the Alexias, (p. 275.) + Against the contemporary notion, which derives it from juxta omne, he + treats it as a corruption of the Latin capitaneus. Yet M. de St. Marc has + accurately observed (Abrege Chronologique, tom. ii. p. 924) that in this + age the capitanei were not captains, but only nobles of the first rank, + the great valvassors of Italy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.8" id="linknote-56.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.8">return</a>)<br /> [ (the Lombards), (Leon. + Tactic. c. xv. p. 741.) The little Chronicle of Beneventum (tom. ii. pars + i. p. 280) gives a far different character of the Greeks during the five + years (A.D. 891-896) that Leo was master of the city.] + </p> + <p> + The revolution of human affairs had produced in Apulia and Calabria a + melancholy contrast between the age of Pythagoras and the tenth century of + the Christian aera. At the former period, the coast of Great Greece (as it + was then styled) was planted with free and opulent cities: these cities + were peopled with soldiers, artists, and philosophers; and the military + strength of Tarentum; Sybaris, or Crotona, was not inferior to that of a + powerful kingdom. At the second aera, these once flourishing provinces + were clouded with ignorance impoverished by tyranny, and depopulated by + Barbarian war; nor can we severely accuse the exaggeration of a + contemporary, that a fair and ample district was reduced to the same + desolation which had covered the earth after the general deluge. <a + href="#linknote-56.9" name="linknoteref-56.9" id="linknoteref-56.9">9</a> + Among the hostilities of the Arabs, the Franks, and the Greeks, in the + southern Italy, I shall select two or three anecdotes expressive of their + national manners. 1. It was the amusement of the Saracens to profane, as + well as to pillage, the monasteries and churches. At the siege of Salerno, + a Mussulman chief spread his couch on the communion-table, and on that + altar sacrificed each night the virginity of a Christian nun. As he + wrestled with a reluctant maid, a beam in the roof was accidentally or + dexterously thrown down on his head; and the death of the lustful emir was + imputed to the wrath of Christ, which was at length awakened to the + defence of his faithful spouse. <a href="#linknote-56.10" + name="linknoteref-56.10" id="linknoteref-56.10">10</a> 2. The Saracens + besieged the cities of Beneventum and Capua: after a vain appeal to the + successors of Charlemagne, the Lombards implored the clemency and aid of + the Greek emperor. <a href="#linknote-56.11" name="linknoteref-56.11" + id="linknoteref-56.11">11</a> A fearless citizen dropped from the walls, + passed the intrenchments, accomplished his commission, and fell into the + hands of the Barbarians as he was returning with the welcome news. They + commanded him to assist their enterprise, and deceive his countrymen, with + the assurance that wealth and honors should be the reward of his + falsehood, and that his sincerity would be punished with immediate death. + He affected to yield, but as soon as he was conducted within hearing of + the Christians on the rampart, “Friends and brethren,” he cried with a + loud voice, “be bold and patient, maintain the city; your sovereign is + informed of your distress, and your deliverers are at hand. I know my + doom, and commit my wife and children to your gratitude.” The rage of the + Arabs confirmed his evidence; and the self-devoted patriot was + transpierced with a hundred spears. He deserves to live in the memory of + the virtuous, but the repetition of the same story in ancient and modern + times, may sprinkle some doubts on the reality of this generous deed. <a + href="#linknote-56.12" name="linknoteref-56.12" id="linknoteref-56.12">12</a> + 3. The recital of a third incident may provoke a smile amidst the horrors + of war. Theobald, marquis of Camerino and Spoleto, <a href="#linknote-56.13" + name="linknoteref-56.13" id="linknoteref-56.13">13</a> supported the rebels + of Beneventum; and his wanton cruelty was not incompatible in that age + with the character of a hero. His captives of the Greek nation or party + were castrated without mercy, and the outrage was aggravated by a cruel + jest, that he wished to present the emperor with a supply of eunuchs, the + most precious ornaments of the Byzantine court. The garrison of a castle + had been defeated in a sally, and the prisoners were sentenced to the + customary operation. But the sacrifice was disturbed by the intrusion of a + frantic female, who, with bleeding cheeks dishevelled hair, and + importunate clamors, compelled the marquis to listen to her complaint. “Is + it thus,” she cried, “ye magnanimous heroes, that ye wage war against + women, against women who have never injured ye, and whose only arms are + the distaff and the loom?” Theobald denied the charge, and protested that, + since the Amazons, he had never heard of a female war. “And how,” she + furiously exclaimed, “can you attack us more directly, how can you wound + us in a more vital part, than by robbing our husbands of what we most + dearly cherish, the source of our joys, and the hope of our posterity? The + plunder of our flocks and herds I have endured without a murmur, but this + fatal injury, this irreparable loss, subdues my patience, and calls aloud + on the justice of heaven and earth.” A general laugh applauded her + eloquence; the savage Franks, inaccessible to pity, were moved by her + ridiculous, yet rational despair; and with the deliverance of the + captives, she obtained the restitution of her effects. As she returned in + triumph to the castle, she was overtaken by a messenger, to inquire, in + the name of Theobald, what punishment should be inflicted on her husband, + were he again taken in arms. “Should such,” she answered without + hesitation, “be his guilt and misfortune, he has eyes, and a nose, and + hands, and feet. These are his own, and these he may deserve to forfeit by + his personal offences. But let my lord be pleased to spare what his little + handmaid presumes to claim as her peculiar and lawful property.” <a + href="#linknote-56.14" name="linknoteref-56.14" id="linknoteref-56.14">14</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.9" id="linknote-56.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.9">return</a>)<br /> [ Calabriam adeunt, eamque + inter se divisam reperientes funditus depopulati sunt, (or depopularunt,) + ita ut deserta sit velut in diluvio. Such is the text of Herempert, or + Erchempert, according to the two editions of Carraccioli (Rer. Italic. + Script. tom. v. p. 23) and of Camillo Pellegrino, (tom. ii. pars i. p. + 246.) Both were extremely scarce, when they were reprinted by Muratori.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.10" id="linknote-56.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.10">return</a>)<br /> [ Baronius (Annal. + Eccles. A.D. 874, No. 2) has drawn this story from a Ms. of Erchempert, + who died at Capua only fifteen years after the event. But the cardinal was + deceived by a false title, and we can only quote the anonymous Chronicle + of Salerno, (Paralipomena, c. 110,) composed towards the end of the xth + century, and published in the second volume of Muratori’s Collection. See + the Dissertations of Camillo Pellegrino, tom. ii. pars i. p. 231-281, + &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.11" id="linknote-56.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.11">return</a>)<br /> [ Constantine + Porphyrogenitus (in Vit. Basil. c. 58, p. 183) is the original author of + this story. He places it under the reigns of Basil and Lewis II.; yet the + reduction of Beneventum by the Greeks is dated A.D. 891, after the decease + of both of those princes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.12" id="linknote-56.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.12">return</a>)<br /> [ In the year 663, the + same tragedy is described by Paul the Deacon, (de Gestis Langobard. l. v. + c. 7, 8, p. 870, 871, edit. Grot.,) under the walls of the same city of + Beneventum. But the actors are different, and the guilt is imputed to the + Greeks themselves, which in the Byzantine edition is applied to the + Saracens. In the late war in Germany, M. D’Assas, a French officer of the + regiment of Auvergne, is said to have devoted himself in a similar manner. + His behavior is the more heroic, as mere silence was required by the enemy + who had made him prisoner, (Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XV. c. 33, tom. ix. + p. 172.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.13" id="linknote-56.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.13">return</a>)<br /> [ Theobald, who is styled + Heros by Liutprand, was properly duke of Spoleto and marquis of Camerino, + from the year 926 to 935. The title and office of marquis (commander of + the march or frontier) was introduced into Italy by the French emperors, + (Abrege Chronologique, tom. ii. p. 545-732 &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.14" id="linknote-56.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.14">return</a>)<br /> [ Liutprand, Hist. l. iv. + c. iv. in the Rerum Italic. Script. tom. i. pars i. p. 453, 454. Should + the licentiousness of the tale be questioned, I may exclaim, with poor + Sterne, that it is hard if I may not transcribe with caution what a bishop + could write without scruple What if I had translated, ut viris certetis + testiculos amputare, in quibus nostri corporis refocillatio, &c.?] + </p> + <p> + The establishment of the Normans in the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily <a + href="#linknote-56.15" name="linknoteref-56.15" id="linknoteref-56.15">15</a> + is an event most romantic in its origin, and in its consequences most + important both to Italy and the Eastern empire. The broken provinces of + the Greeks, Lombards, and Saracens, were exposed to every invader, and + every sea and land were invaded by the adventurous spirit of the + Scandinavian pirates. After a long indulgence of rapine and slaughter, a + fair and ample territory was accepted, occupied, and named, by the Normans + of France: they renounced their gods for the God of the Christians; <a + href="#linknote-56.16" name="linknoteref-56.16" id="linknoteref-56.16">16</a> + and the dukes of Normandy acknowledged themselves the vassals of the + successors of Charlemagne and Capet. The savage fierceness which they had + brought from the snowy mountains of Norway was refined, without being + corrupted, in a warmer climate; the companions of Rollo insensibly mingled + with the natives; they imbibed the manners, language, <a + href="#linknote-56.17" name="linknoteref-56.17" id="linknoteref-56.17">17</a> + and gallantry, of the French nation; and in a martial age, the Normans + might claim the palm of valor and glorious achievements. Of the + fashionable superstitions, they embraced with ardor the pilgrimages of + Rome, Italy, and the Holy Land. <a href="#linknote-56.171" + name="linknoteref-56.171" id="linknoteref-56.171">171</a> In this active + devotion, the minds and bodies were invigorated by exercise: danger was + the incentive, novelty the recompense; and the prospect of the world was + decorated by wonder, credulity, and ambitious hope. They confederated for + their mutual defence; and the robbers of the Alps, who had been allured by + the garb of a pilgrim, were often chastised by the arm of a warrior. In + one of these pious visits to the cavern of Mount Garganus in Apulia, which + had been sanctified by the apparition of the archangel Michael, <a + href="#linknote-56.18" name="linknoteref-56.18" id="linknoteref-56.18">18</a> + they were accosted by a stranger in the Greek habit, but who soon revealed + himself as a rebel, a fugitive, and a mortal foe of the Greek empire. His + name was Melo; a noble citizen of Bari, who, after an unsuccessful revolt, + was compelled to seek new allies and avengers of his country. The bold + appearance of the Normans revived his hopes and solicited his confidence: + they listened to the complaints, and still more to the promises, of the + patriot. The assurance of wealth demonstrated the justice of his cause; + and they viewed, as the inheritance of the brave, the fruitful land which + was oppressed by effeminate tyrants. On their return to Normandy, they + kindled a spark of enterprise, and a small but intrepid band was freely + associated for the deliverance of Apulia. They passed the Alps by separate + roads, and in the disguise of pilgrims; but in the neighborhood of Rome + they were saluted by the chief of Bari, who supplied the more indigent + with arms and horses, and instantly led them to the field of action. In + the first conflict, their valor prevailed; but in the second engagement + they were overwhelmed by the numbers and military engines of the Greeks, + and indignantly retreated with their faces to the enemy. <a + href="#linknote-56.1811" name="linknoteref-56.1811" id="linknoteref-56.1811">1811</a> + The unfortunate Melo ended his life a suppliant at the court of Germany: + his Norman followers, excluded from their native and their promised land, + wandered among the hills and valleys of Italy, and earned their daily + subsistence by the sword. To that formidable sword the princes of Capua, + Beneventum, Salerno, and Naples, alternately appealed in their domestic + quarrels; the superior spirit and discipline of the Normans gave victory + to the side which they espoused; and their cautious policy observed the + balance of power, lest the preponderance of any rival state should render + their aid less important, and their service less profitable. Their first + asylum was a strong camp in the depth of the marshes of Campania: but they + were soon endowed by the liberality of the duke of Naples with a more + plentiful and permanent seat. Eight miles from his residence, as a bulwark + against Capua, the town of Aversa was built and fortified for their use; + and they enjoyed as their own the corn and fruits, the meadows and groves, + of that fertile district. The report of their success attracted every year + new swarms of pilgrims and soldiers: the poor were urged by necessity; the + rich were excited by hope; and the brave and active spirits of Normandy + were impatient of ease and ambitious of renown. The independent standard + of Aversa afforded shelter and encouragement to the outlaws of the + province, to every fugitive who had escaped from the injustice or justice + of his superiors; and these foreign associates were quickly assimilated in + manners and language to the Gallic colony. The first leader of the Normans + was Count Rainulf; and, in the origin of society, preeminence of rank is + the reward and the proof of superior merit. <a href="#linknote-56.19" + name="linknoteref-56.19" id="linknoteref-56.19">19</a> <a + href="#linknote-56.1911" name="linknoteref-56.1911" id="linknoteref-56.1911">1911</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.15" id="linknote-56.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.15">return</a>)<br /> [ The original monuments + of the Normans in Italy are collected in the vth volume of Muratori; and + among these we may distinguish the poems of William Appulus (p. 245-278) + and the history of Galfridus (Jeffrey) Malaterra, (p. 537-607.) Both were + natives of France, but they wrote on the spot, in the age of the first + conquerors (before A.D. 1100,) and with the spirit of freemen. It is + needless to recapitulate the compilers and critics of Italian history, + Sigonius, Baronius, Pagi, Giannone, Muratori, St. Marc, &c., whom I + have always consulted, and never copied. * Note: M. Goutier d’Arc has + discovered a translation of the Chronicle of Aime, monk of Mont Cassino, a + contemporary of the first Norman invaders of Italy. He has made use of it + in his Histoire des Conquetes des Normands, and added a summary of its + contents. This work was quoted by later writers, but was supposed to have + been entirely lost.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.16" id="linknote-56.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.16">return</a>)<br /> [ Some of the first + converts were baptized ten or twelve times, for the sake of the white + garment usually given at this ceremony. At the funeral of Rollo, the gifts + to monasteries for the repose of his soul were accompanied by a sacrifice + of one hundred captives. But in a generation or two, the national change + was pure and general.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.17" id="linknote-56.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.17">return</a>)<br /> [ The Danish language was + still spoken by the Normans of Bayeux on the sea-coast, at a time (A.D. + 940) when it was already forgotten at Rouen, in the court and capital. + Quem (Richard I.) confestim pater Baiocas mittens Botoni militiae suae + principi nutriendum tradidit, ut, ibi lingua eruditus Danica, suis + exterisque hominibus sciret aperte dare responsa, (Wilhelm. Gemeticensis + de Ducibus Normannis, l. iii. c. 8, p. 623, edit. Camden.) Of the + vernacular and favorite idiom of William the Conqueror, (A.D. 1035,) + Selden (Opera, tom. ii. p. 1640-1656) has given a specimen, obsolete and + obscure even to antiquarians and lawyers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.171" id="linknote-56.171"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 171 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.171">return</a>)<br /> [ A band of Normans + returning from the Holy Land had rescued the city of Salerno from the + attack of a numerous fleet of Saracens. Gainar, the Lombard prince of + Salerno wished to retain them in his service and take them into his pay. + They answered, “We fight for our religion, and not for money.” Gaimar + entreated them to send some Norman knights to his court. This seems to + have been the origin of the connection of the Normans with Italy. See + Histoire des Conquetes des Normands par Goutier d’Arc, l. i. c. i., Paris, + 1830.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.18" id="linknote-56.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.18">return</a>)<br /> [ See Leandro Alberti + (Descrizione d’Italia, p. 250) and Baronius, (A.D. 493, No. 43.) If the + archangel inherited the temple and oracle, perhaps the cavern, of old + Calchas the soothsayer, (Strab. Geograph l. vi. p. 435, 436,) the + Catholics (on this occasion) have surpassed the Greeks in the elegance of + their superstition.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.1811" id="linknote-56.1811"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1811 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.1811">return</a>)<br /> [ Nine out of ten + perished in the field. Chronique d’Aime, tom. i. p. 21 quoted by M Goutier + d’Arc, p. 42.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.19" id="linknote-56.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.19">return</a>)<br /> [ See the first book of + William Appulus. His words are applicable to every swarm of Barbarians and + freebooters:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Si vicinorum quis pernitiosus ad illos + + Confugiebat eum gratanter suscipiebant: + + Moribus et lingua quoscumque venire videbant + + Informant propria; gens efficiatur ut una. + + And elsewhere, of the native adventurers of Normandy:— + + Pars parat, exiguae vel opes aderant quia nullae: + + Pars, quia de magnis majora subire volebant.] +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.1911" id="linknote-56.1911"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1911 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.1911">return</a>)<br /> [ This account is not + accurate. After the retreat of the emperor Henry II. the Normans, united + under the command of Rainulf, had taken possession of Aversa, then a small + castle in the duchy of Naples. They had been masters of it a few years + when Pandulf IV., prince of Capua, found means to take Naples by surprise. + Sergius, master of the soldiers, and head of the republic, with the + principal citizens, abandoned a city in which he could not behold, without + horror, the establishment of a foreign dominion he retired to Aversa; and + when, with the assistance of the Greeks and that of the citizens faithful + to their country, he had collected money enough to satisfy the rapacity of + the Norman adventurers, he advanced at their head to attack the garrison + of the prince of Capua, defeated it, and reentered Naples. It was then + that he confirmed the Normans in the possession of Aversa and its + territory, which he raised into a count’s fief, and granted the + investiture to Rainulf. Hist. des Rep. Ital. tom. i. p. 267] + </p> + <p> + Since the conquest of Sicily by the Arabs, the Grecian emperors had been + anxious to regain that valuable possession; but their efforts, however + strenuous, had been opposed by the distance and the sea. Their costly + armaments, after a gleam of success, added new pages of calamity and + disgrace to the Byzantine annals: twenty thousand of their best troops + were lost in a single expedition; and the victorious Moslems derided the + policy of a nation which intrusted eunuchs not only with the custody of + their women, but with the command of their men <a href="#linknote-56.20" + name="linknoteref-56.20" id="linknoteref-56.20">20</a> After a reign of two + hundred years, the Saracens were ruined by their divisions. <a + href="#linknote-56.21" name="linknoteref-56.21" id="linknoteref-56.21">21</a> + The emir disclaimed the authority of the king of Tunis; the people rose + against the emir; the cities were usurped by the chiefs; each meaner rebel + was independent in his village or castle; and the weaker of two rival + brothers implored the friendship of the Christians. In every service of + danger the Normans were prompt and useful; and five hundred knights, or + warriors on horseback, were enrolled by Arduin, the agent and interpreter + of the Greeks, under the standard of Maniaces, governor of Lombardy. + Before their landing, the brothers were reconciled; the union of Sicily + and Africa was restored; and the island was guarded to the water’s edge. + The Normans led the van and the Arabs of Messina felt the valor of an + untried foe. In a second action the emir of Syracuse was unhorsed and + transpierced by the iron arm of William of Hauteville. In a third + engagement, his intrepid companions discomfited the host of sixty thousand + Saracens, and left the Greeks no more than the labor of the pursuit: a + splendid victory; but of which the pen of the historian may divide the + merit with the lance of the Normans. It is, however, true, that they + essentially promoted the success of Maniaces, who reduced thirteen cities, + and the greater part of Sicily, under the obedience of the emperor. But + his military fame was sullied by ingratitude and tyranny. In the division + of the spoils, the deserts of his brave auxiliaries were forgotten; and + neither their avarice nor their pride could brook this injurious + treatment. They complained by the mouth of their interpreter: their + complaint was disregarded; their interpreter was scourged; the sufferings + were his; the insult and resentment belonged to those whose sentiments he + had delivered. Yet they dissembled till they had obtained, or stolen, a + safe passage to the Italian continent: their brethren of Aversa + sympathized in their indignation, and the province of Apulia was invaded + as the forfeit of the debt. <a href="#linknote-56.22" + name="linknoteref-56.22" id="linknoteref-56.22">22</a> Above twenty years + after the first emigration, the Normans took the field with no more than + seven hundred horse and five hundred foot; and after the recall of the + Byzantine legions <a href="#linknote-56.23" name="linknoteref-56.23" + id="linknoteref-56.23">23</a> from the Sicilian war, their numbers are + magnified to the amount of threescore thousand men. Their herald proposed + the option of battle or retreat; “of battle,” was the unanimous cry of the + Normans; and one of their stoutest warriors, with a stroke of his fist, + felled to the ground the horse of the Greek messenger. He was dismissed + with a fresh horse; the insult was concealed from the Imperial troops; but + in two successive battles they were more fatally instructed of the prowess + of their adversaries. In the plains of Cannae, the Asiatics fled before + the adventurers of France; the duke of Lombardy was made prisoner; the + Apulians acquiesced in a new dominion; and the four places of Bari, + Otranto, Brundusium, and Tarentum, were alone saved in the shipwreck of + the Grecian fortunes. From this aera we may date the establishment of the + Norman power, which soon eclipsed the infant colony of Aversa. Twelve + counts <a href="#linknote-56.24" name="linknoteref-56.24" + id="linknoteref-56.24">24</a> were chosen by the popular suffrage; and age, + birth, and merit, were the motives of their choice. The tributes of their + peculiar districts were appropriated to their use; and each count erected + a fortress in the midst of his lands, and at the head of his vassals. In + the centre of the province, the common habitation of Melphi was reserved + as the metropolis and citadel of the republic; a house and separate + quarter was allotted to each of the twelve counts: and the national + concerns were regulated by this military senate. The first of his peers, + their president and general, was entitled count of Apulia; and this + dignity was conferred on William of the iron arm, who, in the language of + the age, is styled a lion in battle, a lamb in society, and an angel in + council. <a href="#linknote-56.25" name="linknoteref-56.25" + id="linknoteref-56.25">25</a> The manners of his countrymen are fairly + delineated by a contemporary and national historian. <a + href="#linknote-56.26" name="linknoteref-56.26" id="linknoteref-56.26">26</a> + “The Normans,” says Malaterra, “are a cunning and revengeful people; + eloquence and dissimulation appear to be their hereditary qualities: they + can stoop to flatter; but unless they are curbed by the restraint of law, + they indulge the licentiousness of nature and passion. Their princes + affect the praises of popular munificence; the people observe the medium, + or rather blond the extremes, of avarice and prodigality; and in their + eager thirst of wealth and dominion, they despise whatever they possess, + and hope whatever they desire. Arms and horses, the luxury of dress, the + exercises of hunting and hawking <a href="#linknote-56.27" + name="linknoteref-56.27" id="linknoteref-56.27">27</a> are the delight of + the Normans; but, on pressing occasions, they can endure with incredible + patience the inclemency of every climate, and the toil and absence of a + military life.” <a href="#linknote-56.28" name="linknoteref-56.28" + id="linknoteref-56.28">28</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.20" id="linknote-56.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.20">return</a>)<br /> [ Liutprand, in + Legatione, p. 485. Pagi has illustrated this event from the Ms. history of + the deacon Leo, (tom. iv. A.D. 965, No. 17-19.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.21" id="linknote-56.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.21">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Arabian + Chronicle of Sicily, apud Muratori, Script. Rerum Ital. tom. i. p. 253.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.22" id="linknote-56.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.22">return</a>)<br /> [ Jeffrey Malaterra, who + relates the Sicilian war, and the conquest of Apulia, (l. i. c. 7, 8, 9, + 19.) The same events are described by Cedrenus (tom. ii. p. 741-743, 755, + 756) and Zonaras, (tom. ii. p. 237, 238;) and the Greeks are so hardened + to disgrace, that their narratives are impartial enough.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.23" id="linknote-56.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.23">return</a>)<br /> [ Lydia: consult + Constantine de Thematibus, i. 3, 4, with Delisle’s map.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.24" id="linknote-56.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.24">return</a>)<br /> [ Omnes conveniunt; et + bis sex nobiliores, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Quos genus et gravitas morum decorabat et aetas, + + Elegere duces. Provectis ad comitatum + + His alii parent. Comitatus nomen honoris + + Quo donantur erat. Hi totas undique terras + + Divisere sibi, ni sors inimica repugnet; + + Singula proponunt loca quae contingere sorte + + Cuique duci debent, et quaeque tributa locorum. + + And after speaking of Melphi, William Appulus adds, + + Pro numero comitum bis sex statuere plateas, + + Atque domus comitum totidem fabricantur in urbe. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + Leo Ostiensis (l. ii. c. 67) enumerates the divisions of the Apulian + cities, which it is needless to repeat.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.25" id="linknote-56.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.25">return</a>)<br /> [ Gulielm. Appulus, l. + ii. c 12, according to the reference of Giannone, (Istoria Civile di + Napoli, tom. ii. p. 31,) which I cannot verify in the original. The + Apulian praises indeed his validas vires, probitas animi, and vivida + virtus; and declares that, had he lived, no poet could have equalled his + merits, (l. i. p. 258, l. ii. p. 259.) He was bewailed by the Normans, + quippe qui tanti consilii virum, (says Malaterra, l. i. c. 12, p. 552,) + tam armis strenuum, tam sibi munificum, affabilem, morigeratum, ulterius + se habere diffidebant.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.26" id="linknote-56.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.26">return</a>)<br /> [ The gens astutissima, + injuriarum ultrix.... adulari sciens.... eloquentiis inserviens, of + Malaterra, (l. i. c. 3, p. 550,) are expressive of the popular and + proverbial character of the Normans.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.27" id="linknote-56.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.27">return</a>)<br /> [ The hunting and hawking + more properly belong to the descendants of the Norwegian sailors; though + they might import from Norway and Iceland the finest casts of falcons.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.28" id="linknote-56.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.28">return</a>)<br /> [ We may compare this + portrait with that of William of Malmsbury, (de Gestis Anglorum, l. iii. + p. 101, 102,) who appreciates, like a philosophic historian, the vices and + virtues of the Saxons and Normans. England was assuredly a gainer by the + conquest.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap56.2"></a> + Chapter LVI: The Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The Normans of Apulia were seated on the verge of the two empires; and, + according to the policy of the hour, they accepted the investiture of + their lands, from the sovereigns of Germany or Constantinople. But the + firmest title of these adventurers was the right of conquest: they neither + loved nor trusted; they were neither trusted nor beloved: the contempt of + the princes was mixed with fear, and the fear of the natives was mingled + with hatred and resentment. Every object of desire, a horse, a woman, a + garden, tempted and gratified the rapaciousness of the strangers; <a + href="#linknote-56.29" name="linknoteref-56.29" id="linknoteref-56.29">29</a> + and the avarice of their chiefs was only colored by the more specious + names of ambition and glory. The twelve counts were sometimes joined in + the league of injustice: in their domestic quarrels they disputed the + spoils of the people: the virtues of William were buried in his grave; and + Drogo, his brother and successor, was better qualified to lead the valor, + than to restrain the violence, of his peers. Under the reign of + Constantine Monomachus, the policy, rather than benevolence, of the + Byzantine court, attempted to relieve Italy from this adherent mischief, + more grievous than a flight of Barbarians; <a href="#linknote-56.30" + name="linknoteref-56.30" id="linknoteref-56.30">30</a> and Argyrus, the son + of Melo, was invested for this purpose with the most lofty titles <a + href="#linknote-56.31" name="linknoteref-56.31" id="linknoteref-56.31">31</a> + and the most ample commission. The memory of his father might recommend + him to the Normans; and he had already engaged their voluntary service to + quell the revolt of Maniaces, and to avenge their own and the public + injury. It was the design of Constantine to transplant the warlike colony + from the Italian provinces to the Persian war; and the son of Melo + distributed among the chiefs the gold and manufactures of Greece, as the + first-fruits of the Imperial bounty. But his arts were baffled by the + sense and spirit of the conquerors of Apulia: his gifts, or at least his + proposals, were rejected; and they unanimously refused to relinquish their + possessions and their hopes for the distant prospect of Asiatic fortune. + After the means of persuasion had failed, Argyrus resolved to compel or to + destroy: the Latin powers were solicited against the common enemy; and an + offensive alliance was formed of the pope and the two emperors of the East + and West. The throne of St. Peter was occupied by Leo the Ninth, a simple + saint, <a href="#linknote-56.32" name="linknoteref-56.32" + id="linknoteref-56.32">32</a> of a temper most apt to deceive himself and + the world, and whose venerable character would consecrate with the name of + piety the measures least compatible with the practice of religion. His + humanity was affected by the complaints, perhaps the calumnies, of an + injured people: the impious Normans had interrupted the payment of tithes; + and the temporal sword might be lawfully unsheathed against the + sacrilegious robbers, who were deaf to the censures of the church. As a + German of noble birth and royal kindred, Leo had free access to the court + and confidence of the emperor Henry the Third; and in search of arms and + allies, his ardent zeal transported him from Apulia to Saxony, from the + Elbe to the Tyber. During these hostile preparations, Argyrus indulged + himself in the use of secret and guilty weapons: a crowd of Normans became + the victims of public or private revenge; and the valiant Drogo was + murdered in a church. But his spirit survived in his brother Humphrey, the + third count of Apulia. The assassins were chastised; and the son of Melo, + overthrown and wounded, was driven from the field, to hide his shame + behind the walls of Bari, and to await the tardy succor of his allies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.29" id="linknote-56.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.29">return</a>)<br /> [ The biographer of St. + Leo IX. pours his holy venom on the Normans. Videns indisciplinatam et + alienam gentem Normannorum, crudeli et inaudita rabie, et plusquam Pagana + impietate, adversus ecclesias Dei insurgere, passim Christianos trucidare, + &c., (Wibert, c. 6.) The honest Apulian (l. ii. p. 259) says calmly of + their accuser, Veris commiscens fallacia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.30" id="linknote-56.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.30">return</a>)<br /> [ The policy of the + Greeks, revolt of Maniaces, &c., must be collected from Cedrenus, + (tom. ii. p. 757, 758,) William Appulus, (l. i. p 257, 258, l. ii. p. + 259,) and the two Chronicles of Bari, by Lupus Protospata, (Muratori, + Script. Ital. tom. v. p. 42, 43, 44,) and an anonymous writer, + (Antiquitat, Italiae Medii Aevi, tom. i. p 31-35.) This last is a fragment + of some value.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.31" id="linknote-56.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.31">return</a>)<br /> [ Argyrus received, says + the anonymous Chronicle of Bari, Imperial letters, Foederatus et + Patriciatus, et Catapani et Vestatus. In his Annals, Muratori (tom. viii. + p. 426) very properly reads, or interprets, Sevestatus, the title of + Sebastos or Augustus. But in his Antiquities, he was taught by Ducange to + make it a palatine office, master of the wardrobe.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.32" id="linknote-56.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.32">return</a>)<br /> [ A Life of St. Leo IX., + deeply tinged with the passions and prejudices of the age, has been + composed by Wibert, printed at Paris, 1615, in octavo, and since inserted + in the Collections of the Bollandists, of Mabillon, and of Muratori. The + public and private history of that pope is diligently treated by M. de St. + Marc. (Abrege, tom. ii. p. 140-210, and p. 25-95, second column.)] + </p> + <p> + But the power of Constantine was distracted by a Turkish war; the mind of + Henry was feeble and irresolute; and the pope, instead of repassing the + Alps with a German army, was accompanied only by a guard of seven hundred + Swabians and some volunteers of Lorraine. In his long progress from Mantua + to Beneventum, a vile and promiscuous multitude of Italians was enlisted + under the holy standard: <a href="#linknote-56.33" name="linknoteref-56.33" + id="linknoteref-56.33">33</a> the priest and the robber slept in the same + tent; the pikes and crosses were intermingled in the front; and the + martial saint repeated the lessons of his youth in the order of march, of + encampment, and of combat. The Normans of Apulia could muster in the field + no more than three thousand horse, with a handful of infantry: the + defection of the natives intercepted their provisions and retreat; and + their spirit, incapable of fear, was chilled for a moment by superstitious + awe. On the hostile approach of Leo, they knelt without disgrace or + reluctance before their spiritual father. But the pope was inexorable; his + lofty Germans affected to deride the diminutive stature of their + adversaries; and the Normans were informed that death or exile was their + only alternative. Flight they disdained, and, as many of them had been + three days without tasting food, they embraced the assurance of a more + easy and honorable death. They climbed the hill of Civitella, descended + into the plain, and charged in three divisions the army of the pope. On + the left, and in the centre, Richard count of Aversa, and Robert the + famous Guiscard, attacked, broke, routed, and pursued the Italian + multitudes, who fought without discipline, and fled without shame. A + harder trial was reserved for the valor of Count Humphrey, who led the + cavalry of the right wing. The Germans <a href="#linknote-56.34" + name="linknoteref-56.34" id="linknoteref-56.34">34</a> have been described + as unskillful in the management of the horse and the lance, but on foot + they formed a strong and impenetrable phalanx; and neither man, nor steed, + nor armor, could resist the weight of their long and two-handed swords. + After a severe conflict, they were encompassed by the squadrons returning + from the pursuit; and died in the ranks with the esteem of their foes, and + the satisfaction of revenge. The gates of Civitella were shut against the + flying pope, and he was overtaken by the pious conquerors, who kissed his + feet, to implore his blessing and the absolution of their sinful victory. + The soldiers beheld in their enemy and captive the vicar of Christ; and, + though we may suppose the policy of the chiefs, it is probable that they + were infected by the popular superstition. In the calm of retirement, the + well-meaning pope deplored the effusion of Christian blood, which must be + imputed to his account: he felt, that he had been the author of sin and + scandal; and as his undertaking had failed, the indecency of his military + character was universally condemned. <a href="#linknote-56.35" + name="linknoteref-56.35" id="linknoteref-56.35">35</a> With these + dispositions, he listened to the offers of a beneficial treaty; deserted + an alliance which he had preached as the cause of God; and ratified the + past and future conquests of the Normans. By whatever hands they had been + usurped, the provinces of Apulia and Calabria were a part of the donation + of Constantine and the patrimony of St. Peter: the grant and the + acceptance confirmed the mutual claims of the pontiff and the adventurers. + They promised to support each other with spiritual and temporal arms; a + tribute or quitrent of twelve pence was afterwards stipulated for every + ploughland; and since this memorable transaction, the kingdom of Naples + has remained above seven hundred years a fief of the Holy See. <a + href="#linknote-56.36" name="linknoteref-56.36" id="linknoteref-56.36">36</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.33" id="linknote-56.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.33">return</a>)<br /> [ See the expedition of + Leo XI. against the Normans. See William Appulus (l. ii. p. 259-261) and + Jeffrey Malaterra (l. i. c. 13, 14, 15, p. 253.) They are impartial, as + the national is counterbalanced by the clerical prejudice] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.34" id="linknote-56.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.34">return</a>)<br /> [ Teutonici, quia + caesaries et forma decoros + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + Fecerat egregie proceri corporis illos + + Corpora derident Normannica quae breviora + + Esse videbantur. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + The verses of the Apulian are commonly in this strain, though he heats + himself a little in the battle. Two of his similes from hawking and + sorcery are descriptive of manners.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.35" id="linknote-56.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.35">return</a>)<br /> [ Several respectable + censures or complaints are produced by M. de St. Marc, (tom. ii. p. + 200-204.) As Peter Damianus, the oracle of the times, has denied the popes + the right of making war, the hermit (lugens eremi incola) is arraigned by + the cardinal, and Baronius (Annal. Eccles. A.D. 1053, No. 10-17) most + strenuously asserts the two swords of St. Peter.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.36" id="linknote-56.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.36">return</a>)<br /> [ The origin and nature + of the papal investitures are ably discussed by Giannone, (Istoria Civile + di Napoli, tom. ii. p. 37-49, 57-66,) as a lawyer and antiquarian. Yet he + vainly strives to reconcile the duties of patriot and Catholic, adopts an + empty distinction of “Ecclesia Romana non dedit, sed accepit,” and shrinks + from an honest but dangerous confession of the truth.] + </p> + <p> + The pedigree of Robert of Guiscard <a href="#linknote-56.37" + name="linknoteref-56.37" id="linknoteref-56.37">37</a> is variously deduced + from the peasants and the dukes of Normandy: from the peasants, by the + pride and ignorance of a Grecian princess; <a href="#linknote-56.38" + name="linknoteref-56.38" id="linknoteref-56.38">38</a> from the dukes, by + the ignorance and flattery of the Italian subjects. <a + href="#linknote-56.39" name="linknoteref-56.39" id="linknoteref-56.39">39</a> + His genuine descent may be ascribed to the second or middle order of + private nobility. <a href="#linknote-56.40" name="linknoteref-56.40" + id="linknoteref-56.40">40</a> He sprang from a race of valvassors or + bannerets, of the diocese of Coutances, in the Lower Normandy: the castle + of Hauteville was their honorable seat: his father Tancred was conspicuous + in the court and army of the duke; and his military service was furnished + by ten soldiers or knights. Two marriages, of a rank not unworthy of his + own, made him the father of twelve sons, who were educated at home by the + impartial tenderness of his second wife. But a narrow patrimony was + insufficient for this numerous and daring progeny; they saw around the + neighborhood the mischiefs of poverty and discord, and resolved to seek in + foreign wars a more glorious inheritance. Two only remained to perpetuate + the race, and cherish their father’s age: their ten brothers, as they + successfully attained the vigor of manhood, departed from the castle, + passed the Alps, and joined the Apulian camp of the Normans. The elder + were prompted by native spirit; their success encouraged their younger + brethren, and the three first in seniority, William, Drogo, and Humphrey, + deserved to be the chiefs of their nation and the founders of the new + republic. Robert was the eldest of the seven sons of the second marriage; + and even the reluctant praise of his foes has endowed him with the heroic + qualities of a soldier and a statesman. His lofty stature surpassed the + tallest of his army: his limbs were cast in the true proportion of + strength and gracefulness; and to the decline of life, he maintained the + patient vigor of health and the commanding dignity of his form. His + complexion was ruddy, his shoulders were broad, his hair and beard were + long and of a flaxen color, his eyes sparkled with fire, and his voice, + like that of Achilles, could impress obedience and terror amidst the + tumult of battle. In the ruder ages of chivalry, such qualifications are + not below the notice of the poet or historians: they may observe that + Robert, at once, and with equal dexterity, could wield in the right hand + his sword, his lance in the left; that in the battle of Civitella he was + thrice unhorsed; and that in the close of that memorable day he was + adjudged to have borne away the prize of valor from the warriors of the + two armies. <a href="#linknote-56.41" name="linknoteref-56.41" + id="linknoteref-56.41">41</a> His boundless ambition was founded on the + consciousness of superior worth: in the pursuit of greatness, he was never + arrested by the scruples of justice, and seldom moved by the feelings of + humanity: though not insensible of fame, the choice of open or clandestine + means was determined only by his present advantage. The surname of + Guiscard <a href="#linknote-56.42" name="linknoteref-56.42" + id="linknoteref-56.42">42</a> was applied to this master of political + wisdom, which is too often confounded with the practice of dissimulation + and deceit; and Robert is praised by the Apulian poet for excelling the + cunning of Ulysses and the eloquence of Cicero. Yet these arts were + disguised by an appearance of military frankness: in his highest fortune, + he was accessible and courteous to his fellow-soldiers; and while he + indulged the prejudices of his new subjects, he affected in his dress and + manners to maintain the ancient fashion of his country. He grasped with a + rapacious, that he might distribute with a liberal, hand: his primitive + indigence had taught the habits of frugality; the gain of a merchant was + not below his attention; and his prisoners were tortured with slow and + unfeeling cruelty, to force a discovery of their secret treasure. + According to the Greeks, he departed from Normandy with only five + followers on horseback and thirty on foot; yet even this allowance appears + too bountiful: the sixth son of Tancred of Hauteville passed the Alps as a + pilgrim; and his first military band was levied among the adventurers of + Italy. His brothers and countrymen had divided the fertile lands of + Apulia; but they guarded their shares with the jealousy of avarice; the + aspiring youth was driven forwards to the mountains of Calabria, and in + his first exploits against the Greeks and the natives, it is not easy to + discriminate the hero from the robber. To surprise a castle or a convent, + to ensnare a wealthy citizen, to plunder the adjacent villages for + necessary food, were the obscure labors which formed and exercised the + powers of his mind and body. The volunteers of Normandy adhered to his + standard; and, under his command, the peasants of Calabria assumed the + name and character of Normans. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.37" id="linknote-56.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.37">return</a>)<br /> [ The birth, character, + and first actions of Robert Guiscard, may be found in Jeffrey Malaterra, + (l. i. c. 3, 4, 11, 16, 17, 18, 38, 39, 40,) William Appulus, (l. ii. p. + 260-262,) William Gemeticensis, or of Jumieges, (l. xi. c. 30, p. 663, + 664, edit. Camden,) and Anna Comnena, (Alexiad, l. i. p. 23-27, l. vi. p. + 165, 166,) with the annotations of Ducange, (Not. in Alexiad, p. 230-232, + 320,) who has swept all the French and Latin Chronicles for supplemental + intelligence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.38" id="linknote-56.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.38">return</a>)<br /> [ (a Greek corruption), + and elsewhere, (l. iv. p. 84,). Anna Comnena was born in the purple; yet + her father was no more than a private though illustrious subject, who + raised himself to the empire.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.39" id="linknote-56.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.39">return</a>)<br /> [ Giannone, (tom. ii. p. + 2) forgets all his original authors, and rests this princely descent on + the credit of Inveges, an Augustine monk of Palermo in the last century. + They continue the succession of dukes from Rollo to William II. the + Bastard or Conqueror, whom they hold (communemente si tiene) to be the + father of Tancred of Hauteville; a most strange and stupendous blunder! + The sons of Tancred fought in Apulia, before William II. was three years + old, (A.D. 1037.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.40" id="linknote-56.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.40">return</a>)<br /> [ The judgment of Ducange + is just and moderate: Certe humilis fuit ac tenuis Roberti familia, si + ducalem et regium spectemus apicem, ad quem postea pervenit; quae honesta + tamen et praeter nobilium vulgarium statum et conditionem illustris habita + est, “quae nec humi reperet nec altum quid tumeret.” (Wilhem. Malmsbur. de + Gestis Anglorum, l. iii. p. 107. Not. ad Alexiad. p. 230.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.41" id="linknote-56.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.41">return</a>)<br /> [ I shall quote with + pleasure some of the best lines of the Apulian, (l. ii. p. 270.) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Pugnat utraque manu, nec lancea cassa, nec ensis + + Cassus erat, quocunque manu deducere vellet. + + Ter dejectus equo, ter viribus ipse resumptis + + Major in arma redit: stimulos furor ipse ministrat. + + Ut Leo cum frendens, &c. + + - — — — — — - + + Nullus in hoc bello sicuti post bella probatum est + + Victor vel victus, tam magnos edidit ictus.] +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.42" id="linknote-56.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.42">return</a>)<br /> [ The Norman writers and + editors most conversant with their own idiom interpret Guiscard or + Wiscard, by Callidus, a cunning man. The root (wise) is familiar to our + ear; and in the old word Wiseacre, I can discern something of a similar + sense and termination. It is no bad translation of the surname and + character of Robert.] + </p> + <p> + As the genius of Robert expanded with his fortune, he awakened the + jealousy of his elder brother, by whom, in a transient quarrel, his life + was threatened and his liberty restrained. After the death of Humphrey, + the tender age of his sons excluded them from the command; they were + reduced to a private estate, by the ambition of their guardian and uncle; + and Guiscard was exalted on a buckler, and saluted count of Apulia and + general of the republic. With an increase of authority and of force, he + resumed the conquest of Calabria, and soon aspired to a rank that should + raise him forever above the heads of his equals. + </p> + <p> + By some acts of rapine or sacrilege, he had incurred a papal + excommunication; but Nicholas the Second was easily persuaded that the + divisions of friends could terminate only in their mutual prejudice; that + the Normans were the faithful champions of the Holy See; and it was safer + to trust the alliance of a prince than the caprice of an aristocracy. A + synod of one hundred bishops was convened at Melphi; and the count + interrupted an important enterprise to guard the person and execute the + decrees of the Roman pontiff. His gratitude and policy conferred on Robert + and his posterity the ducal title, <a href="#linknote-56.43" + name="linknoteref-56.43" id="linknoteref-56.43">43</a> with the investiture + of Apulia, Calabria, and all the lands, both in Italy and Sicily, which + his sword could rescue from the schismatic Greeks and the unbelieving + Saracens. <a href="#linknote-56.44" name="linknoteref-56.44" + id="linknoteref-56.44">44</a> This apostolic sanction might justify his + arms; but the obedience of a free and victorious people could not be + transferred without their consent; and Guiscard dissembled his elevation + till the ensuing campaign had been illustrated by the conquest of Consenza + and Reggio. In the hour of triumph, he assembled his troops, and solicited + the Normans to confirm by their suffrage the judgment of the vicar of + Christ: the soldiers hailed with joyful acclamations their valiant duke; + and the counts, his former equals, pronounced the oath of fidelity with + hollow smiles and secret indignation. After this inauguration, Robert + styled himself, “By the grace of God and St. Peter, duke of Apulia, + Calabria, and hereafter of Sicily;” and it was the labor of twenty years + to deserve and realize these lofty appellations. Such sardy progress, in a + narrow space, may seem unworthy of the abilities of the chief and the + spirit of the nation; but the Normans were few in number; their resources + were scanty; their service was voluntary and precarious. The bravest + designs of the duke were sometimes opposed by the free voice of his + parliament of barons: the twelve counts of popular election conspired + against his authority; and against their perfidious uncle, the sons of + Humphrey demanded justice and revenge. By his policy and vigor, Guiscard + discovered their plots, suppressed their rebellions, and punished the + guilty with death or exile: but in these domestic feuds, his years, and + the national strength, were unprofitably consumed. After the defeat of his + foreign enemies, the Greeks, Lombards, and Saracens, their broken forces + retreated to the strong and populous cities of the sea-coast. They + excelled in the arts of fortification and defence; the Normans were + accustomed to serve on horseback in the field, and their rude attempts + could only succeed by the efforts of persevering courage. The resistance + of Salerno was maintained above eight months; the siege or blockade of + Bari lasted near four years. In these actions the Norman duke was the + foremost in every danger; in every fatigue the last and most patient. As + he pressed the citadel of Salerno, a huge stone from the rampart shattered + one of his military engines; and by a splinter he was wounded in the + breast. Before the gates of Bari, he lodged in a miserable hut or barrack, + composed of dry branches, and thatched with straw; a perilous station, on + all sides open to the inclemency of the winter and the spears of the + enemy. <a href="#linknote-56.45" name="linknoteref-56.45" + id="linknoteref-56.45">45</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.43" id="linknote-56.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.43">return</a>)<br /> [ The acquisition of the + ducal title by Robert Guiscard is a nice and obscure business. With the + good advice of Giannone, Muratori, and St. Marc, I have endeavored to form + a consistent and probable narrative.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.44" id="linknote-56.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.44">return</a>)<br /> [ Baronius (Annal. + Eccles. A.D. 1059, No. 69) has published the original act. He professes to + have copied it from the Liber Censuum, a Vatican Ms. Yet a Liber Censuum + of the xiith century has been printed by Muratori, (Antiquit. Medii Aevi, + tom. v. p. 851-908;) and the names of Vatican and Cardinal awaken the + suspicions of a Protestant, and even of a philosopher.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.45" id="linknote-56.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.45">return</a>)<br /> [ Read the life of + Guiscard in the second and third books of the Apulian, the first and + second books of Malaterra.] + </p> + <p> + The Italian conquests of Robert correspond with the limits of the present + kingdom of Naples; and the countries united by his arms have not been + dissevered by the revolutions of seven hundred years. <a + href="#linknote-56.46" name="linknoteref-56.46" id="linknoteref-56.46">46</a> + The monarchy has been composed of the Greek provinces of Calabria and + Apulia, of the Lombard principality of Salerno, the republic of Amalphi, + and the inland dependencies of the large and ancient duchy of Beneventum. + Three districts only were exempted from the common law of subjection; the + first forever, the two last till the middle of the succeeding century. The + city and immediate territory of Benevento had been transferred, by gift or + exchange, from the German emperor to the Roman pontiff; and although this + holy land was sometimes invaded, the name of St. Peter was finally more + potent than the sword of the Normans. Their first colony of Aversa subdued + and held the state of Capua; and her princes were reduced to beg their + bread before the palace of their fathers. The dukes of Naples, the present + metropolis, maintained the popular freedom, under the shadow of the + Byzantine empire. Among the new acquisitions of Guiscard, the science of + Salerno, <a href="#linknote-56.47" name="linknoteref-56.47" + id="linknoteref-56.47">47</a> and the trade of Amalphi, <a + href="#linknote-56.48" name="linknoteref-56.48" id="linknoteref-56.48">48</a> + may detain for a moment the curiosity of the reader. I. Of the learned + faculties, jurisprudence implies the previous establishment of laws and + property; and theology may perhaps be superseded by the full light of + religion and reason. But the savage and the sage must alike implore the + assistance of physic; and, if our diseases are inflamed by luxury, the + mischiefs of blows and wounds would be more frequent in the ruder ages of + society. The treasures of Grecian medicine had been communicated to the + Arabian colonies of Africa, Spain, and Sicily; and in the intercourse of + peace and war, a spark of knowledge had been kindled and cherished at + Salerno, an illustrious city, in which the men were honest and the women + beautiful. <a href="#linknote-56.49" name="linknoteref-56.49" + id="linknoteref-56.49">49</a> A school, the first that arose in the + darkness of Europe, was consecrated to the healing art: the conscience of + monks and bishops was reconciled to that salutary and lucrative + profession; and a crowd of patients, of the most eminent rank, and most + distant climates, invited or visited the physicians of Salerno. They were + protected by the Norman conquerors; and Guiscard, though bred in arms, + could discern the merit and value of a philosopher. After a pilgrimage of + thirty-nine years, Constantine, an African Christian, returned from + Bagdad, a master of the language and learning of the Arabians; and Salerno + was enriched by the practice, the lessons, and the writings of the pupil + of Avicenna. The school of medicine has long slept in the name of a + university; but her precepts are abridged in a string of aphorisms, bound + together in the Leonine verses, or Latin rhymes, of the twelfth century. + <a href="#linknote-56.50" name="linknoteref-56.50" id="linknoteref-56.50">50</a> + II. Seven miles to the west of Salerno, and thirty to the south of Naples, + the obscure town of Amalphi displayed the power and rewards of industry. + The land, however fertile, was of narrow extent; but the sea was + accessible and open: the inhabitants first assumed the office of supplying + the western world with the manufactures and productions of the East; and + this useful traffic was the source of their opulence and freedom. The + government was popular, under the administration of a duke and the + supremacy of the Greek emperor. Fifty thousand citizens were numbered in + the walls of Amalphi; nor was any city more abundantly provided with gold, + silver, and the objects of precious luxury. The mariners who swarmed in + her port, excelled in the theory and practice of navigation and astronomy: + and the discovery of the compass, which has opened the globe, is owing to + their ingenuity or good fortune. Their trade was extended to the coasts, + or at least to the commodities, of Africa, Arabia, and India: and their + settlements in Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria, + acquired the privileges of independent colonies. <a href="#linknote-56.51" + name="linknoteref-56.51" id="linknoteref-56.51">51</a> After three hundred + years of prosperity, Amalphi was oppressed by the arms of the Normans, and + sacked by the jealousy of Pisa; but the poverty of one thousand <a + href="#linknote-56.5111" name="linknoteref-56.5111" id="linknoteref-56.5111">5111</a> + fisherman is yet dignified by the remains of an arsenal, a cathedral, and + the palaces of royal merchants. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.46" id="linknote-56.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.46">return</a>)<br /> [ The conquests of Robert + Guiscard and Roger I., the exemption of Benevento and the xii provinces of + the kingdom, are fairly exposed by Giannone in the second volume of his + Istoria Civile, l. ix. x. xi and l. xvii. p. 460-470. This modern division + was not established before the time of Frederic II.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.47" id="linknote-56.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.47">return</a>)<br /> [ Giannone, (tom. ii. p. + 119-127,) Muratori, (Antiquitat. Medii Aevi, tom. iii. dissert. xliv. p. + 935, 936,) and Tiraboschi, (Istoria della Letteratura Italiana,) have + given an historical account of these physicians; their medical knowledge + and practice must be left to our physicians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.48" id="linknote-56.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.48">return</a>)<br /> [ At the end of the + Historia Pandectarum of Henry Brenckmann, (Trajecti ad Rhenum, 1722, in + 4to.,) the indefatigable author has inserted two dissertations, de + Republica Amalphitana, and de Amalphi a Pisanis direpta, which are built + on the testimonies of one hundred and forty writers. Yet he has forgotten + two most important passages of the embassy of Liutprand, (A.D. 939,) which + compare the trade and navigation of Amalphi with that of Venice.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.49" id="linknote-56.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.49">return</a>)<br /> [ Urbs Latii non est hac + delitiosior urbe, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Frugibus, arboribus, vinoque redundat; et unde + + Non tibi poma, nuces, non pulchra palatia desunt, + + Non species muliebris abest probitasque virorum. + + —Gulielmus Appulus, l. iii. p. 367] +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.50" id="linknote-56.