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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Church and the Empire, by D. J. Medley
+
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+Title: The Church and the Empire
+       Being an Outline of the History of the Church from
+       A.D. 1003 to A.D. 1304
+
+Author: D. J. Medley
+
+Release Date: January, 2005 [EBook #7343]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on April 17, 2003]
+
+Edition: 10
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-Latin-1
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by David King, Charles Franks and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+THE CHURCH UNIVERSAL
+Volume IV
+
+THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE
+
+
+THE CHURCH UNIVERSAL
+Brief Histories of Her Continuous Life
+
+A series of eight volumes dealing with the history of the Christian
+Church from the beginning of the present day.
+
+_Edited by_
+The Rev. W. H. Hutton, B.D.
+Fellow and Tutor of S. John's College, Oxford,
+and Examining Chaplain to the Bishop of Rochester
+
+THE CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES.
+The Rev. Lonsdale Ragg, M.A., Vicar of the Tickencote, Rutlandshire,
+and Prebendary of Lincoln Cathedral.
+
+"Mr. Ragg has produced something far better than a mere text-book: the
+earlier chapters especially are particularly interesting reading. The
+whole book is well proportioned and scholarly, and gives the reader
+the benefit of wide reading of the latest authorities. The contrasted
+growth and fortunes of the Judaic Church of Jerusalem and the Church
+of the Gentiles are particularly clearly brought out."--_Church
+Times_.
+
+"Written in a clear and interesting style, and summaries the early
+records of the growth of the Christian community during the first
+century."--_Irish Ecclesiastical Gazette._
+
+"A careful piece of work, which may be read with pleasure and
+profit."--_Spectator_.
+
+THE CHURCH OF THE FATHERS.
+The Rev. Leighton Pullan, M.A., Fellow of St. John's College, and
+Theological Lecturer of St. John's and Oriel Colleges, Oxford.
+
+"If we may forecast the merits of the series by Pullan's volume, we
+are prepared to give it an unhesitating welcome. We shall be surprised
+if this book does not supersede of the less interesting Church
+histories which have served as text-books for several generations of
+theological students."--_Guardian_.
+
+"The student of this important period of Church history--the formative
+period--has here a clear narrative, packed with information drawn from
+authentic sources and elucidated with the most recent results of
+investigation. We do not know of any other work on Church history in
+which so much learned and accurate instruction is condensed into a
+comparative small space, but at the same time presented in the form of
+an interesting narrative. Alike the beginner and the advanced student
+will find Mr. Pullan a useful guide and companion."--_Church
+Times_.
+
+
+THE CHURCH AND THE BARBARIANS.
+The Editor. _3s. 6d. net._
+
+"In so accomplished hands as Mr. Hutton's the result is an instructive
+and suggestive survey of the course of the Church's development
+throughout five hundred years, and almost as many countries and
+peoples, in Constantinople as well as among the Wends and Prussians,
+in Central Asia as well as in the Western Isles." _Review of
+Theology and Philosophy._
+
+"The volume will be of great value as giving a bird's-eye view of the
+fascinating struggle of the Church with heathenism during those
+spacious centuries."--_Church Times._
+
+
+THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE. 1003-1304.
+By D. J. Medley, M.A., Professor of History in the University
+of Glasgow. _4s. 6d. net._
+
+
+THE AGE OF SCHISM. 1304-1503.
+By Herbert Bruce, M.A., Professor of History in the
+University College, Cardiff.
+
+"We commend the book as being fair in its judicial criticism, a great
+point where so thorny a subject as the Great Schism and its issues are
+discussed. The art of reading the times, whether ancient or modern,
+has descended from Mr. W. H. Hutton to his pupil." _Pall Mall
+Gazette._
+
+"It is a great period for so small a book, but a master of his subject
+knows always what to leave out, and this volume covers the period in
+comfort."--_Expository Times._
+
+"Usually such an 'outline' is a bald and bloodless summary, but Mr.
+Bruce has written a narrative which is both readable and
+well-informed. We have pleasure in commending his interesting and
+scholarly work."--_Glasgow Herald._
+
+
+THE REFORMATION. 1503-1648.
+
+By the Rev. J. P. Whitney, B.D., Professor of Ecclesiastical
+History at King's College, London. _5s. net._
+
+"A book on the Reformation as a whole, not only in England, but in
+Europe, has long been needed.... This present volume fills,
+therefore, a real want, for in it the Reformation is treated as a
+whole.... The value of the book is quite out of proportion to its
+size, and its importance will be appreciated by all those whose duty
+or inclination calls to study the Reformation."--_Guardian_.
+
+"It is certainly a very full and excellent outline. There is scarcely
+a point in this momentous time in regard to which the student, and,
+indeed, the ordinary reader, will not find here very considerable
+help, as well as suggestive hints for further study."--_Church Union
+Gazette_.
+
+THE AGE OF REVOLUTION. 1648-1815.
+
+By the Editor. _4s. 6d. net_.
+
+"The period is a long one for so small a book, but Mr. Hutton has the
+gift not of condensing, which is not required, but of selecting the
+essential events and vividly characterizing them."--_Expository
+Times_.
+
+"Mr. Hutton's past studies in Ecclesiastical History are sure to
+secure him a welcome in this new venture. There is a breadth of
+treatment, an accurate perspective, and a charitable spirit in all
+that he writes which make him a worthy associate of Creighton and
+Stubbs in the great field of history."--_Aberdeen Journal_.
+
+THE CHURCH OF MODERN DAYS. 1815-1900.
+
+By the Rev. Leighton Pullan, M.A. [_In preparation._]
+
+London: Rivingtons
+
+
+
+
+THE CHURCH
+AND THE EMPIRE
+
+Being an outline of
+the history of the church
+from A.D. 1003 to A.D. 1304
+
+By
+
+D. J. Medley, M.A.
+Professor of History in the University of Glasgow
+
+
+
+
+EDITORIAL NOTE
+
+While there is a general agreement among the writers as to principles,
+the greatest freedom as to treatment is allowed to writers in this
+series. The volumes, for example, are not of the same length. Volume
+II, which deals with the formative period of the Church, is, not
+unnaturally, longer in proportion than the others. To Volume VI, which
+deals with the Reformation, has been allotted a similar extension. The
+authors, again, use their own discretion in such matters as footnotes
+and lists of authorities. But the aim of the series, which each writer
+sets before him, is to tell, clearly and accurately, the story of the
+Church, as a divine institution with a continuous life.
+
+W. H. Hutton
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The late appearance of this volume of the series needs some
+explanation. Portions of the book have been written at intervals; but
+it is only the enforced idleness of a long convalescence after illness
+which has given me the requisite leisure to finish it.
+
+I have tried to avoid overloading my pages with details of political
+history; but in no period is it so easy to miss the whole lesson of
+events by an attempt to isolate the special influences which affected
+the organised society of the Church. The interpretation which I have
+adopted of the important events at Canossa is not, of course,
+universally accepted; but the fact that it has seldom found expression
+in any English work may serve as my excuse.
+
+The Editor of the series, The Rev. W. H. Hutton, has laid me under a
+deep obligation, first, by his long forbearance, and more lately, by
+his frequent and careful suggestions over the whole book. It is
+dangerous for laymen to meddle with questions of technical theology. I
+trust that, guided by his expert hand, I have not fallen into any
+recognisable heresy!
+
+Mears Ashby,
+_October_, 1910.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+INTRODUCTORY
+
+CHAPTER I
+THE BEGINNINGS OF CHURCH REFORM
+
+CHAPTER II
+GREGORY VII AND LAY INVESTITURE
+
+CHAPTER III
+THE END OF THE QUARREL
+
+CHAPTER IV
+THE SECULAR CLERGY
+
+CHAPTER V
+CANONS AND MONKS
+
+CHAPTER VI
+ST. BERNARD
+
+CHAPTER VII
+THE SCHOOLMEN AND THEOLOGY
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+GUELF AND GHIBELLINE (I)
+
+CHAPTER IX
+INNOCENT III
+
+CHAPTER X
+THE PAPAL POWER IN THE CHURCH
+
+CHAPTER XI
+DOCTRINE AND DISCIPLINE OF THE CHURCH
+
+CHAPTER XII
+HERESIES
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+THE MENDICANT ORDERS
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+THE CHURCH AND THE HEATHEN
+
+CHAPTER XV
+GUELF AND GHIBELLINE (II)
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE AND OF THE PAPACY
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+THE CHURCHES OF THE EAST
+
+
+
+The Church and the Empire
+
+Introductory
+
+
+[Sidenote: Political thought in Middle Ages.]
+
+The period of three centuries which forms our theme is the central
+period of the Middle Ages. Its interests are manifold; but they almost
+all centre round the great struggle between Empire and Papacy, which
+gives to mediaeval history an unity conspicuously lacking in more
+modern times. The history of the Church during these three hundred
+years is more political than at any other period. In order to
+understand the reason for this it will be well at the outset to sketch
+in brief outline the political theories propounded in the Middle Ages
+on the relations of Church and State. So only can we avoid the
+inevitable confusion of mind which must result from the use of terms
+familiar in modern life.
+
+[Sidenote: Unity of world.]
+
+Medieval thought, then, drawing its materials from Roman, Germanic and
+Christian sources, conceived the Universe as _Civitas Dei_, the
+State of God, embracing both heaven and earth, with God as at once the
+source, the guide and the ultimate goal. Now this Universe contains
+numerous parts, one of which is composed of mankind; and the destiny
+of mankind is identified with that of Christendom. Hence it follows
+that mankind may be described as the Commonwealth of the Human Race;
+and unity under one law and one government is essential to the
+attainment of the divine purpose.
+
+[Sidenote: Duality of organisation.]
+
+But this very unity of the whole Universe gives a double aspect to the
+life of mankind, which has to be spent in this world with a view to
+its continuation in the next. Thus God has appointed two separate
+Orders, each complete in its own sphere, the one concerned with the
+arrangement of affairs for this life, the other charged with the
+preparation of mankind for the life to come.
+
+[Sidenote: Relations of Church and State.]
+
+But this dualism of allegiance was in direct conflict with the idea of
+unity. The two separate Orders were distinguished as
+_Sacerdotium_ and _Regnum_ or _Imperium_; and the need
+felt by mediaeval thinkers for reconciling these two in the higher
+unity of the _Civitas Dei_ began speculations on the relation
+between the ecclesiastical and the secular spheres.
+
+[Sidenote: Theory of Church party.]
+
+The champions of the former found a reconciliation of the two spheres
+to consist in the absorption of the secular by the ecclesiastical. The
+one community into which, by the admission of all, united mankind was
+gathered, must needs be the Church of God. Of this Christ is the Head.
+But in order to realise this unity on earth Christ has appointed a
+representative, the Pope, who is therefore the head of both spheres in
+this world. But along with this unity it must be allowed that God has
+sanctioned the separate existence of the secular no less than that of
+the ecclesiastical dominion. This separation, however, according to
+the advocates of papal power, did not affect the deposit of authority,
+but affected merely the manner of its exercise. Spiritual and temporal
+power in this world alike belonged to the representative of Christ.
+
+[Sidenote: Sinful origin of State.]
+
+But the bolder advocates of ecclesiastical power were ready to explain
+away the divine sanction of temporal authority. Actually existing
+states have often originated in violence. Thus the State in its
+earthly origin may be regarded as the work of human nature as affected
+by the Fall of Man: like sin itself, it is permitted by God.
+Consequently it needs the sanction of the Church in order to remove
+the taint. Hence, at best, the temporal power is subject to the
+ecclesiastical: it is merely a means for working out the higher
+purpose entrusted to the Church. Pope Gregory VII goes farther still
+in depreciation of the temporal power. He declares roundly that it is
+the work of sin and the devil. "Who does not know," he writes, "that
+kings and dukes have derived their power from those who, ignoring God,
+in their blind desire and intolerable presumption have aspired to rule
+over their equals, that is, men, by pride, plunder, perfidy, murder,
+in short by every kind of wickedness, at the instigation of the prince
+of this world, namely, the devil?" But in this he is only re-echoing
+the teaching of St. Augustine; and he is followed, among other
+representative writers, by John of Salisbury, the secretary and
+champion of Thomas Becket, and by Pope Innocent III. To all three
+there is an instructive contrast between a power divinely conferred
+and one that has at the best been wrested from God by human
+importunity.
+
+[Sidenote: Illustration of relations.]
+
+There are two illustrations of the relation between the spiritual and
+secular powers very common among papal writers. Gregory VII, at the
+beginning of his reign, compares them to the two eyes in a man's head.
+But he soon substitutes for this symbol of theoretical equality a
+comparison to the sun and moon, or to the soul and body, whereby he
+claims for the spiritual authority, as represented by the soul or the
+sun, the operative and illuminating power in the world, without and
+apart from which the temporal authority has no efficacy and scarcely
+any existence. An illustration equally common, but susceptible of more
+diverse interpretation, was drawn from the two swords offered to our
+Lord by His disciples just before the betrayal. It was St. Bernard
+who, taking up the idea of previous writers that these represented the
+sword of the flesh and the sword of the spirit respectively, first
+claimed that they both belonged to the Church, but that, while the
+latter was wielded immediately by St. Peter's successor, the
+injunction to the Apostle to put up in its sheath the sword of the
+flesh which he had drawn in defence of Christ, merely indicated that
+he was not to handle it himself. Consequently he had entrusted to lay
+hands this sword which denotes the temporal power. Both swords,
+however, still belonged to the Pope and typified his universal
+control. By virtue of his possession of the spiritual sword he can use
+spiritual means for supervising or correcting all secular acts. But
+although he should render to Caesar what is Caesar's, yet his material
+power over the temporal sword also justifies the Pope in intervening
+in temporal matters when necessity demands. This is the explanation of
+the much debated _Translatio Imperii,_ the transference of the
+imperial authority in 800 A.D. from the Greeks to the Franks. It is
+the Emperor to whom, in the first instance, the Pope has entrusted the
+secular sword; he is, in feudal phraseology, merely the chief vassal
+of the Pope. It is the unction and coronation of the Emperor by the
+Pope which confer the imperial power upon the Emperor Elect. The
+choice by the German nobles is a papal concession which may be
+recalled at any time. Hence, if the imperial throne is vacant, if
+there is a disputed election, or if the reigning Emperor is neglectful
+of his duties, it is for the Pope to act as guardian or as judge; and,
+of course, the powers which he can exercise in connection with the
+Empire he is still more justified in using against any lesser temporal
+prince.
+
+[Sidenote: Theory of Imperial party.]
+
+To this very thorough presentation of the claims of the ecclesiastical
+power the partisans of secular authority had only a half-hearted
+doctrine to oppose. Ever since the days of Pope Gelasius I (492-6),
+the Church herself had accepted the view of a strict dualism in the
+organisation of society and, therefore, of the theoretical equality
+between the ecclesiastical and the secular organs of government.
+According to this doctrine Sacerdotium and Imperium are independent
+spheres, each wielding the one of the two swords appropriate to
+itself, and thus the Emperor no less than the Pope is _Vicarius
+Dei_. It is this doctrine behind which the champions of the Empire
+entrench themselves in their contest with the Papacy. It was asserted
+by the Emperors themselves, notably by Frederick I and Frederick II,
+and it has been enshrined in the writings of Dante.
+
+[Sidenote: Its weakness.]
+
+The weak point of this theory was that it was rather a thesis for
+academic debate than a rallying cry for the field of battle. Popular
+contests are for victory, not for delimitation of territory. And its
+weakness was apparent in this, that while the thorough-going partisans
+of the Church allowed to the Emperor practically no power except such
+as he obtained by concession of or delegation from the Church, the
+imperial theory granted to the ecclesiastical representative at least
+an authority and independence equal to those claimed for itself, and
+readily admitted that of the two powers the Church could claim the
+greater respect as being entrusted with the conduct of matters that
+were of more permanent importance.
+
+Moreover, historical facts contradicted this idea of equality of
+powers. The Church through her representatives often interfered with
+decisive effect in the election and the rejection of secular
+potentates up to the Emperor himself: she claimed that princes were as
+much subject to her jurisdiction as other laymen, and she did not
+hesitate to make good that claim even to the excommunication of a
+refractory ruler and--its corollary--the release of his subjects from
+their oath of allegiance. Finally, the Church awoke a responsive echo
+in the hearts of all those liable to oppression or injustice, when she
+asserted a right of interposing in purely secular matters for the sake
+of shielding them from wrong; while she met a real need of the age in
+her exaltation of the papal power as the general referee in all cases
+of difficult or doubtful jurisdiction.
+
+Thus the claims of each power as against the other were not at all
+commensurate. For while the imperialists would agree that there was a
+wide sphere of ecclesiastical rule with which the Emperor had no
+concern at all, it was held by the papalists that there was nothing
+done by the Emperor in any capacity which it was not within the
+competence of the Pope to supervise.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE BEGINNINGS OF CHURCH REFORM
+
+
+Previous to the eleventh century there had been quarrels between
+Emperor and Pope. Occasional Popes, such as Nicholas I (858-67), had
+asserted high prerogatives for the successor of St. Peter, but we have
+seen that the Church herself taught the co-ordinate and the mutual
+dependence of the ecclesiastical and secular powers. It was the
+circumstances of the tenth century which caused the Church to assume a
+less complacent attitude and, in her efforts to prevent her absorption
+by the State, to attempt the reduction of the State to a mere
+department of the Church.
+
+[Sidenote: Lay investiture of ecclesiastics.]
+
+With the acceptance of Christianity as the official religion of the
+Empire the organisation of the Church tended to follow the
+arrangements for purposes of civil government. And when at a later
+period civil society was gradually organising itself on that
+hierarchical model which we know as feudalism, the Church, in the
+persons of its officers, was tending to become not so much the
+counterpart of the State as an integral part of it. For the clergy, as
+being the only educated class, were used by the Kings as civil
+administrators, and on the great officials of the Church were bestowed
+extensive estates which should make them a counterpoise to the secular
+nobles. In theory the clergy and people of the diocese still elected
+their bishop, but in reality he came to be nominated by the King, at
+whose hands he received investiture of his office by the symbolic
+gifts of the ring and the pastoral staff, and to whom he did homage
+for the lands of the see, since by virtue of them he was a baron of
+the realm. Thus for all practical purposes the great ecclesiastic was
+a secular noble, a layman. He had often obtained his high
+ecclesiastical office as a reward for temporal service, and had not
+infrequently paid a large sum of money as an earnest of loyal conduct
+and for the privilege of recouping himself tenfold by unscrupulous use
+of the local patronage which was his.
+
+[Sidenote: Clerical marriage.]
+
+Furthermore, in contravention of the canons of the Church, the secular
+clergy, whether bishops or priests, were very frequently married. The
+Church, it is true, did not consecrate these marriages; but, it is
+said, they were so entirely recognised that the wife of a bishop was
+called Episcopissa. There was an imminent danger that the
+ecclesiastical order would shortly lapse into an hereditary social
+caste, and that the sons of priests inheriting their fathers'
+benefices would merely become another order of landowners.
+
+[Sidenote: Church reform.]
+
+Thus the two evils of traffic in ecclesiastical offices, shortly
+stigmatised as simony and concubinage--for the laws of the Church
+forbade any more decent description of the relationship--threatened to
+absorb the Church within the State. Professional interests and
+considerations of morality alike demanded that these evils should be
+dealt with. Ecclesiastical reformers perceived that the only lasting
+reformation was one which should proceed from the Church herself. It
+was among the secular clergy, the parish priests, that these evils
+were most rife. The monasteries had also gone far away from their
+original ideals; but the tenth century had witnessed the establishment
+of a reformed Benedictine rule in the Congregation of Cluny, and, in
+any case, it was in monastic life alone that the conditions seemed
+suitable for working out any scheme of spiritual improvement. The
+Congregation of Cluny was based upon the idea of centralisation;
+unlike the Abbot of the ordinary Benedictine monastery, who was
+concerned with the affairs of a single house, the Abbot of Cluny
+presided over a number of monasteries, each of which was entrusted
+only to a Prior. Moreover, the Congregation of Cluny was free from the
+visitation of the local bishops and was immediately under the papal
+jurisdiction. What more natural than that the monks of Cluny should
+advocate the application to the Church at large of those principles of
+organisation which had formed so successful a departure from previous
+arrangements in the smaller sphere of Cluny? Thus the advocates of
+Church reform evolved both a negative and a positive policy: the
+abolition of lay investiture and the utter extirpation of the practice
+of clerical marriages were to shake the Church free from the numbing
+control of secular interests, and these were to be accomplished by a
+centralisation of the ecclesiastical organisation in the hands of the
+Pope, which would make him more than a match for the greatest secular
+potentate, the successor of Caesar himself.
+
+[Sidenote: Chances of reform.]
+
+It is true that at the beginning of the eleventh century there seemed
+little chance of the accomplishment of these reforms. If the great
+secular potentates were likely to cling to the practice of investiture
+in order to keep a hold over a body of landowners which, whatever
+their other obligations, controlled perhaps one-third of the lands in
+Western Christendom; yet the Kings of the time were not unsympathetic
+to ecclesiastical reform as interpreted by Cluny. In France both Hugh
+Capet (987-96) and Robert (996-1031) appealed to the Abbot of Cluny
+for help in the improvement of their monasteries, and this example was
+followed by some of their great nobles. In Germany reigned Henry II
+(1002-24), the last of the Saxon line, who was canonised a century
+after his death by a Church penetrated by the influences of Cluny. It
+was the condition of the Papacy which for nearly half a century
+postponed any attempt at a comprehensive scheme of reform. Twice
+already in the course of the tenth century had the intervention of the
+German King, acting as Emperor, rescued the see of Rome from
+unspeakable degradation. But for nearly 150 years (904-1046), with a
+few short interludes, the Papacy was the sport of local factions. At
+the beginning of the eleventh century the leaders of these factions
+were descended from the two daughters of the notorious Theodora; the
+Crescentines who were responsible for three Popes between 1004 and
+1012, owing their influence to the younger Theodora, while the Counts
+of Tusculum were the descendants of the first of the four husbands who
+got such power as they possessed from the infamous Marozia. The first
+Tusculan Pope, Benedict VIII (1012-24), by simulating an interest in
+reform, won the support of Henry II of Germany, whom he crowned
+Emperor; but in 1033 the same faction set up the son of the Count of
+Tusculum, a child of twelve, as Benedict IX. It suited the Emperor,
+Conrad II, to use him and therefore to acknowledge him; but twice the
+scandalised Romans drove out the youthful debauchee and murderer, and
+on the second occasion they elected another Pope in his place. But the
+Tusculan influence was not to be gainsaid. Benedict, however, sold the
+Papacy to John Gratian, who was reputed a man of piety, and whose
+accession as Gregory VI, even though it was a simoniacal transaction,
+was welcomed by the party of reform. But Benedict changed his mind and
+attempted to resume his power. Thus there were three persons in Rome
+who had been consecrated to the papal office. The Archdeacon of Rome
+appealed to the Emperor Conrad's successor, Henry III, who caused Pope
+Gregory to summon a Council to Sutri. Here, or shortly afterwards at
+Rome, all three Popes were deposed, and although Benedict IX made
+another attempt on the papal throne, and even as late as 1058 his
+party set up an anti-pope, the influence of the local factions was
+superseded by that of a stronger power.
+
+[Sidenote: Imperial influence.]
+
+But the alternative offered by the German Kings was no more favourable
+in itself to the schemes of the reformers than the purely local
+influences of the last 150 years. As Otto I in 963, so Henry III in
+1046 obtained from the Romans the recognition of his right, as
+patrician or princeps, to nominate a candidate who should be formally
+elected as their bishop by the Roman people; and as Otto III in 996,
+so Henry III now used his office to nominate a succession of men,
+suitable indeed and distinguished, but of German birth. This was not
+that freedom of the Church from lay control nor the exaltation of the
+papal office through which that freedom was to be maintained. Indeed,
+so long as fear of the Tusculan influence remained, deference to the
+wishes of the German King, who was also Emperor, was indispensable,
+and when that King was as powerful as Henry III it was unwise to
+challenge unnecessarily and directly the exercise of his powers.
+
+[Sidenote: Leo IX (1048-54).]
+
+But Henry, although, like St. Henry at the beginning of the century,
+he kept a strong hand on his own clergy, was yet thoroughly in
+sympathy with what may be distinguished as the moral objects of the
+reformers; and, indeed, the men whom he promoted to the Papacy were
+drawn from the class of higher ecclesiastics who were touched by the
+Cluniac spirit. Henry's first two nominees were short-lived. His third
+choice was his own cousin, Bruno, Bishop of Toul, who accepted with
+reluctance and only on condition that he should go through the
+canonical form of election by the clergy and people of Rome. On his
+way to Rome, which he entered as a pilgrim, he was joined by the late
+chaplain of Pope Gregory VI, Hildebrand, who had been in retirement at
+Cluny since his master's death. Not only did the new Pope, Leo IX,
+take this inflexible advocate of the Church's claims as his chief
+adviser, but he surrounded himself with reforming ecclesiastics from
+beyond the Alps. Thus fortified he issued edicts against simoniacal
+and married clergy; but finding that their literal fulfilment would
+have emptied all existing offices, he was obliged to tone down his
+original threats and to allow clergy guilty of simony to atone their
+fault by an ample penance. But Leo's contribution to the building up
+of the papal power was his personal appearance, not as a suppliant but
+as a judge, beyond the Alps. Three times in his six years' rule he
+passed the confines of Rome and Italy. On the first occasion he even
+held a Council at Rheims, despite the unfriendly attitude of Henry I
+of France, whose efforts, moreover, to keep the French bishops from
+attendance at the Council met with signal failure. Here and elsewhere
+Pope Leo exercised all kinds of powers, forcing bishops and abbots to
+clear themselves by oath from charges of simony and other faults, and
+excommunicating and degrading those who had offended. And while he
+reduced the hierarchy to recognise the papal authority, he overawed
+the people by assuming the central part in stately ceremonies such as
+the consecration of new churches and the exaltation of relics of
+martyrs. All this was possible because the Emperor Henry III supported
+him and welcomed him to a Council at Mainz. Nor was it a matter of
+less importance that these visits taught the people of Western Europe
+to regard the Papacy as the embodiment of justice and the
+representative of a higher morality than that maintained by the local
+Church.
+
+[Sidenote: Effect of Henry III's death.]
+
+Quite unwittingly Henry III's encouragement of Pope Leo's roving
+propensities began the difficulties for his descendants. It is true he
+nominated Leo's successor at the request of the clergy and people of
+Rome; but Henry's death in 1056 left the German throne to a child of
+six under the regency of a woman and a foreigner who found herself
+faced by all the hostile forces hitherto kept under by the Emperor's
+powerful arm. And when Henry's last Pope, Victor II, followed the
+Emperor to the grave in less than a year, the removal of German
+influence was complete. The effect was instantaneous. The first Pope
+elected directly by the Romans was a German indeed by birth, but he
+was the brother of Duke Godfrey of Lorraine, who, driven from Germany
+by Henry, had married the widowed Marchioness of Tuscany. and was
+regarded by a small party as a possible King of Italy and Emperor.
+Whatever danger there was in the schemes of the Lotharingian brothers
+was nipped in the bud by the death of Pope Stephen IX seven months
+after his election. Then it became apparent that the removal of the
+Emperor's strong hand had freed not only the upholders of
+ecclesiastical reform but also the old Roman factions. The attempt was
+easily crushed, but it became clear to the reformers that the papal
+election must be secured beyond all possibility of outside
+interference. At Hildebrand's suggestion and with the approval of the
+German Court, a Burgundian, who was Bishop of Florence, was elected as
+Nicholas II. The very name was a challenge, for the first Nicholas
+(858-67) was perhaps the Pope who up to that time had asserted the
+highest claims for the See of Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: Provision for papal election.]
+
+The short pontificate of the new Nicholas was devoted largely to
+measures for securing the freedom of papal elections from secular
+interference. By a decree passed in a numerously attended Council at
+the Pope's Lateran palace, a College or Corporation was formed of the
+seven bishops of the sees in the immediate neighbourhood of Rome,
+together with the priests of the various Roman parish churches and the
+deacons attendant on them. To the members of this body was now
+specially arrogated the term Cardinal, a name hitherto applicable to
+all clergy ordained and appointed to a definite church. To all Roman
+clergy outside this body and to the people there remained merely the
+right of assent, and even this was destined to disappear. More
+important historically was the merely verbal reservation of the
+imperial right of confirmation, which was further made a matter of
+individual grant to each Emperor who might seek it from the Pope. In
+view of the revived influence of the local factions it was also laid
+down that, although Rome and the Roman clergy had the first claim, yet
+the election might lawfully take place anywhere and any one otherwise
+eligible might be chosen; while the Pope so elected might exercise his
+authority even before he had been enthroned.
+
+[Sidenote: Papacy and Normans.]
+
+But in the presence of a strong Emperor or an unscrupulous faction
+even these elaborate provisions Papacy might be useless. The Papacy
+needed a champion in the flesh, who should have nothing to gain and
+everything to lose by attempting to become its master. Such a
+protector was ready to hand in the Normans, who, recently settled in
+Southern Italy, felt themselves insecure in the title by which they
+held their possessions. Southern Italy was divided between the three
+Lombard duchies of Benevento, Capua and Salerno, and the districts of
+Calabria and Apulia, which acknowledged the Viceroy or Katapan of the
+Eastern Emperor in his seat at Bari. The Saracens, only recently
+expelled from the mainland, still held Sicily. Norman pilgrims
+returning from Palestine became, at the instigation of local factions,
+Norman adventurers, and their leaders obtaining lands from the local
+Princes in return for help, sought confirmation of their title from
+some legitimate authority. The Western Empire had never claimed these
+lands, but none the less Conrad II and Henry III, in return for the
+acceptance of their suzerainty, acknowledged the titles which the
+Norman leaders had already gained from Greek or Lombard. Rome was
+likely to be their next victim, and Leo IX took the opportunity of a
+dispute over the city of Benevento to try conclusions with them. A
+humiliating defeat was followed by a mock submission of the conqueror.
+The danger was in no sense removed. Pope Stephen's schemes for driving
+them out of Italy were cut short by his death, and meanwhile the
+Norman power increased. Thus there could be no question of expulsion,
+nor could the Papacy risk a repetition of the humiliation of Leo IX.
+It was Hildebrand who conceived the idea of turning a dangerous
+neighbour into a friend and protector. A meeting was arranged at Melfi
+between Pope Nicholas and the Norman princes, and there, while on the
+one side canons were issued against clerical marriage, which was rife
+in the south of Italy, on the other side Robert Guiscard, the Norman
+leader, recognised the Pope as his suzerain, and obtained in return
+the title of Duke of Apulia and Calabria and of Sicily when he should
+have conquered it. Pope Leo's agreement, six years before, had been
+made by a defeated and humiliated ecclesiastic with a band of
+unscrupulous adventurers. Pope Nicholas was dealing with an actual
+ruler who merely sought legitimate recognition of his title from any
+whose hostility would make his hold precarious. Thus resting on the
+shadowy basis of the donation of Constantine the Pope substituted
+himself for the Emperor, whether of West or of East, over the whole of
+Southern Italy. Truly the movement for the emancipation of the Church
+from the State was already shaping itself into an attempt at the
+formation of a rival power.
+
+[Sidenote: Alexander II (1061-73) and Milan.]
+
+The value of this new alliance to the Papacy was put to the test
+almost immediately. On the death of Pope Nicholas (1061) the papal and
+imperial parties proceeded to measure their strength against each
+other. The reformers, acting under the leadership of Hildebrand, chose
+as his successor a noble Milanese, Anselm of Baggio, Bishop of Lucca,
+who now became Alexander II. He was elected in accordance with the
+provisions of the recent Lateran decree, and no imperial ratification
+was asked. On the purely ecclesiastical side this choice was a strong
+manifesto against clerical marriage. The city of Milan as the capital
+of the Lombard kingdom of Italy had for many centuries held itself in
+rivalry with Rome. Moreover, it was the stronghold of an aristocratic
+and a married clergy, which based its practice on a supposed privilege
+granted by its Apostle St. Ambrose. But this produced a reforming
+democracy which, perhaps from the quarter whence it gained its chief
+support, was contemptuously named by its opponents the Patarins or
+Rag-pickers. The first leader of this democratic party had been Anselm
+of Baggio. Nicholas II sent thither the fanatical Peter Damiani as
+papal legate, and a fierce struggle ended in the abject submission of
+the Archbishop of Milan, who attended a synod at Rome and promised
+obedience to the Pope.
+
+[Sidenote: German opposition.]
+
+The weak point in the decree of Nicholas II had been that the German
+clergy were not represented at the Council which issued it, and it was
+construed in Germany as a manifest attempt of the reforming party to
+secure the Papacy for Italy as against the German influence maintained
+by Henry III. The Roman nobles also had seen in the decree the design
+of excluding them from any share in the election. It was only by the
+introduction of Norman troops into Rome that the new Pope could be
+installed at the Lateran. A few weeks later a synod met at Basle in
+the presence of the Empress-Regent and the young Henry IV. The latter
+was invested with the title of Patrician, and the election of
+Alexander having been pronounced invalid, a new Pope was chosen in the
+person of another Lombard, Cadalus Bishop of Parma, who had led the
+opposition to the Patarins in the province of Milan. The Normans were
+recalled to their dominions, and the imperialist Pope, Honorius II,
+was installed in Rome. The struggle between the rival Popes lasted for
+three years (1061-4), and fluctuated with the fluctuations of power at
+the German court. Here the young King had fallen under the influence
+of Archbishop Hanno of Köln, who, surrounded by enemies in Germany,
+hoped to gain a party by the betrayal of imperial interests in the
+recognition of the decree of Nicholas II and of the claims of
+Alexander. Again by the help of a Norman force Alexander was installed
+in Rome, where he remained even when Hanno's influence at the German
+court gave way to that of Archbishop Adalbert of Bremen. Honorius,
+however, despite the desertion by the imperialist party, found
+supporters until his death in 1072, and it was only by the arms of
+Duke Godfrey of Tuscany acting for the imperialists and those of his
+own Norman allies that Alexander held Rome until his death.
+
+[Sidenote: Steps towards reformation.]
+
+Meanwhile the ecclesiastical reformation went steadily on under the
+direction of Hildebrand. The young King Henry endeavoured to free
+himself from the great German ecclesiastics who held him in thrall, by
+repudiating the wife whom they had forced upon him. He was checked by
+the austere and resolute papal legate, Peter Damiani, and was obliged
+to accept Bertha of Savoy, to whom subsequently he became much
+attached. Peter Darniani's visit, however, brought him relief in
+another way, for the legate took back such a report of the prevalence
+of simony that the archbishops of Mainz and Köln were summoned to
+Rome, whence they returned so humiliated that their political
+influence was gone. It is almost equally remarkable that the two
+English Archbishops also appeared at Rome during this Pontificate,
+Lanfranc of Canterbury in order that he might obtain the pall without
+which he could not exercise his functions as Archbishop, and Thomas of
+York, who referred to the Pope his contention that the primacy of
+England should alternate between Canterbury and York. In France, too,
+we are told that the envoys of Alexander interfered in the smallest
+details of the ecclesiastical administration and punished without
+mercy all clergy guilty of simony or of matrimony. Almost the last
+public act of Pope Alexander was to excommunicate five counsellors of
+the young King of Germany, to whom were attributed responsibility for
+his acts, and to summon Henry himself to answer charges of simony and
+other evil deeds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+GREGORY VII AND LAY INVESTITURE
+
+
+[Sidenote: Gregory VII (1073-85).]
+
+The crowd which attended the funeral of Alexander II acclaimed
+Hildebrand as his successor. The Cardinals formally ratified the
+choice of the people and contrary to the wish of the German bishops
+the young King Henry acquiesced.
+
+[Sidenote: His rise to power.]
+
+The new Pope was born a Tuscan peasant and educated in the monastery
+of St. Mary's on the Aventine in Rome. His uncle was the Abbot, and
+the monastery was Roman lodging of the Abbot of Cluny. Hildebrand
+entered the service of Gregory VI, whom he followed into exile. On his
+master's death in 1048 Hildebrand retired to Cluny. Hence he was drawn
+once more back to Rome by Pope Leo IX. From this moment his rise was
+continuous. Leo made him a Cardinal and gave him the charge of the
+papal finances. In 1054 he sent him as legate to France in order to
+deal with the heresy of Berengar of Tours. Hildebrand was no
+theologian, and he accepted a very vague explanation of Berengar's
+views upon the disputed question of the change of the elements in the
+Sacrament. On Leo's death Hildebrand headed the deputation which was
+sent by the clergy and people of Rome to ask Henry III to nominate his
+successor; and again, on the death of Victor II, although Hildebrand
+took no part in the choice of Stephen IX, it was he who went to
+Germany to obtain a confirmation of the election from the
+Empress-Regent. On Stephen's death Hildebrand's prompt action obtained
+the election of Nicholas II. It was probably Hildebrand who worded the
+decree regulating the mode of papal elections, and whose policy turned
+the Normans from troublesome neighbours into faithful allies and
+useful instruments of the papal aims. Nicholas rewarded him with the
+office of Archdeacon of Rome, which made him the chief administrative
+officer of the Roman see and, next to the Pope, the most important
+person in the Western Church. Hildebrand was the chief agent in the
+election of Alexander II; and the ultimate triumph of Alexander meant
+the reinstatement of Hildebrand at head-quarters. Thus it had long
+been a question of how soon the maker of Popes would himself assume
+the papal title, and this was settled for him by the acclamations of
+the people. In memory of his old master he took the title of Gregory
+VII. As yet he was only in deacon's orders. Within a month he was
+ordained priest; but another month or more elapsed before he was
+consecrated bishop.
+
+[Sidenote: Opportunity of reform.]
+
+At last the individual who was most identified in men's minds with the
+forward movement in the Church was the acknowledged head of the
+ecclesiastical organisation in the West. For more than twenty years he
+had been at headquarters intimately knowing and ultimately directing
+the course of policy. It was mainly by his exertions that the Church
+was now officially committed to the views of the Cluniac reformers.
+Yet so much opposition had been called forth as to show that the
+success of the party hitherto had depended merely on the circumstances
+of the moment. The time seemed to have arrived when matters should be
+brought to an issue. The continued existence of the Roman factions and
+the power of Henry III had made compromise necessary, and the general
+result of the reformers' efforts upon the Church had been
+inappreciable. But the lapse of time had done at least two things--it
+had cleared the issue and it had brought the opportunity.
+
+[Sidenote: Direction in which reform should move.]
+
+The Church was so entirely enmeshed in the feudal notions of the age
+that at first it was not very clear to the reformers where it would be
+most effective to begin in the process or cutting her free. But by
+this time it was seen that the real link which bound the Church to the
+State was the custom by which princes took it on themselves to give to
+the new bishop, in return for his oath of homage, investiture of his
+office and lands by the presentation of the ring which symbolically
+married him to his Church, and of the pastoral staff which committed
+to him the spiritual oversight of his diocese. Probably there was not
+a single prince in Western Europe who pretended to confer on the new
+bishop any of his spiritual powers; but the two spheres of the
+episcopal work had become inextricably confused, and in the decay of
+ecclesiastical authority the lay power had treated the chief
+ecclesiastics as mainly great officers of State and a special class of
+feudal baron. In the eyes of the reformers the entire dealing of the
+King with the bishops was an act of usurpation, nay, of sacrilege.
+Ecclesiastics owed to the sovereign of the country the oath of fealty
+demanded of all subjects. But for the rest, neither bishop, abbot, nor
+parish priest could be a feudal vassal. The land which any
+ecclesiastic held by virtue of his office had been given to the
+Church; the utmost claim that any layman could make regarding it was
+to a right or rather duty of protection. If the Church was to be
+restored to freedom, investiture with ring and staff, and the control
+of the lands during vacancy of an ecclesiastical office must all be
+claimed back for the Church herself. The oath of homage would then
+naturally disappear, and there would no longer be that confusion of
+spheres which had resulted in the laicisation and the degradation of
+the Church.
+
+[Sidenote: Henry IV and the German clergy.]
+
+Moreover, the moment was propitious for asserting these views to the
+fullest extent. The chief represenative of lay authority was no longer
+a powerful Emperor nor even a minor in the tutelage of others. He was
+a King of full age whose wayward, not to say vicious, courses had
+alienated large numbers of his people. It is true that Henry IV never
+had much chance of becoming a successful ruler. Taken from his mother
+at the age of twelve, for the next ten years (1062-72) he had been
+controlled alternately by two guardians, of whom one, Adalbert,
+Archbishop of Bremen, allowed him every indulgence, while the other,
+Hanno, Archbishop of Koln, hardly suffered him to have a mind of his
+own. Since he had become his own master he had plunged into war with
+his Saxon subjects. Henry, entangled in this war, answered Gregory's
+first admonitions in a conciliatory tone; but in 1075 he decisively
+defeated the Saxons and was in no mood to listen to a suggestion for
+the diminution of the authority of the German King in his own land,
+which he had just so triumphantly vindicated. For Henry imitated his
+predecessors in practising investiture of bishops both in Germany and
+in Italy; and he realised that the summons of the Pope to the temporal
+princes that they should give up such investiture would mean the
+transference to the Papacy of the disposal of the temporal fiefs. This
+would involve the loss at one blow of half the dominions of the German
+King. Moreover, he was encouraged in an attitude of resistance by the
+feeling of the German Church. At the first Lenten Synod held in the
+Lateran palace after Gregory's accession canons were issued forbidding
+all married or simoniacal ecclesiastics to perform ministerial
+functions and all laity to attend their ministrations. Immediate
+opposition was raised; the German clergy were especially violent: they
+declared that this prohibition of marriage was contrary to the
+teaching of Christ and St. Paul, that it attempted to make men live
+like angels but would only encourage licence, and that, if it were
+necessary to choose, they would abandon the priesthood rather than
+their wives. Gregory, however, sent legates into various districts
+armed with full powers, and succeeded in rousing the populace against
+the married clergy.
+
+[Sidenote: Gregory's decree against investiture.]
+
+It was under these circumstances that Gregory determined to bring to
+an issue the chief question in dispute between Church and State.
+Hitherto he had said nothing against the practice of lay investiture.
+Now, however, at the Lenten Synod in 1075, a decree was issued which
+condemned both the ecclesiastic, high or low, who should take
+investiture from a layman, and also the layman, however exalted in
+rank, who should dare to give investiture. The decree had no immediate
+effect, and at the end of the year Gregory followed it up with a
+letter to the King, in which he threatened excommunication if before
+the meeting of the next usual Lenten Synod Henry had not amended his
+life and got rid of his councillors, who had never freed themselves
+from the papal ban.
+
+[Sidenote: Henry's Answer.]
+
+Henry's answer was given at a Synod of German ecclesiastics at Worms.
+Cardinal Hugh the White, who for personal reasons had turned against
+Gregory, accused him of the most incredible crimes, and a letter was
+despatched in which the bishops renounced their obedience. Henry also
+addressed a letter to the Pope, which quite surpassed that of the
+bishops in violence of expression. "Henry, King not by usurpation but
+by the holy ordination of God, to Hildebrand now no apostolic ruler
+but a false monk." It accused him of daring to threaten to take away
+the royal power, as if Henry owed it to the Pontiff and not to God:
+and it concluded by a summons to him to descend from his position in
+favour of some one "who shall not cloak his violence with religion,
+but shall teach the sound doctrine of St. Peter." It was nothing new
+for a Pope to be deposed by a Council presided over by the Emperor.