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.50">return</a>)<br /> [ Muratori carries their + antiquity above the year (1066) of the death of Edward the Confessor, the + rex Anglorum to whom they are addressed. Nor is this date affected by the + opinion, or rather mistake, of Pasquier (Recherches de la France, l. vii. + c. 2) and Ducange, (Glossar. Latin.) The practice of rhyming, as early as + the viith century, was borrowed from the languages of the North and East, + (Muratori, Antiquitat. tom. iii. dissert. xl. p. 686-708.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.51" id="linknote-56.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.51">return</a>)<br /> [ The description of + Amalphi, by William the Apulian, (l. iii. p. 267,) contains much truth and + some poetry, and the third line may be applied to the sailor’s compass:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Nulla magis locuples argento, vestibus, auro + + Partibus innumeris: hac plurimus urbe moratur + + Nauta maris Caelique vias aperire peritus. + + Huc et Alexandri diversa feruntur ab urbe + + Regis, et Antiochi. Gens haec freta plurima transit. + + His Arabes, Indi, Siculi nascuntur et Afri. + + Haec gens est totum proore nobilitata per orbem, + + Et mercando forens, et amans mercata referre.] +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.5111" id="linknote-56.5111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5111 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.5111">return</a>)<br /> [ Amalfi had only one + thousand inhabitants at the commencement of the 18th century, when it was + visited by Brenckmann, (Brenckmann de Rep. Amalph. Diss. i. c. 23.) At + present it has six or eight thousand Hist. des Rep. tom. i. p. 304.—G.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap56.3"></a> + Chapter LVI: The Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + Roger, the twelfth and last of the sons of Tancred, had been long detained + in Normandy by his own and his father’s age. He accepted the welcome + summons; hastened to the Apulian camp; and deserved at first the esteem, + and afterwards the envy, of his elder brother. Their valor and ambition + were equal; but the youth, the beauty, the elegant manners, of Roger + engaged the disinterested love of the soldiers and people. So scanty was + his allowance for himself and forty followers, that he descended from + conquest to robbery, and from robbery to domestic theft; and so loose were + the notions of property, that, by his own historian, at his special + command, he is accused of stealing horses from a stable at Melphi. <a + href="#linknote-56.52" name="linknoteref-56.52" id="linknoteref-56.52">52</a> + His spirit emerged from poverty and disgrace: from these base practices he + rose to the merit and glory of a holy war; and the invasion of Sicily was + seconded by the zeal and policy of his brother Guiscard. After the retreat + of the Greeks, the idolaters, a most audacious reproach of the Catholics, + had retrieved their losses and possessions; but the deliverance of the + island, so vainly undertaken by the forces of the Eastern empire, was + achieved by a small and private band of adventurers. <a + href="#linknote-56.53" name="linknoteref-56.53" id="linknoteref-56.53">53</a> + In the first attempt, Roger braved, in an open boat, the real and fabulous + dangers of Scylla and Charybdis; landed with only sixty soldiers on a + hostile shore; drove the Saracens to the gates of Messina and safely + returned with the spoils of the adjacent country. In the fortress of + Trani, his active and patient courage were equally conspicuous. In his old + age he related with pleasure, that, by the distress of the siege, himself, + and the countess his wife, had been reduced to a single cloak or mantle, + which they wore alternately; that in a sally his horse had been slain, and + he was dragged away by the Saracens; but that he owed his rescue to his + good sword, and had retreated with his saddle on his back, lest the + meanest trophy might be left in the hands of the miscreants. In the siege + of Trani, three hundred Normans withstood and repulsed the forces of the + island. In the field of Ceramio, fifty thousand horse and foot were + overthrown by one hundred and thirty-six Christian soldiers, without + reckoning St. George, who fought on horseback in the foremost ranks. The + captive banners, with four camels, were reserved for the successor of St. + Peter; and had these barbaric spoils been exposed, not in the Vatican, but + in the Capitol, they might have revived the memory of the Punic triumphs. + These insufficient numbers of the Normans most probably denote their + knights, the soldiers of honorable and equestrian rank, each of whom was + attended by five or six followers in the field; <a href="#linknote-56.54" + name="linknoteref-56.54" id="linknoteref-56.54">54</a> yet, with the aid of + this interpretation, and after every fair allowance on the side of valor, + arms, and reputation, the discomfiture of so many myriads will reduce the + prudent reader to the alternative of a miracle or a fable. The Arabs of + Sicily derived a frequent and powerful succor from their countrymen of + Africa: in the siege of Palermo, the Norman cavalry was assisted by the + galleys of Pisa; and, in the hour of action, the envy of the two brothers + was sublimed to a generous and invincible emulation. After a war of thirty + years, <a href="#linknote-56.55" name="linknoteref-56.55" + id="linknoteref-56.55">55</a> Roger, with the title of great count, + obtained the sovereignty of the largest and most fruitful island of the + Mediterranean; and his administration displays a liberal and enlightened + mind, above the limits of his age and education. The Moslems were + maintained in the free enjoyment of their religion and property: <a + href="#linknote-56.56" name="linknoteref-56.56" id="linknoteref-56.56">56</a> + a philosopher and physician of Mazara, of the race of Mahomet, harangued + the conqueror, and was invited to court; his geography of the seven + climates was translated into Latin; and Roger, after a diligent perusal, + preferred the work of the Arabian to the writings of the Grecian Ptolemy. + <a href="#linknote-56.57" name="linknoteref-56.57" id="linknoteref-56.57">57</a> + A remnant of Christian natives had promoted the success of the Normans: + they were rewarded by the triumph of the cross. The island was restored to + the jurisdiction of the Roman pontiff; new bishops were planted in the + principal cities; and the clergy was satisfied by a liberal endowment of + churches and monasteries. Yet the Catholic hero asserted the rights of the + civil magistrate. Instead of resigning the investiture of benefices, he + dexterously applied to his own profit the papal claims: the supremacy of + the crown was secured and enlarged, by the singular bull, which declares + the princes of Sicily hereditary and perpetual legates of the Holy See. <a + href="#linknote-56.58" name="linknoteref-56.58" id="linknoteref-56.58">58</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.52" id="linknote-56.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.52">return</a>)<br /> [ Latrocinio armigerorum + suorum in multis sustentabatur, quod quidem ad ejus ignominiam non + dicimus; sed ipso ita praecipiente adhuc viliora et reprehensibiliora + dicturi sumus ut pluribus patescat, quam laboriose et cum quanta angustia + a profunda paupertate ad summum culmen divitiarum vel honoris attigerit. + Such is the preface of Malaterra (l. i. c. 25) to the horse-stealing. From + the moment (l. i. c. 19) that he has mentioned his patron Roger, the elder + brother sinks into the second character. Something similar in Velleius + Paterculus may be observed of Augustus and Tiberius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.53" id="linknote-56.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.53">return</a>)<br /> [ Duo sibi proficua + deputans animae scilicet et corporis si terran: Idolis deditam ad cultum + divinum revocaret, (Galfrid Malaterra, l. ii. c. 1.) The conquest of + Sicily is related in the three last books, and he himself has given an + accurate summary of the chapters, (p. 544-546.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.54" id="linknote-56.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.54">return</a>)<br /> [ See the word Milites in + the Latin Glossary of Ducange.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.55" id="linknote-56.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.55">return</a>)<br /> [ Of odd particulars, I + learn from Malaterra, that the Arabs had introduced into Sicily the use of + camels (l. i. c. 33) and of carrier-pigeons, (c. 42;) and that the bite of + the tarantula provokes a windy disposition, quae per anum inhoneste + crepitando emergit; a symptom most ridiculously felt by the whole Norman + army in their camp near Palermo, (c. 36.) I shall add an etymology not + unworthy of the xith century: Messana is divided from Messis, the place + from whence the harvests of the isle were sent in tribute to Rome, (l. ii. + c. 1.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.56" id="linknote-56.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.56">return</a>)<br /> [ See the capitulation of + Palermo in Malaterra, l. ii. c. 45, and Giannone, who remarks the general + toleration of the Saracens, (tom ii. p. 72.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.57" id="linknote-56.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.57">return</a>)<br /> [ John Leo Afer, de + Medicis et Philosophus Arabibus, c. 14, apud Fabric. Bibliot. Graec. tom. + xiii. p. 278, 279. This philosopher is named Esseriph Essachalli, and he + died in Africa, A. H. 516, A.D. 1122. Yet this story bears a strange + resemblance to the Sherif al Edrissi, who presented his book (Geographia + Nubiensis, see preface p. 88, 90, 170) to Roger, king of Sicily, A. H. + 541, A.D. 1153, (D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 786. Prideaux’s + Life of Mahomet, p. 188. Petit de la Croix, Hist. de Gengiscan, p. 535, + 536. Casiri, Bibliot. Arab. Hispan. tom. ii. p. 9-13;) and I am afraid of + some mistake.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.58" id="linknote-56.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.58">return</a>)<br /> [ Malaterra remarks the + foundation of the bishoprics, (l. iv. c. 7,) and produces the original of + the bull, (l. iv. c. 29.) Giannone gives a rational idea of this + privilege, and the tribunal of the monarchy of Sicily, (tom. ii. p. + 95-102;) and St. Marc (Abrege, tom. iii. p. 217-301, 1st column) labors + the case with the diligence of a Sicilian lawyer.] + </p> + <p> + To Robert Guiscard, the conquest of Sicily was more glorious than + beneficial: the possession of Apulia and Calabria was inadequate to his + ambition; and he resolved to embrace or create the first occasion of + invading, perhaps of subduing, the Roman empire of the East. <a + href="#linknote-56.59" name="linknoteref-56.59" id="linknoteref-56.59">59</a> + From his first wife, the partner of his humble fortune, he had been + divorced under the pretence of consanguinity; and her son Bohemond was + destined to imitate, rather than to succeed, his illustrious father. The + second wife of Guiscard was the daughter of the princes of Salerno; the + Lombards acquiesced in the lineal succession of their son Roger; their + five daughters were given in honorable nuptials, <a href="#linknote-56.60" + name="linknoteref-56.60" id="linknoteref-56.60">60</a> and one of them was + betrothed, in a tender age, to Constantine, a beautiful youth, the son and + heir of the emperor Michael. <a href="#linknote-56.61" + name="linknoteref-56.61" id="linknoteref-56.61">61</a> But the throne of + Constantinople was shaken by a revolution: the Imperial family of Ducas + was confined to the palace or the cloister; and Robert deplored, and + resented, the disgrace of his daughter and the expulsion of his ally. A + Greek, who styled himself the father of Constantine, soon appeared at + Salerno, and related the adventures of his fall and flight. That + unfortunate friend was acknowledged by the duke, and adorned with the pomp + and titles of Imperial dignity: in his triumphal progress through Apulia + and Calabria, Michael <a href="#linknote-56.62" name="linknoteref-56.62" + id="linknoteref-56.62">62</a> was saluted with the tears and acclamations + of the people; and Pope Gregory the Seventh exhorted the bishops to + preach, and the Catholics to fight, in the pious work of his restoration. + His conversations with Robert were frequent and familiar; and their mutual + promises were justified by the valor of the Normans and the treasures of + the East. Yet this Michael, by the confession of the Greeks and Latins, + was a pageant and an impostor; a monk who had fled from his convent, or a + domestic who had served in the palace. The fraud had been contrived by the + subtle Guiscard; and he trusted, that after this pretender had given a + decent color to his arms, he would sink, at the nod of the conqueror, into + his primitive obscurity. But victory was the only argument that could + determine the belief of the Greeks; and the ardor of the Latins was much + inferior to their credulity: the Norman veterans wished to enjoy the + harvest of their toils, and the unwarlike Italians trembled at the known + and unknown dangers of a transmarine expedition. In his new levies, Robert + exerted the influence of gifts and promises, the terrors of civil and + ecclesiastical authority; and some acts of violence might justify the + reproach, that age and infancy were pressed without distinction into the + service of their unrelenting prince. After two years’ incessant + preparations the land and naval forces were assembled at Otranto, at the + heel, or extreme promontory, of Italy; and Robert was accompanied by his + wife, who fought by his side, his son Bohemond, and the representative of + the emperor Michael. Thirteen hundred knights <a href="#linknote-56.63" + name="linknoteref-56.63" id="linknoteref-56.63">63</a> of Norman race or + discipline, formed the sinews of the army, which might be swelled to + thirty thousand <a href="#linknote-56.64" name="linknoteref-56.64" + id="linknoteref-56.64">64</a> followers of every denomination. The men, the + horses, the arms, the engines, the wooden towers, covered with raw hides, + were embarked on board one hundred and fifty vessels: the transports had + been built in the ports of Italy, and the galleys were supplied by the + alliance of the republic of Ragusa. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.59" id="linknote-56.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.59">return</a>)<br /> [ In the first expedition + of Robert against the Greeks, I follow Anna Comnena, (the ist, iiid, ivth, + and vth books of the Alexiad,) William Appulus, (l. ivth and vth, p. + 270-275,) and Jeffrey Malaterra, (l. iii. c. 13, 14, 24-29, 39.) Their + information is contemporary and authentic, but none of them were + eye-witnesses of the war.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.60" id="linknote-56.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.60">return</a>)<br /> [ One of them was married + to Hugh, the son of Azzo, or Axo, a marquis of Lombardy, rich, powerful, + and noble, (Gulielm. Appul. l. iii. p. 267,) in the xith century, and + whose ancestors in the xth and ixth are explored by the critical industry + of Leibnitz and Muratori. From the two elder sons of the marquis Azzo are + derived the illustrious lines of Brunswick and Este. See Muratori, + Antichita Estense.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.61" id="linknote-56.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.61">return</a>)<br /> [ Anna Comnena, somewhat + too wantonly, praises and bewails that handsome boy, who, after the + rupture of his barbaric nuptials, (l. i. p. 23,) was betrothed as her + husband. (p. 27.) Elsewhere she describes the red and white of his skin, + his hawk’s eyes, &c., l. iii. p. 71.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.62" id="linknote-56.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.62">return</a>)<br /> [ Anna Comnena, l. i. p. + 28, 29. Gulielm. Appul. l. iv p. 271. Galfrid Malaterra, l. iii. c. 13, p. + 579, 580. Malaterra is more cautious in his style; but the Apulian is bold + and positive.—Mentitus se Michaelem Venerata Danais quidam seductor + ad illum. As Gregory VII had believed, Baronius almost alone, recognizes + the emperor Michael. (A.D. No. 44.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.63" id="linknote-56.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.63">return</a>)<br /> [ Ipse armatae militiae + non plusquam MCCC milites secum habuisse, ab eis qui eidem negotio + interfuerunt attestatur, (Malaterra, l. iii. c. 24, p. 583.) These are the + same whom the Apulian (l. iv. p. 273) styles the equestris gens ducis, + equites de gente ducis.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.64" id="linknote-56.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Anna Comnena (Alexias, + l. i. p. 37;) and her account tallies with the number and lading of the + ships. Ivit in Dyrrachium cum xv. millibus hominum, says the Chronicon + Breve Normannicum, (Muratori, Scriptores, tom. v. p. 278.) I have + endeavored to reconcile these reckonings.] + </p> + <p> + At the mouth of the Adriatic Gulf, the shores of Italy and Epirus incline + towards each other. The space between Brundusium and Durazzo, the Roman + passage, is no more than one hundred miles; <a href="#linknote-56.65" + name="linknoteref-56.65" id="linknoteref-56.65">65</a> at the last station + of Otranto, it is contracted to fifty; <a href="#linknote-56.66" + name="linknoteref-56.66" id="linknoteref-56.66">66</a> and this narrow + distance had suggested to Pyrrhus and Pompey the sublime or extravagant + idea of a bridge. Before the general embarkation, the Norman duke + despatched Bohemond with fifteen galleys to seize or threaten the Isle of + Corfu, to survey the opposite coast, and to secure a harbor in the + neighborhood of Vallona for the landing of the troops. They passed and + landed without perceiving an enemy; and this successful experiment + displayed the neglect and decay of the naval power of the Greeks. The + islands of Epirus and the maritime towns were subdued by the arms or the + name of Robert, who led his fleet and army from Corfu (I use the modern + appellation) to the siege of Durazzo. That city, the western key of the + empire, was guarded by ancient renown, and recent fortifications, by + George Palaeologus, a patrician, victorious in the Oriental wars, and a + numerous garrison of Albanians and Macedonians, who, in every age, have + maintained the character of soldiers. In the prosecution of his + enterprise, the courage of Guiscard was assailed by every form of danger + and mischance. In the most propitious season of the year, as his fleet + passed along the coast, a storm of wind and snow unexpectedly arose: the + Adriatic was swelled by the raging blast of the south, and a new shipwreck + confirmed the old infamy of the Acroceraunian rocks. <a + href="#linknote-56.67" name="linknoteref-56.67" id="linknoteref-56.67">67</a> + The sails, the masts, and the oars, were shattered or torn away; the sea + and shore were covered with the fragments of vessels, with arms and dead + bodies; and the greatest part of the provisions were either drowned or + damaged. The ducal galley was laboriously rescued from the waves, and + Robert halted seven days on the adjacent cape, to collect the relics of + his loss, and revive the drooping spirits of his soldiers. The Normans + were no longer the bold and experienced mariners who had explored the + ocean from Greenland to Mount Atlas, and who smiled at the petty dangers + of the Mediterranean. They had wept during the tempest; they were alarmed + by the hostile approach of the Venetians, who had been solicited by the + prayers and promises of the Byzantine court. The first day’s action was + not disadvantageous to Bohemond, a beardless youth, <a + href="#linknote-56.68" name="linknoteref-56.68" id="linknoteref-56.68">68</a> + who led the naval powers of his father. All night the galleys of the + republic lay on their anchors in the form of a crescent; and the victory + of the second day was decided by the dexterity of their evolutions, the + station of their archers, the weight of their javelins, and the borrowed + aid of the Greek fire. The Apulian and Ragusian vessels fled to the shore, + several were cut from their cables, and dragged away by the conqueror; and + a sally from the town carried slaughter and dismay to the tents of the + Norman duke. A seasonable relief was poured into Durazzo, and as soon as + the besiegers had lost the command of the sea, the islands and maritime + towns withdrew from the camp the supply of tribute and provision. That + camp was soon afflicted with a pestilential disease; five hundred knights + perished by an inglorious death; and the list of burials (if all could + obtain a decent burial) amounted to ten thousand persons. Under these + calamities, the mind of Guiscard alone was firm and invincible; and while + he collected new forces from Apulia and Sicily, he battered, or scaled, or + sapped, the walls of Durazzo. But his industry and valor were encountered + by equal valor and more perfect industry. A movable turret, of a size and + capacity to contain five hundred soldiers, had been rolled forwards to the + foot of the rampart: but the descent of the door or drawbridge was checked + by an enormous beam, and the wooden structure was constantly consumed by + artificial flames. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.65" id="linknote-56.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.65">return</a>)<br /> [ The Itinerary of + Jerusalem (p. 609, edit. Wesseling) gives a true and reasonable space of a + thousand stadia or one hundred miles which is strangely doubled by Strabo + (l. vi. p. 433) and Pliny, (Hist. Natur. iii. 16.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.66" id="linknote-56.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.66">return</a>)<br /> [ Pliny (Hist. Nat. iii. + 6, 16) allows quinquaginta millia for this brevissimus cursus, and agrees + with the real distance from Otranto to La Vallona, or Aulon, (D’Anville, + Analyse de sa Carte des Cotes de la Grece, &c., p. 3-6.) Hermolaus + Barbarus, who substitutes centum. (Harduin, Not. lxvi. in Plin. l. iii.,) + might have been corrected by every Venetian pilot who had sailed out of + the gulf.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.67" id="linknote-56.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.67">return</a>)<br /> [ Infames scopulos + Acroceraunia, Horat. carm. i. 3. The praecipitem Africum decertantem + Aquilonibus, et rabiem Noti and the monstra natantia of the Adriatic, are + somewhat enlarged; but Horace trembling for the life of Virgil, is an + interesting moment in the history of poetry and friendship.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.68" id="linknote-56.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.68">return</a>)<br /> [ (Alexias, l. iv. p. + 106.) Yet the Normans shaved, and the Venetians wore, their beards: they + must have derided the no beard of Bohemond; a harsh interpretation. + (Duncanga ad Alexiad. p. 283.)] + </p> + <p> + While the Roman empire was attacked by the Turks in the East, east, and + the Normans in the West, the aged successor of Michael surrendered the + sceptre to the hands of Alexius, an illustrious captain, and the founder + of the Comnenian dynasty. The princess Anne, his daughter and historian, + observes, in her affected style, that even Hercules was unequal to a + double combat; and, on this principle, she approves a hasty peace with the + Turks, which allowed her father to undertake in person the relief of + Durazzo. On his accession, Alexius found the camp without soldiers, and + the treasury without money; yet such were the vigor and activity of his + measures, that in six months he assembled an army of seventy thousand men, + <a href="#linknote-56.69" name="linknoteref-56.69" id="linknoteref-56.69">69</a> + and performed a march of five hundred miles. His troops were levied in + Europe and Asia, from Peloponnesus to the Black Sea; his majesty was + displayed in the silver arms and rich trappings of the companies of + Horse-guards; and the emperor was attended by a train of nobles and + princes, some of whom, in rapid succession, had been clothed with the + purple, and were indulged by the lenity of the times in a life of + affluence and dignity. Their youthful ardor might animate the multitude; + but their love of pleasure and contempt of subordination were pregnant + with disorder and mischief; and their importunate clamors for speedy and + decisive action disconcerted the prudence of Alexius, who might have + surrounded and starved the besieging army. The enumeration of provinces + recalls a sad comparison of the past and present limits of the Roman + world: the raw levies were drawn together in haste and terror; and the + garrisons of Anatolia, or Asia Minor, had been purchased by the evacuation + of the cities which were immediately occupied by the Turks. The strength + of the Greek army consisted in the Varangians, the Scandinavian guards, + whose numbers were recently augmented by a colony of exiles and volunteers + from the British Island of Thule. Under the yoke of the Norman conqueror, + the Danes and English were oppressed and united; a band of adventurous + youths resolved to desert a land of slavery; the sea was open to their + escape; and, in their long pilgrimage, they visited every coast that + afforded any hope of liberty and revenge. They were entertained in the + service of the Greek emperor; and their first station was in a new city on + the Asiatic shore: but Alexius soon recalled them to the defence of his + person and palace; and bequeathed to his successors the inheritance of + their faith and valor. <a href="#linknote-56.70" name="linknoteref-56.70" + id="linknoteref-56.70">70</a> The name of a Norman invader revived the + memory of their wrongs: they marched with alacrity against the national + foe, and panted to regain in Epirus the glory which they had lost in the + battle of Hastings. The Varangians were supported by some companies of + Franks or Latins; and the rebels, who had fled to Constantinople from the + tyranny of Guiscard, were eager to signalize their zeal and gratify their + revenge. In this emergency, the emperor had not disdained the impure aid + of the Paulicians or Manichaeans of Thrace and Bulgaria; and these + heretics united with the patience of martyrdom the spirit and discipline + of active valor. <a href="#linknote-56.71" name="linknoteref-56.71" + id="linknoteref-56.71">71</a> The treaty with the sultan had procured a + supply of some thousand Turks; and the arrows of the Scythian horse were + opposed to the lances of the Norman cavalry. On the report and distant + prospect of these formidable numbers, Robert assembled a council of his + principal officers. “You behold,” said he, “your danger: it is urgent and + inevitable. The hills are covered with arms and standards; and the emperor + of the Greeks is accustomed to wars and triumphs. Obedience and union are + our only safety; and I am ready to yield the command to a more worthy + leader.” The vote and acclamation even of his secret enemies, assured him, + in that perilous moment, of their esteem and confidence; and the duke thus + continued: “Let us trust in the rewards of victory, and deprive cowardice + of the means of escape. Let us burn our vessels and our baggage, and give + battle on this spot, as if it were the place of our nativity and our + burial.” The resolution was unanimously approved; and, without confining + himself to his lines, Guiscard awaited in battle-array the nearer approach + of the enemy. His rear was covered by a small river; his right wing + extended to the sea; his left to the hills: nor was he conscious, perhaps, + that on the same ground Caesar and Pompey had formerly disputed the empire + of the world. <a href="#linknote-56.72" name="linknoteref-56.72" + id="linknoteref-56.72">72</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.69" id="linknote-56.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.69">return</a>)<br /> [ Muratori (Annali d’ + Italia, tom. ix. p. 136, 137) observes, that some authors (Petrus Diacon. + Chron. Casinen. l. iii. c. 49) compose the Greek army of 170,000 men, but + that the hundred may be struck off, and that Malaterra reckons only + 70,000; a slight inattention. The passage to which he alludes is in the + Chronicle of Lupus Protospata, (Script. Ital. tom. v. p. 45.) Malaterra + (l. iv. c. 27) speaks in high, but indefinite terms of the emperor, cum + copiisinnumerabilbus: like the Apulian poet, (l. iv. p. 272:) —More + locustarum montes et pianna teguntur.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.70" id="linknote-56.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.70">return</a>)<br /> [ See William of + Malmsbury, de Gestis Anglorum, l. ii. p. 92. Alexius fidem Anglorum + suspiciens praecipuis familiaritatibus suis eos applicabat, amorem eorum + filio transcribens. Odericus Vitalis (Hist. Eccles. l. iv. p. 508, l. vii. + p. 641) relates their emigration from England, and their service in + Greece.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.71" id="linknote-56.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.71">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Apulian, (l. i. + p. 256.) The character and the story of these Manichaeans has been the + subject of the livth chapter.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.72" id="linknote-56.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.72">return</a>)<br /> [ See the simple and + masterly narrative of Caesar himself, (Comment. de Bell. Civil. iii. + 41-75.) It is a pity that Quintus Icilius (M. Guichard) did not live to + analyze these operations, as he has done the campaigns of Africa and + Spain.] + </p> + <p> + Against the advice of his wisest captains, Alexius resolved to risk the + event of a general action, and exhorted the garrison of Durazzo to assist + their own deliverance by a well-timed sally from the town. He marched in + two columns to surprise the Normans before daybreak on two different + sides: his light cavalry was scattered over the plain; the archers formed + the second line; and the Varangians claimed the honors of the vanguard. In + the first onset, the battle-axes of the strangers made a deep and bloody + impression on the army of Guiscard, which was now reduced to fifteen + thousand men. The Lombards and Calabrians ignominiously turned their + backs; they fled towards the river and the sea; but the bridge had been + broken down to check the sally of the garrison, and the coast was lined + with the Venetian galleys, who played their engines among the disorderly + throng. On the verge of ruin, they were saved by the spirit and conduct of + their chiefs. Gaita, the wife of Robert, is painted by the Greeks as a + warlike Amazon, a second Pallas; less skilful in arts, but not less + terrible in arms, than the Athenian goddess: <a href="#linknote-56.73" + name="linknoteref-56.73" id="linknoteref-56.73">73</a> though wounded by an + arrow, she stood her ground, and strove, by her exhortation and example, + to rally the flying troops. <a href="#linknote-56.74" + name="linknoteref-56.74" id="linknoteref-56.74">74</a> Her female voice was + seconded by the more powerful voice and arm of the Norman duke, as calm in + action as he was magnanimous in council: “Whither,” he cried aloud, + “whither do ye fly? Your enemy is implacable; and death is less grievous + than servitude.” The moment was decisive: as the Varangians advanced + before the line, they discovered the nakedness of their flanks: the main + battle of the duke, of eight hundred knights, stood firm and entire; they + couched their lances, and the Greeks bore the furious and irresistible + shock of the French cavalry. <a href="#linknote-56.75" + name="linknoteref-56.75" id="linknoteref-56.75">75</a> Alexius was not + deficient in the duties of a soldier or a general; but he no sooner beheld + the slaughter of the Varangians, and the flight of the Turks, than he + despised his subjects, and despaired of his fortune. The princess Anne, + who drops a tear on this melancholy event, is reduced to praise the + strength and swiftness of her father’s horse, and his vigorous struggle + when he was almost overthrown by the stroke of a lance, which had shivered + the Imperial helmet. His desperate valor broke through a squadron of + Franks who opposed his flight; and after wandering two days and as many + nights in the mountains, he found some repose, of body, though not of + mind, in the walls of Lychnidus. The victorious Robert reproached the + tardy and feeble pursuit which had suffered the escape of so illustrious a + prize: but he consoled his disappointment by the trophies and standards of + the field, the wealth and luxury of the Byzantine camp, and the glory of + defeating an army five times more numerous than his own. A multitude of + Italians had been the victims of their own fears; but only thirty of his + knights were slain in this memorable day. In the Roman host, the loss of + Greeks, Turks, and English, amounted to five or six thousand: <a + href="#linknote-56.76" name="linknoteref-56.76" id="linknoteref-56.76">76</a> + the plain of Durazzo was stained with noble and royal blood; and the end + of the impostor Michael was more honorable than his life. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.73" id="linknote-56.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.73">return</a>)<br /> [ It is very properly + translated by the President Cousin, (Hist. de Constantinople, tom. iv. p. + 131, in 12mo.,) qui combattoit comme une Pallas, quoiqu’elle ne fut pas + aussi savante que celle d’Athenes. The Grecian goddess was composed of two + discordant characters, of Neith, the workwoman of Sais in Egypt, and of a + virgin Amazon of the Tritonian lake in Libya, (Banier, Mythologie, tom. + iv. p. 1-31, in 12mo.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.74" id="linknote-56.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.74">return</a>)<br /> [ Anna Comnena (l. iv. p. + 116) admires, with some degree of terror, her masculine virtues. They were + more familiar to the Latins and though the Apulian (l. iv. p. 273) + mentions her presence and her wound, he represents her as far less + intrepid. Uxor in hoc bello Roberti forte sagitta + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + Quadam laesa fuit: quo vulnere territa nullam. + + Dum sperabat opem, se poene subegerat hosti. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + The last is an unlucky word for a female prisoner.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.75" id="linknote-56.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.75">return</a>)<br /> [ (Anna, l. v. p. 133;) + and elsewhere, (p. 140.) The pedantry of the princess in the choice of + classic appellations encouraged Ducange to apply to his countrymen the + characters of the ancient Gauls.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.76" id="linknote-56.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.76">return</a>)<br /> [ Lupus Protospata (tom. + iii. p. 45) says 6000: William the Apulian more than 5000, (l. iv. p. + 273.) Their modesty is singular and laudable: they might with so little + trouble have slain two or three myriads of schismatics and infidels!] + </p> + <p> + It is more than probable that Guiscard was not afflicted by the loss of a + costly pageant, which had merited only the contempt and derision of the + Greeks. After their defeat, they still persevered in the defence of + Durazzo; and a Venetian commander supplied the place of George + Palaeologus, who had been imprudently called away from his station. The + tents of the besiegers were converted into barracks, to sustain the + inclemency of the winter; and in answer to the defiance of the garrison, + Robert insinuated, that his patience was at least equal to their + obstinacy. <a href="#linknote-56.77" name="linknoteref-56.77" + id="linknoteref-56.77">77</a> Perhaps he already trusted to his secret + correspondence with a Venetian noble, who sold the city for a rich and + honorable marriage. At the dead of night, several rope-ladders were + dropped from the walls; the light Calabrians ascended in silence; and the + Greeks were awakened by the name and trumpets of the conqueror. Yet they + defended the streets three days against an enemy already master of the + rampart; and near seven months elapsed between the first investment and + the final surrender of the place. From Durazzo, the Norman duke advanced + into the heart of Epirus or Albania; traversed the first mountains of + Thessaly; surprised three hundred English in the city of Castoria; + approached Thessalonica; and made Constantinople tremble. A more pressing + duty suspended the prosecution of his ambitious designs. By shipwreck, + pestilence, and the sword, his army was reduced to a third of the original + numbers; and instead of being recruited from Italy, he was informed, by + plaintive epistles, of the mischiefs and dangers which had been produced + by his absence: the revolt of the cities and barons of Apulia; the + distress of the pope; and the approach or invasion of Henry king of + Germany. Highly presuming that his person was sufficient for the public + safety, he repassed the sea in a single brigantine, and left the remains + of the army under the command of his son and the Norman counts, exhorting + Bohemond to respect the freedom of his peers, and the counts to obey the + authority of their leader. The son of Guiscard trod in the footsteps of + his father; and the two destroyers are compared, by the Greeks, to the + caterpillar and the locust, the last of whom devours whatever has escaped + the teeth of the former. <a href="#linknote-56.78" name="linknoteref-56.78" + id="linknoteref-56.78">78</a> After winning two battles against the + emperor, he descended into the plain of Thessaly, and besieged Larissa, + the fabulous realm of Achilles, <a href="#linknote-56.79" + name="linknoteref-56.79" id="linknoteref-56.79">79</a> which contained the + treasure and magazines of the Byzantine camp. Yet a just praise must not + be refused to the fortitude and prudence of Alexius, who bravely struggled + with the calamities of the times. In the poverty of the state, he presumed + to borrow the superfluous ornaments of the churches: the desertion of the + Manichaeans was supplied by some tribes of Moldavia: a reenforcement of + seven thousand Turks replaced and revenged the loss of their brethren; and + the Greek soldiers were exercised to ride, to draw the bow, and to the + daily practice of ambuscades and evolutions. Alexius had been taught by + experience, that the formidable cavalry of the Franks on foot was unfit + for action, and almost incapable of motion; <a href="#linknote-56.80" + name="linknoteref-56.80" id="linknoteref-56.80">80</a> his archers were + directed to aim their arrows at the horse rather than the man; and a + variety of spikes and snares were scattered over the ground on which he + might expect an attack. In the neighborhood of Larissa the events of war + were protracted and balanced. The courage of Bohemond was always + conspicuous, and often successful; but his camp was pillaged by a + stratagem of the Greeks; the city was impregnable; and the venal or + discontented counts deserted his standard, betrayed their trusts, and + enlisted in the service of the emperor. Alexius returned to Constantinople + with the advantage, rather than the honor, of victory. After evacuating + the conquests which he could no longer defend, the son of Guiscard + embarked for Italy, and was embraced by a father who esteemed his merit, + and sympathized in his misfortune. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.77" id="linknote-56.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.77">return</a>)<br /> [ The Romans had changed + the inauspicious name of Epidamnus to Dyrrachium, (Plin. iii. 26;) and the + vulgar corruption of Duracium (see Malaterra) bore some affinity to + hardness. One of Robert’s names was Durand, a durando: poor wit! (Alberic. + Monach. in Chron. apud Muratori, Annali d’Italia, tom. ix. p. 137.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.78" id="linknote-56.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.78">return</a>)<br /> [ (Anna, l. i. p. 35.) By + these similes, so different from those of Homer she wishes to inspire + contempt as well as horror for the little noxious animal, a conqueror. + Most unfortunately, the common sense, or common nonsense, of mankind, + resists her laudable design.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.79" id="linknote-56.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.79">return</a>)<br /> [ Prodiit hac auctor + Trojanae cladis Achilles. The supposition of the Apulian (l. v. p. 275) + may be excused by the more classic poetry of Virgil, (Aeneid. ii. 197,) + Larissaeus Achilles, but it is not justified by the geography of Homer.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.80" id="linknote-56.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.80">return</a>)<br /> [ The items which + encumbered the knights on foot, have been ignorantly translated spurs, + (Anna Comnena, Alexias, l. v. p. 140.) Ducange has explained the true + sense by a ridiculous and inconvenient fashion, which lasted from the xith + to the xvth century. These peaks, in the form of a scorpion, were + sometimes two feet and fastened to the knee with a silver chain.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap56.4"></a> + Chapter LVI: The Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + Of the Latin princes, the allies of Alexius and enemies of Robert, the + most prompt and powerful was Henry the Third or Fourth, king of Germany + and Italy, and future emperor of the West. The epistle of the Greek + monarch <a href="#linknote-56.81" name="linknoteref-56.81" + id="linknoteref-56.81">81</a> to his brother is filled with the warmest + professions of friendship, and the most lively desire of strengthening + their alliance by every public and private tie. He congratulates Henry on + his success in a just and pious war; and complains that the prosperity of + his own empire is disturbed by the audacious enterprises of the Norman + Robert. The lists of his presents expresses the manners of the age—a + radiated crown of gold, a cross set with pearls to hang on the breast, a + case of relics, with the names and titles of the saints, a vase of + crystal, a vase of sardonyx, some balm, most probably of Mecca, and one + hundred pieces of purple. To these he added a more solid present, of one + hundred and forty-four thousand Byzantines of gold, with a further + assurance of two hundred and sixteen thousand, so soon as Henry should + have entered in arms the Apulian territories, and confirmed by an oath the + league against the common enemy. The German, <a href="#linknote-56.82" + name="linknoteref-56.82" id="linknoteref-56.82">82</a> who was already in + Lombardy at the head of an army and a faction, accepted these liberal + offers, and marched towards the south: his speed was checked by the sound + of the battle of Durazzo; but the influence of his arms, or name, in the + hasty return of Robert, was a full equivalent for the Grecian bribe. Henry + was the severe adversary of the Normans, the allies and vassals of Gregory + the Seventh, his implacable foe. The long quarrel of the throne and mitre + had been recently kindled by the zeal and ambition of that haughty priest: + <a href="#linknote-56.83" name="linknoteref-56.83" id="linknoteref-56.83">83</a> + the king and the pope had degraded each other; and each had seated a rival + on the temporal or spiritual throne of his antagonist. After the defeat + and death of his Swabian rebel, Henry descended into Italy, to assume the + Imperial crown, and to drive from the Vatican the tyrant of the church. <a + href="#linknote-56.84" name="linknoteref-56.84" id="linknoteref-56.84">84</a> + But the Roman people adhered to the cause of Gregory: their resolution was + fortified by supplies of men and money from Apulia; and the city was + thrice ineffectually besieged by the king of Germany. In the fourth year + he corrupted, as it is said, with Byzantine gold, the nobles of Rome, + whose estates and castles had been ruined by the war. The gates, the + bridges, and fifty hostages, were delivered into his hands: the anti-pope, + Clement the Third, was consecrated in the Lateran: the grateful pontiff + crowned his protector in the Vatican; and the emperor Henry fixed his + residence in the Capitol, as the lawful successor of Augustus and + Charlemagne. The ruins of the Septizonium were still defended by the + nephew of Gregory: the pope himself was invested in the castle of St. + Angelo; and his last hope was in the courage and fidelity of his Norman + vassal. Their friendship had been interrupted by some reciprocal injuries + and complaints; but, on this pressing occasion, Guiscard was urged by the + obligation of his oath, by his interest, more potent than oaths, by the + love of fame, and his enmity to the two emperors. Unfurling the holy + banner, he resolved to fly to the relief of the prince of the apostles: + the most numerous of his armies, six thousand horse, and thirty thousand + foot, was instantly assembled; and his march from Salerno to Rome was + animated by the public applause and the promise of the divine favor. + Henry, invincible in sixty-six battles, trembled at his approach; + recollected some indispensable affairs that required his presence in + Lombardy; exhorted the Romans to persevere in their allegiance; and + hastily retreated three days before the entrance of the Normans. In less + than three years, the son of Tancred of Hauteville enjoyed the glory of + delivering the pope, and of compelling the two emperors, of the East and + West, to fly before his victorious arms. <a href="#linknote-56.85" + name="linknoteref-56.85" id="linknoteref-56.85">85</a> But the triumph of + Robert was clouded by the calamities of Rome. By the aid of the friends of + Gregory, the walls had been perforated or scaled; but the Imperial faction + was still powerful and active; on the third day, the people rose in a + furious tumult; and a hasty word of the conqueror, in his defence or + revenge, was the signal of fire and pillage. <a href="#linknote-56.86" + name="linknoteref-56.86" id="linknoteref-56.86">86</a> The Saracens of + Sicily, the subjects of Roger, and auxiliaries of his brother, embraced + this fair occasion of rifling and profaning the holy city of the + Christians: many thousands of the citizens, in the sight, and by the + allies, of their spiritual father were exposed to violation, captivity, or + death; and a spacious quarter of the city, from the Lateran to the + Coliseum, was consumed by the flames, and devoted to perpetual solitude. + <a href="#linknote-56.87" name="linknoteref-56.87" id="linknoteref-56.87">87</a> + From a city, where he was now hated, and might be no longer feared, + Gregory retired to end his days in the palace of Salerno. The artful + pontiff might flatter the vanity of Guiscard with the hope of a Roman or + Imperial crown; but this dangerous measure, which would have inflamed the + ambition of the Norman, must forever have alienated the most faithful + princes of Germany. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.81" id="linknote-56.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.81">return</a>)<br /> [ The epistle itself + (Alexias, l. iii. p. 93, 94, 95) well deserves to be read. There is one + expression which Ducange does not understand. I have endeavored to grope + out a tolerable meaning: The first word is a golden crown; the second is + explained by Simon Portius, (in Lexico Graeco-Barbar.,) by a flash of + lightning.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.82" id="linknote-56.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.82">return</a>)<br /> [ For these general + events I must refer to the general historians Sigonius, Baronius, + Muratori, Mosheim, St. Marc, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.83" id="linknote-56.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.83">return</a>)<br /> [ The lives of Gregory + VII. are either legends or invectives, (St. Marc, Abrege, tom. iii. p. + 235, &c.;) and his miraculous or magical performances are alike + incredible to a modern reader. He will, as usual, find some instruction in + Le Clerc, (Vie de Hildebrand, Bibliot, ancienne et moderne, tom. viii.,) + and much amusement in Bayle, (Dictionnaire Critique, Gregoire VII.) That + pope was undoubtedly a great man, a second Athanasius, in a more fortunate + age of the church. May I presume to add, that the portrait of Athanasius + is one of the passages of my history (vol. ii. p. 332, &c.) with which + I am the least dissatisfied? * Note: There is a fair life of Gregory VII. + by Voigt, (Weimar. 1815,) which has been translated into French. M. + Villemain, it is understood, has devoted much time to the study of this + remarkable character, to whom his eloquence may do justice. There is much + valuable information on the subject in the accurate work of Stenzel, + Geschichte Deutschlands unter den Frankischen Kaisern—the History of + Germany under the Emperors of the Franconian Race.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.84" id="linknote-56.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.84">return</a>)<br /> [ Anna, with the rancor + of a Greek schismatic, calls him (l. i. p. 32,) a pope, or priest, worthy + to be spit upon and accuses him of scourging, shaving, and perhaps of + castrating the ambassadors of Henry, (p. 31, 33.) But this outrage is + improbable and doubtful, (see the sensible preface of Cousin.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.85" id="linknote-56.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.85">return</a>)<br /> [ + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Sic uno tempore victi + + Sunt terrae Domini duo: rex Alemannicus iste, + + Imperii rector Romani maximus ille. + + Alter ad arma ruens armis superatur; et alter + + Nominis auditi sola formidine cessit. +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + It is singular enough, that the Apulian, a Latin, should distinguish the + Greek as the ruler of the Roman empire, (l. iv. p. 274.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.86" id="linknote-56.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.86">return</a>)<br /> [ The narrative of + Malaterra (l. iii. c. 37, p. 587, 588) is authentic, circumstantial, and + fair. Dux ignem exclamans urbe incensa, &c. The Apulian softens the + mischief, (inde quibusdam aedibus exustis,) which is again exaggerated in + some partial chronicles, (Muratori, Annali, tom. ix. p. 147.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.87" id="linknote-56.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.87">return</a>)<br /> [ After mentioning this + devastation, the Jesuit Donatus (de Roma veteri et nova, l. iv. c. 8, p. + 489) prettily adds, Duraret hodieque in Coelio monte, interque ipsum et + capitolium, miserabilis facies prostrates urbis, nisi in hortorum + vinetorumque amoenitatem Roma resurrexisset, ut perpetua viriditate + contegeret vulnera et ruinas suas.] + </p> + <p> + The deliverer and scourge of Rome might have indulged himself in a season + of repose; but in the same year of the flight of the German emperor, the + indefatigable Robert resumed the design of his eastern conquests. The zeal + or gratitude of Gregory had promised to his valor the kingdoms of Greece + and Asia; <a href="#linknote-56.88" name="linknoteref-56.88" + id="linknoteref-56.88">88</a> his troops were assembled in arms, flushed + with success, and eager for action. Their numbers, in the language of + Homer, are compared by Anna to a swarm of bees; <a href="#linknote-56.89" + name="linknoteref-56.89" id="linknoteref-56.89">89</a> yet the utmost and + moderate limits of the powers of Guiscard have been already defined; they + were contained on this second occasion in one hundred and twenty vessels; + and as the season was far advanced, the harbor of Brundusium <a + href="#linknote-56.90" name="linknoteref-56.90" id="linknoteref-56.90">90</a> + was preferred to the open road of Otranto. Alexius, apprehensive of a + second attack, had assiduously labored to restore the naval forces of the + empire; and obtained from the republic of Venice an important succor of + thirty-six transports, fourteen galleys, and nine galiots or ships of + extra-ordinary strength and magnitude. Their services were liberally paid + by the license or monopoly of trade, a profitable gift of many shops and + houses in the port of Constantinople, and a tribute to St. Mark, the more + acceptable, as it was the produce of a tax on their rivals at Amalphi. By + the union of the Greeks and Venetians, the Adriatic was covered with a + hostile fleet; but their own neglect, or the vigilance of Robert, the + change of a wind, or the shelter of a mist, opened a free passage; and the + Norman troops were safely disembarked on the coast of Epirus. With twenty + strong and well-appointed galleys, their intrepid duke immediately sought + the enemy, and though more accustomed to fight on horseback, he trusted + his own life, and the lives of his brother and two sons, to the event of a + naval combat. The dominion of the sea was disputed in three engagements, + in sight of the Isle of Corfu: in the two former, the skill and numbers of + the allies were superior; but in the third, the Normans obtained a final + and complete victory. <a href="#linknote-56.91" name="linknoteref-56.91" + id="linknoteref-56.91">91</a> The light brigantines of the Greeks were + scattered in ignominious flight: the nine castles of the Venetians + maintained a more obstinate conflict; seven were sunk, two were taken; two + thousand five hundred captives implored in vain the mercy of the victor; + and the daughter of Alexius deplores the loss of thirteen thousand of his + subjects or allies. The want of experience had been supplied by the genius + of Guiscard; and each evening, when he had sounded a retreat, he calmly + explored the causes of his repulse, and invented new methods how to remedy + his own defects, and to baffle the advantages of the enemy. The winter + season suspended his progress: with the return of spring he again aspired + to the conquest of Constantinople; but, instead of traversing the hills of + Epirus, he turned his arms against Greece and the islands, where the + spoils would repay the labor, and where the land and sea forces might + pursue their joint operations with vigor and effect. But, in the Isle of + Cephalonia, his projects were fatally blasted by an epidemical disease: + Robert himself, in the seventieth year of his age, expired in his tent; + and a suspicion of poison was imputed, by public rumor, to his wife, or to + the Greek emperor. <a href="#linknote-56.92" name="linknoteref-56.92" + id="linknoteref-56.92">92</a> This premature death might allow a boundless + scope for the imagination of his future exploits; and the event + sufficiently declares, that the Norman greatness was founded on his life. + <a href="#linknote-56.93" name="linknoteref-56.93" id="linknoteref-56.93">93</a> + Without the appearance of an enemy, a victorious army dispersed or + retreated in disorder and consternation; and Alexius, who had trembled for + his empire, rejoiced in his deliverance. The galley which transported the + remains of Guiscard was ship-wrecked on the Italian shore; but the duke’s + body was recovered from the sea, and deposited in the sepulchre of + Venusia, <a href="#linknote-56.94" name="linknoteref-56.94" + id="linknoteref-56.94">94</a> a place more illustrious for the birth of + Horace <a href="#linknote-56.95" name="linknoteref-56.95" + id="linknoteref-56.95">95</a> than for the burial of the Norman heroes. + Roger, his second son and successor, immediately sunk to the humble + station of a duke of Apulia: the esteem or partiality of his father left + the valiant Bohemond to the inheritance of his sword. + </p> + <p> + The national tranquillity was disturbed by his claims, till the first + crusade against the infidels of the East opened a more splendid field of + glory and conquest. <a href="#linknote-56.96" name="linknoteref-56.96" + id="linknoteref-56.96">96</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.88" id="linknote-56.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.88">return</a>)<br /> [ The royalty of Robert, + either promised or bestowed by the pope, (Anna, l. i. p. 32,) is + sufficiently confirmed by the Apulian, (l. iv. p. 270.) —Romani + regni sibi promisisse coronam Papa ferebatur. Nor can I understand why + Gretser, and the other papal advocates, should be displeased with this new + instance of apostolic jurisdiction.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.89" id="linknote-56.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.89">return</a>)<br /> [ See Homer, Iliad, B. (I + hate this pedantic mode of quotation by letters of the Greek alphabet) 87, + &c. His bees are the image of a disorderly crowd: their discipline and + public works seem to be the ideas of a later age, (Virgil. Aeneid. l. i.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.90" id="linknote-56.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.90">return</a>)<br /> [ Gulielm. Appulus, l. v. + p. 276.) The admirable port of Brundusium was double; the outward harbor + was a gulf covered by an island, and narrowing by degrees, till it + communicated by a small gullet with the inner harbor, which embraced the + city on both sides. Caesar and nature have labored for its ruin; and + against such agents what are the feeble efforts of the Neapolitan + government? (Swinburne’s Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol. i. p. 384-390.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.91" id="linknote-56.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.91">return</a>)<br /> [ William of Apulia (l. + v. p. 276) describes the victory of the Normans, and forgets the two + previous defeats, which are diligently recorded by Anna Comnena, (l. vi. + p. 159, 160, 161.) In her turn, she invents or magnifies a fourth action, + to give the Venetians revenge and rewards. Their own feelings were far + different, since they deposed their doge, propter excidium stoli, + (Dandulus in Chron in Muratori, Script. Rerum Italicarum, tom. xii. p. + 249.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.92" id="linknote-56.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.92">return</a>)<br /> [ The most authentic + writers, William of Apulia. (l. v. 277,) Jeffrey Malaterra, (l. iii. c. + 41, p. 589,) and Romuald of Salerno, (Chron. in Muratori, Script. Rerum + Ital. tom. vii.,) are ignorant of this crime, so apparent to our + countrymen William of Malmsbury (l. iii. p. 107) and Roger de Hoveden, (p. + 710, in Script. post Bedam) and the latter can tell, how the just Alexius + married, crowned, and burnt alive, his female accomplice. The English + historian is indeed so blind, that he ranks Robert Guiscard, or Wiscard, + among the knights of Henry I, who ascended the throne fifteen years after + the duke of Apulia’s death.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.93" id="linknote-56.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.93">return</a>)<br /> [ The joyful Anna Comnena + scatters some flowers over the grave of an enemy, (Alexiad, l. v. p. + 162-166;) and his best praise is the esteem and envy of William the + Conqueror, the sovereign of his family Graecia (says Malaterra) hostibus + recedentibus libera laeta quievit: Apulia tota sive Calabria turbatur.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.94" id="linknote-56.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.94">return</a>)<br /> [ Urbs Venusina nitet + tantis decorata sepulchris, is one of the last lines of the Apulian’s + poems, (l. v. p. 278.) William of Malmsbury (l. iii. p. 107) inserts an + epitaph on Guiscard, which is not worth transcribing.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.95" id="linknote-56.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.95">return</a>)<br /> [ Yet Horace had few + obligations to Venusia; he was carried to Rome in his childhood, (Serm. i. + 6;) and his repeated allusions to the doubtful limit of Apulia and Lucania + (Carm. iii. 4, Serm. ii. I) are unworthy of his age and genius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.96" id="linknote-56.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.96">return</a>)<br /> [ See Giannone (tom. ii. + p. 88-93) and the historians of the fire crusade.] + </p> + <p> + Of human life, the most glorious or humble prospects are alike and soon + bounded by the sepulchre. The male line of Robert Guiscard was + extinguished, both in Apulia and at Antioch, in the second generation; but + his younger brother became the father of a line of kings; and the son of + the great count was endowed with the name, the conquests, and the spirit, + of the first Roger. <a href="#linknote-56.97" name="linknoteref-56.97" + id="linknoteref-56.97">97</a> The heir of that Norman adventurer was born + in Sicily; and, at the age of only four years, he succeeded to the + sovereignty of the island, a lot which reason might envy, could she + indulge for a moment the visionary, though virtuous wish of dominion. Had + Roger been content with his fruitful patrimony, a happy and grateful + people might have blessed their benefactor; and if a wise administration + could have restored the prosperous times of the Greek colonies, <a + href="#linknote-56.98" name="linknoteref-56.98" id="linknoteref-56.98">98</a> + the opulence and power of Sicily alone might have equalled the widest + scope that could be acquired and desolated by the sword of war. But the + ambition of the great count was ignorant of these noble pursuits; it was + gratified by the vulgar means of violence and artifice. He sought to + obtain the undivided possession of Palermo, of which one moiety had been + ceded to the elder branch; struggled to enlarge his Calabrian limits + beyond the measure of former treaties; and impatiently watched the + declining health of his cousin William of Apulia, the grandson of Robert. + On the first intelligence of his premature death, Roger sailed from + Palermo with seven galleys, cast anchor in the Bay of Salerno, received, + after ten days’ negotiation, an oath of fidelity from the Norman capital, + commanded the submission of the barons, and extorted a legal investiture + from the reluctant popes, who could not long endure either the friendship + or enmity of a powerful vassal. The sacred spot of Benevento was + respectfully spared, as the patrimony of St. Peter; but the reduction of + Capua and Naples completed the design of his uncle Guiscard; and the sole + inheritance of the Norman conquests was possessed by the victorious Roger. + A conscious superiority of power and merit prompted him to disdain the + titles of duke and of count; and the Isle of Sicily, with a third perhaps + of the continent of Italy, might form the basis of a kingdom <a + href="#linknote-56.99" name="linknoteref-56.99" id="linknoteref-56.99">99</a> + which would only yield to the monarchies of France and England. The chiefs + of the nation who attended his coronation at Palermo might doubtless + pronounce under what name he should reign over them; but the example of a + Greek tyrant or a Saracen emir was insufficient to justify his regal + character; and the nine kings of the Latin world <a href="#linknote-56.100" + name="linknoteref-56.100" id="linknoteref-56.100">100</a> might disclaim + their new associate, unless he were consecrated by the authority of the + supreme pontiff. The pride of Anacletus was pleased to confer a title, + which the pride of the Norman had stooped to solicit; <a + href="#linknote-56.101" name="linknoteref-56.101" id="linknoteref-56.101">101</a> + but his own legitimacy was attacked by the adverse election of Innocent + the Second; and while Anacletus sat in the Vatican, the successful + fugitive was acknowledged by the nations of Europe. The infant monarchy of + Roger was shaken, and almost overthrown, by the unlucky choice of an + ecclesiastical patron; and the sword of Lothaire the Second of Germany, + the excommunications of Innocent, the fleets of Pisa, and the zeal of St. + Bernard, were united for the ruin of the Sicilian robber. After a gallant + resistance, the Norman prince was driven from the continent of Italy: a + new duke of Apulia was invested by the pope and the emperor, each of whom + held one end of the gonfanon, or flagstaff, as a token that they asserted + their right, and suspended their quarrel. But such jealous friendship was + of short and precarious duration: the German armies soon vanished in + disease and desertion: <a href="#linknote-56.102" name="linknoteref-56.102" + id="linknoteref-56.102">102</a> the Apulian duke, with all his adherents, + was exterminated by a conqueror who seldom forgave either the dead or the + living; like his predecessor Leo the Ninth, the feeble though haughty + pontiff became the captive and friend of the Normans; and their + reconciliation was celebrated by the eloquence of Bernard, who now revered + the title and virtues of the king of Sicily. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.97" id="linknote-56.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.97">return</a>)<br /> [ The reign of Roger, and + the Norman kings of Sicily, fills books of the Istoria Civile of Giannone, + (tom. ii. l. xi.-xiv. p. 136-340,) and is spread over the ixth and xth + volumes of the Italian Annals of Muratori. In the Bibliotheque Italique + (tom. i. p. 175-122,) I find a useful abstract of Capacelatro, a modern + Neapolitan, who has composed, in two volumes, the history of his country + from Roger Frederic II. inclusive.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.98" id="linknote-56.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.98">return</a>)<br /> [ According to the + testimony of Philistus and Diodorus, the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse + could maintain a standing force of 10,000 horse, 100,000 foot, and 400 + galleys. Compare Hume, (Essays, vol. i. p. 268, 435,) and his adversary + Wallace, (Numbers of Mankind, p. 306, 307.) The ruins of Agrigentum are + the theme of every traveller, D’Orville, Reidesel, Swinburne, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.99" id="linknote-56.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.99">return</a>)<br /> [ A contemporary + historian of the acts of Roger from the year 1127 to 1135, founds his + title on merit and power, the consent of the barons, and the ancient + royalty of Sicily and Palermo, without introducing Pope Anacletus, + (Alexand. Coenobii Telesini Abbatis de Rebus gestis Regis Rogerii, lib. + iv. in Muratori, Script. Rerum Ital. tom. v. p. 607-645)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.100" id="linknote-56.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.100">return</a>)<br /> [ The kings of France, + England, Scotland, Castille, Arragon, Navarre, Sweden, Denmark, and + Hungary. The three first were more ancient than Charlemagne; the three + next were created by their sword; the three last by their baptism; and of + these the king of Hungary alone was honored or debased by a papal crown.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.101" id="linknote-56.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.101">return</a>)<br /> [ Fazellus, and a crowd + of Sicilians, had imagined a more early and independent coronation, (A.D. + 1130, May 1,) which Giannone unwillingly rejects, (tom. ii. p. 137-144.) + This fiction is disproved by the silence of contemporaries; nor can it be + restored by a spurious character of Messina, (Muratori, Annali d’ Italia, + tom. ix. p. 340. Pagi, Critica, tom. iv. p. 467, 468.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.102" id="linknote-56.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.102">return</a>)<br /> [ Roger corrupted the + second person of Lothaire’s army, who sounded, or rather cried, a retreat; + for the Germans (says Cinnamus, l. iii. c. i. p. 51) are ignorant of the + use of trumpets. Most ignorant himself! * Note: Cinnamus says nothing of + their ignorance.—M] + </p> + <p> + As a penance for his impious war against the successor of St. Peter, that + monarch might have promised to display the banner of the cross, and he + accomplished with ardor a vow so propitious to his interest and revenge. + The recent injuries of Sicily might provoke a just retaliation on the + heads of the Saracens: the Normans, whose blood had been mingled with so + many subject streams, were encouraged to remember and emulate the naval + trophies of their fathers, and in the maturity of their strength they + contended with the decline of an African power. When the Fatimite caliph + departed for the conquest of Egypt, he rewarded the real merit and + apparent fidelity of his servant Joseph with a gift of his royal mantle, + and forty Arabian horses, his palace with its sumptuous furniture, and the + government of the kingdoms of Tunis and Algiers. The Zeirides, <a + href="#linknote-56.103" name="linknoteref-56.103" id="linknoteref-56.103">103</a> + the descendants of Joseph, forgot their allegiance and gratitude to a + distant benefactor, grasped and abused the fruits of prosperity; and after + running the little course of an Oriental dynasty, were now fainting in + their own weakness. On the side of the land, they were pressed by the + Almohades, the fanatic princes of Morocco, while the sea-coast was open to + the enterprises of the Greeks and Franks, who, before the close of the + eleventh century, had extorted a ransom of two hundred thousand pieces of + gold. By the first arms of Roger, the island or rock of Malta, which has + been since ennobled by a military and religious colony, was inseparably + annexed to the crown of Sicily. Tripoli, <a href="#linknote-56.104" + name="linknoteref-56.104" id="linknoteref-56.104">104</a> a strong and + maritime city, was the next object of his attack; and the slaughter of the + males, the captivity of the females, might be justified by the frequent + practice of the Moslems themselves. The capital of the Zeirides was named + Africa from the country, and Mahadia <a href="#linknote-56.105" + name="linknoteref-56.105" id="linknoteref-56.105">105</a> from the Arabian + founder: it is strongly built on a neck of land, but the imperfection of + the harbor is not compensated by the fertility of the adjacent plain. + Mahadia was besieged by George the Sicilian admiral, with a fleet of one + hundred and fifty galleys, amply provided with men and the instruments of + mischief: the sovereign had fled, the Moorish governor refused to + capitulate, declined the last and irresistible assault, and secretly + escaping with the Moslem inhabitants abandoned the place and its treasures + to the rapacious Franks. In successive expeditions, the king of Sicily or + his lieutenants reduced the cities of Tunis, Safax, Capsia, Bona, and a + long tract of the sea-coast; <a href="#linknote-56.106" + name="linknoteref-56.106" id="linknoteref-56.106">106</a> the fortresses + were garrisoned, the country was tributary, and a boast that it held + Africa in subjection might be inscribed with some flattery on the sword of + Roger. <a href="#linknote-56.107" name="linknoteref-56.107" + id="linknoteref-56.107">107</a> After his death, that sword was broken; and + these transmarine possessions were neglected, evacuated, or lost, under + the troubled reign of his successor. <a href="#linknote-56.108" + name="linknoteref-56.108" id="linknoteref-56.108">108</a> The triumphs of + Scipio and Belisarius have proved, that the African continent is neither + inaccessible nor invincible; yet the great princes and powers of + Christendom have repeatedly failed in their armaments against the Moors, + who may still glory in the easy conquest and long servitude of Spain. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.103" id="linknote-56.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.103">return</a>)<br /> [ See De Guignes, Hist. + Generate des Huns, tom. i. p. 369-373 and Cardonne, Hist. de l’Afrique, + &c., sous la Domination des Arabes tom. ii. p. 70-144. Their common + original appears to be Novairi.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.104" id="linknote-56.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.104">return</a>)<br /> [ Tripoli (says the + Nubian geographer, or more properly the Sherif al Edrisi) urbs fortis, + saxeo muro vallata, sita prope littus maris Hanc expugnavit Rogerius, qui + mulieribus captivis ductis, viros pere mit.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.105" id="linknote-56.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.105">return</a>)<br /> [ See the geography of + Leo Africanus, (in Ramusio tom. i. fol. 74 verso. fol. 75, recto,) and + Shaw’s Travels, (p. 110,) the viith book of Thuanus, and the xith of the + Abbe de Vertot. The possession and defence of the place was offered by + Charles V. and wisely declined by the knights of Malta.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.106" id="linknote-56.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.106">return</a>)<br /> [ Pagi has accurately + marked the African conquests of Roger and his criticism was supplied by + his friend the Abbe de Longuerue with some Arabic memorials, (A.D. 1147, + No. 26, 27, A.D. 1148, No. 16, A.D. 1153, No. 16.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.107" id="linknote-56.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.107">return</a>)<br /> [ Appulus et Calaber, + Siculus mihi servit et Afer. A proud inscription, which denotes, that the + Norman conquerors were still discriminated from their Christian and Moslem + subjects.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.108" id="linknote-56.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.108">return</a>)<br /> [ Hugo Falcandus (Hist. + Sicula, in Muratori, Script. tom. vii. p. 270, 271) ascribes these losses + to the neglect or treachery of the admiral Majo.] + </p> + <p> + Since the decease of Robert Guiscard, the Normans had relinquished, above + sixty years, their hostile designs against the empire of the East. The + policy of Roger solicited a public and private union with the Greek + princes, whose alliance would dignify his regal character: he demanded in + marriage a daughter of the Comnenian family, and the first steps of the + treaty seemed to promise a favorable event. But the contemptuous treatment + of his ambassadors exasperated the vanity of the new monarch; and the + insolence of the Byzantine court was expiated, according to the laws of + nations, by the sufferings of a guiltless people. <a href="#linknote-56.109" + name="linknoteref-56.109" id="linknoteref-56.109">109</a> With the fleet of + seventy galleys, George, the admiral of Sicily, appeared before Corfu; and + both the island and city were delivered into his hands by the disaffected + inhabitants, who had yet to learn that a siege is still more calamitous + than a tribute. In this invasion, of some moment in the annals of + commerce, the Normans spread themselves by sea, and over the provinces of + Greece; and the venerable age of Athens, Thebes, and Corinth, was violated + by rapine and cruelty. Of the wrongs of Athens, no memorial remains. The + ancient walls, which encompassed, without guarding, the opulence of + Thebes, were scaled by the Latin Christians; but their sole use of the + gospel was to sanctify an oath, that the lawful owners had not secreted + any relic of their inheritance or industry. On the approach of the + Normans, the lower town of Corinth was evacuated; the Greeks retired to + the citadel, which was seated on a lofty eminence, abundantly watered by + the classic fountain of Pirene; an impregnable fortress, if the want of + courage could be balanced by any advantages of art or nature. As soon as + the besiegers had surmounted the labor (their sole labor) of climbing the + hill, their general, from the commanding eminence, admired his own + victory, and testified his gratitude to Heaven, by tearing from the altar + the precious image of Theodore, the tutelary saint. The silk weavers of + both sexes, whom George transported to Sicily, composed the most valuable + part of the spoil; and in comparing the skilful industry of the mechanic + with the sloth and cowardice of the soldier, he was heard to exclaim that + the distaff and loom were the only weapons which the Greeks were capable + of using. The progress of this naval armament was marked by two + conspicuous events, the rescue of the king of France, and the insult of + the Byzantine capital. In his return by sea from an unfortunate crusade, + Louis the Seventh was intercepted by the Greeks, who basely violated the + laws of honor and religion. The fortunate encounter of the Norman fleet + delivered the royal captive; and after a free and honorable entertainment + in the court of Sicily, Louis continued his journey to Rome and Paris. <a + href="#linknote-56.110" name="linknoteref-56.110" id="linknoteref-56.110">110</a> + In the absence of the emperor, Constantinople and the Hellespont were left + without defence and without the suspicion of danger. The clergy and people + (for the soldiers had followed the standard of Manuel) were astonished and + dismayed at the hostile appearance of a line of galleys, which boldly cast + anchor in the front of the Imperial city. The forces of the Sicilian + admiral were inadequate to the siege or assault of an immense and populous + metropolis; but George enjoyed the glory of humbling the Greek arrogance, + and of marking the path of conquest to the navies of the West. He landed + some soldiers to rifle the fruits of the royal gardens, and pointed with + silver, or most probably with fire, the arrows which he discharged against + the palace of the Caesars. <a href="#linknote-56.111" + name="linknoteref-56.111" id="linknoteref-56.111">111</a> This playful + outrage of the pirates of Sicily, who had surprised an unguarded moment, + Manuel affected to despise, while his martial spirit, and the forces of + the empire, were awakened to revenge. The Archipelago and Ionian Sea were + covered with his squadrons and those of Venice; but I know not by what + favorable allowance of transports, victuallers, and pinnaces, our reason, + or even our fancy, can be reconciled to the stupendous account of fifteen + hundred vessels, which is proposed by a Byzantine historian. These + operations were directed with prudence and energy: in his homeward voyage + George lost nineteen of his galleys, which were separated and taken: after + an obstinate defence, Corfu implored the clemency of her lawful sovereign; + nor could a ship, a soldier, of the Norman prince, be found, unless as a + captive, within the limits of the Eastern empire. The prosperity and the + health of Roger were already in a declining state: while he listened in + his palace of Palermo to the messengers of victory or defeat, the + invincible Manuel, the foremost in every assault, was celebrated by the + Greeks and Latins as the Alexander or the Hercules of the age. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.109" id="linknote-56.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.109">return</a>)<br /> [ The silence of the + Sicilian historians, who end too soon, or begin too late, must be supplied + by Otho of Frisingen, a German, (de Gestis Frederici I. l. i. c. 33, in + Muratori, Script. tom. vi. p. 668,) the Venetian Andrew Dandulus, (Id. + tom. xii. p. 282, 283) and the Greek writers Cinnamus (l. iii. c. 2-5) and + Nicetas, (in Manuel. l. iii. c. 1-6.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.110" id="linknote-56.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.110">return</a>)<br /> [ To this imperfect + capture and speedy rescue I apply Cinnamus, l. ii. c. 19, p. 49. Muratori, + on tolerable evidence, (Annali d’Italia, tom. ix. p. 420, 421,) laughs at + the delicacy of the French, who maintain, marisque nullo impediente + periculo ad regnum proprium reversum esse; yet I observe that their + advocate, Ducange, is less positive as the commentator on Cinnamus, than + as the editor of Joinville.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.111" id="linknote-56.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.111">return</a>)<br /> [ In palatium regium + sagittas igneas injecit, says Dandulus; but Nicetas (l. ii. c. 8, p. 66) + transforms them, and adds, that Manuel styled this insult. These arrows, + by the compiler, Vincent de Beauvais, are again transmuted into gold.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap56.5"></a> + Chapter LVI: The Saracens, The Franks And The Normans.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + A prince of such a temper could not be satisfied with having repelled the + insolence of a Barbarian. It was the right and duty, it might be the + interest and glory, of Manuel to restore the ancient majesty of the + empire, to recover the provinces of Italy and Sicily, and to chastise this + pretended king, the grandson of a Norman vassal. <a href="#linknote-56.112" + name="linknoteref-56.112" id="linknoteref-56.112">112</a> The natives of + Calabria were still attached to the Greek language and worship, which had + been inexorably proscribed by the Latin clergy: after the loss of her + dukes, Apulia was chained as a servile appendage to the crown of Sicily; + the founder of the monarchy had ruled by the sword; and his death had + abated the fear, without healing the discontent, of his subjects: the + feudal government was always pregnant with the seeds of rebellion; and a + nephew of Roger himself invited the enemies of his family and nation. The + majesty of the purple, and a series of Hungarian and Turkish wars, + prevented Manuel from embarking his person in the Italian expedition. To + the brave and noble Palaeologus, his lieutenant, the Greek monarch + intrusted a fleet and army: the siege of Bari was his first exploit; and, + in every operation, gold as well as steel was the instrument of victory. + Salerno, and some places along the western coast, maintained their + fidelity to the Norman king; but he lost in two campaigns the greater part + of his continental possessions; and the modest emperor, disdaining all + flattery and falsehood, was content with the reduction of three hundred + cities or villages of Apulia and Calabria, whose names and titles were + inscribed on all the walls of the palace. The prejudices of the Latins + were gratified by a genuine or fictitious donation under the seal of the + German Caesars; <a href="#linknote-56.113" name="linknoteref-56.113" + id="linknoteref-56.113">113</a> but the successor of Constantine soon + renounced this ignominious pretence, claimed the indefeasible dominion of + Italy, and professed his design of chasing the Barbarians beyond the Alps. + By the artful speeches, liberal gifts, and unbounded promises, of their + Eastern ally, the free cities were encouraged to persevere in their + generous struggle against the despotism of Frederic Barbarossa: the walls + of Milan were rebuilt by the contributions of Manuel; and he poured, says + the historian, a river of gold into the bosom of Ancona, whose attachment + to the Greeks was fortified by the jealous enmity of the Venetians. <a + href="#linknote-56.114" name="linknoteref-56.114" id="linknoteref-56.114">114</a> + The situation and trade of Ancona rendered it an important garrison in the + heart of Italy: it was twice besieged by the arms of Frederic; the + imperial forces were twice repulsed by the spirit of freedom; that spirit + was animated by the ambassador of Constantinople; and the most intrepid + patriots, the most faithful servants, were rewarded by the wealth and + honors of the Byzantine court. <a href="#linknote-56.115" + name="linknoteref-56.115" id="linknoteref-56.115">115</a> The pride of + Manuel disdained and rejected a Barbarian colleague; his ambition was + excited by the hope of stripping the purple from the German usurpers, and + of establishing, in the West, as in the East, his lawful title of sole + emperor of the Romans. With this view, he solicited the alliance of the + people and the bishop of Rome. Several of the nobles embraced the cause of + the Greek monarch; the splendid nuptials of his niece with Odo Frangipani + secured the support of that powerful family, <a href="#linknote-56.116" + name="linknoteref-56.116" id="linknoteref-56.116">116</a> and his royal + standard or image was entertained with due reverence in the ancient + metropolis. <a href="#linknote-56.117" name="linknoteref-56.117" + id="linknoteref-56.117">117</a> During the quarrel between Frederic and + Alexander the Third, the pope twice received in the Vatican the + ambassadors of Constantinople. They flattered his piety by the + long-promised union of the two churches, tempted the avarice of his venal + court, and exhorted the Roman pontiff to seize the just provocation, the + favorable moment, to humble the savage insolence of the Alemanni and to + acknowledge the true representative of Constantine and Augustus. <a + href="#linknote-56.118" name="linknoteref-56.118" id="linknoteref-56.118">118</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.112" id="linknote-56.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.112">return</a>)<br /> [ For the invasion of + Italy, which is almost overlooked by Nicetas see the more polite history + of Cinnamus, (l. iv. c. 1-15, p. 78-101,) who introduces a diffuse + narrative by a lofty profession, iii. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.113" id="linknote-56.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.113">return</a>)<br /> [ The Latin, Otho, (de + Gestis Frederici I. l. ii. c. 30, p. 734,) attests the forgery; the Greek, + Cinnamus, (l. iv. c. 1, p. 78,) claims a promise of restitution from + Conrad and Frederic. An act of fraud is always credible when it is told of + the Greeks.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.114" id="linknote-56.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.114">return</a>)<br /> [ Quod Ancontiani + Graecum imperium nimis diligerent ... Veneti speciali odio Anconam + oderunt. The cause of love, perhaps of envy, were the beneficia, flumen + aureum of the emperor; and the Latin narrative is confirmed by Cinnamus, + (l. iv. c. 14, p. 98.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.115" id="linknote-56.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.115">return</a>)<br /> [ Muratori mentions the + two sieges of Ancona; the first, in 1167, against Frederic I. in person + (Annali, tom. x. p. 39, &c.;) the second, in 1173, against his + lieutenant Christian, archbishop of Mentz, a man unworthy of his name and + office, (p. 76, &c.) It is of the second siege that we possess an + original narrative, which he has published in his great collection, (tom. + vi. p. 921-946.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.116" id="linknote-56.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.116">return</a>)<br /> [ We derive this + anecdote from an anonymous chronicle of Fossa Nova, published by Muratori, + (Script. Ital. tom. vii. p. 874.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.117" id="linknote-56.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.117">return</a>)<br /> [ Cinnamus (l. iv. c. + 14, p. 99) is susceptible of this double sense. A standard is more Latin, + an image more Greek.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.118" id="linknote-56.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.118">return</a>)<br /> [ Nihilominus quoque + petebat, ut quia occasio justa et tempos opportunum et acceptabile se + obtulerant, Romani corona imperii a sancto apostolo sibi redderetur; + quoniam non ad Frederici Alemanni, sed ad suum jus asseruit pertinere, + (Vit. Alexandri III. a Cardinal. Arragoniae, in Script. Rerum Ital. tom. + iii. par. i. p. 458.) His second embassy was accompanied cum immensa + multitudine pecuniarum.] + </p> + <p> + But these Italian conquests, this universal reign, soon escaped from the + hand of the Greek emperor. His first demands were eluded by the prudence + of Alexander the Third, who paused on this deep and momentous revolution; + <a href="#linknote-56.119" name="linknoteref-56.119" id="linknoteref-56.119">119</a> + nor could the pope be seduced by a personal dispute to renounce the + perpetual inheritance of the Latin name. After the reunion with Frederic, + he spoke a more peremptory language, confirmed the acts of his + predecessors, excommunicated the adherents of Manuel, and pronounced the + final separation of the churches, or at least the empires, of + Constantinople and Rome. <a href="#linknote-56.120" name="linknoteref-56.120" + id="linknoteref-56.120">120</a> The free cities of Lombardy no longer + remembered their foreign benefactor, and without preserving the friendship + of Ancona, he soon incurred the enmity of Venice. <a href="#linknote-56.121" + name="linknoteref-56.121" id="linknoteref-56.121">121</a> By his own + avarice, or the complaints of his subjects, the Greek emperor was provoked + to arrest the persons, and confiscate the effects, of the Venetian + merchants. This violation of the public faith exasperated a free and + commercial people: one hundred galleys were launched and armed in as many + days; they swept the coasts of Dalmatia and Greece: but after some mutual + wounds, the war was terminated by an agreement, inglorious to the empire, + insufficient for the republic; and a complete vengeance of these and of + fresh injuries was reserved for the succeeding generation. The lieutenant + of Manuel had informed his sovereign that he was strong enough to quell + any domestic revolt of Apulia and Calabria; but that his forces were + inadequate to resist the impending attack of the king of Sicily. His + prophecy was soon verified: the death of Palaeologus devolved the command + on several chiefs, alike eminent in rank, alike defective in military + talents; the Greeks were oppressed by land and sea; and a captive remnant + that escaped the swords of the Normans and Saracens, abjured all future + hostility against the person or dominions of their conqueror. <a + href="#linknote-56.122" name="linknoteref-56.122" id="linknoteref-56.122">122</a> + Yet the king of Sicily esteemed the courage and constancy of Manuel, who + had landed a second army on the Italian shore; he respectfully addressed + the new Justinian; solicited a peace or truce of thirty years, accepted as + a gift the regal title; and acknowledged himself the military vassal of + the Roman empire. <a href="#linknote-56.123" name="linknoteref-56.123" + id="linknoteref-56.123">123</a> The Byzantine Caesars acquiesced in this + shadow of dominion, without expecting, perhaps without desiring, the + service of a Norman army; and the truce of thirty years was not disturbed + by any hostilities between Sicily and Constantinople. About the end of + that period, the throne of Manuel was usurped by an inhuman tyrant, who + had deserved the abhorrence of his country and mankind: the sword of + William the Second, the grandson of Roger, was drawn by a fugitive of the + Comnenian race; and the subjects of Andronicus might salute the strangers + as friends, since they detested their sovereign as the worst of enemies. + The Latin historians <a href="#linknote-56.124" name="linknoteref-56.124" + id="linknoteref-56.124">124</a> expatiate on the rapid progress of the four + counts who invaded Romania with a fleet and army, and reduced many castles + and cities to the obedience of the king of Sicily. The Greeks <a + href="#linknote-56.125" name="linknoteref-56.125" id="linknoteref-56.125">125</a> + accuse and magnify the wanton and sacrilegious cruelties that were + perpetrated in the sack of Thessalonica, the second city of the empire. + The former deplore the fate of those invincible but unsuspecting warriors + who were destroyed by the arts of a vanquished foe. The latter applaud, in + songs of triumph, the repeated victories of their countrymen on the Sea of + Marmora or Propontis, on the banks of the Strymon, and under the walls of + Durazzo. A revolution which punished the crimes of Andronicus, had united + against the Franks the zeal and courage of the successful insurgents: ten + thousand were slain in battle, and Isaac Angelus, the new emperor, might + indulge his vanity or vengeance in the treatment of four thousand + captives. Such was the event of the last contest between the Greeks and + Normans: before the expiration of twenty years, the rival nations were + lost or degraded in foreign servitude; and the successors of Constantine + did not long survive to insult the fall of the Sicilian monarchy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.119" id="linknote-56.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.119">return</a>)<br /> [ Nimis alta et + perplexa sunt, (Vit. Alexandri III. p. 460, 461,) says the cautious pope.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.120" id="linknote-56.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.120">return</a>)<br /> [ (Cinnamus, l. iv. c. + 14, p. 99.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.121" id="linknote-56.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.121">return</a>)<br /> [ In his vith book, + Cinnamus describes the Venetian war, which Nicetas has not thought worthy + of his attention. The Italian accounts, which do not satisfy our + curiosity, are reported by the annalist Muratori, under the years 1171, + &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.122" id="linknote-56.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.122">return</a>)<br /> [ This victory is + mentioned by Romuald of Salerno, (in Muratori, Script. Ital. tom. vii. p. + 198.) It is whimsical enough, that in the praise of the king of Sicily, + Cinnamus (l. iv. c. 13, p. 97, 98) is much warmer and copious than + Falcandus, (p. 268, 270.) But the Greek is fond of description, and the + Latin historian is not fond of William the Bad.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.123" id="linknote-56.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.123">return</a>)<br /> [ For the epistle of + William I. see Cinnamus (l. iv. c. 15, p. 101, 102) and Nicetas, (l. ii. + c. 8.) It is difficult to affirm, whether these Greeks deceived + themselves, or the public, in these flattering portraits of the grandeur + of the empire.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.124" id="linknote-56.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.124">return</a>)<br /> [ I can only quote, of + original evidence, the poor chronicles of Sicard of Cremona, (p. 603,) and + of Fossa Nova, (p. 875,) as they are published in the viith tome of + Muratori’s historians. The king of Sicily sent his troops contra nequitiam + Andronici.... ad acquirendum imperium C. P. They were.... decepti + captique, by Isaac.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.125" id="linknote-56.125"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.125">return</a>)<br /> [ By the failure of + Cinnamus to Nicetas (in Andronico, l.. c. 7, 8, 9, l. ii. c. 1, in Isaac + Angelo, l. i. c. 1-4,) who now becomes a respectable contemporary. As he + survived the emperor and the empire, he is above flattery; but the fall of + Constantinople exasperated his prejudices against the Latins. For the + honor of learning I shall observe that Homer’s great commentator, + Eustathias archbishop of Thessalonica, refused to desert his flock.] + </p> + <p> + The sceptre of Roger successively devolved to his son and grandson: they + might be confounded under the name of William: they are strongly + discriminated by the epithets of the bad and the good; but these epithets, + which appear to describe the perfection of vice and virtue, cannot + strictly be applied to either of the Norman princes. When he was roused to + arms by danger and shame, the first William did not degenerate from the + valor of his race; but his temper was slothful; his manners were + dissolute; his passions headstrong and mischievous; and the monarch is + responsible, not only for his personal vices, but for those of Majo, the + great admiral, who abused the confidence, and conspired against the life, + of his benefactor. From the Arabian conquest, Sicily had imbibed a deep + tincture of Oriental manners; the despotism, the pomp, and even the harem, + of a sultan; and a Christian people was oppressed and insulted by the + ascendant of the eunuchs, who openly professed, or secretly cherished, the + religion of Mahomet. An eloquent historian of the times <a + href="#linknote-56.126" name="linknoteref-56.126" id="linknoteref-56.126">126</a> + has delineated the misfortunes of his country: <a href="#linknote-56.127" + name="linknoteref-56.127" id="linknoteref-56.127">127</a> the ambition and + fall of the ungrateful Majo; the revolt and punishment of his assassins; + the imprisonment and deliverance of the king himself; the private feuds + that arose from the public confusion; and the various forms of calamity + and discord which afflicted Palermo, the island, and the continent, during + the reign of William the First, and the minority of his son. The youth, + innocence, and beauty of William the Second, <a href="#linknote-56.128" + name="linknoteref-56.128" id="linknoteref-56.128">128</a> endeared him to + the nation: the factions were reconciled; the laws were revived; and from + the manhood to the premature death of that amiable prince, Sicily enjoyed + a short season of peace, justice, and happiness, whose value was enhanced + by the remembrance of the past and the dread of futurity. The legitimate + male posterity of Tancred of Hauteville was extinct in the person of the + second William; but his aunt, the daughter of Roger, had married the most + powerful prince of the age; and Henry the Sixth, the son of Frederic + Barbarossa, descended from the Alps to claim the Imperial crown and the + inheritance of his wife. Against the unanimous wish of a free people, this + inheritance could only be acquired by arms; and I am pleased to transcribe + the style and sense of the historian Falcandus, who writes at the moment, + and on the spot, with the feelings of a patriot, and the prophetic eye of + a statesman. “Constantia, the daughter of Sicily, nursed from her cradle + in the pleasures and plenty, and educated in the arts and manners, of this + fortunate isle, departed long since to enrich the Barbarians with our + treasures, and now returns, with her savage allies, to contaminate the + beauties of her venerable parent. Already I behold the swarms of angry + Barbarians: our opulent cities, the places flourishing in a long peace, + are shaken with fear, desolated by slaughter, consumed by rapine, and + polluted by intemperance and lust. I see the massacre or captivity of our + citizens, the rapes of our virgins and matrons. <a href="#linknote-56.129" + name="linknoteref-56.129" id="linknoteref-56.129">129</a> In this extremity + (he interrogates a friend) how must the Sicilians act? By the unanimous + election of a king of valor and experience, Sicily and Calabria might yet + be preserved; <a href="#linknote-56.130" name="linknoteref-56.130" + id="linknoteref-56.130">130</a> for in the levity of the Apulians, ever + eager for new revolutions, I can repose neither confidence nor hope. <a + href="#linknote-56.131" name="linknoteref-56.131" id="linknoteref-56.131">131</a> + Should Calabria be lost, the lofty towers, the numerous youth, and the + naval strength, of Messina, <a href="#linknote-56.132" + name="linknoteref-56.132" id="linknoteref-56.132">132</a> might guard the + passage against a foreign invader. If the savage Germans coalesce with the + pirates of Messina; if they destroy with fire the fruitful region, so + often wasted by the fires of Mount Aetna, <a href="#linknote-56.133" + name="linknoteref-56.133" id="linknoteref-56.133">133</a> what resource will + be left for the interior parts of the island, these noble cities which + should never be violated by the hostile footsteps of a Barbarian? <a + href="#linknote-56.134" name="linknoteref-56.134" id="linknoteref-56.134">134</a> + Catana has again been overwhelmed by an earthquake: the ancient virtue of + Syracuse expires in poverty and solitude; <a href="#linknote-56.135" + name="linknoteref-56.135" id="linknoteref-56.135">135</a> but Palermo is + still crowned with a diadem, and her triple walls enclose the active + multitudes of Christians and Saracens. If the two nations, under one king, + can unite for their common safety, they may rush on the Barbarians with + invincible arms. But if the Saracens, fatigued by a repetition of + injuries, should now retire and rebel; if they should occupy the castles + of the mountains and sea-coast, the unfortunate Christians, exposed to a + double attack, and placed as it were between the hammer and the anvil, + must resign themselves to hopeless and inevitable servitude.” <a + href="#linknote-56.136" name="linknoteref-56.136" id="linknoteref-56.136">136</a> + We must not forget, that a priest here prefers his country to his + religion; and that the Moslems, whose alliance he seeks, were still + numerous and powerful in the state of Sicily. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.126" id="linknote-56.126"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.126">return</a>)<br /> [ The Historia Sicula + of Hugo Falcandus, which properly extends from 1154 to 1169, is inserted + in the viiith volume of Muratori’s Collection, (tom. vii. p. 259-344,) and + preceded by a eloquent preface or epistle, (p. 251-258, de Calamitatibus + Siciliae.) Falcandus has been styled the Tacitus of Sicily; and, after a + just, but immense, abatement, from the ist to the xiith century, from a + senator to a monk, I would not strip him of his title: his narrative is + rapid and perspicuous, his style bold and elegant, his observation keen; + he had studied mankind, and feels like a man. I can only regret the narrow + and barren field on which his labors have been cast.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.127" id="linknote-56.127"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.127">return</a>)<br /> [ The laborious + Benedictines (l’Art de verifier les Dates, p. 896) are of opinion, that + the true name of Falcandus is Fulcandus, or Foucault. According to them, + Hugues Foucalt, a Frenchman by birth, and at length abbot of St. Denys, + had followed into Sicily his patron Stephen de la Perche, uncle to the + mother of William II., archbishop of Palermo, and great chancellor of the + kingdom. Yet Falcandus has all the feelings of a Sicilian; and the title + of Alumnus (which he bestows on himself) appears to indicate that he was + born, or at least educated, in the island.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.128" id="linknote-56.128"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.128">return</a>)<br /> [ Falcand. p. 303. + Richard de St. Germano begins his history from the death and praises of + William II. After some unmeaning epithets, he thus continues: Legis et + justitiae cultus tempore suo vigebat in regno; sua erat quilibet sorte + contentus; (were they mortals?) abique pax, ubique securitas, nec latronum + metuebat viator insidias, nec maris nauta offendicula piratarum, (Script. + Rerum Ital. tom. vii p 939.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.129" id="linknote-56.129"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.129">return</a>)<br /> [ Constantia, primis a + cunabulis in deliciarun tuarum affluentia diutius educata, tuisque + institutis, doctrinus et moribus informata, tandem opibus tuis Barbaros + delatura discessit: et nunc cum imgentibus copiis revertitur, ut + pulcherrima nutricis ornamenta barbarica foeditate contaminet .... Intuari + mihi jam videor turbulentas bar barorum acies.... civitates opulentas et + loca diuturna pace florentia, metu concutere, caede vastare, rapinis + atterere, et foedare luxuria hinc cives aut gladiis intercepti, aut + servitute depressi, virgines constupratae, matronae, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.130" id="linknote-56.130"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.130">return</a>)<br /> [ Certe si regem non + dubiae virtutis elegerint, nec a Saracenis Christiani dissentiant, poterit + rex creatus rebus licet quasi desperatis et perditis subvenire, et + incursus hostium, si prudenter egerit, propulsare.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.131" id="linknote-56.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.131">return</a>)<br /> [ In Apulis, qui, + semper novitate gaudentes, novarum rerum studiis aguntur, nihil arbitror + spei aut fiduciae reponendum.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.132" id="linknote-56.132"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.132">return</a>)<br /> [ Si civium tuorum + virtutem et audaciam attendas, .... muriorum etiam ambitum densis turribus + circumseptum.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.133" id="linknote-56.133"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.133">return</a>)<br /> [ Cum erudelitate + piratica Theutonum confligat atrocitas, et inter aucbustos lapides, et + Aethnae flagrant’s incendia, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.134" id="linknote-56.134"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.134">return</a>)<br /> [ Eam partem, quam + nobilissimarum civitatum fulgor illustrat, quae et toti regno singulari + meruit privilegio praeminere, nefarium esset.... vel barbarorum ingressu + pollui. I wish to transcribe his florid, but curious, description, of the + palace, city, and luxuriant plain of Palermo.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.135" id="linknote-56.135"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.135">return</a>)<br /> [ Vires non suppetunt, + et conatus tuos tam inopia civium, quam paucitas bellatorum elidunt.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.136" id="linknote-56.136"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.136">return</a>)<br /> [ The Normans and + Sicilians appear to be confounded.] + </p> + <p> + The hopes, or at least the wishes, of Falcandus were at first gratified by + the free and unanimous election of Tancred, the grandson of the first + king, whose birth was illegitimate, but whose civil and military virtues + shone without a blemish. During four years, the term of his life and + reign, he stood in arms on the farthest verge of the Apulian frontier, + against the powers of Germany; and the restitution of a royal captive, of + Constantia herself, without injury or ransom, may appear to surpass the + most liberal measure of policy or reason. After his decease, the kingdom + of his widow and infant son fell without a struggle; and Henry pursued his + victorious march from Capua to Palermo. The political balance of Italy was + destroyed by his success; and if the pope and the free cities had + consulted their obvious and real interest, they would have combined the + powers of earth and heaven to prevent the dangerous union of the German + empire with the kingdom of Sicily. But the subtle policy, for which the + Vatican has so often been praised or arraigned, was on this occasion blind + and inactive; and if it were true that Celestine the Third had kicked away + the Imperial crown from the head of the prostrate Henry, <a + href="#linknote-56.137" name="linknoteref-56.137" id="linknoteref-56.137">137</a> + such an act of impotent pride could serve only to cancel an obligation and + provoke an enemy. The Genoese, who enjoyed a beneficial trade and + establishment in Sicily, listened to the promise of his boundless + gratitude and speedy departure: <a href="#linknote-56.138" + name="linknoteref-56.138" id="linknoteref-56.138">138</a> their fleet + commanded the straits of Messina, and opened the harbor of Palermo; and + the first act of his government was to abolish the privileges, and to + seize the property, of these imprudent allies. The last hope of Falcandus + was defeated by the discord of the Christians and Mahometans: they fought + in the capital; several thousands of the latter were slain; but their + surviving brethren fortified the mountains, and disturbed above thirty + years the peace of the island. By the policy of Frederic the Second, sixty + thousand Saracens were transplanted to Nocera in Apulia. In their wars + against the Roman church, the emperor and his son Mainfroy were + strengthened and disgraced by the service of the enemies of Christ; and + this national colony maintained their religion and manners in the heart of + Italy, till they were extirpated, at the end of the thirteenth century, by + the zeal and revenge of the house of Anjou. <a href="#linknote-56.139" + name="linknoteref-56.139" id="linknoteref-56.139">139</a> All the calamities + which the prophetic orator had deplored were surpassed by the cruelty and + avarice of the German conqueror. He violated the royal sepulchres, <a + href="#linknote-56.1391" name="linknoteref-56.1391" id="linknoteref-56.1391">1391</a> + and explored the secret treasures of the palace, Palermo, and the whole + kingdom: the pearls and jewels, however precious, might be easily removed; + but one hundred and sixty horses were laden with the gold and silver of + Sicily. <a href="#linknote-56.140" name="linknoteref-56.140" + id="linknoteref-56.140">140</a> The young king, his mother and sisters, and + the nobles of both sexes, were separately confined in the fortresses of + the Alps; and, on the slightest rumor of rebellion, the captives were + deprived of life, of their eyes, or of the hope of posterity. Constantia + herself was touched with sympathy for the miseries of her country; and the + heiress of the Norman line might struggle to check her despotic husband, + and to save the patrimony of her new-born son, of an emperor so famous in + the next age under the name of Frederic the Second. Ten years after this + revolution, the French monarchs annexed to their crown the duchy of + Normandy: the sceptre of her ancient dukes had been transmitted, by a + granddaughter of William the Conqueror, to the house of Plantagenet; and + the adventurous Normans, who had raised so many trophies in France, + England, and Ireland, in Apulia, Sicily, and the East, were lost, either + in victory or servitude, among the vanquished nations. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.137" id="linknote-56.137"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.137">return</a>)<br /> [ The testimony of an + Englishman, of Roger de Hoveden, (p. 689,) will lightly weigh against the + silence of German and Italian history, (Muratori, Annali d’ Italia, tom. + x. p. 156.) The priests and pilgrims, who returned from Rome, exalted, by + every tale, the omnipotence of the holy father.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.138" id="linknote-56.138"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.138">return</a>)<br /> [ Ego enim in eo cum + Teutonicis manere non debeo, (Caffari, Annal. Genuenses, in Muratori, + Script. Rerum Italicarum, tom vi. p. 367, 368.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.139" id="linknote-56.139"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.139">return</a>)<br /> [ For the Saracens of + Sicily and Nocera, see the Annals of Muratori, (tom. x. p. 149, and A.D. + 1223, 1247,) Giannone, (tom ii. p. 385,) and of the originals, in + Muratori’s Collection, Richard de St. Germano, (tom. vii. p. 996,) Matteo + Spinelli de Giovenazzo, (tom. vii. p. 1064,) Nicholas de Jamsilla, (tom. + x. p. 494,) and Matreo Villani, (tom. xiv l. vii. p. 103.) The last of + these insinuates that, in reducing the Saracens of Nocera, Charles II. of + Anjou employed rather artifice than violence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.1391" id="linknote-56.1391"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1391 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.1391">return</a>)<br /> [ It is remarkable + that at the same time the tombs of the Roman emperors, even of Constantine + himself, were violated and ransacked by their degenerate successor Alexius + Comnenus, in order to enable him to pay the “German” tribute exacted by + the menaces of the emperor Henry. See the end of the first book of the + Life of Alexius, in Nicetas, p. 632, edit.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-56.140" id="linknote-56.140"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-56.140">return</a>)<br /> [ Muratori quotes a + passage from Arnold of Lubec, (l. iv. c. 20:) Reperit thesauros + absconditos, et omnem lapidum pretiosorum et gemmarum gloriam, ita ut + oneratis 160 somariis, gloriose ad terram suam redierit. Roger de Hoveden, + who mentions the violation of the royal tombs and corpses, computes the + spoil of Salerno at 200,000 ounces of gold, (p. 746.) On these occasions, + I am almost tempted to exclaim with the listening maid in La Fontaine, “Je + voudrois bien avoir ce qui manque.”] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap57.1"></a> + Chapter LVII: The Turks.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Turks Of The House Of Seljuk.—Their Revolt Against + Mahmud Conqueror Of Hindostan.—Togrul Subdues Persia, And + Protects The Caliphs.—Defeat And Captivity Of The Emperor + Romanus Diogenes By Alp Arslan.—Power And Magnificence Of + Malek Shah.—Conquest Of Asia Minor And Syria.—State And + Oppression Of Jerusalem.—Pilgrimages To The Holy Sepulchre. +</pre> + <p> + From the Isle of Sicily, the reader must transport himself beyond the + Caspian Sea, to the original seat of the Turks or Turkmans, against whom + the first crusade was principally directed. Their Scythian empire of the + sixth century was long since dissolved; but the name was still famous + among the Greeks and Orientals; and the fragments of the nation, each a + powerful and independent people, were scattered over the desert from China + to the Oxus and the Danube: the colony of Hungarians was admitted into the + republic of Europe, and the thrones of Asia were occupied by slaves and + soldiers of Turkish extraction. While Apulia and Sicily were subdued by + the Norman lance, a swarm of these northern shepherds overspread the + kingdoms of Persia; their princes of the race of Seljuk erected a splendid + and solid empire from Samarcand to the confines of Greece and Egypt; and + the Turks have maintained their dominion in Asia Minor, till the + victorious crescent has been planted on the dome of St. Sophia. + </p> + <p> + One of the greatest of the Turkish princes was Mahmood or Mahmud, <a + href="#linknote-57.1" name="linknoteref-57.1" id="linknoteref-57.1">1</a> the + Gaznevide, who reigned in the eastern provinces of Persia, one thousand + years after the birth of Christ. His father Sebectagi was the slave of the + slave of the slave of the commander of the faithful. But in this descent + of servitude, the first degree was merely titular, since it was filled by + the sovereign of Transoxiana and Chorasan, who still paid a nominal + allegiance to the caliph of Bagdad. The second rank was that of a minister + of state, a lieutenant of the Samanides, <a href="#linknote-57.2" + name="linknoteref-57.2" id="linknoteref-57.2">2</a> who broke, by his + revolt, the bonds of political slavery. But the third step was a state of + real and domestic servitude in the family of that rebel; from which + Sebectagi, by his courage and dexterity, ascended to the supreme command + of the city and provinces of Gazna, <a href="#linknote-57.3" + name="linknoteref-57.3" id="linknoteref-57.3">3</a> as the son-in-law and + successor of his grateful master. + </p> + <p> + The falling dynasty of the Samanides was at first protected, and at last + overthrown, by their servants; and, in the public disorders, the fortune + of Mahmud continually increased. From him the title of Sultan <a + href="#linknote-57.4" name="linknoteref-57.4" id="linknoteref-57.4">4</a> was + first invented; and his kingdom was enlarged from Transoxiana to the + neighborhood of Ispahan, from the shores of the Caspian to the mouth of + the Indus. But the principal source of his fame and riches was the holy + war which he waged against the Gentoos of Hindostan. In this foreign + narrative I may not consume a page; and a volume would scarcely suffice to + recapitulate the battles and sieges of his twelve expeditions. Never was + the Mussulman hero dismayed by the inclemency of the seasons, the height + of the mountains, the breadth of the rivers, the barrenness of the desert, + the multitudes of the enemy, or the formidable array of their elephants of + war. <a href="#linknote-57.5" name="linknoteref-57.5" id="linknoteref-57.5">5</a> + The sultan of Gazna surpassed the limits of the conquests of Alexander: + after a march of three months, over the hills of Cashmir and Thibet, he + reached the famous city of Kinnoge, <a href="#linknote-57.6" + name="linknoteref-57.6" id="linknoteref-57.6">6</a> on the Upper Ganges; + and, in a naval combat on one of the branches of the Indus, he fought and + vanquished four thousand boats of the natives. Delhi, Lahor, and Multan, + were compelled to open their gates: the fertile kingdom of Guzarat + attracted his ambition and tempted his stay; and his avarice indulged the + fruitless project of discovering the golden and aromatic isles of the + Southern Ocean. On the payment of a tribute, the rajahs preserved their + dominions; the people, their lives and fortunes; but to the religion of + Hindostan the zealous Mussulman was cruel and inexorable: many hundred + temples, or pagodas, were levelled with the ground; many thousand idols + were demolished; and the servants of the prophet were stimulated and + rewarded by the precious materials of which they were composed. The pagoda + of Sumnat was situate on the promontory of Guzarat, in the neighborhood of + Diu, one of the last remaining possessions of the Portuguese. <a + href="#linknote-57.7" name="linknoteref-57.7" id="linknoteref-57.7">7</a> It + was endowed with the revenue of two thousand villages; two thousand + Brahmins were consecrated to the service of the Deity, whom they washed + each morning and evening in water from the distant Ganges: the subordinate + ministers consisted of three hundred musicians, three hundred barbers, and + five hundred dancing girls, conspicuous for their birth or beauty. Three + sides of the temple were protected by the ocean, the narrow isthmus was + fortified by a natural or artificial precipice; and the city and adjacent + country were peopled by a nation of fanatics. They confessed the sins and + the punishment of Kinnoge and Delhi; but if the impious stranger should + presume to approach their holy precincts, he would surely be overwhelmed + by a blast of the divine vengeance. By this challenge, the faith of Mahmud + was animated to a personal trial of the strength of this Indian deity. + Fifty thousand of his worshippers were pierced by the spear of the + Moslems; the walls were scaled; the sanctuary was profaned; and the + conqueror aimed a blow of his iron mace at the head of the idol. The + trembling Brahmins are said to have offered ten millions <a + href="#linknote-57.711" name="linknoteref-57.711" id="linknoteref-57.711">711</a> + sterling for his ransom; and it was urged by the wisest counsellors, that + the destruction of a stone image would not change the hearts of the + Gentoos; and that such a sum might be dedicated to the relief of the true + believers. “Your reasons,” replied the sultan, “are specious and strong; + but never in the eyes of posterity shall Mahmud appear as a merchant of + idols.” <a href="#linknote-57.712" name="linknoteref-57.712" + id="linknoteref-57.712">712</a> He repeated his blows, and a treasure of + pearls and rubies, concealed in the belly of the statue, explained in some + degree the devout prodigality of the Brahmins. The fragments of the idol + were distributed to Gazna, Mecca, and Medina. Bagdad listened to the + edifying tale; and Mahmud was saluted by the caliph with the title of + guardian of the fortune and faith of Mahomet. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.1" id="linknote-57.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.1">return</a>)<br /> [ I am indebted for his + character and history to D’Herbelot, (Bibliotheque Orientale, Mahmud, p. + 533-537,) M. De Guignes, (Histoire des Huns, tom. iii. p. 155-173,) and + our countryman Colonel Alexander Dow, (vol. i. p. 23-83.) In the two first + volumes of his History of Hindostan, he styles himself the translator of + the Persian Ferishta; but in his florid text, it is not easy to + distinguish the version and the original. * Note: The European reader now + possesses a more accurate version of Ferishta, that of Col. Briggs. Of + Col. Dow’s work, Col. Briggs observes, “that the author’s name will be + handed down to posterity as one of the earliest and most indefatigable of + our Oriental scholars. Instead of confining himself, however, to mere + translation, he has filled his work with his own observations, which have + been so embodied in the text that Gibbon declares it impossible to + distinguish the translator from the original author.” Preface p. vii.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.2" id="linknote-57.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.2">return</a>)<br /> [ The dynasty of the + Samanides continued 125 years, A.D. 847-999, under ten princes. See their + succession and ruin, in the Tables of M. De Guignes, (Hist. des Huns, tom. + i. p. 404-406.) They were followed by the Gaznevides, A.D. 999-1183, (see + tom. i. p. 239, 240.) His divisions of nations often disturbs the series + of time and place.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.3" id="linknote-57.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.3">return</a>)<br /> [ Gaznah hortos non habet: + est emporium et domicilium mercaturae Indicae. Abulfedae Geograph. Reiske, + tab. xxiii. p. 349. D’Herbelot, p. 364. It has not been visited by any + modern traveller.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.4" id="linknote-57.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.4">return</a>)<br /> [ By the ambassador of the + caliph of Bagdad, who employed an Arabian or Chaldaic word that signifies + lord and master, (D’Herbelot, p. 825.) It is interpreted by the Byzantine + writers of the eleventh century; and the name (Soldanus) is familiarly + employed in the Greek and Latin languages, after it had passed from the + Gaznevides to the Seljukides, and other emirs of Asia and Egypt. Ducange + (Dissertation xvi. sur Joinville, p. 238-240. Gloss. Graec. et Latin.) + labors to find the title of Sultan in the ancient kingdom of Persia: but + his proofs are mere shadows; a proper name in the Themes of Constantine, + (ii. 11,) an anticipation of Zonaras, &c., and a medal of Kai Khosrou, + not (as he believes) the Sassanide of the vith, but the Seljukide of + Iconium of the xiiith century, (De Guignes, Hist. des Huns, tom. i. p. + 246.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.5" id="linknote-57.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.5">return</a>)<br /> [ Ferishta (apud Dow, Hist. + of Hindostan, vol. i. p. 49) mentions the report of a gun in the Indian + army. But as I am slow in believing this premature (A.D. 1008) use of + artillery, I must desire to scrutinize first the text, and then the + authority of Ferishta, who lived in the Mogul court in the last century. * + Note: This passage is differently written in the various manuscripts I + have seen; and in some the word tope (gun) has been written for nupth, + (naphtha, and toofung) (musket) for khudung, (arrow.) But no Persian or + Arabic history speaks of gunpowder before the time usually assigned for + its invention, (A.D. 1317;) long after which, it was first applied to the + purposes of war. Briggs’s Ferishta, vol. i. p. 47, note.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.6" id="linknote-57.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.6">return</a>)<br /> [ Kinnouge, or Canouge, + (the old Palimbothra) is marked in latitude 27 Degrees 3 Minutes, + longitude 80 Degrees 13 Minutes. See D’Anville, (Antiquite de l’Inde, p. + 60-62,) corrected by the local knowledge of Major Rennel (in his excellent + Memoir on his Map of Hindostan, p. 37-43: ) 300] jewellers, 30,000 shops + for the arreca nut, 60,000 bands of musicians, &c. (Abulfed. Geograph. + tab. xv. p. 274. Dow, vol. i. p. 16,) will allow an ample deduction. * + Note: Mr. Wilson (Hindu Drama, vol. iii. p. 12) and Schlegel (Indische + Bibliothek, vol. ii. p. 394) concur in identifying Palimbothra with the + Patalipara of the Indians; the Patna of the moderns.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.7" id="linknote-57.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.7">return</a>)<br /> [ The idolaters of Europe, + says Ferishta, (Dow, vol. i. p. 66.) Consult Abulfeda, (p. 272,) and + Rennel’s Map of Hindostan.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.711" id="linknote-57.711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 711 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.711">return</a>)<br /> [ Ferishta says, some + “crores of gold.” Dow says, in a note at the bottom of the page, “ten + millions,” which is the explanation of the word “crore.” Mr. Gibbon says + rashly that the sum offered by the Brahmins was ten millions sterling. + Note to Mill’s India, vol. ii. p. 222. Col. Briggs’s translation is “a + quantity of gold.” The treasure found in the temple, “perhaps in the + image,” according to Major Price’s authorities, was twenty millions of + dinars of gold, above nine millions sterling; but this was a hundred-fold + the ransom offered by the Brahmins. Price, vol. ii. p. 290.