+And it is true that the same resolution, transmitted by delegates from
+Worms, was adopted at Piacenza by a Synod of Italian bishops. But on
+this occasion the sentence was uttered by an assembly of exclusively
+German bishops, presided over by a King who was not yet crowned
+Emperor. If such a sentence was to be effective, Henry should have
+followed it up by a march to Rome with an adequate army. He merely
+courted defeat when he gave the Pope the opportunity for a retort in
+kind. Anathema was the papal weapon, and while the King's declaration
+might even be resented by other rulers as an attempt to dictate to
+them in a matter of common concern to all, the papal sentence on the
+King was regarded by all as influencing the fate, not of the King
+only, but of all who remained in communication with him, if not in
+this world, at any rate in the world to come. Moreover, in this
+particular case, while no one believed the monstrous charges against
+Gregory, there was sufficient in Henry's past conduct to give
+credibility to anything that might be urged against him.
+
+[Sidenote: Gregory deposes Henry.]
+
+Gregory's rejoinder was delivered at the Lenten Synod of 1076. As
+against the twenty-six German bishops assembled at Worms, this Council
+contained over a hundred bishops drawn from all parts of Christendom,
+while among the laity present was Henry's own mother, the Empress
+Agnes. Gregory used his opportunity to the full. In the most solemn
+strain he appealed to St. Peter, to the Virgin Mary, to St. Paul and
+all the saints, to bear witness that he himself had unwillingly taken
+the Papacy. To him, as representative of the Apostle, God had
+entrusted the Christian people, and in reliance on this he now
+withdrew from Henry, as a rebel against the Church, the rule over the
+kingdoms of the Teutons and of Italy, and released all Christians from
+any present or future oath made to him. Finally, for his omissions and
+commissions alike, Henry is bound in the bonds of anathema "in order
+that people may know and acknowledge that thou art Peter, and upon thy
+rock the Son of the living God has built His Church, and the gates of
+hell shall not prevail against it."
+
+The rhetorical flourish of the King's pronouncement against the Pope
+withers before the tremendous appeal of the Pope to his divinely
+delegated power to judge the King. Gregory's procedure was little less
+revolutionary than that of the King, but the claim to depose might
+appear as only a concomitant to the power already wielded by Popes in
+bestowing crowns, while for Gregory it had by this time become the
+copingstone in the fabric of those relations between Church and State
+which he and his party were building up.
+
+[Sidenote: Gregory's allies: Countess Matilda.]
+
+Gregory's position was not devoid of difficulties. Numerous protests
+were raised against this assertion of papal power. But events
+concurred to justify Gregory's bold action. At the beginning of his
+pontificate the Normans were quarrelling among themselves; but in
+Tuscany the Countess Matilda had just become complete mistress of the
+great inheritance which included a large part of Central Italy. She
+was an enthusiastic supporter of the Papacy, and secured North Italy
+by a revival of the Patarine party against the Italian bishops who had
+repudiated Gregory at Piacenza.
+
+[Sidenote: Rebellious German Nobles.]
+
+But Gregory's most effective allies were Henry's rebellious subjects.
+The Saxons broke out again into rebellion in the north, while the
+nobles of Southern Germany with the concurrence of the Pope met at
+Tribur, near Mainz, in October, 1076. Henry was forced to accept the
+most abject terms. He was to submit to the Pope, and the nobles
+further agreed among themselves that the Pope should be invited to
+pronounce the decisive judgment at a diet to be held at Augsburg a
+year later. If by that time Henry had not obtained the papal
+absolution, the kingdom would be considered forfeit, and they would
+proceed to the election of a new King without waiting for permission
+of the Pope. The nobles were hampered by the rivalry of those who
+hoped each to be Henry's successor, and they did not wish to found the
+election of the new King on the acknowledgment of the papal power of
+deposition. They acted, therefore, as if so far, apart from the
+excommunication, the papal sentence of deposition had been only
+provisional.
+
+[Sidenote: Henry's Action.]
+
+Henry saw that to be reinstated by the Pope in an assembly of his
+rebellious subjects would be even more damaging for his prestige than
+the original deposition, and, knowing nothing of the agreement of the
+nobles for a new election, he determined to go and get his absolution
+from the Pope at Rome. He treated the points in dispute between
+himself and his opponents as practically settled by his promise of
+submission, whereas the Pope desired to pose as arbiter between the
+contending parties in Germany; while the nobles aimed at electing a
+new King. Quite unconsciously Henry was forcing the hands of both
+parties of his opponents, whose obvious interests were in favour of
+delay. It was necessary that he should drink the cup of humiliation to
+the dregs; but the astute King preferred that it should be at his own
+time and place--at once and in Italy, instead of a year hence in
+Germany.
+
+[Sidenote: Canossa.]
+
+Henry carried out his design, even though it was in the middle of
+winter; and neglecting the welcome of the imperialists of North Italy,
+he ultimately tracked the Pope to the Countess Matilda's fortress of
+Canossa, in the Apennines, above Modena. But Gregory would listen to
+no mediation, and demanded absolute submission to his judgment. So
+Henry again took the method of procedure into his own hands and
+appeared at intervals during three successive days before the castle
+in the garb of a penitent, barefooted and clad in a coarse woollen
+shirt. The picturesque account of this world-famous scene, which we
+owe to Lambert of Hersfeld, must be regarded as the monastic version
+current among the papal partisans. Gregory himself, who was scarcely
+likely to minimise his own triumph, in his letter to the German nobles
+says nothing of these details. He only relates that even his own
+followers exclaimed that "tyrannical ferocity" rather than "apostolic
+severity" was the characteristic of his act.
+
+[Sidenote: Result Of Canossa.]
+
+Thus Henry forced the hand of the Pope, who as a priest could not
+refuse his absolution to one who showed himself ready to submit to the
+severest possible penance for his sins. The only course open to
+Gregory was to accept the situation on which he had lost the hold, and
+to try to get some political concessions in the negotiations which
+must follow. The terms did not differ much from those arranged at
+Tribur: Henry should accept the decision of the diet of the German
+nobles, presided over by the Pope, as to his continued right to the
+crown, while if the judgment was favourable, he should implicitly obey
+the Pope for the future in all that concerned the Church. But, on the
+other hand, the papal excommunication and absolute sentence of
+deposition were removed, and the whole excuse for continued rebellion
+was thus withdrawn from his German opponents. Henry had undoubtedly
+been humiliated and had acknowledged the papal arbitration in Germany:
+but modern feelings probably exaggerate the humiliation of the
+penitential system, and Henry had at least divided his enemies. The
+Pope had undertaken to see fair play between Henry and his German
+subjects: the German nobles had based their action on Henry's past
+conduct, for which he had now done penance. Henry had obtained an
+acknowledgment from the Pope that his right to the kingship was at any
+rate an open question.
+
+[Sidenote: Election of an anti-king.]
+
+The German nobles had been betrayed by the Pope, but they could not
+afford to quarrel with him. They had been outwitted by Henry, and
+against him they proceeded as having violated the Agreement of Tribur.
+A Diet met at Forchheim, in Franconia, in March, 1077. It was chiefly
+composed of lay nobles, but papal legates were present, whom Gregory
+instructed to work for a postponement until he himself could come. But
+the nobles were determined, and Henry's brother-in-law, Duke Rudolf of
+Suabia, was chosen King. Gregory, however, did not intend to have his
+hand forced again, and for three years (1077-80) he refused to
+acknowledge Rudolf and tried to pose as arbiter between him and Henry.
+Five times Rudolf's supporters wrote remonstrating indignantly against
+this neutrality. Gregory excused himself on the ground that his
+legates had been deceived and had acted under compulsion in
+acquiescing in the action of the diet at Forchheim. He had good
+reasons for his delay. He was determined to secure recognition of the
+right which he claimed for the Papacy as the real determining force in
+the dispute, an act which the nobles had deliberately prevented.
+Moreover, he was a little afraid of a trial of strength with Henry at
+the moment. For while Henry's promptness had caused the Pope to break
+faith with his allies, Gregory's severity had gathered round Henry a
+party which made the King more powerful than he yet had been. Thus in
+Lombardy the Countess Matilda was faced by a revived imperialist party
+which seriously threatened her dominions, while in Germany the clergy,
+the lesser nobles and the cities rallied round the King.
+
+[Sidenote: Gregory accepts him.]
+
+So long, then, as the contest seemed doubtful Gregory withheld his
+decision. At length, in 1080, when, despite two victories, Rudolf was
+gaining no advantage, Gregory felt that further delay might make Henry
+too strong to be affected by the papal judgment. Accordingly, at the
+usual Lenten Synod he renewed the excommunication and deposition of
+Henry, recognised Rudolf as King of Germany, and even prophesied for
+the excommunicated monarch a speedy death. One papal partisan
+afterwards explained this as referring to Henry's spiritual death!
+Gregory is further said to have sent a crown to Rudolf, bearing the
+legend "Petra dedit Petro, Petrus diadema Rudolpho," but the story is
+doubtful. The answer of Henry's party was given in successive synods
+of German or Italian bishops, who declared Gregory deposed, and
+elected as his substitute Henry's Chancellor, Guibert, Archbishop of
+Ravenna, who took the title of Clement III.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of anti-King.]
+
+Gregory's decisive move was a failure. There were now two Kings and
+two Popes, and all hope of a peaceful settlement was gone. None of the
+nations of Europe responded to Gregory's appeal. Robert Guiscard, the
+Norman leader, was busy with his designs on the Eastern Empire.
+Gregory's only chance was a victory in Germany and the fulfilment of
+his rash prophecy. In October, 1080, Henry was defeated in the heart
+of Saxony on the Elster, but it was Gregory's accepted King, Rudolf,
+who was killed. One chronicler reports Rudolf as acknowledging in his
+dying moments the iniquity of his conduct. Saxony remained in revolt;
+but until a new King could be agreed upon Henry was practically safe
+and could turn to deal with the situation in Italy. There could be no
+thought of peace. Gregory's supporters were upheld by the enthusiasm
+of fanaticism, while by acts and words he had driven his enemies to
+exasperation, and what had begun as a war of principles had now sunk
+to a personal struggle between Henry and Hildebrand.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Gregory.]
+
+The renewal of the sentence against Henry had caused a reaction in his
+favour in Northern Italy. Soon after the episode of Canossa, the
+Countess Matilda, having no heir, had bequeathed her entire
+possessions to the Roman see and become a papal vassal for the term of
+her own life. But most of the Tuscan cities declared for Henry and
+thus entirely neutralised her power. Robert Guiscard was not to be
+tempted back from his projects against the Eastern Empire, even if it
+be true that Gregory offered him the Empire of the West. Thus Henry
+entered Italy unhindered early in 1081, and even the news that his
+opponents had found a successor to Rudolf in the person of Herman of
+Luxemburg did not stop his march. The siege of Rome lasted for nearly
+three years (1081-4), but ultimately he obtained possession of all the
+city except the castle of St. Angelo. Henry's Pope, Clement III, was
+consecrated, and on Easter Day Henry, together with his wife, at
+length obtained the imperial crown. But meanwhile he had made a fatal
+move. The Eastern Emperor Alexius persuaded him to make mischief in
+Apulia. Henry fell into the trap. Robert Guiscard rushed back to
+defend his own territories, and now determined to carry out his
+obligations as a papal vassal. Henry was taken unawares and had to
+retire before the Normans, who forced their way into Rome and cruelly
+sacked and burnt it. Gregory was rescued, but life for him in Rome was
+no longer possible. The Romans had betrayed him to Henry, and now his
+allies had destroyed the city. He retired with the Normans to Salerno,
+where, a year later, he died (May, 1085), bitterly attributing his
+failure to his love of righteousness and hatred of iniquity.
+
+[Sidenote: His reasons for his failure.]
+
+But we cannot ratify Gregory's own judgment on the reasons for his
+failure. Rather the blame is to be laid upon his lack of
+statesmanship. His egotism and his fanaticism worked together to make
+him believe that the supremacy of the spiritual power which he aimed
+at might be attained by very secular devices. In action he showed
+himself a pure opportunist, approving at one time what he condemned at
+another. And yet he had so little of an eye for the line which
+separates the practicable from the ideal that at Canossa he humiliated
+Henry beyond all hope of reconciliation, and he died in exile because
+he would not listen to any compromise which might be an acknowledgment
+that he had exaggerated his own claims. Thus, despite the undoubted
+purity of his life and the ultimate loftiness of his ideals, he is to
+be regarded rather as a man of immense force of character than as a
+great ecclesiastical statesman, rather as the stirrer-up of divine
+discontent than as a creative mind which gives a new turn to the
+desires and impulses of the human race.
+
+[Sidenote: His activity in Europe.]
+
+All this is borne out by his dealings outside Germany and Italy. He
+conducted a very extensive correspondence with princes as well as
+ecclesiastics all over Europe. Indeed this, as much as the despatch of
+legates and the annual attendance of bishops at the Lenten Synod, was
+one of the means by which the Papacy strove to make itself the central
+power of Christendom. These letters deal with all kinds of subjects
+and bear ample witness to his personal piety and high moral aims. But
+alongside of these come arrogant assertions of papal authority. He
+claims as fiefs of St. Peter on various grounds Hungary, Spain,
+Denmark, Corsica, Sardinia; he gives the title of King to the Duke of
+Dalmatia; he even offers to princes who belong to the Eastern Church a
+better title to their possessions as held from St. Peter.
+
+[Sidenote: His policy in France.]
+
+Gregory's great contest with the Empire has been described without
+interruption, as if it were the only struggle of his time, instead of
+being merely the most important episode in a very busy life. And if we
+ask in conclusion why it was fought out in the imperial dominions
+rather than elsewhere, the answer will be instructive of his character
+and methods of action. At the beginning of his pontificate his
+harshest phrases were directed against Philip I of France, who added
+to the crimes of lay investiture and shameless simony a scandalous
+personal immorality. Ultimately Gregory threatened him with
+excommunication and deposition. But he never passed beyond threats.
+The reason is to be found in the fact that Gregory was soon in pursuit
+of larger game. The French King only shared with his great nobles the
+investiture of the bishops in the kingdom. Moreover, the French
+bishops were not as a body great secular potentates like the German
+bishops. The opposition to reform in France was passive, not active.
+Crown, nobles, and Church stood together in opposition: there was no
+papal party. Not enough was to be gained by a victory, and there was
+great chance of a defeat. The result was that Philip continued his
+simoniacal transactions and never entirely gave up investiture, while
+Gregory allowed himself to be satisfied with occasional promises of
+better things. His dealings with the French bishops are equally
+inconclusive. For six years (1076-82) two of the papal legates divided
+France between them, practically superseded the local ecclesiastical
+jurisdiction, and acted with the utmost severity against all,
+ecclesiastics or laymen, who practised the methods now under
+condemnation. Great opposition was aroused and the legates went in
+peril of their lives. They were only carrying out strenuously the
+principles laid down under Gregory's guidance in many acts of synods
+and inculcated by Gregory in numberless private letters. And yet
+Gregory is found frequently undoing their acts, restoring bishops whom
+they have deposed, accepting excuses or explanations which cannot
+possibly have deceived him.
+
+[Sidenote: In England.]
+
+His policy towards England affords another instructive contrast. Both
+in Normandy and in England William the Conqueror practised investiture
+of his bishops and abbots and held his ecclesiastics in an iron grip.
+He refused the papal demand for homage for his English kingdom and he
+would allow no papal interference with his clergy without the King's
+permission. Archbishop Lanfranc also only consented to accept the
+decree against married clergy with a serious limitation--while married
+canons were to dismiss their wives at once, parish priests already
+married were not interfered with; but marriage was forbidden to clergy
+in the future, and bishops were warned not to ordain married men. But
+William's expedition to England had been undertaken with the approval
+of Hildebrand, he did not practise simony, and he acknowledged the
+principle of a celibate clergy, while he promised the payment of the
+tribute of Peter's Pence from England. Moreover, William was not a man
+to be trifled with: he was a valuable friend and would certainly be a
+dangerous enemy. Consequently no question of the lawfulness of
+investiture was mooted during his lifetime. Gregory contented himself
+with threats against Lanfranc. But the English Archbishop owed a
+grudge to Gregory, who had treated with a culpable indulgence the
+great heresiarch Berengar after Lanfranc had vanquished him and
+convicted him of heresy; and Lanfranc knew that under William's
+sheltering favour he was safe from the papal ban.
+
+Thus, while in France Gregory would have to face an united people, in
+England he shrank before the personality of the King. In Germany, on
+the other hand, he found a blameworthy King and a discontented people.
+All the elements were present for the successful interference of an
+external power. Moreover, the peculiar relations in which this
+external power--the Papacy--stood towards the German King, the
+prospective Emperor, gave every excuse, if any were needed, for such
+interference. Finally and most especially, since these imperial
+prospects made the German King the first among the monarchs of Western
+Europe, a victory over him would carry a prestige which lesser
+potentates would be bound to acknowledge.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE END OF THE QUARREL
+
+
+[Sidenote: A momentary peace.]
+
+It remained to be seen whether Gregory's failure implied Henry's
+success. The Emperor returned to Germany, where a strong desire for
+peace had grown up and was taking practical shape. In some dioceses
+the Truce of God was proclaimed, which, under heavy ecclesiastical
+penalties, forbade hostilities during certain days of the week and
+certain seasons of the year. Henry took up this idea, which as yet was
+too partial to be effective, and in 1085, in a Synod at Mainz under
+his presidency, it was proclaimed for the whole kingdom. The
+unfortunate anti-King Herman found himself deserted, and died, a
+fugitive, in 1088. Henry's moderation concluded what the desire for
+peace had begun, and even Saxony seemed to be reconciled to his rule.
+
+[Sidenote: Urban II (1088-99).]
+
+But his triumph was short-lived. Between him and any lasting peace
+stood the anti-Pope Clement III; for all who had received consecration
+at Clement's hands were bound at all hazards to maintain the
+lawfulness of his election. Moreover, Clement's opponent now was a man
+to be reckoned with. The first choice of the Gregorian party,
+Desiderius, Abbot of Monte Cassino, could not be consecrated for a
+year after his election, and four months later he was dead (September,
+1087). The partisans of Clement were too strong in Rome, and the next
+election was carried out with total disregard of the decree of
+Nicholas II. It took place at Terracina in March, 1088, and was made
+by a large number of clergy in addition to the Cardinals. The choice
+fell upon Otto, Bishop of Ostia, a Frenchman of noble family and a
+monk of Cluny; but it was some years before Urban II could regard Rome
+as his headquarters.
+
+[Sidenote: His policy against Henry.]
+
+In some ways Urban was more uncompromising than his master Gregory. He
+upheld the papal legates in their strict treatment of the French
+bishops; he actually launched against Philip I of France the
+excommunication which Gregory had only threatened; to the prohibition
+of lay investiture he added an explicit command that bishops and
+clergy should not do homage to any layman. But while he showed himself
+thus in thorough sympathy with his predecessor, in his power of
+dealing with circumstances he proved himself by far the superior. A
+succession of clever if thoroughly unscrupulous measures restored the
+fortunes of the papal party. Henry had succeeded for the moment in
+dividing and isolating his enemies. Urban set himself to unite the
+chief opponents of Henry on both sides of the Alps. He planned a
+marriage between the middle-aged widow, the Countess Matilda of
+Tuscany, and the eighteen-year-old son of Welf, Duke of Bavaria
+(1089). Matilda was ready to sacrifice herself for the good of the
+cause. The Welfs, ignorant of Matilda's gift of her lands to the
+Papacy, eagerly accepted the bait; but soon discovering that they were
+being used as tools, they ceased to give any help, and in fact became
+reconciled to the Emperor. But meanwhile the Pope had discovered other
+more deadly weapons with which to wound the Emperor. The deaths of the
+anti-Kings had left the papal party without a leader in Germany.
+Events had shown the firm hold of the hereditary claim and the Salian
+House upon a large portion of the Empire. The only acceptable leader
+would be a member of Henry's own house. Henry's actions played into
+their hands. His eldest son, Conrad, had been crowned at Aachen in
+1087 and sent into Italy to act as his father's representative. He is
+described as a young man of studious and dreamy character, unpractical
+and easily influenced. In 1087 Henry lost his faithful wife Bertha,
+and a year later he married a Russian Princess, Praxedis, who was the
+widow of the Count of the Northern March. The marriage was unhappy;
+each accused the other of misconduct; and Henry, suspecting the
+relations of Conrad with his stepmother, put them both in prison.
+Perhaps Conrad had already been worked upon by the papal party. He
+escaped, took refuge with the Countess Matilda, and was crowned King
+of Italy (1093). But he was only the tool of others. Far more
+immediately dangerous was the escape of Praxedis (1094), who laid
+before the Pope the foulest charges against Henry. To her lasting
+shame the Countess Matilda was the chief agent in these family
+revolts. The effect on Henry's position in Italy was disastrous. Pope
+Urban finally recovered Rome, and Conrad, having won the cities of
+Lombardy, took an oath of fealty to the Papacy in return for a promise
+of the Empire.
+
+[Sidenote: Beginning of the Crusades.]
+
+And just as if the success of these diabolical schemes was not a
+sufficient triumph, fortune at this moment gave the Pope a chance of
+superseding the Emperor in the eyes of all Europe, by inaugurating a
+great popular movement of which under different circumstances the
+Emperor would have been the natural leader. In 1085 the Eastern
+Emperor Alexius had appealed to Henry against the Normans, but now
+Henry was a negligible quantity--excommunicated, crowned Emperor by an
+anti-pope, not likely to undertake a distant expedition. In 1095,
+therefore, when Alexius needed aid against the Seljuk Turks, it was to
+the Pope that he sent his envoys, who appeared at the Synod of
+Piacenza. Those late converts to Mohammedanism had established their
+kingdom of Roum over the greater part of Asia Minor with its capital
+at the venerable city of Nicća, and had captured Jerusalem, which thus
+passed out of the hands of the tolerant Caliphs of Cairo into those of
+the most fanatical section of Mohammedans. Pilgrims returning from
+Jerusalem spread through Europe tales of the harsh treatment to which
+they were subjected. Then in 1087 a new tribe of Saracens, the
+Almoravides, crossed from Africa to Spain and inflicted a severe
+defeat upon a Christian army. It seemed almost as if a combined
+movement of the Mohammedan world had begun for the final extinction of
+Christendom. If Gregory had been free he would have wished to promote
+the reunion of the Churches by sending help to the Eastern Empire; so
+that it was no novel idea that was suggested to the assembled magnates
+at Piacenza. Urban II no doubt saw the opportunity offered for
+asserting the leadership of the western world. Alexius' envoys were
+heard with sympathy; but Urban felt the need of appeal to a larger
+public, and summoned a great Council to Clermont-Ferrand in Auvergne,
+where he would be among his own countrymen. Here in November, 1095, he
+delivered before a vast concourse of persons assembled in the open air
+an impassioned appeal on behalf of the suffering Christians of the
+east. The result answered his utmost expectation, and the cry of the
+assembled multitude, "God wills it," was the ratification of the papal
+leadership. All methods were taken to stir the feelings of the west.
+The vast ecclesiastical organisation was used in order to transmit
+invitations to possible crusaders; the penitential system of the
+Church was brought to bear on those already conscious of a sinful
+life; popular preachers, such as Peter the Hermit, were employed to
+rouse the interest of the masses; the Pope himself spent the
+succeeding months in a tour through Southern France; and arrangements
+were made for the start of the first expedition from the Italian ports
+at the end of the summer of 1096, under the leadership of a legate
+appointed by the Pope.
+
+[Sidenote: The first Crusade.]
+
+It is not possible here to follow the fortunes of the Crusaders.
+Several unauthorised expeditions, which bore witness to the popular
+enthusiasm, made their way through Southern Germany; but the
+disorderly crowds which composed them perished either at the hands of
+the inhabitants of the Eastern Empire, whom they treated as
+schismatics, or among the Turks in Asia Minor. The real expedition
+passed partly by land, partly by sea from the Italian ports to
+Constantinople, whence the Crusaders set out across Asia Minor. Nicća
+was taken in June, 1097; the Sultan of Roum was overthrown in battle
+at Dorylćum in July; Antioch detained the Crusaders from October,
+1097, to June, 1098; and it was only in July, 1099, that after a siege
+of forty days Jerusalem was captured from the Saracens of Egypt, who
+had recently recovered it from the Turks.
+
+[Sidenote: Its effect on the quarrel.]
+
+But whatever may have been Urban's success in his own land of France
+and elsewhere, in Germany, at any rate, his efforts to turn the
+current against the Emperor had entirely failed. Of German lands
+Lorraine alone sent warriors to the First Crusade. The movement did
+not penetrate to the east of the Rhine, and the number of Germans who
+helped to swell the multitude of crusaders who marched through
+Southern Germany was inappreciable. At the same time the settlement of
+the questions at issue between Papacy and Empire were indefinitely
+postponed; for it would have been treason to the crusading cause to
+press the papal claims against Henry at this moment. It was Henry's
+turn to experience some good fortune. The proclamation of the Truce of
+God under his auspices, the manifest interest of the German
+ecclesiastics, and his own policy of favouring the rising cities
+combined to strengthen his position. Thus in 1098 he was able to
+obtain from the German nobles the deposition of his rebellious son
+Conrad and the election of his younger son Henry as King, who was made
+to promise that during his father's lifetime he would not act
+politically against him. Then in 1099 Pope Urban died, and was
+followed in 1100 by the anti-Pope Clement III, and in 1101 by Conrad.
+All the personal causes of disunion were being removed. Moreover, the
+success of the crusading policy made it impossible that Henry or
+Germany should stand apart from it altogether. Although Jerusalem was
+the capital of a Christian kingdom and other principalities centred
+round Tripoli, Antioch, and the more distant Edessa, powerful
+Mohammedan Princes lay close beside them at Damascus, Aleppo, and
+Mossul, as well as to the south in Egypt. There was need of constant
+reinforcement, for the fighting was continual. Under these inducements
+Germany began to contribute crusaders to the cause. Duke Welf of
+Bavaria led an army eastwards in 1101. In 1103 Henry's efforts in
+favour of peace culminated in the proclamation at the Diet of Mainz of
+the first imperial land peace sworn between King and nobles, which
+bound the parties to it for four years to maintain the peace towards
+all communities in the land. This was intended as a preliminary to
+Henry's participation in an expedition to the east.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Henry IV.]
+
+But this was the very last thing desired by Henry's enemies, and there
+began a most unscrupulous attack which ended only with his death. Pope
+Urban's successor, Pascal II, strengthened by the death of the
+anti-Pope Clement and the failure of his party to maintain a
+successor, renewed the excommunication against Henry, and did
+everything deliberately to stir up strife in Germany. The nobles were
+angry at the cessation of private war and at the favour shown by Henry
+to the towns. But again they lacked a leader, and with diabolical
+craft the papal party worked upon the young King Henry by threatening
+to set up against him an anti-King who should rob him of the eventual
+succession. The result was that the young King broke his solemn
+promise, set up the standard of revolt, and was joined by nobles,
+ecclesiastical as well as lay, and by the restless Saxon rebels. By a
+trick he got his father into his power and forced him formally to
+abdicate, while he himself was crowned King by the papal legate. But
+the Emperor escaped, and with marvellous energy gathered adherents;
+but a renewal of the struggle was staved off by his own death after a
+few days' illness on August 6th, 1106.
+
+[Sidenote: His justification.]
+
+Henry never shook himself free from the difficulties of his own early
+misdeeds; but the rights upon which he took his stand were those
+exercised by his predecessors. The uncompromising attitude of his
+opponents and their humiliation of him made it a life-long struggle
+between them. Henry was no saint; but his opponents' tactics were
+indefensible. Under less adverse circumstances he might have proved a
+successful ruler. But he was the victim of a party which deliberately
+subordinated means to ends in pursuit of an ideal which Henry could
+scarcely be expected to understand or appreciate.
+
+[Sidenote: Henry V.]
+
+The papal party in its malice had overreached itself in selecting
+Henry V as its champion. True, he had destroyed the most stubborn
+enemy of the Papacy; but his own interests caused him to adopt his
+father's policy. His one object was to recover the prestige which the
+German King had lost in the struggles of the last twenty years. He was
+undisputed King in Germany; he showed an unscrupulous and overbearing
+demeanour which aroused opposition on all sides. He was not likely to
+be content with less power than his father had demanded over the
+German clergy, and at the first vacancies he invested the new bishops.
+
+[Sidenote: Growth of a party of compromise on investiture.]
+
+Henry's bold action was not altogether without reason. For some years
+there had been growing up within the ranks of the advocates of reform
+a moderate party which, while opposed to simony and clerical marriage,
+saw in the continued and close union of Church and State an
+indispensable guarantee of social order. They aimed therefore at
+conserving the rights of the Crown no less than at recovering those of
+the Church. This party is found especially among the French clergy.
+One of its chief spokesmen, the Canonist Ivo, Bishop of Chartres, who
+had suffered much for his enthusiasm for reform, insists in his
+correspondence even with the Pope himself, that the prohibition passed
+upon lay investiture is not among the class of matters which have been
+settled by a law for ever binding, but among those which have been
+enjoined or forbidden, as the case might be, for the honour or profit
+of the Church, and he appropriately bids the papal legate beware lest
+the Roman clergy should incur the charge of taking tithe of mint and
+rue while they omit the weightier precepts of the law. Moreover, both
+he and his friend Hugh of Fleury, in a treatise dealing with the
+"Royal Power and Priestly Office," maintain that the King has the
+power, "by the instigation of the Holy Spirit," of nominating bishops,
+or at least of granting permission for their election; and that, while
+the royal investiture, however made by word or act, pretends to bestow
+no spiritual authority, but merely estates or other results of royal
+munificence, it is for the archbishop to commit to a newly elected
+prelate the cure of souls.
+
+[Sidenote: Settlement in England.]
+
+This distinction, repugnant as it was to the extremists, soon found
+practical application. Lanfranc's successor in the See of Canterbury,
+Anselm, was, like his predecessor, an Italian, transferred from
+Normandy to England. He had to contend with the typical King of an
+unrestrained feudalism in the person of William II. A succession of
+quarrels ended in Anselm's retirement to Italy. Recalled by Henry I,
+he took back with him the maxims of the reformers about investiture,
+and refused to do the required homage to the new King. Henry was not
+an unreasonable man, and he sent Anselm to bring about some
+arrangement with the Pope. However, it was not until a rupture was
+imminent that Pope Pascal was persuaded to acquiesce in an agreement
+on the lines advocated by Ivo of Chartres and his party. By this
+Concordat (1107) Henry I agreed to give up his claim to invest with
+the ring and staff, while Archbishop Anselm allowed that the elected
+bishop might do homage for his lands to the King.
+
+[Sidenote: Pascal II (1099-1118).]
+
+At present neither side in the Empire was sufficiently honest in its
+intentions to be willing to accept so reasonable a settlement. But the
+fact that the Pope had felt himself obliged to allow it in one case
+sensibly weakened his position and correspondingly strengthened that
+of the German King. It was typical of Pascal's position in general.
+Though strongly Gregorian in principle, he was neither clever nor
+courageous, and was inclined to take up a position which he could not
+maintain. Intent on renewing the prohibition of lay investiture and
+afraid of Henry, Pascal determined to support himself upon France.
+Here, at any rate, Philip I had gradually dropped the practice of
+investiture of bishops. The papal censures of his scandalous private
+conduct uttered by Gregory and Urban had had no effect. Pascal
+accepted professions of amendment and acts of humiliation, and ceased
+to trouble himself further about Philip's private affairs. A Council
+of French bishops was held at Troyes (1107), where the decrees against
+lay investiture were renewed. The one gleam of hope for the future
+appeared in Pascal's deliberate abstention from any pronouncement
+against the King in person. Henry, occupied on the eastern border,
+could not pay his first visit to Italy until the beginning of 1111,
+and it was not without significance that on the eve of setting out he
+betrothed himself to the daughter of Henry I of England. He was more
+fortunate than his father had been in the moment of his visit. The
+Lombard cities quarrelling among themselves were quickly forced to
+submission; the Countess Matilda, grown old and tired of strife, sent
+her envoys to do homage for the imperial fiefs; the Normans had just
+lost their Duke. Pope Pascal, finding himself isolated, did not dare
+to meet by a simple negative Henry's demand for the right of
+investiture as well as for his coronation as Emperor.
+
+[Sidenote: His proposal.]
+
+By way of escaping from his difficulty he sent to the King an
+astonishing proposal. The King was to renounce the right of
+investiture and all interference in the elections, in return for which
+the prelates should give up all imperial lands and rights with which
+they were endowed, retaining merely the right to tithes, offerings,
+and private gifts: the papal rights over the Patrimony of St. Peter
+and the Norman lands were specially excepted. It has been pointed out
+that this was the policy which Count Cavour made famous as "a free
+Church in a free State." It seems almost impossible that Pascal should
+have thought that the German bishops would accept this solution: he
+may have hoped that they could be coerced into it. But in contracting
+himself out of the obligations to be imposed on all other
+ecclesiastical dignitaries, he practically renounced any claim to set
+the policy of the Church. Henry may have aimed at digging an
+impassable ditch between the Pope and the German bishops. It was an
+impossible agreement; for neither bishops nor lay nobles would wish to
+see so large an addition to the King's resources, while Henry himself
+could not afford to surrender the right of investiture, since it would
+stultify his claim to a voice in the election of the Pope.
+
+[Sidenote: Henry's success.]
+
+The publication of the agreement at Rome caused great tumults, Henry
+contriving that all the odium should fall upon the Pope. Then, since
+Pascal could not fulfil the part of the agreement which he had made on
+behalf of the Church, Henry forced him, the successor of Gregory, to
+acquiesce in the exercise by the German King of the right of
+investiture with ring and staff. Henry was crowned Emperor, though
+with very maimed ceremonial, and returned in triumph to Germany.
+
+[Sidenote: Pascal's withdrawal.]
+
+But his triumph was short, for he was immediately threatened with
+danger from two quarters. On the one side the leaders of the
+Ultramontane party were naturally most wrathful at this betrayal of
+their cause, and Pascal, threatened with deposition, placed himself in
+their hands. At the Lenten Synod of 1112 he confirmed all the decrees
+of his predecessor against lay investiture, thus annulling his own
+agreement with Henry. But he avoided issuing any sentence of
+excommunication against Henry in person. His own legates, however, had
+no such scruples, and in France Cardinal Conon took advantage of the
+strong feeling among the clergy to launch excommunications against the
+Emperor in several ecclesiastical Councils during 1114 and 1115.
+Guido, Archbishop of Vienne, presiding over a Council of Henry's own
+subjects at Vienne in 1112, had already condemned their sovereign and
+forced Pascal to acquiesce in the resolution.
+
+[Sidenote: Henry's difficulties.]
+
+Henry's right policy would no doubt have been to compel the Pope to
+observe the agreement. But it was more than three years before he
+could return to Italy. For revolt had broken out again in Germany. The
+nobles had their own grievances; the Saxons were always ready to take
+arms; the Church was roused because Henry dealt with ecclesiastical
+property as if the Pope's original proposal had been allowed to stand.
+The royal bailiffs acted in such a manner with the cathedrals that of
+a house of prayer they made a den of thieves.
+
+Henry's forces were worsted in battle and he had recourse to his
+father's tactics, seeking in Italy, by personal dealings with the
+Pope, to recover the moral prestige which he had lost in Germany. He
+had a pretext in the death of the Countess Matilda (1115); for the
+Papacy was claiming not only her allodial lands, which she might have
+a right to bequeath, but also her imperial fiefs, which were not hers
+to dispose of. Henry occupied the dominions of Matilda without
+opposition. His presence in Italy caused Pascal still to refrain from
+personal condemnation of the Emperor, and a year later a party
+friendly to Henry opened the gates of Rome to him. Pascal fled to
+Albano, and only returned to Rome on Henry's departure, a dying man
+(January, 1118). His successor, Gelasius II, refused Henry's advances,
+and the Emperor resorted to the old and discredited policy of setting
+up an anti-Pope in the person of the Archbishop of Braga, in Portugal,
+who took the name of Gregory VIII. Gelasius excommunicated Henry and
+his Pope; but finding himself threatened in Rome, fled to Burgundy,
+and died at Cluny a year after his election (January, 1119). So far
+Henry's attempts to deal with the Pope had failed, and the publication
+of the new Pope's excommunication in Germany made the opposition so
+strong that Henry found it advisable to return.
+
+[Sidenote: Calixtus II (1119-24)]
+
+Gelasius' successor chosen at Cluny was Archbishop of Vienne, who took
+the title of Calixtus II. He was the first secular priest who had
+occupied the papal chair since Alexander II, and he was related to the
+royal families of France and England. Thus he had a wider outlook than
+the monks who preceded him, and the nobles would be likely to listen
+to a man of their own rank. He had been the most uncompromising of all
+Henry's opponents; but this was a guarantee to the Church that her
+position and power would not again be placed in jeopardy, for events
+were at length tending towards a conclusion of the weary strife. The
+views of the reformers had gained general acceptance as the doctrine
+of the Church. The obligation of clerical celibacy was acknowledged:
+simony had much diminished; Henry was the only King in Western Europe
+who still claimed to invest his prelates. Although it was some time
+before all the great French feudatories yielded to the spirit of
+reform, the French King himself had abandoned the practice of
+investiture for those bishops who were under his control. He retained,
+however, certain of his rights. The election could not take place
+without his permission, the newly elected bishop took an oath of
+fealty to the King, and during the vacancy of the see the revenues
+were paid to the Crown. It was more important still that in England
+the question of investiture had been settled by a compromise which
+recognised the twofold nature of the episcopal office, and that this
+compromise had received the sanction of the Pope. Henceforth it was
+practically impossible for the Church to maintain the position of the
+extreme reformers. When Pope Pascal was forced to grant the right of
+investiture to the Emperor, Henry I of England, as Anselm complained
+to Pascal, threatened to resume the practice. Already William I of
+England had defined the limits of papal power in his dominions without
+a protest from Rome, and Urban II had actually found himself obliged
+to endow Roger of Sicily and his successors with the authority of a
+papal legate within their own dominions. It was clear that the papal
+authority could do little against a really strong lay ruler. Moreover,
+the influence of the Church had greatly diminished. There was scarcely
+a see or abbey to which, during the last forty years, there had not
+been rival claimants: King and nobles alike had not only ceased to
+increase the endowments of the Church, but had caught at almost every
+opportunity of encroaching on them.
+
+[Sidenote: Concordat of Worms.]
+
+The accommodation was very gradual, for much suspicion of insincerity
+on both sides had to be overcome. The first step was taken in October,
+1119. After the failure of direct negotiations between Pope and
+Emperor, a Council at Rheims, presided over by the Pope, renewed the
+anathema against Henry and his party, but only consented to a modified
+prohibition of investitures, since the office alone was mentioned and
+all reference to the property of bishop or abbot was omitted. It was
+two years before the next stage was reached, and meanwhile the
+anti-Pope had fallen into the hands of Calixtus, and Henry was still
+in difficulties in Germany. Finally, in October, 1121, the German
+nobles brought about a conference of envoys from both sides at
+Wurzburg, where in addition to an universal peace it was arranged that
+the investiture question should be settled at a General Council to be
+held in Germany under papal auspices. The Council met at Worms in
+September, 1122, and the papal legates were armed with full powers to
+act. The result was a Concordat subsequently ratified at the first
+Council of the Lateran in March, 1123, which is reckoned as the ninth
+General Council by the Roman Church. By this agreement the Emperor
+gave up all claim to invest ecclesiastics with the ring and staff. In
+return it was allowed by the Church that the election of prelates
+should take place in presence of the Emperor's representatives, and
+that in case of any dispute the Emperor should confirm the decision
+arrived at by the Metropolitan and his suffragans. The Emperor on his
+part undertook that the prelate elect, whether bishop or abbot, should
+be invested with the regalia or temporalities pertaining to his office
+by the sceptre, in Germany the investiture preceding the
+ecclesiastical consecration, whereas in Burgundy and the kingdom of
+Italy the consecration should come first.
+
+[Sidenote: Results of struggle in Empire.]
+
+We are naturally tempted to enquire who was the gainer in this long
+struggle? Writers on both sides have claimed the victory. It is clear,
+however, that neither side got all that it demanded. Considering the
+all-embracing character of the papal claim, the limitation of its
+pretensions might seem to carry a decided diminution of its position.
+Calixtus' advisers strongly urged that all over the imperial lands the
+consecration of prelates should precede the investiture of
+temporalities by the lay power. But the German nobles would not budge.
+In Burgundy and Italy conditions were different: in the former the
+power of the Crown had been almost in abeyance; in Italy the bishops
+had found themselves deserted by the Crown and had submitted to the
+Pope. The Crown had therefore to acquiesce in a merely nominal control
+over appointments in those lands. But in Germany the King perhaps
+gained rather than lost by the Concordat. His right of influence in
+the choice was definitely acknowledged, and by refusing the regalia he
+could practically prevent the consecration of any one obnoxious to
+him. The prelates of Germany, therefore, remained vassals of the
+Crown.
+
+[Sidenote: on Papacy.]
+
+On the other hand, the Papacy had definitely shaken itself free from
+imperial control. Henry III was the last Emperor who could impose his
+nominee Papacy upon the Church as Pope; the protégés of his successors
+are all classed among the anti-Popes. At the same time the papal
+privilege of crowning the Emperor and the papal weapon of
+excommunication were very real checks upon the German King; while the
+success of those principles for which the Cluniac party had striven
+established the theoretical claim of the Pope to be the moral guide,
+and the part which he played in starting the Crusades put him in the
+practical position of the leader of Christendom in any common
+movement. It was no slight loss to the Emperor that he had been the
+chief opponent of the Pope and the reformers, and that in the matter
+of the Crusades he and his whole nation had stood ostentatiously
+aloof.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE SECULAR CLERGY
+
+
+[Sidenote: The work of the Church reformers.]
+
+The great movement in favour of Church reform, which had emanated from
+Cluny, had worked itself out along certain definite lines. It is
+important to ask how far it had succeeded in achieving its objects. We
+have seen that it was a movement of essentially monastic conception
+aimed at the purification of the secular clergy. And we have seen that
+the evil to be remedied had arisen from the imminent danger that the
+Church would be laicised and feudalised. From the highest to the
+lowest all ecclesiastical posts were at the disposition of laymen who
+treated them as a species of feudal fief, so that the holders, even if
+they were in Holy Orders (which was not always the case), regarded
+their temporal rights and obligations as the first consideration and,
+like all feudal tenants, tried to establish the right of hereditary
+succession in their holdings. Thus the work of the reformers had been
+of a double nature; it was not enough that they should aim at
+exorcising the feudal spirit from the Church, at banishing the feudal
+ideal from the minds of ecclesiastics: it was necessary to effect what
+was indeed a revolution, and to shake the whole organisation of the
+Church free from the trammels which close contact with the State had
+laid upon it. It began as a reformation of morals; it developed into a
+constitutional revolution. There was involved in the movement both an
+interference with what might be distinguished as private rights and
+also a readjustment of public relations. The reformers headed by the
+Pope ultimately decided to concentrate their efforts on the latter.