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.712" id="linknote-57.712"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 712 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.712">return</a>)<br /> [ Rather than the idol + broker, he chose to be called Mahmud the idol breaker. Price, vol. ii. p. + 289—M] + </p> + <p> + From the paths of blood (and such is the history of nations) I cannot + refuse to turn aside to gather some flowers of science or virtue. The name + of Mahmud the Gaznevide is still venerable in the East: his subjects + enjoyed the blessings of prosperity and peace; his vices were concealed by + the veil of religion; and two familiar examples will testify his justice + and magnanimity. + </p> + <p> + I. As he sat in the Divan, an unhappy subject bowed before the throne to + accuse the insolence of a Turkish soldier who had driven him from his + house and bed. “Suspend your clamors,” said Mahmud; “inform me of his next + visit, and ourself in person will judge and punish the offender.” The + sultan followed his guide, invested the house with his guards, and + extinguishing the torches, pronounced the death of the criminal, who had + been seized in the act of rapine and adultery. After the execution of his + sentence, the lights were rekindled, Mahmud fell prostrate in prayer, and + rising from the ground, demanded some homely fare, which he devoured with + the voraciousness of hunger. The poor man, whose injury he had avenged, + was unable to suppress his astonishment and curiosity; and the courteous + monarch condescended to explain the motives of this singular behavior. “I + had reason to suspect that none, except one of my sons, could dare to + perpetrate such an outrage; and I extinguished the lights, that my justice + might be blind and inexorable. My prayer was a thanksgiving on the + discovery of the offender; and so painful was my anxiety, that I had + passed three days without food since the first moment of your complaint.” + </p> + <p> + II. The sultan of Gazna had declared war against the dynasty of the + Bowides, the sovereigns of the western Persia: he was disarmed by an + epistle of the sultana mother, and delayed his invasion till the manhood + of her son. <a href="#linknote-57.8" name="linknoteref-57.8" + id="linknoteref-57.8">8</a> “During the life of my husband,” said the + artful regent, “I was ever apprehensive of your ambition: he was a prince + and a soldier worthy of your arms. He is now no more; his sceptre has + passed to a woman and a child, and you dare not attack their infancy and + weakness. How inglorious would be your conquest, how shameful your defeat! + and yet the event of war is in the hand of the Almighty.” Avarice was the + only defect that tarnished the illustrious character of Mahmud; and never + has that passion been more richly satiated. <a href="#linknote-57.811" + name="linknoteref-57.811" id="linknoteref-57.811">811</a> The Orientals + exceed the measure of credibility in the account of millions of gold and + silver, such as the avidity of man has never accumulated; in the magnitude + of pearls, diamonds, and rubies, such as have never been produced by the + workmanship of nature. <a href="#linknote-57.9" name="linknoteref-57.9" + id="linknoteref-57.9">9</a> Yet the soil of Hindostan is impregnated with + precious minerals: her trade, in every age, has attracted the gold and + silver of the world; and her virgin spoils were rifled by the first of the + Mahometan conquerors. His behavior, in the last days of his life, evinces + the vanity of these possessions, so laboriously won, so dangerously held, + and so inevitably lost. He surveyed the vast and various chambers of the + treasury of Gazna, burst into tears, and again closed the doors, without + bestowing any portion of the wealth which he could no longer hope to + preserve. The following day he reviewed the state of his military force; + one hundred thousand foot, fifty-five thousand horse, and thirteen hundred + elephants of battle. <a href="#linknote-57.10" name="linknoteref-57.10" + id="linknoteref-57.10">10</a> He again wept the instability of human + greatness; and his grief was imbittered by the hostile progress of the + Turkmans, whom he had introduced into the heart of his Persian kingdom. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.8" id="linknote-57.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.8">return</a>)<br /> [ D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque + Orientale, p. 527. Yet these letters apothegms, &c., are rarely the + language of the heart, or the motives of public action.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.811" id="linknote-57.811"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 811 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.811">return</a>)<br /> [ Compare Price, vol. + ii. p. 295.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.9" id="linknote-57.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.9">return</a>)<br /> [ For instance, a ruby of + four hundred and fifty miskals, (Dow, vol. i. p. 53,) or six pounds three + ounces: the largest in the treasury of Delhi weighed seventeen miskals, + (Voyages de Tavernier, partie ii. p. 280.) It is true, that in the East + all colored stones are calied rubies, (p. 355,) and that Tavernier saw + three larger and more precious among the jewels de notre grand roi, le + plus puissant et plus magnifique de tous les rois de la terre, (p. 376.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.10" id="linknote-57.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.10">return</a>)<br /> [ Dow, vol. i. p. 65. The + sovereign of Kinoge is said to have possessed 2500 elephants, (Abulfed. + Geograph. tab. xv. p. 274.) From these Indian stories, the reader may + correct a note in my first volume, (p. 245;) or from that note he may + correct these stories.] + </p> + <p> + In the modern depopulation of Asia, the regular operation of government + and agriculture is confined to the neighborhood of cities; and the distant + country is abandoned to the pastoral tribes of Arabs, Curds, and Turkmans. + <a href="#linknote-57.11" name="linknoteref-57.11" id="linknoteref-57.11">11</a> + Of the last-mentioned people, two considerable branches extend on either + side of the Caspian Sea: the western colony can muster forty thousand + soldiers; the eastern, less obvious to the traveller, but more strong and + populous, has increased to the number of one hundred thousand families. In + the midst of civilized nations, they preserve the manners of the Scythian + desert, remove their encampments with a change of seasons, and feed their + cattle among the ruins of palaces and temples. Their flocks and herds are + their only riches; their tents, either black or white, according to the + color of the banner, are covered with felt, and of a circular form; their + winter apparel is a sheep-skin; a robe of cloth or cotton their summer + garment: the features of the men are harsh and ferocious; the countenance + of their women is soft and pleasing. Their wandering life maintains the + spirit and exercise of arms; they fight on horseback; and their courage is + displayed in frequent contests with each other and with their neighbors. + For the license of pasture they pay a slight tribute to the sovereign of + the land; but the domestic jurisdiction is in the hands of the chiefs and + elders. The first emigration of the Eastern Turkmans, the most ancient of + the race, may be ascribed to the tenth century of the Christian aera. <a + href="#linknote-57.12" name="linknoteref-57.12" id="linknoteref-57.12">12</a> + In the decline of the caliphs, and the weakness of their lieutenants, the + barrier of the Jaxartes was often violated; in each invasion, after the + victory or retreat of their countrymen, some wandering tribe, embracing + the Mahometan faith, obtained a free encampment in the spacious plains and + pleasant climate of Transoxiana and Carizme. The Turkish slaves who + aspired to the throne encouraged these emigrations which recruited their + armies, awed their subjects and rivals, and protected the frontier against + the wilder natives of Turkestan; and this policy was abused by Mahmud the + Gaznevide beyond the example of former times. He was admonished of his + error by the chief of the race of Seljuk, who dwelt in the territory of + Bochara. The sultan had inquired what supply of men he could furnish for + military service. “If you send,” replied Ismael, “one of these arrows into + our camp, fifty thousand of your servants will mount on horseback.”—“And + if that number,” continued Mahmud, “should not be sufficient?”—“Send + this second arrow to the horde of Balik, and you will find fifty thousand + more.”—“But,” said the Gaznevide, dissembling his anxiety, “if I + should stand in need of the whole force of your kindred tribes?”—“Despatch + my bow,” was the last reply of Ismael, “and as it is circulated around, + the summons will be obeyed by two hundred thousand horse.” The + apprehension of such formidable friendship induced Mahmud to transport the + most obnoxious tribes into the heart of Chorasan, where they would be + separated from their brethren of the River Oxus, and enclosed on all sides + by the walls of obedient cities. But the face of the country was an object + of temptation rather than terror; and the vigor of government was relaxed + by the absence and death of the sultan of Gazna. The shepherds were + converted into robbers; the bands of robbers were collected into an army + of conquerors: as far as Ispahan and the Tigris, Persia was afflicted by + their predatory inroads; and the Turkmans were not ashamed or afraid to + measure their courage and numbers with the proudest sovereigns of Asia. + Massoud, the son and successor of Mahmud, had too long neglected the + advice of his wisest Omrahs. “Your enemies,” they repeatedly urged, “were + in their origin a swarm of ants; they are now little snakes; and, unless + they be instantly crushed, they will acquire the venom and magnitude of + serpents.” After some alternatives of truce and hostility, after the + repulse or partial success of his lieutenants, the sultan marched in + person against the Turkmans, who attacked him on all sides with barbarous + shouts and irregular onset. “Massoud,” says the Persian historian, <a + href="#linknote-57.13" name="linknoteref-57.13" id="linknoteref-57.13">13</a> + “plunged singly to oppose the torrent of gleaming arms, exhibiting such + acts of gigantic force and valor as never king had before displayed. A few + of his friends, roused by his words and actions, and that innate honor + which inspires the brave, seconded their lord so well, that wheresoever he + turned his fatal sword, the enemies were mowed down, or retreated before + him. But now, when victory seemed to blow on his standard, misfortune was + active behind it; for when he looked round, be beheld almost his whole + army, excepting that body he commanded in person, devouring the paths of + flight.” The Gaznevide was abandoned by the cowardice or treachery of some + generals of Turkish race; and this memorable day of Zendecan <a + href="#linknote-57.14" name="linknoteref-57.14" id="linknoteref-57.14">14</a> + founded in Persia the dynasty of the shepherd kings. <a + href="#linknote-57.15" name="linknoteref-57.15" id="linknoteref-57.15">15</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.11" id="linknote-57.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.11">return</a>)<br /> [ See a just and natural + picture of these pastoral manners, in the history of William archbishop of + Tyre, (l. i. c. vii. in the Gesta Dei per Francos, p. 633, 634,) and a + valuable note by the editor of the Histoire Genealogique des Tatars, p. + 535-538.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.12" id="linknote-57.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.12">return</a>)<br /> [ The first emigration of + the Turkmans, and doubtful origin of the Seljukians, may be traced in the + laborious History of the Huns, by M. De Guignes, (tom. i. Tables + Chronologiques, l. v. tom. iii. l. vii. ix. x.) and the Bibliotheque + Orientale, of D’Herbelot, (p. 799-802, 897-901,) Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. + p. 321-333,) and Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 221, 222.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.13" id="linknote-57.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.13">return</a>)<br /> [ Dow, Hist. of + Hindostan, vol. i. p. 89, 95-98. I have copied this passage as a specimen + of the Persian manner; but I suspect that, by some odd fatality, the style + of Ferishta has been improved by that of Ossian. * Note: Gibbon’s + conjecture was well founded. Compare the more sober and genuine version of + Col. Briggs, vol. i. p. 110.-M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.14" id="linknote-57.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.14">return</a>)<br /> [ The Zendekan of + D’Herbelot, (p. 1028,) the Dindaka of Dow (vol. i. p. 97,) is probably the + Dandanekan of Abulfeda, (Geograph. p. 345, Reiske,) a small town of + Chorasan, two days’ journey from Maru, and renowned through the East for + the production and manufacture of cotton.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.15" id="linknote-57.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.15">return</a>)<br /> [ The Byzantine + historians (Cedrenus, tom. ii. p. 766, 766, Zonaras tom. ii. p. 255, + Nicephorus Bryennius, p. 21) have confounded, in this revolution, the + truth of time and place, of names and persons, of causes and events. The + ignorance and errors of these Greeks (which I shall not stop to unravel) + may inspire some distrust of the story of Cyaxares and Cyrus, as it is + told by their most eloquent predecessor.] + </p> + <p> + The victorious Turkmans immediately proceeded to the election of a king; + and, if the probable tale of a Latin historian <a href="#linknote-57.16" + name="linknoteref-57.16" id="linknoteref-57.16">16</a> deserves any credit, + they determined by lot the choice of their new master. A number of arrows + were successively inscribed with the name of a tribe, a family, and a + candidate; they were drawn from the bundle by the hand of a child; and the + important prize was obtained by Togrul Beg, the son of Michael the son of + Seljuk, whose surname was immortalized in the greatness of his posterity. + The sultan Mahmud, who valued himself on his skill in national genealogy, + professed his ignorance of the family of Seljuk; yet the father of that + race appears to have been a chief of power and renown. <a + href="#linknote-57.17" name="linknoteref-57.17" id="linknoteref-57.17">17</a> + For a daring intrusion into the harem of his prince, Seljuk was banished + from Turkestan: with a numerous tribe of his friends and vassals, he + passed the Jaxartes, encamped in the neighborhood of Samarcand, embraced + the religion of Mahomet, and acquired the crown of martyrdom in a war + against the infidels. His age, of a hundred and seven years, surpassed the + life of his son, and Seljuk adopted the care of his two grandsons, Togrul + and Jaafar; the eldest of whom, at the age of forty-five, was invested + with the title of Sultan, in the royal city of Nishabur. The blind + determination of chance was justified by the virtues of the successful + candidate. It would be superfluous to praise the valor of a Turk; and the + ambition of Togrul <a href="#linknote-57.18" name="linknoteref-57.18" + id="linknoteref-57.18">18</a> was equal to his valor. By his arms, the + Gasnevides were expelled from the eastern kingdoms of Persia, and + gradually driven to the banks of the Indus, in search of a softer and more + wealthy conquest. In the West he annihilated the dynasty of the Bowides; + and the sceptre of Irak passed from the Persian to the Turkish nation. The + princes who had felt, or who feared, the Seljukian arrows, bowed their + heads in the dust; by the conquest of Aderbijan, or Media, he approached + the Roman confines; and the shepherd presumed to despatch an ambassador, + or herald, to demand the tribute and obedience of the emperor of + Constantinople. <a href="#linknote-57.19" name="linknoteref-57.19" + id="linknoteref-57.19">19</a> In his own dominions, Togrul was the father + of his soldiers and people; by a firm and equal administration, Persia was + relieved from the evils of anarchy; and the same hands which had been + imbrued in blood became the guardians of justice and the public peace. The + more rustic, perhaps the wisest, portion of the Turkmans <a + href="#linknote-57.20" name="linknoteref-57.20" id="linknoteref-57.20">20</a> + continued to dwell in the tents of their ancestors; and, from the Oxus to + the Euphrates, these military colonies were protected and propagated by + their native princes. But the Turks of the court and city were refined by + business and softened by pleasure: they imitated the dress, language, and + manners of Persia; and the royal palaces of Nishabur and Rei displayed the + order and magnificence of a great monarchy. The most deserving of the + Arabians and Persians were promoted to the honors of the state; and the + whole body of the Turkish nation embraced, with fervor and sincerity, the + religion of Mahomet. The northern swarms of Barbarians, who overspread + both Europe and Asia, have been irreconcilably separated by the + consequences of a similar conduct. Among the Moslems, as among the + Christians, their vague and local traditions have yielded to the reason + and authority of the prevailing system, to the fame of antiquity, and the + consent of nations. But the triumph of the Koran is more pure and + meritorious, as it was not assisted by any visible splendor of worship + which might allure the Pagans by some resemblance of idolatry. The first + of the Seljukian sultans was conspicuous by his zeal and faith: each day + he repeated the five prayers which are enjoined to the true believers; of + each week, the two first days were consecrated by an extraordinary fast; + and in every city a mosch was completed, before Togrul presumed to lay the + foundations of a palace. <a href="#linknote-57.21" name="linknoteref-57.21" + id="linknoteref-57.21">21</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.16" id="linknote-57.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.16">return</a>)<br /> [ Willerm. Tyr. l. i. c. + 7, p. 633. The divination by arrows is ancient and famous in the East.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.17" id="linknote-57.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.17">return</a>)<br /> [ D’Herbelot, p. 801. Yet + after the fortune of his posterity, Seljuk became the thirty-fourth in + lineal descent from the great Afrasiab, emperor of Touran, (p. 800.) The + Tartar pedigree of the house of Zingis gave a different cast to flattery + and fable; and the historian Mirkhond derives the Seljukides from + Alankavah, the virgin mother, (p. 801, col. 2.) If they be the same as the + Zalzuts of Abulghazi Bahadur Kahn, (Hist. Genealogique, p. 148,) we quote + in their favor the most weighty evidence of a Tartar prince himself, the + descendant of Zingis, Alankavah, or Alancu, and Oguz Khan.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.18" id="linknote-57.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.18">return</a>)<br /> [ By a slight corruption, + Togrul Beg is the Tangroli-pix of the Greeks. His reign and character are + faithfully exhibited by D’Herbelot (Bibliotheque Orientale, p. 1027, 1028) + and De Guignes, (Hist. des Huns, tom. iii. p. 189-201.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.19" id="linknote-57.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.19">return</a>)<br /> [ Cedrenus, tom. ii. p. + 774, 775. Zonaras, tom. ii. p. 257. With their usual knowledge of Oriental + affairs, they describe the ambassador as a sherif, who, like the syncellus + of the patriarch, was the vicar and successor of the caliph.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.20" id="linknote-57.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.20">return</a>)<br /> [ From William of Tyre I + have borrowed this distinction of Turks and Turkmans, which at least is + popular and convenient. The names are the same, and the addition of man is + of the same import in the Persic and Teutonic idioms. Few critics will + adopt the etymology of James de Vitry, (Hist. Hierosol. l. i. c. 11 p. + 1061,) of Turcomani, quesi Turci et Comani, a mixed people.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.21" id="linknote-57.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.21">return</a>)<br /> [ Hist. Generale des + Huns, tom. iii. p. 165, 166, 167. M. DeGognes Abulmahasen, an historian of + Egypt.] + </p> + <p> + With the belief of the Koran, the son of Seljuk imbibed a lively reverence + for the successor of the prophet. But that sublime character was still + disputed by the caliphs of Bagdad and Egypt, and each of the rivals was + solicitous to prove his title in the judgment of the strong, though + illiterate Barbarians. Mahmud the Gaznevide had declared himself in favor + of the line of Abbas; and had treated with indignity the robe of honor + which was presented by the Fatimite ambassador. Yet the ungrateful + Hashemite had changed with the change of fortune; he applauded the victory + of Zendecan, and named the Seljukian sultan his temporal vicegerent over + the Moslem world. As Togrul executed and enlarged this important trust, he + was called to the deliverance of the caliph Cayem, and obeyed the holy + summons, which gave a new kingdom to his arms. <a href="#linknote-57.22" + name="linknoteref-57.22" id="linknoteref-57.22">22</a> In the palace of + Bagdad, the commander of the faithful still slumbered, a venerable + phantom. His servant or master, the prince of the Bowides, could no longer + protect him from the insolence of meaner tyrants; and the Euphrates and + Tigris were oppressed by the revolt of the Turkish and Arabian emirs. The + presence of a conqueror was implored as a blessing; and the transient + mischiefs of fire and sword were excused as the sharp but salutary + remedies which alone could restore the health of the republic. At the head + of an irresistible force, the sultan of Persia marched from Hamadan: the + proud were crushed, the prostrate were spared; the prince of the Bowides + disappeared; the heads of the most obstinate rebels were laid at the feet + of Togrul; and he inflicted a lesson of obedience on the people of Mosul + and Bagdad. After the chastisement of the guilty, and the restoration of + peace, the royal shepherd accepted the reward of his labors; and a solemn + comedy represented the triumph of religious prejudice over Barbarian + power. <a href="#linknote-57.23" name="linknoteref-57.23" + id="linknoteref-57.23">23</a> The Turkish sultan embarked on the Tigris, + landed at the gate of Racca, and made his public entry on horseback. At + the palace-gate he respectfully dismounted, and walked on foot, preceded + by his emirs without arms. The caliph was seated behind his black veil: + the black garment of the Abbassides was cast over his shoulders, and he + held in his hand the staff of the apostle of God. The conqueror of the + East kissed the ground, stood some time in a modest posture, and was led + towards the throne by the vizier and interpreter. After Togrul had seated + himself on another throne, his commission was publicly read, which + declared him the temporal lieutenant of the vicar of the prophet. He was + successively invested with seven robes of honor, and presented with seven + slaves, the natives of the seven climates of the Arabian empire. His + mystic veil was perfumed with musk; two crowns <a href="#linknote-57.231" + name="linknoteref-57.231" id="linknoteref-57.231">231</a> were placed on his + head; two cimeters were girded to his side, as the symbols of a double + reign over the East and West. After this inauguration, the sultan was + prevented from prostrating himself a second time; but he twice kissed the + hand of the commander of the faithful, and his titles were proclaimed by + the voice of heralds and the applause of the Moslems. In a second visit to + Bagdad, the Seljukian prince again rescued the caliph from his enemies and + devoutly, on foot, led the bridle of his mule from the prison to the + palace. Their alliance was cemented by the marriage of Togrul’s sister + with the successor of the prophet. Without reluctance he had introduced a + Turkish virgin into his harem; but Cayem proudly refused his daughter to + the sultan, disdained to mingle the blood of the Hashemites with the blood + of a Scythian shepherd; and protracted the negotiation many months, till + the gradual diminution of his revenue admonished him that he was still in + the hands of a master. The royal nuptials were followed by the death of + Togrul himself; <a href="#linknote-57.24" name="linknoteref-57.24" + id="linknoteref-57.24">24</a> as he left no children, his nephew Alp Arslan + succeeded to the title and prerogatives of sultan; and his name, after + that of the caliph, was pronounced in the public prayers of the Moslems. + Yet in this revolution, the Abbassides acquired a larger measure of + liberty and power. On the throne of Asia, the Turkish monarchs were less + jealous of the domestic administration of Bagdad; and the commanders of + the faithful were relieved from the ignominious vexations to which they + had been exposed by the presence and poverty of the Persian dynasty. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.22" id="linknote-57.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.22">return</a>)<br /> [ Consult the + Bibliotheque Orientale, in the articles of the Abbassides, Caher, and + Caiem, and the Annals of Elmacin and Abulpharagius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.23" id="linknote-57.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.23">return</a>)<br /> [ For this curious + ceremony, I am indebted to M. De Guignes (tom. iii. p. 197, 198,) and that + learned author is obliged to Bondari, who composed in Arabic the history + of the Seljukides, tom. v. p. 365) I am ignorant of his age, country, and + character.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.231" id="linknote-57.231"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 231 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.231">return</a>)<br /> [ According to Von + Hammer, “crowns” are incorrect. They are unknown as a symbol of royalty in + the East. V. Hammer, Osmanische Geschischte, vol. i. p. 567.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.24" id="linknote-57.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.24">return</a>)<br /> [ Eodem anno (A. H. 455) + obiit princeps Togrulbecus .... rex fuit clemens, prudens, et peritus + regnandi, cujus terror corda mortalium invaserat, ita ut obedirent ei + reges atque ad ipsum scriberent. Elma cin, Hist. Saracen. p. 342, vers. + Erpenii. * Note: He died, being 75 years old. V. Hammer.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap57.2"></a> + Chapter LVII: The Turks.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + Since the fall of the caliphs, the discord and degeneracy of the Saracens + respected the Asiatic provinces of Rome; which, by the victories of + Nicephorus, Zimisces, and Basil, had been extended as far as Antioch and + the eastern boundaries of Armenia. + </p> + <p> + Twenty-five years after the death of Basil, his successors were suddenly + assaulted by an unknown race of Barbarians, who united the Scythian valor + with the fanaticism of new proselytes, and the art and riches of a + powerful monarchy. <a href="#linknote-57.25" name="linknoteref-57.25" + id="linknoteref-57.25">25</a> The myriads of Turkish horse overspread a + frontier of six hundred miles from Tauris to Arzeroum, and the blood of + one hundred and thirty thousand Christians was a grateful sacrifice to the + Arabian prophet. Yet the arms of Togrul did not make any deep or lasting + impression on the Greek empire. The torrent rolled away from the open + country; the sultan retired without glory or success from the siege of an + Armenian city; the obscure hostilities were continued or suspended with a + vicissitude of events; and the bravery of the Macedonian legions renewed + the fame of the conqueror of Asia. <a href="#linknote-57.26" + name="linknoteref-57.26" id="linknoteref-57.26">26</a> The name of Alp + Arslan, the valiant lion, is expressive of the popular idea of the + perfection of man; and the successor of Togrul displayed the fierceness + and generosity of the royal animal. He passed the Euphrates at the head of + the Turkish cavalry, and entered Caesarea, the metropolis of Cappadocia, + to which he had been attracted by the fame and wealth of the temple of St. + Basil. The solid structure resisted the destroyer: but he carried away the + doors of the shrine incrusted with gold and pearls, and profaned the + relics of the tutelar saint, whose mortal frailties were now covered by + the venerable rust of antiquity. The final conquest of Armenia and Georgia + was achieved by Alp Arslan. In Armenia, the title of a kingdom, and the + spirit of a nation, were annihilated: the artificial fortifications were + yielded by the mercenaries of Constantinople; by strangers without faith, + veterans without pay or arms, and recruits without experience or + discipline. The loss of this important frontier was the news of a day; and + the Catholics were neither surprised nor displeased, that a people so + deeply infected with the Nestorian and Eutychian errors had been delivered + by Christ and his mother into the hands of the infidels. <a + href="#linknote-57.27" name="linknoteref-57.27" id="linknoteref-57.27">27</a> + The woods and valleys of Mount Caucasus were more strenuously defended by + the native Georgians <a href="#linknote-57.28" name="linknoteref-57.28" + id="linknoteref-57.28">28</a> or Iberians; but the Turkish sultan and his + son Malek were indefatigable in this holy war: their captives were + compelled to promise a spiritual, as well as temporal, obedience; and, + instead of their collars and bracelets, an iron horseshoe, a badge of + ignominy, was imposed on the infidels who still adhered to the worship of + their fathers. The change, however, was not sincere or universal; and, + through ages of servitude, the Georgians have maintained the succession of + their princes and bishops. But a race of men, whom nature has cast in her + most perfect mould, is degraded by poverty, ignorance, and vice; their + profession, and still more their practice, of Christianity is an empty + name; and if they have emerged from heresy, it is only because they are + too illiterate to remember a metaphysical creed. <a href="#linknote-57.29" + name="linknoteref-57.29" id="linknoteref-57.29">29</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.25" id="linknote-57.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.25">return</a>)<br /> [ For these wars of the + Turks and Romans, see in general the Byzantine histories of Zonaras and + Cedrenus, Scylitzes the continuator of Cedrenus, and Nicephorus Bryennius + Caesar. The two first of these were monks, the two latter statesmen; yet + such were the Greeks, that the difference of style and character is + scarcely discernible. For the Orientals, I draw as usuul on the wealth of + D’Herbelot (see titles of the first Seljukides) and the accuracy of De + Guignes, (Hist. des Huns, tom. iii. l. x.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.26" id="linknote-57.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.26">return</a>)<br /> [ Cedrenus, tom. ii. p. + 791. The credulity of the vulgar is always probable; and the Turks had + learned from the Arabs the history or legend of Escander Dulcarnein, + (D’Herbelot, p. 213 &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.27" id="linknote-57.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.27">return</a>)<br /> [ (Scylitzes, ad calcem + Cedreni, tom. ii. p. 834, whose ambiguous construction shall not tempt me + to suspect that he confounded the Nestorian and Monophysite heresies,) He + familiarly talks of the qualities, as I should apprehend, very foreign to + the perfect Being; but his bigotry is forced to confess that they were + soon afterwards discharged on the orthodox Romans.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.28" id="linknote-57.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.28">return</a>)<br /> [ Had the name of + Georgians been known to the Greeks, (Stritter, Memoriae Byzant. tom. iv. + Iberica,) I should derive it from their agriculture, (l. iv. c. 18, p. + 289, edit. Wesseling.) But it appears only since the crusades, among the + Latins (Jac. a Vitriaco, Hist. Hierosol. c. 79, p. 1095) and Orientals, + (D’Herbelot, p. 407,) and was devoutly borrowed from St. George of + Cappadocia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.29" id="linknote-57.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.29">return</a>)<br /> [ Mosheim, Institut. + Hist. Eccles. p. 632. See, in Chardin’s Travels, (tom. i. p. 171-174,) the + manners and religion of this handsome but worthless nation. See the + pedigree of their princes from Adam to the present century, in the tables + of M. De Guignes, (tom. i. p. 433-438.)] + </p> + <p> + The false or genuine magnanimity of Mahmud the Gaznevide was not imitated + by Alp Arslan; and he attacked without scruple the Greek empress Eudocia + and her children. His alarming progress compelled her to give herself and + her sceptre to the hand of a soldier; and Romanus Diogenes was invested + with the Imperial purple. His patriotism, and perhaps his pride, urged him + from Constantinople within two months after his accession; and the next + campaign he most scandalously took the field during the holy festival of + Easter. In the palace, Diogenes was no more than the husband of Eudocia: + in the camp, he was the emperor of the Romans, and he sustained that + character with feeble resources and invincible courage. By his spirit and + success the soldiers were taught to act, the subjects to hope, and the + enemies to fear. The Turks had penetrated into the heart of Phrygia; but + the sultan himself had resigned to his emirs the prosecution of the war; + and their numerous detachments were scattered over Asia in the security of + conquest. Laden with spoil, and careless of discipline, they were + separately surprised and defeated by the Greeks: the activity of the + emperor seemed to multiply his presence: and while they heard of his + expedition to Antioch, the enemy felt his sword on the hills of Trebizond. + In three laborious campaigns, the Turks were driven beyond the Euphrates; + in the fourth and last, Romanus undertook the deliverance of Armenia. The + desolation of the land obliged him to transport a supply of two months’ + provisions; and he marched forwards to the siege of Malazkerd, <a + href="#linknote-57.30" name="linknoteref-57.30" id="linknoteref-57.30">30</a> + an important fortress in the midway between the modern cities of Arzeroum + and Van. His army amounted, at the least, to one hundred thousand men. The + troops of Constantinople were reenforced by the disorderly multitudes of + Phrygia and Cappadocia; but the real strength was composed of the subjects + and allies of Europe, the legions of Macedonia, and the squadrons of + Bulgaria; the Uzi, a Moldavian horde, who were themselves of the Turkish + race; <a href="#linknote-57.31" name="linknoteref-57.31" + id="linknoteref-57.31">31</a> and, above all, the mercenary and adventurous + bands of French and Normans. Their lances were commanded by the valiant + Ursel of Baliol, the kinsman or father of the Scottish kings, <a + href="#linknote-57.32" name="linknoteref-57.32" id="linknoteref-57.32">32</a> + and were allowed to excel in the exercise of arms, or, according to the + Greek style, in the practice of the Pyrrhic dance. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.30" id="linknote-57.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.30">return</a>)<br /> [ This city is mentioned + by Constantine Porphyrogenitus, (de Administrat. Imperii, l. ii. c. 44, p. + 119,) and the Byzantines of the xith century, under the name of + Mantzikierte, and by some is confounded with Theodosiopolis; but Delisle, + in his notes and maps, has very properly fixed the situation. Abulfeda + (Geograph. tab. xviii. p. 310) describes Malasgerd as a small town, built + with black stone, supplied with water, without trees, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.31" id="linknote-57.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.31">return</a>)<br /> [ The Uzi of the Greeks + (Stritter, Memor. Byzant. tom. iii. p. 923-948) are the Gozz of the + Orientals, (Hist. des Huns, tom. ii. p. 522, tom. iii. p. 133, &c.) + They appear on the Danube and the Volga, and Armenia, Syria, and Chorasan, + and the name seems to have been extended to the whole Turkman race.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.32" id="linknote-57.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.32">return</a>)<br /> [ Urselius (the Russelius + of Zonaras) is distinguished by Jeffrey Malaterra (l. i. c. 33) among the + Norman conquerors of Sicily, and with the surname of Baliol: and our own + historians will tell how the Baliols came from Normandy to Durham, built + Bernard’s castle on the Tees, married an heiress of Scotland, &c. + Ducange (Not. ad Nicephor. Bryennium, l. ii. No. 4) has labored the + subject in honor of the president de Bailleul, whose father had exchanged + the sword for the gown.] + </p> + <p> + On the report of this bold invasion, which threatened his hereditary + dominions, Alp Arslan flew to the scene of action at the head of forty + thousand horse. <a href="#linknote-57.33" name="linknoteref-57.33" + id="linknoteref-57.33">33</a> His rapid and skilful evolutions distressed + and dismayed the superior numbers of the Greeks; and in the defeat of + Basilacius, one of their principal generals, he displayed the first + example of his valor and clemency. The imprudence of the emperor had + separated his forces after the reduction of Malazkerd. It was in vain that + he attempted to recall the mercenary Franks: they refused to obey his + summons; he disdained to await their return: the desertion of the Uzi + filled his mind with anxiety and suspicion; and against the most salutary + advice he rushed forwards to speedy and decisive action. Had he listened + to the fair proposals of the sultan, Romanus might have secured a retreat, + perhaps a peace; but in these overtures he supposed the fear or weakness + of the enemy, and his answer was conceived in the tone of insult and + defiance. “If the Barbarian wishes for peace, let him evacuate the ground + which he occupies for the encampment of the Romans, and surrender his city + and palace of Rei as a pledge of his sincerity.” Alp Arslan smiled at the + vanity of the demand, but he wept the death of so many faithful Moslems; + and, after a devout prayer, proclaimed a free permission to all who were + desirous of retiring from the field. With his own hands he tied up his + horse’s tail, exchanged his bow and arrows for a mace and cimeter, clothed + himself in a white garment, perfumed his body with musk, and declared that + if he were vanquished, that spot should be the place of his burial. <a + href="#linknote-57.34" name="linknoteref-57.34" id="linknoteref-57.34">34</a> + The sultan himself had affected to cast away his missile weapons: but his + hopes of victory were placed in the arrows of the Turkish cavalry, whose + squadrons were loosely distributed in the form of a crescent. Instead of + the successive lines and reserves of the Grecian tactics, Romulus led his + army in a single and solid phalanx, and pressed with vigor and impatience + the artful and yielding resistance of the Barbarians. In this desultory + and fruitless combat he spent the greater part of a summer’s day, till + prudence and fatigue compelled him to return to his camp. But a retreat is + always perilous in the face of an active foe; and no sooner had the + standard been turned to the rear than the phalanx was broken by the base + cowardice, or the baser jealousy, of Andronicus, a rival prince, who + disgraced his birth and the purple of the Caesars. <a href="#linknote-57.35" + name="linknoteref-57.35" id="linknoteref-57.35">35</a> The Turkish squadrons + poured a cloud of arrows on this moment of confusion and lassitude; and + the horns of their formidable crescent were closed in the rear of the + Greeks. In the destruction of the army and pillage of the camp, it would + be needless to mention the number of the slain or captives. The Byzantine + writers deplore the loss of an inestimable pearl: they forgot to mention, + that in this fatal day the Asiatic provinces of Rome were irretrievably + sacrificed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.33" id="linknote-57.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.33">return</a>)<br /> [ Elmacin (p. 343, 344) + assigns this probable number, which is reduced by Abulpharagius to 15,000, + (p. 227,) and by D’Herbelot (p. 102) to 12,000 horse. But the same Elmacin + gives 300,000 met to the emperor, of whom Abulpharagius says, Cum centum + hominum millibus, multisque equis et magna pompa instructus. The Greeks + abstain from any definition of numbers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.34" id="linknote-57.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.34">return</a>)<br /> [ The Byzantine writers + do not speak so distinctly of the presence of the sultan: he committed his + forces to a eunuch, had retired to a distance, &c. Is it ignorance, or + jealousy, or truth?] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.35" id="linknote-57.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.35">return</a>)<br /> [ He was the son of + Caesar John Ducas, brother of the emperor Constantine, (Ducange, Fam. + Byzant. p. 165.) Nicephorus Bryennius applauds his virtues and extenuates + his faults, (l. i. p. 30, 38. l. ii. p. 53.) Yet he owns his enmity to + Romanus. Scylitzes speaks more explicitly of his treason.] + </p> + <p> + As long as a hope survived, Romanus attempted to rally and save the relics + of his army. When the centre, the Imperial station, was left naked on all + sides, and encompassed by the victorious Turks, he still, with desperate + courage, maintained the fight till the close of day, at the head of the + brave and faithful subjects who adhered to his standard. They fell around + him; his horse was slain; the emperor was wounded; yet he stood alone and + intrepid, till he was oppressed and bound by the strength of multitudes. + The glory of this illustrious prize was disputed by a slave and a soldier; + a slave who had seen him on the throne of Constantinople, and a soldier + whose extreme deformity had been excused on the promise of some signal + service. + </p> + <p> + Despoiled of his arms, his jewels, and his purple, Romanus spent a dreary + and perilous night on the field of battle, amidst a disorderly crowd of + the meaner Barbarians. In the morning the royal captive was presented to + Alp Arslan, who doubted of his fortune, till the identity of the person + was ascertained by the report of his ambassadors, and by the more pathetic + evidence of Basilacius, who embraced with tears the feet of his unhappy + sovereign. The successor of Constantine, in a plebeian habit, was led into + the Turkish divan, and commanded to kiss the ground before the lord of + Asia. He reluctantly obeyed; and Alp Arslan, starting from his throne, is + said to have planted his foot on the neck of the Roman emperor. <a + href="#linknote-57.36" name="linknoteref-57.36" id="linknoteref-57.36">36</a> + But the fact is doubtful; and if, in this moment of insolence, the sultan + complied with the national custom, the rest of his conduct has extorted + the praise of his bigoted foes, and may afford a lesson to the most + civilized ages. He instantly raised the royal captive from the ground; and + thrice clasping his hand with tender sympathy, assured him, that his life + and dignity should be inviolate in the hands of a prince who had learned + to respect the majesty of his equals and the vicissitudes of fortune. From + the divan, Romanus was conducted to an adjacent tent, where he was served + with pomp and reverence by the officers of the sultan, who, twice each + day, seated him in the place of honor at his own table. In a free and + familiar conversation of eight days, not a word, not a look, of insult + escaped from the conqueror; but he severely censured the unworthy subjects + who had deserted their valiant prince in the hour of danger, and gently + admonished his antagonist of some errors which he had committed in the + management of the war. In the preliminaries of negotiation, Alp Arslan + asked him what treatment he expected to receive, and the calm indifference + of the emperor displays the freedom of his mind. “If you are cruel,” said + he, “you will take my life; if you listen to pride, you will drag me at + your chariot-wheels; if you consult your interest, you will accept a + ransom, and restore me to my country.” “And what,” continued the sultan, + “would have been your own behavior, had fortune smiled on your arms?” The + reply of the Greek betrays a sentiment, which prudence, and even + gratitude, should have taught him to suppress. “Had I vanquished,” he + fiercely said, “I would have inflicted on thy body many a stripe.” The + Turkish conqueror smiled at the insolence of his captive; observed that the + Christian law inculcated the love of enemies and forgiveness of injuries; + and nobly declared, that he would not imitate an example which he + condemned. After mature deliberation, Alp Arslan dictated the terms of + liberty and peace, a ransom of a million, <a href="#linknote-57.361" + name="linknoteref-57.361" id="linknoteref-57.361">361</a> an annual tribute + of three hundred and sixty thousand pieces of gold, <a + href="#linknote-57.37" name="linknoteref-57.37" id="linknoteref-57.37">37</a> + the marriage of the royal children, and the deliverance of all the + Moslems, who were in the power of the Greeks. Romanus, with a sigh, + subscribed this treaty, so disgraceful to the majesty of the empire; he + was immediately invested with a Turkish robe of honor; his nobles and + patricians were restored to their sovereign; and the sultan, after a + courteous embrace, dismissed him with rich presents and a military guard. + No sooner did he reach the confines of the empire, than he was informed + that the palace and provinces had disclaimed their allegiance to a + captive: a sum of two hundred thousand pieces was painfully collected; and + the fallen monarch transmitted this part of his ransom, with a sad + confession of his impotence and disgrace. The generosity, or perhaps the + ambition, of the sultan, prepared to espouse the cause of his ally; but + his designs were prevented by the defeat, imprisonment, and death, of + Romanus Diogenes. <a href="#linknote-57.38" name="linknoteref-57.38" + id="linknoteref-57.38">38</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.36" id="linknote-57.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.36">return</a>)<br /> [ This circumstance, + which we read and doubt in Scylitzes and Constantine Manasses, is more + prudently omitted by Nicephorus and Zonaras.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.361" id="linknote-57.361"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 361 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.361">return</a>)<br /> [ Elmacin gives + 1,500,000. Wilken, Geschichte der Kreuz-zuge, vol. l. p. 10.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.37" id="linknote-57.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.37">return</a>)<br /> [ The ransom and tribute + are attested by reason and the Orientals. The other Greeks are modestly + silent; but Nicephorus Bryennius dares to affirm, that the terms were bad + and that the emperor would have preferred death to a shameful treaty.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.38" id="linknote-57.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.38">return</a>)<br /> [ The defeat and + captivity of Romanus Diogenes may be found in John Scylitzes ad calcem + Cedreni, tom. ii. p. 835-843. Zonaras, tom. ii. p. 281-284. Nicephorus + Bryennius, l. i. p. 25-32. Glycas, p. 325-327. Constantine Manasses, p. + 134. Elmacin, Hist. Saracen. p. 343 344. Abulpharag. Dynast. p. 227. + D’Herbelot, p. 102, 103. D Guignes, tom. iii. p. 207-211. Besides my old + acquaintance Elmacin and Abulpharagius, the historian of the Huns has + consulted Abulfeda, and his epitomizer Benschounah, a Chronicle of the + Caliphs, by Abulmahasen of Egypt, and Novairi of Africa.] + </p> + <p> + In the treaty of peace, it does not appear that Alp Arslan extorted any + province or city from the captive emperor; and his revenge was satisfied + with the trophies of his victory, and the spoils of Anatolia, from Antioch + to the Black Sea. The fairest part of Asia was subject to his laws: twelve + hundred princes, or the sons of princes, stood before his throne; and two + hundred thousand soldiers marched under his banners. The sultan disdained + to pursue the fugitive Greeks; but he meditated the more glorious conquest + of Turkestan, the original seat of the house of Seljuk. He moved from + Bagdad to the banks of the Oxus; a bridge was thrown over the river; and + twenty days were consumed in the passage of his troops. But the progress + of the great king was retarded by the governor of Berzem; and Joseph the + Carizmian presumed to defend his fortress against the powers of the East. + When he was produced a captive in the royal tent, the sultan, instead of + praising his valor, severely reproached his obstinate folly: and the + insolent replies of the rebel provoked a sentence, that he should be + fastened to four stakes, and left to expire in that painful situation. At + this command, the desperate Carizmian, drawing a dagger, rushed headlong + towards the throne: the guards raised their battle-axes; their zeal was + checked by Alp Arslan, the most skilful archer of the age: he drew his + bow, but his foot slipped, the arrow glanced aside, and he received in his + breast the dagger of Joseph, who was instantly cut in pieces. + </p> + <p> + The wound was mortal; and the Turkish prince bequeathed a dying admonition + to the pride of kings. “In my youth,” said Alp Arslan, “I was advised by a + sage to humble myself before God; to distrust my own strength; and never + to despise the most contemptible foe. I have neglected these lessons; and + my neglect has been deservedly punished. Yesterday, as from an eminence I + beheld the numbers, the discipline, and the spirit, of my armies, the + earth seemed to tremble under my feet; and I said in my heart, Surely thou + art the king of the world, the greatest and most invincible of warriors. + These armies are no longer mine; and, in the confidence of my personal + strength, I now fall by the hand of an assassin.” <a href="#linknote-57.39" + name="linknoteref-57.39" id="linknoteref-57.39">39</a> Alp Arslan possessed + the virtues of a Turk and a Mussulman; his voice and stature commanded the + reverence of mankind; his face was shaded with long whiskers; and his + ample turban was fashioned in the shape of a crown. The remains of the + sultan were deposited in the tomb of the Seljukian dynasty; and the + passenger might read and meditate this useful inscription: <a + href="#linknote-57.40" name="linknoteref-57.40" id="linknoteref-57.40">40</a> + “O ye who have seen the glory of Alp Arslan exalted to the heavens, repair + to Maru, and you will behold it buried in the dust.” The annihilation of + the inscription, and the tomb itself, more forcibly proclaims the + instability of human greatness. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.39" id="linknote-57.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.39">return</a>)<br /> [ This interesting death + is told by D’Herbelot, (p. 103, 104,) and M. De Guignes, (tom. iii. p. + 212, 213.) from their Oriental writers; but neither of them have + transfused the spirit of Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen p. 344, 345.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.40" id="linknote-57.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.40">return</a>)<br /> [ A critic of high + renown, (the late Dr. Johnson,) who has severely scrutinized the epitaphs + of Pope, might cavil in this sublime inscription at the words “repair to + Maru,” since the reader must already be at Maru before he could peruse the + inscription.] + </p> + <p> + During the life of Alp Arslan, his eldest son had been acknowledged as the + future sultan of the Turks. On his father’s death the inheritance was + disputed by an uncle, a cousin, and a brother: they drew their cimeters, + and assembled their followers; and the triple victory of Malek Shah <a + href="#linknote-57.41" name="linknoteref-57.41" id="linknoteref-57.41">41</a> + established his own reputation and the right of primogeniture. In every + age, and more especially in Asia, the thirst of power has inspired the + same passions, and occasioned the same disorders; but, from the long + series of civil war, it would not be easy to extract a sentiment more pure + and magnanimous than is contained in the saying of the Turkish prince. On + the eve of the battle, he performed his devotions at Thous, before the + tomb of the Imam Riza. As the sultan rose from the ground, he asked his + vizier Nizam, who had knelt beside him, what had been the object of his + secret petition: “That your arms may be crowned with victory,” was the + prudent, and most probably the sincere, answer of the minister. “For my + part,” replied the generous Malek, “I implored the Lord of Hosts that he + would take from me my life and crown, if my brother be more worthy than + myself to reign over the Moslems.” The favorable judgment of heaven was + ratified by the caliph; and for the first time, the sacred title of + Commander of the Faithful was communicated to a Barbarian. But this + Barbarian, by his personal merit, and the extent of his empire, was the + greatest prince of his age. After the settlement of Persia and Syria, he + marched at the head of innumerable armies to achieve the conquest of + Turkestan, which had been undertaken by his father. In his passage of the + Oxus, the boatmen, who had been employed in transporting some troops, + complained, that their payment was assigned on the revenues of Antioch. + The sultan frowned at this preposterous choice; but he miled at the artful + flattery of his vizier. “It was not to postpone their reward, that I + selected those remote places, but to leave a memorial to posterity, that, + under your reign, Antioch and the Oxus were subject to the same + sovereign.” But this description of his limits was unjust and + parsimonious: beyond the Oxus, he reduced to his obedience the cities of + Bochara, Carizme, and Samarcand, and crushed each rebellious slave, or + independent savage, who dared to resist. Malek passed the Sihon or + Jaxartes, the last boundary of Persian civilization: the hordes of + Turkestan yielded to his supremacy: his name was inserted on the coins, + and in the prayers of Cashgar, a Tartar kingdom on the extreme borders of + China. From the Chinese frontier, he stretched his immediate jurisdiction + or feudatory sway to the west and south, as far as the mountains of + Georgia, the neighborhood of Constantinople, the holy city of Jerusalem, + and the spicy groves of Arabia Felix. Instead of resigning himself to the + luxury of his harem, the shepherd king, both in peace and war, was in + action and in the field. By the perpetual motion of the royal camp, each + province was successively blessed with his presence; and he is said to + have perambulated twelve times the wide extent of his dominions, which + surpassed the Asiatic reign of Cyrus and the caliphs. Of these + expeditions, the most pious and splendid was the pilgrimage of Mecca: the + freedom and safety of the caravans were protected by his arms; the + citizens and pilgrims were enriched by the profusion of his alms; and the + desert was cheered by the places of relief and refreshment, which he + instituted for the use of his brethren. Hunting was the pleasure, and even + the passion, of the sultan, and his train consisted of forty-seven + thousand horses; but after the massacre of a Turkish chase, for each piece + of game, he bestowed a piece of gold on the poor, a slight atonement, at + the expense of the people, for the cost and mischief of the amusement of + kings. In the peaceful prosperity of his reign, the cities of Asia were + adorned with palaces and hospitals with moschs and colleges; few departed + from his Divan without reward, and none without justice. The language and + literature of Persia revived under the house of Seljuk; <a + href="#linknote-57.42" name="linknoteref-57.42" id="linknoteref-57.42">42</a> + and if Malek emulated the liberality of a Turk less potent than himself, + <a href="#linknote-57.43" name="linknoteref-57.43" id="linknoteref-57.43">43</a> + his palace might resound with the songs of a hundred poets. The sultan + bestowed a more serious and learned care on the reformation of the + calendar, which was effected by a general assembly of the astronomers of + the East. By a law of the prophet, the Moslems are confined to the + irregular course of the lunar months; in Persia, since the age of + Zoroaster, the revolution of the sun has been known and celebrated as an + annual festival; <a href="#linknote-57.44" name="linknoteref-57.44" + id="linknoteref-57.44">44</a> but after the fall of the Magian empire, the + intercalation had been neglected; the fractions of minutes and hours were + multiplied into days; and the date of the springs was removed from the + sign of Aries to that of Pisces. The reign of Malek was illustrated by the + Gelalaean aera; and all errors, either past or future, were corrected by a + computation of time, which surpasses the Julian, and approaches the + accuracy of the Gregorian, style. <a href="#linknote-57.45" + name="linknoteref-57.45" id="linknoteref-57.45">45</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.41" id="linknote-57.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.41">return</a>)<br /> [ The Bibliotheque + Orientale has given the text of the reign of Malek, (p. 542, 543, 544, + 654, 655;) and the Histoire Generale des Huns (tom. iii. p. 214-224) has + added the usual measure of repetition emendation, and supplement. Without + those two learned Frenchmen I should be blind indeed in the Eastern + world.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.42" id="linknote-57.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.42">return</a>)<br /> [ See an excellent + discourse at the end of Sir William Jones’s History of Nadir Shah, and the + articles of the poets, Amak, Anvari, Raschidi, &c., in the + Bibliotheque Orientale. ] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.43" id="linknote-57.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.43">return</a>)<br /> [ His name was Kheder + Khan. Four bags were placed round his sopha, and as he listened to the + song, he cast handfuls of gold and silver to the poets, (D’Herbelot, p. + 107.) All this may be true; but I do not understand how he could reign in + Transoxiana in the time of Malek Shah, and much less how Kheder could + surpass him in power and pomp. I suspect that the beginning, not the end, + of the xith century is the true aera of his reign.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.44" id="linknote-57.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.44">return</a>)<br /> [ See Chardin, Voyages en + Perse, tom. ii. p. 235.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.45" id="linknote-57.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.45">return</a>)<br /> [ The Gelalaean aera + (Gelaleddin, Glory of the Faith, was one of the names or titles of Malek + Shah) is fixed to the xvth of March, A. H. 471, A.D. 1079. Dr. Hyde has + produced the original testimonies of the Persians and Arabians, (de + Religione veterum Persarum, c. 16 p. 200-211.)] + </p> + <p> + In a period when Europe was plunged in the deepest barbarism, the light + and splendor of Asia may be ascribed to the docility rather than the + knowledge of the Turkish conquerors. An ample share of their wisdom and + virtue is due to a Persian vizier, who ruled the empire under the reigns + of Alp Arslan and his son. Nizam, one of the most illustrious ministers of + the East, was honored by the caliph as an oracle of religion and science; + he was trusted by the sultan as the faithful vicegerent of his power and + justice. After an administration of thirty years, the fame of the vizier, + his wealth, and even his services, were transformed into crimes. He was + overthrown by the insidious arts of a woman and a rival; and his fall was + hastened by a rash declaration, that his cap and ink-horn, the badges of + his office, were connected by the divine decree with the throne and diadem + of the sultan. At the age of ninety-three years, the venerable statesman + was dismissed by his master, accused by his enemies, and murdered by a + fanatic: <a href="#linknote-57.451" name="linknoteref-57.451" + id="linknoteref-57.451">451</a> the last words of Nizam attested his + innocence, and the remainder of Malek’s life was short and inglorious. + From Ispahan, the scene of this disgraceful transaction, the sultan moved + to Bagdad, with the design of transplanting the caliph, and of fixing his + own residence in the capital of the Moslem world. The feeble successor of + Mahomet obtained a respite of ten days; and before the expiration of the + term, the Barbarian was summoned by the angel of death. His ambassadors at + Constantinople had asked in marriage a Roman princess; but the proposal + was decently eluded; and the daughter of Alexius, who might herself have + been the victim, expresses her abhorrence of his unnatural conjunction. <a + href="#linknote-57.46" name="linknoteref-57.46" id="linknoteref-57.46">46</a> + The daughter of the sultan was bestowed on the caliph Moctadi, with the + imperious condition, that, renouncing the society of his wives and + concubines, he should forever confine himself to this honorable alliance. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.451" id="linknote-57.451"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 451 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.451">return</a>)<br /> [ He was the first + great victim of his enemy, Hassan Sabek, founder of the Assassins. Von + Hammer, Geschichte der Assassinen, p. 95.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.46" id="linknote-57.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.46">return</a>)<br /> [ She speaks of this + Persian royalty. Anna Comnena was only nine years old at the end of the + reign of Malek Shah, (A.D. 1092,) and when she speaks of his + assassination, she confounds the sultan with the vizier, (Alexias, l. vi. + p. 177, 178.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap57.3"></a> + Chapter LVII: The Turks.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + The greatness and unity of the Turkish empire expired in the person of + Malek Shah. His vacant throne was disputed by his brother and his four + sons; <a href="#linknote-57.461" name="linknoteref-57.461" + id="linknoteref-57.461">461</a> and, after a series of civil wars, the + treaty which reconciled the surviving candidates confirmed a lasting + separation in the Persian dynasty, the eldest and principal branch of the + house of Seljuk. The three younger dynasties were those of Kerman, of + Syria, and of Roum: the first of these commanded an extensive, though + obscure, <a href="#linknote-57.47" name="linknoteref-57.47" + id="linknoteref-57.47">47</a> dominion on the shores of the Indian Ocean: + <a href="#linknote-57.48" name="linknoteref-57.48" id="linknoteref-57.48">48</a> + the second expelled the Arabian princes of Aleppo and Damascus; and the + third, our peculiar care, invaded the Roman provinces of Asia Minor. The + generous policy of Malek contributed to their elevation: he allowed the + princes of his blood, even those whom he had vanquished in the field, to + seek new kingdoms worthy of their ambition; nor was he displeased that + they should draw away the more ardent spirits, who might have disturbed + the tranquillity of his reign. As the supreme head of his family and + nation, the great sultan of Persia commanded the obedience and tribute of + his royal brethren: the thrones of Kerman and Nice, of Aleppo and + Damascus; the Atabeks, and emirs of Syria and Mesopotamia, erected their + standards under the shadow of his sceptre: <a href="#linknote-57.49" + name="linknoteref-57.49" id="linknoteref-57.49">49</a> and the hordes of + Turkmans overspread the plains of the Western Asia. + </p> + <p> + After the death of Malek, the bands of union and subordination were + relaxed and finally dissolved: the indulgence of the house of Seljuk + invested their slaves with the inheritance of kingdoms; and, in the + Oriental style, a crowd of princes arose from the dust of their feet. <a + href="#linknote-57.50" name="linknoteref-57.50" id="linknoteref-57.50">50</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.461" id="linknote-57.461"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 461 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.461">return</a>)<br /> [ See Von Hammer, + Osmanische Geschichte, vol. i. p. 16. The Seljukian dominions were for a + time reunited in the person of Sandjar, one of the sons of Malek Shah, who + ruled “from Kashgar to Antioch, from the Caspian to the Straits of + Babelmandel.”