+Hence we may begin by enquiring how far they had succeeded in freeing
+episcopal elections from lay control.
+
+[Sidenote: Episcopal appointments.]
+
+There were three several acts of the lay authority in connection with
+the appointment of bishops to which the Church reformers took
+exception. The King or, by usurpation from him, the great feudal lord
+had acquired the right of nominating directly to the vacant see, to
+the detriment, and even the exclusion, of the old electoral rights of
+clergy and people; and while in some cases nobles nominated themselves
+without any thought of taking Holy Orders, frequently they treated the
+bishoprics under their control as appanages or endowments for the
+younger members of their family. Then, before the consecration, the
+bishop-nominate obtained investiture from the lay authority by the
+symbolic gifts of a ring and a pastoral staff or cross, not only of
+the lands and temporal possessions of the see, but also of the
+jurisdiction which emanated from the episcopal office. Finally, the
+prospective bishop took an oath to his lay lord, whether King or
+other, which was not only an oath of fealty such as any subject might
+be called upon to take, but was also an act of homage, and made him an
+actual feudal vassal and his church a kind of fief.
+
+[Sidenote: Right of election.]
+
+The result of the long struggle was that in the matter of episcopal
+appointments, speaking generally, the right of election was not
+restored to clergy and people, in whom by primitive custom it had been
+vested, but that the laity, with the possible exception of the
+feudatories of the see, were banished altogether, the rural clergy
+ceased to appear, and, after the analogy of the papal election by the
+College of Cardinals, the canonical election of the bishop in every
+diocese tends to be concentrated in the hands of the clergy of the
+cathedral. It was a long time, however, before the rights of the
+cathedral chapters were universally recognised. Henry I of England in
+his Concordat with Anselm (1107) and the Emperor Henry V in the
+Concordat of Worms (122) both promised freedom of election. Philip I
+and Louis VI of France seem to have conceded the same right without
+any formal agreement. But many of the great French feudal lords clung
+to their power over the local bishoprics, and in Normandy, in Anjou,
+and in some parts of the south nearly a century elapsed before the
+duke or count surrendered his custom of nominating bishops directly.
+But the freedom of election by the Canons of the cathedral, even when
+it was conceded, was little more than nominal. In England, France, and
+the Christian kingdoms of Spain no cathedral body could exercise its
+right without the King's leave to elect, nor was any election complete
+without the royal confirmation. By the Concordat of Worms elections
+were to take place in the presence of the King or his commissioners.
+By the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164) English bishops must be
+elected in the royal chapel. King John tried to bribe the Church over
+to his side in the quarrel with the barons which preceded Magna Carta,
+by conceding that elections should be free--that is, should take
+place in the chapter-house of the cathedral; but even he reserved the
+royal permission for the election to be held, and the _congé
+d'élire_ in England and elsewhere was accompanied by the name of
+the individual on whom the choice of the electoral body should fall.
+It was not the rights of the electors but the all-pervading authority
+of the Pope which was to prove the chief rival of royal influence in
+the local Church.
+
+[Sidenote: Investiture.]
+
+The quarrel between Church and State had centred round the ceremony of
+investiture, because in the eyes of the reformers the most scandalous
+result of the feudalisation of the Church was the acceptance at the
+hands of a layman of the spiritual symbols of ring and crozier. But as
+Hugh of Fleury had acknowledged in his tract on "Royal Power and
+Priestly Office," investiture there must be so long as ecclesiastics
+held great temporal possessions. Here again some of the French nobles
+clung to the old anomalous form of investiture, but otherwise the
+example of the imperial lands, of the royal domain of France and of
+England was generally followed, the gifts of ring and staff were
+conceded to the Metropolitan, and where no special form of investiture
+by the sceptre was retained it was confused with the ceremony of
+homage. But in Germany and England investiture with the lands of the
+see preceded consecration, so that while on the one hand it was not a
+bishop who was being invested by a layman, on the other hand the
+refusal of investiture would practically prevent the consecration of
+any one obnoxious to the Crown.
+
+[Sidenote: Homage and fealty.]
+
+With regard to the feudal ceremony of homage a distinction came to be
+drawn by writers on the Canon Law between homage and fealty, and
+ecclesiastics were supposed to limit themselves to the obligations of
+the latter, which were those of every subject. The ceremony was not
+precisely the same as in the case of a lay noble being invested with a
+fief; but in France, at any rate, the Crown never really abandoned its
+claim to a feudal homage, and in any case ecclesiastics were expected
+to fulfil their feudal obligations. Even Innocent III acknowledged
+this in a decree (§43) of the Fourth Lateran Council (1215), and in
+interceding with Philip II of France on behalf of two bishops who had
+been deprived of their temporal possessions for some neglect of
+military duty, he argues that they were "ready to submit to the
+judgment of your Court, as is customary in such matters."
+
+[Sidenote: Regale.]
+
+Arising out of these feudal relations certain rights over the
+possessions of ecclesiastics and ecclesiastical bodies were claimed by
+the Crown, which were the cause of serious oppression. According to
+the Canon Law, the bishop was only the usufructuary of the lands and
+revenues belonging to his see. The lands and revenues belonged to the
+Church. But inasmuch as these had been originally in most cases the
+gift of the Crown, the King claimed to deal with them in the method
+applied to feudal holdings. By the right of _regale_, on the
+vacancy of a see through death, resignation, or deprivation of the
+bishop, the royal officers took possession of the temporalities, that
+is, the land and revenues, and administered them for the profit of the
+Crown so long as the see was vacant. The Crown did not hesitate to use
+the episcopal patronage and to fill up vacant canonries and benefices
+with its own followers, and it often took the opportunity to levy upon
+the inhabitants of the diocese a special tax--_tallagium_,
+_tallage_, or _taille_--which a landlord had a right of
+exacting from his unfree tenants. It was to the interest of the Crown
+to prolong a vacancy, and attempts to limit the exercise of the right
+were of little practical effect.
+
+[Sidenote: Right of spoils.]
+
+An even more extraordinary claim was to the right of spoils (_jus
+spolii_ or _exuviarium_). The canonical law forbidding the
+bishop to deal by will with the property attached to his see, was
+interpreted as applying to everything which he had not inherited. Thus
+the furniture of his house and the money in his chest were claimed as
+of right by the canons of his cathedral, but were often plundered by
+the crowd of the city or by the local nobles. These lawless
+proceedings provoked the interference of the royal officers, who
+succeeded in most cases in establishing the right of the Crown to all
+movables that the bishop left. The earliest notice of this royal claim
+in Germany is found in the reign of Henry V. It was in full use under
+Frederick I. William II is probably responsible for introducing both
+the _regale_ and the _jus spolii_ from Normandy into
+England. In France these were claimed by the feudal nobles as well as
+by the King. Bitter were the complaints made by the Church against the
+exercise of both rights. Kings and nobles clung to the _regale_
+as long as they could, for it meant local influence as well as
+revenue. In most cases, however, the right of spoils had been
+surrendered before the thirteenth century. It is to be remembered that
+ecclesiastics themselves exercised this right, bishops, for example,
+claiming the possessions of the canons and the parish priests in their
+dioceses. The Popes in relaxation of the Canon Law gave to certain
+bishops the right of leaving their personal property by will, and the
+canons also are found encouraging their bishop to make a will.
+
+[Sidenote: Claims of the Clergy.]
+
+As a set-off against these claims of the Crown upon the Church, the
+clergy also advanced certain claims. These touched the two important
+matters of taxation and jurisdiction. The Church claimed for her
+members that they should not be liable to pay the taxes raised by the
+secular authorities, nor should they have causes to which any
+ecclesiastic was a party tried in the secular courts.
+
+[Sidenote: Immunity from lay taxation.]
+
+In seeking freedom from lay taxation the Church did not ask that her
+members should escape their feudal obligations, nor even that they
+should contribute nothing to the exigencies of the State. The desire
+was merely that the clergy should be free from oppression and that the
+Church should be so far as possible self-governing. Thus Alexander III
+decreed in the third Lateran Council (1179), that for relieving the
+needs of the community, everything contributed by the Church to
+supplement the contributions of the laity should be given without
+compulsion on the recognition of its necessity or utility by the
+bishop and the clergy. Innocent III, in the fourth Lateran Council
+(1215), provided a further safeguard against lay impositions in
+demanding the permission of the Pope for any such levy. This does not
+mean that the clergy escaped taxation at the hands of the State; it
+merely means that while the Popes themselves heavily taxed them for
+purposes which it was often difficult to describe as religious, the
+price paid by the Crown for leave to tax the clergy was that a large
+portion of the money should find its way to Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: Tithes from the laity.]
+
+The clergy were not content with this merely negative position.
+Besides the right of self-taxation, they claimed that the laity should
+contribute to the needs of the Church. The chief permanent source of
+such contribution was the tithe, both the lesser tithes on smaller
+animals, fruits, and vegetables, and the greater tithes on corn, wine,
+and the larger animals. The Church also claimed tithes of revenues of
+every kind, even from such divers classes as traders, soldiers,
+beggars, and abandoned women. Much of the regular tithe had fallen
+into the hands of laymen by gift from Kings to feudal tenants, or from
+bishops to nobles and others, in return for military protection. These
+alienated tithes Gregory VII tried to recover; but his need for the
+help of the nobles against the Emperor forced him to stay his hand.
+The third Lateran Council (1179) forbade, on pain of peril to the
+soul, the transfer of tithes from one layman to another, and deprived
+of Christian burial any one who, apparently having received such a
+transfer, should not have made it over to the Church. This was a
+definite claim for tithes as a right of which the Church had only been
+deprived by some wrongful act. But in the very next year (1180)
+Frederick I, at the Diet of Gelnhausen, declared that the alienation
+of tithes as feudal fiefs to defenders of the Church was perfectly
+legitimate. Religious scruples, however, seem to have caused the
+surrender of tithes by many lay impropriators, especially to
+monasteries.
+
+[Sidenote: Bequests.]
+
+There were many other sources of wealth to the Church. An enormous
+quantity of property was bequeathed to pious uses by testators. The
+attendance of the clergy at the death-bed gave them an opportunity of
+which they were not slow to make use. The bodies of those who died
+intestate, as of those unconfessed, were denied burial in consecrated
+ground; all questions concerning wills were heard in the
+ecclesiastical courts. The civil power attempted to check the freedom
+of death-bed bequest, especially in Germany, where it was held that a
+valid will could only be made by one who was still well enough to walk
+unsupported. Another common source of revenue came from purchases or
+mortgages or other arrangements made with crusaders, in which
+advantage was taken of the haste of the lay men to raise funds for
+their expedition.
+
+[Sidenote: Wealth of the Church.]
+
+From these and other sources the wealth which poured in upon the
+Church was enormous. Individual gifts in money or in kind as
+thank-offerings on all sorts of occasions reached no small of the
+total; while no religious ceremony, from baptism to extreme unction
+and burial, could be carried out apart from the payment of an
+appropriate fee. The clergy constantly complained of spoliation, and
+no doubt individuals suffered much. The very laymen who, with the
+title of advocates, undertook to defend a cathedral or a monastery
+were often its worst robbers. But the endowments and revenues of the
+Church were so extensive as to raise in the minds of many reformers
+the question whether they were not largely responsible for her
+corruptions.
+
+[Sidenote: Immunity from lay jurisdiction.]
+
+The clergy also sought freedom from the jurisdiction of the secular
+courts; in other words, the Church claimed exclusive cognisance in her
+own tribunals of all matters concerning those in Holy Orders. The
+_Decretiun_ of Gratian--the text-book of Canon Law--laid it down
+that in civil matters the clergy were to be brought before a civil
+judge, but that a criminal charge against a clerk must be heard before
+the bishop. Urban II, however, declares that all clergy should be
+subject to the bishop alone, and the Synod of Nimes (1096), at which
+he presided, stigmatises it as sacrilege to hale clerks or monks
+before a secular court. Alexander III (1179) threatens to
+excommunicate any layman guilty of this offence; while Innocent III
+points out that a clerk is not even at liberty to waive the right of
+trial in an ecclesiastical court in a matter between him and a layman,
+because the spiritual jurisdiction is not a matter personal to
+himself, but belongs to the whole clerical body. Finally Frederick II,
+on his coronation at Rome in 1220, forbade any one to dare to indict
+an ecclesiastic on either a civil or a criminal charge before a
+secular tribunal. But meanwhile the frequent perpetration of violent
+crimes by those who wore the tonsure made it imperative in the
+interests of social order that the Church should not be allowed to
+defend these criminals in order to save her own interests.
+
+The fiercest struggle took place in England. Henry II did not deny the
+right of the Church to jurisdiction over her members; but he demanded
+that clerks found guilty of grave crime should be unfrocked by the
+ecclesiastical court, and that then, being no longer clerks, they
+should be handed over to the royal officers, by whom they should be
+punished according to their deserts. Archbishop Thomas Becket answered
+that it was contrary to justice and the Canon Law that a man should be
+punished twice for the same offence; that the punishment by the Church
+involved the offender's damnation and was therefore quite adequate;
+and that finally he himself was officially bound to defend the
+liberties of the Church even to the death. Henry II attempted to solve
+the difficulty by issuing the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164), the
+third clause of which decreed that the royal officer should determine
+whether any matter in which a clerk was concerned should be tried in
+the secular or the ecclesiastical court, and that even if it went to
+the latter, the King's officer should be present at the hearing. As
+the price, however, of his reconciliation with the Papacy after
+Becket's death, Henry was obliged to withdraw the Constitutions.
+
+The position of the Church on this question was clearly stated by Pope
+Celestine III in 1192. If a clerk had been lawfully convicted of
+theft, homicide, perjury, or any capital crime, he should be degraded
+by the ecclesiastical judge; for the next offence he should be
+punished by excommunication, and for the next by anathema; then, since
+the Church could do no more, for any subsequent offence he might be
+handed over to the secular power to be punished by exile or in any
+other lawful manner. This, of course, was a direct licence to the
+ill-disposed clergy to commit more crimes than were allowable for a
+layman; but the laity had to proceed cautiously in opposing it. In
+1219 Philip II of France demanded that a clerk who had been degraded
+should not be protected by the Church from seizure outside
+ecclesiastical precincts by the royal officers with a view to his
+trial in a secular court. But here again, both at his coronation as
+Emperor in 1220 and again in the code of laws drawn up for his kingdom
+of Sicily in 1231, Frederick II confirmed the privileges of the Church
+in the matter of jurisdiction. On the latter occasion, however, he did
+reserve cases of high treason for the royal court. Almost the only
+immediate effect of these protests on the part of the State was that
+Popes and Councils enjoined on the ecclesiastical courts greater
+severity of treatment of offenders, even to the extent of perpetual
+imprisonment in the case of those whom the lay tribunals would have
+condemned to death.
+
+[Sidenote: Increase of ecclesiastical jurisdiction.]
+
+But this exclusive jurisdiction in all matters that concerned her own
+members was only a part of the authority claimed and exercised by the
+Church in the sphere of justice. Synods of the clergy did not hesitate
+to take part in the enforcement of civil law and order, and threatened
+with severe ecclesiastical penalties all who did not observe the Truce
+of God, or who were guilty of piracy, incendiarism, or false coining.
+At one time they attempted thus to suppress usury and trial by ordeal,
+which at other times they allowed. They even legislated against
+tournaments and against the use of certain deadly weapons in battle by
+one Christian nation against another. But apart from the special
+circumstances which called out and so justified the legislation, the
+Church claimed at all times jurisdiction over certain classes of lay
+persons and in certain categories of cases. Thus all persons needing
+protection, such as widows, minors, and orphans, came under the
+cognisance of the ecclesiastical courts, and to these the Popes added
+Crusaders. Furthermore, all cases which could be regarded as in any
+way involving a possible breach of faith were also claimed as
+belonging to the jurisdiction of the Church, and these included
+everything concerning oaths, marriages, and wills. Naturally the
+Church had cognisance of all cases of sacrilege and heresy. These
+excuses for interference in the transactions of daily life were
+susceptible of almost indefinite extension, especially since the
+Church asserted a right to hear cases of all sorts in her courts on
+appeal on a plea that civil justice had failed. Even so stout a
+champion of the Church as St. Bernard complains bitterly that all this
+participation in worldly matters tends to stand between the clergy and
+their proper duties. The secular powers constantly protested. Even
+when Alfonso X in his legal code allowed that all suits arising from
+sins should go to ecclesiastical courts, the Cortes of Castile
+constantly protested. The chief attempts to check the growth of
+ecclesiastical jurisdiction were made in France. Even under Louis IX
+the barons combined to resist the encroachments of the Church, and
+resolved that "no clerk or layman should in future indict any one
+before an ecclesiastical judge except for heresy, marriage, or usury,
+on pain of loss of possessions and mutilation of a limb, in order
+that," they add with a justifiable touch of malice, "our jurisdiction
+may be revived, and they [the clergy] who have hitherto been enriched
+by our pauperisation may be reduced to the condition of the primitive
+Church, and living the contemplative life they may, as is seemly, show
+to us who spend an active life miracles which for a long time have
+disappeared from the world."
+
+[Sidenote: Simony.]
+
+The result, then, of the efforts of the Church reformers to free the
+Church from the State had been an enormous increase in the power of
+the Church. But these efforts were in the beginning only a means to an
+end, and that end was the purification of the Church itself. We have,
+therefore, to ask how far the attempts to get rid of simony and to
+enforce the celibacy of the clergy had met with permanent success.
+Before the movement in favour of reform the traffic in churches and
+Church property was indulged in by laity and clergy alike. Not only
+Kings and nobles but bishops and abbots received payments from those
+who accepted ecclesiastical preferment at their hands, and were by no
+means always careful that ecclesiastical offices were acquired by
+those in Holy Orders. Church property, in fact, was treated by those
+who represented the original donors as if it were the private property
+of the patron. The reform movement of the eleventh century, at any
+rate, succeeded in making a distinction between the right of ownership
+and the right of presentation, and in limiting the power of the patron
+to the latter. Beyond this nothing much was permanently effected in
+checking the traffic in things ecclesiastical. Preferment continued to
+be used as patronage: offices and dignities in the Church were given
+to children, and preferments were accumulated upon individuals until
+pluralities became a standing grievance. Councils and Popes still
+thundered against simony, but with the extending authority of Rome the
+staff of the papal curia was increased, and the traffic in things
+ecclesiastical at Rome was notorious.
+
+[Sidenote: Clerical marriage.]
+
+The efforts of the reformers in checking clerical marriage had not
+been much more successful. The law now stood as follows: the first two
+Lateran Councils (1123, 1139) prohibited matrimony to priests,
+deacons, and sub-deacons; but to those only in one of the three minor
+orders of the Church it was still allowed, although Alexander III
+ultimately decreed that marriage should cause them to forfeit their
+benefice. It was some time, however, before these decrees could be
+enforced, and even the Popes found themselves compelled to deal
+leniently with offending clergy. Thus Pascal II allowed to Archbishop
+Anselm that a married priest not only might, but must, if applied to,
+minister to a dying person. Attempts were made to forbid ordination to
+the sons of priests, at least as secular clergy, but such regulations
+were constantly relaxed or ignored. Pascal II actually allowed that in
+Spain, where clerical marriage had been lawful, the children should be
+eligible for all secular and ecclesiastical preferment. In the remoter
+countries of Europe--the Scandinavian lands, Bohemia, Hungary,
+Poland--the decrees against clerical marriage were not accepted until
+far into the thirteenth century. Even in part of Germany, notably the
+diocese of Liege, the clergy continued openly to marry until the same
+century. But even in countries where the principle was nominally
+accepted it triumphed at the expense of morality. For example, in
+England the decree was published in Council after Council throughout
+the twelfth century and was undoubtedly accepted as the law. But in
+1129, after the death of Anselm, who had opposed the expedient, Henry
+I imprisoned the "house-keepers" of the clergy in London in order to
+obtain a sum of money by their release. Furthermore, both in England
+and elsewhere, bishops finding it impossible to enforce the decree,
+frankly licensed the breach of it by individual clergy in return for
+an annual payment. It is interesting to note that several important
+writers of the age speak with studied moderation on this question. The
+great lawyer Gratian admits that in the earlier period of the Church
+marriage was allowed to the clergy. The Parisian theologian, Peter
+Comestor, publicly taught that the enforcement of the vow of celibacy
+on the clergy was a deliberate snare of the devil. The English
+historians, Henry of Huntingdon, Matthew Paris, and Thomas of
+Walsingham, speak with disapproval of the attempts to enforce it, and
+even St. Thomas Aquinas holds that the celibacy of the secular clergy
+was a matter of merely human regulation. Thus the protest of the
+reformers of the eleventh century in favour of purity of life among
+the clergy had met with the smallest possible success, but like all
+such protests, it helped to keep alive the idea of a higher standard
+of personal and official life until such time as secular circumstances
+were more favourable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+CANONS AND MONKS
+
+
+[Sidenote: Secular canons.]
+
+So far, in speaking of the attempted purification of the Church in the
+eleventh century, we have dealt merely with the bishops and the
+parochial clergy. But a movement which emanated from the monasteries
+had a message also for those ecclesiastics who were gathered into
+corporate bodies, and whom we have learnt to distinguish respectively
+as canons and monks. Of these the canons were reckoned among the
+secular clergy; for although they were supposed to live a common life
+according to a certain rule, their duties were parochial, and they
+were not bound for life to the community of which they were members.
+The body of canons was called a chapter, and of chapters there were
+two kinds--the cathedral chapter, whose members served the Mother
+Church of the diocese, and, as we have seen, ultimately obtained the
+nominal right of electing the bishop; and the collegiate chapter,
+generally, though not always, to be found in towns which had no
+cathedral, the members of which, like those of a modern clergy-house,
+served the church or churches of the town. In the eighth century these
+communities were subjected to a rule drawn up by Chrodegang, Bishop of
+Metz, in accordance with which they were required to sleep in a common
+dormitory, feed at a common table, and assimilate themselves as far as
+possible to monks. But in the two succeeding centuries there was no
+class of clergy which fell so far from the ideal as the capitular
+clergy. They were important and they were wealthy, for the cathedral
+chapters claimed to share with the bishop in the administration of the
+diocese, and both kinds of chapters owned extensive lands. In some of
+the more important chapters great feudal nobles had obtained for
+themselves the titular offices; in nearly all such bodies some, if not
+most or even all, of the canonries came to be reserved for younger
+members of the noble families. The common property was divided into
+shares, between the bishop and the body of the canons and between the
+individual canons: many of the canons employed vicars to do their
+clerical duty, and some even lived on the estates of the capitular
+body, leading the existence of a lay noble. Even those who remained on
+the spot had houses of their own round the cloister, where they lived
+with their wives and children, using the common refectory only for an
+occasional festival.
+
+[Sidenote: Canons Regular.]
+
+Thus no body of ecclesiastics stood in need of thorough reform more
+than the capitular clergy, and no class proved so hard to deal with.
+Attempts to substitute Cluniac monks for canons roused the opposition
+of the whole body of secular clergy. More successful to a small degree
+was the plan of Bishop Ivo of Chartres and others to revive among the
+capitular bodies the rule of common life. But it was difficult to pour
+new wine into old bottles, and the reformers found it more profitable
+to leave the old capitular bodies severely alone, and to devote their
+efforts to the foundation of new communities. To these were applied
+from the very first a new rule for which its advocates claimed the
+authority of St. Augustine. It laid upon the members vows of poverty,
+chastity, and obedience, and placed them under an abbot elected by the
+community of canons. Such was the origin of the Augustinian or Austin
+Canons, who came to be distinguished as Regular Canons, and are to be
+reckoned with monastic bodies, in comparison with the old cathedral
+and collegiate chapters, who were henceforth known as Secular Canons.
+These bodies of clergy, who combined parochial duties with what was
+practically a monastic life, became exceedingly popular; and by
+degrees not only were Secular Canons of collegiate churches, and even
+of some cathedrals, transformed into Regular Canons, but even some
+monastic houses were handed over to them. Instead of existing as
+isolated bodies, like the old Benedictines, they took the Cluniac
+model of organisation and formed congregations of houses grouped round
+some one or other of those which formed models for the rest. Of these
+congregations of Regular Canons the most celebrated were those of the
+Victorines and the Premonstratensians.
+
+[Sidenote: Victorines.]
+
+The abbey of St. Victor at Paris was founded in 1113 by William of
+Champeaux, afterwards Bishop of Chalons. The Order came to consist of
+about forty houses, and its members strove to keep the Augustinian
+ideal of a parochial and monastic life. But the chief fame of the
+abbey itself comes from its scholastic work, and it became known both
+as the stronghold of a somewhat rigid orthodoxy and as the home of a
+mystical theology which was developed among its own teachers.
+
+[Sidenote: Premonstratensians.]
+
+But by far the most important congregation of Canons Regular was that
+of the Premonstratensians. Their founder, Norbert, a German of noble
+birth, in response to a sudden conversion, gave up several canonries
+of the older kind with which he was endowed; but finding that a
+prophet has no honour in his own country, he preached in France with
+astonishing success, and ultimately, under the patronage of the Bishop
+of Laon in 1120, he settled with a few companions in a waste place in
+a forest, where he established a community of Regular Canons and gave
+to the spot the name of _Prémontré--pratum monstratum--_the
+meadow which had been pointed out to him by an angel. Almost from its
+foundation the Premonstratensian Order admitted women as well as men,
+and at first the two sexes lived in separate houses planted side by
+side. The Order also began the idea of affiliating to itself, under
+the form of a third class, influential laymen who would help in its
+work. The Premonstratensian houses assimilated themselves to monastic
+communities more than did the Victorines: their work was missionary
+rather than parochial. The Order spread with great rapidity not only
+in Western Europe, but, even in its founder's lifetime, to Syria and
+Palestine, and for purposes of administration it came to be divided
+into thirty provinces.
+
+[Sidenote: St. Norbert in Germany.]
+
+Meanwhile Norbert had come under the notice of the Emperor Lothair II,
+who forced him into the archbishopric of Magdeburg. Here he
+substituted Premonstratensians in a collegiate chapter for canons of
+the older kind, and he eagerly backed up Lothair's policy of extending
+German influence upon the north-eastern frontier by planting
+Premonstratensian houses as missionary centres and by founding new
+bishoprics. Norbert, in fact became Lothair's chief adviser and was an
+European influence second only to that of St. Bernard in all the
+questions of the day.
+
+[Sidenote: Knights Templars.]
+
+It was upon the model of the Canons Regular that the great military
+Orders of the religious were organised. In the year 1118 a Burgundian
+knight, Hugh de Payens, with eight other knights, founded at Jerusalem
+an association for the protection of distressed pilgrims in Palestine.
+From their residence near Solomon's Temple they came to be known as
+the Knights of the Temple. They remained a small and poor body until
+St. Bernard who was nephew to one of the knights, took them under his
+patronage and drew up for them a code of regulations which obtained
+the sanction of Honorius II at the Council of Troyes in 1128. From
+that moment the prosperity of the Templars was assured. Their numbers
+increased, and lands and other endowments were showered upon them in
+all parts of Europe. As monks they were under the triple vow of
+poverty, chastity, and obedience, and the regulations of the Order
+which governed their daily life were among the most severe. As knights
+it was their duty to maintain war against the Saracens. For
+administrative purposes the possessions of the Order were grouped in
+ten provinces, each province being further subdivided into
+preceptories or commanderies, and each of these into still smaller
+units. Each division and subdivision had its own periodical chapter of
+members for settling its concerns, and at the head of the whole Order
+stood the Grand Master with a staff of officers who formed the general
+chapter and acted as a restraint upon the conduct of their head. In
+addition to the knights the Order contained chaplains for the
+ecclesiastical duties, and serving brethren of humble birth to help
+the knights in warfare. Their possessions in Western Europe were used
+as recruiting-grounds for their forces in the East; but it was only in
+towns of some importance that they erected churches on the model of
+the Holy Sepulchre in connection with their houses.
+
+[Sidenote: Knights Hospitallers.]
+
+The Knights Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem was a reorganisation
+of a hospital dedicated to St. John the Baptist. This had been erected
+for poor pilgrims by the merchants of Amalfi before the Crusades
+began. But it remained merely a charitable brotherhood living under a
+monastic rule and attracting both men and endowments, until the
+example of the Templars caused the then master, Raymond du Puy, to
+obtain papal sanction some time before 1130 for a rule which added
+military duties without superseding the original object of the Order.
+Their possessions were divided into eight provinces with subdivisions
+of grand priories and commanderies, and the other administrative
+arrangements differed in little, except occasionally in name, from
+those of the Templars.
+
+[Sidenote: Privileges of the military Orders.]
+
+Both these Orders obtained not only extensive possessions from the
+pious, but wide privileges from the Pope. They were subject to the
+spiritual jurisdiction of the Pope alone; they could consecrate
+churches and cemeteries on their own lands without any interference of
+the local clergy; they could hold divine service everywhere.
+Interdicts and excommunications had no terrors or even inconveniences
+for them. They were free from payment of tithes and other imposts
+levied on the clergy. There is no doubt that but for these Orders the
+Crusaders would have fared far worse than they did. The Templars and
+Hospitallers were the one really reliable element in the crusading
+forces. This is no very high praise, and their effectiveness was
+largely discounted by their bitter quarrels with each other and with
+the local authorities, both secular and ecclesiastical, alike in the
+east and the west. They scandalously abused the extensive privileges
+accorded to them, by such acts as the administration of the Sacrament
+to excommunicated persons, to whom they would also give Christian
+burial. In 1179, at the second Lateran Council, Alexander III was
+moved by the universal complaints to denounce their irresponsible
+defiance of all ecclesiastical law, and subsequent Popes were obliged
+to speak with equal vigour. After the destruction of the Latin power
+in Palestine (1291) the Hospitallers transferred their head-quarters
+to Cyprus till 1309, then to Rhodes, and finally to Malta. The
+Templars abandoned their _raison d'ętre_, retired to their
+possessions in the west, and placed their head-quarters at Paris,
+where they acted as the bankers of the French King. Their wealth
+provoked jealousy: they were accused of numberless and nameless
+crimes, and their enemies brought about their fall, first in France,
+then in England, and finally the abolition of the Order by papal
+decree in 1313. Such of their wealth as escaped the hands of the lay
+authorities went to swell the possessions of the Hospitallers.
+
+[Sidenote: Teutonic Knights.]
+
+There were many other Orders of soldier-monks besides these two. The
+best known are the Teutonic Knights, who originated during the Third
+Crusade at the siege of Acre (1190) in an association of North German
+Crusaders for the care of the sick and wounded. The Knights of the
+German Hospital of St. Mary the Virgin at Jerusalem--for such was
+their full title--gained powerful influence in Palestine; their Order
+was confirmed by Pope Celestine III (1191-8), and in 1220 Honorius III
+gave them the same privileges as were enjoyed by the Hospitallers and
+Templars. Their organisation was similar to that of the older Orders.
+Their prosperity was chiefly due to the third Grand Master, Herman von
+Salza, the good genius of the Emperor Frederick II, and a great power
+in Europe. Under him the Order transferred itself to the shores of the
+Baltic, where it carried on a crusade against the heathen Prussians,
+and here it united in 1237 with another knightly Order, the Brethren
+of the Sword, which had been founded in 1202 by the Bishop of Livonia
+for similar work against the heathen inhabitants of that country.
+
+[Sidenote: Other military Orders.]
+
+The Knights of the Hospital of St. Thomas of Acre was a small English
+Order named after Thomas Becket and founded in the thirteenth century.
+They, together with those already mentioned as founded for work in
+Palestine, belonged to the Canons Regular. For convenience, however,
+mention should be made here of the great Spanish Orders which were
+affiliated to the Cistercian monks. These were founded in imitation of
+the Templars and Hospitallers for similar work against the Saracens of
+the Peninsula. The Order of Calatrava, founded by a Cistercian abbot
+when that city was threatened by the Saracens in 1158, and the Order
+of St. Julian, founded about the same time, which ultimately took its
+name from the captured fortress of Alcantara, were amenable to the
+complete monastic rule; while the Portuguese Order of Evora or Avisa,
+founded a few years later, was assimilated rather to the lay brethren
+of the Cistercians, and its members could marry and hold property.
+There was one of the Spanish Orders, however, which was not connected
+with the Cistercians. The Knights of St. James of Compostella
+originated in 1161 for the protection of pilgrims to the shrine of
+Compostella. Their rule was confirmed by Alexander III in 1175, and
+the Order of Santiago became the most famous of the military Orders in
+the Peninsula.
+
+[Sidenote: New Monastic Orders.]
+
+The revival and reorganisation of the common life among cathedral and
+collegiate bodies roused the jealousy of the monastic houses. The
+absolute superiority of the monastic life over any other was an
+article of faith to which the obvious interests of the monks could
+allow no qualification; and the close imitation of the monastic model
+adopted by the Regular Canons was sufficient proof that the Church
+generally acquiesced in this view. The great reform movement of the
+eleventh century had emanated from the monks of Cluny; but just as the
+degradation of the monastic ideal by the Benedictines had called into
+existence the Order of Cluny with its reformed Benedictine rule, so
+now the failure of the Cluniacs to live up to the expectations and to
+minister to the needs of the most fervent religious spirits caused the
+foundation of a number of new Orders. In each such case the founder
+and his first followers strove, by the austerities of their personal
+lives and by the severity of the rule which they enjoined, to embody
+and to maintain at the highest level that ideal of contemplative
+asceticism which was the object of the monastic life. Such was the
+origin of the Order of Grammont (1074) and of Fontevraud (1094) and of
+the better known Orders of the Carthusians (1084) and the Cistercians
+(1098).
+
+[Sidenote: Grammont.]
+
+Thus Stephen, the founder of the Order of Grammont, was the son of a
+noble of Auvergne, who, in the course of a journey in Calabria, was so
+impressed by the life or the hermits with which the mountainous
+districts abounded, that he resolved to reproduce it, and lived for
+fifty years near Limoges, subjecting himself to such rigorous
+devotional exercises that his knees became quite hard and his nose
+permanently bent! Gregory VII sanctioned the formation of an Order,
+but Stephen and his first followers called themselves simply _boni
+homines_. After his death the monastery was removed to Grammont
+close by, and a severe rule continued to be practised; but the
+management of the concerns of the house was in the hands, not of the
+monks, but of lay brethren, who began even to interfere in spiritual
+matters, and the Order ceased to spread.
+
+[Sidenote: Carthusians.]
+
+The founder of the Carthusians, Bruno, a native of Koln, but master of
+the Cathedral school at Rheims, also took the eremitic life as his
+model for the individual. To this end he planted his monastery near
+Grenoble, in the wild solitude of the Chartreuse, which gave its name
+to the whole Order and to each individual house. In addition to a very
+rigorous form of asceticism his rule imposed on the members an almost
+perpetual silence. The centre of the life of the Carthusian monk was
+not the cloister, but the cell which to each individual was, except on
+Sundays and festivals, at the same time chapel, dormitory, refectory,
+and study. The Carthusian rule has been described as "Cenobitism
+reduced to its simplest expression"; but despite the growing wealth of
+the Order, the rigour of the life was well maintained, and of all the
+monastic bodies it was the least subjected to criticism and satire.
+
+[Sidenote: Fontevraud.]
+
+A different type of founder is represented by Robert of Arbrissel, in
+Brittany, who, although he attracted disciples by the severity of his
+life as a hermit, was really a great popular preacher, whose words
+soon came to be attested by miracles. He was especially effective in
+dealing with fallen women, and the monastery which he established at
+Fontevraud, in the diocese of Poitiers, was a double house, men and
+women living in two adjacent cloisters; but the monks were little more
+than the chaplains and the managers of the monastic revenues, and at
+the head of the whole house and Order the founder placed an Abbess as
+his successor. The rule of this Order imposed on the female members
+absolute silence except in the chapter-house.
+
+[Sidenote: Cluniac Congregation.]
+
+The foundation of these Orders, greater or less, did not exhaust the
+impetus in favour of monasticism. Single houses and smaller Orders
+were founded during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, of which
+many attained a merely local importance. The common feature of the
+great Orders was that each of them formed a Congregation, that is to
+say, an aggregate of numerous houses scattered over many lands, but
+following the same rule and acknowledging some sort of allegiance to
+the original home of the Order. The invention of this model was due to
+Cluny, although even among the Cluniacs the organisation of the
+Congregation, with its system of visiting inspectors who reported on
+the condition of the monasteries to an annual Chapter-General meeting
+at Cluny, was not completed until the thirteenth century. From the
+first, however, the Abbot of Cluny was a despot; with the exception of
+the heads of some monasteries which became affiliated to the Order he
+was the only abbot, the ruler of the Cluniac house being merely a
+prior. All the early abbots were men of mark, who were afterwards
+canonised by the Church. The fourth abbot refused the Papacy; but
+Gregory VII, Urban II, and Pascal II were all Cluniac monks. The real
+greatness of the Order was due to its fifth and sixth abbots, Odilo
+who ruled from 994 to 1049, and Hugh who held the reins of office for
+an even longer period (1049-1109); while the fame of the Order
+culminated under Peter the Venerable, the contemporary of St. Bernard.
+
+[Sidenote: Its decay.]
+
+But the history of the abbot who came between Hugh and Peter shows the
+strange vicissitudes to which even the greatest monasteries might be
+subjected. Pontius was godson of Pope Pascal II, who sent to the newly
+elected abbot his own dalmatic. Calixtus II visited Cluny, and while
+reaffirming the privileges granted by his predecessors, such as the
+freedom of Cluniac houses from visitation by the local bishop, he made
+the Abbot of Cluny _ex officio_ a Cardinal of the Roman Church,
+and allowed that when the rest of the land was under an interdict the
+monks of Cluny might celebrate Mass within the closed doors of their
+chapels. But as a consequence of these distinctions Pontius' conduct
+became so unbearable as to cause loud complaints from ecclesiastics of
+every rank. Ultimately the Pope intervened and persuaded Pontius to
+resign the abbacy and to make a pilgrimage to Palestine. Meanwhile
+another abbot was appointed. But Pontius returned, gathered an armed
+band, and got forcible possession of Cluny, which he proceeded to
+despoil. Again the Pope, Honorius II, interfered, and Pontius was
+disposed of.
+
+[Sidenote: Criticism of St. Bernard.]
+
+But such an episode was only too characteristic of the decay which
+seemed inevitably to fall on each of the monastic Orders. The wealth
+and privileges of Cluny made its failure all the more conspicuous. A
+few years after the expulsion of Pontius, St. Bernard wrote to the
+Abbot of the Cluniac house of St. Thierry a so-called apology, which,
+while professing a great regard for the Cluniacs Order and pretending
+to criticise the deficiencies of his own Cistercians, is in reality a
+scathing attack upon the lapse of the former from the Benedictine
+rule. He attacks their neglect of manual work and of the rule of
+silence; their elaborate cookery and nice taste in wines; their
+interest in the cut and material of their clothes and the luxury of
+their bed coverlets: the extravagance of the furniture in their
+chapels, and even the grotesque architecture of their buildings. He
+especially censures the magnificent state in which the abbots live and
+with which they travel about, and he declares himself emphatically
+against that exemption of monasteries from episcopal control which was
+one of the most prized privileges of the Cluniac Order. Something may
+perhaps be allowed for exaggeration in this attack; but that there was
+no serious overstatement is clear from the letters written some years
+later by Peter the Venerable to St. Bernard, in answer to the
+accusations made by the Cistercians in general. He justifies the
+departure from the strict Benedictine rule partly on the ground of its
+severity, partly because of its unsuitability to the climate; but his
+defence clearly shows how far, even under so admirable a ruler, the
+Cluniacs had fallen away from the monastic ideal.
+
+[Sidenote: Cistercians.]
+
+The Cistercian Order, no less than the Orders already mentioned, owed
+its origin to the desire to revive the primitive monastic rule from
+which the Cluniacs had fallen away. The wonderful success which it met
+with made it the chief rival of that Order. The parent monastery of
+Citeaux, near Dijon, was founded by Robert of Molesme in 1098 under
+the patronage of the Duke of Burgundy. But the monks kept the rule of
+St. Benedict in the strictest manner, and their numbers remained
+small. In 1113, however, they were joined by the youthful Bernard, the
+son of a Burgundian knight, together with about thirty friends of like
+mind, whom he had already collected with a view to the cloister life.
+At once expansion became not only possible but necessary, and the
+abbot of the day, Stephen Harding, by birth an Englishman from
+Sherborne in Dorsetshire, sent out four colonies in succession, which
+founded the abbeys of La Ferte (1113), Pontigny (1114), Clairvaux and
+Morimond (1115). The first general chapter of the Order was held in
+1116: the scheme of organisation drawn up by Stephen Harding was
+embodied in _Carta Caritatis_, the Charter of Love, and received
+the papal sanction in 1119. By the middle of the century (1151) more
+than five hundred monasteries were represented at the general chapter,
+and despite the resolution to admit no more houses, the number
+continued to increase until the whole Order must have contained
+upwards of two thousand.
+
+[Sidenote: Mode of life.]
+
+The entire organisation of the Cistercian Order made it a strong
+contrast to the Cluniacs, both in the mode of life of its members and
+in the method of government. The Cluniacs had become wealthy and
+luxurious: their black dress, the symbol of humility, had become
+rather a mark of hypocrisy. In order to guard against these snares the
+Cistercians, to the wrath of the other monastic Orders, adopted a
+white habit indicative of the joy which should attend devotion to
+God's service. Their monasteries, all dedicated to the Blessed Virgin
+Mary, were built in lonely places, where they would have no
+opportunity to engage in parochial work. This indeed was strictly
+forbidden them as detracting from the contemplative life which should
+be the ideal of the Cistercian. For the same reason they were
+forbidden to accept gifts of churches or tithes. The monastic
+buildings, including the chapel, were to be of the simplest
+description, without paintings, sculpture, or stained glass; and the
+ritual used at the services was in keeping with this bareness. The
+arrangements of the refectory and the dormitory were equally meagre.
+Hard manual work, strict silence, and one daily meal gave the inmates
+every opportunity of conquering their bodily appetites.
+
+[Sidenote: Organisation.]
+
+The method of government adopted for the Cistercian Order is also a
+contrast by imitation of the Cluniac arrangements. It was an essential
+point that a Cistercian house should be subject to the bishop of the
+diocese in which it was situated. The episcopal leave was asked before
+a house was founded, and a Cistercian abbot took an oath of obedience
+to the local bishop. The actual organisation of the whole Order may be
+described as aristocratic in contrast with the despotism of the Abbot
+of Cluny. The Abbot of Citeaux was subject to the visitation and
+correction of the abbots of the four daughter houses mentioned above,
+while he in turn visited them; and each of them kept a similar
+surveillance over the houses which had sprung from their houses. In
+addition to this scheme of inspection, an annual general chapter met
+at Citeaux. The abbots of all the houses in France, Germany, and Italy
+were expected to appear every year; but from remoter lands attendance
+was demanded only once in three, four, five, or even seven years.
+
+[Sidenote: Decay.]