—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.47" id="linknote-57.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.47">return</a>)<br /> [ So obscure, that the + industry of M. De Guignes could only copy (tom. i. p. 244, tom. iii. part + i. p. 269, &c.) the history, or rather list, of the Seljukides of + Kerman, in Bibliotheque Orientale. They were extinguished before the end + of the xiith century.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.48" id="linknote-57.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.48">return</a>)<br /> [ Tavernier, perhaps the + only traveller who has visited Kerman, describes the capital as a great + ruinous village, twenty-five days’ journey from Ispahan, and twenty-seven + from Ormus, in the midst of a fertile country, (Voyages en Turquie et en + Perse, p. 107, 110.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.49" id="linknote-57.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.49">return</a>)<br /> [ It appears from Anna + Comnena, that the Turks of Asia Minor obeyed the signet and chiauss of the + great sultan, (Alexias, l. vi. p. 170;) and that the two sons of Soliman + were detained in his court, (p. 180.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.50" id="linknote-57.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.50">return</a>)<br /> [ This expression is + quoted by Petit de la Croix (Vie de Gestis p. 160) from some poet, most + probably a Persian.] + </p> + <p> + A prince of the royal line, Cutulmish, <a href="#linknote-57.501" + name="linknoteref-57.501" id="linknoteref-57.501">501</a> the son of Izrail, + the son of Seljuk, had fallen in a battle against Alp Arslan and the + humane victor had dropped a tear over his grave. His five sons, strong in + arms, ambitious of power, and eager for revenge, unsheathed their cimeters + against the son of Alp Arslan. The two armies expected the signal when the + caliph, forgetful of the majesty which secluded him from vulgar eyes, + interposed his venerable mediation. “Instead of shedding the blood of your + brethren, your brethren both in descent and faith, unite your forces in a + holy war against the Greeks, the enemies of God and his apostle.” They + listened to his voice; the sultan embraced his rebellious kinsmen; and the + eldest, the valiant Soliman, accepted the royal standard, which gave him + the free conquest and hereditary command of the provinces of the Roman + empire, from Arzeroum to Constantinople, and the unknown regions of the + West. <a href="#linknote-57.51" name="linknoteref-57.51" + id="linknoteref-57.51">51</a> Accompanied by his four brothers, he passed + the Euphrates; the Turkish camp was soon seated in the neighborhood of + Kutaieh in Phrygia; and his flying cavalry laid waste the country as far + as the Hellespont and the Black Sea. Since the decline of the empire, the + peninsula of Asia Minor had been exposed to the transient, though + destructive, inroads of the Persians and Saracens; but the fruits of a + lasting conquest were reserved for the Turkish sultan; and his arms were + introduced by the Greeks, who aspired to reign on the ruins of their + country. Since the captivity of Romanus, six years the feeble son of + Eudocia had trembled under the weight of the Imperial crown, till the + provinces of the East and West were lost in the same month by a double + rebellion: of either chief Nicephorus was the common name; but the + surnames of Bryennius and Botoniates distinguish the European and Asiatic + candidates. Their reasons, or rather their promises, were weighed in the + Divan; and, after some hesitation, Soliman declared himself in favor of + Botoniates, opened a free passage to his troops in their march from + Antioch to Nice, and joined the banner of the Crescent to that of the + Cross. After his ally had ascended the throne of Constantinople, the + sultan was hospitably entertained in the suburb of Chrysopolis or Scutari; + and a body of two thousand Turks was transported into Europe, to whose + dexterity and courage the new emperor was indebted for the defeat and + captivity of his rival, Bryennius. But the conquest of Europe was dearly + purchased by the sacrifice of Asia: Constantinople was deprived of the + obedience and revenue of the provinces beyond the Bosphorus and + Hellespont; and the regular progress of the Turks, who fortified the + passes of the rivers and mountains, left not a hope of their retreat or + expulsion. Another candidate implored the aid of the sultan: Melissenus, + in his purple robes and red buskins, attended the motions of the Turkish + camp; and the desponding cities were tempted by the summons of a Roman + prince, who immediately surrendered them into the hands of the Barbarians. + These acquisitions were confirmed by a treaty of peace with the emperor + Alexius: his fear of Robert compelled him to seek the friendship of + Soliman; and it was not till after the sultan’s death that he extended as + far as Nicomedia, about sixty miles from Constantinople, the eastern + boundary of the Roman world. Trebizond alone, defended on either side by + the sea and mountains, preserved at the extremity of the Euxine the + ancient character of a Greek colony, and the future destiny of a Christian + empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.501" id="linknote-57.501"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 501 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.501">return</a>)<br /> [ Wilken considers + Cutulmish not a Turkish name. Geschicht Kreuz-zuge, vol. i. p. 9.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.51" id="linknote-57.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.51">return</a>)<br /> [ On the conquest of Asia + Minor, M. De Guignes has derived no assistance from the Turkish or Arabian + writers, who produce a naked list of the Seljukides of Roum. The Greeks + are unwilling to expose their shame, and we must extort some hints from + Scylitzes, (p. 860, 863,) Nicephorus Bryennius, (p. 88, 91, 92, &c., + 103, 104,) and Anna Comnena (Alexias, p. 91, 92, &c., 163, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + Since the first conquests of the caliphs, the establishment of the Turks + in Anatolia or Asia Minor was the most deplorable loss which the church + and empire had sustained. By the propagation of the Moslem faith, Soliman + deserved the name of Gazi, a holy champion; and his new kingdoms, of the + Romans, or of Roum, was added to the tables of Oriental geography. It is + described as extending from the Euphrates to Constantinople, from the + Black Sea to the confines of Syria; pregnant with mines of silver and + iron, of alum and copper, fruitful in corn and wine, and productive of + cattle and excellent horses. <a href="#linknote-57.52" + name="linknoteref-57.52" id="linknoteref-57.52">52</a> The wealth of Lydia, + the arts of the Greeks, the splendor of the Augustan age, existed only in + books and ruins, which were equally obscure in the eyes of the Scythian + conquerors. Yet, in the present decay, Anatolia still contains some + wealthy and populous cities; and, under the Byzantine empire, they were + far more flourishing in numbers, size, and opulence. By the choice of the + sultan, Nice, the metropolis of Bithynia, was preferred for his palace and + fortress: the seat of the Seljukian dynasty of Roum was planted one + hundred miles from Constantinople; and the divinity of Christ was denied + and derided in the same temple in which it had been pronounced by the + first general synod of the Catholics. The unity of God, and the mission of + Mahomet, were preached in the moschs; the Arabian learning was taught in + the schools; the Cadhis judged according to the law of the Koran; the + Turkish manners and language prevailed in the cities; and Turkman camps + were scattered over the plains and mountains of Anatolia. On the hard + conditions of tribute and servitude, the Greek Christians might enjoy the + exercise of their religion; but their most holy churches were profaned; + their priests and bishops were insulted; <a href="#linknote-57.53" + name="linknoteref-57.53" id="linknoteref-57.53">53</a> they were compelled + to suffer the triumph of the Pagans, and the apostasy of their brethren; + many thousand children were marked by the knife of circumcision; and many + thousand captives were devoted to the service or the pleasures of their + masters. <a href="#linknote-57.54" name="linknoteref-57.54" + id="linknoteref-57.54">54</a> After the loss of Asia, Antioch still + maintained her primitive allegiance to Christ and Caesar; but the solitary + province was separated from all Roman aid, and surrounded on all sides by + the Mahometan powers. The despair of Philaretus the governor prepared the + sacrifice of his religion and loyalty, had not his guilt been prevented by + his son, who hastened to the Nicene palace, and offered to deliver this + valuable prize into the hands of Soliman. The ambitious sultan mounted on + horseback, and in twelve nights (for he reposed in the day) performed a + march of six hundred miles. Antioch was oppressed by the speed and secrecy + of his enterprise; and the dependent cities, as far as Laodicea and the + confines of Aleppo, <a href="#linknote-57.55" name="linknoteref-57.55" + id="linknoteref-57.55">55</a> obeyed the example of the metropolis. From + Laodicea to the Thracian Bosphorus, or arm of St. George, the conquests + and reign of Soliman extended thirty days’ journey in length, and in + breadth about ten or fifteen, between the rocks of Lycia and the Black + Sea. <a href="#linknote-57.56" name="linknoteref-57.56" id="linknoteref-57.56">56</a> + The Turkish ignorance of navigation protected, for a while, the inglorious + safety of the emperor; but no sooner had a fleet of two hundred ships been + constructed by the hands of the captive Greeks, than Alexius trembled + behind the walls of his capital. His plaintive epistles were dispersed + over Europe, to excite the compassion of the Latins, and to paint the + danger, the weakness, and the riches of the city of Constantine. <a + href="#linknote-57.57" name="linknoteref-57.57" id="linknoteref-57.57">57</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.52" id="linknote-57.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.52">return</a>)<br /> [ Such is the description + of Roum by Haiton the Armenian, whose Tartar history may be found in the + collections of Ramusio and Bergeron, (see Abulfeda, Geograph. climat. + xvii. p. 301-305.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.53" id="linknote-57.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.53">return</a>)<br /> [ Dicit eos quendam + abusione Sodomitica intervertisse episcopum, (Guibert. Abbat. Hist. + Hierosol. l. i. p. 468.) It is odd enough, that we should find a parallel + passage of the same people in the present age. “Il n’est point d’horreur + que ces Turcs n’ayent commis, et semblables aux soldats effrenes, qui dans + le sac d’une ville, non contens de disposer de tout a leur gre pretendent + encore aux succes les moins desirables. Quelque Sipahis ont porte leurs + attentats sur la personne du vieux rabbi de la synagogue, et celle de + l’Archeveque Grec.” (Memoires du Baron de Tott, tom. ii. p. 193.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.54" id="linknote-57.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.54">return</a>)<br /> [ The emperor, or abbot + describe the scenes of a Turkish camp as if they had been present. Matres + correptae in conspectu filiarum multipliciter repetitis diversorum + coitibus vexabantur; (is that the true reading?) cum filiae assistentes + carmina praecinere saltando cogerentur. Mox eadem passio ad filias, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.55" id="linknote-57.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.55">return</a>)<br /> [ See Antioch, and the + death of Soliman, in Anna Comnena, (Alexius, l. vi. p. 168, 169,) with the + notes of Ducange.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.56" id="linknote-57.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.56">return</a>)<br /> [ William of Tyre (l. i. + c. 9, 10, p. 635) gives the most authentic and deplorable account of these + Turkish conquests.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.57" id="linknote-57.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.57">return</a>)<br /> [ In his epistle to the + count of Flanders, Alexius seems to fall too low beneath his character and + dignity; yet it is approved by Ducange, (Not. ad Alexiad. p. 335, &c.,) + and paraphrased by the Abbot Guibert, a contemporary historian. The Greek + text no longer exists; and each translator and scribe might say with + Guibert, (p. 475,) verbis vestita meis, a privilege of most indefinite + latitude.] + </p> + <p> + But the most interesting conquest of the Seljukian Turks was that of + Jerusalem, <a href="#linknote-57.58" name="linknoteref-57.58" + id="linknoteref-57.58">58</a> which soon became the theatre of nations. In + their capitulation with Omar, the inhabitants had stipulated the assurance + of their religion and property; but the articles were interpreted by a + master against whom it was dangerous to dispute; and in the four hundred + years of the reign of the caliphs, the political climate of Jerusalem was + exposed to the vicissitudes of storm and sunshine. <a href="#linknote-57.59" + name="linknoteref-57.59" id="linknoteref-57.59">59</a> By the increase of + proselytes and population, the Mahometans might excuse the usurpation of + three fourths of the city: but a peculiar quarter was resolved for the + patriarch with his clergy and people; a tribute of two pieces of gold was + the price of protection; and the sepulchre of Christ, with the church of + the Resurrection, was still left in the hands of his votaries. Of these + votaries, the most numerous and respectable portion were strangers to + Jerusalem: the pilgrimages to the Holy Land had been stimulated, rather + than suppressed, by the conquest of the Arabs; and the enthusiasm which + had always prompted these perilous journeys, was nourished by the + congenial passions of grief and indignation. A crowd of pilgrims from the + East and West continued to visit the holy sepulchre, and the adjacent + sanctuaries, more especially at the festival of Easter; and the Greeks and + Latins, the Nestorians and Jacobites, the Copts and Abyssinians, the + Armenians and Georgians, maintained the chapels, the clergy, and the poor + of their respective communions. The harmony of prayer in so many various + tongues, the worship of so many nations in the common temple of their + religion, might have afforded a spectacle of edification and peace; but + the zeal of the Christian sects was imbittered by hatred and revenge; and + in the kingdom of a suffering Messiah, who had pardoned his enemies, they + aspired to command and persecute their spiritual brethren. The preeminence + was asserted by the spirit and numbers of the Franks; and the greatness of + Charlemagne <a href="#linknote-57.60" name="linknoteref-57.60" + id="linknoteref-57.60">60</a> protected both the Latin pilgrims and the + Catholics of the East. The poverty of Carthage, Alexandria, and Jerusalem, + was relieved by the alms of that pious emperor; and many monasteries of + Palestine were founded or restored by his liberal devotion. Harun + Alrashid, the greatest of the Abbassides, esteemed in his Christian + brother a similar supremacy of genius and power: their friendship was + cemented by a frequent intercourse of gifts and embassies; and the caliph, + without resigning the substantial dominion, presented the emperor with the + keys of the holy sepulchre, and perhaps of the city of Jerusalem. In the + decline of the Carlovingian monarchy, the republic of Amalphi promoted the + interest of trade and religion in the East. Her vessels transported the + Latin pilgrims to the coasts of Egypt and Palestine, and deserved, by + their useful imports, the favor and alliance of the Fatimite caliphs: <a + href="#linknote-57.61" name="linknoteref-57.61" id="linknoteref-57.61">61</a> + an annual fair was instituted on Mount Calvary: and the Italian merchants + founded the convent and hospital of St. John of Jerusalem, the cradle of + the monastic and military order, which has since reigned in the isles of + Rhodes and of Malta. Had the Christian pilgrims been content to revere the + tomb of a prophet, the disciples of Mahomet, instead of blaming, would + have imitated, their piety: but these rigid Unitarians were scandalized by + a worship which represents the birth, death, and resurrection, of a God; + the Catholic images were branded with the name of idols; and the Moslems + smiled with indignation <a href="#linknote-57.62" name="linknoteref-57.62" + id="linknoteref-57.62">62</a> at the miraculous flame which was kindled on + the eve of Easter in the holy sepulchre. <a href="#linknote-57.63" + name="linknoteref-57.63" id="linknoteref-57.63">63</a> This pious fraud, + first devised in the ninth century, <a href="#linknote-57.64" + name="linknoteref-57.64" id="linknoteref-57.64">64</a> was devoutly + cherished by the Latin crusaders, and is annually repeated by the clergy + of the Greek, Armenian, and Coptic sects, <a href="#linknote-57.65" + name="linknoteref-57.65" id="linknoteref-57.65">65</a> who impose on the + credulous spectators <a href="#linknote-57.66" name="linknoteref-57.66" + id="linknoteref-57.66">66</a> for their own benefit, and that of their + tyrants. In every age, a principle of toleration has been fortified by a + sense of interest: and the revenue of the prince and his emir was + increased each year, by the expense and tribute of so many thousand + strangers. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.58" id="linknote-57.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.58">return</a>)<br /> [ Our best fund for the + history of Jerusalem from Heraclius to the crusades is contained in two + large and original passages of William archbishop of Tyre, (l. i. c. 1-10, + l. xviii. c. 5, 6,) the principal author of the Gesta Dei per Francos. M. + De Guignes has composed a very learned Memoire sur le Commerce des + Francois dans le de Levant avant les Croisades, &c. (Mem. de + l’Academie des Inscriptions, tom. xxxvii. p. 467-500.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.59" id="linknote-57.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.59">return</a>)<br /> [ Secundum Dominorum + dispositionem plerumque lucida plerum que nubila recepit intervalla, et + aegrotantium more temporum praesentium gravabatur aut respirabat + qualitate, (l. i. c. 3, p. 630.) The latinity of William of Tyre is by no + means contemptible: but in his account of 490 years, from the loss to the + recovery of Jerusalem, precedes the true account by 30 years.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.60" id="linknote-57.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.60">return</a>)<br /> [ For the transactions of + Charlemagne with the Holy Land, see Eginhard, (de Vita Caroli Magni, c. + 16, p. 79-82,) Constantine Porphyrogenitus, (de Administratione Imperii, + l. ii. c. 26, p. 80,) and Pagi, (Critica, tom. iii. A.D. 800, No. 13, 14, + 15.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.61" id="linknote-57.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.61">return</a>)<br /> [ The caliph granted his + privileges, Amalphitanis viris amicis et utilium introductoribus, (Gesta + Dei, p. 934.) The trade of Venice to Egypt and Palestine cannot produce so + old a title, unless we adopt the laughable translation of a Frenchman, who + mistook the two factions of the circus (Veneti et Prasini) for the + Venetians and Parisians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.62" id="linknote-57.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.62">return</a>)<br /> [ An Arabic chronicle of + Jerusalem (apud Asseman. Bibliot. Orient. tom. i. p. 268, tom. iv. p. 368) + attests the unbelief of the caliph and the historian; yet Cantacuzene + presumes to appeal to the Mahometans themselves for the truth of this + perpetual miracle.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.63" id="linknote-57.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.63">return</a>)<br /> [ In his Dissertations on + Ecclesiastical History, the learned Mosheim has separately discussed this + pretended miracle, (tom. ii. p. 214-306,) de lumine sancti sepulchri.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.64" id="linknote-57.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.64">return</a>)<br /> [ William of Malmsbury + (l. iv. c. 2, p. 209) quotes the Itinerary of the monk Bernard, an + eye-witness, who visited Jerusalem A.D. 870. The miracle is confirmed by + another pilgrim some years older; and Mosheim ascribes the invention to + the Franks, soon after the decease of Charlemagne.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.65" id="linknote-57.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.65">return</a>)<br /> [ Our travellers, Sandys, + (p. 134,) Thevenot, (p. 621-627,) Maundrell, (p. 94, 95,) &c., + describes this extravagant farce. The Catholics are puzzled to decide when + the miracle ended and the trick began.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.66" id="linknote-57.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.66">return</a>)<br /> [ The Orientals + themselves confess the fraud, and plead necessity and edification, + (Memoires du Chevalier D’Arvieux, tom. ii. p. 140. Joseph Abudacni, Hist. + Copt. c. 20;) but I will not attempt, with Mosheim, to explain the mode. + Our travellers have failed with the blood of St. Januarius at Naples.] + </p> + <p> + The revolution which transferred the sceptre from the Abbassides to the + Fatimites was a benefit, rather than an injury, to the Holy Land. A + sovereign resident in Egypt was more sensible of the importance of + Christian trade; and the emirs of Palestine were less remote from the + justice and power of the throne. But the third of these Fatimite caliphs + was the famous Hakem, <a href="#linknote-57.67" name="linknoteref-57.67" + id="linknoteref-57.67">67</a> a frantic youth, who was delivered by his + impiety and despotism from the fear either of God or man; and whose reign + was a wild mixture of vice and folly. Regardless of the most ancient + customs of Egypt, he imposed on the women an absolute confinement; the + restraint excited the clamors of both sexes; their clamors provoked his + fury; a part of Old Cairo was delivered to the flames and the guards and + citizens were engaged many days in a bloody conflict. At first the caliph + declared himself a zealous Mussulman, the founder or benefactor of moschs + and colleges: twelve hundred and ninety copies of the Koran were + transcribed at his expense in letters of gold; and his edict extirpated + the vineyards of the Upper Egypt. But his vanity was soon flattered by the + hope of introducing a new religion; he aspired above the fame of a + prophet, and styled himself the visible image of the Most High God, who, + after nine apparitions on earth, was at length manifest in his royal + person. At the name of Hakem, the lord of the living and the dead, every + knee was bent in religious adoration: his mysteries were performed on a + mountain near Cairo: sixteen thousand converts had signed his profession + of faith; and at the present hour, a free and warlike people, the Druses + of Mount Libanus, are persuaded of the life and divinity of a madman and + tyrant. <a href="#linknote-57.68" name="linknoteref-57.68" + id="linknoteref-57.68">68</a> In his divine character, Hakem hated the Jews + and Christians, as the servants of his rivals; while some remains of + prejudice or prudence still pleaded in favor of the law of Mahomet. Both + in Egypt and Palestine, his cruel and wanton persecution made some martyrs + and many apostles: the common rights and special privileges of the + sectaries were equally disregarded; and a general interdict was laid on + the devotion of strangers and natives. The temple of the Christian world, + the church of the Resurrection, was demolished to its foundations; the + luminous prodigy of Easter was interrupted, and much profane labor was + exhausted to destroy the cave in the rock which properly constitutes the + holy sepulchre. At the report of this sacrilege, the nations of Europe + were astonished and afflicted: but instead of arming in the defence of the + Holy Land, they contented themselves with burning, or banishing, the Jews, + as the secret advisers of the impious Barbarian. <a href="#linknote-57.69" + name="linknoteref-57.69" id="linknoteref-57.69">69</a> Yet the calamities of + Jerusalem were in some measure alleviated by the inconstancy or repentance + of Hakem himself; and the royal mandate was sealed for the restitution of + the churches, when the tyrant was assassinated by the emissaries of his + sister. The succeeding caliphs resumed the maxims of religion and policy: + a free toleration was again granted; with the pious aid of the emperor of + Constantinople, the holy sepulchre arose from its ruins; and, after a + short abstinence, the pilgrims returned with an increase of appetite to + the spiritual feast. <a href="#linknote-57.70" name="linknoteref-57.70" + id="linknoteref-57.70">70</a> In the sea-voyage of Palestine, the dangers + were frequent, and the opportunities rare: but the conversion of Hungary + opened a safe communication between Germany and Greece. The charity of St. + Stephen, the apostle of his kingdom, relieved and conducted his itinerant + brethren; <a href="#linknote-57.71" name="linknoteref-57.71" + id="linknoteref-57.71">71</a> and from Belgrade to Antioch, they traversed + fifteen hundred miles of a Christian empire. Among the Franks, the zeal of + pilgrimage prevailed beyond the example of former times: and the roads + were covered with multitudes of either sex, and of every rank, who + professed their contempt of life, so soon as they should have kissed the + tomb of their Redeemer. Princes and prelates abandoned the care of their + dominions; and the numbers of these pious caravans were a prelude to the + armies which marched in the ensuing age under the banner of the cross. + About thirty years before the first crusade, the arch bishop of Mentz, + with the bishops of Utrecht, Bamberg, and Ratisbon, undertook this + laborious journey from the Rhine to the Jordan; and the multitude of their + followers amounted to seven thousand persons. At Constantinople, they were + hospitably entertained by the emperor; but the ostentation of their wealth + provoked the assault of the wild Arabs: they drew their swords with + scrupulous reluctance, and sustained siege in the village of Capernaum, + till they were rescued by the venal protection of the Fatimite emir. After + visiting the holy places, they embarked for Italy, but only a remnant of + two thousand arrived in safety in their native land. + </p> + <p> + Ingulphus, a secretary of William the Conqueror, was a companion of this + pilgrimage: he observes that they sailed from Normandy, thirty stout and + well-appointed horsemen; but that they repassed the Alps, twenty miserable + palmers, with the staff in their hand, and the wallet at their back. <a + href="#linknote-57.72" name="linknoteref-57.72" id="linknoteref-57.72">72</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.67" id="linknote-57.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.67">return</a>)<br /> [ See D’Herbelot, + (Bibliot. Orientale, p. 411,) Renaudot, (Hist. Patriarch. Alex. p. 390, + 397, 400, 401,) Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 321-323,) and Marei, (p. + 384-386,) an historian of Egypt, translated by Reiske from Arabic into + German, and verbally interpreted to me by a friend.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.68" id="linknote-57.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.68">return</a>)<br /> [ The religion of the + Druses is concealed by their ignorance and hypocrisy. Their secret + doctrines are confined to the elect who profess a contemplative life; and + the vulgar Druses, the most indifferent of men, occasionally conform to + the worship of the Mahometans and Christians of their neighborhood. The + little that is, or deserves to be, known, may be seen in the industrious + Niebuhr, (Voyages, tom. ii. p. 354-357,) and the second volume of the + recent and instructive Travels of M. de Volney. * Note: The religion of + the Druses has, within the present year, been fully developed from their + own writings, which have long lain neglected in the libraries of Paris and + Oxford, in the “Expose de la Religion des Druses, by M. Silvestre de + Sacy.” Deux tomes, Paris, 1838. The learned author has prefixed a life of + Hakem Biamr-Allah, which enables us to correct several errors in the + account of Gibbon. These errors chiefly arose from his want of knowledge + or of attention to the chronology of Hakem’s life. Hakem succeeded to the + throne of Egypt in the year of the Hegira 386. He did not assume his + divinity till 408. His life was indeed “a wild mixture of vice and folly,” + to which may be added, of the most sanguinary cruelty. During his reign, + 18,000 persons were victims of his ferocity. Yet such is the god, observes + M. de Sacy, whom the Druses have worshipped for 800 years! (See p. + ccccxxix.) All his wildest and most extravagant actions were interpreted + by his followers as having a mystic and allegoric meaning, alluding to the + destruction of other religions and the propagation of his own. It does not + seem to have been the “vanity” of Hakem which induced him to introduce a + new religion. The curious point in the new faith is that Hamza, the son of + Ali, the real founder of the Unitarian religion, (such is its boastful + title,) was content to take a secondary part. While Hakem was God, the one + Supreme, the Imam Hamza was his Intelligence. It was not in his “divine + character” that Hakem “hated the Jews and Christians,” but in that of a + Mahometan bigot, which he displayed in the earlier years of his reign. His + barbarous persecution, and the burning of the church of the Resurrection + at Jerusalem, belong entirely to that period; and his assumption of + divinity was followed by an edict of toleration to Jews and Christians. + The Mahometans, whose religion he then treated with hostility and + contempt, being far the most numerous, were his most dangerous enemies, + and therefore the objects of his most inveterate hatred. It is another + singular fact, that the religion of Hakem was by no means confined to + Egypt and Syria. M. de Sacy quotes a letter addressed to the chief of the + sect in India; and there is likewise a letter to the Byzantine emperor + Constantine, son of Armanous, (Romanus,) and the clergy of the empire. + (Constantine VIII., M. de Sacy supposes, but this is irreconcilable with + chronology; it must mean Constantine XI., Monomachus.) The assassination + of Hakem is, of course, disbelieved by his sectaries. M. de Sacy seems to + consider the fact obscure and doubtful. According to his followers he + disappeared, but is hereafter to return. At his return the resurrection is + to take place; the triumph of Unitarianism, and the final discomfiture of + all other religions. The temple of Mecca is especially devoted to + destruction. It is remarkable that one of the signs of this final + consummation, and of the reappearance of Hakem, is that Christianity shall + be gaining a manifest predominance over Mahometanism. As for the religion + of the Druses, I cannot agree with Gibbon that it does not “deserve” to be + better known; and am grateful to M. de Sacy, notwithstanding the prolixity + and occasional repetition in his two large volumes, for the full + examination of the most extraordinary religious aberration which ever + extensively affected the mind of man. The worship of a mad tyrant is the + basis of a subtle metaphysical creed, and of a severe, and even ascetic, + morality.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.69" id="linknote-57.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.69">return</a>)<br /> [ See Glaber, l. iii. c. + 7, and the Annals of Baronius and Pagi, A.D. 1009.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.70" id="linknote-57.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.70">return</a>)<br /> [ Per idem tempus ex + universo orbe tam innumerabilis multitudo coepit confluere ad sepulchrum + Salvatoris Hierosolymis, quantum nullus hominum prius sperare poterat. + Ordo inferioris plebis.... mediocres.... reges et comites..... praesules + ..... mulieres multae nobilis cum pauperioribus.... Pluribus enim erat + mentis desiderium mori priusquam ad propria reverterentur, (Glaber, l. iv. + c. 6, Bouquet. Historians of France, tom. x. p. 50.) * Note: Compare the + first chap. of Wilken, Geschichte der Kreuz-zuge.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.71" id="linknote-57.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.71">return</a>)<br /> [ Glaber, l. iii. c. 1. + Katona (Hist. Critic. Regum Hungariae, tom. i. p. 304-311) examines + whether St. Stephen founded a monastery at Jerusalem.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.72" id="linknote-57.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.72">return</a>)<br /> [ Baronius (A.D. 1064, + No. 43-56) has transcribed the greater part of the original narratives of + Ingulphus, Marianus, and Lambertus.] + </p> + <p> + After the defeat of the Romans, the tranquillity of the Fatimite caliphs + was invaded by the Turks. <a href="#linknote-57.73" name="linknoteref-57.73" + id="linknoteref-57.73">73</a> One of the lieutenants of Malek Shah, Atsiz + the Carizmian, marched into Syria at the head of a powerful army, and + reduced Damascus by famine and the sword. Hems, and the other cities of + the province, acknowledged the caliph of Bagdad and the sultan of Persia; + and the victorious emir advanced without resistance to the banks of the + Nile: the Fatimite was preparing to fly into the heart of Africa; but the + negroes of his guard and the inhabitants of Cairo made a desperate sally, + and repulsed the Turk from the confines of Egypt. In his retreat he + indulged the license of slaughter and rapine: the judge and notaries of + Jerusalem were invited to his camp; and their execution was followed by + the massacre of three thousand citizens. The cruelty or the defeat of + Atsiz was soon punished by the sultan Toucush, the brother of Malek Shah, + who, with a higher title and more formidable powers, asserted the dominion + of Syria and Palestine. The house of Seljuk reigned about twenty years in + Jerusalem; <a href="#linknote-57.74" name="linknoteref-57.74" + id="linknoteref-57.74">74</a> but the hereditary command of the holy city + and territory was intrusted or abandoned to the emir Ortok, the chief of a + tribe of Turkmans, whose children, after their expulsion from Palestine, + formed two dynasties on the borders of Armenia and Assyria. <a + href="#linknote-57.75" name="linknoteref-57.75" id="linknoteref-57.75">75</a> + The Oriental Christians and the Latin pilgrims deplored a revolution, + which, instead of the regular government and old alliance of the caliphs, + imposed on their necks the iron yoke of the strangers of the North. <a + href="#linknote-57.76" name="linknoteref-57.76" id="linknoteref-57.76">76</a> + In his court and camp the great sultan had adopted in some degree the arts + and manners of Persia; but the body of the Turkish nation, and more + especially the pastoral tribes, still breathed the fierceness of the + desert. From Nice to Jerusalem, the western countries of Asia were a scene + of foreign and domestic hostility; and the shepherds of Palestine, who + held a precarious sway on a doubtful frontier, had neither leisure nor + capacity to await the slow profits of commercial and religious freedom. + The pilgrims, who, through innumerable perils, had reached the gates of + Jerusalem, were the victims of private rapine or public oppression, and + often sunk under the pressure of famine and disease, before they were + permitted to salute the holy sepulchre. A spirit of native barbarism, or + recent zeal, prompted the Turkmans to insult the clergy of every sect: the + patriarch was dragged by the hair along the pavement, and cast into a + dungeon, to extort a ransom from the sympathy of his flock; and the divine + worship in the church of the Resurrection was often disturbed by the + savage rudeness of its masters. The pathetic tale excited the millions of + the West to march under the standard of the cross to the relief of the + Holy Land; and yet how trifling is the sum of these accumulated evils, if + compared with the single act of the sacrilege of Hakem, which had been so + patiently endured by the Latin Christians! A slighter provocation inflamed + the more irascible temper of their descendants: a new spirit had arisen of + religious chivalry and papal dominion; a nerve was touched of exquisite + feeling; and the sensation vibrated to the heart of Europe. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.73" id="linknote-57.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.73">return</a>)<br /> [ See Elmacin (Hist. + Saracen. p. 349, 350) and Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 237, vers. Pocock.) + M. De Guignes (Hist. des Huns, tom iii. part i. p. 215, 216) adds the + testimonies, or rather the names, of Abulfeda and Novairi.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.74" id="linknote-57.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.74">return</a>)<br /> [ From the expedition of + Isar Atsiz, (A. H. 469, A.D. 1076,) to the expulsion of the Ortokides, + (A.D. 1096.) Yet William of Tyre (l. i. c. 6, p. 633) asserts, that + Jerusalem was thirty-eight years in the hands of the Turks; and an Arabic + chronicle, quoted by Pagi, (tom. iv. p. 202) supposes that the city was + reduced by a Carizmian general to the obedience of the caliph of Bagdad, + A. H. 463, A.D. 1070. These early dates are not very compatible with the + general history of Asia; and I am sure, that as late as A.D. 1064, the + regnum Babylonicum (of Cairo) still prevailed in Palestine, (Baronius, + A.D. 1064, No. 56.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.75" id="linknote-57.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.75">return</a>)<br /> [ De Guignes, Hist. des + Huns, tom. i. p. 249-252. ] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-57.76" id="linknote-57.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-57.76">return</a>)<br /> [ Willierm. Tyr. l. i. c. + 8, p. 634, who strives hard to magnify the Christian grievances. The Turks + exacted an aureus from each pilgrim! The caphar of the Franks now is + fourteen dollars: and Europe does not complain of this voluntary tax.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap58.1"></a> + Chapter LVIII: The First Crusade.—Part I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Origin And Numbers Of The First Crusade.—Characters Of The Latin + Princes.—Their March To Constantinople.—Policy Of The Greek + Emperor Alexius.—Conquest Of Nice, Antioch, And Jerusalem, By The + Franks.—Deliverance Of The Holy Sepulchre.— Godfrey Of Bouillon, + First King Of Jerusalem.—Institutions Of The French Or Latin Kingdom. +</pre> + <p> + About twenty years after the conquest of Jerusalem by the Turks, the holy + sepulchre was visited by a hermit of the name of Peter, a native of + Amiens, in the province of Picardy <a href="#linknote-58.1" + name="linknoteref-58.1" id="linknoteref-58.1">1</a> in France. His + resentment and sympathy were excited by his own injuries and the + oppression of the Christian name; he mingled his tears with those of the + patriarch, and earnestly inquired, if no hopes of relief could be + entertained from the Greek emperors of the East. The patriarch exposed the + vices and weakness of the successors of Constantine. “I will rouse,” + exclaimed the hermit, “the martial nations of Europe in your cause;” and + Europe was obedient to the call of the hermit. The astonished patriarch + dismissed him with epistles of credit and complaint; and no sooner did he + land at Bari, than Peter hastened to kiss the feet of the Roman pontiff. + His stature was small, his appearance contemptible; but his eye was keen + and lively; and he possessed that vehemence of speech, which seldom fails + to impart the persuasion of the soul. <a href="#linknote-58.2" + name="linknoteref-58.2" id="linknoteref-58.2">2</a> He was born of a + gentleman’s family, (for we must now adopt a modern idiom,) and his + military service was under the neighboring counts of Boulogne, the heroes + of the first crusade. But he soon relinquished the sword and the world; + and if it be true, that his wife, however noble, was aged and ugly, he + might withdraw, with the less reluctance, from her bed to a convent, and + at length to a hermitage. <a href="#linknote-58.211" + name="linknoteref-58.211" id="linknoteref-58.211">211</a> In this austere + solitude, his body was emaciated, his fancy was inflamed; whatever he + wished, he believed; whatever he believed, he saw in dreams and + revelations. From Jerusalem the pilgrim returned an accomplished fanatic; + but as he excelled in the popular madness of the times, Pope Urban the + Second received him as a prophet, applauded his glorious design, promised + to support it in a general council, and encouraged him to proclaim the + deliverance of the Holy Land. Invigorated by the approbation of the + pontiff, his zealous missionary traversed. with speed and success, the + provinces of Italy and France. His diet was abstemious, his prayers long + and fervent, and the alms which he received with one hand, he distributed + with the other: his head was bare, his feet naked, his meagre body was + wrapped in a coarse garment; he bore and displayed a weighty crucifix; and + the ass on which he rode was sanctified, in the public eye, by the service + of the man of God. He preached to innumerable crowds in the churches, the + streets, and the highways: the hermit entered with equal confidence the + palace and the cottage; and the people (for all was people) was + impetuously moved by his call to repentance and arms. When he painted the + sufferings of the natives and pilgrims of Palestine, every heart was + melted to compassion; every breast glowed with indignation, when he + challenged the warriors of the age to defend their brethren, and rescue + their Savior: his ignorance of art and language was compensated by sighs, + and tears, and ejaculations; and Peter supplied the deficiency of reason + by loud and frequent appeals to Christ and his mother, to the saints and + angels of paradise, with whom he had personally conversed. <a + href="#linknote-58.212" name="linknoteref-58.212" id="linknoteref-58.212">212</a> + The most perfect orator of Athens might have envied the success of his + eloquence; the rustic enthusiast inspired the passions which he felt, and + Christendom expected with impatience the counsels and decrees of the + supreme pontiff. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.1" id="linknote-58.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.1">return</a>)<br /> [ Whimsical enough is the + origin of the name of Picards, and from thence of Picardie, which does not + date later than A.D. 1200. It was an academical joke, an epithet first + applied to the quarrelsome humor of those students, in the University of + Paris, who came from the frontier of France and Flanders, (Valesii Notitia + Galliarum, p. 447, Longuerue. Description de la France, p. 54.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.2" id="linknote-58.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.2">return</a>)<br /> [ William of Tyre (l. i. c. + 11, p. 637, 638) thus describes the hermit: Pusillus, persona + contemptibilis, vivacis ingenii, et oculum habeas perspicacem gratumque, + et sponte fluens ei non deerat eloquium. See Albert Aquensis, p. 185. + Guibert, p. 482. Anna Comnena in Alex isd, l. x. p. 284, &c., with + Ducarge’s Notes, p. 349.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.211" id="linknote-58.211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 211 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.211">return</a>)<br /> [ Wilken considers this + as doubtful, (vol. i. p. 47.)—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.212" id="linknote-58.212"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 212 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.212">return</a>)<br /> [ He had seen the + Savior in a vision: a letter had fallen from heaven Wilken, (vol. i. p. + 49.)—M.] + </p> + <p> + The magnanimous spirit of Gregory the Seventh had already embraced the + design of arming Europe against Asia; the ardor of his zeal and ambition + still breathes in his epistles: from either side of the Alps, fifty + thousand Catholics had enlisted under the banner of St. Peter; <a + href="#linknote-58.3" name="linknoteref-58.3" id="linknoteref-58.3">3</a> and + his successor reveals his intention of marching at their head against the + impious sectaries of Mahomet. But the glory or reproach of executing, + though not in person, this holy enterprise, was reserved for Urban the + Second, <a href="#linknote-58.4" name="linknoteref-58.4" id="linknoteref-58.4">4</a> + the most faithful of his disciples. He undertook the conquest of the East, + whilst the larger portion of Rome was possessed and fortified by his rival + Guibert of Ravenna, who contended with Urban for the name and honors of + the pontificate. He attempted to unite the powers of the West, at a time + when the princes were separated from the church, and the people from their + princes, by the excommunication which himself and his predecessors had + thundered against the emperor and the king of France. Philip the First, of + France, supported with patience the censures which he had provoked by his + scandalous life and adulterous marriage. Henry the Fourth, of Germany, + asserted the right of investitures, the prerogative of confirming his + bishops by the delivery of the ring and crosier. But the emperor’s party + was crushed in Italy by the arms of the Normans and the Countess Mathilda; + and the long quarrel had been recently envenomed by the revolt of his son + Conrad and the shame of his wife, <a href="#linknote-58.5" + name="linknoteref-58.5" id="linknoteref-58.5">5</a> who, in the synods of + Constance and Placentia, confessed the manifold prostitutions to which she + had been exposed by a husband regardless of her honor and his own. <a + href="#linknote-58.6" name="linknoteref-58.6" id="linknoteref-58.6">6</a> So + popular was the cause of Urban, so weighty was his influence, that the + council which he summoned at Placentia <a href="#linknote-58.7" + name="linknoteref-58.7" id="linknoteref-58.7">7</a> was composed of two + hundred bishops of Italy, France, Burgandy, Swabia, and Bavaria. Four + thousand of the clergy, and thirty thousand of the laity, attended this + important meeting; and, as the most spacious cathedral would have been + inadequate to the multitude, the session of seven days was held in a plain + adjacent to the city. The ambassadors of the Greek emperor, Alexius + Comnenus, were introduced to plead the distress of their sovereign, and + the danger of Constantinople, which was divided only by a narrow sea from + the victorious Turks, the common enemies of the Christian name. In their + suppliant address they flattered the pride of the Latin princes; and, + appealing at once to their policy and religion, exhorted them to repel the + Barbarians on the confines of Asia, rather than to expect them in the + heart of Europe. At the sad tale of the misery and perils of their Eastern + brethren, the assembly burst into tears; the most eager champions declared + their readiness to march; and the Greek ambassadors were dismissed with + the assurance of a speedy and powerful succor. The relief of + Constantinople was included in the larger and most distant project of the + deliverance of Jerusalem; but the prudent Urban adjourned the final + decision to a second synod, which he proposed to celebrate in some city of + France in the autumn of the same year. The short delay would propagate the + flame of enthusiasm; and his firmest hope was in a nation of soldiers <a + href="#linknote-58.8" name="linknoteref-58.8" id="linknoteref-58.8">8</a> + still proud of the preeminence of their name, and ambitious to emulate + their hero Charlemagne, <a href="#linknote-58.9" name="linknoteref-58.9" + id="linknoteref-58.9">9</a> who, in the popular romance of Turpin, <a + href="#linknote-58.10" name="linknoteref-58.10" id="linknoteref-58.10">10</a> + had achieved the conquest of the Holy Land. A latent motive of affection + or vanity might influence the choice of Urban: he was himself a native of + France, a monk of Clugny, and the first of his countrymen who ascended the + throne of St. Peter. The pope had illustrated his family and province; nor + is there perhaps a more exquisite gratification than to revisit, in a + conspicuous dignity, the humble and laborious scenes of our youth. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.3" id="linknote-58.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.3">return</a>)<br /> [ Ultra quinquaginta + millia, si me possunt in expeditione pro duce et pontifice habere, armata + manu volunt in inimicos Dei insurgere et ad sepulchrum Domini ipso ducente + pervenire, (Gregor. vii. epist. ii. 31, in tom. xii. 322, concil.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.4" id="linknote-58.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.4">return</a>)<br /> [ See the original lives of + Urban II. by Pandulphus Pisanus and Bernardus Guido, in Muratori, Rer. + Ital. Script. tom. iii. pars i. p. 352, 353.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.5" id="linknote-58.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.5">return</a>)<br /> [ She is known by the + different names of Praxes, Eupraecia, Eufrasia, and Adelais; and was the + daughter of a Russian prince, and the widow of a margrave of Brandenburgh. + (Struv. Corpus Hist. Germanicae, p. 340.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.6" id="linknote-58.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.6">return</a>)<br /> [ Henricus odio eam coepit + habere: ideo incarceravit eam, et concessit ut plerique vim ei inferrent; + immo filium hortans ut eam subagitaret, (Dodechin, Continuat. Marian. + Scot. apud Baron. A.D. 1093, No. 4.) In the synod of Constance, she is + described by Bertholdus, rerum inspector: quae se tantas et tam inauditas + fornicationum spur citias, et a tantis passam fuisse conquesta est, &c.; + and again at Placentia: satis misericorditer suscepit, eo quod ipsam + tantas spurcitias pertulisse pro certo cognoverit papa cum sancta synodo. + Apud Baron. A.D. 1093, No. 4, 1094, No. 3. A rare subject for the + infallible decision of a pope and council. These abominations are + repugnant to every principle of human nature, which is not altered by a + dispute about rings and crosiers. Yet it should seem, that the wretched + woman was tempted by the priests to relate or subscribe some infamous + stories of herself and her husband.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.7" id="linknote-58.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.7">return</a>)<br /> [ See the narrative and + acts of the synod of Placentia, Concil. tom. xii. p. 821, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.8" id="linknote-58.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.8">return</a>)<br /> [ Guibert, himself a + Frenchman, praises the piety and valor of the French nation, the author + and example of the crusades: Gens nobilis, prudens, bellicosa, dapsilis et + nitida .... Quos enim Britones, Anglos, Ligures, si bonis eos moribus + videamus, non illico Francos homines appellemus? (p. 478.) He owns, + however, that the vivacity of the French degenerates into petulance among + foreigners, (p. 488.) and vain loquaciousness, (p. 502.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.9" id="linknote-58.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.9">return</a>)<br /> [ Per viam quam jamdudum + Carolus Magnus mirificus rex Francorum aptari fecit usque C. P., (Gesta + Francorum, p. 1. Robert. Monach. Hist. Hieros. l. i. p. 33, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.10" id="linknote-58.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.10">return</a>)<br /> [ John Tilpinus, or + Turpinus, was archbishop of Rheims, A.D. 773. After the year 1000, this + romance was composed in his name, by a monk of the borders of France and + Spain; and such was the idea of ecclesiastical merit, that he describes + himself as a fighting and drinking priest! Yet the book of lies was + pronounced authentic by Pope Calixtus II., (A.D. 1122,) and is + respectfully quoted by the abbot Suger, in the great Chronicles of St. + Denys, (Fabric Bibliot. Latin Medii Aevi, edit. Mansi, tom. iv. p. 161.)] + </p> + <p> + It may occasion some surprise that the Roman pontiff should erect, in the + heart of France, the tribunal from whence he hurled his anathemas against + the king; but our surprise will vanish so soon as we form a just estimate + of a king of France of the eleventh century. <a href="#linknote-58.11" + name="linknoteref-58.11" id="linknoteref-58.11">11</a> Philip the First was + the great-grandson of Hugh Capet, the founder of the present race, who, in + the decline of Charlemagne’s posterity, added the regal title to his + patrimonial estates of Paris and Orleans. In this narrow compass, he was + possessed of wealth and jurisdiction; but in the rest of France, Hugh and + his first descendants were no more than the feudal lords of about sixty + dukes and counts, of independent and hereditary power, <a + href="#linknote-58.12" name="linknoteref-58.12" id="linknoteref-58.12">12</a> + who disdained the control of laws and legal assemblies, and whose + disregard of their sovereign was revenged by the disobedience of their + inferior vassals. At Clermont, in the territories of the count of + Auvergne, <a href="#linknote-58.13" name="linknoteref-58.13" + id="linknoteref-58.13">13</a> the pope might brave with impunity the + resentment of Philip; and the council which he convened in that city was + not less numerous or respectable than the synod of Placentia. <a + href="#linknote-58.14" name="linknoteref-58.14" id="linknoteref-58.14">14</a> + Besides his court and council of Roman cardinals, he was supported by + thirteen archbishops and two hundred and twenty-five bishops: the number + of mitred prelates was computed at four hundred; and the fathers of the + church were blessed by the saints and enlightened by the doctors of the + age. From the adjacent kingdoms, a martial train of lords and knights of + power and renown attended the council, <a href="#linknote-58.15" + name="linknoteref-58.15" id="linknoteref-58.15">15</a> in high expectation + of its resolves; and such was the ardor of zeal and curiosity, that the + city was filled, and many thousands, in the month of November, erected + their tents or huts in the open field. A session of eight days produced + some useful or edifying canons for the reformation of manners; a severe + censure was pronounced against the license of private war; the Truce of + God <a href="#linknote-58.16" name="linknoteref-58.16" id="linknoteref-58.16">16</a> + was confirmed, a suspension of hostilities during four days of the week; + women and priests were placed under the safeguard of the church; and a + protection of three years was extended to husbandmen and merchants, the + defenceless victims of military rapine. But a law, however venerable be + the sanction, cannot suddenly transform the temper of the times; and the + benevolent efforts of Urban deserve the less praise, since he labored to + appease some domestic quarrels that he might spread the flames of war from + the Atlantic to the Euphrates. From the synod of Placentia, the rumor of + his great design had gone forth among the nations: the clergy on their + return had preached in every diocese the merit and glory of the + deliverance of the Holy Land; and when the pope ascended a lofty scaffold + in the market-place of Clermont, his eloquence was addressed to a + well-prepared and impatient audience. His topics were obvious, his + exhortation was vehement, his success inevitable. The orator was + interrupted by the shout of thousands, who with one voice, and in their + rustic idiom, exclaimed aloud, “God wills it, God wills it.” <a + href="#linknote-58.17" name="linknoteref-58.17" id="linknoteref-58.17">17</a> + “It is indeed the will of God,” replied the pope; “and let this memorable + word, the inspiration surely of the Holy Spirit, be forever adopted as + your cry of battle, to animate the devotion and courage of the champions + of Christ. His cross is the symbol of your salvation; wear it, a red, a + bloody cross, as an external mark, on your breasts or shoulders, as a + pledge of your sacred and irrevocable engagement.” The proposal was + joyfully accepted; great numbers, both of the clergy and laity, impressed + on their garments the sign of the cross, <a href="#linknote-58.18" + name="linknoteref-58.18" id="linknoteref-58.18">18</a> and solicited the + pope to march at their head. This dangerous honor was declined by the more + prudent successor of Gregory, who alleged the schism of the church, and + the duties of his pastoral office, recommending to the faithful, who were + disqualified by sex or profession, by age or infirmity, to aid, with their + prayers and alms, the personal service of their robust brethren. The name + and powers of his legate he devolved on Adhemar bishop of Puy, the first + who had received the cross at his hands. The foremost of the temporal + chiefs was Raymond count of Thoulouse, whose ambassadors in the council + excused the absence, and pledged the honor, of their master. After the + confession and absolution of their sins, the champions of the cross were + dismissed with a superfluous admonition to invite their countrymen and + friends; and their departure for the Holy Land was fixed to the festival + of the Assumption, the fifteenth of August, of the ensuing year. <a + href="#linknote-58.19" name="linknoteref-58.19" id="linknoteref-58.19">19</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.11" id="linknote-58.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.11">return</a>)<br /> [ See Etat de la France, + by the Count de Boulainvilliers, tom. i. p. 180-182, and the second volume + of the Observations sur l’Histoire de France, by the Abbe de Mably.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.12" id="linknote-58.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.12">return</a>)<br /> [ In the provinces to the + south of the Loire, the first Capetians were scarcely allowed a feudal + supremacy. On all sides, Normandy, Bretagne, Aquitain, Burgundy, Lorraine, + and Flanders, contracted the same and limits of the proper France. See + Hadrian Vales. Notitia Galliarum] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.13" id="linknote-58.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.13">return</a>)<br /> [ These counts, a younger + branch of the dukes of Aquitain, were at length despoiled of the greatest + part of their country by Philip Augustus. The bishops of Clermont + gradually became princes of the city. Melanges, tires d’une grand + Bibliotheque, tom. xxxvi. p. 288, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.14" id="linknote-58.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.14">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Acts of the + council of Clermont, Concil. tom. xii. p. 829, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.15" id="linknote-58.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.15">return</a>)<br /> [ Confluxerunt ad + concilium e multis regionibus, viri potentes et honorati, innumeri quamvis + cingulo laicalis militiae superbi, (Baldric, an eye-witness, p. 86-88. + Robert. Monach. p. 31, 32. Will. Tyr. i. 14, 15, p. 639-641. Guibert, p. + 478-480. Fulcher. Carnot. p. 382.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.16" id="linknote-58.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.16">return</a>)<br /> [ The Truce of God + (Treva, or Treuga Dei) was first invented in Aquitain, A.D. 1032; blamed + by some bishops as an occasion of perjury, and rejected by the Normans as + contrary to their privileges (Ducange, Gloss Latin. tom. vi. p. 682-685.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.17" id="linknote-58.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.17">return</a>)<br /> [ Deus vult, Deus vult! + was the pure acclamation of the clergy who understood Latin, (Robert. Mon. + l. i. p. 32.) By the illiterate laity, who spoke the Provincial or + Limousin idiom, it was corrupted to Deus lo volt, or Diex el volt. See + Chron. Casinense, l. iv. c. 11, p. 497, in Muratori, Script. Rerum Ital. + tom. iv., and Ducange, (Dissertat xi. p. 207, sur Joinville, and Gloss. + Latin. tom. ii. p. 690,) who, in his preface, produces a very difficult + specimen of the dialect of Rovergue, A.D. 1100, very near, both in time + and place, to the council of Clermont, (p. 15, 16.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.18" id="linknote-58.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.18">return</a>)<br /> [ Most commonly on their + shoulders, in gold, or silk, or cloth sewed on their garments. In the + first crusade, all were red, in the third, the French alone preserved that + color, while green crosses were adopted by the Flemings, and white by the + English, (Ducange, tom. ii. p. 651.) Yet in England, the red ever appears + the favorite, and as if were, the national, color of our military ensigns + and uniforms.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.19" id="linknote-58.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.19">return</a>)<br /> [ Bongarsius, who has + published the original writers of the crusades, adopts, with much + complacency, the fanatic title of Guibertus, Gesta Dei per Francos; though + some critics propose to read Gesta Diaboli per Francos, (Hanoviae, 1611, + two vols. in folio.) I shall briefly enumerate, as they stand in this + collection, the authors whom I have used for the first crusade. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I. Gesta Francorum. + + II. Robertus Monachus. + + III. Baldricus. + + IV. Raimundus de Agiles. + + V. Albertus Aquensis VI. Fulcherius Carnotensis. + + VII. Guibertus. + + VIII. Willielmus Tyriensis. Muratori has given us, + + IX. Radulphus Cadomensis de Gestis Tancredi, + + (Script. Rer. Ital. tom. v. p. 285-333,) + + X. Bernardus Thesaurarius de Acquisitione Terrae Sanctae, + + (tom. vii. p. 664-848.) +</pre> + <p class="foot"> + The last of these was unknown to a late French historian, who has given a + large and critical list of the writers of the crusades, (Esprit des + Croisades, tom. i. p. 13-141,) and most of whose judgments my own + experience will allow me to ratify. It was late before I could obtain a + sight of the French historians collected by Duchesne. I. Petri Tudebodi + Sacerdotis Sivracensis Historia de Hierosolymitano Itinere, (tom. iv. p. + 773-815,) has been transfused into the first anonymous writer of + Bongarsius. II. The Metrical History of the first Crusade, in vii. books, + (p. 890-912,) is of small value or account. * Note: Several new documents, + particularly from the East, have been collected by the industry of the + modern historians of the crusades, M. Michaud and Wilken.