+
+The Cistercians certainly wrested the lead of the monastic world from
+Cluny, and until the advent of the Friars no other Order rivalled them
+in popularity. But no more than any other Order were they exempt from
+the evils of popularity. The very deserts in which they placed
+themselves for protection, and the agricultural work with which they
+occupied their hands, brought them the corrupting wealth; in England
+they were the owners of the largest flocks of sheep which produced the
+raw material for the staple trade of the country. They accepted
+ecclesiastical dignities; they became luxurious and magnificent in
+their manner of life; they strove for independence of the
+ecclesiastical authorities, until in the middle of the thirteenth
+century one of their own abbots quotes against them the saying that
+"among the monks of the Cistercian Order whatever is pleasing is
+lawful, whatever is lawful is possible, whatever is possible is done."
+
+[Sidenote: Grant of privileges.]
+
+This degeneracy of the monastic Orders was due in no small measure to
+the policy of the Papacy. The monasteries, in their desire to shake
+themselves free from the jurisdiction of the bishop of the diocese,
+appealed to Rome; and the Pope, in pursuit of his policy of
+superseding the local authorities, encouraged the monks to regard
+themselves as a kind of papal militia. Thus from the time of Gregory
+VII, at all events, all kinds of exemptions and privileges were
+granted to the monastic communities in general and to the abbots of
+the greater houses in particular. Exemption from the visitation of the
+local bishop was one of the most frequent grants, until the great
+Orders became too powerful to be afraid of any interference. This
+carried with it the right of jurisdiction by the abbot and general
+chapter over all churches to which the monastic body had the right of
+presentation. This was an increasingly serious matter, for pious
+donors were constantly bequeathing churches and tithes to favourite
+Orders and popular houses, and the abbot attempted with considerable
+success to usurp the definitely episcopal authority by instituting the
+parish priest. Nor was this the only matter in which the abbot
+substituted himself for the bishop. The monastic community might build
+a church without any reference to the local ecclesiastical authority,
+and the abbot might consecrate it and any altar in it. It is true that
+if any monk of the house or secular clergyman serving one of the
+churches in the gift of the house desired ordination to any step in
+the ecclesiastical hierarchy, the abbot was limited to choosing a
+bishop who might be asked to perform the duty; but in the course of
+the thirteenth century, in some cases at least, the Popes gave to
+certain abbots the privilege of advancing candidates to the minor
+Orders. Probably Gregory VII began the grants of insignia which marked
+the episcopal office to abbots of important houses. The Abbot of St.
+Maximin in Trier certainly obtained from him permission to wear a
+mitre and episcopal gloves. Urban II granted to the Abbot of Cluny the
+right to appear in a dalmatic with a mitre and episcopal sandals and
+gloves.
+
+[Sidenote: Forged claims.]
+
+What could be gained by favour could also be obtained by payment or
+claimed by forgery. The expenses of the Roman Curia increased; the
+monastic Orders were wealthy. Moreover, the critical faculty was
+slightly developed. Certain monasteries became notorious for the
+manufacture of documents in their own favour, St. Augustine's at
+Canterbury being especially bad offenders; and certain individuals
+from time to time supplied such material to all monasteries which
+would pay for them; while, finally, in return for well-bestowed gifts,
+the Roman Curia was often willing to recognise the authenticity of a
+spurious claim.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ST. BERNARD
+
+
+[Sidenote: Honorius II.]
+
+Calixtus II died in December, 1124, and in a few months (May, 1125)
+Henry V followed him to the grave. The imperial party at Rome had
+disappeared, but, on the other hand, Calixtus had established only a
+truce between the Roman factions. The Frangipani and Pierleoni
+families each nominated a successor to him, but the former forcibly
+placed their candidate in the papal chair. The six years of the
+pontificate of Honorius II (1124-30) are unimportant.
+
+[Sidenote: Lothair II.]
+
+It was perhaps fortunate for the Papacy that the allegiance of Germany
+was also divided. With Henry V expired the male line of the Salian or
+Franconian House. He had intended to secure the succession for his
+nephew, Frederick the One-eyed, Duke of Suabia and head of the family
+of Hohenstaufen. But the anti-Franconian party procured the election
+of Lothair, Duke of Saxony, who had built up for himself a practically
+independent territorial power on the north-eastern side of Germany,
+and had taken a prominent part in opposition to Henry V.
+
+[Sidenote: Lothair and the Concordat.]
+
+Lothair's election, then, was a triumph for the Papacy, and the Church
+party could not let pass so good an opportunity of revising the
+relations of State and Church in Germany. They had maintained from the
+first that the Concordat of Worms was a personal arrangement between
+Calixtus II and Henry V. But the exact nature of Lothair's promise on
+election is a matter of great dispute. According to the account of an
+anonymous writer, he undertook that the Church should exercise entire
+freedom in episcopal elections without being controlled, "as formerly"
+(an obvious reference to the Concordat of Worms), by the presence of
+the lay power or by a recommendation from it, and that after the
+consecration (not before, according to the terms of the Concordat) the
+Emperor should, without any payment, invest the prelate with the
+regalia by the sceptre and should receive his oath of fealty "saving
+his Order." Lothair's actual conduct, however, in the matter of
+appointments seems to have been guided by the terms of the Concordat.
+
+[Sidenote: Lothair and the Hohenstaufen.]
+
+Frederick of Hohenstaufen did homage with the rest of the nobles to
+Lothair, but not unnaturally Lothair distrusted him. Frederick was
+heir to all the allodial possessions of the late Emperor; but Lothair
+persuaded to a decision which would have deprived Frederick of a large
+portion of these, and thus have rendered him and his house practically
+innocuous. When Frederick refused to accept this decision he was put
+to the ban of the Empire. The Hohenstaufen party challenged Lothair's
+title to the throne, and put up as their candidate Frederick's younger
+brother Conrad, Duke of Franconia, who, having been absent in
+Palestine, had never done homage to Lothair. Conrad was crowned King
+in Italy, but he was excommunicated by Pope Honorius, and neither in
+Germany nor in Italy did the Hohenstaufen cause advance.
+
+[Sidenote: Schism in the Papacy.]
+
+Meanwhile a crisis at Rome quite overshadowed the German disputes.
+Honorius II died in February, 1130. Immediately the party of the
+Frangipani, who had stood around him, met and proclaimed a successor
+as Innocent II. This was irregular, and in any case the act was that
+of a minority of the Cardinals. It must have been, therefore, with
+some confidence in the justice of their cause that the opposition
+party met at a later hour, and by the votes of a majority of the
+College of Cardinals elected the Cardinal Peter Leonis, the grandson
+of a converted Jew and formerly a monk of Cluny, as Anacletus II.
+There was no question of principle at stake; it was a mere struggle of
+factions. The partisans of Innocent charged Anacletus with the most
+heinous crimes. Clearly he was ambitious and able, wealthy and
+unscrupulous. Moreover, for the moment he was successful. By whatever
+means, he gradually won the whole of Rome; and Innocent, deserted,
+made his way by Pisa and Genoa to Burgundy, and so to France. His
+reception by the Abbey of Cluny was a great strength to his cause, and
+he there consecrated the new church, which had been forty years in
+building and was larger than any church yet erected in France. In
+order that the schism in the Papacy should not be reproduced in every
+bishopric and abbey of his kingdom, Louis VI of France summoned a
+Council at Etampes, near Paris, which should decide between the
+respective merits of the rival Popes.
+
+[Sidenote: Bernard of Clairvaux.]
+
+To this Council a special invitation was sent to the great monk who
+for the next twenty years dominates the Western Church and completely
+over-shadows the contemporary Popes. We have of seen that it was the
+advent of Bernard and his large party at the monastery of Citeaux in
+1113 that saved the newly founded Order from premature collapse.
+Although only twenty-four years of age, Bernard was entrusted with the
+third of the parties sent forth in succession to seek new homes for
+the Order, and he and his twelve companions settled in a gloomy valley
+in the northernmost corner of Burgundy, which was henceforth to be
+known as Clairvaux. Here the hardships suffered by the monks in their
+maintenance of the strict Benedictine rule and the entire mastery over
+his bodily senses obtained by their young abbot built up a reputation
+which reacted on the whole body of the Cistercians, and soon made them
+the most revered and widespread of all the monastic Orders. Bernard
+himself became the unconscious worker of many miracles: he was the
+friend and adviser of great potentates in Church and State, and
+without the least effort on his own part he was gradually acquiring a
+position as the arbiter of Christendom.
+
+[Sidenote: Acceptance of Innocent II.]
+
+As yet he had confined his interferences in secular matters to the
+kingdom of France and some of its great fiefs; he had rebuked the King
+of France for persecution of two bishops; he had remonstrated with the
+Count of Champagne for cruelty to a vassal. Now he was called upon to
+intervene for the first time in a matter of European importance. The
+whole question of the papal election was submitted to his judgment,
+and his clear decision in favour of Innocent carried the allegiance of
+France. Advocates of Innocent could not base his claims on legal
+right, and Bernard led the way in asserting his superiority in
+personal merit over his rival. At Chartres Innocent met Henry I of
+England and Normandy, and again it was Bernard's eloquence which won
+Henry's adhesion. A Synod of German clergy at Würzburg acknowledged
+Innocent, and Lothair accepted the decision. But when Innocent met the
+German King at Ličge in March, 1131, fortunately for the Pope Bernard
+was still by his side. It is true that Lothair stooped to play the
+part of papal groom, which had been played only by Conrad, the
+rebellious son of Henry IV; that he and his wife were both crowned by
+the Pope in the cathedral; and that he promised to lead the Pope back
+to Rome. But in return for his services Lothair tried to use his
+opportunity for going back upon the Concordat and claiming the
+restoration of the right of investiture. Bernard, however, came to the
+help of the Pope, and, backed by the general indignation and alarm at
+the meanness of Lothair's conduct, forced the Emperor to withdraw his
+demands. Innocent spent some time longer in France, among other places
+visiting Clairvaux, where the hard life of the inmates filled him and
+his Italian followers with astonishment.
+
+Throughout these wanderings since the Council of Etampes Bernard had
+been the constant companion of the Pope, and had ultimately become not
+merely his most trusted but practically his only counsellor. As a
+matter of form questions were submitted to the Cardinals, but no
+action was taken until Bernard's view had been ascertained. In April,
+1132, Innocent once more appeared in Italy. Meanwhile Anacletus,
+having failed to obtain the support of any of the great monarchs of
+the West, turned to the Normans, and by the grant of the royal title
+gained the allegiance of Roger, Duke of Apulia and Count of Sicily. A
+few other parts of Europe still acknowledged Anacletus. Scotland was
+too distant to be troubled by Bernard's influence; but in Lombardy the
+great abbot worked indefatigably; and the Archbishop of Milan, who had
+accepted his pallium from Anacletus, was driven out by the citizens,
+who subsequently welcomed Bernard with enthusiasm and tried to keep
+him as their archbishop. Duke William X of Aquitaine also continued to
+acknowledge Anacletus, and when at length Bernard accompanied the
+legate of Innocent to a conference at his court, the saint had
+recourse to all the methods of ecclesiastical terrorism at his command
+before he gained the fearful acquiescence of the ruler.
+
+[Sidenote: Lothair at Rome.]
+
+At length Lothair felt himself sufficiently free to fulfil his promise
+to Innocent. But the turbulent condition of Germany prevented him from
+bringing a force of any size, and, despite the vehement eloquence of
+Bernard, among the cities of Lombardy and Tuscany the friend of
+Innocent was still the German King and was viewed with much suspicion.
+Fortunately, however, Roger of Sicily, the one strong supporter of
+Anacletus, was engaged in a struggle with his nobles and could give no
+help. But Lothair desired to avoid bloodshed if possible. He made no
+attempt, therefore, to get possession of St. Peter's and the Leonine
+city, which were in the hands of Anacletus and his followers, but
+contented himself with the peaceful occupation of the rest of Rome. He
+and his wife were crowned in the church of St. John Lateran by
+Innocent (June, 1133). Lothair seems again to have used his
+opportunity to attempt a recovery of the right of investiture from the
+Pope; but on this occasion the opponent of the Emperor was his own
+favourite counsellor, Archbishop Norbert of Magdeburg, the founder of
+the Premonstratensian Order. A few days later, however, Innocent
+published two bulls dealing with the questions at issue between
+himself and the Emperor. The first merely confirms the arrangements of
+the Concordat, although it certainly omits all mention of the presence
+of the King at the election. The second bull deals with the
+inheritance of the Countess Matilda. Henry V had never recognised the
+donation of the Countess to the Papacy, and consequently, as a lapsed
+fief and part of the late Emperor's possessions, the lands could be
+claimed by his Hohenstaufen heirs. This perhaps accounts for Lothair's
+readiness to accept the conditions imposed by the Pope. Innocent
+invested him by a ring with the allodial or freehold lands of the
+Countess in return for an annual tribute and on the understanding that
+at Lothair's death they should revert to the Papacy. Lothair took no
+oath of fealty for them, but such oath was exacted from his
+son-in-law, Henry the Proud of Bavaria, to whom the inheritance was
+made over on the same conditions. Lothair had perhaps saved the
+much-coveted lands from being lawfully claimed by the Hohenstaufen;
+but it was the Pope who had really gained by these transactions, for
+he had obtained from a lawfully crowned Emperor the recognition of the
+papal right to their possession. Indeed, the whole episode of
+Lothair's coronation was treated as a papal triumph, and by Innocent's
+direction a picture was placed in the Lateran palace in which Lothair
+was represented as kneeling before the throned Pope to receive the
+imperial crown, while underneath as inscribed the following distich:--
+
+  "Rex stetit ante fores, jurans prius urbis honores,
+  Post homo fit papae, sumit quo dante coronam."
+
+Lothair, however, never saw this record of his visit. He returned to
+Germany, having secured, at any rate for himself, the right of
+investing his ecclesiastics with their temporalities, the lands of the
+Countess Matilda, and, most important of all, the imperial crown
+bestowed at Rome by a Pope who was recognised practically throughout
+the West. So strengthened, he intended to crush the still opposing
+Hohenstaufen. But the intercessions of his own Empress and the papal
+legates were backed up by the fiery eloquence of the all-powerful
+Bernard, who appeared at the Diet of Bamberg (March, 1135). Lothair
+was overruled and terms were granted, which first Frederick of Suabia
+and, later on, Conrad were induced to accept. Frederick confined
+himself to Suabia, but Conrad attached himself to Lothair's Court, and
+became one of the Emperor's most honoured followers.
+
+After Lothair's return to Germany, Roger of Sicily gradually recovered
+his authority in Southern Italy, and he even made use of his
+championship of Anacletus to annex unopposed some of the papal lands.
+Finally, to the scandal of Christendom, the abbey of Monte Cassino,
+the premier monastery of the West, declared for Anacletus. Both
+Innocent and the Norman foes of Roger appealed to Lothair, who crossed
+the Alps, for a second time, in August, 1136, this time, accompanied
+by a sufficient force. He did not delay long in Lombardy: he ignored
+Rome, which apart from Roger was powerless. One army, under Lothair,
+moved down the shores of the Adriatic; another, under Henry of
+Bavaria, along the west coast. The fleets of Genoa and Pisa
+co-operated, and Roger retired into Sicily. But both Emperor and Pope
+claimed the conquered duchy of Apulia, and the dispute was only
+settled by both presenting to the new duke the banner by which the
+investiture was made. It did not help to soothe the quarrel when the
+recovered monastery of Monte Cassino was handed over to the Emperor's
+Chancellor. Lothair could remain no longer in Italy; but he fell ill
+on his way back, and died in a Tyrolese village on December 3rd, 1138.
+
+[Sidenote: The end of the schism.]
+
+Lothair had done nothing to end the schism. Innocent was back in Rome,
+but Anacletus had never been ousted from it. Meanwhile, in the spring
+of 1137, Bernard had also responded to the appeal of Innocent and
+returned to Italy. While Lothair was overrunning Apulia Bernard was
+winning over the adherents of Anacletus in Rome. When Lothair retired
+Roger immediately began to recover his dominions; but when Bernard
+made overtures to him on behalf of Innocent, he professed himself
+quite ready to hear the arguments on both sides. A conference took
+place between a skilful supporter of Anacletus and this "rustic
+abbot"; but although Bernard convinced his rhetorical adversary, Roger
+had too much to lose in acknowledging Innocent, for he would be
+obliged to surrender the papal lands which he had occupied and,
+perhaps, the royal title, the gift of Anacletus. The end, however, was
+at hand. Less than two months after Lothair's death Anacletus died
+(January 25, 1138). His few remaining followers elected a successor,
+but this was more with the desire of making good terms than of
+prolonging the schism. Innocent bribed and Bernard persuaded, and the
+anti-Pope surrendered of his own accord. Bernard, to whom was rightly
+ascribed the merit of ending the scandal of disunion in Christendom,
+immediately escaped from his admirers and returned to the solitude of
+Clairvaux and his literary labours. These were not all self-imposed.
+Among his correspondents were persons in all ranks of life; and his
+letters, no less than his formal treatises, prove his influence as one
+of the most deeply spiritual teachers of the Middle Ages.
+
+[Sidenote Roger of Sicily.]
+
+Roger of Sicily alone had not accepted Innocent; but a foolish attempt
+to coerce him ended in the defeat and capture of the Pope. In return
+for the acknowledgment of papal suzerainty, which involved oblivion of
+the imperial claims, Innocent not only confirmed to Roger and his
+successors both his conquests in Southern Italy and the royal title,
+but even, by the grant of the legatine power to the King himself,
+exempted his kingdom from the visits of papal legates. Roger was
+supreme in Church and State. A cruel yet vigorous and able ruler, he
+built up a centralised administrative system from which Henry II of
+England did not disdain to take lessons. His possession of Sicily
+carried him to Malta and thence to the north coast of Africa; and
+before his death in 1154 Tunis was added to his dominions. He was thus
+one of the greatest among the early Crusaders, and perhaps the most
+notable ruler of his time.
+
+[Sidenote: Conrad III.]
+
+Lothair hoped to leave in his son-in-law a successor with irresistible
+claims. But the very influence to which Lothair owed his own election
+was now to be cast into the scale against the representative of his
+family; while the grounds of objection to the succession of Frederick
+of Hohenstaufen to Henry V now held good against Henry of Bavaria,
+Saxony, and Tuscany. The Pope and the German nobles were equally
+afraid of a ruler whose insolent demeanour had already won him the
+title of "the Proud." They took as their candidate the lately rejected
+Hohenstaufen Conrad, whose behaviour since his submission had gained
+him favour in proportion as the conduct of Henry of Bavaria had
+alienated the other nobles. Conrad was crowned at Aachen by the papal
+legate, and Henry made his submission. But Conrad, like Lothair, felt
+himself insecure with so powerful a subject. Accordingly he took away
+from him the duchy of Saxony, and gave it to the heir of the old dukes
+in the female line. When Henry refused to accept the decision Conrad
+put him to the ban of the Empire and deprived him of Bavaria also,
+which he proceeded to confer upon a relative of his own. But Conrad's
+obvious attempt to advance his own family offended the nobles, and the
+death of Henry the Proud in 1139 opened the way for a compromise.
+Saxony was made over to Henry's youthful son, known in history as
+Henry the Lion, while Bavaria was to be the wedding portion of Henry
+the Proud's widow if she married Conrad's relative, who was already
+Margrave of Austria.
+
+[Sidenote: Arnold of Brescia.]
+
+But despite this elimination of all rivals Conrad was so much occupied
+elsewhere that he never managed to reach Italy. And yet his presence
+there was eagerly desired. It was under the guidance of their bishops
+that the cities of Lombardy had freed themselves from subjection to
+the feudal nobles. But with the growth of wealth they resented the
+patronage of the bishops and were inclined to listen to those who
+denounced the temporal possessions of the Church. The movement spread
+to Rome. Here the municipality still existed in name, but it was quite
+overlaid by the papal prefect and the feudal nobles of the Campagna;
+and the Roman people had no means of increasing their wealth by the
+agriculture or the commerce which was open to the cities of Tuscany or
+Lombardy. A leader was found in Arnold of Brescia (1138). He seems to
+have been a pupil of Abailard, who devoted himself to practical
+reforms. He began in his native Lombardy to advocate apostolic poverty
+as a remedy for the acknowledged evils of the Church. Condemned by the
+second Lateran Council (1139), he retired to France, and in 1140 stood
+by the side of Abailard at the Council of Sens. After Abailard's
+condemnation Arnold took refuge at Zurich, where, despite the
+denunciations of Bernard, he found protection from the papal legate,
+who had been a fellow-pupil of Abailard. Arnold returned to Italy in
+1145, and was absolved by the Pope.
+
+[Sidenote: The Roman Republic.]
+
+The course of affairs in Rome brought him once more to the front. In
+1143 Innocent II had offended the Romans, who in revenge proclaimed a
+republic with a popularly elected senate and a patrician in place of
+the papal prefect. Innocent died (September, 1143); his successor
+survived him by less than six months, and the next Pope, Lucius II,
+was killed in attempting to get possession of the Capitol, which was
+the seat of the new government. The choice of the Cardinals now fell
+upon the abbot of a small monastery in the neighbourhood of Rome, who
+took the title of Eugenius III (1145-53). He was a pupil of Bernard,
+who feared for the appointment of a man of such simplicity and
+inexperience. But Eugenius developed an unexpected capacity, and
+forced the Romans to recognise for a time his prefect and his
+suzerainty. But Arnold's presence in Rome was an obstacle to permanent
+peace. Both Arnold and Bernard eagerly sought the same end--the
+purification of the Church. But in Bernard's eyes Arnold's connection
+with Abailard convicted him of heresy, and his doctrine of apostolic
+poverty was construed by the ascetic abbot of the strict Cistercian
+Order as an attack upon the influence under cover of the wealth of the
+Church. Nor was Arnold a republican in the ordinary sense. He expelled
+the Pope and organised, under the name of the Equestrian order, a
+militia of the lesser nobles and the more substantial burgesses, such
+as existed in the cities of Lombardy. But he did not desire to
+repudiate the Emperor; and at his instigation the Romans summoned
+Conrad to their aid and to accept the imperial crown at their hands.
+Eugenius spent almost his whole pontificate in exile; his successor,
+Anastasius IV, during a short reign, accepted the republic, but
+Hadrian IV (1154-9) took the first excuse for boldly placing the city
+for the first time under an interdict. The consequent cessation of
+pilgrims during Holy Week and the loss of their offerings caused the
+fickle Romans to expel their champion, and Arnold wandered about until
+a few months later Frederick Barbarossa sacrificed him to the renewed
+alliance of Empire and Papacy (1154).
+
+[Sidenote: The second Crusade.]
+
+Conrad III, then, never was crowned Emperor. It was no fault of his
+that he never visited Rome. Bernard's influence caused him to postpone
+his immediate duties for a work which every Christian of the time
+regarded as of paramount importance. The first Crusade had met with a
+measure of success only because the Mohammedan powers were divided.
+The Crusaders were organised into the kingdom of Jerusalem and the
+principalities of Tripoli, Antioch, and Edessa. But they quarrelled
+incessantly. Meanwhile Imad-ed-din Zangi, the Atabek or Sultan of
+Mosul on the Tigris, extended his arms over all Mesopotamia and
+Northern Syria, and in 1144 he conquered the Latin principality of
+Edessa. The whole of Europe was shocked at the disaster. Pope Eugenius
+delegated to Bernard the task of preaching a new crusade. The young
+King, Louis VII of France, had already taken the Crusader's vow, but
+so far the earnest entreaty of his minister, Suger, Abbot of St.
+Denys, had kept him from his purpose. But at the Council of Vezelai in
+1146 the eloquence of Bernard bore down all considerations of
+prudence. Conrad III was much harder to persuade, for he felt the need
+of his presence at home. But Bernard was not to be denied, and by
+working upon Conrad's feelings at the moment of the celebration of the
+Mass he entirely overcame the better judgment of the German King.
+
+Events proved in every way the mischievous nature of Bernard's
+influence. The Crusade was a total failure. Only a small remnant of
+the force which followed either King reached Palestine; and the only
+offensive operation undertaken--an attack upon Damascus--had to be
+abandoned. Nothing had been done to break the growing power of Zangi's
+son, Noureddin, the uncle and predecessor of the great Saladin.
+
+[Sidenote: The divorce of Louis VII.]
+
+The effects were scarcely less disastrous in Western Europe. Suger
+supplied Louis with money and defended his throne against plots, and
+ultimately persuaded him to return to France. But during the Crusade
+Louis and his wife Eleanor, the daughter and heiress of William X of
+Aquitaine, had quarrelled bitterly. Louis had disgusted his
+high-spirited wife by behaving more like a pilgrim than a warrior;
+while Eleanor had attempted to divert the French troops to the aid of
+her uncle, Raymond of Antioch. Suger alone preserved some sort of
+harmony between the ill-assorted pair; but he died in 1151, and
+Bernard, who had never approved of the marriage on canonical grounds,
+lent his support to Louis' desire for a declaration of its invalidity,
+though Louis and Eleanor had been married for thirteen years and there
+were two daughters. The dissolution of the marriage was pronounced by
+an ecclesiastical Council in 1152, and in the same year Eleanor,
+taking with her all her extensive lands, married the young Henry of
+Anjou and Normandy, who two years later became King of England.
+
+[Sidenote: Bernard as defender of the Faith.]
+
+Bernard and Suger were friends; but while the predominant work of
+Suger's life had been the supremacy of the House of Capet, it is vain
+to attempt to trace in Bernard any prejudice in favour of a growing
+French nationality. He represents the cosmopolitan Church of the
+Middle Ages; and his career is a supreme instance of the power which
+results from an absolutely single-minded devotion to a lofty cause. In
+masterful vehemence he challenges comparison with Hildebrand; but
+unlike the Pope, he never identified the Church with his own
+interests. He steadfastly refused all offers of advancement for
+himself, although he did not dissuade his own monks from accepting
+preferment. He would have preferred to live out his life as the
+obscure head of a poor and secluded community; and even if the
+political condition of the time had not brought constant appeals for
+help to him, his duty to the Church would have made him a public
+character. For the work of his life which was perhaps most congenial
+to him was the defence of the doctrine of the Church against heretical
+teachers. He has been called "the last of the Fathers," and his whole
+conception and methods were those of the great Christian writers of
+the early centuries. To the great saint self-discipline through
+obedience to the ordinances of the Church was the cure for all evil
+suggestions of the human heart; while as for the intellect, its duty
+was to believe the revealed faith as propounded by the authorities of
+the Church. Like St. Augustine, Bernard did not despise learning; but
+he would confine the term to the study of religion. Secular learning
+was for the most part not only a waste of precious time, but an actual
+snare of the devil. Thus Bernard stood for all that was most
+uncompromising in the theological attitude of the time. Speculative
+discussion was an abomination; for the end of conversation was
+spiritual edification, not the advancement of knowledge; and what to
+strong minds might be mental gymnastics, in the case of weaker
+brethren caused the undermining of their faith. Against heretics of
+the commoner sort, such as the Petrobrusians, who impugned the whole
+system of the Church and appealed to the mere words of Scripture,
+there was only one line to be taken. But Bernard was no persecutor.
+During his preaching of the Crusade a monk perverted the popular
+excitement to an attack upon the Jews in the cities of the Rhineland:
+Bernard peremptorily interfered and crushed the rival preacher.
+Similarly with heretics. He trusted to his preaching--attested, as it
+was commonly supposed, by miracles--to convince the people; while the
+leaders when captured were subjected to monastic discipline.
+
+[Sidenote: Abailard.]
+
+But such popular forms of unbelief were merely the outcome of the
+speculations of subtler minds, which it was necessary to stop at the
+fountain-head. The arch-heretic of the time was Peter Abailard, who
+routed in succession two great teachers--William of Champeaux in
+dialectic in the great cathedral school of Paris, and Anselm of Laon,
+a pupil of Anselm of Canterbury, in theology. He gathered round him on
+the Mount of Ste. Genevičve, just outside Paris, a large band of
+students, in whom he inculcated his rationalistic methods. For his was
+a definite attempt to obtain by reason a basis for his faith. How
+could such teaching be allowed to continue unreproved by Bernard, who
+held that the sole office of the reason was to lead the mind astray?
+But in the height of his fame Abailard, still quite young, loved the
+beautiful and erudite Heloise. He abused her trust, and when she in
+her infatuation for his genius refused to monopolise for herself by
+marriage the talents which were for the service of the world, she and
+he both entered the monastic life. Abailard passed through several
+phases of this--a monk at St. Denys; a hermit gradually gathering a
+band of admirers round a church which they built and he dedicated to
+the Third Person of the Trinity, the Paraclete; and finally the abbot
+of a poor monastery in his own native Brittany. While an inmate of St.
+Denys a work of his on the Trinity was condemned at a Council at
+Soissons presided over by the papal legate (1121). It was twenty years
+before he was again subjected to the censures of the Church. But,
+meanwhile, he had more than once fallen foul of Bernard, and had not
+hesitated to flout with his gibes the one man before whom the whole of
+Catholic Europe bent in awestruck reverence. But the time came when
+Bernard, noting the spread of the Petrobrusian heresy, determined to
+strike at the source of these errors. He appealed for assistance to
+the friends of orthodoxy from the Pope downwards. Abailard determined
+to anticipate attack and desired to be heard before an assembly to be
+held at Sens (1140). Bernard reluctantly consented to take part in a
+public controversy. But when they met, Abailard, probably feeling
+himself surrounded by an unsympathetic audience, suddenly refused to
+speak and appealed to the Pope. On his way to Rome he fell ill at
+Cluny, where the saintly abbot, Peter the Venerable, received him as a
+monk. He made a confession which chiefly amounted to a regret that he
+had used words open to misconstruction, and he died in 1142 the inmate
+of a Cluniac house.
+
+Bernard remained upon the alert, intent on checking any further spread
+of the teaching of Abailard's followers. But he had pushed matters to
+an extreme, and there were many in high place who resented his efforts
+to dictate the doctrine of the Church. Thus Gilbert de la Porrée,
+Bishop of Poictiers, a pupil of Abailard, was accused at the Council
+of Rheims (1148) of erroneous doctrines regarding the being of God and
+the Sacraments. Bernard tried to use his influence over Pope Eugenius
+in order to procure the bishop's condemnation, and stirred up the
+French clergy to assist him. The Cardinals addressed an indignant
+remonstrance to the Pope, pointing out that as he owed his elevation
+from a private position to the papacy to them, he belonged to them
+rather than to himself, that he was allowing private friendship to
+interfere with public duty, and that "that abbot of yours" and the
+Gallican Church were usurping the function of the See of Rome. Bernard
+had to explain away the action of his party, and the Council contented
+itself with exacting from the accused a general agreement with the
+faith of the Roman Church, and this was represented by Gilbert's
+friends as a triumph.
+
+Bernard's death restored the leadership of Christendom to the official
+head, and the removal of several others of the chief actors of the
+time opened the way not only for new men, but for the emergence of new
+questions. In 1152 Conrad III ended his well-intentioned but somewhat
+ineffectual reign. In 1153 Pope Eugenius died at Rome, to which he had
+at length been restored a few months previously. Six weeks later St.
+Bernard followed him to the grave. It was not long before the papal
+act ratified the general opinion of Christendom, and in 1174 Alexander
+III placed his name among those which the Church desired to have in
+everlasting remembrance.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE SCHOOLMEN AND THEOLOGY
+
+
+[Sidenote: Secular Studies.]
+
+Mediaeval learning, whether sacred or secular, was founded upon
+authority. The Scholasticus, who took the place of the ancient
+Grammaticus, was not an investigator, but merely an interpreter. On
+the one side the books of the sacred Scriptures as interpreted by the
+Fathers were the rule of faith; on the other side as the guide of
+reason stood the works of the Philosopher, as Aristotle was called in
+the Middle Ages. But until the thirteenth century few of his works
+were known, and those only in Latin translations. Here were the
+materials, slight enough, on which hung future development. The
+secular knowledge taught in the ordinary schools was that represented
+by the division of the Seven Arts into the elementary Trivium of
+Grammar, Rhetoric, Dialectic, followed by the Quadrivium of Music,
+Arithmetic, Geometry, and Astronomy. The scope of the Trivium was much
+wider than the terms denote. Thus Grammar included the study of the
+classical Latin authors, which never entirely ceased; Rhetoric
+comprised the practice of composition in prose and verse, and even a
+knowledge of the elements of Roman Law; Dialectic or Logic became the
+centre of the whole secular education, because it was the only
+intellectual exercise which was supposed to be independent of pagan
+writers. In the Quadrivium--the scientific education of the
+time--Arithmetic and Astronomy were taught for the purpose of
+calculating the times of the Christian festivals; Music consisted
+chiefly of the rules of plain-song. It was the subjects of the
+Quadrivium which were subsequently enlarged in scope by the
+discoveries of the twelfth century. Apart from these subjects little
+attempt was made at a systematic training in theology. In so far as
+any such existed it was purely doctrinal, and aimed merely at enabling
+those in Holy Orders to read the Bible and the Fathers for themselves
+and to expound them to others.
+
+[Sidenote: Scholasticism.]
+
+Now the speculative intellect trained in dialectic had no material to
+work upon save what could be got from the Scriptures, the Fathers, and
+the dogmas of the Church; and Scholasticism is the name given to the
+attempt to apply the processes of logic to the systematisation and the
+interpretation of the Catholic faith. The movement was one which,
+narrow as it seems to us, yet made for ultimate freedom of human
+thought; for it meant the exercise of the intellect on matters which
+for long were regarded as beyond the reach of rationalistic
+explanation. There was much difference of opinion among the thinkers
+as to the limits to be assigned to such freedom of speculation on the
+mysteries of the faith, some starting from the standpoint of idealists
+and endeavouring to avoid the logical consequences of their
+speculations; while others, adopting so far as possible a position of
+pure empiricism, set tradition at defiance, and hoped by the aid of
+reason to reach the conclusions of divine revelation.
+
+[Sidenote: Realists and Nominalists.]
+
+The philosophical problem to which the medićval thinkers addressed
+themselves is one that it is essential to the progress of human
+thought to solve. Whence do we derive general notions (Universals, as
+they were called), and do they correspond to anything which actually
+exists? Thus for the purpose of classifying our knowledge we use
+certain terms, such as genera, species, and others more technical. Do
+these in reality exist independently of particular individuals or
+substances? One school of philosophers, basing their reasoning upon
+Plato, maintained that such general ideas had a real existence of
+their own, and hence gained the name of Realists. But another school,
+who took Aristotle as their champion, held that reality can be
+asserted of the individual alone, that there is nothing real in the
+general idea except the name by which it is designated; while some of
+these Nominalists, as they came to be called, even proclaimed that the
+parts of an individual whole were mere words, and could not be
+considered as having an existence of their own. With the application
+of these definitions to theological dogmas we reach the beginning of
+Scholastic Theology. Here both sides were soon landed in difficulties.
+Nominalism, in its denial of reality to general notions, undermined
+the Catholic idea of the Church: in its recognition of none except
+individuals it destroyed the whole conception of the solidarity of
+original sin; while those of its professors who allowed no existence
+of their own to the parts of an individual whole, resolved the Trinity
+into three Gods. On the other hand, the danger of Realism was that,
+since individuals were regarded merely as forms or modes of some
+general idea, these philosophers were inclined to make no distinction
+between individuals and to fall into pantheism. As a result, the
+personality of man, and with it the immortality of the soul,
+disappeared, and even the personality of God threatened to lose itself
+in the universe which He had created. These tendencies will be clear
+from a short account of the chief schoolmen or writers on Scholastic
+Philosophy.
+
+[Sidenote: Roscelin and Anselm.]
+
+The first great names are those of Roscelin and Anselm of Canterbury.
+Roscelin (between 1050 and 1125), primarily a dialectician, rigidly
+applied his logic to theological dogmas. If we may judge from the
+accounts of his opponents, Anselm and Abailard, he took up a position
+of extreme individualism and denied reality alike to a whole and to
+the parts of which any whole is commonly said to be composed. The
+application of this principle to the doctrine of the Trinity landed
+him in tritheism, and he did not shrink from the reproach. Roscelin, a
+theologian by accident, was answered by Anselm who was primarily a
+theologian, and a dialectician by accident. If Roscelin was the
+founder of Nominalism Anselm identified Realism with the doctrine of
+the Church. But Anselm's Realism is not the result of independent
+thought. In his methods he has been rightly styled the "last of the
+Fathers." His keynote was Belief in the Christian faith as the road to
+understanding it. Thus his object was to give to the dogmas accepted
+by the Church a philosophical demonstration. To him Realism was the
+orthodox philosophical doctrine because it was the one most in harmony
+with Christian theology. He applied philosophical arguments to the
+explanation of those tenets of the faith which later scholastic
+writers placed among the mysteries to be accepted without question.
+
+[Sidenote: Abailard.]
+
+The reputed founder of definite Realism was William of Champeaux
+(1060-1121), a pupil of Roscelin himself, a teacher at Paris, and
+ultimately Bishop of Chalons. By the account of his enemy Abailard, he
+held an uncompromising Realism which maintained that the Universal was
+a substance or thing which was present in its entirety in each
+individual. It was the presence of such crude Realism as this which
+gave his opportunity to the greatest teacher of this early period of
+Scholasticism, Peter Abailard (1079-1142). A pupil of both Roscelin
+and William of Champeaux--the two extremes of Nominalism and
+Realism--he aimed in his teaching at arriving at a _via media_ to
+which subsequent writers have given the name Conceptualism. According
+to him the individual is the only true substance, and the genus is
+that which is asserted of a number of individuals; it is therefore a
+name used as a sign--a concept, although he does not use the word.
+Thus he does not condemn the Realistic theory borrowed from Plato, of
+Universals as having an existence of their own; he regards them as
+ideas or exemplars which existed in the divine mind before the
+creation of things. But he opposes the tendency in Realism to treat as
+identical the qualities which resemble each other in different
+individuals, since that abolishes the personality of the individual
+which to him is the only reality. Like Roscelin he did not hesitate to
+apply his dialectic to theology. Here, while repudiating the tritheism
+of his master, he practically reproduced the old heresy of Sabellius
+which reduced the Trinity to three aspects or attributes of the Divine
+Being--power, wisdom, and love. "A doctrine is to be believed," he
+held, "not because God has said it, but because we are convinced by
+reason that it is so." His whole attitude was that of the free, if
+reverent, enquirer. "By doubt," he says, "we come to enquiry; by
+enquiry we reach the truth." His book _Sic et Non_, a collection
+of conflicting opinions of the Christian Fathers on the chief tenets
+of the faith, was to be the first step towards arriving at the truth.
+
+[Sidenote: Mysticism.]
+
+He was condemned twice--his doctrine of the Trinity at Soissons in
+1121, his whole position at Sens in 1141. The leaders of orthodoxy met
+him not with argument but with a demand for recantation. St. Norbert
+during the early part of his life, and St. Bernard both early and
+late, pursued him with their enmity. Their objection was not to his
+particular views, but to his whole attitude towards divine revelation;
+and the conclusions in which the use of the scholastic method landed
+its advocates perhaps justified the rigid theologians in the general
+distrust of the exercise of reason on such subjects. St. Bernard did
+not hesitate to attack even Gilbert de la Porrée, Bishop of Poictiers,
+an avowed Realist, who attempted to explain the Trinity. In fact, St.
+Bernard represents the reaction from Scholasticism, which took the
+form of Mysticism, that is, the purely contemplative attitude towards
+the verities of the Christian creed. In this he was followed with much
+greater extravagance by the school which found its home in the great
+abbey of St. Victor--Hugh (1097-1143), who formulated the sentence
+"Knowledge is belief, and belief is love," and Richard (died in 1173),
+who applied to the intuitive perception of spiritual things and to the
+love of them the same dialectical and metaphysical methods as the
+Schoolmen applied to reason.
+
+[Sidenote: After Abailard.]
+
+The results of Abailard's work are seen in two directions. His _Sic
+et Non_ became the foundation of the work of the "Summists," who,
+in the place of Abailard's purely critical work, occupied themselves
+in systematising authorities with a view to the reconciliation of
+their conflicting opinions. The greatest of these was Peter the
+Lombard (died 1160), who became Bishop of Paris, and whose
+_Sententiae_ was taken as the accredited text-book of theology
+for the next three hundred years. With the Summists theology returned
+to its attitude of unquestioning obedience to the conclusions of the
+early Fathers. But in the second place, Abailard was indirectly
+responsible for "the troubling of the Realistic waters," which
+resulted in many modifications of the original position.
+
+[Sidenote: Classical revival.]
+
+A justification for the attitude of the Church towards the followers
+of Abailard is to be found in the apparent exhaustion of the
+speculative movement which had started at the end of the eleventh
+century, and the consequent degeneracy of logical studies. It was a
+result of this that in the second half of the twelfth century many of
+the best minds were directing their energies into the channel of
+classical learning which was to prepare the way for the next phase of
+Scholasticism. Besides being a philosopher and a theologian, Abailard
+was also a scholar well read in classical literature. The cathedral
+school of Chartres, founded by Fulbert at the beginning of the
+eleventh century, was the centre of this classical Renaissance, and it
+rose to the height of its fame under Bernard Sylvester and his pupil,
+William of Conches; while the greatest representative of this learning
+was a pupil of William of Conches, John of Salisbury, an historian of
+philosophy rather than himself a philosopher or theologian.
+
+[Sidenote: Origin of universities.]
+
+It was in the twelfth century and out of the cathedral schools that
+the medieval universities arose. The monastic schools had spent their
+intellectual force, and during this century they almost ceased to
+educate the secular clergy. St. Anselm, when Abbot of Bec in Normandy,
+was the last of the great monastic teachers. But it was not from the
+school of Chartres but from that of Paris that the greatest University
+of the Middle Ages took its origin. Paris was identified with the
+scholastic studies of dialectic and theology, and it was the fame of
+William of Champeaux, and still more that of Abailard, which drew
+students in crowds to the cathedral school of Paris. But no university
+immediately resulted. Indeed, the Guild of Masters, from which it
+originated, is not traceable before 1170, and the four Nations and the
+Rector did not exist until the following century. Its recognition as a
+corporation dates from a bull of Innocent III about 1210. Its
+development starts from the close of its struggle with the Chancellor
+and cathedral school of Paris, in which contest it obtained the papal
+help. Before the middle of the thirteenth century the University had
+acquired its full constitution. But its great fame as a place of
+education dates from the teaching of the two great Dominicans,
+Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas in the convent of their Order in
+Paris during the middle years of the century. This new outburst of
+philosophical studies was due to the recovery of many hitherto unknown
+works of Aristotle, and as a consequence classical studies were
+completely neglected and Chartres was deserted for Paris.
+
+[Sidenote: Aristotle in the East.]
+
+We have seen that the contemporaries of Abailard knew none but
+Aristotle's logical works, and these only in part and in Latin
+translations. So far nothing had interfered with the development of
+thought along "purely Western, purely Latin, purely Christian" lines.