—M.] + </p> + <p> + So familiar, and as it were so natural to man, is the practice of + violence, that our indulgence allows the slightest provocation, the most + disputable right, as a sufficient ground of national hostility. But the + name and nature of a holy war demands a more rigorous scrutiny; nor can we + hastily believe, that the servants of the Prince of Peace would unsheathe + the sword of destruction, unless the motive were pure, the quarrel + legitimate, and the necessity inevitable. The policy of an action may be + determined from the tardy lessons of experience; but, before we act, our + conscience should be satisfied of the justice and propriety of our + enterprise. In the age of the crusades, the Christians, both of the East + and West, were persuaded of their lawfulness and merit; their arguments + are clouded by the perpetual abuse of Scripture and rhetoric; but they + seem to insist on the right of natural and religious defence, their + peculiar title to the Holy Land, and the impiety of their Pagan and + Mahometan foes. <a href="#linknote-58.20" name="linknoteref-58.20" + id="linknoteref-58.20">20</a> + </p> + <p> + I. The right of a just defence may fairly include our civil and spiritual + allies: it depends on the existence of danger; and that danger must be + estimated by the twofold consideration of the malice, and the power, of + our enemies. A pernicious tenet has been imputed to the Mahometans, the + duty of extirpating all other religions by the sword. This charge of + ignorance and bigotry is refuted by the Koran, by the history of the + Mussulman conquerors, and by their public and legal toleration of the + Christian worship. But it cannot be denied, that the Oriental churches are + depressed under their iron yoke; that, in peace and war, they assert a + divine and indefeasible claim of universal empire; and that, in their + orthodox creed, the unbelieving nations are continually threatened with + the loss of religion or liberty. In the eleventh century, the victorious + arms of the Turks presented a real and urgent apprehension of these + losses. They had subdued, in less than thirty years, the kingdoms of Asia, + as far as Jerusalem and the Hellespont; and the Greek empire tottered on + the verge of destruction. Besides an honest sympathy for their brethren, + the Latins had a right and interest in the support of Constantinople, the + most important barrier of the West; and the privilege of defence must + reach to prevent, as well as to repel, an impending assault. But this + salutary purpose might have been accomplished by a moderate succor; and + our calmer reason must disclaim the innumerable hosts, and remote + operations, which overwhelmed Asia and depopulated Europe. <a + href="#linknote-58.2011" name="linknoteref-58.2011" id="linknoteref-58.2011">2011</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.20" id="linknote-58.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.20">return</a>)<br /> [ If the reader will turn + to the first scene of the First Part of Henry the Fourth, he will see in + the text of Shakespeare the natural feelings of enthusiasm; and in the + notes of Dr. Johnson the workings of a bigoted, though vigorous mind, + greedy of every pretence to hate and persecute those who dissent from his + creed.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.2011" id="linknote-58.2011"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2011 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.2011">return</a>)<br /> [ The manner in which + the war was conducted surely has little relation to the abstract question + of the justice or injustice of the war. The most just and necessary war + may be conducted with the most prodigal waste of human life, and the + wildest fanaticism; the most unjust with the coolest moderation and + consummate generalship. The question is, whether the liberties and + religion of Europe were in danger from the aggressions of Mahometanism? If + so, it is difficult to limit the right, though it may be proper to + question the wisdom, of overwhelming the enemy with the armed population + of a whole continent, and repelling, if possible, the invading conqueror + into his native deserts. The crusades are monuments of human folly! but to + which of the more regular wars civilized. Europe, waged for personal + ambition or national jealousy, will our calmer reason appeal as monuments + either of human justice or human wisdom?—M.] + </p> + <p> + II. Palestine could add nothing to the strength or safety of the Latins; + and fanaticism alone could pretend to justify the conquest of that distant + and narrow province. The Christians affirmed that their inalienable title + to the promised land had been sealed by the blood of their divine Savior; + it was their right and duty to rescue their inheritance from the unjust + possessors, who profaned his sepulchre, and oppressed the pilgrimage of + his disciples. Vainly would it be alleged that the preeminence of + Jerusalem, and the sanctity of Palestine, have been abolished with the + Mosaic law; that the God of the Christians is not a local deity, and that + the recovery of Bethlem or Calvary, his cradle or his tomb, will not atone + for the violation of the moral precepts of the gospel. Such arguments + glance aside from the leaden shield of superstition; and the religious + mind will not easily relinquish its hold on the sacred ground of mystery + and miracle. + </p> + <p> + III. But the holy wars which have been waged in every climate of the + globe, from Egypt to Livonia, and from Peru to Hindostan, require the + support of some more general and flexible tenet. It has been often + supposed, and sometimes affirmed, that a difference of religion is a + worthy cause of hostility; that obstinate unbelievers may be slain or + subdued by the champions of the cross; and that grace is the sole fountain + of dominion as well as of mercy. <a href="#linknote-58.2012" + name="linknoteref-58.2012" id="linknoteref-58.2012">2012</a> Above four + hundred years before the first crusade, the eastern and western provinces + of the Roman empire had been acquired about the same time, and in the same + manner, by the Barbarians of Germany and Arabia. Time and treaties had + legitimated the conquest of the Christian Franks; but in the eyes of their + subjects and neighbors, the Mahometan princes were still tyrants and + usurpers, who, by the arms of war or rebellion, might be lawfully driven + from their unlawful possession. <a href="#linknote-58.21" + name="linknoteref-58.21" id="linknoteref-58.21">21</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.2012" id="linknote-58.2012"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2012 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.2012">return</a>)<br /> [ “God,” says the + abbot Guibert, “invented the crusades as a new way for the laity to atone + for their sins and to merit salvation.” This extraordinary and + characteristic passage must be given entire. “Deus nostro tempore praelia + sancta instituit, ut ordo equestris et vulgus oberrans qui vetustae + Paganitatis exemplo in mutuas versabatur caedes, novum reperirent salutis + promerendae genus, ut nec funditus electa, ut fieri assolet, monastica + conversatione, seu religiosa qualibet professione saeculum relinquere + congerentur; sed sub consueta licentia et habitu ex suo ipsorum officio + Dei aliquantenus gratiam consequerentur.” Guib. Abbas, p. 371. See Wilken, + vol. i. p. 63.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.21" id="linknote-58.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.21">return</a>)<br /> [ The vith Discourse of + Fleury on Ecclesiastical History (p. 223-261) contains an accurate and + rational view of the causes and effects of the crusades.] + </p> + <p> + As the manners of the Christians were relaxed, their discipline of penance + <a href="#linknote-58.22" name="linknoteref-58.22" id="linknoteref-58.22">22</a> + was enforced; and with the multiplication of sins, the remedies were + multiplied. In the primitive church, a voluntary and open confession + prepared the work of atonement. In the middle ages, the bishops and + priests interrogated the criminal; compelled him to account for his + thoughts, words, and actions; and prescribed the terms of his + reconciliation with God. But as this discretionary power might alternately + be abused by indulgence and tyranny, a rule of discipline was framed, to + inform and regulate the spiritual judges. This mode of legislation was + invented by the Greeks; their penitentials <a href="#linknote-58.23" + name="linknoteref-58.23" id="linknoteref-58.23">23</a> were translated, or + imitated, in the Latin church; and, in the time of Charlemagne, the clergy + of every diocese were provided with a code, which they prudently concealed + from the knowledge of the vulgar. In this dangerous estimate of crimes and + punishments, each case was supposed, each difference was remarked, by the + experience or penetration of the monks; some sins are enumerated which + innocence could not have suspected, and others which reason cannot + believe; and the more ordinary offences of fornication and adultery, of + perjury and sacrilege, of rapine and murder, were expiated by a penance, + which, according to the various circumstances, was prolonged from forty + days to seven years. During this term of mortification, the patient was + healed, the criminal was absolved, by a salutary regimen of fasts and + prayers: the disorder of his dress was expressive of grief and remorse; + and he humbly abstained from all the business and pleasure of social life. + But the rigid execution of these laws would have depopulated the palace, + the camp, and the city; the Barbarians of the West believed and trembled; + but nature often rebelled against principle; and the magistrate labored + without effect to enforce the jurisdiction of the priest. A literal + accomplishment of penance was indeed impracticable: the guilt of adultery + was multiplied by daily repetition; that of homicide might involve the + massacre of a whole people; each act was separately numbered; and, in + those times of anarchy and vice, a modest sinner might easily incur a debt + of three hundred years. His insolvency was relieved by a commutation, or + indulgence: a year of penance was appreciated at twenty-six solidi <a + href="#linknote-58.24" name="linknoteref-58.24" id="linknoteref-58.24">24</a> + of silver, about four pounds sterling, for the rich; at three solidi, or + nine shillings, for the indigent: and these alms were soon appropriated to + the use of the church, which derived, from the redemption of sins, an + inexhaustible source of opulence and dominion. A debt of three hundred + years, or twelve hundred pounds, was enough to impoverish a plentiful + fortune; the scarcity of gold and silver was supplied by the alienation of + land; and the princely donations of Pepin and Charlemagne are expressly + given for the remedy of their soul. It is a maxim of the civil law, that + whosoever cannot pay with his purse, must pay with his body; and the + practice of flagellation was adopted by the monks, a cheap, though painful + equivalent. By a fantastic arithmetic, a year of penance was taxed at + three thousand lashes; <a href="#linknote-58.25" name="linknoteref-58.25" + id="linknoteref-58.25">25</a> and such was the skill and patience of a + famous hermit, St. Dominic of the iron Cuirass, <a href="#linknote-58.26" + name="linknoteref-58.26" id="linknoteref-58.26">26</a> that in six days he + could discharge an entire century, by a whipping of three hundred thousand + stripes. His example was followed by many penitents of both sexes; and, as + a vicarious sacrifice was accepted, a sturdy disciplinarian might expiate + on his own back the sins of his benefactors. <a href="#linknote-58.27" + name="linknoteref-58.27" id="linknoteref-58.27">27</a> These compensations + of the purse and the person introduced, in the eleventh century, a more + honorable mode of satisfaction. The merit of military service against the + Saracens of Africa and Spain had been allowed by the predecessors of Urban + the Second. In the council of Clermont, that pope proclaimed a plenary + indulgence to those who should enlist under the banner of the cross; the + absolution of all their sins, and a full receipt for all that might be due + of canonical penance. <a href="#linknote-58.28" name="linknoteref-58.28" + id="linknoteref-58.28">28</a> The cold philosophy of modern times is + incapable of feeling the impression that was made on a sinful and fanatic + world. At the voice of their pastor, the robber, the incendiary, the + homicide, arose by thousands to redeem their souls, by repeating on the + infidels the same deeds which they had exercised against their Christian + brethren; and the terms of atonement were eagerly embraced by offenders of + every rank and denomination. None were pure; none were exempt from the + guilt and penalty of sin; and those who were the least amenable to the + justice of God and the church were the best entitled to the temporal and + eternal recompense of their pious courage. If they fell, the spirit of the + Latin clergy did not hesitate to adorn their tomb with the crown of + martyrdom; <a href="#linknote-58.29" name="linknoteref-58.29" + id="linknoteref-58.29">29</a> and should they survive, they could expect + without impatience the delay and increase of their heavenly reward. They + offered their blood to the Son of God, who had laid down his life for + their salvation: they took up the cross, and entered with confidence into + the way of the Lord. His providence would watch over their safety; perhaps + his visible and miraculous power would smooth the difficulties of their + holy enterprise. The cloud and pillar of Jehovah had marched before the + Israelites into the promised land. Might not the Christians more + reasonably hope that the rivers would open for their passage; that the + walls of their strongest cities would fall at the sound of their trumpets; + and that the sun would be arrested in his mid career, to allow them time + for the destruction of the infidels? + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.22" id="linknote-58.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.22">return</a>)<br /> [ The penance, + indulgences, &c., of the middle ages are amply discussed by Muratori, + (Antiquitat. Italiae Medii Aevi, tom. v. dissert. lxviii. p. 709-768,) and + by M. Chais, (Lettres sur les Jubiles et les Indulgences, tom. ii. lettres + 21 & 22, p. 478-556,) with this difference, that the abuses of + superstition are mildly, perhaps faintly, exposed by the learned Italian, + and peevishly magnified by the Dutch minister.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.23" id="linknote-58.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.23">return</a>)<br /> [ Schmidt (Histoire des + Allemands, tom. ii. p. 211-220, 452-462) gives an abstract of the + Penitential of Rhegino in the ninth, and of Burchard in the tenth, + century. In one year, five-and-thirty murders were perpetrated at Worms.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.24" id="linknote-58.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.24">return</a>)<br /> [ Till the xiith century, + we may support the clear account of xii. denarii, or pence, to the + solidus, or shilling; and xx. solidi to the pound weight of silver, about + the pound sterling. Our money is diminished to a third, and the French to + a fiftieth, of this primitive standard.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.25" id="linknote-58.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.25">return</a>)<br /> [ Each century of lashes + was sanctified with a recital of a psalm, and the whole Psalter, with the + accompaniment of 15,000 stripes, was equivalent to five years.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.26" id="linknote-58.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.26">return</a>)<br /> [ The Life and + Achievements of St. Dominic Loricatus was composed by his friend and + admirer, Peter Damianus. See Fleury, Hist. Eccles. tom. xiii. p. 96-104. + Baronius, A.D. 1056, No. 7, who observes, from Damianus, how fashionable, + even among ladies of quality, (sublimis generis,) this expiation + (purgatorii genus) was grown.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.27" id="linknote-58.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.27">return</a>)<br /> [ At a quarter, or even + half a rial a lash, Sancho Panza was a cheaper, and possibly not a more + dishonest, workman. I remember in Pere Labat (Voyages en Italie, tom. vii. + p. 16-29) a very lively picture of the dexterity of one of these artists.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.28" id="linknote-58.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.28">return</a>)<br /> [ Quicunque pro sola + devotione, non pro honoris vel pecuniae adoptione, ad liberandam ecclesiam + Dei Jerusalem profectus fuerit, iter illud pro omni poenitentia reputetur. + Canon. Concil. Claromont. ii. p. 829. Guibert styles it novum salutis + genus, (p. 471,) and is almost philosophical on the subject. * Note: See + note, page 546.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.29" id="linknote-58.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.29">return</a>)<br /> [ Such at least was the + belief of the crusaders, and such is the uniform style of the historians, + (Esprit des Croisades, tom. iii. p. 477;) but the prayer for the repose of + their souls is inconsistent in orthodox theology with the merits of + martyrdom.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap58.2"></a> + Chapter LVIII: The First Crusade.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + Of the chiefs and soldiers who marched to the holy sepulchre, I will dare + to affirm, that all were prompted by the spirit of enthusiasm; the belief + of merit, the hope of reward, and the assurance of divine aid. But I am + equally persuaded, that in many it was not the sole, that in some it was + not the leading, principle of action. The use and abuse of religion are + feeble to stem, they are strong and irresistible to impel, the stream of + national manners. Against the private wars of the Barbarians, their bloody + tournaments, licentious love, and judicial duels, the popes and synods + might ineffectually thunder. It is a more easy task to provoke the + metaphysical disputes of the Greeks, to drive into the cloister the + victims of anarchy or despotism, to sanctify the patience of slaves and + cowards, or to assume the merit of the humanity and benevolence of modern + Christians. War and exercise were the reigning passions of the Franks or + Latins; they were enjoined, as a penance, to gratify those passions, to + visit distant lands, and to draw their swords against the nation of the + East. Their victory, or even their attempt, would immortalize the names of + the intrepid heroes of the cross; and the purest piety could not be + insensible to the most splendid prospect of military glory. In the petty + quarrels of Europe, they shed the blood of their friends and countrymen, + for the acquisition perhaps of a castle or a village. They could march + with alacrity against the distant and hostile nations who were devoted to + their arms; their fancy already grasped the golden sceptres of Asia; and + the conquest of Apulia and Sicily by the Normans might exalt to royalty + the hopes of the most private adventurer. Christendom, in her rudest + state, must have yielded to the climate and cultivation of the Mahometan + countries; and their natural and artificial wealth had been magnified by + the tales of pilgrims, and the gifts of an imperfect commerce. The vulgar, + both the great and small, were taught to believe every wonder, of lands + flowing with milk and honey, of mines and treasures, of gold and diamonds, + of palaces of marble and jasper, and of odoriferous groves of cinnamon and + frankincense. In this earthly paradise, each warrior depended on his sword + to carve a plenteous and honorable establishment, which he measured only + by the extent of his wishes. <a href="#linknote-58.30" + name="linknoteref-58.30" id="linknoteref-58.30">30</a> Their vassals and + soldiers trusted their fortunes to God and their master: the spoils of a + Turkish emir might enrich the meanest follower of the camp; and the flavor + of the wines, the beauty of the Grecian women, <a href="#linknote-58.31" + name="linknoteref-58.31" id="linknoteref-58.31">31</a> were temptations more + adapted to the nature, than to the profession, of the champions of the + cross. The love of freedom was a powerful incitement to the multitudes who + were oppressed by feudal or ecclesiastical tyranny. Under this holy sign, + the peasants and burghers, who were attached to the servitude of the + glebe, might escape from a haughty lord, and transplant themselves and + their families to a land of liberty. The monk might release himself from + the discipline of his convent: the debtor might suspend the accumulation + of usury, and the pursuit of his creditors; and outlaws and malefactors of + every cast might continue to brave the laws and elude the punishment of + their crimes. <a href="#linknote-58.32" name="linknoteref-58.32" + id="linknoteref-58.32">32</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.30" id="linknote-58.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.30">return</a>)<br /> [ The same hopes were + displayed in the letters of the adventurers ad animandos qui in Francia + residerant. Hugh de Reiteste could boast, that his share amounted to one + abbey and ten castles, of the yearly value of 1500 marks, and that he + should acquire a hundred castles by the conquest of Aleppo, (Guibert, p. + 554, 555.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.31" id="linknote-58.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.31">return</a>)<br /> [ In his genuine or + fictitious letter to the count of Flanders, Alexius mingles with the + danger of the church, and the relics of saints, the auri et argenti amor, + and pulcherrimarum foeminarum voluptas, (p. 476;) as if, says the + indignant Guibert, the Greek women were handsomer than those of France.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.32" id="linknote-58.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.32">return</a>)<br /> [ See the privileges of + the Crucesignati, freedom from debt, usury injury, secular justice, &c. + The pope was their perpetual guardian (Ducange, tom. ii. p. 651, 652.)] + </p> + <p> + These motives were potent and numerous: when we have singly computed their + weight on the mind of each individual, we must add the infinite series, + the multiplying powers, of example and fashion. The first proselytes + became the warmest and most effectual missionaries of the cross: among + their friends and countrymen they preached the duty, the merit, and the + recompense, of their holy vow; and the most reluctant hearers were + insensibly drawn within the whirlpool of persuasion and authority. The + martial youths were fired by the reproach or suspicion of cowardice; the + opportunity of visiting with an army the sepulchre of Christ was embraced + by the old and infirm, by women and children, who consulted rather their + zeal than their strength; and those who in the evening had derided the + folly of their companions, were the most eager, the ensuing day, to tread + in their footsteps. The ignorance, which magnified the hopes, diminished + the perils, of the enterprise. Since the Turkish conquest, the paths of + pilgrimage were obliterated; the chiefs themselves had an imperfect notion + of the length of the way and the state of their enemies; and such was the + stupidity of the people, that, at the sight of the first city or castle + beyond the limits of their knowledge, they were ready to ask whether that + was not the Jerusalem, the term and object of their labors. Yet the more + prudent of the crusaders, who were not sure that they should be fed from + heaven with a shower of quails or manna, provided themselves with those + precious metals, which, in every country, are the representatives of every + commodity. To defray, according to their rank, the expenses of the road, + princes alienated their provinces, nobles their lands and castles, + peasants their cattle and the instruments of husbandry. The value of + property was depreciated by the eager competition of multitudes; while the + price of arms and horses was raised to an exorbitant height by the wants + and impatience of the buyers. <a href="#linknote-58.33" + name="linknoteref-58.33" id="linknoteref-58.33">33</a> Those who remained at + home, with sense and money, were enriched by the epidemical disease: the + sovereigns acquired at a cheap rate the domains of their vassals; and the + ecclesiastical purchasers completed the payment by the assurance of their + prayers. The cross, which was commonly sewed on the garment, in cloth or + silk, was inscribed by some zealots on their skin: a hot iron, or + indelible liquor, was applied to perpetuate the mark; and a crafty monk, + who showed the miraculous impression on his breast was repaid with the + popular veneration and the richest benefices of Palestine. <a + href="#linknote-58.34" name="linknoteref-58.34" id="linknoteref-58.34">34</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.33" id="linknote-58.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.33">return</a>)<br /> [ Guibert (p. 481) paints + in lively colors this general emotion. He was one of the few + contemporaries who had genius enough to feel the astonishing scenes that + were passing before their eyes. Erat itaque videre miraculum, caro omnes + emere, atque vili vendere, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.34" id="linknote-58.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.34">return</a>)<br /> [ Some instances of these + stigmata are given in the Esprit des Croisades, (tom. iii. p. 169 &c.,) + from authors whom I have not seen] + </p> + <p> + The fifteenth of August had been fixed in the council of Clermont for the + departure of the pilgrims; but the day was anticipated by the thoughtless + and needy crowd of plebeians, and I shall briefly despatch the calamities + which they inflicted and suffered, before I enter on the more serious and + successful enterprise of the chiefs. Early in the spring, from the + confines of France and Lorraine, above sixty thousand of the populace of + both sexes flocked round the first missionary of the crusade, and pressed + him with clamorous importunity to lead them to the holy sepulchre. The + hermit, assuming the character, without the talents or authority, of a + general, impelled or obeyed the forward impulse of his votaries along the + banks of the Rhine and Danube. Their wants and numbers soon compelled them + to separate, and his lieutenant, Walter the Penniless, a valiant though + needy soldier, conducted a van guard of pilgrims, whose condition may be + determined from the proportion of eight horsemen to fifteen thousand foot. + The example and footsteps of Peter were closely pursued by another + fanatic, the monk Godescal, whose sermons had swept away fifteen or twenty + thousand peasants from the villages of Germany. Their rear was again + pressed by a herd of two hundred thousand, the most stupid and savage + refuse of the people, who mingled with their devotion a brutal license of + rapine, prostitution, and drunkenness. Some counts and gentlemen, at the + head of three thousand horse, attended the motions of the multitude to + partake in the spoil; but their genuine leaders (may we credit such + folly?) were a goose and a goat, who were carried in the front, and to + whom these worthy Christians ascribed an infusion of the divine spirit. <a + href="#linknote-58.35" name="linknoteref-58.35" id="linknoteref-58.35">35</a> + Of these, and of other bands of enthusiasts, the first and most easy + warfare was against the Jews, the murderers of the Son of God. In the + trading cities of the Moselle and the Rhine, their colonies were numerous + and rich; and they enjoyed, under the protection of the emperor and the + bishops, the free exercise of their religion. <a href="#linknote-58.36" + name="linknoteref-58.36" id="linknoteref-58.36">36</a> At Verdun, Treves, + Mentz, Spires, Worms, many thousands of that unhappy people were pillaged + and massacred: <a href="#linknote-58.37" name="linknoteref-58.37" + id="linknoteref-58.37">37</a> nor had they felt a more bloody stroke since + the persecution of Hadrian. A remnant was saved by the firmness of their + bishops, who accepted a feigned and transient conversion; but the more + obstinate Jews opposed their fanaticism to the fanaticism of the + Christians, barricadoed their houses, and precipitating themselves, their + families, and their wealth, into the rivers or the flames, disappointed + the malice, or at least the avarice, of their implacable foes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.35" id="linknote-58.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.35">return</a>)<br /> [ Fuit et aliud scelus + detestabile in hac congregatione pedestris populi stulti et vesanae + levitatis, anserem quendam divino spiritu asserebant afflatum, et capellam + non minus eodem repletam, et has sibi duces secundae viae fecerant, &c., + (Albert. Aquensis, l. i. c. 31, p. 196.) Had these peasants founded an + empire, they might have introduced, as in Egypt, the worship of animals, + which their philosophic descend ants would have glossed over with some + specious and subtile allegory. * Note: A singular “allegoric” explanation + of this strange fact has recently been broached: it is connected with the + charge of idolatry and Eastern heretical opinions subsequently made + against the Templars. “We have no doubt that they were Manichee or Gnostic + standards.” (The author says the animals themselves were carried before + the army.—M.) “The goose, in Egyptian symbols, as every Egyptian + scholar knows, meant ‘divine Son,’ or ‘Son of God.’ The goat meant Typhon, + or Devil. Thus we have the Manichee opposing principles of good and evil, + as standards, at the head of the ignorant mob of crusading invaders. Can + any one doubt that a large portion of this host must have been infected + with the Manichee or Gnostic idolatry?” Account of the Temple Church by R. + W. Billings, p. 5 London. 1838. This is, at all events, a curious + coincidence, especially considered in connection with the extensive + dissemination of the Paulician opinions among the common people of Europe. + At any rate, in so inexplicable a matter, we are inclined to catch at any + explanation, however wild or subtile.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.36" id="linknote-58.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.36">return</a>)<br /> [ Benjamin of Tudela + describes the state of his Jewish brethren from Cologne along the Rhine: + they were rich, generous, learned, hospitable, and lived in the eager hope + of the Messiah, (Voyage, tom. i. p. 243-245, par Baratier.) In seventy + years (he wrote about A.D. 1170) they had recovered from these massacres.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.37" id="linknote-58.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.37">return</a>)<br /> [ These massacres and + depredations on the Jews, which were renewed at each crusade, are coolly + related. It is true, that St. Bernard (epist. 363, tom. i. p. 329) + admonishes the Oriental Franks, non sunt persequendi Judaei, non sunt + trucidandi. The contrary doctrine had been preached by a rival monk. * + Note: This is an unjust sarcasm against St. Bernard. He stood above all + rivalry of this kind See note 31, c. l x.—M] + </p> + <p> + Between the frontiers of Austria and the seat of the Byzantine monarchy, + the crusaders were compelled to traverse as interval of six hundred miles; + the wild and desolate countries of Hungary <a href="#linknote-58.38" + name="linknoteref-58.38" id="linknoteref-58.38">38</a> and Bulgaria. The + soil is fruitful, and intersected with rivers; but it was then covered + with morasses and forests, which spread to a boundless extent, whenever + man has ceased to exercise his dominion over the earth. Both nations had + imbibed the rudiments of Christianity; the Hungarians were ruled by their + native princes; the Bulgarians by a lieutenant of the Greek emperor; but, + on the slightest provocation, their ferocious nature was rekindled, and + ample provocation was afforded by the disorders of the first pilgrims + Agriculture must have been unskilful and languid among a people, whose + cities were built of reeds and timber, which were deserted in the summer + season for the tents of hunters and shepherds. A scanty supply of + provisions was rudely demanded, forcibly seized, and greedily consumed; + and on the first quarrel, the crusaders gave a loose to indignation and + revenge. But their ignorance of the country, of war, and of discipline, + exposed them to every snare. The Greek praefect of Bulgaria commanded a + regular force; <a href="#linknote-58.381" name="linknoteref-58.381" + id="linknoteref-58.381">381</a> at the trumpet of the Hungarian king, the + eighth or the tenth of his martial subjects bent their bows and mounted on + horseback; their policy was insidious, and their retaliation on these + pious robbers was unrelenting and bloody. <a href="#linknote-58.39" + name="linknoteref-58.39" id="linknoteref-58.39">39</a> About a third of the + naked fugitives (and the hermit Peter was of the number) escaped to the + Thracian mountains; and the emperor, who respected the pilgrimage and + succor of the Latins, conducted them by secure and easy journeys to + Constantinople, and advised them to await the arrival of their brethren. + For a while they remembered their faults and losses; but no sooner were + they revived by the hospitable entertainment, than their venom was again + inflamed; they stung their benefactor, and neither gardens, nor palaces, + nor churches, were safe from their depredations. For his own safety, + Alexius allured them to pass over to the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus; + but their blind impetuosity soon urged them to desert the station which he + had assigned, and to rush headlong against the Turks, who occupied the + road to Jerusalem. The hermit, conscious of his shame, had withdrawn from + the camp to Constantinople; and his lieutenant, Walter the Penniless, who + was worthy of a better command, attempted without success to introduce + some order and prudence among the herd of savages. They separated in quest + of prey, and themselves fell an easy prey to the arts of the sultan. By a + rumor that their foremost companions were rioting in the spoils of his + capital, Soliman <a href="#linknote-58.391" name="linknoteref-58.391" + id="linknoteref-58.391">391</a> tempted the main body to descend into the + plain of Nice: they were overwhelmed by the Turkish arrows; and a pyramid + of bones <a href="#linknote-58.40" name="linknoteref-58.40" + id="linknoteref-58.40">40</a> informed their companions of the place of + their defeat. Of the first crusaders, three hundred thousand had already + perished, before a single city was rescued from the infidels, before their + graver and more noble brethren had completed the preparations of their + enterprise. <a href="#linknote-58.41" name="linknoteref-58.41" + id="linknoteref-58.41">41</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.38" id="linknote-58.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.38">return</a>)<br /> [ See the contemporary + description of Hungary in Otho of Frisin gen, l. ii. c. 31, in Muratori, + Script. Rerum Italicarum, tom. vi. p. 665 666.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.381" id="linknote-58.381"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 381 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.381">return</a>)<br /> [ The narrative of the + first march is very incorrect. The first party moved under Walter de + Pexego and Walter the Penniless: they passed safe through Hungary, the + kingdom of Kalmeny, and were attacked in Bulgaria. Peter followed with + 40,000 men; passed through Hungary; but seeing the clothes of sixteen + crusaders, who had been empaled on the walls of Semlin. he attacked and + stormed the city. He then marched to Nissa, where, at first, he was + hospitably received: but an accidental quar rel taking place, he suffered + a great defeat. Wilken, vol. i. p. 84-86—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.39" id="linknote-58.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.39">return</a>)<br /> [ The old Hungarians, + without excepting Turotzius, are ill informed of the first crusade, which + they involve in a single passage. Katona, like ourselves, can only quote + the writers of France; but he compares with local science the ancient and + modern geography. Ante portam Cyperon, is Sopron or Poson; Mallevilla, + Zemlin; Fluvius Maroe, Savus; Lintax, Leith; Mesebroch, or Merseburg, + Ouar, or Moson; Tollenburg, Pragg, (de Regibus Hungariae, tom. iii. p. + 19-53.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.391" id="linknote-58.391"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 391 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.391">return</a>)<br /> [ Soliman had been + killed in 1085, in a battle against Toutoneh, brother of Malek Schah, + between Appelo and Antioch. It was not Soliman, therefore, but his son + David, surnamed Kilidje Arslan, the “Sword of the Lion,” who reigned in + Nice. Almost all the occidental authors have fallen into this mistake, + which was detected by M. Michaud, Hist. des Crois. 4th edit. and Extraits + des Aut. Arab. rel. aux Croisades, par M. Reinaud Paris, 1829, p. 3. His + kingdom extended from the Orontes to the Euphra tes, and as far as the + Bosphorus. Kilidje Arslan must uniformly be substituted for Soliman. + Brosset note on Le Beau, tom. xv. p. 311.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.40" id="linknote-58.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.40">return</a>)<br /> [ Anna Comnena (Alexias, + l. x. p. 287) describes this as a mountain. In the siege of Nice, such + were used by the Franks themselves as the materials of a wall.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.41" id="linknote-58.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.41">return</a>)<br /> [ See table on following + page.] + </p> + <p> + “To save time and space, I shall represent, in a short table, the + particular references to the great events of the first crusade.” + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [See Table 1.: Events Of The First Crusade] +</pre> + <p> + None of the great sovereigns of Europe embarked their persons in the first + crusade. The emperor Henry the Fourth was not disposed to obey the summons + of the pope: Philip the First of France was occupied by his pleasures; + William Rufus of England by a recent conquest; the kin`gs of Spain were + engaged in a domestic war against the Moors; and the northern monarchs of + Scotland, Denmark, <a href="#linknote-58.42" name="linknoteref-58.42" + id="linknoteref-58.42">42</a> Sweden, and Poland, were yet strangers to the + passions and interests of the South. The religious ardor was more strongly + felt by the princes of the second order, who held an important place in + the feudal system. Their situation will naturally cast under four distinct + heads the review of their names and characters; but I may escape some + needless repetition, by observing at once, that courage and the exercise + of arms are the common attribute of these Christian adventurers. I. The + first rank both in war and council is justly due to Godfrey of Bouillon; + and happy would it have been for the crusaders, if they had trusted + themselves to the sole conduct of that accomplished hero, a worthy + representative of Charlemagne, from whom he was descended in the female + line. His father was of the noble race of the counts of Boulogne: Brabant, + the lower province of Lorraine, <a href="#linknote-58.43" + name="linknoteref-58.43" id="linknoteref-58.43">43</a> was the inheritance + of his mother; and by the emperor’s bounty he was himself invested with + that ducal title, which has been improperly transferred to his lordship of + Bouillon in the Ardennes. <a href="#linknote-58.44" name="linknoteref-58.44" + id="linknoteref-58.44">44</a> In the service of Henry the Fourth, he bore + the great standard of the empire, and pierced with his lance the breast of + Rodolph, the rebel king: Godfrey was the first who ascended the walls of + Rome; and his sickness, his vow, perhaps his remorse for bearing arms + against the pope, confirmed an early resolution of visiting the holy + sepulchre, not as a pilgrim, but a deliverer. His valor was matured by + prudence and moderation; his piety, though blind, was sincere; and, in the + tumult of a camp, he practised the real and fictitious virtues of a + convent. Superior to the private factions of the chiefs, he reserved his + enmity for the enemies of Christ; and though he gained a kingdom by the + attempt, his pure and disinterested zeal was acknowledged by his rivals. + Godfrey of Bouillon <a href="#linknote-58.45" name="linknoteref-58.45" + id="linknoteref-58.45">45</a> was accompanied by his two brothers, by + Eustace the elder, who had succeeded to the county of Boulogne, and by the + younger, Baldwin, a character of more ambiguous virtue. The duke of + Lorraine, was alike celebrated on either side of the Rhine: from his birth + and education, he was equally conversant with the French and Teutonic + languages: the barons of France, Germany, and Lorraine, assembled their + vassals; and the confederate force that marched under his banner was + composed of fourscore thousand foot and about ten thousand horse. II. In + the parliament that was held at Paris, in the king’s presence, about two + months after the council of Clermont, Hugh, count of Vermandois, was the + most conspicuous of the princes who assumed the cross. But the appellation + of the Great was applied, not so much to his merit or possessions, (though + neither were contemptible,) as to the royal birth of the brother of the + king of France. <a href="#linknote-58.46" name="linknoteref-58.46" + id="linknoteref-58.46">46</a> Robert, duke of Normandy, was the eldest son + of William the Conqueror; but on his father’s death he was deprived of the + kingdom of England, by his own indolence and the activity of his brother + Rufus. The worth of Robert was degraded by an excessive levity and + easiness of temper: his cheerfulness seduced him to the indulgence of + pleasure; his profuse liberality impoverished the prince and people; his + indiscriminate clemency multiplied the number of offenders; and the + amiable qualities of a private man became the essential defects of a + sovereign. For the trifling sum of ten thousand marks, he mortgaged + Normandy during his absence to the English usurper; <a + href="#linknote-58.47" name="linknoteref-58.47" id="linknoteref-58.47">47</a> + but his engagement and behavior in the holy war announced in Robert a + reformation of manners, and restored him in some degree to the public + esteem. Another Robert was count of Flanders, a royal province, which, in + this century, gave three queens to the thrones of France, England, and + Denmark: he was surnamed the Sword and Lance of the Christians; but in the + exploits of a soldier he sometimes forgot the duties of a general. + Stephen, count of Chartres, of Blois, and of Troyes, was one of the + richest princes of the age; and the number of his castles has been + compared to the three hundred and sixty-five days of the year. His mind + was improved by literature; and, in the council of the chiefs, the + eloquent Stephen <a href="#linknote-58.48" name="linknoteref-58.48" + id="linknoteref-58.48">48</a> was chosen to discharge the office of their + president. These four were the principal leaders of the French, the + Normans, and the pilgrims of the British isles: but the list of the barons + who were possessed of three or four towns would exceed, says a + contemporary, the catalogue of the Trojan war. <a href="#linknote-58.49" + name="linknoteref-58.49" id="linknoteref-58.49">49</a> III. In the south of + France, the command was assumed by Adhemar bishop of Puy, the pope egate, + and by Raymond count of St. Giles and Thoulouse who added the prouder + titles of duke of Narbonne and marquis of Provence. The former was a + respectable prelate, alike qualified for this world and the next. The + latter was a veteran warrior, who had fought against the Saracens of + Spain, and who consecrated his declining age, not only to the deliverance, + but to the perpetual service, of the holy sepulchre. His experience and + riches gave him a strong ascendant in the Christian camp, whose distress + he was often able, and sometimes willing, to relieve. But it was easier + for him to extort the praise of the Infidels, than to preserve the love of + his subjects and associates. His eminent qualities were clouded by a + temper haughty, envious, and obstinate; and, though he resigned an ample + patrimony for the cause of God, his piety, in the public opinion, was not + exempt from avarice and ambition. <a href="#linknote-58.50" + name="linknoteref-58.50" id="linknoteref-58.50">50</a> A mercantile, rather + than a martial, spirit prevailed among his provincials, <a + href="#linknote-58.51" name="linknoteref-58.51" id="linknoteref-58.51">51</a> + a common name, which included the natives of Auvergne and Languedoc, <a + href="#linknote-58.52" name="linknoteref-58.52" id="linknoteref-58.52">52</a> + the vassals of the kingdom of Burgundy or Arles. From the adjacent + frontier of Spain he drew a band of hardy adventurers; as he marched + through Lombardy, a crowd of Italians flocked to his standard, and his + united force consisted of one hundred thousand horse and foot. If Raymond + was the first to enlist and the last to depart, the delay may be excused + by the greatness of his preparation and the promise of an everlasting + farewell. IV. The name of Bohemond, the son of Robert Guiscard, was + already famous by his double victory over the Greek emperor; but his + father’s will had reduced him to the principality of Tarentum, and the + remembrance of his Eastern trophies, till he was awakened by the rumor and + passage of the French pilgrims. It is in the person of this Norman chief + that we may seek for the coolest policy and ambition, with a small allay + of religious fanaticism. His conduct may justify a belief that he had + secretly directed the design of the pope, which he affected to second with + astonishment and zeal: at the siege of Amalphi, his example and discourse + inflamed the passions of a confederate army; he instantly tore his garment + to supply crosses for the numerous candidates, and prepared to visit + Constantinople and Asia at the head of ten thousand horse and twenty + thousand foot. Several princes of the Norman race accompanied this veteran + general; and his cousin Tancred <a href="#linknote-58.53" + name="linknoteref-58.53" id="linknoteref-58.53">53</a> was the partner, + rather than the servant, of the war. + </p> + <p> + In the accomplished character of Tancred we discover all the virtues of a + perfect knight, <a href="#linknote-58.54" name="linknoteref-58.54" + id="linknoteref-58.54">54</a> the true spirit of chivalry, which inspired + the generous sentiments and social offices of man far better than the base + philosophy, or the baser religion, of the times. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.42" id="linknote-58.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.42">return</a>)<br /> [ The author of the + Esprit des Croisades has doubted, and might have disbelieved, the crusade + and tragic death of Prince Sueno, with 1500 or 15,000 Danes, who was cut + off by Sultan Soliman in Cappadocia, but who still lives in the poem of + Tasso, (tom. iv. p. 111-115.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.43" id="linknote-58.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.43">return</a>)<br /> [ The fragments of the + kingdoms of Lotharingia, or Lorraine, were broken into the two duchies of + the Moselle and of the Meuse: the first has preserved its name, which in + the latter has been changed into that of Brabant, (Vales. Notit. Gall. p. + 283-288.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.44" id="linknote-58.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.44">return</a>)<br /> [ See, in the Description + of France, by the Abbe de Longuerue, the articles of Boulogne, part i. p. + 54; Brabant, part ii. p. 47, 48; Bouillon, p. 134. On his departure, + Godfrey sold or pawned Bouillon to the church for 1300 marks.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.45" id="linknote-58.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.45">return</a>)<br /> [ See the family + character of Godfrey, in William of Tyre, l. ix. c. 5-8; his previous + design in Guibert, (p. 485;) his sickness and vow in Bernard. Thesaur., (c + 78.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.46" id="linknote-58.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.46">return</a>)<br /> [ Anna Comnena supposes, + that Hugh was proud of his nobility riches, and power, (l. x. p. 288: ) + the two last articles appear more equivocal; but an item, which seven + hundred years ago was famous in the palace of Constantinople, attests the + ancient dignity of the Capetian family of France.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.47" id="linknote-58.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.47">return</a>)<br /> [ Will. Gemeticensis, l. + vii. c. 7, p. 672, 673, in Camden. Normani cis. He pawned the duchy for + one hundredth part of the present yearly revenue. Ten thousand marks may + be equal to five hundred thousand livres, and Normandy annually yields + fifty-seven millions to the king, (Necker, Administration des Finances, + tom. i. p. 287.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.48" id="linknote-58.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.48">return</a>)<br /> [ His original letter to + his wife is inserted in the Spicilegium of Dom. Luc. d’Acheri, tom. iv. + and quoted in the Esprit des Croisades tom. i. p. 63.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.49" id="linknote-58.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.49">return</a>)<br /> [ Unius enim duum, trium + seu quatuor oppidorum dominos quis numeret? quorum tanta fuit copia, ut + non vix totidem Trojana obsidio coegisse putetur. (Ever the lively and + interesting Guibert, p. 486.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.50" id="linknote-58.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.50">return</a>)<br /> [ It is singular enough, + that Raymond of St. Giles, a second character in the genuine history of + the crusades, should shine as the first of heroes in the writings of the + Greeks (Anna Comnen. Alexiad, l. x xi.) and the Arabians, (Longueruana, p. + 129.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.51" id="linknote-58.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.51">return</a>)<br /> [ Omnes de Burgundia, et + Alvernia, et Vasconia, et Gothi, (of Languedoc,) provinciales + appellabantur, caeteri vero Francigenae et hoc in exercitu; inter hostes + autem Franci dicebantur. Raymond des Agiles, p. 144.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.52" id="linknote-58.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.52">return</a>)<br /> [ The town of his birth, + or first appanage, was consecrated to St Aegidius, whose name, as early as + the first crusade, was corrupted by the French into St. Gilles, or St. + Giles. It is situate in the Iowen Languedoc, between Nismes and the Rhone, + and still boasts a collegiate church of the foundation of Raymond, + (Melanges tires d’une Grande Bibliotheque, tom. xxxvii. p 51.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.53" id="linknote-58.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.53">return</a>)<br /> [ The mother of Tancred + was Emma, sister of the great Robert Guiscard; his father, the Marquis Odo + the Good. It is singular enough, that the family and country of so + illustrious a person should be unknown; but Muratori reasonably + conjectures that he was an Italian, and perhaps of the race of the + marquises of Montferrat in Piedmont, (Script. tom. v. p. 281, 282.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.54" id="linknote-58.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.54">return</a>)<br /> [ To gratify the childish + vanity of the house of Este. Tasso has inserted in his poem, and in the + first crusade, a fabulous hero, the brave and amorous Rinaldo, (x. 75, + xvii. 66-94.) He might borrow his name from a Rinaldo, with the Aquila + bianca Estense, who vanquished, as the standard-bearer of the Roman + church, the emperor Frederic I., (Storia Imperiale di Ricobaldo, in + Muratori Script. Ital. tom. ix. p. 360. Ariosto, Orlando Furioso, iii. + 30.) But, 1. The distance of sixty years between the youth of the two + Rinaldos destroys their identity. 2. The Storia Imperiale is a forgery of + the Conte Boyardo, at the end of the xvth century, (Muratori, p. 281-289.) + 3. This Rinaldo, and his exploits, are not less chimerical than the hero + of Tasso, (Muratori, Antichita Estense, tom. i. p. 350.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap58.3"></a> + Chapter LVIII: The First Crusade.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + Between the age of Charlemagne and that of the crusades, a revolution had + taken place among the Spaniards, the Normans, and the French, which was + gradually extended to the rest of Europe. The service of the infantry was + degraded to the plebeians; the cavalry formed the strength of the armies, + and the honorable name of miles, or soldier, was confined to the gentlemen + <a href="#linknote-58.55" name="linknoteref-58.55" id="linknoteref-58.55">55</a> + who served on horseback, and were invested with the character of + knighthood. The dukes and counts, who had usurped the rights of + sovereignty, divided the provinces among their faithful barons: the barons + distributed among their vassals the fiefs or benefices of their + jurisdiction; and these military tenants, the peers of each other and of + their lord, composed the noble or equestrian order, which disdained to + conceive the peasant or burgher as of the same species with themselves. + The dignity of their birth was preserved by pure and equal alliances; + their sons alone, who could produce four quarters or lines of ancestry + without spot or reproach, might legally pretend to the honor of + knighthood; but a valiant plebeian was sometimes enriched and ennobled by + the sword, and became the father of a new race. A single knight could + impart, according to his judgment, the character which he received; and + the warlike sovereigns of Europe derived more glory from this personal + distinction than from the lustre of their diadem. This ceremony, of which + some traces may be found in Tacitus and the woods of Germany, <a + href="#linknote-58.56" name="linknoteref-58.56" id="linknoteref-58.56">56</a> + was in its origin simple and profane; the candidate, after some previous + trial, was invested with the sword and spurs; and his cheek or shoulder + was touched with a slight blow, as an emblem of the last affront which it + was lawful for him to endure. But superstition mingled in every public and + private action of life: in the holy wars, it sanctified the profession of + arms; and the order of chivalry was assimilated in its rights and + privileges to the sacred orders of priesthood. The bath and white garment + of the novice were an indecent copy of the regeneration of baptism: his + sword, which he offered on the altar, was blessed by the ministers of + religion: his solemn reception was preceded by fasts and vigils; and he + was created a knight in the name of God, of St. George, and of St. Michael + the archangel. He swore to accomplish the duties of his profession; and + education, example, and the public opinion, were the inviolable guardians + of his oath. As the champion of God and the ladies, (I blush to unite such + discordant names,) he devoted himself to speak the truth; to maintain the + right; to protect the distressed; to practise courtesy, a virtue less + familiar to the ancients; to pursue the infidels; to despise the + allurements of ease and safety; and to vindicate in every perilous + adventure the honor of his character. The abuse of the same spirit + provoked the illiterate knight to disdain the arts of industry and peace; + to esteem himself the sole judge and avenger of his own injuries; and + proudly to neglect the laws of civil society and military discipline. Yet + the benefits of this institution, to refine the temper of Barbarians, and + to infuse some principles of faith, justice, and humanity, were strongly + felt, and have been often observed. The asperity of national prejudice was + softened; and the community of religion and arms spread a similar color + and generous emulation over the face of Christendom. Abroad in enterprise + and pilgrimage, at home in martial exercise, the warriors of every country + were perpetually associated; and impartial taste must prefer a Gothic + tournament to the Olympic games of classic antiquity. <a + href="#linknote-58.57" name="linknoteref-58.57" id="linknoteref-58.57">57</a> + Instead of the naked spectacles which corrupted the manners of the Greeks, + and banished from the stadium the virgins and matrons, the pompous + decoration of the lists was crowned with the presence of chaste and + high-born beauty, from whose hands the conqueror received the prize of his + dexterity and courage. The skill and strength that were exerted in + wrestling and boxing bear a distant and doubtful relation to the merit of + a soldier; but the tournaments, as they were invented in France, and + eagerly adopted both in the East and West, presented a lively image of the + business of the field. The single combats, the general skirmish, the + defence of a pass, or castle, were rehearsed as in actual service; and the + contest, both in real and mimic war, was decided by the superior + management of the horse and lance. The lance was the proper and peculiar + weapon of the knight: his horse was of a large and heavy breed; but this + charger, till he was roused by the approaching danger, was usually led by + an attendant, and he quietly rode a pad or palfrey of a more easy pace. + His helmet and sword, his greaves and buckler, it would be superfluous to + describe; but I may remark, that, at the period of the crusades, the armor + was less ponderous than in later times; and that, instead of a massy + cuirass, his breast was defended by a hauberk or coat of mail. When their + long lances were fixed in the rest, the warriors furiously spurred their + horses against the foe; and the light cavalry of the Turks and Arabs could + seldom stand against the direct and impetuous weight of their charge. Each + knight was attended to the field by his faithful squire, a youth of equal + birth and similar hopes; he was followed by his archers and men at arms, + and four, or five, or six soldiers were computed as the furniture of a + complete lance. In the expeditions to the neighboring kingdoms or the Holy + Land, the duties of the feudal tenure no longer subsisted; the voluntary + service of the knights and their followers were either prompted by zeal or + attachment, or purchased with rewards and promises; and the numbers of + each squadron were measured by the power, the wealth, and the fame, of + each independent chieftain. They were distinguished by his banner, his + armorial coat, and his cry of war; and the most ancient families of Europe + must seek in these achievements the origin and proof of their nobility. In + this rapid portrait of chivalry I have been urged to anticipate on the + story of the crusades, at once an effect and a cause, of this memorable + institution. <a href="#linknote-58.58" name="linknoteref-58.58" + id="linknoteref-58.58">58</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.55" id="linknote-58.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.55">return</a>)<br /> [ Of the words gentilis, + gentilhomme, gentleman, two etymologies are produced: 1. From the + Barbarians of the fifth century, the soldiers, and at length the + conquerors of the Roman empire, who were vain of their foreign nobility; + and 2. From the sense of the civilians, who consider gentilis as + synonymous with ingenuus. Selden inclines to the first but the latter is + more pure, as well as probable.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.56" id="linknote-58.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.56">return</a>)<br /> [ Framea scutoque juvenem + ornant. Tacitus, Germania. c. 13.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.57" id="linknote-58.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.57">return</a>)<br /> [ The athletic exercises, + particularly the caestus and pancratium, were condemned by Lycurgus, + Philopoemen, and Galen, a lawgiver, a general, and a physician. Against + their authority and reasons, the reader may weigh the apology of Lucian, + in the character of Solon. See West on the Olympic Games, in his Pindar, + vol. ii. p. 86-96 243-248] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.58" id="linknote-58.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.58">return</a>)<br /> [ On the curious subjects + of knighthood, knights-service, nobility, arms, cry of war, banners, and + tournaments, an ample fund of information may be sought in Selden, (Opera, + tom. iii. part i. Titles of Honor, part ii. c. 1, 3, 5, 8,) Ducange, + (Gloss. Latin. tom. iv. p. 398-412, &c.,) Dissertations sur Joinville, + (i. vi.—xii. p. 127-142, p. 161-222,) and M. de St. Palaye, + (Memoires sur la Chevalerie.)] + </p> + <p> + Such were the troops, and such the leaders, who assumed the cross for the + deliverance of the holy sepulchre. As soon as they were relieved by the + absence of the plebeian multitude, they encouraged each other, by + interviews and messages, to accomplish their vow, and hasten their + departure. Their wives and sisters were desirous of partaking the danger + and merit of the pilgrimage: their portable treasures were conveyed in + bars of silver and gold; and the princes and barons were attended by their + equipage of hounds and hawks to amuse their leisure and to supply their + table. The difficulty of procuring subsistence for so many myriads of men + and horses engaged them to separate their forces: their choice or + situation determined the road; and it was agreed to meet in the + neighborhood of Constantinople, and from thence to begin their operations + against the Turks. From the banks of the Meuse and the Moselle, Godfrey of + Bouillon followed the direct way of Germany, Hungary, and Bulgaria; and, + as long as he exercised the sole command every step afforded some proof of + his prudence and virtue. On the confines of Hungary he was stopped three + weeks by a Christian people, to whom the name, or at least the abuse, of + the cross was justly odious. The Hungarians still smarted with the wounds + which they had received from the first pilgrims: in their turn they had + abused the right of defence and retaliation; and they had reason to + apprehend a severe revenge from a hero of the same nation, and who was + engaged in the same cause. But, after weighing the motives and the events, + the virtuous duke was content to pity the crimes and misfortunes of his + worthless brethren; and his twelve deputies, the messengers of peace, + requested in his name a free passage and an equal market. To remove their + suspicions, Godfrey trusted himself, and afterwards his brother, to the + faith of Carloman, <a href="#linknote-58.581" name="linknoteref-58.581" + id="linknoteref-58.581">581</a> king of Hungary, who treated them with a + simple but hospitable entertainment: the treaty was sanctified by their + common gospel; and a proclamation, under pain of death, restrained the + animosity and license of the Latin soldiers. From Austria to Belgrade, + they traversed the plains of Hungary, without enduring or offering an + injury; and the proximity of Carloman, who hovered on their flanks with + his numerous cavalry, was a precaution not less useful for their safety + than for his own. They reached the banks of the Save; and no sooner had + they passed the river, than the king of Hungary restored the hostages, and + saluted their departure with the fairest wishes for the success of their + enterprise. With the same conduct and discipline, Godfrey pervaded the + woods of Bulgaria and the frontiers of Thrace; and might congratulate + himself that he had almost reached the first term of his pilgrimage, + without drawing his sword against a Christian adversary. After an easy and + pleasant journey through Lombardy, from Turin to Aquileia, Raymond and his + provincials marched forty days through the savage country of Dalmatia <a + href="#linknote-58.59" name="linknoteref-58.59" id="linknoteref-58.59">59</a> + and Sclavonia. The weather was a perpetual fog; the land was mountainous + and desolate; the natives were either fugitive or hostile: loose in their + religion and government, they refused to furnish provisions or guides; + murdered the stragglers; and exercised by night and day the vigilance of + the count, who derived more security from the punishment of some captive + robbers than from his interview and treaty with the prince of Scodra. <a + href="#linknote-58.60" name="linknoteref-58.60" id="linknoteref-58.60">60</a> + His march between Durazzo and Constantinople was harassed, without being + stopped, by the peasants and soldiers of the Greek emperor; and the same + faint and ambiguous hostility was prepared for the remaining chiefs, who + passed the Adriatic from the coast of Italy. Bohemond had arms and + vessels, and foresight and discipline; and his name was not forgotten in + the provinces of Epirus and Thessaly. Whatever obstacles he encountered + were surmounted by his military conduct and the valor of Tancred; and if + the Norman prince affected to spare the Greeks, he gorged his soldiers + with the full plunder of an heretical castle. <a href="#linknote-58.61" + name="linknoteref-58.61" id="linknoteref-58.61">61</a> The nobles of France + pressed forwards with the vain and thoughtless ardor of which their nation + has been sometimes accused. From the Alps to Apulia the march of Hugh the + Great, of the two Roberts, and of Stephen of Chartres, through a wealthy + country, and amidst the applauding Catholics, was a devout or triumphant + progress: they kissed the feet of the Roman pontiff; and the golden + standard of St. Peter was delivered to the brother of the French monarch. + <a href="#linknote-58.62" name="linknoteref-58.62" id="linknoteref-58.62">62</a> + But in this visit of piety and pleasure, they neglected to secure the + season, and the means of their embarkation: the winter was insensibly + lost: their troops were scattered and corrupted in the towns of Italy. + They separately accomplished their passage, regardless of safety or + dignity; and within nine months from the feast of the Assumption, the day + appointed by Urban, all the Latin princes had reached Constantinople. But + the count of Vermandois was produced as a captive; his foremost vessels + were scattered by a tempest; and his person, against the law of nations, + was detained by the lieutenants of Alexius. Yet the arrival of Hugh had + been announced by four-and-twenty knights in golden armor, who commanded + the emperor to revere the general of the Latin Christians, the brother of + the king of kings. <a href="#linknote-58.63" name="linknoteref-58.63" + id="linknoteref-58.63">63</a> <a href="#linknote-58.631" + name="linknoteref-58.631" id="linknoteref-58.631">631</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.581" id="linknote-58.581"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 581 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.581">return</a>)<br /> [ Carloman (or Calmany) + demanded the brother of Godfrey as hostage but Count Baldwin refused the + humiliating submission. Godfrey shamed him into this sacrifice for the + common good by offering to surrender himself Wilken, vol. i. p. 104.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.59" id="linknote-58.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.59">return</a>)<br /> [ The Familiae Dalmaticae + of Ducange are meagre and imperfect; the national historians are recent + and fabulous, the Greeks remote and careless. In the year 1104 Coloman + reduced the maritine country as far as Trau and Saloma, (Katona, Hist. + Crit. tom. iii. p. 195-207.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.60" id="linknote-58.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.60">return</a>)<br /> [ Scodras appears in Livy + as the capital and fortress of Gentius, king of the Illyrians, arx + munitissima, afterwards a Roman colony, (Cellarius, tom. i. p. 393, 394.) + It is now called Iscodar, or Scutari, (D’Anville, Geographie Ancienne, + tom. i. p. 164.) The sanjiak (now a pacha) of Scutari, or Schendeire, was + the viiith under the Beglerbeg of Romania, and furnished 600 soldiers on a + revenue of 78,787 rix dollars, (Marsigli, Stato Militare del Imperio + Ottomano, p. 128.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.61" id="linknote-58.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.61">return</a>)<br /> [ In Pelagonia castrum + haereticum..... spoliatum cum suis habi tatoribus igne combussere. Nec id + eis injuria contigit: quia illorum detestabilis sermo et cancer serpebat, + jamque circumjacentes regiones suo pravo dogmate foedaverat, (Robert. Mon. + p. 36, 37.) After cooly relating the fact, the Archbishop Baldric adds, as + a praise, Omnes siquidem illi viatores, Judeos, haereticos, Saracenos + aequaliter habent exosos; quos omnes appellant inimicos Dei, (p. 92.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.62" id="linknote-58.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.62">return</a>)<br /> [ (Alexiad. l. x. p. + 288.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.63" id="linknote-58.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.63">return</a>)<br /> [ This Oriental pomp is + extravagant in a count of Vermandois; but the patriot Ducange repeats with + much complacency (Not. ad Alexiad. p. 352, 353. Dissert. xxvii. sur + Joinville, p. 315) the passages of Matthew Paris (A.D. 1254) and + Froissard, (vol. iv. p. 201,) which style the king of France rex regum, + and chef de tous les rois Chretiens.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.631" id="linknote-58.631"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 631 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.631">return</a>)<br /> [ Hugh was taken at + Durazzo, and sent by land to Constantinople Wilken—M.] + </p> + <p> + In some oriental tale I have read the fable of a shepherd, who was ruined + by the accomplishment of his own wishes: he had prayed for water; the + Ganges was turned into his grounds, and his flock and cottage were swept + away by the inundation. Such was the fortune, or at least the apprehension + of the Greek emperor Alexius Comnenus, whose name has already appeared in + this history, and whose conduct is so differently represented by his + daughter Anne, <a href="#linknote-58.64" name="linknoteref-58.64" + id="linknoteref-58.64">64</a> and by the Latin writers. <a + href="#linknote-58.65" name="linknoteref-58.65" id="linknoteref-58.65">65</a> + In the council of Placentia, his ambassadors had solicited a moderate + succor, perhaps of ten thousand soldiers, but he was astonished by the + approach of so many potent chiefs and fanatic nations. The emperor + fluctuated between hope and fear, between timidity and courage; but in the + crooked policy which he mistook for wisdom, I cannot believe, I cannot + discern, that he maliciously conspired against the life or honor of the + French heroes. The promiscuous multitudes of Peter the Hermit were savage + beasts, alike destitute of humanity and reason: nor was it possible for + Alexius to prevent or deplore their destruction. The troops of Godfrey and + his peers were less contemptible, but not less suspicious, to the Greek + emperor. Their motives might be pure and pious: but he was equally alarmed + by his knowledge of the ambitious Bohemond, <a href="#linknote-58.651" + name="linknoteref-58.651" id="linknoteref-58.651">651</a> and his ignorance + of the Transalpine chiefs: the courage of the French was blind and + headstrong; they might be tempted by the luxury and wealth of Greece, and + elated by the view and opinion of their invincible strength: and Jerusalem + might be forgotten in the prospect of Constantinople. After a long march + and painful abstinence, the troops of Godfrey encamped in the plains of + Thrace; they heard with indignation, that their brother, the count of + Vermandois, was imprisoned by the Greeks; and their reluctant duke was + compelled to indulge them in some freedom of retaliation and rapine. They + were appeased by the submission of Alexius: he promised to supply their + camp; and as they refused, in the midst of winter, to pass the Bosphorus, + their quarters were assigned among the gardens and palaces on the shores + of that narrow sea. But an incurable jealousy still rankled in the minds + of the two nations, who despised each other as slaves and Barbarians. + Ignorance is the ground of suspicion, and suspicion was inflamed into + daily provocations: prejudice is blind, hunger is deaf; and Alexius is + accused of a design to starve or assault the Latins in a dangerous post, + on all sides encompassed with the waters. <a href="#linknote-58.66" + name="linknoteref-58.66" id="linknoteref-58.66">66</a> Godfrey sounded his + trumpets, burst the net, overspread the plain, and insulted the suburbs; + but the gates of Constantinople were strongly fortified; the ramparts were + lined with archers; and, after a doubtful conflict, both parties listened + to the voice of peace and religion. The gifts and promises of the emperor + insensibly soothed the fierce spirit of the western strangers; as a + Christian warrior, he rekindled their zeal for the prosecution of their + holy enterprise, which he engaged to second with his troops and treasures. + On the return of spring, Godfrey was persuaded to occupy a pleasant and + plentiful camp in Asia; and no sooner had he passed the Bosphorus, than + the Greek vessels were suddenly recalled to the opposite shore. The same + policy was repeated with the succeeding chiefs, who were swayed by the + example, and weakened by the departure, of their foremost companions. By + his skill and diligence, Alexius prevented the union of any two of the + confederate armies at the same moment under the walls of Constantinople; + and before the feast of the Pentecost not a Latin pilgrim was left on the + coast of Europe. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.64" id="linknote-58.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.64">return</a>)<br /> [ Anna Comnena was born + the 1st of December, A.D. 1083, indiction vii., (Alexiad. l. vi. p. 166, + 167.) At thirteen, the time of the first crusade, she was nubile, and + perhaps married to the younger Nicephorus Bryennius, whom she fondly + styles, (l. x. p. 295, 296.) Some moderns have imagined, that her enmity + to Bohemond was the fruit of disappointed love. In the transactions of + Constantinople and Nice, her partial accounts (Alex. l. x. xi. p. 283-317) + may be opposed to the partiality of the Latins, but in their subsequent + exploits she is brief and ignorant.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.65" id="linknote-58.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.65">return</a>)<br /> [ In their views of the + character and conduct of Alexius, Maimbourg has favored the Catholic + Franks, and Voltaire has been partial to the schismatic Greeks. The + prejudice of a philosopher is less excusable than that of a Jesuit.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.651" id="linknote-58.651"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 651 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.651">return</a>)<br /> [ Wilken quotes a + remarkable passage of William of Malmsbury as to the secret motives of + Urban and of Bohemond in urging the crusade. Illud repositius propositum + non ita vulgabatur, quod Boemundi consilio, pene totam Europam in + Asiaticam expeditionem moveret, ut in tanto tumultu omnium provinciarum + facile obaeratis auxiliaribus, et Urbanus Romam et Boemundus Illyricum et + Macedoniam pervaderent. Nam eas terras et quidquid praeterea a Dyrrachio + usque ad Thessalonicam protenditur, Guiscardus pater, super Alexium + acquisierat; ideirco illas Boemundus suo juri competere clamitabat: inops + haereditatis Apuliae, quam genitor Rogerio, minori filio delegaverat. + Wilken, vol. ii. p. 313.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.66" id="linknote-58.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.66">return</a>)<br /> [ Between the Black Sea, + the Bosphorus, and the River Barbyses, which is deep in summer, and runs + fifteen miles through a flat meadow. Its communication with Europe and + Constantinople is by the stone bridge of the Blachernoe, which in + successive ages was restored by Justinian and Basil, (Gyllius de Bosphoro + Thracio, l. ii. c. 3. Ducange O. P. Christiana, l. v. c. 2, p, 179.)] + </p> + <p> + The same arms which threatened Europe might deliver Asia, and repel the + Turks from the neighboring shores of the Bosphorus and Hellespont. The + fair provinces from Nice to Antioch were the recent patrimony of the Roman + emperor; and his ancient and perpetual claim still embraced the kingdoms + of Syria and Egypt. In his enthusiasm, Alexius indulged, or affected, the + ambitious hope of leading his new allies to subvert the thrones of the + East; but the calmer dictates of reason and temper dissuaded him from + exposing his royal person to the faith of unknown and lawless Barbarians. + His prudence, or his pride, was content with extorting from the French + princes an oath of homage and fidelity, and a solemn promise, that they + </p> + <p> + would either restore, or hold, their Asiatic conquests as the humble and + loyal vassals of the Roman empire. Their independent spirit was fired at + the mention of this foreign and voluntary servitude: they successively + yielded to the dexterous application of gifts and flattery; and the first + proselytes became the most eloquent and effectual missionaries to multiply + the companions of their shame. The pride of Hugh of Vermandois was soothed + by the honors of his captivity; and in the brother of the French king, the + example of submission was prevalent and weighty. In the mind of Godfrey of + Bouillon every human consideration was subordinate to the glory of God and + the success of the crusade. He had firmly resisted the temptations of + Bohemond and Raymond, who urged the attack and conquest of Constantinople. + Alexius esteemed his virtues, deservedly named him the champion of the + empire, and dignified his homage with the filial name and the rights of + adoption. <a href="#linknote-58.67" name="linknoteref-58.67" + id="linknoteref-58.67">67</a> The hateful Bohemond was received as a true + and ancient ally; and if the emperor reminded him of former hostilities, + it was only to praise the valor that he had displayed, and the glory that + he had acquired, in the fields of Durazzo and Larissa. The son of Guiscard + was lodged and entertained, and served with Imperial pomp: one day, as he + passed through the gallery of the palace, a door was carelessly left open + to expose a pile of gold and silver, of silk and gems, of curious and + costly furniture, that was heaped, in seeming disorder, from the floor to + the roof of the chamber. “What conquests,” exclaimed the ambitious miser, + “might not be achieved by the possession of such a treasure!”—“It is + your own,” replied a Greek attendant, who watched the motions of his soul; + and Bohemond, after some hesitation, condescended to accept this + magnificent present. The Norman was flattered by the assurance of an + independent principality; and Alexius eluded, rather than denied, his + daring demand of the office of great domestic, or general of the East. The + two Roberts, the son of the conqueror of England, and the kinsmen of three + queens, <a href="#linknote-58.68" name="linknoteref-58.68" + id="linknoteref-58.68">68</a> bowed in their turn before the Byzantine + throne. A private letter of Stephen of Chartres attests his admiration of + the emperor, the most excellent and liberal of men, who taught him to + believe that he was a favorite, and promised to educate and establish his + youngest son. In his southern province, the count of St. Giles and + Thoulouse faintly recognized the supremacy of the king of France, a prince + of a foreign nation and language. At the head of a hundred thousand men, + he declared that he was the soldier and servant of Christ alone, and that + the Greek might be satisfied with an equal treaty of alliance and + friendship. His obstinate resistance enhanced the value and the price of + his submission; and he shone, says the princess Anne, among the + Barbarians, as the sun amidst the stars of heaven. His disgust of the + noise and insolence of the French, his suspicions of the designs of + Bohemond, the emperor imparted to his faithful Raymond; and that aged + statesman might clearly discern, that however false in friendship, he was + sincere in his enmity. <a href="#linknote-58.69" name="linknoteref-58.69" + id="linknoteref-58.69">69</a> The spirit of chivalry was last subdued in + the person of Tancred; and none could deem themselves dishonored by the + imitation of that gallant knight. He disdained the gold and flattery of + the Greek monarch; assaulted in his presence an insolent patrician; + escaped to Asia in the habit of a private soldier; and yielded with a sigh + to the authority of Bohemond, and the interest of the Christian cause. The + best and most ostensible reason was the impossibility of passing the sea + and accomplishing their vow, without the license and the vessels of + Alexius; but they cherished a secret hope, that as soon as they trod the + continent of Asia, their swords would obliterate their shame, and dissolve + the engagement, which on his side might not be very faithfully performed. + The ceremony of their homage was grateful to a people who had long since + considered pride as the substitute of power. High on his throne, the + emperor sat mute and immovable: his majesty was adored by the Latin + princes; and they submitted to kiss either his feet or his knees, an + indignity which their own writers are ashamed to confess and unable to + deny. <a href="#linknote-58.70" name="linknoteref-58.70" + id="linknoteref-58.70">70</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.67" id="linknote-58.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.67">return</a>)<br /> [ There are two sorts of + adoption, the one by arms, the other by introducing the son between the + shirt and skin of his father. Ducange isur Joinville, (Diss. xxii. p. 270) + supposes Godfrey’s adoption to have been of the latter sort.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.68" id="linknote-58.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.68">return</a>)<br /> [ After his return, + Robert of Flanders became the man of the king of England, for a pension of + four hundred marks. See the first act in Rymer’s Foedera.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.69" id="linknote-58.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.69">return</a>)<br /> [ Sensit vetus regnandi, + falsos in amore, odia non fingere. Tacit. vi. 44.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.70" id="linknote-58.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.70">return</a>)<br /> [ The proud historians of + the crusades slide and stumble over this humiliating step. Yet, since the + heroes knelt to salute the emperor, as he sat motionless on his throne, it + is clear that they must have kissed either his feet or knees. It is only + singular, that Anna should not have amply supplied the silence or + ambiguity of the Latins. The abasement of their princes would have added a + fine chapter to the Ceremoniale Aulae Byzantinae.] + </p> + <p> + Private or public interest suppressed the murmurs of the dukes and counts; + but a French baron (he is supposed to be Robert of Paris <a + href="#linknote-58.71" name="linknoteref-58.71" id="linknoteref-58.71">71</a> + presumed to ascend the throne, and to place himself by the side of + Alexius. The sage reproof of Baldwin provoked him to exclaim, in his + barbarous idiom, “Who is this rustic, that keeps his seat, while so many + valiant captains are standing round him?” The emperor maintained his + silence, dissembled his indignation, and questioned his interpreter + concerning the meaning of the words, which he partly suspected from the + universal language of gesture and countenance. Before the departure of the + pilgrims, he endeavored to learn the name and condition of the audacious + baron. “I am a Frenchman,” replied Robert, “of the purest and most ancient + nobility of my country. All that I know is, that there is a church in my + neighborhood, <a href="#linknote-58.72" name="linknoteref-58.72" + id="linknoteref-58.72">72</a> the resort of those who are desirous of + approving their valor in single combat. Till an enemy appears, they + address their prayers to God and his saints. That church I have frequently + visited. But never have I found an antagonist who dared to accept my + defiance.” Alexius dismissed the challenger with some prudent advice for + his conduct in the Turkish warfare; and history repeats with pleasure this + lively example of the manners of his age and country. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.71" id="linknote-58.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.71">return</a>)<br /> [ He called himself (see + Alexias, l. x. p. 301.) What a title of noblesse of the eleventh century, + if any one could now prove his inheritance! Anna relates, with visible + pleasure, that the swelling Barbarian, was killed, or wounded, after + fighting in the front in the battle of Dorylaeum, (l. xi. p. 317.) This + circumstance may justify the suspicion of Ducange, (Not. p. 362,) that he + was no other than Robert of Paris, of the district most peculiarly styled + the Duchy or Island of France, (L’Isle de France.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.72" id="linknote-58.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.72">return</a>)<br /> [ With the same + penetration, Ducange discovers his church to be that of St. Drausus, or + Drosin, of Soissons, quem duello dimicaturi solent invocare: pugiles qui + ad memoriam ejus (his tomb) pernoctant invictos reddit, ut et de Burgundia + et Italia tali necessitate confugiatur ad eum. Joan. Sariberiensis, epist. + 139.] + </p> + <p> + The conquest of Asia was undertaken and achieved by Alexander, with + thirty-five thousand Macedonians and Greeks; <a href="#linknote-58.73" + name="linknoteref-58.73" id="linknoteref-58.73">73</a> and his best hope was + in the strength and discipline of his phalanx of infantry. The principal + force of the crusaders consisted in their cavalry; and when that force was + mustered in the plains of Bithynia, the knights and their martial + attendants on horseback amounted to one hundred thousand fighting men, + completely armed with the helmet and coat of mail. The value of these + soldiers deserved a strict and authentic account; and the flower of + European chivalry might furnish, in a first effort, this formidable body + of heavy horse. A part of the infantry might be enrolled for the service + of scouts, pioneers, and archers; but the promiscuous crowd were lost in + their own disorder; and we depend not on the eyes and knowledge, but on + the belief and fancy, of a chaplain of Count Baldwin, <a + href="#linknote-58.74" name="linknoteref-58.74" id="linknoteref-58.74">74</a> + in the estimate of six hundred thousand pilgrims able to bear arms, + besides the priests and monks, the women and children of the Latin camp. + The reader starts; and before he is recovered from his surprise, I shall + add, on the same testimony, that if all who took the cross had + accomplished their vow, above six millions would have migrated from Europe + to Asia. Under this oppression of faith, I derive some relief from a more + sagacious and thinking writer, <a href="#linknote-58.75" + name="linknoteref-58.75" id="linknoteref-58.75">75</a> who, after the same + review of the cavalry, accuses the credulity of the priest of Chartres, + and even doubts whether the Cisalpine regions (in the geography of a + Frenchman) were sufficient to produce and pour forth such incredible + multitudes. The coolest scepticism will remember, that of these religious + volunteers great numbers never beheld Constantinople and Nice. Of + enthusiasm the influence is irregular and transient: many were detained at + home by reason or cowardice, by poverty or weakness; and many were + repulsed by the obstacles of the way, the more insuperable as they were + unforeseen, to these ignorant fanatics. The savage countries of Hungary + and Bulgaria were whitened with their bones: their vanguard was cut in + pieces by the Turkish sultan; and the loss of the first adventure, by the + sword, or climate, or fatigue, has already been stated at three hundred + thousand men. Yet the myriads that survived, that marched, that pressed + forwards on the holy pilgrimage, were a subject of astonishment to + themselves and to the Greeks. The copious energy of her language sinks + under the efforts of the princess Anne: <a href="#linknote-58.76" + name="linknoteref-58.76" id="linknoteref-58.76">76</a> the images of + locusts, of leaves and flowers, of the sands of the sea, or the stars of + heaven, imperfectly represent what she had seen and heard; and the + daughter of Alexius exclaims, that Europe was loosened from its + foundations, and hurled against Asia. The ancient hosts of Darius and + Xerxes labor under the same doubt of a vague and indefinite magnitude; but + I am inclined to believe, that a larger number has never been contained + within the lines of a single camp, than at the siege of Nice, the first + operation of the Latin princes. Their motives, their characters, and their + arms, have been already displayed. Of their troops the most numerous + portion were natives of France: the Low Countries, the banks of the Rhine, + and Apulia, sent a powerful reenforcement: some bands of adventurers were + drawn from Spain, Lombardy, and England; <a href="#linknote-58.77" + name="linknoteref-58.77" id="linknoteref-58.77">77</a> and from the distant + bogs and mountains of Ireland or Scotland <a href="#linknote-58.78" + name="linknoteref-58.78" id="linknoteref-58.78">78</a> issued some naked and + savage fanatics, ferocious at home but unwarlike abroad. Had not + superstition condemned the sacrilegious prudence of depriving the poorest + or weakest Christian of the merit of the pilgrimage, the useless crowd, + with mouths but without hands, might have been stationed in the Greek + empire, till their companions had opened and secured the way of the Lord. + A small remnant of the pilgrims, who passed the Bosphorus, was permitted + to visit the holy sepulchre. Their northern constitution was scorched by + the rays, and infected by the vapors, of a Syrian sun. They consumed, with + heedless prodigality, their stores of water and provision: their numbers + exhausted the inland country: the sea was remote, the Greeks were + unfriendly, and the Christians of every sect fled before the voracious and + cruel rapine of their brethren. In the dire necessity of famine, they + sometimes roasted and devoured the flesh of their infant or adult + captives. Among the Turks and Saracens, the idolaters of Europe were + rendered more odious by the name and reputation of Cannibals; the spies, + who introduced themselves into the kitchen of Bohemond, were shown several + human bodies turning on the spit: and the artful Norman encouraged a + report, which increased at the same time the abhorrence and the terror of + the infidels. <a href="#linknote-58.79" name="linknoteref-58.79" + id="linknoteref-58.79">79</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.73" id="linknote-58.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.73">return</a>)<br /> [ There is some diversity + on the numbers of his army; but no authority can be compared with that of + Ptolemy, who states it at five thousand horse and thirty thousand foot, + (see Usher’s Annales, p 152.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.74" id="linknote-58.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.74">return</a>)<br /> [ Fulcher. Carnotensis, + p. 387. He enumerates nineteen nations of different names and languages, + (p. 389;) but I do not clearly apprehend his difference between the Franci + and Galli, Itali and Apuli. Elsewhere (p. 385) he contemptuously brands + the deserters.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.75" id="linknote-58.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.75">return</a>)<br /> [ Guibert, p. 556. Yet + even his gentle opposition implies an immense multitude. By Urban II., in + the fervor of his zeal, it is only rated at 300,000 pilgrims, (epist. xvi. + Concil. tom. xii. p. 731.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.76" id="linknote-58.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.76">return</a>)<br /> [ Alexias, l. x. p. 283, + 305. Her fastidious delicacy complains of their strange and inarticulate + names; and indeed there is scarcely one that she has not contrived to + disfigure with the proud ignorance so dear and familiar to a polished + people. I shall select only one example, Sangeles, for the count of St. + Giles.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.77" id="linknote-58.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.77">return</a>)<br /> [ William of Malmsbury + (who wrote about the year 1130) has inserted in his history (l. iv. p. + 130-154) a narrative of the first crusade: but I wish that, instead of + listening to the tenue murmur which had passed the British ocean, (p. + 143,) he had confined himself to the numbers, families, and adventures of + his countrymen. I find in Dugdale, that an English Norman, Stephen earl of + Albemarle and Holdernesse, led the rear-guard with Duke Robert, at the + battle of Antioch, (Baronage, part i. p. 61.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.78" id="linknote-58.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.78">return</a>)<br /> [ Videres Scotorum apud + se ferocium alias imbellium cuneos, (Guibert, p. 471;) the crus intectum + and hispida chlamys, may suit the Highlanders; but the finibus uliginosis + may rather apply to the Irish bogs. William of Malmsbury expressly + mentions the Welsh and Scots, &c., (l. iv. p. 133,) who quitted, the + former venatiorem, the latter familiaritatem pulicum.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.79" id="linknote-58.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.79">return</a>)<br /> [ This cannibal hunger, + sometimes real, more frequently an artifice or a lie, may be found in Anna + Comnena, (Alexias, l. x. p. 288,) Guibert, (p. 546,) Radulph. Cadom., (c. + 97.) The stratagem is related by the author of the Gesta Francorum, the + monk Robert Baldric, and Raymond des Agiles, in the siege and famine of + Antioch.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap58.4"></a> + Chapter LVIII: The First Crusade.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + I have expiated with pleasure on the first steps of the crusaders, as they + paint the manners and character of Europe: but I shall abridge the tedious + and uniform narrative of their blind achievements, which were performed by + strength and are described by ignorance. From their first station in the + neighborhood of Nicomedia, they advanced in successive divisions; passed + the contracted limit of the Greek empire; opened a road through the hills, + and commenced, by the siege of his capital, their pious warfare against + the Turkish sultan. His kingdom of Roum extended from the Hellespont to + the confines of Syria, and barred the pilgrimage of Jerusalem, his name + was Kilidge-Arslan, or Soliman, <a href="#linknote-58.80" + name="linknoteref-58.80" id="linknoteref-58.80">80</a> of the race of + Seljuk, and son of the first conqueror; and in the defence of a land which + the Turks considered as their own, he deserved the praise of his enemies, + by whom alone he is known to posterity. Yielding to the first impulse of + the torrent, he deposited his family and treasure in Nice; retired to the + mountains with fifty thousand horse; and twice descended to assault the + camps or quarters of the Christian besiegers, which formed an imperfect + circle of above six miles. The lofty and solid walls of Nice were covered + by a deep ditch, and flanked by three hundred and seventy towers; and on + the verge of Christendom, the Moslems were trained in arms, and inflamed + by religion. Before this city, the French princes occupied their stations, + and prosecuted their attacks without correspondence or subordination: + emulation prompted their valor; but their valor was sullied by cruelty, + and their emulation degenerated into envy and civil discord. In the siege + of Nice, the arts and engines of antiquity were employed by the Latins; + the mine and the battering-ram, the tortoise, and the belfrey or movable + turret, artificial fire, and the catapult and balist, the sling, and the + crossbow for the casting of stones and darts. <a href="#linknote-58.81" + name="linknoteref-58.81" id="linknoteref-58.81">81</a> In the space of seven + weeks much labor and blood were expended, and some progress, especially by + Count Raymond, was made on the side of the besiegers. But the Turks could + protract their resistance and secure their escape, as long as they were + masters of the Lake <a href="#linknote-58.82" name="linknoteref-58.82" + id="linknoteref-58.82">82</a> Ascanius, which stretches several miles to + the westward of the city. The means of conquest were supplied by the + prudence and industry of Alexius; a great number of boats was transported + on sledges from the sea to the lake; they were filled with the most + dexterous of his archers; the flight of the sultana was intercepted; Nice + was invested by land and water; and a Greek emissary persuaded the + inhabitants to accept his master’s protection, and to save themselves, by + a timely surrender, from the rage of the savages of Europe. In the moment + of victory, or at least of hope, the crusaders, thirsting for blood and + plunder, were awed by the Imperial banner that streamed from the citadel; + <a href="#linknote-58.821" name="linknoteref-58.821" id="linknoteref-58.821">821</a> + and Alexius guarded with jealous vigilance this important conquest. The + murmurs of the chiefs were stifled by honor or interest; and after a halt + of nine days, they directed their march towards Phrygia under the guidance + of a Greek general, whom they suspected of a secret connivance with the + sultan. The consort and the principal servants of Soliman had been + honorably restored without ransom; and the emperor’s generosity to the + miscreants <a href="#linknote-58.83" name="linknoteref-58.83" + id="linknoteref-58.83">83</a> was interpreted as treason to the Christian + cause. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.80" id="linknote-58.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.80">return</a>)<br /> [ His Mussulman + appellation of Soliman is used by the Latins, and his character is highly + embellished by Tasso. His Turkish name of Kilidge-Arslan (A. H. 485-500, + A.D. 1192-1206. See De Guignes’s Tables, tom. i. p. 245) is employed by + the Orientals, and with some corruption by the Greeks; but little more + than his name can be found in the Mahometan writers, who are dry and sulky + on the subject of the first crusade, (De Guignes, tom. iii. p. ii. p. + 10-30.) * Note: See note, page 556. Soliman and Kilidge-Arslan were father + and son—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.81" id="linknote-58.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.81">return</a>)<br /> [ On the fortifications, + engines, and sieges of the middle ages, see Muratori, (Antiquitat. + Italiae, tom. ii. dissert. xxvi. p. 452-524.) The belfredus, from whence + our belfrey, was the movable tower of the ancients, (Ducange, tom. i. p. + 608.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.82" id="linknote-58.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.82">return</a>)<br /> [ I cannot forbear + remarking the resemblance between the siege and lake of Nice, with the + operations of Hernan Cortez before Mexico. See Dr. Robertson, History of + America, l. v.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.821" id="linknote-58.821"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 821 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.821">return</a>)<br /> [ See Anna Comnena.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.83" id="linknote-58.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.83">return</a>)<br /> [ Mecreant, a word + invented by the French crusaders, and confined in that language to its + primitive sense. It should seem, that the zeal of our ancestors boiled + higher, and that they branded every unbeliever as a rascal. A similar + prejudice still lurks in the minds of many who think themselves + Christians.] + </p> + <p> + Soliman was rather provoked than dismayed by the loss of his capital: he + admonished his subjects and allies of this strange invasion of the Western + Barbarians; the Turkish emirs obeyed the call of loyalty or religion; the + Turkman hordes encamped round his standard; and his whole force is loosely + stated by the Christians at two hundred, or even three hundred and sixty + thousand horse. Yet he patiently waited till they had left behind them the + sea and the Greek frontier; and hovering on the flanks, observed their + careless and confident progress in two columns beyond the view of each + other. Some miles before they could reach Dorylaeum in Phrygia, the left, + and least numerous, division was surprised, and attacked, and almost + oppressed, by the Turkish cavalry. <a href="#linknote-58.84" + name="linknoteref-58.84" id="linknoteref-58.84">84</a> The heat of the + weather, the clouds of arrows, and the barbarous onset, overwhelmed the + crusaders; they lost their order and confidence, and the fainting fight + was sustained by the personal valor, rather than by the military conduct, + of Bohemond, Tancred, and Robert of Normandy. They were revived by the + welcome banners of Duke Godfrey, who flew to their succor, with the count + of Vermandois, and sixty thousand horse; and was followed by Raymond of + Tholouse, the bishop of Puy, and the remainder of the sacred army. Without + a moment’s pause, they formed in new order, and advanced to a second + battle. They were received with equal resolution; and, in their common + disdain for the unwarlike people of Greece and Asia, it was confessed on + both sides, that the Turks and the Franks were the only nations entitled + to the appellation of soldiers. <a href="#linknote-58.85" + name="linknoteref-58.85" id="linknoteref-58.85">85</a> Their encounter was + varied, and balanced by the contrast of arms and discipline; of the direct + charge, and wheeling evolutions; of the couched lance, and the brandished + javelin; of a weighty broadsword, and a crooked sabre; of cumbrous armor, + and thin flowing robes; and of the long Tartar bow, and the arbalist or + crossbow, a deadly weapon, yet unknown to the Orientals. <a + href="#linknote-58.86" name="linknoteref-58.86" id="linknoteref-58.86">86</a> + As long as the horses were fresh, and the quivers full, Soliman maintained + the advantage of the day; and four thousand Christians were pierced by the + Turkish arrows. In the evening, swiftness yielded to strength: on either + side, the numbers were equal or at least as great as any ground could + hold, or any generals could manage; but in turning the hills, the last + division of Raymond and his provincials was led, perhaps without design on + the rear of an exhausted enemy; and the long contest was determined. + Besides a nameless and unaccounted multitude, three thousand Pagan knights + were slain in the battle and pursuit; the camp of Soliman was pillaged; + and in the variety of precious spoil, the curiosity of the Latins was + amused with foreign arms and apparel, and the new aspect of dromedaries + and camels. The importance of the victory was proved by the hasty retreat + of the sultan: reserving ten thousand guards of the relics of his army, + Soliman evacuated the kingdom of Roum, and hastened to implore the aid, + and kindle the resentment, of his Eastern brethren. In a march of five + hundred miles, the crusaders traversed the Lesser Asia, through a wasted + land and deserted towns, without finding either a friend or an enemy. The + geographer <a href="#linknote-58.87" name="linknoteref-58.87" + id="linknoteref-58.87">87</a> may trace the position of Dorylaeum, Antioch + of Pisidia, Iconium, Archelais, and Germanicia, and may compare those + classic appellations with the modern names of Eskishehr the old city, + Akshehr the white city, Cogni, Erekli, and Marash. As the pilgrims passed + over a desert, where a draught of water is exchanged for silver, they were + tormented by intolerable thirst; and on the banks of the first rivulet, + their haste and intemperance were still more pernicious to the disorderly + throng. They climbed with toil and danger the steep and slippery sides of + Mount Taurus; many of the soldiers cast away their arms to secure their + footsteps; and had not terror preceded their van, the long and trembling + file might have been driven down the precipice by a handful of resolute + enemies. Two of their most respectable chiefs, the duke of Lorraine and + the count of Tholouse, were carried in litters: Raymond was raised, as it + is said by miracle, from a hopeless malady; and Godfrey had been torn by a + bear, as he pursued that rough and perilous chase in the mountains of + Pisidia. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.84" id="linknote-58.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.84">return</a>)<br /> [ Baronius has produced a + very doubtful letter to his brother Roger, (A.D. 1098, No. 15.) The + enemies consisted of Medes, Persians, Chaldeans: be it so. The first + attack was cum nostro incommodo; true and tender. But why Godfrey of + Bouillon and Hugh brothers! Tancred is styled filius; of whom? Certainly + not of Roger, nor of Bohemond.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.85" id="linknote-58.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.85">return</a>)<br /> [ Verumtamen dicunt se + esse de Francorum generatione; et quia nullus homo naturaliter debet esse + miles nisi Franci et Turci, (Gesta Francorum, p. 7.) The same community of + blood and valor is attested by Archbishop Baldric, (p. 99.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.86" id="linknote-58.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.86">return</a>)<br /> [ Balista, Balestra, + Arbalestre. See Muratori, Antiq. tom. ii. p. 517-524. Ducange, Gloss. + Latin. tom. i. p. 531, 532. In the time of Anna Comnena, this weapon, + which she describes under the name of izangra, was unknown in the East, + (l. x. p. 291.) By a humane inconsistency, the pope strove to prohibit it + in Christian wars.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.87" id="linknote-58.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.87">return</a>)<br /> [ The curious reader may + compare the classic learning of Cellarius and the geographical science of + D’Anville. William of Tyre is the only historian of the crusades who has + any knowledge of antiquity; and M. Otter trod almost in the footsteps of + the Franks from Constantinople to Antioch, (Voyage en Turquie et en Perse, + tom. i. p. 35-88.) * Note: The journey of Col. Macdonald Kinneir in Asia + Minor throws considerable light on the geography of this march of the + crusaders.—M.] + </p> + <p> + To improve the general consternation, the cousin of Bohemond and the + brother of Godfrey were detached from the main army with their respective + squadrons of five, and of seven, hundred knights. They overran in a rapid + career the hills and sea-coast of Cilicia, from Cogni to the Syrian gates: + the Norman standard was first planted on the walls of Tarsus and + Malmistra; but the proud injustice of Baldwin at length provoked the + patient and generous Italian; and they turned their consecrated swords + against each other in a private and profane quarrel. Honor was the motive, + and fame the reward, of Tancred; but fortune smiled on the more selfish + enterprise of his rival. <a href="#linknote-58.88" name="linknoteref-58.88" + id="linknoteref-58.88">88</a> He was called to the assistance of a Greek or + Armenian tyrant, who had been suffered under the Turkish yoke to reign + over the Christians of Edessa. Baldwin accepted the character of his son + and champion: but no sooner was he introduced into the city, than he + inflamed the people to the massacre of his father, occupied the throne and + treasure, extended his conquests over the hills of Armenia and the plain + of Mesopotamia, and founded the first principality of the Franks or + Latins, which subsisted fifty-four years beyond the Euphrates. <a + href="#linknote-58.89" name="linknoteref-58.89" id="linknoteref-58.89">89</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.88" id="linknote-58.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.88">return</a>)<br /> [ This detached conquest + of Edessa is best represented by Fulcherius Carnotensis, or of Chartres, + (in the collections of Bongarsius Duchesne, and Martenne,) the valiant + chaplain of Count Baldwin (Esprit des Croisades, tom. i. p. 13, 14.) In + the disputes of that prince with Tancred, his partiality is encountered by + the partiality of Radulphus Cadomensis, the soldier and historian of the + gallant marquis.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.89" id="linknote-58.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.89">return</a>)<br /> [ See de Guignes, Hist. + des Huns, tom. i. p. 456.] + </p> + <p> + Before the Franks could enter Syria, the summer, and even the autumn, were + completely wasted: the siege of Antioch, or the separation and repose of + the army during the winter season, was strongly debated in their council: + the love of arms and the holy sepulchre urged them to advance; and reason + perhaps was on the side of resolution, since every hour of delay abates + the fame and force of the invader, and multiplies the resources of + defensive war. The capital of Syria was protected by the River Orontes; + and the iron bridge, <a href="#linknote-58.891" name="linknoteref-58.891" + id="linknoteref-58.891">891</a> of nine arches, derives its name from the + massy gates of the two towers which are constructed at either end. They + were opened by the sword of the duke of Normandy: his victory gave + entrance to three hundred thousand crusaders, an account which may allow + some scope for losses and desertion, but which clearly detects much + exaggeration in the review of Nice. In the description of Antioch, <a + href="#linknote-58.90" name="linknoteref-58.90" id="linknoteref-58.90">90</a> + it is not easy to define a middle term between her ancient magnificence, + under the successors of Alexander and Augustus, and the modern aspect of + Turkish desolation. The Tetrapolis, or four cities, if they retained their + name and position, must have left a large vacuity in a circumference of + twelve miles; and that measure, as well as the number of four hundred + towers, are not perfectly consistent with the five gates, so often + mentioned in the history of the siege. Yet Antioch must have still + flourished as a great and populous capital. At the head of the Turkish + emirs, Baghisian, a veteran chief, commanded in the place: his garrison + was composed of six or seven thousand horse, and fifteen or twenty + thousand foot: one hundred thousand Moslems are said to have fallen by the + sword; and their numbers were probably inferior to the Greeks, Armenians, + and Syrians, who had been no more than fourteen years the slaves of the + house of Seljuk. From the remains of a solid and stately wall, it appears + to have arisen to the height of threescore feet in the valleys; and + wherever less art and labor had been applied, the ground was supposed to + be defended by the river, the morass, and the mountains. Notwithstanding + these fortifications, the city had been repeatedly taken by the Persians, + the Arabs, the Greeks, and the Turks; so large a circuit must have yielded + many pervious points of attack; and in a siege that was formed about the + middle of October, the vigor of the execution could alone justify the + boldness of the attempt. Whatever strength and valor could perform in the + field was abundantly discharged by the champions of the cross: in the + frequent occasions of sallies, of forage, of the attack and defence of + convoys, they were often victorious; and we can only complain, that their + exploits are sometimes enlarged beyond the scale of probability and truth. + The sword of Godfrey <a href="#linknote-58.91" name="linknoteref-58.91" + id="linknoteref-58.91">91</a> divided a Turk from the shoulder to the + haunch; and one half of the infidel fell to the ground, while the other + was transported by his horse to the city gate. As Robert of Normandy rode + against his antagonist, “I devote thy head,” he piously exclaimed, “to the + daemons of hell;” and that head was instantly cloven to the breast by the + resistless stroke of his descending falchion. But the reality or the + report of such gigantic prowess <a href="#linknote-58.92" + name="linknoteref-58.92" id="linknoteref-58.92">92</a> must have taught the + Moslems to keep within their walls: and against those walls of earth or + stone, the sword and the lance were unavailing weapons. In the slow and + successive labors of a siege, the crusaders were supine and ignorant, + without skill to contrive, or money to purchase, or industry to use, the + artificial engines and implements of assault. In the conquest of Nice, + they had been powerfully assisted by the wealth and knowledge of the Greek + emperor: his absence was poorly supplied by some Genoese and Pisan + vessels, that were attracted by religion or trade to the coast of Syria: + the stores were scanty, the return precarious, and the communication + difficult and dangerous. Indolence or weakness had prevented the Franks + from investing the entire circuit; and the perpetual freedom of two gates + relieved the wants and recruited the garrison of the city. At the end of + seven months, after the ruin of their cavalry, and an enormous loss by + famine, desertion and fatigue, the progress of the crusaders was + imperceptible, and their success remote, if the Latin Ulysses, the artful + and ambitious Bohemond, had not employed the arms of cunning and deceit. + The Christians of Antioch were numerous and discontented: Phirouz, a + Syrian renegado, had acquired the favor of the emir and the command of + three towers; and the merit of his repentance disguised to the Latins, and + perhaps to himself, the foul design of perfidy and treason. A secret + correspondence, for their mutual interest, was soon established between + Phirouz and the prince of Tarento; and Bohemond declared in the council of + the chiefs, that he could deliver the city into their hands. <a + href="#linknote-58.921" name="linknoteref-58.921" id="linknoteref-58.921">921</a> + But he claimed the sovereignty of Antioch as the reward of his service; + and the proposal which had been rejected by the envy, was at length + extorted from the distress, of his equals. The nocturnal surprise was + executed by the French and Norman princes, who ascended in person the + scaling-ladders that were thrown from the walls: their new proselyte, + after the murder of his too scrupulous brother, embraced and introduced + the servants of Christ; the army rushed through the gates; and the Moslems + soon found, that although mercy was hopeless, resistance was impotent. + </p> + <p> + But the citadel still refused to surrender; and the victims themselves + were speedily encompassed and besieged by the innumerable forces of + Kerboga, prince of Mosul, who, with twenty-eight Turkish emirs, advanced + to the deliverance of Antioch. Five-and-twenty days the Christians spent + on the verge of destruction; and the proud lieutenant of the caliph and + the sultan left them only the choice of servitude or death. <a + href="#linknote-58.93" name="linknoteref-58.93" id="linknoteref-58.93">93</a> + In this extremity they collected the relics of their strength, sallied + from the town, and in a single memorable day, annihilated or dispersed the + host of Turks and Arabians, which they might safely report to have + consisted of six hundred thousand men. <a href="#linknote-58.94" + name="linknoteref-58.94" id="linknoteref-58.94">94</a> Their supernatural + allies I shall proceed to consider: the human causes of the victory of + Antioch were the fearless despair of the Franks; and the surprise, the + discord, perhaps the errors, of their unskilful and presumptuous + adversaries. The battle is described with as much disorder as it was + fought; but we may observe the tent of Kerboga, a movable and spacious + palace, enriched with the luxury of Asia, and capable of holding above two + thousand persons; we may distinguish his three thousand guards, who were + cased, the horse as well as the men, in complete steel. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.891" id="linknote-58.891"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 891 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.891">return</a>)<br /> [ This bridge was over + the Ifrin, not the Orontes, at a distance of three leagues from Antioch. + See Wilken, vol. i. p. 172.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.90" id="linknote-58.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.90">return</a>)<br /> [ For Antioch, see + Pocock, (Description of the East, vol. ii. p. i. p. 188-193,) Otter, + (Voyage en Turquie, &c., tom. i. p. 81, &c.,) the Turkish + geographer, (in Otter’s notes,) the Index Geographicus of Schultens, (ad + calcem Bohadin. Vit. Saladin.,) and Abulfeda, (Tabula Syriae, p. 115, 116, + vers. Reiske.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.91" id="linknote-58.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.91">return</a>)<br /> [ Ensem elevat, eumque a + sinistra parte scapularum, tanta virtute intorsit, ut quod pectus medium + disjunxit spinam et vitalia interrupit; et sic lubricus ensis super crus + dextrum integer exivit: sicque caput integrum cum dextra parte corporis + immersit gurgite, partemque quae equo praesidebat remisit civitati, + (Robert. Mon. p. 50.) Cujus ense trajectus, Turcus duo factus est Turci: + ut inferior alter in urbem equitaret, alter arcitenens in flumine nataret, + (Radulph. Cadom. c. 53, p. 304.) Yet he justifies the deed by the + stupendis viribus of Godfrey; and William of Tyre covers it by obstupuit + populus facti novitate .... mirabilis, (l. v. c. 6, p. 701.) Yet it must + not have appeared incredible to the knights of that age.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.92" id="linknote-58.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.92">return</a>)<br /> [ See the exploits of + Robert, Raymond, and the modest Tancred who imposed silence on his squire, + (Randulph. Cadom. c. 53.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.921" id="linknote-58.921"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 921 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.921">return</a>)<br /> [ See the interesting + extract from Kemaleddin’s History of Aleppo in Wilken, preface to vol. ii. + p. 36. Phirouz, or Azzerrad, the breastplate maker, had been pillaged and + put to the torture by Bagi Sejan, the prince of Antioch.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.93" id="linknote-58.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.93">return</a>)<br /> [ After mentioning the + distress and humble petition of the Franks, Abulpharagius adds the haughty + reply of Codbuka, or Kerboga, “Non evasuri estis nisi per gladium,” + (Dynast. p. 242.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.94" id="linknote-58.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.94">return</a>)<br /> [ In describing the host + of Kerboga, most of the Latin historians, the author of the Gesta, (p. + 17,) Robert Monachus, (p. 56,) Baldric, (p. 111,) Fulcherius Carnotensis, + (p. 392,) Guibert, (p. 512,) William of Tyre, (l. vi. c. 3, p. 714,) + Bernard Thesaurarius, (c. 39, p. 695,) are content with the vague + expressions of infinita multitudo, immensum agmen, innumerae copiae or + gentes, which correspond with Anna Comnena, (Alexias, l. xi. p. 318-320.) + The numbers of the Turks are fixed by Albert Aquensis at 200,000, (l. iv. + c. 10, p. 242,) and by Radulphus Cadomensis at 400,000 horse, (c. 72, p. + 309.)] + </p> + <p> + In the eventful period of the siege and defence of Antioch, the crusaders + were alternately exalted by victory or sunk in despair; either swelled + with plenty or emaciated with hunger. A speculative reasoner might + suppose, that their faith had a strong and serious influence on their + practice; and that the soldiers of the cross, the deliverers of the holy + sepulchre, prepared themselves by a sober and virtuous life for the daily + contemplation of martyrdom. Experience blows away this charitable + illusion; and seldom does the history of profane war display such scenes + of intemperance and prostitution as were exhibited under the walls of + Antioch. The grove of Daphne no longer flourished; but the Syrian air was + still impregnated with the same vices; the Christians were seduced by + every temptation <a href="#linknote-58.95" name="linknoteref-58.95" + id="linknoteref-58.95">95</a> that nature either prompts or reprobates; the + authority of the chiefs was despised; and sermons and edicts were alike + fruitless against those scandalous disorders, not less pernicious to + military discipline, than repugnant to evangelic purity. In the first days + of the siege and the possession of Antioch, the Franks consumed with + wanton and thoughtless prodigality the frugal subsistence of weeks and + months: the desolate country no longer yielded a supply; and from that + country they were at length excluded by the arms of the besieging Turks. + Disease, the faithful companion of want, was envenomed by the rains of the + winter, the summer heats, unwholesome food, and the close imprisonment of + multitudes. The pictures of famine and pestilence are always the same, and + always disgustful; and our imagination may suggest the nature of their + sufferings and their resources. The remains of treasure or spoil were + eagerly lavished in the purchase of the vilest nourishment; and dreadful + must have been the calamities of the poor, since, after paying three marks + of silver for a goat and fifteen for a lean camel, <a href="#linknote-58.96" + name="linknoteref-58.96" id="linknoteref-58.96">96</a> the count of Flanders + was reduced to beg a dinner, and Duke Godfrey to borrow a horse. Sixty + thousand horse had been reviewed in the camp: before the end of the siege + they were diminished to two thousand, and scarcely two hundred fit for + service could be mustered on the day of battle. Weakness of body and + terror of mind extinguished the ardent enthusiasm of the pilgrims; and + every motive of honor and religion was subdued by the desire of life. <a + href="#linknote-58.97" name="linknoteref-58.97" id="linknoteref-58.97">97</a> + Among the chiefs, three heroes may be found without fear or reproach: + Godfrey of Bouillon was supported by his magnanimous piety; Bohemond by + ambition and interest; and Tancred declared, in the true spirit of + chivalry, that as long as he was at the head of forty knights, he would + never relinquish the enterprise of Palestine. But the count of Tholouse + and Provence was suspected of a voluntary indisposition; the duke of + Normandy was recalled from the sea-shore by the censures of the church: + Hugh the Great, though he led the vanguard of the battle, embraced an + ambiguous opportunity of returning to France and Stephen, count of + Chartres, basely deserted the standard which he bore, and the council in + which he presided. The soldiers were discouraged by the flight of William, + viscount of Melun, surnamed the Carpenter, from the weighty strokes of his + axe; and the saints were scandalized by the fall <a href="#linknote-58.971" + name="linknoteref-58.971" id="linknoteref-58.971">971</a> of Peter the + Hermit, who, after arming Europe against Asia, attempted to escape from + the penance of a necessary fast. Of the multitude of recreant warriors, + the names (says an historian) are blotted from the book of life; and the + opprobrious epithet of the rope-dancers was applied to the deserters who + dropped in the night from the walls of Antioch. The emperor Alexius, <a + href="#linknote-58.98" name="linknoteref-58.98" id="linknoteref-58.98">98</a> + who seemed to advance to the succor of the Latins, was dismayed by the + assurance of their hopeless condition. They expected their fate in silent + despair; oaths and punishments were tried without effect; and to rouse the + soldiers to the defence of the walls, it was found necessary to set fire + to their quarters. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.95" id="linknote-58.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.95">return</a>)<br /> [ See the tragic and + scandalous fate of an archdeacon of royal birth, who was slain by the + Turks as he reposed in an orchard, playing at dice with a Syrian + concubine.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.96" id="linknote-58.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.96">return</a>)<br /> [ The value of an ox rose + from five solidi, (fifteen shillings,) at Christmas to two marks, (four + pounds,) and afterwards much higher; a kid or lamb, from one shilling to + eighteen of our present money: in the second famine, a loaf of bread, or + the head of an animal, sold for a piece of gold. More examples might be + produced; but it is the ordinary, not the extraordinary, prices, that + deserve the notice of the philosopher.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.97" id="linknote-58.