+Churchmen who did not disapprove of dialectic altogether, had accepted
+and used Aristotle so far as they understood what they had of his
+works. Heretics there had been, but hitherto none had questioned the
+authority of the Bible or the Church. Meanwhile in the east a
+completer knowledge of Aristotle's works had been communicated by the
+Nestorian Christians to their Mohammedan masters. Greek books were
+translated into Arabic, and Arabian philosophy, already monotheistic,
+became permeated with Aristotelian ideas. Moreover, the union of
+philosophical and medical studies among the Arabs caused them to
+attach a special value to Aristotle's treatises on natural science. In
+Spain the Arabs handed on their knowledge of Aristotle to the Jews,
+and it was from the Jews of Andalusia, Marseilles, and Montpellier
+that the works of the Greek philosopher and his Arabian commentators
+became known in the west.
+
+[Sidenote: Revival in the west.]
+
+By the middle of the twelfth century the chief of these works--texts,
+paraphrases, commentaries--had, at the instance of Raymond, Archbishop
+of Toledo, been rendered into Latin by Archdeacon Dominic Gondisalvi,
+assisted by a band of translators. But the translations of Aristotle's
+own works were not from the original Greek, but from the Arabic, which
+laid stress upon the most anti-Christian side of Aristotle's thought,
+such as the eternity of the world and the denial of immortality. The
+result was an outbreak of heretical speculation along pantheistic
+lines. Swift steps were taken: the heretics were hunted down, and in
+1209 the Council of Paris forbade the study of Aristotle's own works
+or those of his commentators which dealt with natural philosophy;
+while in 1215 the statutes of the University renewed the prohibition.
+But such prohibition did not include any of the logical works; and in
+1231 a bull of Gregory IX only excepted any of Aristotle's works until
+they had been examined and purged of all heresy. Finally, in 1254, a
+statute of the University actually prescribed nearly all the works of
+Aristotle, including even the most suspected, as text-books for the
+lectures. Meanwhile fresh translations were made from the Arabic by
+Michael Scot and others at the instance of Frederick II, so that by
+1225 the whole body of his works was to be found in Latin form.
+Further still, the Latin conquest of Constantinople in 1204 had
+brought back to the west a knowledge of a large part of Aristotle's
+writings in their original form. Translations were now made into Latin
+straight from the Greek; and Thomas Aquinas, seconded by Pope Urban
+IV, took especial pains to encourage such scholarship.
+
+[Sidenote: The later Scholasticism.]
+
+By this medium there was developed the great system of orthodox
+Aristotelianism which was the form taken by Scholasticism in the later
+Middle Ages. This was the work of the Friars, who, for the purpose of
+giving to their own students the best procurable training in theology,
+established houses of residence in Paris and elsewhere. The quarrels
+between the University of Paris and the municipality in the first half
+of the thirteenth century gave their opportunity to the Friars, and
+even after the settlement of the quarrels they remained and became
+formidable rivals to the teachers drawn from the secular clergy. It
+was only in 1255 that, after a severe struggle, the University was
+forced by a bull of Alexander IV to admit the Friars to its
+privileges, although it succeeded in imposing upon them an oath of
+obedience to its statutes.
+
+[Sidenote: The change of position.]
+
+It was the Franciscans who began this new intellectual movement in the
+persons of the Englishman, Alexander of Hales (died 1245), who was the
+first to be able to use the whole of the Aristotelian writings, and
+his pupil, the mystic Bonaventura (died 1274). But the scholastic
+philosophy as it is taught to this day was the work of the two great
+Dominicans, Albert of Bollstädt, a Suabian, known as Albertus Magnus
+(1193-1280), and his even greater pupil, Thomas of Aquino, an Italian
+(1227-74). The endeavour of these writers was to take over into the
+service of the Church the whole Aristotelian philosophy. It was a
+consequence of this that the old question of the nature of Universals
+was not so all-important, or that at any rate it ceased to be treated
+from a purely logical standpoint. The great Dominicans were very
+moderate Realists; but they treated Logic as only one among a number
+of subjects. Albert wrote works which in print fill twenty-one folio
+volumes (whence his name Magnus); but his fame has been somewhat
+obscured by the more methodical, if almost equally voluminous (in
+seventeen folio volumes) works of his successor. The result of their
+labours was a wonderfully complete harmonisation of philosophy and
+theology as these subjects were understood by their respective
+champions. This was brought about by the use of two methods. In the
+first place, the works of Aristotle on the one side, and the Bible and
+the writings of the Fathers on the other side, were treated as of
+equal authority in their respective spheres The ingenuity of the
+theologians was to be employed in harmonising them. It is, in fact,
+only from this period that "the Scholastic Philosophy became
+distinguished by that servile deference to authority" which we
+ordinarily attribute to it.
+
+[Sidenote: Reason and faith.]
+
+But, in the second place, any such harmonisation could only be carried
+out by some demarcation of territory. The earlier orthodox writers
+like Anselm, as we have seen, did not hesitate to attempt a
+philosophical explanation of the doctrine of the Trinity. But
+Aristotle and his Arabian commentators were monotheistic, and
+consequently the reconciliation between the Aristotelian philosophy
+and the Christian faith could only be effected by distinguishing
+between natural and revealed religion. The truths of the former were
+demonstrable by reason, of which Aristotle was the supreme guide. The
+truths of the latter were mysteries to be accepted on an equally good
+though different authority. By such methods these later schoolmen
+excepted and accepted the doctrines of the Trinity and the
+Incarnation, though they allowed the doctrine of the existence of God
+to be susceptible of logical proof. But notwithstanding these
+exceptions, the teaching of the Dominicans was a wonderful attempt to
+abolish the inevitable dualism between faith and reason.
+
+[Sidenote: Thomists and Scotists.]
+
+The history of Scholasticism after Thomas Aquinas is largely occupied
+by an account of the quarrel between the rival schools of Thomists and
+Scotists. The great teacher of the generation after St. Thomas was a
+Franciscan, Duns Scotus, the "Subtle Doctor," who taught at Oxford and
+Paris and died in 1308. His teaching differed in two ways from that of
+his Dominican predecessor. In the first place he excepted a larger
+number of theological doctrines as not being capable of philosophic
+proof, so that his teaching tended to bring back and to emphasise the
+dualism between faith and reason. It is for this reason that his
+system has been considered as the beginning of the decline of
+Scholasticism. In the second place, the real quarrel between Thomists
+and Scotists centred round the question of the freedom of the will.
+The followers of St. Thomas maintained that although the will is to
+some extent subordinate to the reason, yet it is free to determine its
+own course of action after a process of rational comparison, by
+contrast with the animals which act on the impulse of the moment. The
+Scotists, on the other hand, taught that what is called the will is
+merely a name for the possibility of determining without motive in
+either of two opposite directions. The importance of this difference
+of view consisted in this--that whereas the Thomists held that God
+subjects His will to a rational determination and therefore commands
+what is good because it is good, the Scotist taught that good is so
+because God wills it; if He chose to will the exact opposite, that
+would be equally good--in other words, he attributed to God an
+entirely arbitrary will. The two greatest disciples of St. Thomas were
+Dante and the Franciscan Roger Bacon (1214-92), the latter of whom
+fell into disfavour with the superiors of his own Order in consequence
+of his scientific studies, and spent many years at the end of his life
+in prison.
+
+[Sidenote: Results of Scholasticism.]
+
+The Scholastic philosophy failed to justify the doctrines of the
+Church to a rapidly expanding world. But it is unjust and ungrateful
+to stigmatise its results as barren. In the first place it gave a most
+valuable training in logical method to the keenest intellects of the
+time. Moreover, the very attempt to establish the Christian faith by
+argument was an unconscious homage to the supremacy of reason as the
+ultimate guide; while, finally, in the philosophy of St. Thomas, all
+nature was regarded as a fit subject for enquiry, and some of the
+greatest Schoolmen, as we have just seen, were noted for their
+investigations into natural phenomena.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+GUELF AND GHIBELLINE. (I)
+
+
+[Sidenote: Hadrian IV.]
+
+Hadrian IV is interesting to us as the only Englishman who has ever
+sat upon the throne of St. Peter. As Nicholas Brakespeare he had led
+the life of a wandering scholar, chiefly in France. He entered the
+house of Canons Regular of St. Rufus near Avignon, and when Abbot of
+this monastery attracted the attention of Eugenius III, who made him
+Cardinal Bishop of Albano, and employed him as papal legate in freeing
+the Church in Scandinavia from its dependence on the Bishops in
+Germany. The prestige which he acquired in this work marked him out as
+the successor of the shortlived Anastasius. Hadrian was a much abler
+man than either of his predecessors, and, while fully conscious of the
+difficulties of his office, he did not let these deter him from the
+fulfilment of its obvious duties. We have seen how he drove Arnold
+from Rome. He found, however, a new danger in Sicily. Roger's son
+William, known as "the Bad," took up an attitude of hostility, and
+when the Pope asserted his overlordship, William's troops overran the
+Campagna. The Pope retorted by excommunicating his refractory vassals
+and looking for help from the new German King.
+
+[Sidenote: The new contest.]
+
+With the accession of Frederick I the quarrel between Empire and
+Papacy enters on a new phase. On the death of Henry V the natural
+candidate of the papal party for the German throne was Henry the Black
+Duke of Bavaria, the head of the family of Welf or Guelf. But he was
+old, and related by marriage to the Hohenstaufen. He was, however,
+bribed to acquiesce in the election of Lothair by the offer of
+Lothair's daughter and heiress, Gertrude, as a wife for his son Henry
+the Proud. This marriage determined the whole course of German
+history. Henry the Proud obtained the duchy of Bavaria from his father
+and the duchy of Saxony from his father-in-law. Thus, if the
+Hohenstaufen family were the heirs of the Franconian Emperors, the
+Guelfs became the representatives of the opposition to that line which
+had centred in Saxony; and for the old contest between Papacy and
+Empire, Saxon and Franconian, there was now substituted a dynastic
+struggle between Weiblingen or Ghibelline and Guelf. The Guelfs were
+the papal party only in the sense that, like the Saxons, they were in
+opposition to the dynasty which occupied the German throne and claimed
+the imperial title. The name, however, was extended to Italy: it was
+applied to the collective opposition to the imperial power, and
+therefore came to denote the friends of the Papacy.
+
+[Sidenote: Frederick I.]
+
+So far the contest had been confined to Germany; for Lothair had
+sacrificed the claims of the empire to his own immediate interests,
+while Conrad had never set foot in Italy after his accession to the
+German throne. But as the attempt of Lothair to crush the acknowledged
+Ghibelline leaders had been thwarted, so Conrad had failed to render
+the Guelf harmless; and it was the pretensions of Henry the Lion, the
+son of Henry the Proud, which determined Conrad to waive the claims of
+his young son to the succession, and to recommend to the nobles the
+choice of his nephew Frederick. But Conrad's nomination would have
+been of little account. Frederick's claims were largely personal.
+Already before he succeeded his father as Duke of Suabia he had shown
+a combination of boldness in action with a conciliatory disposition
+which marked him out as a leader and a statesman. To this was added,
+as with Conrad, the prestige of a crusader; while in view of the
+bitter rivalries of the last two reigns, it was a recommendation that
+Frederick united in his person the two families whose strife had
+divided the kingdom. Two years elapsed from his accession before
+Frederick was free to set out for Italy. As the heir of the
+Franconians his probable attitude was a matter of some anxiety at Rome
+and in Italy generally. He was no enemy of the Church. His first act
+after his coronation at Aachen (March 9th, 1152) was to announce his
+accession to the Pope, who sent him a return message of goodwill. But
+from the outset Frederick showed his intention of taking a high line,
+for, in a disputed election at Magdeburg he obtained a party for a
+nominee of his own who was already a bishop, and therefore ineligible,
+and by virtue of the Concordat he decided for his own candidate in
+defiance of all ecclesiastical laws, and straightway invested him with
+the regalia.
+
+[Sidenote: Imperial rights.]
+
+Moreover, he had a high idea of the imperial mission. It was seventeen
+years since any emperor had crossed the Alps; and it is difficult to
+say whether the selfish policy of Lothair or the non-appearance of
+Conrad must have been the more detrimental to the maintenance of
+imperial interests. But during the first few months of his reign
+appeals poured in from the Pope against his various enemies, from some
+barons of Apulia against the great Roger of Sicily, from the citizens
+of Lodi against the tyranny of Milan. These, together with the
+ridiculous proffer of the imperial crown from the lately formed
+Republic of Rome, seemed to open an opportunity for the successful
+recovery of imperial rights. And, much as the Italians resented the
+spasmodic interferences of the Emperor, they were proud of their
+imperial connection. The commerce of the East, largely increased by
+the Crusades, flowed into Western Europe chiefly through Italy. As a
+result, the north and centre of the peninsula were studded with a
+number of compact, self-governing communities inclined to resent any
+outside interference, however lawful in origin. But the larger cities
+were ever trying to group the smaller round them as satellites; and
+the constant quarrels which resulted, often produced a party which was
+ready to welcome the interposition of the Emperor. There was this
+common ground, then, between these cities and the Papacy that, whereas
+they found it equally necessary to invoke the aid of the Emperor as an
+outside power against their foes, each was threatened by the assertion
+of those imperial rights which it was the sole object of Frederick's
+journey to Italy to assert.
+
+But the results of Frederick's first expedition to Italy were of a
+very doubtful kind. It is true that he was crowned at Rome, that he
+asserted his imperial rights both positively in a great assembly on
+the plains of Roncaglia and, as it were, negatively by the destruction
+of three refractory towns, and that he got rid of Arnold of Brescia.
+But, on the other hand, his assertion of power provoked hatred instead
+of fear; and although, despite some sharp differences, he parted
+amicably from the Pope, his return to Germany left Hadrian in an
+impossible position. The republican party in Rome remained untouched:
+William of Sicily was unsubdued.
+
+[Sidenote: Papal defiance.]
+
+Shortly after his accession Frederick had made an agreement with the
+then Pope that neither should make peace with the Romans or the
+Sicilian King without consent of the other. But now Hadrian, deserted,
+accepted the Commune as the civil authority in Rome, and even came to
+a treaty with William of Sicily, who engaged to hold all his lands as
+a vassal of the Pope. Frederick was naturally angry at the repudiation
+of the mutual obligation with regard to peace and of the imperial
+suzerainty of William's duchy of Apulia. But he was too much occupied
+in Germany to do more than protest. And before he was able to assert
+his power in Italy again Pope Hadrian had, as it were, thrown down a
+challenge to him. At the Diet of Besançon in Burgundy in 1157 two
+papal envoys appeared with a complaint of Frederick's conduct in some
+particular. The letter which they bore spoke of the late coronation of
+the Emperor by the Pope and used the equivocal word _beneficia_
+to describe the papal act. When the assembled nobles resented the
+expression as implying a feudal relation between Pope and Emperor, the
+papal representative, the Chancellor Roland, boldly asked, "From whom,
+then, does the emperor hold the empire if not from the Pope?"
+Frederick's authority alone saved the envoys from violence, and
+Hadrian found himself obliged to explain away the objectionable
+expressions.
+
+[Sidenote: The breach.]
+
+But the papal position had been formulated, and that before a German
+assembly. The Pope was no longer a suppliant: he claimed to be more
+than an equal. He had thrown down a challenge. Frederick proceeded to
+pick it up. In fact, it was this second expedition of Frederick to
+Italy which opened the long contest between Ghibelline and Guelf, a
+contest only to be ended by the practical destruction of one or other
+of the parties. It was the complaints of the other cities against the
+oppression of Milan, which were the immediate cause of Frederick's
+appearance in Italy in 1158; and the reduction of the Milanese was
+followed by the holding of an assembly on the plain of Roncaglia, to
+which Frederick summoned the most famous lawyers of Italy. By their
+decision rights and powers were given to him, which placed all the
+communes at his mercy. Moreover, these were not compatible with the
+rights asserted since the time of Gregory VII by the papal supporters:
+the regalia were given to the Emperor at the expense of ecclesiastical
+as well as lay landowners and corporations. If the papal investiture
+of Apulia infringed the imperial rights, the investiture of
+Frederick's uncle, Welf VI of Bavaria, with the inheritance of the
+Countess Matilda openly ignored the oft-repeated claim of the Papacy.
+Neither side seemed to take especial pains to avoid a breach. The
+acrimonious correspondence which ensued centred round the relations of
+the Italian bishops to the Emperor, the respective claims of each
+party to Rome, and the restoration of the Tuscan inheritance and all
+the other lands which it claimed, to the Papacy. The excommunication
+of the Emperor--the open declaration of war--was prevented by
+Hadrian's death on September 1, 1159.
+
+[Sidenote: The papal schism.]
+
+A schism was inevitable. The majority of the Cardinals elected the
+papal Chancellor Roland who had defied Frederick at Besançon, and who
+would be likely to maintain Hadrian's high claims: he was afterwards
+consecrated as Alexander III. The minority got possession of St.
+Peter's and proclaimed an imperialist Cardinal as Victor IV. Neither
+Pope could be consecrated or could remain in Rome: both appealed by
+legates and letters for the recognition of Christendom. Frederick as
+Emperor summoned both candidates to submit their claims to the
+decision of a Council at Pavia. Alexander entirely repudiated the
+Emperor's implied claim to be the arbiter of Christendom in a
+spiritual matter, and found support in the fact that only fifty
+bishops, almost entirely from Germany and Lombardy, assembled at
+Pavia. The Council, of course, decided in favour of Victor IV.
+Alexander, however, excommunicated the Emperor, and bent all his
+energies to gain the adherence of France and England. Not only was he
+successful in this, but he was also recognised by the Latins of the
+East and the lessor Christian kingdoms. Victor IV's only supporter was
+the Emperor.
+
+Nor did Frederick gain anything by his successes in Lombardy. It cost
+him seven months to subdue the little town of Crema; while it was
+three years (1159-62) before Milan surrendered and was destroyed. It
+is true, Alexander could no longer maintain himself in Italy, but in
+1162 sought refuge in France. Frederick's attempts to drive him from
+his new asylum failed. Alexander carried on skilful negotiations with
+Louis VII of France and Henry II of England; and at Whitsuntide, 1163,
+a Council assembled at Tours, composed of a large number of cardinals,
+bishops, and clergy, and acknowledged Alexander with the utmost
+solemnity, while at the joint invitation of the two Kings the Pope
+took up his abode at the city of Sens.
+
+[Sidenote: Fredericks's chance.]
+
+The death of the anti-Pope was a further blow to Frederick's cause,
+for the action of his representative in Italy committed him to
+recognise a second anti-Pope and laid him open to the accusation of
+desiring to perpetuate the schism. It seemed, however, as if his
+chance had come when the quarrel between Henry II and Thomas Becket
+drove the English Archbishop to take refuge with the Pope at Sens.
+Alexander was in a difficulty. Henry was perhaps the most powerful
+monarch in Europe, and his support was of the utmost importance to the
+Pope. But the rights for which Thomas was contending were part of the
+rights which Alexander himself was claiming against the Emperor--the
+right of the Church to manage her own concerns without lay
+interference. While, therefore, prudence forbade him to throw down a
+distinct challenge to the English King, it was impossible that he
+should comply with Henry's demand for the condemnation of the
+refractory Archbishop. Frederick took advantage of Henry's ill-humour
+to propose a marriage alliance between the royal houses and to sound
+Henry on the question of a change of alliance. The marriage thus
+arranged--of Frederick's cousin, Henry the Lion, to Henry II's
+daughter--ultimately took place. But both clergy and people in England
+were for the most part in sympathy with Becket and unwilling to
+prolong the schism. The altars used by Frederick's envoys in England
+were purified after their departure; and although Henry's
+representatives appeared at the Diet of Würzburg in May, 1165, and
+even took an oath to acknowledge the anti-Pope, the English King did
+not dare to ratify their action.
+
+[Sidenote: Frederick's momentary triumph.]
+
+Nor was this the only time when success seemed possible to Frederick.
+This failure to move the English allegiance and the defection of a
+number even of the German clergy emboldened Alexander to assume the
+aggressive, and he ventured to leave France and to take up his abode
+at Rome. (December, 1165.) Again the discontents of Lombardy were the
+occasion for the Emperor's visit. In the autumn of 1166 he crossed the
+Alps, and after spending some months in Lombardy he forced an entrance
+into Rome, enthroned his own Pope in St. Peter's, and himself wore his
+imperial crown. Frederick refused to treat with Alexander except on
+the basis of the resignation of both existing Popes and the election
+of a third. Alexander's position was unbearable and he fled to
+Benevento. The Romans accepted Frederick as their lord. The Emperor's
+triumph seemed complete: Charlemagne's successor had indeed arrived.
+But the triumph was short-lived. The summer pestilence, which so often
+attacked a German army in Italy, fell more fiercely than ever before.
+Frederick fled northwards before it, and found so much hostility in
+Lombardy that it was only by bypaths and in disguise that he was able
+to make his way out of Italy.
+
+[Sidenote: The Lombard League.]
+
+It was seven years (1167-74) before Frederick was able to return to
+Italy; and although by that time his position in Germany was
+unquestioned and the mutual relations of Louis VII and Henry II
+precluded any likelihood of interference from France or England, the
+Italian foes of the Emperor had gathered strength and combined their
+forces. Chief among these were the cities of Lombardy. Divided as they
+were into imperialist and anti-imperialist, or, to use the terms
+coming into vogue, Ghibelline and Guelf, they at first followed no
+common policy. Milan had taken the lead of the anti-imperialists.
+After the destruction of Milan a league formed by the cities of the
+Veronese March helped to force Frederick for a time to abandon his
+designs upon Italy (1164). During his expedition of 1166-7 a Lombard
+League sprang up and coalesced with the Veronese League; a common
+organisation was set up, Milan was restored, many of the staunchest
+imperial towns were forced to become members, and the crowning work of
+the League was the foundation of a common stronghold which in
+compliment to the Pope was named Alessandria.
+
+[Sidenote: Alliance with the Pope.]
+
+The real danger to the Emperor came from alliance of this League with
+the Pope. The Lombard cities were the Pope's natural enemies. Some of
+them were the rivals of Rome--Pavia as the capital of the kingdom of
+Italy; Milan the quondam champion of the cause of the married clergy;
+Ravenna as the rival patriarchate in Italy. Strong local feeling made
+them resent all outside interference, of Pope no less than of Emperor.
+
+It was among these free, self-governing communities that heresy found
+its chief adherents. But for the moment the common danger from the
+Emperor overshadowed all other differences. The old imperial rights
+which Frederick designed to recover included the power of appointing
+local officers whether consuls or bishops. Alone, neither Pope nor
+Lombard cities could look for success. In 1162, when all the cities
+fell before Frederick, Alexander remained practically untouched. But
+although his position was immensely strengthened since then,
+experience had shown that the Pope could not hold his own in Italy or
+Rome without the help of some secular power. At the same time, in
+Europe at large he had proved a most potent force, since he wielded
+weapons which were independent of time and place for their action, and
+such as the most powerful secular prince had found it impossible to
+ignore. It was under direct encouragement from Alexander that the
+cities concluded their League in 1167. Before the next imperial
+expedition it had become all-powerful in Northern Italy; not only the
+chief Ghibelline cities, including Pavia itself, had joined, but even
+the remaining feudal nobles had found it impossible to stand outside.
+
+[Sidenote: Submission of Henry II.]
+
+Nor was this Alexander's only triumph. So long as Archbishop Thomas
+Becket remained unreconciled to Henry II, the English King had done
+all in his power to influence Alexander. A marriage alliance was
+carried out between the royal families of England and Sicily, solely
+with the object on Henry's side of neutralising one of the chief papal
+supporters, and Henry scattered his bribes among the Lombard cities
+with the same intent. But the reconciliation to which the attitude of
+his own people forced Henry in 1170 robbed him of all excuse for
+harassing the Pope, and the murder of the Archbishop by four of the
+King's knights in Canterbury Cathedral isolated Henry and forced him
+to a humiliating treaty with Alexander.
+
+[Sidenote: Final failure of Frederick.]
+
+Frederick entered Italy in 1174 with small chance of success, for his
+army was composed of mercenaries, and many of the leading German
+nobles, notably his cousin Henry the Lion, refused to accompany him.
+He exhausted all the resources of his military art in a vain attempt
+to take the new fortress of Alessandria. The jealousies within the
+League made negotiations possible, but these broke down because
+Frederick refused to recognise Alessandria as a member of the League
+or to include Pope Alexander in any peace made with the cities. But
+the end was at hand. When at length the forces met at Legnano on May
+29, 1176, the militia of the League won a decisive victory. All
+possibility of direct coercion was gone, and Frederick was forced to
+consider seriously a change of policy. His only chance of good terms
+lay in dividing his enemies. He applied to Alexander, who refused to
+separate his cause from that of his allies, though he allowed that the
+terms might be arranged in secret. This was done. Frederick undertook
+to recognise Alexander and to restore all the papal possessions. For
+the allies, peace would be made with Sicily for fifteen years; the
+Lombards should have a truce for six years. After much negotiation
+Venice was agreed upon for a general congress of all the parties to
+the contest, and Frederick was forced to promise that he would not
+enter the city without the Pope's consent. Up to the last he hoped
+that mutual suspicion would divide his allies. But the terms of peace
+were agreed upon among the allies on the bases already mentioned; then
+Frederick was admitted into Venice, and a dramatic reconciliation
+between Pope and Emperor was enacted (July 25, 1177). Frederick
+returned to Germany at the end of the year.
+
+[Sidenote: Triumph of Alexander.]
+
+The schism was over, the anti-Pope submitted, and Alexander's
+conciliatory policy opened the way for his return to Rome. The Pope
+signalised the close of the long schism of eighteen years by gathering
+in 1179 a General Council, distinguished as the Third Lateran Council,
+to which came nearly a thousand ecclesiastics from various parts of
+Christendom. The chief canon promulgated placed the papal election
+exclusively in the hands of the cardinals, and ordained that a
+two-thirds majority of the whole College should suffice for a valid
+election. During the rest of his reign Alexander was occupied in
+mediating between Henry II and his sons, and between Henry and Louis
+of France. He died, again an exile from Rome, on August 30, 1181. His
+long pontificate is one of the most eventful in papal history. He was
+matched against an opponent who not only aimed at reviving the
+imperial claims, but was himself a man of imperial character. The
+difficulties of the situation might have seemed overwhelming. Where
+Gregory VII failed Alexander succeeded. Tact, not force, was the
+quality required. The infinite patience and long tenacity of Alexander
+met their reward. The Emperor was forced to violate the solemn oath he
+had sworn at Wurzburg in 1165, never to acknowledge Alexander or his
+successors, and never to seek absolution from this oath. The Pope had
+successfully asserted his claim to the civil government of Rome and to
+many other purely temporal possessions.
+
+[Sidenote: Frederick's new move.]
+
+Once more Frederick crossed the Alps. He had crushed his formidable
+cousin, Henry the Lion, and banished him from Germany; he had turned
+the truce with the Lombards into the Peace of Constance by acquiescing
+in the loss of the imperial rights for which he had fought. His eldest
+son, Henry, had been crowned King of Germany as long ago as 1168.
+Frederick was now anxious to secure for him the succession to the
+imperial title, and hoped to find the Pope willing to crown Henry as
+his father's colleague in the Empire. But although Lucius III,
+Alexander's successor (1181-5), had been driven from Rome, and was
+dependent on the Emperor's help, it was impossible for him or for any
+Pope to agree to Frederick's wish. Two emperors at once were a
+manifest absurdity, and Frederick was not likely to accept the Pope's
+suggestion that he should resign in favour of his son. Moreover, there
+lay between Pope and Emperor the still unsettled question of the
+inheritance of the Countess Matilda. It was clear that the quarrel
+must shortly be renewed. By the nature of the respective claims there
+could never be more than a temporary truce. Lucius died, but his
+successor, Urban III, was yet more irreconcilable. Meanwhile Frederick
+had resolved on an act which would make the breach between Papacy and
+Empire irreparable. The King of Sicily was William II "the Good." His
+marriage to a daughter of Henry II of England (1177) had proved
+childless, and the succession seemed likely to fall to Constance,
+daughter of King Roger and aunt of the reigning King. She was over
+thirty years of age. Frederick's defeat in 1174 had been due to his
+failure to divide his enemies. Now, however, he had his chance. The
+Lombards, having got all that they wanted, were quite favourable to
+him. He planned to win Sicily also by a marriage between his youthful
+son Henry and the almost middle-aged heiress Constance. A party in
+Sicily helped him; and the marriage and the coronation of the happy
+pair as King and Queen of Italy took place at Milan in January, 1186.
+Not only had the Emperor knocked away the staff upon which the Papacy
+had been disposed to lean its arm for more than a century; but he had
+actually picked it up and proposed to use it in the future for the
+purpose of belabouring the Popes. Moreover, he had really secured his
+object of a hereditary empire; for Henry, now King with his father in
+Germany and in Italy, must needs succeed to all the paternal honours.
+In vain Urban tried to raise up a party against the Emperor; and the
+sentence of excommunication, which at length he had determined to
+pronounce, was stopped only by the death of the Pope on October 20,
+1187.
+
+[Sidenote: Frederick's death.]
+
+It was, however, chance and not the policy of the Emperor that averted
+the inevitable conflict. On July 5 the Christians of Palestine had
+suffered a crushing defeat at the battle of Hittim or Tiberias at the
+hand of Saladin, and on October 3 the Mohammedan conqueror entered
+Jerusalem. The quarrel was necessarily suspended, and a new crusade
+was preached with such success that in May, 1189, Frederick set out
+for Palestine, to be followed a year later by the Kings of France and
+England. But the Emperor never reached the Holy Land. He made his way
+by Constantinople and Iconium into Cilicia, and there not far from
+Tarsus he disappeared, apparently drowned while crossing or bathing in
+a river.
+
+[Sidenote: The new contest.]
+
+With the great Emperor's death the contest between Papacy and Empire
+enters on a new phase. It is typical of this phase that the one
+outstanding question between the two powers after the Peace of Venice
+was the question of Tuscany. For the quarrel was now almost entirely
+political, and was becoming more and more confined to Italian
+politics. The imperial attempt to subdue Italy to Germany had failed,
+and it remained for the Emperor to make it impossible for the Pope to
+live at Rome except as a dependant of the German King. With Tuscany,
+Lombardy, and Sicily under the imperial control, there was no room for
+papal action in Italy. In a contest of abstract principles the Emperor
+had entirely failed to subdue the Pope; and the interest and
+importance of the contest between Frederick and Alexander lay in the
+fact that each was the representative of an idea. This is no doubt the
+reason why Frederick's failure did not damage his prestige. But he had
+learnt that he could not set the abstract claims of the Empire against
+those of the Papacy. The former did not appeal to any one beyond the
+limits of Germany; whereas the latter could count on sympathy in every
+country of Western Europe. Frederick, therefore, made no more appeals
+to Europe. His disputes with the Papacy were now individual matters:
+they were contests of policy, not of principle, and he would not
+hesitate to turn circumstances to his advantage. Perhaps, fortunately
+for Frederick's reputation, he did nothing more than inaugurate this
+policy. But it was a policy which essentially suited the peculiar
+genius of his successor.
+
+[Sidenote: Henry VI.]
+
+As soon as Frederick had started for Palestine Henry was plunged in
+difficulties. Henry the Lion returned from banishment and raised a
+disturbance. A few months later William II of Sicily died, and Pope
+Clement III (1187-91) immediately invested with the kingdom Tancred,
+Count of Lecce, an illegitimate member of the Hauteville family, who
+had been elected by the party opposed to the German influence. On the
+top of these difficulties came the news of Frederick's death. There
+was thus a double reason for an expedition to Italy--Henry must assert
+his wife's claim to the throne of Sicily, and he must do this without
+quarrelling with the Pope, from whom he must obtain the imperial
+crown. His first expedition was only a formal success. Pope Celestine
+III (1191-8), who took office just after Henry entered Italy, dared
+not refuse to crown him emperor, nor could he prevent Henry from
+either courting the Roman Commune with success or prosecuting his
+claim to the Sicilian crown. But Henry failed before Naples: his army
+was decimated by the plague, and his wife fell into Tancred's hands.
+
+[Sidenote: His success in Italy.]
+
+This ill-success revived the Guelf opposition in Germany, whose most
+powerful supporter was Henry the Lion's brother-in-law, Richard of
+England. Richard on his way to Palestine had made an alliance with
+Tancred against the common Hohenstaufen enemy. But returning from
+crusade Richard fell into the hands of Leopold of Austria. Leopold was
+forced to hand him over to the Emperor, and the anti-Hohenstaufen
+alliance fell to pieces. For whatever reason, Henry kept the English
+King for more than a year, and turned a deaf ear to the papal
+remonstrances against his detention of a crusader. Fortified by the
+failure of the threatened combination against him, and by the money
+from Richard's ransom, Henry returned to Italy. Fortune favoured him
+at every turn. Since he left Italy Tancred and his eldest son had
+died, and Henry found no difficulty in getting hold of the youthful
+son of Tancred, who had been placed upon the throne under his mother's
+regency. Apulia and Sicily were overrun. The toils were closing round
+the Pope. Celestine had excommunicated all concerned in Richard's
+imprisonment until they should have restored his ransom. Thus by
+implication Henry was excommunicate. The money had been spent in
+subduing the papal fief of Sicily; while Henry further made his
+brother Philip Marquis of Tuscany, and planted his followers about in
+the lands of the Church. Yet Celestine did not dare to pronounce the
+fatal sentence against the Emperor directly.
+
+[Sidenote: His imperial schemes.]
+
+Henry meditated one more step which would have rendered the Pope
+powerless. Frederick, with the mere prospect of the Sicilian
+succession for his son, desired to make the imperial title hereditary;
+much more was Henry, the active sovereign of Sicily, anxious to
+accomplish this. The lay princes could have been bribed to consent by
+the recognition of hereditary succession to their fiefs. But the
+German ecclesiastics, with the Pope at their back, had no desire to
+increase the power of the Emperor, and the utmost that Henry could
+secure was the election as German King, and therefore King of the
+Romans, of his two-year-old son Frederick.
+
+[Sidenote: His death.]
+
+Henry's projects stretched out beyond the lands under his rule. The
+death of Saladin encouraged the idea of a new crusade. Henry as
+crusader might propitiate the Pope. But such an expedition once
+started might have been diverted, as indeed happened a few years
+later, for an attack upon Constantinople, which should lead to the
+union of both empires under the ambitious Hohenstaufen. Pretexts were
+not wanting. Henry collected a number of German crusaders upon the
+coast of Italy, and many of these had actually sailed for Palestine
+when everything was changed by Henry's sudden death on September 28,
+1197. He had reigned eight years, and was only thirty-two years of
+age. Despite his youthful age and his short reign he had raised the
+imperial power to a height which it had scarcely ever touched before
+and which it was never to reach again. Endowed with ability at least
+equal to his father's, his very selfishness and ruthlessness gave him
+a success denied to his predecessor. All Henry's acts were associated
+with his own aggrandisement, and the result shows that the Papacy no
+less than the Empire was dependent for its influence chiefly upon the
+personality of the holder of the office. Henry had to deal at Rome
+with Popes of inferior capacity. Had Innocent III been elected a few
+years earlier, the tragedy of Anagni--the maltreatment of Boniface
+VIII by the emissaries of the King of France--might have been
+anticipated by a century.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+INNOCENT III
+
+
+[Sidenote: The new Pope.]
+
+Celestine III died less than four months after the Emperor Henry VI,
+and the centre of interest immediately shifted from the Empire to the
+Papacy. For, in their desire to shut out the Roman clergy and people
+from any share in the election, the Cardinals made haste to find a
+successor. As it happened, the object of their choice was also the
+favourite of the Roman people. Lothair of Segni was the youngest of
+the Cardinals, being only thirty-seven years of age. He was sprung
+from a German family which had settled in the tenth century in the
+Campagna. He had studied in Paris and Bologna, and had been made
+Cardinal by his uncle, Clement III. Celestine was of the rival family
+of Orsini, and during his reign the young Cardinal remained in
+retirement and consoled himself by writing a book on the _Despite of
+the World_. Thus he was young, noble, wealthy, and distinguished.
+He showed his power of self-control at once by doing nothing to
+shorten the canonical time before his consecration as priest and
+bishop; while the magnificence of the coronation ceremonies typified
+the view which he took of the office and position.
+
+[Sidenote: The condition of Europe.]
+
+The work of Innocent III was European in importance, and he found his
+opportunity in the disturbed condition of the time. The rivalry of
+Ghibelline and Guelf in Germany and Italy, and the rivalry of the
+houses of Capet and Plantagenet in France, forbade any concerted
+action on the part of Christendom, whether against pagans on the
+eastern frontier of Germany or against Mohammedans in Spain or Syria.
+Hungary and Poland were both in a state of ferment; in Spain the
+Almohades from Morocco were making serious advances. Saladin's death
+might seem to offer a peculiarly favourable chance of recovering for
+Christendom what had been so recently lost. But the Empire was
+divided; England and France neutralised each other, the Eastern Empire
+was weakened by the success of an usurper, the knightly orders were
+quarrelling with each other. And this state of disunion was not the
+most dangerous feature of the moment. The moral condition of Europe
+was seldom worse. Philip of France had repudiated his Danish wife,
+Ingebiorg, apparently for no more valid reason than that he liked some
+one better; Alfonso of Castile took his own half-sister to wife.
+Oriental manners, imported from Palestine or learnt from commercial
+intercourse in the Mediterranean, seemed to be invading the furthest
+regions of the West. Perhaps to the same influence may be attributed
+the spread of religious heresies. Much of this was provoked by direct
+antagonism to a powerful and corrupt Church; but the actual form
+assumed by the positive beliefs of those who organised themselves
+apart from the Catholic Church were largely Oriental in character.
+
+Everything combined to encourage Innocent's interference, and it may
+be pointed out at once that his success was largely due to the selfish
+ambitions and desires of the lay princes, which enabled him to pose as
+the undoubted representative of moral force organised in the Church.
+In all his most important acts he was the mouthpiece of popular
+opinion. Thus his contest with Philip of France in favour of the
+repudiated Ingebiorg commanded the sympathy of every right-thinking
+person in Europe; his desire for the separation of Italy and Germany
+under different rulers was popular in Italy; while to attempt an union
+of the Churches of East and West, to crush out heresy in the south of
+France and elsewhere, to promote a new crusade in the East, were all
+regarded as duties falling strictly within the papal sphere.
+
+[His claim for the Papacy.]
+
+The importance of this great activity lies in the fact that it was
+based upon the most advanced theories of papal power. It was the
+controversy over lay investiture which first caused the defenders of
+the Church to formulate their views of the sphere of ecclesiastical
+influence as against the influence of the secular authority. But the
+extreme claims put forward for the Papacy as the head of the Church,
+by Gregory VII and his followers, had provoked the counter definitions
+of the jurists of Bologna on behalf of the imperial power. But the
+claim of universal dominion by the Emperor was contradicted by facts,
+and never rose above the dignity of an academic thesis; whereas in the
+century which elapsed from the days of Gregory VII to those of
+Innocent III the papal power was becoming an increasing reality in the
+Church. It is indeed a little difficult to see wherein it was possible
+for any successor of Gregory VII to make an advance upon the claims
+put forward by that Pope. Gregory in fond of pointing out that the
+power of binding and loosing given to St. Peter was absolutely
+comprehensive, including all persons and secular as well as spiritual
+matters. Innocent tells the Patriarch of Constantinople that the Lord
+left to Peter not only the whole Church, but the whole world to
+govern. To the Karolingian age it was the Emperor who was the Vicar of
+God. The Church reformers, while attacking this title, do not seem to
+have claimed in words for the Pope a higher title than Vicar of St.
+Peter. Innocent, however, more than once asserts that he is the
+representative "not of mere man, but of very God." In fact, such
+development as is to be found in the papal office during the twelfth
+century consists merely in making rather more explicit positions which
+have already been asserted. Gregory, in writing to William the
+Conqueror, had used the figures of the sun and moon to illustrate the
+relations of Church and State. Innocent draws out the analogy in much
+detail: "As God, the builder of the universe, has set up two lights in
+the firmament of heaven, the greater light to rule the day and the
+lesser light to rule the night, so for the firmament of the universal
+Church, which is called by the name of heaven, He has set up two great
+dignities, the greater to rule souls, as it were days, and the lesser
+to rule bodies, as it were nights; and these are priestly authority
+and royal power. Further, as the moon obtains its light from the sun,
+seeing that it is really the lesser both in quantity and quality, and
+also in position and influence, so royal power obtains the splendour
+of its dignity from priestly authority." He points out on another
+occasion that "individual kings have individual kingdoms, but Peter is
+over all, as in fulness so also in breadth, because he is the Vicar of
+Him whose is the earth and the fulness thereof, the round world and
+they that dwell therein. Further, as the priesthood excels in dignity,
+so it precedes in antiquity. Both kingdom and priesthood," he allows,
+"were instituted among the people of God; but," he adds, "while the
+priesthood was instituted by divine ordinance, the kingdom came into
+existence through the importunity of man." Hence it is not strange
+that "not only in the Patrimony of the Church, but also in other
+spheres, we occasionally exercise temporal jurisdiction," for "he to
+whom God says in Peter, 'Whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth, etc.',
+is His Vicar, who is priest for ever after the order of Melchisedek,
+ordained by God to be judge of the quick and the dead."
+
+[Sidenote: He secures power in Rome.]
+
+But while the Pope assumed this all-embracing position, a considerable
+share of his energies was absorbed in a very small and purely selfish
+matter--the extension of the temporal dominion of the Papacy; and the
+use for this personal object of the great powers which men willingly
+acknowledged in the Pope as the upholder of the standard of morality
+greatly prejudiced the success of Innocent's policy elsewhere. In its
+origin this was a policy of self-preservation. The civil government of
+Rome was in the hands of a prefect representing the Emperor and a
+senator who was the spokesman of the Commune. The Pope was either a
+prisoner or a nonentity in his own capital. The Empire being in
+abeyance, it was not difficult to transform the prefect into a papal
+officer, but a greater triumph was the nomination of the senator, for
+it carried the ultimate control over the municipality, and thus
+undermined the power of the Commune, which had paralysed the papal
+influence in Rome for nearly sixty years. This signal victory was not
+gained without a struggle. The democratic party even drove the Pope
+from the city for a time; but by 1205, Innocent, by apparent
+concessions and the use of bribery, had won his end.
+
+[Sidenote: Central Italy.]
+
+Meanwhile an even more important movement had been accomplished. The
+centre of the peninsula outside the Patrimony of St. Peter was in the
+hands Of Henry VI's German followers. One was driven from Spoleto,
+another from Ravenna, and both these districts were added to the papal
+dominions. Tuscany had been made over to Henry VI's brother, Philip;
+but he went off to secure the German crown, and his subjects did
+homage to the Pope. There existed, however, a League of Tuscan cities,
+and the Pope, leaving to them their independence, merely accepted the
+office of President of the League. It was the addition of these
+substantial dominions to the lands of the Patrimony which, as between
+Pope and Emperor, effectually solved the question of the
+long-contested Matildan inheritance, and laid the foundation of the
+temporal dominions of the Papacy as they remained until 1860.
+
+[Sidenote: South Italy.]