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.97">return</a>)<br /> [ Alli multi, quorum + nomina non tenemus; quia, deleta de libro vitae, praesenti operi non sunt + inserenda, (Will. Tyr. l. vi. c. 5, p. 715.) Guibert (p. 518, 523) + attempts to excuse Hugh the Great, and even Stephen of Chartres.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.971" id="linknote-58.971"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 971 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.971">return</a>)<br /> [ Peter fell during the + siege: he went afterwards on an embassy to Kerboga Wilken. vol. i. p. 217.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.98" id="linknote-58.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.98">return</a>)<br /> [ See the progress of the + crusade, the retreat of Alexius, the victory of Antioch, and the conquest + of Jerusalem, in the Alexiad, l. xi. p. 317-327. Anna was so prone to + exaggeration, that she magnifies the exploits of the Latins.] + </p> + <p> + For their salvation and victory, they were indebted to the same fanaticism + which had led them to the brink of ruin. In such a cause, and in such an + army, visions, prophecies, and miracles, were frequent and familiar. In + the distress of Antioch, they were repeated with unusual energy and + success: St. Ambrose had assured a pious ecclesiastic, that two years of + trial must precede the season of deliverance and grace; the deserters were + stopped by the presence and reproaches of Christ himself; the dead had + promised to arise and combat with their brethren; the Virgin had obtained + the pardon of their sins; and their confidence was revived by a visible + sign, the seasonable and splendid discovery of the Holy Lance. The policy + of their chiefs has on this occasion been admired, and might surely be + excused; but a pious fraud is seldom produced by the cool conspiracy of + many persons; and a voluntary impostor might depend on the support of the + wise and the credulity of the people. Of the diocese of Marseilles, there + was a priest of low cunning and loose manners, and his name was Peter + Bartholemy. He presented himself at the door of the council-chamber, to + disclose an apparition of St. Andrew, which had been thrice reiterated in + his sleep with a dreadful menace, if he presumed to suppress the commands + of Heaven. “At Antioch,” said the apostle, “in the church of my brother + St. Peter, near the high altar, is concealed the steel head of the lance + that pierced the side of our Redeemer. In three days that instrument of + eternal, and now of temporal, salvation, will be manifested to his + disciples. Search, and ye shall find: bear it aloft in battle; and that + mystic weapon shall penetrate the souls of the miscreants.” The pope’s + legate, the bishop of Puy, affected to listen with coldness and distrust; + but the revelation was eagerly accepted by Count Raymond, whom his + faithful subject, in the name of the apostle, had chosen for the guardian + of the holy lance. The experiment was resolved; and on the third day after + a due preparation of prayer and fasting, the priest of Marseilles + introduced twelve trusty spectators, among whom were the count and his + chaplain; and the church doors were barred against the impetuous + multitude. The ground was opened in the appointed place; but the workmen, + who relieved each other, dug to the depth of twelve feet without + discovering the object of their search. In the evening, when Count Raymond + had withdrawn to his post, and the weary assistants began to murmur, + Bartholemy, in his shirt, and without his shoes, boldly descended into the + pit; the darkness of the hour and of the place enabled him to secrete and + deposit the head of a Saracen lance; and the first sound, the first gleam, + of the steel was saluted with a devout rapture. The holy lance was drawn + from its recess, wrapped in a veil of silk and gold, and exposed to the + veneration of the crusaders; their anxious suspense burst forth in a + general shout of joy and hope, and the desponding troops were again + inflamed with the enthusiasm of valor. Whatever had been the arts, and + whatever might be the sentiments of the chiefs, they skilfully improved + this fortunate revolution by every aid that discipline and devotion could + afford. The soldiers were dismissed to their quarters with an injunction + to fortify their minds and bodies for the approaching conflict, freely to + bestow their last pittance on themselves and their horses, and to expect + with the dawn of day the signal of victory. On the festival of St. Peter + and St. Paul, the gates of Antioch were thrown open: a martial psalm, “Let + the Lord arise, and let his enemies be scattered!” was chanted by a + procession of priests and monks; the battle array was marshalled in twelve + divisions, in honor of the twelve apostles; and the holy lance, in the + absence of Raymond, was intrusted to the hands of his chaplain. The + influence of his relic or trophy, was felt by the servants, and perhaps by + the enemies, of Christ; <a href="#linknote-58.99" name="linknoteref-58.99" + id="linknoteref-58.99">99</a> and its potent energy was heightened by an + accident, a stratagem, or a rumor, of a miraculous complexion. Three + knights, in white garments and resplendent arms, either issued, or seemed + to issue, from the hills: the voice of Adhemar, the pope’s legate, + proclaimed them as the martyrs St. George, St. Theodore, and St. Maurice: + the tumult of battle allowed no time for doubt or scrutiny; and the + welcome apparition dazzled the eyes or the imagination of a fanatic army. + <a href="#linknote-58.991" name="linknoteref-58.991" id="linknoteref-58.991">991</a> + In the season of danger and triumph, the revelation of Bartholemy of + Marseilles was unanimously asserted; but as soon as the temporary service + was accomplished, the personal dignity and liberal arms which the count of + Tholouse derived from the custody of the holy lance, provoked the envy, + and awakened the reason, of his rivals. A Norman clerk presumed to sift, + with a philosophic spirit, the truth of the legend, the circumstances of + the discovery, and the character of the prophet; and the pious Bohemond + ascribed their deliverance to the merits and intercession of Christ alone. + For a while, the Provincials defended their national palladium with + clamors and arms and new visions condemned to death and hell the profane + sceptics who presumed to scrutinize the truth and merit of the discovery. + The prevalence of incredulity compelled the author to submit his life and + veracity to the judgment of God. A pile of dry fagots, four feet high and + fourteen long, was erected in the midst of the camp; the flames burnt + fiercely to the elevation of thirty cubits; and a narrow path of twelve + inches was left for the perilous trial. The unfortunate priest of + Marseilles traversed the fire with dexterity and speed; but the thighs and + belly were scorched by the intense heat; he expired the next day; <a + href="#linknote-58.992" name="linknoteref-58.992" id="linknoteref-58.992">992</a> + and the logic of believing minds will pay some regard to his dying + protestations of innocence and truth. Some efforts were made by the + Provincials to substitute a cross, a ring, or a tabernacle, in the place + of the holy lance, which soon vanished in contempt and oblivion. <a + href="#linknote-58.100" name="linknoteref-58.100" id="linknoteref-58.100">100</a> + Yet the revelation of Antioch is gravely asserted by succeeding + historians: and such is the progress of credulity, that miracles most + doubtful on the spot, and at the moment, will be received with implicit + faith at a convenient distance of time and space. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.99" id="linknote-58.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.99">return</a>)<br /> [ The Mahometan + Aboulmahasen (apud De Guignes, tom. ii. p. ii. p. 95) is more correct in + his account of the holy lance than the Christians, Anna Comnena and + Abulpharagius: the Greek princess confounds it with the nail of the cross, + (l. xi. p. 326;) the Jacobite primate, with St. Peter’s staff, (p. 242.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.991" id="linknote-58.991"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 991 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.991">return</a>)<br /> [ The real cause of + this victory appears to have been the feud in Kerboga’s army Wilken, vol. + ii. p. 40.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.992" id="linknote-58.992"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 992 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.992">return</a>)<br /> [ The twelfth day + after. He was much injured, and his flesh torn off, from the ardor of + pious congratulation with which he was assailed by those who witnessed his + escape, unhurt, as it was first supposed. Wilken vol. i p. 263—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.100" id="linknote-58.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.100">return</a>)<br /> [ The two antagonists + who express the most intimate knowledge and the strongest conviction of + the miracle, and of the fraud, are Raymond des Agiles, and Radulphus + Cadomensis, the one attached to the count of Tholouse, the other to the + Norman prince. Fulcherius Carnotensis presumes to say, Audite fraudem et + non fraudem! and afterwards, Invenit lanceam, fallaciter occultatam + forsitan. The rest of the herd are loud and strenuous.] + </p> + <p> + The prudence or fortune of the Franks had delayed their invasion till the + decline of the Turkish empire. <a href="#linknote-58.101" + name="linknoteref-58.101" id="linknoteref-58.101">101</a> Under the manly + government of the three first sultans, the kingdoms of Asia were united in + peace and justice; and the innumerable armies which they led in person + were equal in courage, and superior in discipline, to the Barbarians of + the West. But at the time of the crusade, the inheritance of Malek Shaw + was disputed by his four sons; their private ambition was insensible of + the public danger; and, in the vicissitudes of their fortune, the royal + vassals were ignorant, or regardless, of the true object of their + allegiance. The twenty-eight emirs who marched with the standard or + Kerboga were his rivals or enemies: their hasty levies were drawn from the + towns and tents of Mesopotamia and Syria; and the Turkish veterans were + employed or consumed in the civil wars beyond the Tigris. The caliph of + Egypt embraced this opportunity of weakness and discord to recover his + ancient possessions; and his sultan Aphdal besieged Jerusalem and Tyre, + expelled the children of Ortok, and restored in Palestine the civil and + ecclesiastical authority of the Fatimites. <a href="#linknote-58.102" + name="linknoteref-58.102" id="linknoteref-58.102">102</a> They heard with + astonishment of the vast armies of Christians that had passed from Europe + to Asia, and rejoiced in the sieges and battles which broke the power of + the Turks, the adversaries of their sect and monarchy. But the same + Christians were the enemies of the prophet; and from the overthrow of Nice + and Antioch, the motive of their enterprise, which was gradually + understood, would urge them forwards to the banks of the Jordan, or + perhaps of the Nile. + </p> + <p> + An intercourse of epistles and embassies, which rose and fell with the + events of war, was maintained between the throne of Cairo and the camp of + the Latins; and their adverse pride was the result of ignorance and + enthusiasm. The ministers of Egypt declared in a haughty, or insinuated in + a milder, tone, that their sovereign, the true and lawful commander of the + faithful, had rescued Jerusalem from the Turkish yoke; and that the + pilgrims, if they would divide their numbers, and lay aside their arms, + should find a safe and hospitable reception at the sepulchre of Jesus. In + the belief of their lost condition, the caliph Mostali despised their arms + and imprisoned their deputies: the conquest and victory of Antioch + prompted him to solicit those formidable champions with gifts of horses + and silk robes, of vases, and purses of gold and silver; and in his + estimate of their merit or power, the first place was assigned to + Bohemond, and the second to Godfrey. In either fortune, the answer of the + crusaders was firm and uniform: they disdained to inquire into the private + claims or possessions of the followers of Mahomet; whatsoever was his name + or nation, the usurper of Jerusalem was their enemy; and instead of + prescribing the mode and terms of their pilgrimage, it was only by a + timely surrender of the city and province, their sacred right, that he + could deserve their alliance, or deprecate their impending and + irresistible attack. <a href="#linknote-58.103" name="linknoteref-58.103" + id="linknoteref-58.103">103</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.101" id="linknote-58.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.101">return</a>)<br /> [ See M. De Guignes, + tom. ii. p. ii. p. 223, &c.; and the articles of Barkidrok, Mohammed, + Sangiar, in D’Herbelot.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.102" id="linknote-58.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.102">return</a>)<br /> [ The emir, or sultan, + Aphdal, recovered Jerusalem and Tyre, A. H. 489, (Renaudot, Hist. + Patriarch. Alexandrin. p. 478. De Guignes, tom. i. p. 249, from Abulfeda + and Ben Schounah.) Jerusalem ante adventum vestrum recuperavimus, Turcos + ejecimus, say the Fatimite ambassadors] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.103" id="linknote-58.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.103">return</a>)<br /> [ See the transactions + between the caliph of Egypt and the crusaders in William of Tyre (l. iv. + c. 24, l. vi. c. 19) and Albert Aquensis, (l. iii. c. 59,) who are more + sensible of their importance than the contemporary writers.] + </p> + <p> + Yet this attack, when they were within the view and reach of their + glorious prize, was suspended above ten months after the defeat of + Kerboga. The zeal and courage of the crusaders were chilled in the moment + of victory; and instead of marching to improve the consternation, they + hastily dispersed to enjoy the luxury, of Syria. The causes of this + strange delay may be found in the want of strength and subordination. In + the painful and various service of Antioch, the cavalry was annihilated; + many thousands of every rank had been lost by famine, sickness, and + desertion: the same abuse of plenty had been productive of a third famine; + and the alternative of intemperance and distress had generated a + pestilence, which swept away above fifty thousand of the pilgrims. Few + were able to command, and none were willing to obey; the domestic feuds, + which had been stifled by common fear, were again renewed in acts, or at + least in sentiments, of hostility; the fortune of Baldwin and Bohemond + excited the envy of their companions; the bravest knights were enlisted + for the defence of their new principalities; and Count Raymond exhausted + his troops and treasures in an idle expedition into the heart of Syria. <a + href="#linknote-58.1031" name="linknoteref-58.1031" id="linknoteref-58.1031">1031</a> + The winter was consumed in discord and disorder; a sense of honor and + religion was rekindled in the spring; and the private soldiers, less + susceptible of ambition and jealousy, awakened with angry clamors the + indolence of their chiefs. In the month of May, the relics of this mighty + host proceeded from Antioch to Laodicea: about forty thousand Latins, of + whom no more than fifteen hundred horse, and twenty thousand foot, were + capable of immediate service. Their easy march was continued between Mount + Libanus and the sea-shore: their wants were liberally supplied by the + coasting traders of Genoa and Pisa; and they drew large contributions from + the emirs of Tripoli, Tyre, Sidon, Acre, and Caesarea, who granted a free + passage, and promised to follow the example of Jerusalem. From Caesarea + they advanced into the midland country; their clerks recognized the sacred + geography of Lydda, Ramla, Emmaus, and Bethlem, <a href="#linknote-58.1032" + name="linknoteref-58.1032" id="linknoteref-58.1032">1032</a> and as soon as + they descried the holy city, the crusaders forgot their toils and claimed + their reward. <a href="#linknote-58.104" name="linknoteref-58.104" + id="linknoteref-58.104">104</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.1031" id="linknote-58.1031"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1031 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.1031">return</a>)<br /> [ This is not quite + correct: he took Marra on his road. His excursions were partly to obtain + provisions for the army and fodder for the horses Wilken, vol. i. p. 226.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.1032" id="linknote-58.1032"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1032 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.1032">return</a>)<br /> [ Scarcely of + Bethlehem, to the south of Jerusalem.— M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.104" id="linknote-58.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.104">return</a>)<br /> [ The greatest part of + the march of the Franks is traced, and most accurately traced, in + Maundrell’s Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, (p. 11-67;) un des meilleurs + morceaux, sans contredit qu’on ait dans ce genre, (D’Anville, Memoire sur + Jerusalem, p. 27.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap58.5"></a> + Chapter LVIII: The First Crusade.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + Jerusalem has derived some reputation from the number and importance of + her memorable sieges. It was not till after a long and obstinate contest + that Babylon and Rome could prevail against the obstinacy of the people, + the craggy ground that might supersede the necessity of fortifications, + and the walls and towers that would have fortified the most accessible + plain. <a href="#linknote-58.105" name="linknoteref-58.105" + id="linknoteref-58.105">105</a> These obstacles were diminished in the age + of the crusades. The bulwarks had been completely destroyed and + imperfectly restored: the Jews, their nation, and worship, were forever + banished; but nature is less changeable than man, and the site of + Jerusalem, though somewhat softened and somewhat removed, was still strong + against the assaults of an enemy. By the experience of a recent siege, and + a three years’ possession, the Saracens of Egypt had been taught to + discern, and in some degree to remedy, the defects of a place, which + religion as well as honor forbade them to resign. Aladin, or Iftikhar, the + caliph’s lieutenant, was intrusted with the defence: his policy strove to + restrain the native Christians by the dread of their own ruin and that of + the holy sepulchre; to animate the Moslems by the assurance of temporal + and eternal rewards. His garrison is said to have consisted of forty + thousand Turks and Arabians; and if he could muster twenty thousand of the + inhabitants, it must be confessed that the besieged were more numerous + than the besieging army. <a href="#linknote-58.106" name="linknoteref-58.106" + id="linknoteref-58.106">106</a> Had the diminished strength and numbers of + the Latins allowed them to grasp the whole circumference of four thousand + yards, (about two English miles and a half, <a href="#linknote-58.107" + name="linknoteref-58.107" id="linknoteref-58.107">107</a> to what useful + purpose should they have descended into the valley of Ben Hinnom and + torrent of Cedron, <a href="#linknote-58.108" name="linknoteref-58.108" + id="linknoteref-58.108">108</a> or approach the precipices of the south and + east, from whence they had nothing either to hope or fear? Their siege was + more reasonably directed against the northern and western sides of the + city. Godfrey of Bouillon erected his standard on the first swell of Mount + Calvary: to the left, as far as St. Stephen’s gate, the line of attack was + continued by Tancred and the two Roberts; and Count Raymond established + his quarters from the citadel to the foot of Mount Sion, which was no + longer included within the precincts of the city. On the fifth day, the + crusaders made a general assault, in the fanatic hope of battering down + the walls without engines, and of scaling them without ladders. By the + dint of brutal force, they burst the first barrier; but they were driven + back with shame and slaughter to the camp: the influence of vision and + prophecy was deadened by the too frequent abuse of those pious stratagems; + and time and labor were found to be the only means of victory. The time of + the siege was indeed fulfilled in forty days, but they were forty days of + calamity and anguish. A repetition of the old complaint of famine may be + imputed in some degree to the voracious or disorderly appetite of the + Franks; but the stony soil of Jerusalem is almost destitute of water; the + scanty springs and hasty torrents were dry in the summer season; nor was + the thirst of the besiegers relieved, as in the city, by the artificial + supply of cisterns and aqueducts. The circumjacent country is equally + destitute of trees for the uses of shade or building, but some large beams + were discovered in a cave by the crusaders: a wood near Sichem, the + enchanted grove of Tasso, <a href="#linknote-58.109" + name="linknoteref-58.109" id="linknoteref-58.109">109</a> was cut down: the + necessary timber was transported to the camp by the vigor and dexterity of + Tancred; and the engines were framed by some Genoese artists, who had + fortunately landed in the harbor of Jaffa. Two movable turrets were + constructed at the expense, and in the stations, of the duke of Lorraine + and the count of Tholouse, and rolled forwards with devout labor, not to + the most accessible, but to the most neglected, parts of the + fortification. Raymond’s Tower was reduced to ashes by the fire of the + besieged, but his colleague was more vigilant and successful; <a + href="#linknote-58.1091" name="linknoteref-58.1091" id="linknoteref-58.1091">1091</a> + the enemies were driven by his archers from the rampart; the draw-bridge + was let down; and on a Friday, at three in the afternoon, the day and hour + of the passion, Godfrey of Bouillon stood victorious on the walls of + Jerusalem. His example was followed on every side by the emulation of + valor; and about four hundred and sixty years after the conquest of Omar, + the holy city was rescued from the Mahometan yoke. In the pillage of + public and private wealth, the adventurers had agreed to respect the + exclusive property of the first occupant; and the spoils of the great + mosque, seventy lamps and massy vases of gold and silver, rewarded the + diligence, and displayed the generosity, of Tancred. A bloody sacrifice + was offered by his mistaken votaries to the God of the Christians: + resistance might provoke but neither age nor sex could mollify, their + implacable rage: they indulged themselves three days in a promiscuous + massacre; <a href="#linknote-58.110" name="linknoteref-58.110" + id="linknoteref-58.110">110</a> and the infection of the dead bodies + produced an epidemical disease. After seventy thousand Moslems had been + put to the sword, and the harmless Jews had been burnt in their synagogue, + they could still reserve a multitude of captives, whom interest or + lassitude persuaded them to spare. Of these savage heroes of the cross, + Tancred alone betrayed some sentiments of compassion; yet we may praise + the more selfish lenity of Raymond, who granted a capitulation and + safe-conduct to the garrison of the citadel. <a href="#linknote-58.111" + name="linknoteref-58.111" id="linknoteref-58.111">111</a> The holy sepulchre + was now free; and the bloody victors prepared to accomplish their vow. + Bareheaded and barefoot, with contrite hearts, and in an humble posture, + they ascended the hill of Calvary, amidst the loud anthems of the clergy; + kissed the stone which had covered the Savior of the world; and bedewed + with tears of joy and penitence the monument of their redemption. This + union of the fiercest and most tender passions has been variously + considered by two philosophers; by the one, <a href="#linknote-58.112" + name="linknoteref-58.112" id="linknoteref-58.112">112</a> as easy and + natural; by the other, <a href="#linknote-58.113" name="linknoteref-58.113" + id="linknoteref-58.113">113</a> as absurd and incredible. Perhaps it is too + rigorously applied to the same persons and the same hour; the example of + the virtuous Godfrey awakened the piety of his companions; while they + cleansed their bodies, they purified their minds; nor shall I believe that + the most ardent in slaughter and rapine were the foremost in the + procession to the holy sepulchre. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.105" id="linknote-58.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.105">return</a>)<br /> [ See the masterly + description of Tacitus, (Hist. v. 11, 12, 13,) who supposes that the + Jewish lawgivers had provided for a perpetual state of hostility against + the rest of mankind. * Note: This is an exaggerated inference from the + words of Tacitus, who speaks of the founders of the city, not the + lawgivers. Praeviderant conditores, ex diversitate morum, crebra bella; + inde cuncta quamvis adversus loagum obsidium.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.106" id="linknote-58.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.106">return</a>)<br /> [ The lively scepticism + of Voltaire is balanced with sense and erudition by the French author of + the Esprit des Croisades, (tom. iv. p. 386-388,) who observes, that, + according to the Arabians, the inhabitants of Jerusalem must have exceeded + 200,000; that in the siege of Titus, Josephus collects 1,300,000 Jews; + that they are stated by Tacitus himself at 600,000; and that the largest + defalcation, that his accepimus can justify, will still leave them more + numerous than the Roman army.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.107" id="linknote-58.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.107">return</a>)<br /> [ Maundrell, who + diligently perambulated the walls, found a circuit of 4630 paces, or 4167 + English yards, (p. 109, 110: ) from an authentic plan, D’Anville concludes + a measure nearly similar, of 1960 French toises, (p. 23-29,) in his scarce + and valuable tract. For the topography of Jerusalem, see Reland, + (Palestina, tom. ii. p. 832-860.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.108" id="linknote-58.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.108">return</a>)<br /> [ Jerusalem was + possessed only of the torrent of Kedron, dry in summer, and of the little + spring or brook of Siloe, (Reland, tom. i. p. 294, 300.) Both strangers + and natives complain of the want of water, which, in time of war, was + studiously aggravated. Within the city, Tacitus mentions a perennial + fountain, an aqueduct and cisterns for rain water. The aqueduct was + conveyed from the rivulet Tekos or Etham, which is likewise mentioned by + Bohadin, (in Vit. Saludio p. 238.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.109" id="linknote-58.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.109">return</a>)<br /> [ Gierusalomme + Liberata, canto xiii. It is pleasant enough to observe how Tasso has + copied and embellished the minutest details of the siege.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.1091" id="linknote-58.1091"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1091 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.1091">return</a>)<br /> [ This does not + appear by Wilken’s account, (p. 294.) They fought in vair the whole of the + Thursday.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.110" id="linknote-58.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.110">return</a>)<br /> [ Besides the Latins, + who are not ashamed of the massacre, see Elmacin, (Hist. Saracen. p. 363,) + Abulpharagius, (Dynast. p. 243,) and M. De Guignes, tom. ii. p. ii. p. 99, + from Aboulmahasen.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.111" id="linknote-58.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.111">return</a>)<br /> [ The old tower + Psephina, in the middle ages Neblosa, was named Castellum Pisanum, from + the patriarch Daimbert. It is still the citadel, the residence of the + Turkish aga, and commands a prospect of the Dead Sea, Judea, and Arabia, + (D’Anville, p. 19-23.) It was likewise called the Tower of David.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.112" id="linknote-58.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.112">return</a>)<br /> [ Hume, in his History + of England, vol. i. p. 311, 312, octavo edition.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.113" id="linknote-58.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.113">return</a>)<br /> [ Voltaire, in his + Essai sur l’Histoire Generale, tom ii. c. 54, p 345, 346] + </p> + <p> + Eight days after this memorable event, which Pope Urban did not live to + hear, the Latin chiefs proceeded to the election of a king, to guard and + govern their conquests in Palestine. Hugh the Great, and Stephen of + Chartres, had retired with some loss of reputation, which they strove to + regain by a second crusade and an honorable death. Baldwin was established + at Edessa, and Bohemond at Antioch; and two Roberts, the duke of Normandy + <a href="#linknote-58.114" name="linknoteref-58.114" id="linknoteref-58.114">114</a> + and the count of Flanders, preferred their fair inheritance in the West to + a doubtful competition or a barren sceptre. The jealousy and ambition of + Raymond were condemned by his own followers, and the free, the just, the + unanimous voice of the army proclaimed Godfrey of Bouillon the first and + most worthy of the champions of Christendom. His magnanimity accepted a + trust as full of danger as of glory; but in a city where his Savior had + been crowned with thorns, the devout pilgrim rejected the name and ensigns + of royalty; and the founder of the kingdom of Jerusalem contented himself + with the modest title of Defender and Baron of the Holy Sepulchre. His + government of a single year, <a href="#linknote-58.115" + name="linknoteref-58.115" id="linknoteref-58.115">115</a> too short for the + public happiness, was interrupted in the first fortnight by a summons to + the field, by the approach of the vizier or sultan of Egypt, who had been + too slow to prevent, but who was impatient to avenge, the loss of + Jerusalem. His total overthrow in the battle of Ascalon sealed the + establishment of the Latins in Syria, and signalized the valor of the + French princes who in this action bade a long farewell to the holy wars. + </p> + <p> + Some glory might be derived from the prodigious inequality of numbers, + though I shall not count the myriads of horse and foot <a + href="#linknote-58.1151" name="linknoteref-58.1151" id="linknoteref-58.1151">1151</a> + on the side of the Fatimites; but, except three thousand Ethiopians or + Blacks, who were armed with flails or scourges of iron, the Barbarians of + the South fled on the first onset, and afforded a pleasing comparison + between the active valor of the Turks and the sloth and effeminacy of the + natives of Egypt. After suspending before the holy sepulchre the sword and + standard of the sultan, the new king (he deserves the title) embraced his + departing companions, and could retain only with the gallant Tancred three + hundred knights, and two thousand foot-soldiers for the defence of + Palestine. His sovereignty was soon attacked by a new enemy, the only one + against whom Godfrey was a coward. Adhemar, bishop of Puy, who excelled + both in council and action, had been swept away in the last plague at + Antioch: the remaining ecclesiastics preserved only the pride and avarice + of their character; and their seditious clamors had required that the + choice of a bishop should precede that of a king. The revenue and + jurisdiction of the lawful patriarch were usurped by the Latin clergy: the + exclusion of the Greeks and Syrians was justified by the reproach of + heresy or schism; <a href="#linknote-58.116" name="linknoteref-58.116" + id="linknoteref-58.116">116</a> and, under the iron yoke of their + deliverers, the Oriental Christians regretted the tolerating government of + the Arabian caliphs. Daimbert, archbishop of Pisa, had long been trained + in the secret policy of Rome: he brought a fleet at his countrymen to the + succor of the Holy Land, and was installed, without a competitor, the + spiritual and temporal head of the church. <a href="#linknote-58.1161" + name="linknoteref-58.1161" id="linknoteref-58.1161">1161</a> The new + patriarch <a href="#linknote-58.117" name="linknoteref-58.117" + id="linknoteref-58.117">117</a> immediately grasped the sceptre which had + been acquired by the toil and blood of the victorious pilgrims; and both + Godfrey and Bohemond submitted to receive at his hands the investiture of + their feudal possessions. Nor was this sufficient; Daimbert claimed the + immediate property of Jerusalem and Jaffa; instead of a firm and generous + refusal, the hero negotiated with the priest; a quarter of either city was + ceded to the church; and the modest bishop was satisfied with an eventual + reversion of the rest, on the death of Godfrey without children, or on the + future acquisition of a new seat at Cairo or Damascus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.114" id="linknote-58.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.114">return</a>)<br /> [ The English ascribe + to Robert of Normandy, and the Provincials to Raymond of Tholouse, the + glory of refusing the crown; but the honest voice of tradition has + preserved the memory of the ambition and revenge (Villehardouin, No. 136) + of the count of St. Giles. He died at the siege of Tripoli, which was + possessed by his descendants.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.115" id="linknote-58.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.115">return</a>)<br /> [ See the election, the + battle of Ascalon, &c., in William of Tyre l. ix. c. 1-12, and in the + conclusion of the Latin historians of the first crusade.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.1151" id="linknote-58.1151"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1151 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.1151">return</a>)<br /> [ 20,000 Franks, + 300,000 Mussulmen, according to Wilken, (vol. ii. p. 9)—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.116" id="linknote-58.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.116">return</a>)<br /> [ Renaudot, Hist. + Patriarch. Alex. p. 479.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.1161" id="linknote-58.1161"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1161 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.1161">return</a>)<br /> [ Arnulf was first + chosen, but illegitimately, and degraded. He was ever after the secret + enemy of Daimbert or Dagobert. Wilken, vol. i. p. 306, vol. ii. p. 52.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.117" id="linknote-58.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.117">return</a>)<br /> [ See the claims of the + patriarch Daimbert, in William of Tyre (l. ix. c. 15-18, x. 4, 7, 9,) who + asserts with marvellous candor the independence of the conquerors and + kings of Jerusalem.] + </p> + <p> + Without this indulgence, the conqueror would have almost been stripped of + his infant kingdom, which consisted only of Jerusalem and Jaffa, with + about twenty villages and towns of the adjacent country. <a + href="#linknote-58.118" name="linknoteref-58.118" id="linknoteref-58.118">118</a> + Within this narrow verge, the Mahometans were still lodged in some + impregnable castles: and the husbandman, the trader, and the pilgrim, were + exposed to daily and domestic hostility. By the arms of Godfrey himself, + and of the two Baldwins, his brother and cousin, who succeeded to the + throne, the Latins breathed with more ease and safety; and at length they + equalled, in the extent of their dominions, though not in the millions of + their subjects, the ancient princes of Judah and Israel. <a + href="#linknote-58.119" name="linknoteref-58.119" id="linknoteref-58.119">119</a> + After the reduction of the maritime cities of Laodicea, Tripoli, Tyre, and + Ascalon, <a href="#linknote-58.120" name="linknoteref-58.120" + id="linknoteref-58.120">120</a> which were powerfully assisted by the + fleets of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, and even of Flanders and Norway, <a + href="#linknote-58.121" name="linknoteref-58.121" id="linknoteref-58.121">121</a> + the range of sea-coast from Scanderoon to the borders of Egypt was + possessed by the Christian pilgrims. If the prince of Antioch disclaimed + his supremacy, the counts of Edessa and Tripoli owned themselves the + vassals of the king of Jerusalem: the Latins reigned beyond the Euphrates; + and the four cities of Hems, Hamah, Damascus, and Aleppo, were the only + relics of the Mahometan conquests in Syria. <a href="#linknote-58.122" + name="linknoteref-58.122" id="linknoteref-58.122">122</a> The laws and + language, the manners and titles, of the French nation and Latin church, + were introduced into these transmarine colonies. According to the feudal + jurisprudence, the principal states and subordinate baronies descended in + the line of male and female succession: <a href="#linknote-58.123" + name="linknoteref-58.123" id="linknoteref-58.123">123</a> but the children + of the first conquerors, <a href="#linknote-58.124" name="linknoteref-58.124" + id="linknoteref-58.124">124</a> a motley and degenerate race, were + dissolved by the luxury of the climate; the arrival of new crusaders from + Europe was a doubtful hope and a casual event. The service of the feudal + tenures <a href="#linknote-58.125" name="linknoteref-58.125" + id="linknoteref-58.125">125</a> was performed by six hundred and sixty-six + knights, who might expect the aid of two hundred more under the banner of + the count of Tripoli; and each knight was attended to the field by four + squires or archers on horseback. <a href="#linknote-58.126" + name="linknoteref-58.126" id="linknoteref-58.126">126</a> Five thousand and + seventy sergeants, most probably foot-soldiers, were supplied by the + churches and cities; and the whole legal militia of the kingdom could not + exceed eleven thousand men, a slender defence against the surrounding + myriads of Saracens and Turks. <a href="#linknote-58.127" + name="linknoteref-58.127" id="linknoteref-58.127">127</a> But the firmest + bulwark of Jerusalem was founded on the knights of the Hospital of St. + John, <a href="#linknote-58.128" name="linknoteref-58.128" + id="linknoteref-58.128">128</a> and of the temple of Solomon; <a + href="#linknote-58.129" name="linknoteref-58.129" id="linknoteref-58.129">129</a> + on the strange association of a monastic and military life, which + fanaticism might suggest, but which policy must approve. The flower of the + nobility of Europe aspired to wear the cross, and to profess the vows, of + these respectable orders; their spirit and discipline were immortal; and + the speedy donation of twenty-eight thousand farms, or manors, <a + href="#linknote-58.130" name="linknoteref-58.130" id="linknoteref-58.130">130</a> + enabled them to support a regular force of cavalry and infantry for the + defence of Palestine. The austerity of the convent soon evaporated in the + exercise of arms; the world was scandalized by the pride, avarice, and + corruption of these Christian soldiers; their claims of immunity and + jurisdiction disturbed the harmony of the church and state; and the public + peace was endangered by their jealous emulation. But in their most + dissolute period, the knights of their hospital and temple maintained + their fearless and fanatic character: they neglected to live, but they + were prepared to die, in the service of Christ; and the spirit of + chivalry, the parent and offspring of the crusades, has been transplanted + by this institution from the holy sepulchre to the Isle of Malta. <a + href="#linknote-58.131" name="linknoteref-58.131" id="linknoteref-58.131">131</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.118" id="linknote-58.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.118">return</a>)<br /> [ Willerm. Tyr. l. x. + 19. The Historia Hierosolimitana of Jacobus a Vitriaco (l. i. c. 21-50) + and the Secreta Fidelium Crucis of Marinus Sanutus (l. iii. p. 1) describe + the state and conquests of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.119" id="linknote-58.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.119">return</a>)<br /> [ An actual muster, not + including the tribes of Levi and Benjamin, gave David an army of 1,300,000 + or 1,574,000 fighting men; which, with the addition of women, children, + and slaves, may imply a population of thirteen millions, in a country + sixty leagues in length, and thirty broad. The honest and rational Le + Clerc (Comment on 2d Samuel xxiv. and 1st Chronicles, xxi.) aestuat + angusto in limite, and mutters his suspicion of a false transcript; a + dangerous suspicion! * Note: David determined to take a census of his vast + dominions, which extended from Lebanon to the frontiers of Egypt, from the + Euphrates to the Mediterranean. The numbers (in 2 Sam. xxiv. 9, and 1 + Chron. xxi. 5) differ; but the lowest gives 800,000 men fit to bear arms + in Israel, 500,000 in Judah. Hist. of Jews, vol. i. p. 248. Gibbon has + taken the highest census in his estimate of the population, and confined + the dominions of David to Jordandic Palestine.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.120" id="linknote-58.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.120">return</a>)<br /> [ These sieges are + related, each in its proper place, in the great history of William of + Tyre, from the ixth to the xviiith book, and more briefly told by + Bernardus Thesaurarius, (de Acquisitione Terrae Sanctae, c. 89-98, p. + 732-740.) Some domestic facts are celebrated in the Chronicles of Pisa, + Genoa, and Venice, in the vith, ixth, and xiith tomes of Muratori.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.121" id="linknote-58.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.121">return</a>)<br /> [ Quidam populus de + insulis occidentis egressus, et maxime de ea parte quae Norvegia dicitur. + William of Tyre (l. xi. c. 14, p. 804) marks their course per Britannicum + Mare et Calpen to the siege of Sidon.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.122" id="linknote-58.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.122">return</a>)<br /> [ Benelathir, apud De + Guignes, Hist. des Huns, tom. ii. part ii. p. 150, 151, A.D. 1127. He must + speak of the inland country.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.123" id="linknote-58.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.123">return</a>)<br /> [ Sanut very sensibly + descants on the mischiefs of female succession, in a land hostibus + circumdata, ubi cuncta virilia et virtuosa esse deberent. Yet, at the + summons, and with the approbation, of her feudal lord, a noble damsel was + obliged to choose a husband and champion, (Assises de Jerusalem, c. 242, + &c.) See in M. De Guignes (tom. i. p. 441-471) the accurate and useful + tables of these dynasties, which are chiefly drawn from the Lignages + d’Outremer.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.124" id="linknote-58.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.124">return</a>)<br /> [ They were called by + derision Poullains, Pallani, and their name is never pronounced without + contempt, (Ducange, Gloss. Latin. tom. v. p. 535; and Observations sur + Joinville, p. 84, 85; Jacob. a Vitriaco Hist. Hierosol. i. c. 67, 72; and + Sanut, l. iii. p. viii. c. 2, p. 182.) Illustrium virorum, qui ad Terrae + Sanctae.... liberationem in ipsa manserunt, degeneres filii.... in + deliciis enutriti, molles et effoe minati, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.125" id="linknote-58.125"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.125">return</a>)<br /> [ This authentic detail + is extracted from the Assises de Jerusalem (c. 324, 326-331.) Sanut (l. + iii. p. viii. c. 1, p. 174) reckons only 518 knights, and 5775 followers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.126" id="linknote-58.126"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.126">return</a>)<br /> [ The sum total, and + the division, ascertain the service of the three great baronies at 100 + knights each; and the text of the Assises, which extends the number to + 500, can only be justified by this supposition.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.127" id="linknote-58.127"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.127">return</a>)<br /> [ Yet on great + emergencies (says Sanut) the barons brought a voluntary aid; decentem + comitivam militum juxta statum suum.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.128" id="linknote-58.128"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.128">return</a>)<br /> [ William of Tyre (l. + xviii. c. 3, 4, 5) relates the ignoble origin and early insolence of the + Hospitallers, who soon deserted their humble patron, St. John the + Eleemosynary, for the more august character of St. John the Baptist, (see + the ineffectual struggles of Pagi, Critica, A. D 1099, No. 14-18.) They + assumed the profession of arms about the year 1120; the Hospital was + mater; the Temple filia; the Teutonic order was founded A.D. 1190, at the + siege of Acre, (Mosheim Institut p. 389, 390.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.129" id="linknote-58.129"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.129">return</a>)<br /> [ See St. Bernard de + Laude Novae Militiae Templi, composed A.D. 1132-1136, in Opp. tom. i. p. + ii. p. 547-563, edit. Mabillon, Venet. 1750. Such an encomium, which is + thrown away on the dead Templars, would be highly valued by the historians + of Malta.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.130" id="linknote-58.130"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.130">return</a>)<br /> [ Matthew Paris, Hist. + Major, p. 544. He assigns to the Hospitallers 19,000, to the Templars + 9,000 maneria, word of much higher import (as Ducange has rightly + observed) in the English than in the French idiom. Manor is a lordship, + manoir a dwelling.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.131" id="linknote-58.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.131">return</a>)<br /> [ In the three first + books of the Histoire de Chevaliers de Malthe par l’Abbe de Vertot, the + reader may amuse himself with a fair, and sometimes flattering, picture of + the order, while it was employed for the defence of Palestine. The + subsequent books pursue their emigration to Rhodes and Malta.] + </p> + <p> + The spirit of freedom, which pervades the feudal institutions, was felt in + its strongest energy by the volunteers of the cross, who elected for their + chief the most deserving of his peers. Amidst the slaves of Asia, + unconscious of the lesson or example, a model of political liberty was + introduced; and the laws of the French kingdom are derived from the purest + source of equality and justice. Of such laws, the first and indispensable + condition is the assent of those whose obedience they require, and for + whose benefit they are designed. No sooner had Godfrey of Bouillon + accepted the office of supreme magistrate, than he solicited the public + and private advice of the Latin pilgrims, who were the best skilled in the + statutes and customs of Europe. From these materials, with the counsel and + approbation of the patriarch and barons, of the clergy and laity, Godfrey + composed the Assise of Jerusalem, <a href="#linknote-58.132" + name="linknoteref-58.132" id="linknoteref-58.132">132</a> a precious + monument of feudal jurisprudence. The new code, attested by the seals of + the king, the patriarch, and the viscount of Jerusalem, was deposited in + the holy sepulchre, enriched with the improvements of succeeding times, + and respectfully consulted as often as any doubtful question arose in the + tribunals of Palestine. With the kingdom and city all was lost: <a + href="#linknote-58.133" name="linknoteref-58.133" id="linknoteref-58.133">133</a> + the fragments of the written law were preserved by jealous tradition <a + href="#linknote-58.134" name="linknoteref-58.134" id="linknoteref-58.134">134</a> + and variable practice till the middle of the thirteenth century: the code + was restored by the pen of John d’Ibelin, count of Jaffa, one of the + principal feudatories; <a href="#linknote-58.135" name="linknoteref-58.135" + id="linknoteref-58.135">135</a> and the final revision was accomplished in + the year thirteen hundred and sixty-nine, for the use of the Latin kingdom + of Cyprus. <a href="#linknote-58.136" name="linknoteref-58.136" + id="linknoteref-58.136">136</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.132" id="linknote-58.132"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.132">return</a>)<br /> [ The Assises de + Jerusalem, in old law French, were printed with Beaumanoir’s Coutumes de + Beauvoisis, (Bourges and Paris, 1690, in folio,) and illustrated by + Gaspard Thaumas de la Thaumassiere, with a comment and glossary. An + Italian version had been published in 1534, at Venice, for the use of the + kingdom of Cyprus. * Note: See Wilken, vol. i. p. 17, &c.,—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.133" id="linknote-58.133"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.133">return</a>)<br /> [ A la terre perdue, + tout fut perdu, is the vigorous expression of the Assise, (c. 281.) Yet + Jerusalem capitulated with Saladin; the queen and the principal Christians + departed in peace; and a code so precious and so portable could not + provoke the avarice of the conquerors. I have sometimes suspected the + existence of this original copy of the Holy Sepulchre, which might be + invented to sanctify and authenticate the traditionary customs of the + French in Palestine.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.134" id="linknote-58.134"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.134">return</a>)<br /> [ A noble lawyer, Raoul + de Tabarie, denied the prayer of King Amauri, (A.D. 1195-1205,) that he + would commit his knowledged to writing, and frankly declared, que de ce + qu’il savoit ne feroit-il ja nul borjois son pareill, ne null sage homme + lettre, (c. 281.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.135" id="linknote-58.135"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.135">return</a>)<br /> [ The compiler of this + work, Jean d’Ibelin, was count of Jaffa and Ascalon, lord of Baruth + (Berytus) and Rames, and died A.D. 1266, (Sanut, l. iii. p. ii. c. 5, 8.) + The family of Ibelin, which descended from a younger brother of a count of + Chartres in France, long flourished in Palestine and Cyprus, (see the + Lignages de deca Mer, or d’Outremer, c. 6, at the end of the Assises de + Jerusalem, an original book, which records the pedigrees of the French + adventurers.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.136" id="linknote-58.136"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.136">return</a>)<br /> [ By sixteen + commissioners chosen in the states of the island: the work was finished + the 3d of November, 1369, sealed with four seals and deposited in the + cathedral of Nicosia, (see the preface to the Assises.)] + </p> + <p> + The justice and freedom of the constitution were maintained by two + tribunals of unequal dignity, which were instituted by Godfrey of Bouillon + after the conquest of Jerusalem. The king, in person, presided in the + upper court, the court of the barons. Of these the four most conspicuous + were the prince of Galilee, the lord of Sidon and Caesarea, and the counts + of Jaffa and Tripoli, who, perhaps with the constable and marshal, <a + href="#linknote-58.137" name="linknoteref-58.137" id="linknoteref-58.137">137</a> + were in a special manner the compeers and judges of each other. But all + the nobles, who held their lands immediately of the crown, were entitled + and bound to attend the king’s court; and each baron exercised a similar + jurisdiction on the subordinate assemblies of his own feudatories. The + connection of lord and vassal was honorable and voluntary: reverence was + due to the benefactor, protection to the dependant; but they mutually + pledged their faith to each other; and the obligation on either side might + be suspended by neglect or dissolved by injury. The cognizance of + marriages and testaments was blended with religion, and usurped by the + clergy: but the civil and criminal causes of the nobles, the inheritance + and tenure of their fiefs, formed the proper occupation of the supreme + court. Each member was the judge and guardian both of public and private + rights. It was his duty to assert with his tongue and sword the lawful + claims of the lord; but if an unjust superior presumed to violate the + freedom or property of a vassal, the confederate peers stood forth to + maintain his quarrel by word and deed. They boldly affirmed his innocence + and his wrongs; demanded the restitution of his liberty or his lands; + suspended, after a fruitless demand, their own service; rescued their + brother from prison; and employed every weapon in his defence, without + offering direct violence to the person of their lord, which was ever + sacred in their eyes. <a href="#linknote-58.138" name="linknoteref-58.138" + id="linknoteref-58.138">138</a> In their pleadings, replies, and + rejoinders, the advocates of the court were subtle and copious; but the + use of argument and evidence was often superseded by judicial combat; and + the Assise of Jerusalem admits in many cases this barbarous institution, + which has been slowly abolished by the laws and manners of Europe. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.137" id="linknote-58.137"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.137">return</a>)<br /> [ The cautious John + D’Ibelin argues, rather than affirms, that Tripoli is the fourth barony, + and expresses some doubt concerning the right or pretension of the + constable and marshal, (c. 323.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.138" id="linknote-58.138"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.138">return</a>)<br /> [ Entre seignor et + homme ne n’a que la foi;.... mais tant que l’homme doit a son seignor + reverence en toutes choses, (c. 206.) Tous les hommes dudit royaume sont + par ladite Assise tenus les uns as autres.... et en celle maniere que le + seignor mette main ou face mettre au cors ou au fie d’aucun d’yaus sans + esgard et sans connoissans de court, que tous les autres doivent venir + devant le seignor, &c., (212.) The form of their remonstrances is + conceived with the noble simplicity of freedom.] + </p> + <p> + The trial by battle was established in all criminal cases which affected + the life, or limb, or honor, of any person; and in all civil transactions, + of or above the value of one mark of silver. It appears that in criminal + cases the combat was the privilege of the accuser, who, except in a charge + of treason, avenged his personal injury, or the death of those persons + whom he had a right to represent; but wherever, from the nature of the + charge, testimony could be obtained, it was necessary for him to produce + witnesses of the fact. In civil cases, the combat was not allowed as the + means of establishing the claim of the demandant; but he was obliged to + produce witnesses who had, or assumed to have, knowledge of the fact. The + combat was then the privilege of the defendant; because he charged the + witness with an attempt by perjury to take away his right. He came + therefore to be in the same situation as the appellant in criminal cases. + It was not then as a mode of proof that the combat was received, nor as + making negative evidence, (according to the supposition of Montesquieu; <a + href="#linknote-58.139" name="linknoteref-58.139" id="linknoteref-58.139">139</a> + but in every case the right to offer battle was founded on the right to + pursue by arms the redress of an injury; and the judicial combat was + fought on the same principle, and with the same spirit, as a private duel. + Champions were only allowed to women, and to men maimed or past the age of + sixty. The consequence of a defeat was death to the person accused, or to + the champion or witness, as well as to the accuser himself: but in civil + cases, the demandant was punished with infamy and the loss of his suit, + while his witness and champion suffered ignominious death. In many cases + it was in the option of the judge to award or to refuse the combat: but + two are specified, in which it was the inevitable result of the challenge; + if a faithful vassal gave the lie to his compeer, who unjustly claimed any + portion of their lord’s demesnes; or if an unsuccessful suitor presumed to + impeach the judgment and veracity of the court. He might impeach them, but + the terms were severe and perilous: in the same day he successively fought + all the members of the tribunal, even those who had been absent; a single + defeat was followed by death and infamy; and where none could hope for + victory, it is highly probable that none would adventure the trial. In the + Assise of Jerusalem, the legal subtlety of the count of Jaffa is more + laudably employed to elude, than to facilitate, the judicial combat, which + he derives from a principle of honor rather than of superstition. <a + href="#linknote-58.140" name="linknoteref-58.140" id="linknoteref-58.140">140</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.139" id="linknote-58.139"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.139">return</a>)<br /> [ See l’Esprit des + Loix, l. xxviii. In the forty years since its publication, no work has + been more read and criticized; and the spirit of inquiry which it has + excited is not the least of our obligations to the author.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.140" id="linknote-58.140"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.140">return</a>)<br /> [ For the intelligence + of this obscure and obsolete jurisprudence (c. 80-111) I am deeply + indebted to the friendship of a learned lord, who, with an accurate and + discerning eye, has surveyed the philosophic history of law. By his + studies, posterity might be enriched: the merit of the orator and the + judge can be felt only by his contemporaries.] + </p> + <p> + Among the causes which enfranchised the plebeians from the yoke of feudal + tyranny, the institution of cities and corporations is one of the most + powerful; and if those of Palestine are coeval with the first crusade, + they may be ranked with the most ancient of the Latin world. Many of the + pilgrims had escaped from their lords under the banner of the cross; and + it was the policy of the French princes to tempt their stay by the + assurance of the rights and privileges of freemen. It is expressly + declared in the Assise of Jerusalem, that after instituting, for his + knights and barons, the court of peers, in which he presided himself, + Godfrey of Bouillon established a second tribunal, in which his person was + represented by his viscount. The jurisdiction of this inferior court + extended over the burgesses of the kingdom; and it was composed of a + select number of the most discreet and worthy citizens, who were sworn to + judge, according to the laws of the actions and fortunes of their equals. + <a href="#linknote-58.141" name="linknoteref-58.141" id="linknoteref-58.141">141</a> + In the conquest and settlement of new cities, the example of Jerusalem was + imitated by the kings and their great vassals; and above thirty similar + corporations were founded before the loss of the Holy Land. Another class + of subjects, the Syrians, <a href="#linknote-58.142" + name="linknoteref-58.142" id="linknoteref-58.142">142</a> or Oriental + Christians, were oppressed by the zeal of the clergy, and protected by the + toleration of the state. Godfrey listened to their reasonable prayer, that + they might be judged by their own national laws. A third court was + instituted for their use, of limited and domestic jurisdiction: the sworn + members were Syrians, in blood, language, and religion; but the office of + the president (in Arabic, of the rais) was sometimes exercised by the + viscount of the city. At an immeasurable distance below the nobles, the + burgesses, and the strangers, the Assise of Jerusalem condescends to + mention the villains and slaves, the peasants of the land and the captives + of war, who were almost equally considered as the objects of property. The + relief or protection of these unhappy men was not esteemed worthy of the + care of the legislator; but he diligently provides for the recovery, + though not indeed for the punishment, of the fugitives. Like hounds, or + hawks, who had strayed from the lawful owner, they might be lost and + claimed: the slave and falcon were of the same value; but three slaves, or + twelve oxen, were accumulated to equal the price of the war-horse; and a + sum of three hundred pieces of gold was fixed, in the age of chivalry, as + the equivalent of the more noble animal. <a href="#linknote-58.143" + name="linknoteref-58.143" id="linknoteref-58.143">143</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.141" id="linknote-58.141"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 141 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.141">return</a>)<br /> [ Louis le Gros, who is + considered as the father of this institution in France, did not begin his + reign till nine years (A.D. 1108) after Godfrey of Bouillon, (Assises, c. + 2, 324.) For its origin and effects, see the judicious remarks of Dr. + Robertson, (History of Charles V. vol. i. p. 30-36, 251-265, quarto + edition.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.142" id="linknote-58.142"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 142 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.142">return</a>)<br /> [ Every reader + conversant with the historians of the crusades will understand by the + peuple des Suriens, the Oriental Christians, Melchites, Jacobites, or + Nestorians, who had all adopted the use of the Arabic language, (vol. iv. + p. 593.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-58.143" id="linknote-58.143"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 143 (<a href="#linknoteref-58.143">return</a>)<br /> [ See the Assises de + Jerusalem, (310, 311, 312.) These laws were enacted as late as the year + 1350, in the kingdom of Cyprus. In the same century, in the reign of + Edward I., I understand, from a late publication, (of his Book of + Account,) that the price of a war-horse was not less exorbitant in + England.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div style='display:block;margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE ***</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0;'>This file should be named 735-h.htm or 735-h.zip</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0;'>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in https://www.gutenberg.org/7/3/735/</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will +be renamed. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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