+
+The German influence also threatened to be paramount in the south of
+the peninsula. For Henry VI, while giving to Queen Constance the
+nominal regency during the minority of their son Frederick, took care
+that the real authority should be in the hands of his German
+followers. Constance, however, had no desire for the continued union
+of the German and Sicilian crowns; and here she found a staunch
+supporter in the Pope. First with Celestine, and then with Innocent,
+she entered into close relations. Frederick took the old Norman oath
+of vassalage for his dominions; and when Innocent confirmed the title,
+he compelled Constance in return to surrender the ecclesiastical
+privileges connected with elections, legatine visits, appeals, and
+councils originally granted by Urban II to Count Roger of Sicily, and
+to promise an annual tribute. The Pope, however, aided her to clear
+her country of the Germans, many of whom he afterwards again hunted
+from Central Italy. It was natural, therefore, that on her death in
+November, 1198, Constance should commend her child to the guardianship
+of Innocent. Innocent himself was far too much occupied to take the
+personal direction of affairs, and eight years of incessant warfare
+(1200-8) were necessary before the German influence could be finally
+got rid of, and then Innocent secured his influence through a regency
+of native nobles under the presidency of his own brother.
+
+[Sidenote: The contest in Germany.]
+
+Even on the German side there was little need to anticipate that the
+two crowns of Germany and Sicily would remain united. The nobles were
+scarcely likely to keep their promise of crowning Henry's young son.
+He was a mere child, three years of age; not yet baptised, perhaps
+because his father was excommunicate; brought up in Italy and in the
+hands of Italians; a protégé of the Pope. Thus his uncle Philip was
+easily persuaded by the Hohenstaufen supporters in Germany to take the
+place intended for his nephew, and was chosen and crowned as King of
+Germany (March, 1198). But the enemies of the Hohenstaufen could not
+let the opportunity go by, and three months later, at the suggestion
+of Richard of England, they elected and crowned his nephew, Otto of
+Brunswick, a son of Henry the Lion of Saxony, whom Richard had made
+Count of Poitou and York. Thus was revived the struggle between
+Ghibelline and Guelf.
+
+[Sidenote: Innocent's decision.]
+
+Innocent undertook the decision of the question as a matter belonging
+to his sphere, "chiefly because it was the Apostolic See which
+transferred the Empire from the east to the west, and lastly because
+the same See grants the crown of the Empire." In the divided condition
+of Germany much depended on his attitude. It was scarcely likely that
+he would accept a Hohenstaufen who was lord of Tuscany. But Philip was
+the nominee of the most numerous and important section of the German
+nobles, while the death of Richard of England (1199) deprived Otto of
+his chief supporter. As Gregory VII on a similar occasion, so now
+Innocent delayed his decision between the rivals until he could make
+up his mind that Otto had some chance of success. Meanwhile he did
+everything to prejudice the minds of the German people against Philip,
+who, as the holder of lands claimed by the Papacy, was already
+excommunicate. After three years of deliberation Innocent declared
+himself. Otto paid a heavy price for the decision in his favour. By
+the Capitulation of Neuss (June, 1201) he swore to protect to the
+utmost all the possessions, honours, and rights of the Roman Church,
+both those which it already held and those which he would help it to
+recover. The extent of land was defined as including not only the
+Patrimony of St. Peter (from Radicofani to Ceperano), but also the
+Exarchate, the Pentapolis, the March of Ancona, the Duchy of Spoleto,
+and the territories of the Countess Matilda.
+
+[Sidenote: Innocent III and Philip Augustus of France.]
+
+But in the course of the next few years Innocent was obliged to take
+up a totally different attitude in this struggle in consequence of
+disappointments elsewhere. There were two such which fell especially
+heavily upon him during the first half of his reign. He inherited from
+his predecessor a quarrel with Philip Augustus of France. Philip lost
+his first wife in 1190; in 1193 his designs against England caused him
+to marry Ingebiorg, a sister of the King of Denmark. Immediately after
+the marriage he took a dislike to her, refused to live with her, and
+obtained from an assembly of his own clergy a sentence of divorce,
+founded on an allegation of some very distant relationship between him
+and his new wife. Ingebiorg and her brother appealed to Pope Celestine
+III, who declared the sentence of divorce illegal and null. Philip not
+only paid no attention to the numerous letters and legates of the
+Pope, but he tried to make the divorce irrevocable by taking a new
+wife. After several rebuffs he found in Agnes of Meran, the daughter
+of a Bavarian noble, one who was willing to accept the dubious
+position (1196). Innocent III at once took up an uncompromising
+attitude, and instructed his legates that if Philip refused to send
+away Agnes and to restore Ingebiorg, they should put the kingdom under
+an interdict preparatory to a sentence of personal excommunication
+against Philip and Agnes themselves. Those bishops who dared to
+publish the interdict were seriously maltreated by the King; but after
+nine months of resistance the distress of his people at the cessation
+of religious services caused him to submit; he pretended to take back
+Ingebiorg, and the interdict was raised (1200). But he did not send
+away Agnes, and a renewal of the interdict was only averted by Agnes'
+death in 1201. Innocent, desiring to be conciliatory, actually
+declared Agnes' two children legitimate. Philip still, however,
+pressed for a divorce from Ingebiorg, declaring that he was bewitched
+by her. After his victory over John of England in 1204 he became more
+than ever obdurate to papal remonstrances, and he even contemplated a
+new marriage. Innocent was not in a position to drive him to extremes,
+and was obliged to temporise for a time. Eventually, however, he
+reduced Philip to submission.
+
+[Sidenote: The Fourth Crusade.]
+
+But Innocent suffered more definite defeat in the matter of the
+Crusade. The crusading fervour had much diminished, and it has been
+pointed out as characteristic of the age that a fourth crusade was
+determined on at a tournament in Champagne in 1199. Celestine III had
+vainly tried to rouse the interest of Europe, but the preaching of
+Fulk, the priest of Neuilly, recalled the efforts and the success of
+Peter the Hermit and St. Bernard. Innocent III lent his whole
+influence to the enterprise. But from the first everything seemed to
+go contrary to his wishes. The death of Theobald of Champagne (1201),
+who was the papal nominee for the leadership, placed at the head of
+the crusaders Boniface, Marquis of Montserrat, an Italian and kinsman
+of Philip of France and a typical representative of the worst side of
+feudalism. From that moment Innocent lost all control over the
+expedition. Instead of going directly to the Holy Land, the barons
+decided to attack the Mohammedan power in Egypt--perhaps the sounder
+policy. They made an agreement with the Venetians to find the shipping
+for the host in return for a large sum of money. But the long delay
+caused many crusaders to set off to the Holy Land; so that when the
+main force arrived at Venice it was so diminished in numbers that the
+leaders could not raise the sum for which they had pledged themselves
+to Venice. Probably there was no deep-laid plot for the diversion of
+the crusading host from the first. But the Venetians suddenly found
+themselves with the practical direction of a formidable army; they had
+enemies in the Adriatic against whom they had hitherto been powerless;
+they had old causes of rivalry and enmity with Constantinople. At the
+same time King Philip of Germany was urging the cause of his
+brother-in-law, who had been deposed from the Byzantine throne. The
+crusaders, unwilling to disperse and unable to insist, allowed
+themselves to be diverted, first to an attack upon Zara, a nest of
+pirates in the Adriatic, although it belonged to the King of Hungary,
+who was himself a crusader; and then to Constantinople, which they
+ultimately captured (1204), and where they set up a Latin Empire.
+Innocent did everything to prevent this diversion of his cherished
+scheme. He forbade the attack upon Zara, he excommunicated the
+Venetians for going to Constantinople, and threatened the whole host
+with the same penalty. But he was powerless. The few in the army who
+were moved by some of the crusading spirit were overruled; and when
+the papal legates for the expedition to Palestine joined the army at
+Constantinople, all thought of going on to Palestine was abandoned.
+Innocent was forced to accept what was done and to console himself
+with the thought of the blow thus dealt to the Eastern Church.
+
+[Sidenote: Innocent's difficulty.]
+
+These rebuffs seriously diminished Innocent's influence in Europe for
+a time. Moreover, Innocent soon had reason to regret his championship
+of Otto. Philip was wealthy and personally popular, while Otto's
+brusquerie and selfishness alienated many supporters. Consequently
+from 1203 Philip distinctly obtained the upper hand, and at length in
+1207 Innocent opened negotiations with him. But these were rendered
+futile when Philip fell victim to the assassin's knife in June, 1208.
+Otto's acceptance now became inevitable, and he did everything to
+conciliate his opponents. He submitted himself to a fresh election by
+the German nobles, and won the Hohenstaufen by marrying Beatrice, the
+daughter of his late rival. He made new concessions to the Pope, which
+practically amounted to a renunciation of the powers confirmed to the
+Emperor in the matter of elections by the Concordat of Worms; he
+undertook to give up the right of spoils and to help in the
+eradication of heresy. And all this he promised because he was "King
+of the Romans by the grace of God and of the Pope."
+
+[Sidenote: Otto's designs.]
+
+But Otto's acceptance was only the beginning of the end. He knew that
+he owed his position merely to the accident of Philip's death and to
+the absence of any eligible Hohenstaufen candidate. He had therefore
+no feelings of gratitude towards Innocent. Moreover, he was now
+surrounded by Ghibelline influences, and was anxious to be crowned
+emperor. Thus, despite his promises of 1201 and 1209, to recover to
+the Papacy all the lands and rights which it claimed, he began to
+realise that the task to which he must give himself was the
+restoration of the connection between Italy and Germany, which had
+been entirely broken since Henry VI's death. In fact, this Guelf
+prince took up the work of the Hohenstaufen. When, therefore, Otto and
+Innocent met in Italy a year later, Otto declined to give more than a
+verbal promise that after his coronation he would do what was right.
+Innocent, in return, did not refuse the crown indeed, but made a new
+departure in naming Otto Emperor without consecrating him as such, and
+thus denied to him the divinity of the imperial office (October,
+1209).
+
+[Sidenote: Otto's success.]
+
+Otto immediately set to work. He recovered for the Empire all the
+lands of Central Italy which Innocent had already annexed to the papal
+dominions, including, of course, the Matildan inheritance; he made the
+Roman Prefect an imperial officer again; and entering into alliance
+with the German followers of Henry VI, who had never been entirely
+dislodged from the southern kingdom, he overran Apulia and prepared,
+by the aid of a fleet lent by Pisa, to pass over into Sicily. Innocent
+did everything in his power to check the conqueror. He excommunicated
+him (August, 1210); in conjunction with Philip Augustus of France, the
+old ally of Henry VI, he roused disaffection against Otto among the
+German nobles. Innocent was somewhat taken aback when Otto's subjects,
+finding that the Pope in his anathema had absolved them from their
+fealty to the King, held Otto as deposed, and proceeded to elect in
+his place the young Frederick Roger, Henry VI's son and the papal
+ward, who was already King of Sicily. This choice also threatened to
+produce that very union of Germany and Italy which Otto was bent on
+accomplishing. But the need of checking Otto forced Innocent to
+acquiesce, and Frederick did everything to allay the papal fears.
+
+[Sidenote: Innocent and Frederick.]
+
+Since Frederick could not stop Otto's progress in the south, it was
+arranged that he should go north to Germany in the hope of drawing
+Otto away. Before he left, Frederick had his young child Henry
+crowned, as an earnest that he did not intend to join the kingdom he
+was going to seek with that which he already held. He passed through
+Rome on his way north, and Innocent obtained from him a repetition of
+his liege homage for Sicily and a promise that the two kingdoms should
+be kept separate. In return Innocent gave him the title of "Emperor
+elect by the grace of God and of the Pope," and supplied him with
+money. Innocent thus hoped that he had taken every precaution to avoid
+the dangers which he feared, while Frederick, young and inexperienced,
+seems to have accepted the conditions willingly and to have intended
+to keep them. His ambition and the unexpected prospects thus opened to
+him led him on regardless of consequences.
+
+[Sidenote: Otto's failure.]
+
+Frederick's move was perfectly successful. Otto rushed back to
+Germany, and the death of his wife Beatrice did away with any
+obligations of loyalty which the partisans of the Hohenstaufen might
+have felt towards him. Frederick was elected and crowned (December,
+1212), and renewed the old Hohenstaufen league with France. Otto
+turned for help to his uncle, John of England. John was excommunicate,
+but now made his peace with the Pope. Philip, at first encouraged by
+Innocent to attack England and then after John's submission forbidden
+to go, turned his arms against Flanders. A coalition was formed
+against him, and was joined by John and by Otto; but Philip's victory
+at Bouvines (July, 1214) broke up the coalition and put an end to
+Otto's hopes. For the four years of life which remained to him his
+power was confined to Brunswick.
+
+[Sidenote: Frederick's acceptance.]
+
+Meanwhile Frederick had, as it were, put the crown upon his work of
+submission to the Papacy. By the Golden Bull (July, 1213), he repeated
+the promises which Otto had made at Neuss in 1201 with the additions
+of 1209. In 1215 he went through a second and more formal coronation
+at Aachen, and took the cross in conjunction with a number of German
+nobles. In 1216 he further promised, in a formal deed, that in return
+for the imperial crown his son Henry should become King of Sicily,
+entirely independently from himself and under the supremacy of the
+Roman Church. Thus Frederick in his eagerness put himself completely
+in the hands of the Papacy.
+
+[Sidenote: Innocent and England.]
+
+Otto's cause had been linked with that of his uncle John, over whom
+Innocent won the greatest of his victories. On a vacancy in the see of
+Canterbury (1206) the right of election was disputed, as usual,
+between the monks of the monastery of Christchurch at Canterbury and
+the bishops of the province. King John thrust in his nominee. Innocent
+settled the matter by making an appointment of his own. But John
+refused to accept Stephen Langton; and Innocent proceeded to force his
+consent. In 1208 the country was laid under an interdict; and John
+treated the bishops who published it as Philip Augustus had treated
+the French bishops ten years before. In 1209 Innocent excommunicated
+John, and in 1212 declared him deposed. Despite the continued
+obstinacy of Philip of France in the matter of Ingebiorg, Innocent
+called upon him to execute the papal sentence; and Philip, thinking
+that the aid of Denmark would be useful, ended the twenty years'
+dispute and accorded to Ingebiorg the position of Queen for the rest
+of his reign. It was certainly a measure of the growing strength of
+the royal power in France that it had been able to defy the Papacy for
+so long in a matter in which the King was so clearly in the wrong.
+Philip's threatened attack brought John to his knees; and in 1213 he
+not only accepted Stephen Langton, but even surrendered his kingdom to
+the Papacy to receive it back as a papal fief, and undertook to pay an
+annual tribute. The sequel was not quite so satisfactory for Innocent.
+The surrender to the Pope and the defeat at Bouvines so enraged the
+barons and clergy in England that they combined to force John to sign
+Magna Carta (1215). But John was now under the protection of the Pope;
+and although Innocent's own archbishop took the lead in the movement
+against John, Innocent issued a bull in condemnation of the charter;
+but so long as John lived, even the interdict and excommunication
+which followed failed to move the barons. Innocent's successors reaped
+the benefit of his triumph in the influence which they were able to
+exert in England during the greater part of the reign of Henry III.
+
+[Sidenote: Innocent's successes in Europe.]
+
+Nor was John the only King who laid his crown at the feet of the Pope.
+Peter, King of Aragon, hoped to escape the claims of the King of
+Castile and the tyranny of his own barons by making his kingdom
+tributary to the Papacy. Prince John of Bulgaria actually asked for
+and obtained a royal crown from Innocent. The struggles of Sancho,
+King of Portugal, to free himself from the submission made by a
+predecessor ended in failure. Leo, King of Armenia, sought the papal
+protection against the crusaders. The King of Denmark appealed to
+Innocent on behalf of his much-wronged sister. The contending parties
+in Hungary listened to his mediation.
+
+But we have already seen that Innocent was not always successful, and
+that most of his successes were won only after a prolonged contest.
+Their matrimonial irregularities brought him into conflict with nearly
+all the Christian Kings of Spain, and the kingdom of Leon was struck
+by an interdict which was not removed for five years. It was a more
+serious matter for the future that the papal acts for the first time
+roused the opposition of the people in more than one instance; while
+it is right to notice that Innocent often got acknowledgment of his
+claim to adjudicate by accepting what had already been done. But
+despite some notable failures, he did meet with considerable success;
+and since he got so much, it is not surprising that he aimed at more.
+Perhaps the greatest disappointment of his life was the failure of the
+Fourth Crusade. Innocent found some compensation in the great victory
+won by the united chivalry of Spain and France over the Almohades on
+the field of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. But he is responsible for
+inventing a new kind of crusade--that of Christians against
+Christians--in the undoubtedly papal duty of dealing with the
+Albigensian heretics; and it is, in modern eyes at least, a small
+condonation that he encouraged the founder of the Dominicans and
+received Francis of Assisi with sympathy.
+
+[Sidenote: The Fourth Lateran Council.]
+
+Innocent's pontificate ended in a blaze of glory. After the settlement
+of the strife in Germany he called together a Council which is
+distinguished as the Fourth Lateran or the Twelfth OEcumenical
+Council. It met in 1215, and was composed of more than two thousand
+persons, including envoys from all the chief nations of Europe. Its
+resolutions were embodied in seventy canons dealing with a vast
+variety of subjects in the endeavour to bring about a drastic
+reformation of the Church. This is perhaps Innocent's most solid claim
+to the name of a great ruler. But it only serves to emphasise the
+wholly external nature of his rule. And subsequent ages have
+recognised this limitation to his claims for honour in that, while
+they have freely accorded to him the name of a great man and a great
+Pope, if not the greatest of the pontiffs, the Church has never added
+his name to the rôle of Christian saints.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE PAPAL POWER IN THE CHURCH
+
+
+[Sidenote: The basis of papal claims.]
+
+The interest of the period with which we are dealing is largely
+concerned with the attempted definition of the relations between
+Church and State. The peculiar form of mediaeval thought resolved this
+into a struggle of the papal power to make itself supreme over all
+temporal rulers. But scarcely less important or interesting is the
+concomitant effort of the Papacy to gather up into itself the whole
+immediate authority of the Church.
+
+This effort was very materially helped by the fact that various
+national churches which had retained their own customs were gradually
+brought into communion with Rome. William the Conqueror put an end to
+the schism which had cut off the Anglo-Saxon Church from Rome, and
+drew the Church in England into closer contact with Rome than she had
+enjoyed since the days of Archbishop Theodore. Through Queen Margaret,
+the Anglo-Saxon wife of Malcolm Canmore, Roman customs superseded
+those of the Celtic Church in Scotland. Gregory VII prevailed on the
+Spanish churches to accept the Roman for the Mozarabic liturgy.
+Alexander III attracted to Rome the long-isolated Church in Ireland,
+and Innocent II reconciled the Milanese at last to the papal
+supremacy. The foundation for the high claims on the part of the
+Papacy rested on what are known as the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals.
+Decretals are answers to questions referred to the Bishop of Rome from
+other churches. The earliest of these was of date 385. Compilations of
+the Canons of the Church, in which these answers were included, were
+put out in the sixth and the seventh centuries, the latter under the
+name of Bishop Isidore of Seville. In the middle of the ninth century
+appeared a third compilation, also published under the name of
+Isidore, and containing fifty-nine additional letters and decrees of
+earlier date than 385. Inasmuch as the Latin edition of the Bible,
+which St. Jerome did not translate until about the year 400, is quoted
+in some of these, this compilation has not unnaturally been styled the
+False or Forged or Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. The object of this
+forgery was the exaltation of the Papacy as "the supreme lord,
+lawgiver, and judge of the Church," since all previous claims were
+brought together and were referred back to the foundation of
+Christianity. Two centuries later another document of doubtful
+authenticity, called _Dictatus Papae_, sets forth in a
+sufficiently true spirit the principles proclaimed by Gregory VII.
+This states, among other things, that the Roman pontiff can alone be
+called Universal, that his name is unique in the world, that he ought
+to be judged by none; and it ascribes to him, without the intervention
+of any intermediary, the supreme and immediate power in all executive,
+legislative, and judicial matters.
+
+[Sidenote: The Pope: the sole authority in the Church.]
+
+The history of the Church during the two succeeding centuries is
+merely an exemplification of these claims. It was in the spirit of
+this document that Innocent II, in the speech with which he opened the
+Second Lateran Council in 1139, reminded his hearers that Rome was the
+head of the world, and that the highest ecclesiastical offices were
+derived from the Roman pontiff as by a kind of feudal right, and could
+not he lawfully held without his permission. Innocent III, we have
+seen, describes himself as the Vicar of God or of Jesus Christ. Thus,
+although the Pope is potentially present everywhere in the Church, he
+cannot exercise the great power belonging to the office personally, so
+that he has called in his brethren, the co-bishops, to share in the
+care of the burden entrusted to himself; but in doing so he has
+subtracted in no whit from the fulness of power which enables him to
+enquire into individual cases and to assume the office of judge at
+will. Others, then, may be admitted to a share in the care of the
+Church (_pars solicitudinis_); but to the Pope has been given the
+fulness of power (_plenitudo potestatis_). Thomas Aquinas shows
+how bishop and archbishop equally derive their authority from the
+Pope, and finds parallels to the relationship between the Pope and the
+other officers of the Church in the dependence of all things created
+upon God and the subordination of the proconsul to the Emperor. This
+deliberate policy on the part of the Papacy to absorb into itself the
+whole spiritual authority of the Church may be traced in its attempts
+to set itself up as supreme administrator, supreme lawgiver, and
+supreme judge.
+
+Before the Pope could claim to be supreme administrator within the
+Church it was necessary to deprive all other ecclesiastical officers
+of their independence. The custom of the gift of the pall to
+archbishops who exercised the office of Metropolitans had already made
+these highest officers of all into little more than delegates of the
+Papacy. Gregory VII failed in his attempt to force them to come in
+person to Rome in order to receive the pall. He succeeded, however, in
+imposing upon them an oath which, founded upon the oath of fealty,
+made their position analogous to that of a feudal vassal. By this a
+Metropolitan swore to be faithful to St. Peter and the Pope and his
+successors who should have been canonically elected; that he would be
+no party to violence against the Pope; that he would attend in person
+or by representatives at every synod to which the Pope summoned him;
+that, saving the rights of his Order, he would help to defend the
+Papacy and all its possessions and honours; that he would not betray
+any trust reposed in him by the Pope; that he would honourably treat
+the papal legate; that he would not knowingly communicate with
+excommunicates; that when asked he would faithfully help the Roman
+Church with a force of soldiers. To this was often added an
+undertaking that he would appear at Rome himself or by a
+representative at stated intervals; that he would cause his suffragans
+at their consecration to take an oath of obedience to the Roman
+pontiff; that he would not part with anything belonging to his
+official position without the knowledge of the Roman See.
+
+[Sidenote: Claim over bishoprics.]
+
+Gregory's successors imposed this oath by degrees on all bishops, and
+thus gradually substituted the Pope for the Metropolitan. The
+_Dictatus Papae_ claimed for the Pope the right of deposing or
+reinstating bishops without reference to a synod; of transferring a
+bishop from one see to another; of dividing a wealthy see or joining
+together poor bishoprics. It was the papal policy to champion the
+suffragans against the Metropolitans until the original metropolitical
+power of confirming the elections of their newly elected suffragans
+and consecrating them to the episcopal office was entirely superseded
+by the growing authority of the Pope. The right of confirmation
+implied the power of quashing an election, and this could easily grow
+into a power of direct appointment. This last power was only exercised
+habitually in certain cases--after a vacancy had lasted for a certain
+time; if the bishop had died at Rome; if the bishop had been
+transferred from one see to another. From the end of the eleventh
+century cases are found of bishops designated to be such, not only,
+according to the ancient formula, "by the grace of God," but also by
+that "of the Apostolic See," and such description becomes fairly
+common in the thirteenth century.
+
+[Sidenote: Claim over benefices.]
+
+And as the Popes passed over Metropolitans in order to obtain a direct
+hold on the suffragans, so they went on in course of time to pass over
+the bishop in every diocese by claiming the disposition of individual
+benefices. Such a claim began in the first half of the twelfth century
+in letters of recommendation and petitions for the appointment of
+papal favourites to prebends or benefices. But so quickly did this
+system develop that where Hadrian IV recommended Alexander III
+commanded, and the mandates of Innocent III were enforced by specially
+appointed officers. Clement IV lays it down that ancient custom has
+specially reserved to the Roman pontiff the collation of churches and
+offices which become vacant through the death of the holder at Rome,
+but that this is only part of the greater right which is known to
+belong to Rome and gives to the Pontiff the full disposal (_plenaria
+dispositio_) of all offices and benefices both at the time of
+vacancy and by provision beforehand. But so flagrant was the abuse of
+this power of appointment that it roused the indignant remonstrance of
+the most ardent supporters of the papal authority in the Church.
+England under Henry III was so much exploited by its papal guardian as
+to gain the name of the "Milch-cow of the Papacy"; but there were many
+protests.
+
+Robert Grossteste, Bishop of Lincoln, the most revered English
+Churchman of the thirteenth century, was bidden by Innocent IV to find
+a canonry in his cathedral for a nominee of the Pope, who, moreover,
+was still a child. He answered in a rebuke of such severity and
+dignity as can have rarely been addressed to Rome by one devoted to
+its service. "Next to the sin of Lucifer," he tells the Pope, "there
+is not, there cannot be, any kind of sin so adverse and contrary to
+the evangelical doctrine of the Apostles as the destruction of souls
+by defrauding them of the duty and service of a pastor." He adds that
+the most holy Apostolic See cannot command anything that tends to a
+sin of such a kind except by some defect or abuse of its plenary
+power: that no faithful servant of the Papacy would comply with a
+command of that kind "even if it issued from the highest order of
+angels"; and he therefore, _filialiter et obedienter_, flatly
+refuses to obey. Scarcely less severe were the strictures of Louis
+IX's ambassadors, who laid the grievances of the French bishops and
+barons before the same Pope. They tell Innocent IV that the devotion
+which the French people have hitherto felt towards the Roman Church is
+now not only extinguished, but is turned into vehement hate and
+rancour, and that the claim for subsidies and tribute for every
+necessity of Rome--a claim which was enforced by the threat of
+excommunication--was unheard of in previous ages.
+
+[Sidenote: The Pope as supreme legislator.]
+
+The Pope also gradually established his authority as supreme and sole
+lawgiver within the Church. The _Dictatus Papae_ asserts that for
+him alone it is lawful to frame new laws to meet the needs of the
+time. Meanwhile the Forged Decretals had found their place in the
+various collections of the Canons made in the eleventh and early
+twelfth centuries. In the middle of the twelfth century Gratian, a
+Benedictine monk of Bologna, put out his _Concordantia discordantium
+Canonum_, commonly known as the _Decretum Gratiani_, which
+combined a theoretical disquisition with illustrations drawn from the
+documents which had appeared in previous collections. This became the
+standard mediaeval treatise in ecclesiastical law, and its appearance
+much encouraged the systematic study of the Canon law. The Popes of
+the succeeding century and a half made great additions to the law of
+the Church, partly through the decrees issued by the General Lateran
+Councils, partly by their own edicts. Such new matter was embodied
+from time to time. Thus in 1234 the Dominican Raymund de Pennaforte
+gathered five books of Decretals at the command of Gregory IX;
+Boniface VIII was responsible for a sixth book in 1298, while other
+additions were made by Clement V (1308) and John XXII (1317). All
+these, together with the earlier compilations and some later
+additions, formed the _Corpus Juris Canonici_. This enormous body
+of law was full of contradictions and not devoid of falsification and
+forgery. The growing study of it caused the foundation of Chairs at
+the universities, and the Popes found it a most convenient method to
+publish their new decrees through the lecture-rooms. The old Canon Law
+was entirely superseded by the later Papal Law.
+
+[Sidenote: Power over Councils.]
+
+The Popes made no pretence of hiding their claims to the legislative
+power. Urban II strongly affirms that it has always been in the power
+of the Roman Pontiff to frame new laws; and two centuries later
+Boniface VIII embodies in his addition to the Canon Law the words of
+an earlier writer, that the Roman Pontiff is considered to hold all
+laws in the repository of his breast. There was no room in such a
+theory for any effective co-operation of ecclesiastical Councils,
+however representative. The _Dictatus Papae_ declares that no
+General Council can be held without the papal command. Pascal II
+points out that no Council can dictate the law of the Church, because
+every Council comes into existence and receives its power by authority
+of Rome, and in its statutes the authority of the Pope is clearly not
+interfered with. But the Popes often found it convenient to obtain the
+sanction of a General Council for their legislation, and the four
+Lateran Councils (1123, 1139, 1179, 1215) were the occasions for great
+and important additions to the Canon Law. But from the time of the
+third Lateran Council, at all events, all ordinances of a General
+Council were issued in the name of the Pope, although the approval or
+the fact of the Council was likewise expressed. Thomas Aquinas merely
+expresses the recognised law of the Church when he says that the Holy
+Fathers gathered together in Councils can make no laws except by the
+intervention of the authority of the Roman Pontiff, for without that
+authority a Council cannot even meet.
+
+[Sidenote: Popes above law.]
+
+It followed from this assumption of the supreme legislative power
+that, in the first place, the Pope himself claimed not to be bound by
+the laws which he made. Thus in the thirteenth century papal writers
+denied that the Roman Church could commit simony. Certain acts are
+simoniacal because they have been prohibited as such by Canon Law; but
+inasmuch as it is the Pope who had forbidden them, the prohibition
+does not bind him. And in virtue of this power, from the time of
+Innocent IV the Popes added to their bulls a _non obstante_
+clause whereby they suspended in a particular instance all laws or
+rights which might otherwise stand in the way of their grant.
+
+[Sidenote: Papal dispensation.]
+
+It followed, further, that the Pope claimed also the power of granting
+dispensations from existing laws and absolution for their
+infringement. Every papal bishop was armed with the power of granting
+pardon in God's name for breaches of the law which had already been
+committed. The Pope, however, claimed not only this power concurrently
+with all other bishops, but he even developed a right of granting
+dispensations beforehand, so that the tendency was to ignore the
+bishop of the diocese and to apply directly to the Pope or his
+representatives, who thus were willing to permit infractions of the
+law. Thomas Aquinas declares that any bishop can grant dispensation in
+the case of a promise about which there is any doubt; but that to the
+Pope alone, as having the care of the Church Universal, belongs the
+higher power of giving unconditional relaxation from an oath of
+perfectly clear meaning in the interests of the general good.
+
+But even papal writers sometimes complain of the irresponsibility of
+the papal acts, and Popes themselves had to allow that there were
+spheres outside their legislative interference. Thus Urban II
+acknowledges that in matters on which our Lord, His Apostles, and the
+Fathers have given definite decisions, the duty of the Pope is to
+confirm the law. Thomas Aquinas, while holding that the Pope can alter
+the decisions of the Fathers and even of the Apostles in so far as
+they come under the head of positive law, yet excepts from the
+possibility of papal interference all that concerns the law of nature,
+the Articles of Faith (which, he says elsewhere, have been determined
+by Councils), or the sacraments of the new law.
+
+[Sidenote: The Pope as supreme judge.]
+
+The third wide sphere of action within the Church in which the Pope
+established his supremacy was that of justice. The _Dictatus
+Papae_ asserts not only that the Pope should be judged by no one,
+but that the "greater causes" of every Church should be referred to
+him, that none should dare to condemn any one who appealed to Rome,
+and that no one except the Pope himself can interfere with a papal
+sentence. Litigants of all kinds were only too ready to appeal against
+the local tribunal, and the Pope gave them every encouragement. St.
+Bernard indignantly pointed out to Innocent II that every evil-doer
+and cantankerous person, whether lay or cleric or even from the
+monasteries, when he is worsted runs to Home and boasts on his return
+of the protection which he has obtained. It is true, Gregory VIII
+(1187) tried to check the practice of appeals; but his short reign
+gave no time for any real result. Bishops and archdeacons tried
+sometimes to stop appeals by excommunication, which prevented the
+victim from appearing in an ecclesiastical court; but the third
+Lateran Council (1179) forbade this method of defence. Alexander III
+definitely laid it down that appeals could be made to the Pope in the
+smallest no less than in the greatest matters, and at every possible
+stage, before and after trial, at the pronouncement of the sentence
+and after it has been awarded; and this, he points out, is not the
+case in civil law, where an appeal is only admitted after judgment.
+Indeed, the most serious matter with regard to papal appeals was the
+reservation by the Pope to his own decision of cases which were
+regarded as too serious for the local courts. The bishops had
+themselves largely to thank for the development of this direct papal
+jurisdiction; for they began the custom of referring to Rome the cases
+of great criminals and of serious crimes. But these "greater causes,"
+claimed for the Pope as early as the time of Gregory VII, included not
+only grave moral crimes such as murder, sacrilege, and gross
+immorality, but also cases of dispensation beforehand, of absolution
+after excommunication for certain offences. Under the same head would
+come the right of canonisation exercised by archbishops until
+Alexander III claimed it exclusively for the Pope, and the right of
+translating a bishop from one see to another, which involved a
+dissolution of the metaphorical marriage between the bishop and his
+see and therefore needed a special dispensation.
+
+[Sidenote: The papal Curia.]
+
+These extensive powers could only be put in practice by an elaborate
+machinery for their enforcement. In the first place the Pope was
+surrounded by a numerous body of officials to whom is applied from the
+middle of the eleventh century the title Curia. Gerhoh of
+Reichersberg, an ardent papal supporter writing about a century later,
+objects to the substitution for the word "Ecclesia" of this term
+"Curia," which would not be found in any old letters of the Roman
+pontiffs. The rapacity of the officials became a byword throughout
+Christendom. John of Salisbury told Hadrian IV, with whom he was on
+terms of intimacy, that many people said that the Roman Church, which
+is the mother of all the churches, shows herself to the others not so
+much a mother as a stepmother. "The Scribes and Pharisees sit in it,
+laying intolerable burdens on the shoulders of men, which they do not
+touch with a finger.... They render justice not so much for truth's
+sake as for a price.... The Roman pontiff himself becomes burdensome
+to all, and almost intolerable." Honorius III in 1226 acknowledged to
+the English bishops that this greed was a long-standing scandal and
+disgrace, but he ascribed it to the poverty of Rome, and proposed that
+in order to remove the difficulty two stalls should be given to him
+for nomination in every cathedral and collegiate chapter. The magnates
+considered the remedy, if possible, worse than the disease. The
+popular songs of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries contain many
+references to the fact that nothing was to be had at Rome except for
+money, and that success in a cause went to the richest suitor. And yet
+Rome had many sources of wealth. She drew regular revenues from
+estates which had been given to the papal see; from monasteries which
+were subject to visitation of papal officers alone; from kingdoms,
+such as England, whose kings had made themselves feudal vassals of the
+Pope. Several nations, moreover, paid special taxes, such as Peter's
+Pence, a kind of hearth tax, which went from England. The Papacy also
+exacted a number of dues on various pretexts which increased with the
+growth of papal power. Such were the Annates or Firstfruits and
+analogous payments, which amounted to the value of the first year's
+income, and were claimed from newly appointed bishops and abbots as an
+acknowledgment of the papal right of confirmation. Nor did
+Metropolitans get their pall, which was necessary for the exercise of
+their special authority, without the payment of considerable sums.
+Over and above these regular and occasional sources, the Popes exacted
+on especial occasions, such as the Crusades, a tax amounting to a
+tenth on all ecclesiastical property, and even allowed kings to take
+it with their leave. But these formed a small portion of the money
+which found its way to Rome. When the papal legate found fault with
+Ivo of Chartres because simony was still prevalent in his diocese, the
+bishop retorted that those who practised it excused their action from
+the example of Rome, where not even a pen and paper were to be had
+free. Dante addresses the shade of Pope Nicholas III in the
+_Inferno_ (xix.):--
+
+  "Your gods ye make of silver and of gold;
+  And wherein differ from idolaters,
+  Save that their God is one--yours manifold?"
+
+And he ascribes the evil which he is condemning to the so-called
+Donation of Constantine.
+
+[Sidenote: Papal Legates.]
+
+The most manifest agents and organs of papal authority throughout
+Christendom were the legates. The Pope had appointed permanent
+representatives called Apocrisiaries at Constantinople, and had sent
+emissaries to General Councils and for other special matters. But from
+the time of Leo IX legates began to be appointed with a general
+commission to visit the churches; and Gregory VII developed this
+method of interference with the local authorities into a regular
+system. In some cases local hostility was disarmed by the appointment
+of the Metropolitan as ordinary legate, and the position was accepted
+with the object of retaining the chief authority upon the spot. Such
+the Archbishop of Canterbury became after 1135. But the existence of
+this official did not prevent the despatch from time to time of
+legates _ŕ latere_, as they were called. The ordinary legate
+exercised the concurrent jurisdiction claimed by the Pope, that is,
+the right of interference in every diocese; these legates coming from
+the side of the Pope were armed with the power of exercising most of
+the rights specially reserved for the personal authority of the Pope.
+The _Dictatus Papae_ asserts that the Pope's legates take
+precedence of all bishops in a council even though they may be of
+inferior rank, and Gregory VII applies to their authority the text "He
+that heareth you heareth me." In 1125 John of Crema, a legate sent to
+England, presided at a Council at Westminster, where were present
+ecclesiastics from the archbishops downwards and a number of nobility;
+and "on Easterday he celebrated the office of the day in the mother
+church in place of the supreme pontiff, and although he was not a
+bishop, but merely a Cardinal Priest, he used pontifical insignia." A
+Metropolitan in his oath of loyalty to the Pope was made to swear that
+he would treat with all honour the Roman legates in their coming and
+going, and would help them in their needs; and the procuration or
+maintenance from all countries which they not only visited, but merely
+passed through, was arbitrarily assessed. Innocent III enforces it by
+directing against ecclesiastics who were contumacious a sentence of
+distraint of goods without any right of appeal. The burden was no
+light one. Wichmann, Archbishop of Magdeburg, writing on behalf of
+Frederick I, tells the Pope that the whole Church of the Empire is
+subject to such heavy exactions at the hands of the papal officials,
+that both churches and monasteries, which have not enough to supply
+their own daily wants, are yet compelled "beyond their utmost
+possibility" to find money for the use of these legates, sustenance
+for their train of attendants, and accommodation for their horses. In
+more picturesque language John of Salisbury describes the legates of
+the Apostolic See as "sometimes raging in the provinces as if Satan
+had gone forth from the presence of the Lord in order to scourge the
+Church." It is true that Alexander IV commanded an enquiry into the
+amount which his legates had demanded under pretext of procuration,
+and which he heard they had enforced by the sacrilegious use of the
+powers of excommunication, suspension, and interdict. But the parallel
+which Clement IV drew between the ordinary legates and the proconsuls
+and provincial presidents of the early Empire showed how little
+likelihood there was of redress being got from the Papacy itself.
+
+[Sidenote: Increase of papal ceremony.]
+
+The effect of this absorption of power by the Papacy is to be traced
+in many directions. Here we may take notice of two of the most
+remarkable. In the first place, he who had grown from the Vicar of St.
+Peter to be directly the Vicar of God naturally surrounded himself
+with an increasing amount of ceremony. The _Dictatus Papae_
+claims that the Pope alone can use imperial insignia, and that it is
+his feet alone that all princes should kiss. We have noticed the
+disputes which arose when the Pope demanded from Lothair and from
+Frederick I that the Emperor should perform the office of groom to the
+Pope--hold his stirrup as he mounted and walk by the side of the mule.
+St. Bernard rightly points out that in thus appearing in public
+adorned in jewels and silks, covered with gold, riding a white horse,
+and surrounded with guards, the Pope was the successor not of Peter,
+but of Constantine. And if he required so much state outside the
+Church, much more did he insist upon a special ceremony in the
+services. Thus at the Mass the Pope received the elements not kneeling
+at the altar, but seated and on his throne; while the Host was carried
+before him in procession whenever the Pope went outside his palace.
+
+[Sidenote: Papal infallibility.]
+
+A far more important result of the supreme position accorded to the
+Papacy was the gradual emergence of the doctrine of papal
+infallibility. "The Church of Rome," says Gregory VII, "through St.
+Peter, as it were by some privilege, is from the very beginnings of
+the faith reckoned by the Holy Fathers the Mother of all the Churches
+and will so be considered to the very end; for in her no heretic is
+discerned to have had the rule, and we believe that none such will
+ever be set over her according to the Lord's special promise. For the
+Lord Jesus says, 'I have prayed for thee that thy faith fail not.'"
+And in accordance with this principle the _Dictatus Papae_ lays
+it down that "the Roman Church has never erred, nor, as Scripture
+testifies, will it ever err." Innocent III pertinently asks how he
+could confirm others in the faith, which is recognised as a special
+duty of his office, unless he himself were firm in the faith. But many
+writers, including Innocent himself, believed that it was possible for
+a Pope to err in some individual point, and that it was the duty of
+the Church to convert him. Thomas Aquinas, while holding it certain
+that the judgment of the Church Universal cannot err in these matters
+which belong to the faith, gives to the Pope alone, as the authority
+by whom synods are summoned, the final determination of those things
+which are of faith. Yet even he allows that in matters of fact, such
+as questions of ownership and criminal charges, false witnesses may
+lead the judgment of the Church astray.
+
+[Sidenote: Kings and papal claims.]
+
+We have seen that the Papacy did not attain its supremacy without
+encountering much opposition. But the protests on the part of bishops
+were unavailing, and they were themselves largely to blame for the
+height to which the papal power had grown. Such effective remonstrance
+as there was came from the Kings, though even they were often ready to
+invoke the papal aid to obtain an advantage against their own
+ecclesiastics or even their own subjects. Thus in England William II
+agreed with Urban II that no legate should be sent to the country
+unless the King was willing to receive him; while Henry II, in the
+Constitutions of Clarendon, lays it down that no one should appeal to
+Rome without permission of the King. But Henry's submission after
+Becket's murder nullified the Constitutions, and John's humiliating
+surrender made it difficult to object to the exercise of any papal
+power in England. During the minority of Henry III the papal legate
+was the most important member of the Council of Regency; and at a
+later stage, when Henry had quarrelled with his barons, he was glad to
+obtain the papal support against them. In Germany Hadrian IV
+complained that Frederick I used force in order to prevent any of his
+subjects from carrying their causes to Rome; and Otto IV was obliged
+to swear in 1209 that no hindrance should be placed to ecclesiastical
+appeals to Rome, a promise subsequently exacted also from Frederick
+II and from Rudolf.
+
+Not dissimilar was the submission of Alfonso X of Castile, who set his
+seal to the papal encroachments; but his object was to obtain the
+support of Rome in his campaign against the local liberties in his
+kingdom. In his code of law known as "Siete Partidas" power was given
+to the Pope to deal as he liked with bishops and with benefices and to
+receive all appeals. On the other hand, St. Louis was not above a
+bargain with Rome. He refused to the Pope the tithes of the French
+Church for three years for the object of carrying on the war against
+Frederick II; but in 1267 he himself obtained the papal consent to
+take these tithes for the purpose of crusade.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+DOCTRINE AND DISCIPLINE OF THE CHURCH
+
+
+[Sidenote: Number of the Sacraments.]
+
+It was during the period covered by this volume that some of the most
+characteristic doctrines of the Roman Church were developed. In this
+development the whole sacramental system of the Church comes under
+consideration. The word "sacramentum" in the sense of a holy mark or
+sign (_sacrum signum_) was used with a very wide meaning as
+denoting anything "by which under the cover of corporeal things the
+divine wisdom secretly works salvation." Hugh of St. Victor, writing
+in the first half of the twelfth century, distinguishes three kinds of
+sacraments--those necessary for salvation, namely, baptism and the
+reception of the Body and Blood of Christ; those for sanctification,
+such as holy water, ashes, and such-like; and those instituted for the
+purpose of preparing the means of the necessary sacraments, that is,
+holy orders and the dedication of churches. Elsewhere he chooses out
+rather more definitely seven remedies against original or actual sin,
+namely, baptism, confirmation, eucharist, penance, extreme unction,
+marriage, and holy orders; and after the twelfth century the Church
+gradually restricted the use of the word Sacrament to these seven.
+There was much disputing among the schoolmen on the need of
+institution by Christ Himself. Peter Lombard, and after him
+Bonaventura, denied this necessity; Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas
+asserted it. But how account for extreme unction and confirmation?
+This is St. Thomas' explanation. "Some sacraments which are of greater
+difficulty for belief Christ himself made known; but others He
+reserved to be made known by the Apostles. For sacraments belong to
+the fundamentals of the law and so their institution belongs to the
+law-giver. Christ made known only such sacraments as He Himself could
+partake. But He could not receive either penance or extreme unction
+because he was sinless. The institution of a new sacrament belongs to
+the power of excellence which is competent for Christ alone: so that
+it must be said that Christ instituted such a sacrament as
+confirmation not by making it known, but by promising it."
+
+[Sidenote: The Eucharist.]
+
+Of these seven sacraments the one round which the whole doctrine and
+discipline of the Church increasingly centred was, of course, the
+Sacrament of the Lord's Supper or the Eucharist. The view generally
+held in the Church was that of St. Augustine, which finds a place in
+the homilies of Aelfric and in the controversial work of Ratramnus of
+Corbie (died 868). According to this view, Christ is present in the
+consecrated elements of the sacrament really but spiritually. "The
+body of Christ," says Ratramnus, "which died and rose again and has
+become immortal, does not now die: it is eternal and cannot suffer."
+But the tendency of the Middle Ages was to materialise all conceptions
+however spiritual; and Ratramnus had written to controvert Paschasius
+Radbertus, Abbot of New Corbie, who had applied these materialistic
+views to the Eucharist. "Although," he asserts, "the form of bread and
+wine may remain, yet after consecration it is nothing else but the
+flesh and blood of Christ, none other than the flesh which was born of
+Mary and suffered on the cross and rose from the sepulchre." During
+the two succeeding centuries this theory of the corporeal presence
+gained so much vogue in the Church that when Berengar of Tours taught
+in the cathedral school of his native city the doctrine of Ratramnus,
+he was condemned unheard at a Synod at Rome in 1050. But he gained the
+favour of Hildebrand, who was then at Tours in 1054 as papal legate,
+and was content with the admission "panem atque vinum altaris post
+consecrationem esse corpus et sanguis Christi"; and relying on his
+protection Berengar went to Rome (1059). Here, however, his opponents
+forced him to sign a confession in conformity with the materialistic
+view. His repudiation of this as soon as he got away from Rome began a
+long controversy, the champion on the materialistic side being
+Lanfranc, then a monk of Bee in Normandy, to whom Berengar had
+originally addressed himself. Lanfranc held the position that the
+consecrated elements are "ineffably, incomprehensibly, wonderfully by
+the operation of power from on high, turned into the essence of the
+Lord's Body." In 1075 the matter was discussed at the Synod of
+Poictiers, and Berengar was in danger of his life. Again Pope Gregory,
+as he had now become, tried to stand his friend, and at a Synod at
+Rome in 1078 to get from Berengar a confession of faith in general
+terms. But the violence of Berengar's enemies made compromise or
+ambiguity impossible. Again Berengar repudiated the forced confession;
+and Gregory only obtained peace for him until his death in 1088, by
+threatening with anathema any who molested him. Berengar's objections
+to the doctrine of Paschasius were shared by all the mystics, who held
+a more spiritual belief. Thus, St. Bernard distinguishes between the
+visible sign and the invisible grace which God attaches to the sign;
+and Rupert of Deutz declares that for him who has no faith there is
+nothing of the sacrifice, nothing except the visible form of the bread
+and wine.
+
+[Sidenote: Transubstantiation.]
+
+But apart from these writers the trend of opinion and inclination told
+entirely in favour of the materialistic school of thought. To the
+ordinary folk the miraculous aspect of the doctrine was a positive
+recommendation to acceptance. And the word Transubstantiation, even
+though it did not necessarily imply a materialistic change,
+undoubtedly became associated in men's minds with that idea. As early
+as the middle of the ninth century Haimo of Halberstadt had said that
+the substance of the bread and wine (that is, the nature of bread and
+wine) is changed substantially into another substance (that is, into
+flesh and blood). But the word "transubstantiate" is used first by
+Stephen, Bishop of Autun (1113-29), who explains "This is My Body" as
+"The bread which I have received I have transubstantiated into My
+Body." Sanction was first given for the use of the word in the Lateran
+Council of 1215. In the confession of faith drawn up by that Council
+it is asserted that "there is one Universal Church of the Faithful,
+outside of which no one at all has salvation: in which Jesus Himself
+is at once priest and sacrifice, whose Body and Blood are truly
+received in the sacrament of the altar under the form of bread and
+wine, the bread being transubstantiated by the divine power into the
+Body and the wine into the Blood, in order that for the accomplishment
+of the mystery of the unity we may receive of His what He has received
+of ours. And this as being a sacrament no one can perform except a
+priest who shall have been duly ordained according to the Keys of the
+Church, which Jesus Christ Himself granted to the Apostles and their
+successors."
+
+[Sidenote: Resulting Changes.]
+
+This "mystery of the unity" became, on the one side, the subject of a
+long and intricate controversy on the method by which the change in
+the elements was effected, while on the other side it lent itself to
+much mystical meditation. Of neither of these is there space to give
+illustration; but the hymn of St. Thomas Aquinas, which is familiar to
+English readers under the form of "Now, my tongue, the mystery
+telling," blends the two sides with astonishing success. It is a
+mistake to describe the view of the sacrament thus sanctioned by the
+Church as either more "advanced" or "higher" than the older view. It
+was merely more elaborate, and as being such it led on to certain
+definite results or changes in custom.
+
+Thus, in the first place, hitherto children had partaken of the
+sacrament. This had come partly from the teaching of the need of the
+sacrament for salvation, partly from the early custom of administering
+communion directly after baptism. The fear of profanation now caused
+the gradual discontinuance of children's communions, and in the middle
+of the thirteenth century they were definitely forbidden.
+
+[Sidenote: Refusal of cup to laity.]
+
+A far more important change, and for a similar reason, was the refusal
+of the cup to the laity. St. Anselm is responsible for the dictum
+(afterwards accepted by the whole Church) that "Christ is consumed
+entire in either element"; from this came the inference that there was
+no need for the administration of both. The heaviness of a single
+chalice made the danger of spilling its contents so great that several
+chalices were used. This, however, only increased the chances, and
+various methods were adopted with a view to minimising the difficulty.
+Sometimes a reed was used; later on, bread dipped in wine was
+administered, as was already usual in the case of sick persons or
+children; or even unconsecrated wine was given. Some of these methods
+came under papal condemnation; and the withdrawal of the cup found
+powerful apologists in Alexander of Hales and Thomas Aquinas. But the
+administration of both elements continued to be fairly common until
+far on into the thirteenth century.
+
+[Sidenote: Adoration of the sacrament.]
+
+A third result of the new views is to be seen in the extension of the
+doctrine and practice of adoration of the sacrament. The rite of
+elevation existed in the Greek Church at least as early as the seventh
+century, but was not adopted by the Latins until four centuries later.
+In either case, however, it was only regarded as an act symbolical of
+the exaltation of Christ. But following on the sanction of the
+doctrine of transubstantiation by the Lateran Council, Honorius III in
+1217 decreed that "every priest should frequently instruct his people
+that when in the celebration of the Mass the saving Host is elevated
+every one should bend reverently, doing the same thing when the priest
+carries it to the sick." A logical outcome of this was the foundation
+of the festival of Corpus Christi for the special celebration of the
+sacramental mystery. This was first introduced in the bishopric of
+Ličge in response to the vision of a certain nun. Urban IV, who had
+been a canon of Ličge, adopted it for the whole Church in 1264, but it
+only became general after Clement V had incorporated Urban's ordinance
+as part of the Canon Law in the Clementines (1311).
+
+While there was a growing elaboration of the sacramental rite, the
+laity in many parts of Europe came from slackness less frequently to
+receive communion. As early as Bede, in England, though not in Rome,
+communions were very infrequent. English and French Synods tried to
+insist on communion three times a year, but could not enforce the
+rule. Innocent III, in the fourth Lateran Council, with a view to
+compel confession, prescribes once a year. "Every one of the
+faithful," runs the canon of the Council, "of either sex, after he has
+come to years of discretion, is to confess faithfully by himself all
+his sins at least once a year to his own priest, and is to be careful
+to fulfil according to his power the penance enjoined on him,
+receiving with reverence the sacrament of the Eucharist at least at
+Easter."
+
+Finally, the discussion of this theory of transubstantiation led to
+the development of a special view of the doctrine of the Eucharistic
+Sacrifice. Peter Lombard and Thomas Aquinas call the sacrament a
+representation of the sacrifice of Christ upon the cross. But to
+Albertus Magnus it is not merely a Representation, but a True
+Sacrifice, that is, "an Oblation of the thing offered by the hands of
+the priests," and St. Thomas elsewhere declares that the perfection of
+the sacrament consists not in its use by the faithful, but in the
+consecration of the element, that is to say, that the main point was
+the act of the priest. The prevalence of this view appears to have
+encouraged the idea in the laity that a mere attendance at the service
+was in itself so meritorious as almost to dispense with the need of
+communion, except once a year and on the death-bed. Similarly, private
+Masses for the dead were instituted, chantry chapels were founded for
+the celebration of them, and priests were appointed for the sole
+purpose of serving the altar of the chapel.
+
+[Sidenote: Confession.]
+
+Nor was the development of this sacramental system the only method by
+which the importance of the priesthood became enhanced. The whole
+penitential system of the Church was gradually perverted. Originally
+those convicted of open sin who submitted to penance were publicly
+readmitted to the Church after confessing their sin and making some
+form of atonement. People were encouraged to confess their sins to
+their bishop or priest even when their sins were not open and
+notorious. This was especially enjoined in the case of mortal sin. But
+it was for a long time a matter of discussion whether this confession
+to a priest was an indispensable preliminary to forgiveness. Peter
+Lombard marks another view. God alone remits or retains sins, but to
+the priests he assigns the power, not of forgiveness, but of declaring
+men to be bound or loosed from their sins. He adds that even though
+sinners have been forgiven by God, yet they must be loosed by the
+priest's judgment in the face of the Church. In this ambiguous
+position of the priest laymen were even entrusted with the power of
+hearing a confession if no priest was available. But in the twelfth
+century, as we have seen, confession was often reckoned among the
+sacraments; and at the Lateran Council Innocent III enjoined an annual
+confession to the parish priest. Before long the precatory form of
+absolution is replaced by the indicative form by which the priest
+declared the sinner absolved. Thomas Aquinas lays it down that "the
+grace which is given in the sacraments descends from the head to the
+members: and so he alone is minister of the sacraments in which grace
+is given who has a true ministry over Christ's body; and this belongs
+to the priest alone who can consecrate the Eucharist. And so when
+grace is conferred in the sacrament of penance, the priest alone is
+the minister of this sacrament; and so to him alone is to be made the
+sacramental confession which ought to be made to a minister of the
+Church." There was no room here for confession to laymen, although
+Thomas himself allows that in cases of necessity such confession has a
+kind of sacramental character which would be supplemented by Christ
+Himself as the high priest.
+
+[Sidenote: Indulgences.]
+
+The increasing stress laid upon private confession not only led to the
+decay of the public procedure, but also brought about some dangerous
+developments in the penitential system of the Church. This had already
+become very largely a matter of fixed pecuniary compensations for
+moral offences; so that the new system of compulsory confession was
+able to recommend itself to the people through the adaptation of the
+old mechanical standards by the confessors to each individual case.
+Far more important was the extension given to the system of
+indulgences. These had their origin in the remission of part of an
+imposed penance on condition of attendance at particular churches on
+certain anniversaries, it being understood that the penitent would
+present offerings to the Church. Abailard complains that on ceremonial
+occasions when large offerings are expected, bishops issue such
+indulgences for a third or fourth part of the penance as if they had
+done it out of love instead of from the utmost greed. And they boast
+of it, claiming that it is done by the power of St. Peter and the
+Apostles, when it is God who said to them "Whosesoever sins ye remit,"
+etc. Thus all bishops took it upon themselves to issue indulgences for
+the furtherance of particular objects. But in its claim to subordinate
+the episcopal power to its own, the Papacy began to grant indulgences
+which were not limited to time or circumstance. Gregory VI in 1044
+made promises to all who helped in the restoration of Roman churches;
+but Gregory VII promised absolution to all who fought for Rudolf of
+Suabia against Henry IV; while Urban II in the widest manner offered
+plenary indulgence, that is, remission of all penances imposed, in the
+case of any who would take part in the Crusade. This offer in whole or
+in part was constantly renewed in order to raise an army for the East.
+
+[Sidenote: Effect on populace.]
+
+It was of course presupposed by those in authority in the cases of
+these indulgences that, confession having been made, the temporal
+penalties to be undergone either here or in purgatory were thus
+remitted. But preachers in their eagerness to raise troops asserted
+that those guilty of the foulest crimes obtained pardon from the
+moment when they assumed the cross, and were assured of salvation in
+the event of death. Consequently the people in their ignorance
+overlooked the conditions attached and regarded these indulgences as
+promises of eternal pardon. It is not wonderful that men released from
+social restraints of a more or less stable society should have
+developed in their new abode the licence which made crusaders a byword
+in the West.
+
+[Sidenote: Papal indulgences.]
+
+So far the Popes had endeavoured to supersede the bishops in the issue
+of indulgences by entering into rivalry with them. But the power was
+used by the bishops in such detailed ways as perhaps seriously to
+interfere with the offerings which should reach the Papacy or be
+applied to important projects. Innocent III, therefore, at the great
+Lateran Council limited the episcopal power to the grant of an
+indulgence for one year at the consecration of a church and for forty
+days at the anniversary. Unfortunately this did not mean the
+suppression of trifling reasons for the multiplication of indulgence.
+The whole system was a convenient method of adding to the revenues of
+Rome, and no occasion seemed too small for the exercise of the papal
+power of dispensation. Urban IV granted an indulgence to all who
+should listen to the same sermon as the King of France. The Crusades
+were the great occasion and excuse for the development of this system,
+and it certainly reached its nadir when Gregory IX showed himself
+ready in return for a pecuniary penance to absolve men from the vows
+which they had perhaps been unwillingly forced to take by his own
+agents for going on crusade. Equally disgraceful was the establishment
+of the year of Jubilee in 1300 by Boniface VIII, when plenary
+indulgence of the most comprehensive kind was offered to all who
+within the year should in the proper spirit visit the tombs of St.
+Peter and St. Paul at Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: Treasury of merits.]
+
+But how came the Pope to be in possession of this power of remitting
+the penalties for sin? The schoolmen of the thirteenth century supply
+the answer. Alexander of Hales and Albert the Great invented the
+theory and Thomas Aquinas completed it. According to their teaching,
+the saints, by their works of penance and by their unmerited
+sufferings patiently borne, have done in this world more than was
+necessary for their own salvation. These superabundant merits,
+together with those of Christ, which are infinite, are far more than
+enough to fulfil all the penalties due for their evil deeds from the
+living. The idea of unity in the mystical body enables the
+shortcomings of one man to be atoned for by the merits of another. The
+superabundant merits of the saints are a treasury for use by the whole
+Church, and are distributed by the head of the Church, that is, the
+Pope. Furthermore, to St. Thomas is due the idea that the contents of
+this treasury were equally available for the benefit of souls in
+purgatory, for whom the Church was already accustomed to make
+intercession.
+
+[Sidenote: Canonisation of saints.]
+
+It was to our Lord Himself that the theologians attributed all merit;
+but in the popular mind the merits of the saints took an ever more
+important place, since the Church seemed to make the priesthood a
+barrier against, rather than a channel for, the flow of God's mercy to
+man; but popular feeling sought to find intercessors before the throne
+of grace in the holy men and women of the faith. For a long time it
+was the bishops who decided the title to saintship. But in 993 Pope
+John XV, in a Council at Rome and in response to a request of the
+Bishop of Augsburg, ordered that a former bishop of that see should be
+venerated as a saint. This was the process afterwards called
+Canonisation, which involved the insertion of a name in the Canon or
+list, and gave it currency not merely in a single diocese, but
+throughout western Christendom. In 1170 Alexander III claimed such
+recognition as the exclusive right of Rome. But despite this
+assumption of authority, popular feeling very often dictated to the
+Pope whom he should admit into the list. Death followed by miracles at
+the tomb, and sometimes the building of an elaborate shrine with an
+altar, forced the Pope to grant the claims of a popular favourite.
+
+[Sidenote: Miracles and relics.]
+
+A rapid increase in the number of applications for such official
+recognition would be the result of any widely popular movement. Such
+was the effect of the Crusades in the twelfth century, and of the
+foundation of the Mendicant Orders in the thirteenth. And the
+multiplication of saints meant an increase in the number of relics and
+an ever-growing belief in the miraculous. Miracles frequently took
+place in connection with living persons of saintly life. Abailard
+scornfully pointed out that some of the attempts made by Norbert or
+Bernard to work miraculous cures were quite unsuccessful, while in
+successful cases medicine as well as prayers had been employed. But
+such rationalism was beyond the grasp of an ignorant age, and
+collections of stories of miracles, such as remain to us in the
+"Golden Legends" of Jacob de Voragine, a Dominican of the thirteenth
+century, fed the popular belief. Miracles so commemorated often
+occurred in connection with relics; and the traffic in relics and so
+styled "pious" frauds, not to say the forcible means used to procure
+reputed relics of authentic or supposititious saints, forms a curious
+if a discreditable feature in medićval history. An occasional protest
+was uttered against the manner in which credit was often obtained for
+relics of more than doubtful authenticity; but the manufacture of them
+was easy and profitable, and pilgrims returning from Palestine could
+palm off anything upon the credulity of a willing and ignorant
+populace. The growth of a legend in connection with relics is fitly
+illustrated by the history of the eleven thousand Virgins of Köln.
+Martyrologies of the ninth century celebrate the martyrdom of eleven
+virgins in the city of Köln. Perhaps these were described as XI. M.
+Virgines, and the letter which denoted martyrs was mistaken for the
+Roman numeral for one thousand, and so the number of virgins was
+ultimately swollen to eleven thousand. A legend, possibly working on
+an old one, was invented by a writer of the twelfth century that these
+virgins were martyred by the Huns in the fifth century. In the middle
+of that century, when heresy was rife at Köln, a number of bones of
+persons of both sexes were found near Köln, and the authenticity of
+the relics was put beyond dispute by the revelations vouchsafed to
+Saint Elizabeth, Abbess of Schönau, to whom the matter was referred.
+Even though she did give a date for the event which was historically
+impossible, the confirmatory evidence of the Premonstratensian Abbot
+Richard nearly thirty years later put the matter beyond the doubt of
+any pious Christian. But the interest of these unsavoury remains of
+anonymous men and women, however saintly, pales before certain relics
+of our Lord's life on earth which gained currency. Of these the most
+famous were the Veronica, a cloth on which Christ, on His way to
+Calvary, was supposed to have left the impress of His face, and a
+vessel of a green colour which was identified with the holy grail, the
+cup which our Lord used at the Last Supper. Of garments purporting to
+be the seamless coat of Christ there were a considerable number shown
+in different places; but the most famous to this day remains the Holy
+Coat of Treves, which, in Dr. Robertson's caustic words, "the Empress
+Helena (the mother of Constantine) was said to have presented to an
+imaginary archbishop of her pretended birthplace, Treves." During the
+First Crusade the army before Antioch was only spurred on to the
+efforts which resulted in the capture of the city, by the opportune
+discovery of the Holy Lance with which the Roman soldier had pierced
+Christ's side while He hung upon the cross.
+
+[Sidenote: Adoration of the Virgin.]
+
+The great increase in the whole intercessory machinery of the Church
+culminated in the adoration of the Virgin Mary. The extravagant
+expression of this devotion was widespread. For the many it found vent
+in the language of popular hymns. Among the monks the Cistercians were
+under her special protection, and all their churches were dedicated to
+her. Of the learned men Peter Damiani in the eleventh century, St.
+Bernard and St. Bonaventura in the two succeeding centuries
+respectively, especially helped in various ways to crystallise her
+position in the Church. As a result of the efforts of her devotees
+Saturdays and the vigils of all feast days came to be kept in her
+honour; the salutation "_Ave Maria gratia plena_" with certain
+additions was prescribed to be taught to the people, together with the
+Lord's Prayer and the Creed. In the thirteenth century its frequent
+repetition resulted in the invention of the Rosary, a string of beads
+by which the number of repetitions could be counted. The religion of
+Mary soon showed signs of development as a parallel religion to that
+of Christ. She is styled the Queen of Heaven; her office, composed by
+Peter Damiani, was ordered by Urban II to be recited on Saturday; and
+a Marian Psalter and a Marian Bible were actually composed; while in
+place of the _didia_ or reverence offered to the saints, there
+was claimed for the Virgin a higher step, a _hyperdulia_, which
+St. Thomas places between _dulia_ and the latria or adoration
+paid to Christ.
+
+[Sidenote: The immaculate conception.]
+
+A final stage in possible developments was reached in the twelfth
+century in the institution of a feast in honour of the conception of
+the Blessed Virgin. Hitherto it had been supposed by Christian
+writers, notably by St. Anselm, that the Mother of the Lord had been
+conceived as others. Towards the middle of the twelfth century some
+Canons of Lyons evolved the theory that she was conceived already
+sinless in her mother's womb. St. Bernard strenuously opposed this
+notion of her immaculate conception, pointing out that the supposition
+involved in the theory could not logically stop with the Virgin
+herself, but must be applied to her parents and so to each of their
+ancestors in turn in an endless series. Nor was St. Bernard alone in
+his objection: indeed, nearly all the chief theologians of the
+thirteenth century, including Thomas Aquinas, declared that there was
+no warrant of Scripture for the theory. But notwithstanding this
+criticism, the festival won its way to recognition. Those who kept it,
+however, declared that it was merely the conception which they
+celebrated; and St. Thomas interpreting this to denote the
+sanctification, was of opinion that such a celebration was not to be
+entirely reprobated. It was Duns Scotus who first among the schoolmen
+defended the theory of the immaculate conception, but in moderate
+language; and his Franciscan followers, who at a General Council of
+the Order in 1263 had admitted the festival among some other new
+occasions to be observed, in the course of the fourteenth century
+adopted it as a distinctive doctrine.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+HERESIES
+
+
+[Sidenote: Cause of heresy.]
+
+It was not until the thirteenth century that the Church had to face
+that spirit of scepticism or anti-religious feeling which is the chief
+bug-bear of modern Christianity. Her elaborate organisation and the
+gradual development of her own dogmatic position enabled her to deal
+with individual writers of a speculative turn like Berengar or
+Abailard. Nor were these in any sense anti-Christian. But they were
+the inciters to heresy; and a real danger to the Church lay in the
+filtering down of intellectual speculations to ignorant classes, by
+whom they would be transformed into weapons against the fundamental
+doctrines of the Christian faith. Indeed, from the eleventh century
+onward the Church was constantly threatened by heresy of a popular
+kind, which tended to develop into schism. And for this she had to
+thank not only the growing materialisation of her doctrine, but even
+more the worldly life of her ministers. Unpalatable doctrines may
+commend themselves by the pure lives which profess to be founded on
+them; but evil doing carries no persuasion to others.
+
+[Sidenote: Two kinds of heretics.]
+
+It is a real difficulty that our sources of information of all the
+heretics of these centuries are chiefly the writings of their
+successful opponents--the defenders of the orthodox faith. But much
+information remains to us from the admissions of her supporters as to
+the depraved condition of the Church at this period; so that we need
+not believe the allegations or their opponents that a chief inducement
+to join heretical sects lay in the greater scope for the indulgence of
+sin. Charges of immorality against opponents were the stock-in-trade
+of the controversialist, while the greatest authorities in the Church
+allow that heresy lived upon the scandals and negligences of the
+Church. Moreover, based as they were upon opposition to the existing
+organisation, the doctrines of the various sects had much in common.
+The Church did not distinguish between them, but excommunicated them
+all alike. If, however, we would understand the developments of
+opinion in the succeeding centuries, it is important to discriminate;
+and a clear distinction can be made between those opponents of the
+Church whose views were aimed against the development of an extreme
+sacerdotalism within the Church, and those who, going beyond this
+negative position, reproduced the Manichćan theories of an early age
+and threatened to raise a rival organisation to that of the Christian
+Church.
+
+[Sidenote: Anti-sacerdotalists.]
+
+The object which those who belonged to the first of these divisions
+set before themselves, was to get behind the elaborate organisation
+which the Church had built up and which, instead of being a help to
+lead man to God, had now become a hindrance by which the knowledge of
+God was actually obscured. They would therefore sweep away all this
+machinery and return to the Christianity of apostolic times. Their
+objection was primarily moral, but it soon became doctrinal; and among
+the heretics of this class there was revived the Donatist theory that
+the sacraments depend for their efficacy on the moral condition of
+those who administer them. The campaign of the Church reformers
+against clerical marriage seemed directly to support this view; but
+the canons which forbade any one to be present at a Mass performed by
+a married priest had to be explained away as a mere enforcement of
+discipline; and in 1230 Gregory IX definitely laid it down that the
+suspension of a priest living in mortal sin merely affects him as an
+individual and does not invalidate his office as regards others. But
+such declarations did nothing to meet the common feeling of the great
+incompatibility between the awful powers with which the Church clothed
+her ministers and the sinful lives led by a large proportion of the
+existing clerical body.
+
+[Sidenote: Extreme examples.]
+
+From an early period in the twelfth century sectaries of this class
+are found in several quarters. Two extreme instances are Tanchelm, who
+preached in the Netherlands between 1115 and 1124, and Eon de
+l'Etoile, who gathered round him a band of desperate characters in
+Brittany about 1148. They have been described as "two frantic
+enthusiasts," and Eon was almost certainly insane. Eon was imprisoned
+and his band dispersed. But Tanchelm found a large following when he
+taught that the hierarchy was null and that tithes should not be paid.
+He came to an untimely end; but the influence of his doctrines
+continued so strong in Antwerp that St. Norbert came to the help of
+the local clergy and succeeded in obliterating all traces of the
+heresy.
+
+[Sidenote: Petrobrusians and Henricians.]
+
+It was in the south of France that this and all heresy assumed a more
+formidable shape. The population was very mixed; the feudal tie,
+whether to France, England, or the Emperor, was slight; there was more
+culture and luxury, the clergy were more careless of their duties,
+while Jews had greater privileges, than anywhere else in Europe.
+Moreover, the early teachers were men of education. Two such were
+Peter de Bruis (1106-26), a priest, and Henry of Lausanne (1116-48),
+an ex-monk of Cluny. Peter was burnt and Henry probably died in
+prison. Peter preached in the land known later as Dauphiné; and the
+views of the Petrobrusians, as his followers were called, so continued
+to spread after his death that Peter the Venerable, the Abbot of
+Cluny, thought it worth while to write a tract in refutation of them.
+Henry was more formidable. He preached over all the south of France,
+was condemned as a heretic at the Council of Pisa (1134), but was
+released and resumed his preaching. As the bishops could not and the
+lay nobles would not do anything against him, the papal legate
+obtained the help of St. Bernard, who, although ill, preached at Albi
+and elsewhere with an effect which was much enhanced by the miracles
+which in popular belief accompanied his efforts. Henry declined a
+debate to which Bernard challenged him, and so became discredited, and
+shortly after he fell into the hands of his enemies.
+
+The tract of Peter the Venerable is practically the sole authority for
+the tenets of the Petrobrusians. According to this they were frankly
+anti-sacerdotal. Infant baptism was held to be useless, since it was
+performed with vicarious promises. Churches were useless, for the
+Church of God consists of the congregation of the faithful; the Cross,
+as being the instrument of Christ's torture, was a symbol to be
+destroyed rather than invoked; there was no real presence and no
+sacrifice in the Mass, for Christ's body was made and given once for
+all at the Last Supper; all offerings and prayers for the dead were
+useless, since each man would be judged on his own merits. Henry with
+his followers practically adopted these views and added attempts at
+social reform on Christian lines, especially in the matter of
+marriage, persuading courtesans to abandon their vicious life and
+promoting their union to some of his adherents.
+
+[Sidenote: Waldenses.]
+
+By far the most important body of these anti-sacerdotal heretics were
+the Waldenses. Their founder was Peter Waldo, whose name takes many
+forms--Waldez, Waldus, Waldensis. He was a wealthy merchant of Lyons
+who, moved with religious feelings and himself ignorant, caused two
+priests to translate into the vernacular Romance the New Testament and
+a collection of extracts from the chief writers of the early Church
+known as Sentences. From a perusal of these he became convinced that
+the way to spiritual perfection lay through poverty. He divested
+himself of his wealth and, as a way of carrying out the gospel
+further, he began to preach (1170-80). He attracted men and women of
+the poorer classes, whom he used as missionaries; and the neglect of
+the pulpit by the clergy caused these lay preachers to find ready
+listeners in the streets and even in the churches of Lyons. According
+to the custom of the day they adopted a special dress; and the sandals
+(_sabol_) which they wore in imitation of the Apostles gave them
+the name of Insabbatati. They called themselves the Poor Men of
+Lyons--Pauperes de Lugduno; Li Poure de Lyod. The Archbishop of Lyons
+excommunicated them; but Alexander III, at the request of Peter,
+allowed them to preach with permission of the priests. Their disregard
+of this proviso caused their excommunication by the Pope in 1184 and
+again in 1190; and from this time they began to repudiate the Church
+which limited their freedom, and to set up conventicles and an
+organisation of their own. The date of Peter's death is not known.
+
+[Sidenote: Their Views.]
+
+The strong missionary spirit of these sectaries spread their doctrines
+with extraordinary rapidity. They consisted almost entirely of poor
+folk scattered over an area extending from Aragon to Bohemia; and from
+place to place differences of organisation and doctrine are to be
+observed. But they were not Protestants in the modern sense, and,
+despite persecution, many continued to consider themselves members of
+the Church. Thus on such doctrinal points as the Real Presence,
+purgatory, the invocation of saints, in many places they long
+continued to believe in them with their own explanations, and their
+repudiation of the teaching of the Church was a matter of gradual
+accomplishment. It is true that in places they strove to set up their
+own organisation. But the tendency of the Waldenses was much rather
+towards a simplification of the existing organisation. The power of
+binding and loosing was entirely rejected: an apostolic life and not
+ordination was the entrance to the priesthood. In fact, a layman was
+qualified to perform all the priestly functions, not merely to baptise
+and to preach, but even to hear confession and to consecrate the
+Eucharist. Thus the whole penitential machinery of the Church was set
+aside. Their specially religious teaching was largely ethical, and by
+the testimony of their enemies their life and conduct were singularly
+pure and simple. The stories of abominable practices among them
+perhaps arose from the extreme asceticism of a sect which professed
+voluntary poverty; but they were no more true than the similar tales
+told of the early Christians. Nor shall we regard from the same point
+of view as the Churchmen of the day the charge brought against them on
+the ground of their intimate knowledge of the Scriptures. Of these
+they had their own vernacular translations, and large portions of them
+were committed to memory. But such translations spread broadcast views
+unfettered by the traditional interpretation of the Church, and the
+missionary zeal of the Waldenses was proof against the horrors of the
+Inquisition with its prison, torture-chamber, and stake.
+
+[Sidenote: Cathari.]
+
+The most formidable development of hostility to the Church came from
+the Manichćism of those who bore at various times and in different
+places the names of Cathari, Patarius, or Albigenses. The attraction
+of the Manichćan theory lay in its apparent explanation of the problem
+of evil. There exist side by side in the world a good principle and an
+evil principle. The latter is identifiable with matter and is the work
+of Satan. Hence sin consists in care for the material creation. It
+follows that all action tending to the reproduction of animal life is
+to be avoided, so that marriage was strongly discouraged. To the
+earlier views was added the doctrine of metempsychosis, or the
+transmigration of souls, which, acting as a means of reward and
+retribution, seemed fully to account for man's sufferings. These views
+together explain the avoidance as food by the Cathari of everything
+which was the result of animal propagation, and also the severity of
+the ascetic practices which were charged against them.
+
+[Sidenote: Their doctrines.]
+
+In the sphere of doctrine the division between the Cathari and the
+Catholic Church was absolute. According to these sectaries Satan is
+the Jehovah of the Old Testament: hence all Scriptures before the
+Gospels are rejected. They accepted the New Testament, but regarded
+Christ as a phantasm and not a man. Thus the doctrine of the Real
+Presence had no meaning for them, indeed, they rejected the sacraments
+and all external and material manifestations of religion. Here, of
+course, they had much in common with the Waldenses, whom the Church
+confounded with them; and there seems little doubt that the way for
+the preaching of Catharism in the south of France was paved by the
+previous work of Peter de Bruis and, even more, of Henry of Lausanne.
+But the reasons for opposition to the Church were not the same among
+the Waldenses and the Cathari; and the latter soon parted company with
+the seekers after primitive Christianity by developing an organisation
+of their own. Thus as the Cathari grew in numbers and carried on a
+vigorous missionary work, their devotees tended to form themselves
+into a Church. At least two distinct Orders were recognised. The
+Perfected were a kind of spiritual aristocracy who renounced all
+property and were sworn to celibacy, while they submitted themselves
+to penances of such rigour that their lives were often endangered, if
+not shortened. Below them were the mass of believers who were allowed
+to marry and to live in the world, assimilating themselves so far as
+possible to the ideal set before them by the higher caste. From the
+Perfected were chosen officers with the names of bishop and deacon,
+the latter acting as assistants to the chief officers. The ritual was
+simple but definite, and the most characteristic ceremony was the
+Consolamentum, the baptism of the Holy Ghost, by which the believers
+were placed in communion with the Perfected and so became absolved
+from all sin. It was performed by the imposition of hands together
+with the blessing and kiss of peace given by any two of the Perfected.
+This was the process of "heretication," the name given by the
+Inquisitors to admission into the Catharist Church; and, except in the
+case of the ministers, it was postponed until the believer lay upon
+his death-bed.
+
+[Sidenote: Their effect.]
+
+The charges of evil practices against the Cathari were perhaps no
+truer than similar accusations against the Waldenses, and their
+missionary zeal was proof against even death at the stake.
+Nevertheless there is no doubt that the cause of progress and
+civilisation lay with Catholicism rather than with its opponents. The
+asceticism of the Cathari would have resulted, if not in the
+extinction of the race, at least in the destruction of the family:
+their identification of matter with the work of Satan would have been
+a bar to attempts at material improvement. Moreover, if ever theirs
+had become the conquering faith, they would have developed a
+sacerdotal class as privileged as the Catholic priesthood. The
+movement has been aptly described as "not a revolt against the Church,
+but a renunciation of man's dominion over nature."
+
+[Sidenote: Their origin and spread.]
+
+Whether the Catharist movement was spread westwards by the Paulicians
+who in the tenth century were transplanted from Armenia to Thrace, or
+sprang spontaneously from teachers who saw in the dualistic philosophy
+a condemnation, if not an explanation, of the materialisation of
+Christianity by the Church, may not be very certain; but there is no
+doubt that the Cathari of Western Europe always looked to the eastern
+side of the Adriatic as to the headquarters of their faith. In the
+eleventh century we hear of Cathari in certain places in North Italy,
+in France, and even in Germany; but although in Italy the name of
+Patarins came to be applied to the sect, we need trace no connection
+in the popular rising at Milan, which was stirred up by the Church
+reformers against the simony and clerical marriage practised by the
+Church of St. Ambrose. In the twelfth century the movement is heard of
+in an increasing number of places, in certain parts of France
+including Brittany, in Flanders among all classes, in the Rhine lands.
+Milan was supposed to be the headquarters in Italy. In England thirty
+persons of humble birth, probably from Flanders, were condemned in
+1166, and an article was inserted in the Assize of Clarendon against
+them.
+
+[Sidenote: Albigenses.]
+
+But it was in the south of France that the Cathari, no less than the
+Waldenses, were chiefly to be found; with this difference,
+however--that, whereas the Waldenses confined themselves chiefly to
+Provence and the valley of the Rhone, the Cathari were scattered over
+a much larger area, although their chief strength lay in the valley of
+the Garonne. The town of Albi gave them their name of Albigenses, and
+Toulouse was the chief centre of their influence. In 1119 Calixtus II
+condemned the heresy at its centre in Toulouse. In 1139, at the second
+Lateran Council, Innocent II called upon the secular power for the
+first time to assist in expelling from the Church those who professed
+heretical opinions. In 1163 Alexander III, at the great Council of
+Tours, demanded that secular princes should imprison them. But the
+futility of these measures appeared from the colloquy held in 1165 at
+Lombers, near Albi, between representatives of the Church and of the
+Albigenses before mutually chosen judges, for it made plain the
+boldness of the heretics and their claim of equality with the Church.
+Indeed, in 1167 they actually held a council of their own at St. Felix
+de Caraman, near Toulouse, at which the chief Bishop of the Catharists
+was brought from Constantinople to preside, while a number of bishops
+were appointed, and all the business transacted was that of an equal
+and rival organisation to the Church of Rome.
+
+[Sidenote: Attempts at suppression.]
+
+During the next ten years (1167-77), while the religious allegiance of
+Europe was divided by the schism in the Papacy, Catharism gained a
+great hold over all classes in Languedoc and Gascony. Raymond V of
+Toulouse, the sovereign of Languedoc, finding himself powerless to
+check it, appealed for help; but the Kings of France and England
+agreed to a joint expedition only to abandon it, and the papal mission
+sent in 1178, composed of the papal legate, several bishops, and the
+Abbot of Clairvaux, only made heroes of the few heretics whom they
+ventured to excommunicate. In 1179, at the third Lateran Council,
+Alexander III proclaimed a crusade against all enemies of the Church,
+among whom were included, for the first time, professing Christians.
+The Abbot of Clairvaux, as papal legate, raised a force and reduced to
+submission Roger, Viscount of Béziers, who openly protected heretics;
+but the crusading army melted away at the end of the time of
+enlistment, and the only result of the expedition was the exasperation
+produced by the devastation of the land. After this failure no real
+attempt was made to stop the spread of heresy until the accession of
+Innocent III, while the fall of Jerusalem in 1186 turned all crusading
+ardour in the direction of Palestine.
+
+[Sidenote: Raymond VI of Toulouse.]
+
+Meanwhile, in 1194 Raymond V had been succeeded by his son, Raymond
+VI, who, if he was not actually a heretic, was at least indifferent to
+the interests of the Catholic faith. Most of his barons favoured
+Catharism. He himself was surrounded by a gay and cultured court, and
+was popular with his subjects. At the same time the local clergy
+neglected their duties, the barons plundered the Church, and the
+heretics, without persecuting the Catholics, were gradually
+extinguishing them in the dominions of Toulouse. Immediately on his
+accession in 1198 Innocent III appointed commissioners to visit the
+heretical district; but the local bishop, from jealousy, would not
+help. Some effect, however, was produced when, acting on the
+suggestion of a Spanish prelate, Diego de Azevedo, Bishop of Osma,
+they dismissed their retinues and started on a preaching tour among
+the people. The Bishop was accompanied by the Canon Dominic, and this
+mission was the germ out of which shortly grew the great Dominican
+Order. But the Bishop went back to Spain, and twice the papal legate
+excommunicated Raymond VI because he would give no help. Once Raymond
+made his peace with the Church, but the second pronouncement against
+him was shortly followed by the murder of the legate Peter of
+Castelnau, who had made himself peculiarly obnoxious (1208). Raymond's
+complicity was never proved, but Innocent was getting impatient, and
+his commissioners had made up their minds that it was easier and
+quicker to exterminate the heretics than to convert them. Raymond and
+all concerned in the murder were excommunicated, and a crusade was
+proclaimed against them. Philip Augustus of France allowed his barons
+to go, but excused himself on the ground of his relations with John of
+England. Raymond hoped to avoid the threatening storm by another
+abject submission; but he was obliged to surrender his chief
+fortresses and to join in person the army which now assembled for the
+extirpation of heresy in his own lands.
+
+[Sidenote: The Crusade.]
+
+Although Raymond was thus forced to appear in the ranks of his
+enemies, a leader in resistance was found in his nephew, Raymond
+Roger, Viscount of Béziers (1209). But his capital Béziers was stormed
+by the crusading army under the legate, who, when asked how the
+soldiers could distinguish Catholics from heretics, is said to have
+replied, "Slay them all: God will know His own." Then Carcassonne,
+deemed impregnable, was besieged, and the young Viscount, decoyed into
+the enemies' camp under pretence of negotiation, was kept a prisoner.
+He died, and the city was surrendered. The conquered territory was
+practically forced by the legate on Simon de Montfort, younger son of
+the Count of Evreux, who, through his mother, was also Earl of
+Leicester.
+
+[Sidenote: Simon de Montfort.]
+
+In 1211 the crusaders attacked Count Raymond's territories. He had
+never yet been tried for the murder of the legate, of which he was
+accused; and already Philip of France had warned the Pope that in any
+question of Raymond's forfeiture, it was for the French King as
+suzerain and not for the Pope to proclaim it. By a visit to Rome
+Raymond hoped that he had gained permission to purge himself from the
+impending charges; but at the last moment this was pronounced
+impossible, because in having failed to clear his lands of heresy, as
+he had promised to do, he was forsworn. In a war of sieges De
+Montfort's skill took from Raymond everything except Toulouse and
+Montauban. Raymond's brother-in-law, Pedro II of Aragon, now
+intervened; but when Innocent III, misled by his legates, refused a
+further offer of purgation on the part of Raymond, Pedro formally
+declared war against De Montfort. He invaded and laid siege to Muret;
+but his forces were defeated and he was killed (1213). So far Innocent
+III had avoided the recognition of De Montfort's conquests in
+Toulouse. But early in 1215 he ratified the act of the Council of
+Montpellier which had elected Simon de Montfort as lord of the whole
+conquered land. Raymond, although he had never yet been tried, was
+declared deposed for heresy; and the fourth Lateran Council, while
+confirming this decision, left a small portion of the territory still
+unconquered, for his son. It seems likely that Innocent would have
+been willing to deal fairly with the Count of Toulouse; but by this
+time there were too many interested in the ruin of the House of
+Toulouse, and the Pope was deliberately misled by his legates. Hence
+it came that a judgment which might, as it was expected that it would,
+have righted a great wrong, proved only a signal for revolt. Raymond
+and his son were welcomed back by an united people, and finally in
+1218 Simon de Montfort was killed while besieging Toulouse.
+
+[Sidenote: A war of aggression.]
+
+De Montfort's son could make no headway against a people in arms. But
+in 1222 Raymond VI and Philip of France vainly tried to promote a
+peaceful settlement between Amaury de Montfort and Raymond VII.
+Amaury, despairing of success, offered his claims to the French King,
+and in 1223 Philip's successor, Louis VIII, overpersuaded by the Pope,
+accepted them. The young Count Raymond vainly endeavoured to ward off
+the threatened invasion and showed every desire to be reconciled with
+the Church. There was scarcely any longer a pretence of religious war.
+From the first it had been largely a war of races, promoted by
+northern jealousy at the wealth and civilisation of the south and by a
+desire for the completion of the Frank conquest of Gaul. Thus from the
+beginning of hostilities the whole population of the south, Catholic
+as well as heretic, had stood together in resistance to the crusading
+army, and despite his tergiversations Raymond VI had never lost their
+affection and support. The war lasted for three years (1226-9); Louis
+VIII led an expedition southwards, which for some inexplicable reason
+turned back before it had achieved complete success; and after his
+death the Queen-Regent, Blanche of Castile, with the encouragement of
+Pope Gregory IX, came to terms with Raymond VII. By the Treaty of
+Meaux (1229) Count Raymond agreed to hunt down all heretics, to assume
+the cross as a penance, to give up at once about two-thirds of his
+lands, while the remainder was to go to his daughter, who was to be
+married to a French prince, with the ultimate reversion to the French
+Crown. In 1237 Jeanne of Toulouse was married to Alfonso, brother of
+Louis IX; in 1249, on the death of Raymond VII, they succeeded to his
+dominions, and on their death in 1271 without children Philip III
+annexed all their possessions to the dominions of the French Crown.
+
+[Sidenote: Punishment for heresy.]
+
+The question of the acquisition of territory was thus shown to be far
+more important than the suppression of heresy. But a university was
+established at Toulouse for the teaching of true philosophy, and the
+Inquisition was set up under the Dominicans for the suppression of
+false doctrine. The time had definitely gone by when the Church would
+rely upon methods of persuasion in dealing with heretics. And yet for
+a long time there was much hesitation among Churchmen. Even as late as
+1145 St. Bernard pleads for reasoning rather than coercion. And the
+application of methods of coercion was equally tentative. At first the
+obstinate heretic was imprisoned or exiled and his property was
+confiscated. But the practice of burning a heretic alive was long the
+custom before it was adopted anywhere as positive law. Pedro II of
+Aragon, the champion of Raymond VI, first definitely legalised it
+(1197). In 1238 by the Edict of Cremona this became the recognised law
+of the Empire, and was afterwards embodied in the Sachsenspiegel and
+Schwabenspiegel, the municipal codes of Northern and Southern Germany
+respectively. The Etablissements of Louis IX (1270) recognised the
+practice for France. It is a tribute to English orthodoxy that the Act
+"de haeretico comburendo" was not passed until 1401.
+
+[Sidenote: The secular arm.]
+
+Early usage forbade the clergy to be concerned in judgments involving
+death or mutilation. This finds expression in the Constitutions of
+Clarendon (1164); and the fourth Lateran Council (1215) definitely
+forbade clerks to utter a judgment of blood or to be present at an
+execution. Thus the Church merely found a man a heretic and called
+upon the secular authority to punish him. It was impressed upon all
+secular potentates from highest to lowest that it was their business
+to obey the behests of the Church in the extirpation of heresy.
+Indeed, it may almost be said that the validity of this command of the
+Church was the principal point at issue in the Albigensian crusade;
+for Raymond's lands were declared forfeit merely because he would not
+take an active part in the punishment of his heretical subjects. Thus
+by the thirteenth century all hesitation as to the attitude of the
+Church towards heretics had entirely disappeared. As Innocent III lays
+it down, "faith is not to be kept with him who keeps not faith with
+God," and Councils of this century declared that any temporal ruler
+who did not persecute heresy must be regarded as an accomplice and so
+as himself a heretic.
+
+We cannot apply modern standards to the mediaeval feelings about
+heresy. The noblest and most saintly among clergy and laity alike were
+often the fiercest persecutors. Church and State were closely
+intermingled; heresy was a crime as well as a sin; the heretic was a
+rebel; mild measures only made him bolder; and in fear of the
+overthrow of the whole social system the rulers of State and Church
+combined to crush him.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE MENDICANT ORDERS
+
+
+[Sidenote: Need for new kinds of Orders.]
+
+At the Lateran Council in 1215 Innocent III issued a decree which
+practically forbade the foundation of new monastic Orders. The
+increase of such Orders in the name of religious reform had not always
+tended to the promotion of orthodoxy. Moreover, the monastic ideal was
+the spiritual perfection of the individual, to be gained by separation
+from the world; but the growth of large urban populations with the
+accompanying disease and misery called for a new kind of dedication to
+religion. There was strength in membership of an Order, and during the
+twelfth century there were founded alongside of the newer monastic
+Orders organisations devoted to social work of various kinds. Such was
+the origin of the Hospitallers and perhaps of the Templars also, and
+of a number of small Orders, most of them merely local in their work
+and following, which were founded all over Western Europe for care of
+the sick and pilgrims and for other charitable work.
+
+A point that demanded even more immediate attention was the almost
+total neglect of preaching by the parochial clergy and the consequent
+success of the Waldensian and other heretical preachers. There were
+isolated examples of missionary devotion among the clergy. Fulk of
+Neuilly, a priest, obtained a licence from Innocent III to preach, and
+met with marvellous success among the Cathari until he was turned
+aside by Innocent's exhortation to preach a new crusade. But he died
+before it set out (1202). Duran de Huesca, a Catalan, conceived the
+idea of fighting the heretics with their own weapons, and founded the
+Pauperes Catholici as an Order professing poverty and engaged in
+missionary work. But the outbreak of the Albigensian War superseded
+the work of the Order by more summary methods of dealing with
+heretics.
+
+[Sidenote: Dominicans.]
+
+But these Poor Catholics were the precursors, if not the actual model
+of the Preaching Friars of St. Dominic. The founder was a Spaniard,
+who had studied long in the University of Palencia, and had become
+sub-prior of the cathedral of Osma. He accompanied his bishop to Rome,
+and thence on a mission among the Albigenses. He wandered as a
+mendicant through the most heretical districts of Languedoc for three
+years (1205-8) before the outbreak of war, holding religious
+discussions with leading heretics. But amid the clash of arms his
+activity took a different shape. Communities had been founded among
+the Albigenses for the reception of the daughters of dead or ruined
+nobles. For the protection of such and of any others of the gentle sex
+who returned to Catholicism, Dominic founded the monastery of Prouille
+(1206). This was established on the lines of houses in other Orders;
+and although he led a life of extreme asceticism, he did not at first
+contemplate imposing a rule of collective poverty upon his Order.
+Indeed, he received for the use of Prouille gifts of all kinds in land
+and movables, and even increased the possessions by purchase. Towards
+the end of the war Dominic established a brotherhood which should
+devote itself to preaching with a view to refuting heretics. In 1215
+he appeared at the Lateran Council, in order to obtain the papal
+approbation of this new Order. Innocent III, while taking under his
+protection the monastery of Prouille, desired Dominic to choose an
+already existing rule for his new community. The Dominican legend
+depicts Innocent as converted to the recognition of the Order by a
+dream, in which he saw the Lateran Church tottering and upheld by the
+support of the Spanish saint. But Innocent died before Dominic had
+decided with his followers that they would place themselves under the
+rule of the Augustinian Canons; and it was from Honorius III that the
+Friars Preachers obtained the confirmation of their Order. A parallel
+story is told of the papal approval of the Franciscans; but there is
+no proof that St. Francis was present at the Council, nor is it likely
+that in the face of the decree against the foundation of new Orders
+the sanction of the Pope should have been given to his rule. But the
+meeting of the two great founders at Rome in 1216 is an historical
+event of great importance; for the example of the Franciscans caused
+the adoption of the life of poverty by the Dominicans also.
+
+[Sidenote: Their spread.]
+
+Immediately after the papal confirmation the Order began its work. The
+first followers of Dominic included natives of Spain, England,
+Normandy, and Lorraine, and the Friars Preachers are soon found in
+every country of Western and Central Europe. The nature of the work to
+which they set themselves made them from the beginning a congregation
+of intellectual men. Honorius III conferred on Dominic himself the
+Mastership of the Sacred Palace, which gave to him, and even more to
+those who succeeded him in the headship of the Order, not merely the
+religious instruction of the households of popes and cardinals, but
+also the censorship of books. Paris, the headquarters of the
+scholastic theology, and Bologna, the great law school of the Middle
+Ages, became at once the chief seats of training. The Dominicans
+spread so rapidly that at the death of their founder in 1221 they
+possessed sixty houses, which had just been divided into eight
+provinces. To these four were subsequently added. The death of
+Dominic, like his life, has been almost overwhelmed in the miraculous;
+but for whatever reason, it was not until thirteen years after his
+death that he was enrolled among the recognised saints of the Church,
+although the honour of canonisation had been paid to St. Francis eight
+years earlier and within two years of his death.
+
+[Sidenote: Popularity of the friars.]
+
+Jealousy between the conventual and the parochial clergy had been of
+long standing: it had been based upon the exemption of monks from the
+jurisdiction of the local Church. The monks had, however, been
+definitely warned off themselves taking part in parochial work. But
+the friars began with a missionary purpose; and in 1227 Gregory IX,
+who as Cardinal Ugolino had been Protector of the Franciscans,
+conferred on both Orders the right not only of preaching, but also of
+hearing confessions and granting absolution everywhere. The rules of
+the Orders forbade them to preach in a church without the leave of the
+parish priest; but they ignored this prohibition, set up their own
+altars, at which a papal privilege allowed them to celebrate Mass, and
+not only superseded the lazy secular clergy in all the work of the
+cure of souls, but deprived them of the fees which were a chief source
+of their income. The secular clergy bitterly resented the presence of
+the intruders; but the Pope favoured the friars and heaped privileges
+upon them, since they formed an international body easy to mobilise
+for use against the hierarchy, and able to be used for transmitting
+and executing papal orders. The people also welcomed them, because, at
+first at any rate, they worked for their daily bread, and were
+prevented by their vow of poverty from seeking endowments: while the
+peripatetic character of his life made the friar popular as a
+confessor who could know nothing about his penitents.
+
+[Sidenote: Dominicans and University of Paris.]
+
+The characteristic work of the Dominicans as preachers and teachers
+rather determined the particular form which the struggle should assume
+between them and the seculars. The University of Paris welcomed the
+Dominicans on their first arrival; the new-comers soon fixed
+themselves in the Hospital of St. Jacques (the site of the Jacobin
+Club of 1789), on University ground, and many members of the
+University became affiliated to their Order. In 1229 the privileges of
+the University were violated by the municipality, and, since the Crown
+would give no redress, the whole body of masters and students
+dispersed themselves among different provincial towns. In 1231 a bull
+of Gregory IX confirmed their privileges and brought them back to
+Paris. But during their absence the Dominicans, with the approval of
+the Bishop, admitted scholars to their house of St. Jacques and
+appointed their own teachers; while several of the most famous secular
+teachers took the Dominican habit. Thus after 1231 there were in the
+University several theological chairs occupied by Mendicants. The
+prosperity and aggressiveness of the friars, and political and
+doctrinal differences between them and the seculars, caused great
+tension. Not without reason the seculars complained that they were
+likely to be deprived of all the theological teaching. Matters came to
+an issue in 1253, when, on the murder of a scholar by the municipal
+officers, the University in accordance with its privileges proclaimed
+a cessation or suspension of the classes. In this act the Mendicants
+refused to join without the papal sanction. The University attempted
+to expel them from the teaching body, and under the leadership of
+William of St. Amour it so far prevailed at Rome that Innocent IV, for
+whatever reason, issued the "terrible" bull _Etsi Animarum_, by
+which the Mendicants were deprived at one blow of all the privileges
+which had given them the power of interfering in parochial life. But
+in the legend of the Order Innocent was prayed to death by the
+revengeful friars. Anyhow, his death (1254) saved the situation, since
+his successor, Alexander IV, declared unreservedly for them. The
+University was forced to receive them, and to acknowledge their rights
+of preaching and hearing confessions. On the other hand, it was
+arranged under Urban IV that the number of theological chairs to be
+held by Mendicant teachers, whose representatives at the moment were
+Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura, should be limited to three. But the
+war against the Mendicants continued, and the bullying to which the
+University was subjected, especially by Benedict Gaetani, the papal
+legate, in 1290, accounts perhaps for the support given by the
+University to Philip IV in his quarrel with Boniface VIII, and for the
+political action of the University at a later date.
+
+[Sidenote: Friars and Inquisition.]
+
+The spread of heresy and the feeble attempts of the bishops to use the
+machinery at their disposal for dealing with it, caused the gradual
+growth of the system known as the Papal Inquisition. This was
+feasible, partly because the civil government, led by Frederick II,
+were enacting severe laws against heresy, but chiefly because in the
+new Mendicant Orders there were now to be found men of sufficient
+knowledge and training to cope with the difficulty of unmasking
+heresy. But it is a mistake to suppose that the inquisitorial work was
+a perquisite of the Dominicans. Both Orders alike were employed by the
+Papacy in the unsavoury duty, although ultimately the Dominicans took
+the larger share. For the service of the wretched, to which the
+Franciscans primarily devoted themselves, soon necessitated a study of
+medicine in order to cope with disease and a study of theology in
+order to deal with heresy. If as a body they never came to represent
+learning like the Dominicans, the names of Bonaventura, Roger Bacon,
+and Duns Scotus sufficiently prove that there was no necessary
+antagonism between learning and the Franciscan ideal.
+
+[Sidenote: St. Francis.]
+
+The modern and the Protestant world apparently finds the life of St.
+Francis as interesting and wonderful as his contemporaries found it.
+It seems no exaggeration to say that "no human creature since Christ
+has more fully incarnated the ideal of Christianity" than he. Even the
+extravagances of himself and some of his followers, scarcely
+exaggerated by the mass of legends which has grown up around him and
+the Order, cannot conceal the real beauty of his life; while they bear
+eloquent witness not only to the impression which he made on his own
+and succeeding generations, but also to the fact of his attempt to
+realise the standard set up by Christ for human imitation. His
+devotion to the wretched and the outcast, especially the lepers; his
+deep humility; his childlike faith and absolute obedience, were the
+outcome of a desire to attain to the simplicity of Christ and the
+Apostles. But the essence of his system lay in the idealisation of
+poverty as good in itself and the best of all good things. Poverty
+was, indeed, the "corner-stone on which he founded the Order." But
+this did not imply sadness, which St. Francis considered one of the
+most potent weapons of the devil. Sociability, cheerfulness,
+hopefulness were characteristics of himself and of the Order in its
+early days. Here it is impossible to tell the fascinating story of his
+own life, to describe his own graphic preaching, or to illustrate his
+instinctive sympathy with animal life. But it must be noted that his
+passionate love for Christ the Sufferer caused him to desire to
+reproduce in detail the last hours of the Saviour's life on earth,
+until the ecstasies may have ended in producing those physical marks
+of the crucifixion upon the body known as the Stigmata. The evidence
+is conflicting and not above suspicion, and the Dominicans always
+treated the claim with ridicule. Certainly the Franciscan Order
+exalted their founder with an extravagance which ultimately (1385)
+ended in the production of a Book of Conformities, some forty in
+number, in which, by implication, the simple friar becomes a second if
+not a rival Christ.
+
+It was in 1210 that Francis and the Brotherhood of Penitents which he
+had founded at Assisi appeared in Rome, and obtained from Innocent III
+a verbal confirmation of their rule and authority to preach. This rule
+seems to have comprised nothing more than certain passages of
+Scripture enjoining a life of poverty. The first disciples of Francis
+were drawn from a variety of social classes, and a revelation from God
+is said to have decided him and his little company to abandon their
+first notion of a contemplative life in favour of one of active
+service along evangelical lines. The missionary work began at once,
+and they wandered in couples through Italy, finding their way quickly
+into France, England, Germany, and all other European lands.
+
+[Sidenote: Franciscan Rule.]
+
+The future organisation of the Order was determined by a definitive
+Rule sanctioned by Honorius III in 1223. Francis refused to alter any
+of the clauses at the Pope's request, asserting that the Rule was not
+his, but Christ's; whence it became a tradition of the Order that the
+Rule had been divinely inspired. It was strictly enjoined that the
+brethren should possess no property, should receive no money even
+through a third person, and that all who were able to labour should do
+so in return not for money, but for necessaries for themselves and
+their brethren. And as if these plain directions were not enough, St.
+Francis in his will enjoins that the words of the Rule are to be
+understood "simply and absolutely, without gloss," and to be observed
+to the end.
+
+[Sidenote: Organization]
+
+The organisation aimed at being non-monastic; the houses, which should
+be mere headquarters of the simplest kind, were placed under guardians
+who had neither the title nor the powers of the monastic abbot, and
+were grouped into provinces; while the provincial ministers were
+responsible to the General Minister stationed at Assisi, who was
+himself chosen by the General Chapter of the provincials and guardians
+called every three years, and could also be deposed by them. A
+Cardinal watched the interests of the Order at Rome. The rapid spread
+of the Franciscans is shown from the fact that the first General
+Chapter in 1221 is said to have been attended by several thousand
+members, while in 1260, when Bonaventura as General reorganised the
+arrangements, a division was made into 33 provinces and 3 vicariates
+which included in all 182 guardianships. England, for example,
+comprised 7 guardianships with 49 houses and 1242 friars.
+
+The Order included other branches than the fully professed friars.
+Some time before 1216 a sisterhood was added in the Order of St.
+Claire under a noble maiden of Assisi, who put herself under the
+guidance of Francis and received from Pope Innocent for herself and
+her sisters the "privilege of poverty." They observed the Franciscan
+Rule in all its strictness, and their founder was canonised in 1255,
+two years after her death.
+
+[Sidenote: Tertiaries.]
+
+A very distinctive feature of the Franciscans is the organisation
+officially known as the Brothers and Sisters of Penitence, but more
+popularly described as the Tertiaries of the Order. The affiliation of
+laymen and women to religious Orders was no new thing. But the laity
+of both sexes who attached themselves by bonds of brotherhood and in
+associations for prayer to the great monasteries were mostly well-born
+and wealthy, prospective if not actual patrons. The Franciscan
+Tertiaries were as democratic as the Order itself. The papal sanction
+was given in 1221. The members were required to live the ordinary
+daily life in the world under certain restrictions. In addition to the
+obligations of religion and morality, they were required to dress
+simply and to avoid certain ways of amusement, while they were
+forbidden to carry weapons except for the defence of their Church and
+their land. The Dominicans possessed a similar organisation under the
+name of _Militia Jesu Christi_, the Soldiery of Christ. In the
+case of both Orders this close contact with the laity irrespective of
+class was a source of great strength and influence. Many, from royal
+personages downwards, enrolled themselves among the Tertiaries or
+hoped to assure an entrance to heaven by assuming the garb of a friar
+upon the death-bed.
+
+[Sidenote: Friars as missionaries to the heathen.]
+
+Since both Orders were founded with a missionary purpose, it is not
+surprising to find that at a very early date they extended their
+efforts beyond Europe. No real distinction of sphere can be profitably
+made; but perhaps the Dominican work lay chiefly among heretics, while
+the Franciscans devoted the greater attention to the heathen.
+Certainly St. Francis himself did not deal with heretics as such. He
+did, however, try to convert the Mohammedans and became for a while a
+prisoner in the hands of the Sultan of Egypt. Both Orders established
+houses in Palestine and both Orders were employed in embassies to the
+Mongols. The Dominicans brought back the Jacobite Church of the East
+into communion with Rome, while the Franciscans won King Haiton of
+Armenia, who entered their Order. Stories of martyrdom were frequent.
+At any rate, the friars were among the most enterprising of mediaeval
+travellers, and were the first to bring large portions of the Eastern
+world into contact with the West.
+
+[Sidenote: Change from original principle.]
+
+The story of the Dominican Order in the thirteenth century is one of
+continual progress. It was devoted to poverty no less than its
+companion Order. But circumstances soon showed that this was a
+principle which in its strictness made too great a demand upon human
+nature. Relaxation of the Rules was obtained from more than one pope;
+the popularity of the Orders brought them great wealth, and land and
+other property was held by municipalities and other third parties for
+the use of the friars. Their houses and their churches became as
+magnificent as those of the monks. But while this grave departure from
+the original ideal gave rise to no qualms among the more worldly and
+accommodating Dominicans, it rent asunder the whole Franciscan Order
+in a quarrel which forms perhaps the most interesting and important
+episode in the religious history of the Middle Ages.
+
+[Sidenote: Development of extreme views among Franciscans.]
+
+The conflict began at once after St. Francis' death. His successor as
+General of the Order, Elias of Cortona, desired to supersede the
+democratic constitution of the Order in favour of a despotic rule, and
+obtained from Gregory IX a relaxation of the strict rule of poverty:
+while he raised over the remains of the founder at Assisi a
+magnificent church which the saint would have repudiated. The bitter
+complaints of the Franciscans who wished to observe the Rule in the
+spirit of their founder obliged the Pope to depose Elias, who took
+refuge at the Court of Frederick II. But the tendency towards
+relaxation continued and was favoured by the Papacy. For the
+Spirituals--those who clung to the strict Rule and regarded it as a
+direct revelation to St. Francis--by the severity of their practices
+tended to isolate themselves from the life around them and so to
+escape the discipline of the Church. In addition to this they became
+involved in heresy by identifying themselves with the prophecies
+attached to the name of Joachim de Flore. He was the Abbot of a
+Calabrian monastery, who founded an Order at the end of the twelfth
+century. He depicted the history of mankind as composed of three
+periods--the first under the dispensation of the Father ending at the
+birth of Christ; the second under the Son, which by various
+calculations he determined would end in 1260; and the third ruled by
+the Holy Ghost, in which the Eucharist, which had itself superseded
+the paschal lamb, should give way to some new means of grace. Joachim
+also foretold the rise of a new monastic order which should convert
+the world, and this the Franciscans concluded to mean themselves.
+Curiously enough, the Church did not condemn Joachim for his
+prophecies: popes even encouraged him to write. In 1254 there appeared
+in Paris a book entitled the _Introduction to the Everlasting
+Gospel_, a name taken from a passage of the Revelation (xiv. 6). We
+know it only from the denunciations of its enemies; but it was
+apparently intended to consist of three undoubted works of Joachim
+with explanatory glosses and an introduction. These were the work of
+Friar Gerard of Borgo-san-Donnino, who is represented as having gone
+beyond the views of the Calabrian prophet. He asserted that about the
+year 1200 the spirit of life had left the Old and New Testaments in
+order to pass into the Everlasting Gospel, and that this new
+scripture, of which the text was composed of Joachim's three books,
+was a new revelation which did not, as Joachim held, contain the
+mystical interpretation of the Bible, but actually replaced and
+effaced the Law of Christ as that had effaced the Law of Moses. It is
+impossible to tell how far the author represented the views of all the
+Spirituals. A share in the composition was ascribed to the Franciscan
+General John of Parma (1248-57), who represented the purest Franciscan
+tradition, and was chiefly responsible for the more extravagant forms
+of the Franciscan legend. He was a gentle mystic, and his belief in
+the prophetical utterances of the age probably did not go beyond the
+actual works of Joachim. But his sympathy encouraged the extreme
+Joachites, who manufactured and passed from hand to hand a large
+number of spurious prophetical writings which were attributed to
+Joachim.
+
+[Sidenote: Popular manifestations.]
+
+Moreover, the extravagances of the Spirituals were no isolated
+outburst of religious liberty. In 1251 there appeared in France an
+elderly preacher, known as the Hungarian, who, professing a revelation
+from the Virgin Mary and preaching a social revolution, led a band of
+peasants and rioters through country, until the leader was killed in a
+scuffle and his followers were dispersed. In 1260 Italy was startled
+by processions of persons of all classes and ages, stripped to the
+waist, who flogged themselves at intervals in penance for their sins.
+These movements of the Pasteauroux and the Flagellants were merely the
+best known among many which bore witness to the restlessness and
+yearning of the age.
+
+[Sidenote: Papal action and its effect.]
+
+But despite the manifest danger of these movements the Papacy acted
+with great caution. In 1255 a tribunal of three Cardinals at Anagni
+investigated the charges against Gerard's book. Joachim's orthodoxy
+remained unquestioned the _Everlasting Gospel_ was condemned, but
+the Bishop of Paris was told not to annoy the Franciscans. The most
+important result was that John of Parma was deposed by the General
+Chapter acting under the influence of the Conventual Franciscans, who
+welcomed the relaxations of the severe Rule. For their new head was
+Bonaventura, himself a mystic; but the fact that he had taken the
+place of their beau ideal, that he distrusted the rule of absolute
+poverty as tending to weaken the social worth of the Franciscan body,
+and that he was a recognised leader in the Church--all increased the
+alienation of the Spirituals from the Church and suggested to their
+minds the idea of schism.
+
+[Sidenote: Chances of separation.]
+
+On the other hand, the Conventuals met the austere intolerance of the
+extreme party by persecution. The most interesting victim of this
+religious rancour was Peter John, the son of Olive, a French friar,
+whose works were condemned more than once, although he died quietly in
+1298. He allowed to the Franciscans only the sustenance necessary for
+daily life and the furniture for the celebration of divine service. In
+his view the Roman Church was Babylon, and the Rule of St. Francis was
+the law of the Gospel. For those who held such views there was no
+place in the Roman Church. The Spirituals began to seek relief in a
+return to the eremitic life. But the sudden elevation of a hermit of
+South Italy to the Papacy in the person of Celestine V seemed to
+present to these dreamers the chance of the accomplishment of the new
+Gospel. His hopeless failure and abdication turned their thoughts more
+than ever to separation from the Church. Celestine, who had gathered
+some of the extreme Franciscans into a community of his own, is said
+to have released them from obedience to the Franciscan Order. In any
+case, Boniface VIII not only secured the ex-Pope, but also attempted
+to exterminate his followers. So far the question at issue had been a
+disciplinary question which concerned the Franciscan Order--whether
+for the Order absolute poverty was of the essence of the Rule. The
+time was at hand when the question would assume a doctrinal form, and
+the Church at large would be called upon to decide whether absolute
+poverty was an article of the Christian faith.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE CHURCH AND THE HEATHEN
+
+
+[Sidenote: Hungary and Poland.]
+
+From the time of Otto I it was the policy of the German Kings to
+Germanise and Christianise the nations on their eastern border, as a
+preparatory step to including them in the Empire. Otto had exacted
+homage from the rulers of Hungary, Poland, and Bohemia, but under his
+successors they broke away; and although, meanwhile, Christianity was
+accepted by the rulers in all three countries, Hungary and Poland both
+established their independence politically of the German King, and
+ecclesiastically of the German Metropolitan of Mainz or Magdeburg.
+Henry III reasserted the political influence in Germany; but it was to
+the interest of the Pope to encourage the independent attitude of the
+Churches in Hungary and Poland so long as they recognised the Roman
+supremacy. But even politically Gregory VII told Solomon, King of
+Hungary (1074), that his kingdom "belongs to the holy Roman Church,
+having been formerly offered by King Stephen to St. Peter, together
+with every right and power belonging to him, and devoutly handed
+over." A similar claim, of which the basis was much more doubtful, was
+made to Poland.
+
+[Sidenote: Bohemia.]
+
+The Czechs in Bohemia were less fortunate. Boleslas Chrobry, i.e. the
+Brave, of Poland (992-1025), had aspired to rule over an united
+kingdom of the Northern Slavs, but had to be content with the
+independence of his own Polish kingdom. Bretislas of Bohemia (1037-55)
+had a similar ambition; but he could not shake off the German yoke,
+and his bishopric of Prague remained a suffragan of the Metropolitan
+of Mainz.
+
+[Sidenote: Adalbert of Bremen.]
+
+North of Bohemia, in the country lying between the Baltic, the Elbe,
+and the Oder, Otto had established a series of marks or border-lands
+in which he had built towns, introduced German colonists, and founded
+bishoprics which he had grouped round a new Metropolitan at Magdeburg.
+Here for nearly a century and a half the House of Billung did much to
+keep under the surging tide of paganism. It was the ambitions of
+Adalbert, Archbishop of Bremen (1043-72), which for a time caused a
+serious heathen reaction in this quarter. He was the rival of Hanno of
+Koln for influence at the Court during Henry IV's minority. As the
+most northern German Metropolitan he aspired to set up a patriarchate
+in Northern Europe. He met with considerable success in Scandinavia.
+
+[Sidenote: Scandinavia.]
+
+The Christianisation of Denmark had been completed under Cnut, who
+also ruled over England (1014-35). Norway was also being rapidly
+converted; but the forcible methods of King Olaf, who afterwards
+became the patron saint of his country, roused discontent. Cnut added
+Norway to his dominions, and was anxious to make his realm
+ecclesiastically independent. He established three bishoprics in
+Denmark, but did not get his own metropolitan, and his empire fell
+asunder at his death. Adalbert made a close alliance with Swein of
+Denmark, and thus kept the Danish Church dependent. Harold Hardrada
+struggled against Adalbert's attempts to assert his power in Norway.
+Sweden had accepted Christianity under Olaf Stotkonung, i.e. the
+Lap-King, who died in 1024. But until towards the end of the eleventh
+century heathenism continued to maintain itself, and the difficulties
+of the Christian party were considerably increased by the assertive
+policy of Bremen. Adalbert's schemes were wide-reaching. He sent
+bishops to the Orkneys, to Iceland, and even to Greenland, of which
+the last two lands had been converted by missionaries from Norway and
+ultimately became subject to the Metropolitan of Norway.
+
+[Sidenote: Wends.]
+
+But the real mischief of Adalbert's ambitious schemes was apparent
+east of the Elbe. He founded the bishopric of Hamburg, and held it in
+addition to Bremen. He sent bishops to Ratzeburg and Mecklenburg
+across the Elbe. He encouraged Henry IV's schemes against the Saxons
+in order to diminish the power of the House of Billung, who were his
+rivals in that quarter. The various tribes of the Wends--Wagrians,
+Obotrites, Wiltzes--had been drawn together into one kingdom under
+Gottschalk (1047-66), himself a Christian, who founded churches and
+monasteries, and has been likened to Oswald of Northumbria in that he
+interpreted the missionaries' sermons to his heathen subjects. This
+dominion had been established under the protection of the Saxon dukes.
+But Henry IV's quarrels with Saxony distracted the attention of the
+Billungs and their followers; and Gottschalk's death was followed by a
+heathen reaction in which, together with the extirpation of other
+marks of Christianity, the bishoprics were destroyed, and among them
+Adalbert's own foundation of Hamburg. This was the beginning of the
+end. Adalbert's successor had to be content with Bremen alone.
+Moreover, in the investiture struggle he was loyal to Henry IV; and
+since Eric of Denmark declared for the Pope, Urban II made the Danish
+prelate of Lund the Metropolitan of the North (1103). This arrangement
+caused discontent in the two other Scandinavian kingdoms, and
+ultimately Eugenius III sent Cardinal Breakspear, the future Hadrian
+IV, on a mission which resulted in the establishment of Nidaros or
+Drontheim as the see of a primate for Norway, and of Upsala in a
+similar capacity for Sweden. It may be mentioned in connection with
+this point that Finland owed its conversion to Sweden very shortly
+afterwards, though the Swedish attempts in Esthonia failed.
+
+[Sidenote: Their final conversion.]
+
+Meanwhile among the Wends Gottschalk's son revived his father's
+authority and contact with German civilisation; but after 1131 the
+Wendish kingdom fell to pieces, and from that moment we can mark the
+steady advance of German power to the Oder. The Billung line of Saxon
+dukes had become extinct in 1106, and Henry V had given the ducal name
+to Lothair, who succeeded him as Emperor, and who as Duke aimed at
+building up a strong dominion in north-eastern Germany. As Emperor he
+took up the civilising rôle of Otto the Great and encouraged the
+Germanisation of the Slavs. The actual work was done by his chief
+adviser Norbert, whom he had almost forced to become Archbishop of
+Magdeburg. He acted in conjunction with Albert the Bear, a descendant
+in the female line of the Billung dukes and Margrave of the Northmark,
+who himself founded bishoprics among his immediate neighbours the
+Wiltzes. Albert's soldiers prepared the way for Norbert's
+Premonstratensian canons, and bishoprics were founded with so little
+regard for division of territory, even in Poland and Pomerania, that
+both Gnesen and Lund found themselves for a time subordinated to
+Magdeburg. Two names are especially associated with the conversion of
+the Wends. In 1121, under the patronage of Lothair who was not yet
+Emperor, Vicelin began his work among the Wagrians, and in 1149 he
+became their Bishop with his see at Oldenburg. He died in 1154. It was
+under the auspices of Henry the Lion, now Duke of Saxony, that Berno
+preached to the Obotrites, converting the Wendish Prince and becoming
+Bishop of Mecklenburg. The gradual advance of German colonisation had
+weakened the Wendish resistance and prepared the way for this
+restoration of Christianity. Henry the Lion finished the work. In
+alliance with Waldemar II of Denmark he repeated with greater
+completeness the work of founding bishoprics, establishing houses of
+Premonstratensians, whose missionary activity was now shared by the
+Cistercians, building towns and introducing colonists, until the whole
+country between the Northmark and the Baltic was included in his Saxon
+duchy.
+
+[Sidenote: Pomerania.]
+
+The fall of Henry the Lion was not followed by any anti-German
+reaction; and meanwhile the work of conversion had been going forward
+among the Slavs beyond the Oder. The first attempts of the Poles to
+influence their troublesome Pomeranian neighbours failed. The ultimate
+success of a mission was due to a German. Otto, a native of Suabia,
+began as a schoolmaster in Poland. From chaplain to the Polish Prince
+the Emperor Henry V made him Bishop of Bamberg (1102); and, when
+Boleslas III had subdued part of Pomerania and found his bishops
+unwilling to attempt its conversion, he offered the task to Otto of
+Bamberg who, although an old man, undertook it with the consent of the
+Pope and the Emperor. He paid two visits--in 1124 and 1128--both to
+Western Pomerania, and established the bishopric of Wollin. The
+conversion was naturally imperfect, but the country never relapsed.
+The fierce islanders of Rgen could not then be touched, but ultimately
+gave way in 1168 before the combined secular and spiritual weapons of
+the Danish rulers.
+
+[Sidenote: Livonia.]
+
+From the middle of the twelfth century the cities of Bremen and
+Lübeck had established trading connections with Livonia. Following in
+the wake of the traders (1186) an Augustinian canon, Meinhard by name,
+preached Christianity under permission from a neighbouring Russian
+Prince, and he was made Bishop of Yrkill, on the Düna, under the
+Archbishop of Bremen. His successors, however, impatient at failure,
+organised a crusade from Germany. The third Bishop, Albert, took the
+recently founded trading centre Riga as his bishopric, and organised
+the knightly Order of the Brethren of the Sword (1202), to be under
+the control of the Bishop. He aimed at an united spiritual and
+temporal power in his own land, and in 1207 he accepted Livonia as a
+fief from King Philip of Suabia. But Albert's chief foes were those of
+his own household. The Knights of the Sword strove for independence
+and tried to establish themselves in Esthonia. Albert appointed his
+own nominee as Bishop there, who should act as a check upon the
+knights. Innocent III, however, gave the ecclesiastical supervision of
+Esthonia to the Danish Archbishop of Lund. But when the Danish King
+attempted to follow this up by asserting a political authority his
+forces were defeated by the Esthonians. German influences prevailed;
+Albert took Dorpat, made it the seat of a new bishopric, and organised
+the whole country ecclesiastically until his death in 1229; although
+it was not until 1255 that Riga became the Metropolitan of the
+Livonian and Prussian Churches. The Order of the Sword ceased to
+resist, and in 1237 it merged itself in the Teutonic Order in Prussia.
+The conversion of Livonia was followed by that of Semgallen in 1218,
+and finally the inhabitants of Courland, threatened on all sides,
+accepted baptism (1230) as the only alternative to slavery.
+
+[Sidenote: Prussia.]
+
+Between these lands and Pomerania lay the savage Prussians. Among them
+Bishop Adalbert of Prague, the Apostle of Bohemia, had ended his life
+by martyrdom in 997: and subsequent efforts, whether of bold
+missionaries or of victorious Polish Kings, equally failed. At length
+in 1207 some Cistercian monks from Poland obtained leave from Innocent
+III to make another attempt on Prussia. They were well received, and
+Christian of Oliva was consecrated bishop. But the rulers of
+neighbouring lands, notably Conrad, Duke of Masovia, which lay just to
+the south, schemed to turn these converted Prussians into political
+dependents, and Christian welcomed their armies as a means of
+hastening on the nominal change of religion. A crusade was set on
+foot; but the natives resisted with success, and began to destroy the
+monasteries established in the country. Consequently, in 1226 Duke
+Conrad invited some members of the Teutonic Order to help him. In 1230
+came a large number of the knights, and a devastating war which lasted
+for more than fifty years (1230-83), ended in the nominal conversion
+of the remaining inhabitants.
+
+During the war German colonists were placed upon the conquered lands
+and towns were founded--Königsberg (1256) in honour of Ottocar of
+Bohemia, who lent his aid for a time; Marienburg (1270), which became
+the headquarters of the Teutonic Order. Indeed, it was the Order which
+reaped the benefit of the conquest. In 1243 Innocent IV divided the
+country ecclesiastically into four bishoprics, which were placed
+afterwards under the Livonian Archbishop of Riga as their
+Metropolitan. One of these four--Ermland--freed itself both
+ecclesiastically from Riga and politically from the Teutonic knights,
+and placed itself directly under the Pope. The others were less
+fortunate, and the Order successfully resisted the joint efforts of
+the bishops and the Pope to place them in a similar position.
+
+[Sidenote: Missions in Asia.]
+
+The spread of Christianity among the tribes upon the Baltic coast,
+imperfect though it was, led to permanent results. In the second great
+field of missionary activity during this period the work of the Roman
+Church was more interesting than effective. It is difficult now to
+realise that in the fourteenth century emissaries from Rome had
+nominally organised large districts of Asia as part of the Christian
+Church. Nor was theirs the first announcement of the Gospel in those
+regions. Christians of the Nestorian or Chaldean faith could claim
+adherents from Persia across the Continent to the heart of China, and
+had even converted several Turkish tribes.
+
+[Sidenote: Prester John.]
+
+About the middle of the twelfth century the report reached Europe of
+the conversion as early as the beginning of the eleventh century of
+the Khan of the Karaďt, a Tartar tribe, lying south of Lake Baikal,
+with its headquarters at Karakorum. The Syrian Christians, through
+whom the report came, misinterpreted his Mongolian title Ung-Khan as
+denoting a priest-king named John, and it was this distant Eastern
+potentate who came to be known in Europe as Presbyter Johannes or
+Prester John. It was the Syrian Christians who, in their desire to
+outvie the boastful arrogance of their Latin neighbours, together with
+many apochryphal tales invented a letter from this dignitary to some
+of the sovereigns of Europe, including the Pope. Equally fabulous
+seems to have been the report to Alexander III of a physician named
+Philip, that this shadowy personage desired reception into the Roman
+communion; for Alexander's answer apparently met with no response. In
+1202 the tribe of the Karaďtes became the vassals of the great
+conqueror Ghenghiz Khan, who is said to have added to his wives the
+Christian daughter of the last Ung-Khan of the tribe. The kingdom of
+Prester John, however, lived on in fables, of which the best known
+relates how the Holy Grail, the cup consecrated by Christ at the Last
+Supper, had withdrawn from the sinful West and found refuge in this
+distant land.
+
+[Sidenote: The Mongols in Europe.]
+
+The conquests of Ghenghiz opened an entirely new chapter in the
+relations between Western Europe and the Mongols. Ghenghiz himself
+before his death in 1227 overran China, Central Asia, Persia, and
+penetrated as far west as the Dnieper. His successors entered Russia
+in 1237, conquered the Kipchaks about the Caspian Sea and pursued
+their fugitives into Central Europe, defeated the Poles, ravaged
+Saxony and Silesia, and overran Hungary (1240). It was fortunate for
+Europe that the death of the Great Khan in 1242 caused the Mongol
+leaders to withdraw their forces back to the East. The chief result of
+this Mongolian raid was that 10,000 Kharizmians fleeing before the
+Tartars entered the Egyptian service, and in 1244 captured Jerusalem
+for the Egyptian Sultan. At the time of the Tartar invasion the Papacy
+was vacant; but in 1243 Innocent IV was elected, and in 1245 at the
+Council of Lyons a crusade was mooted. But the renewal of the papal
+quarrel with Frederick II so far added to the general indifference
+that no crusade was possible. Louis IX of France alone forced his
+nobles to take the vow and fulfil it.
+
+[Sidenote: Innocent IV's missions.]
+
+To Innocent, however, is due the credit of inaugurating a new method
+of approaching Eastern nations. It was well known that Christians were
+to be found in the Mongolian armies; and the tolerant treatment
+accorded to them was construed as a favourable feeling towards
+Christianity itself. The truth was that for the purpose of reconciling
+all nations to their rule the Mongols tolerated all religions among
+their subjects. Already Mohammedanism and Buddhism competed with the
+Christianity of the Nestorians for the favour of the Tartar Princes.
+Their own religion has been characterised as a vague monotheism. Its
+lack of definiteness led the early missionaries in their enthusiasm to
+hope that its followers were in a state of mind to be easily persuaded
+of the superior claims of the Catholic faith. Anyhow there existed for
+some time quite an expectation in the West that the whole of Asia
+would one day acknowledge the spiritual rule of Rome. Pope Innocent,
+therefore, fully convinced of the friendly disposition of the Mongols,
+despatched two embassies to them. One was composed of John of Piano
+Carpini, a friend of St. Francis of Assisi, and three other
+Franciscans. From the Khan of Kipchak at the Golden Horde on the Volga
+they were passed on to the Great Khan, who ruled now from the old
+capital of the Karaďtes at Karakorum. Here they were received in
+friendly fashion by the newly elected Kuyuk, grandson of Ghenghiz. The
+other embassy, composed of four Dominicans, visited Persia; but they
+showed so much want of tact that their lives were endangered, and they
+returned with letters written in the name of the Great Khan, in which
+all princes of the earth were bidden to come and pay their homage.
+Immediately, then, these visits were without result; but they had
+opened the way for further communications.
+
+[Sidenote: Louis IX's missions.]
+
+It was known in the East that Louis IX of France was preparing to set
+out on crusade; so that when he halted with his army in Cyprus he was
+visited by an envoy purporting to come from Kuyuk and seeking an
+alliance against Mohammedans. Louis sent two Dominicans to a Christian
+monarch, as he supposed, armed with suitable presents; but Kuyuk was
+dead, and the presents were treated as tribute. Perhaps in consequence
+of this failure Louis turned his army against Egypt instead of Syria;
+but the envoys returned to find him after the disastrous Egyptian
+campaign in Palestine, where he spent four years. In consequence of
+their report he sent to Kuyuk's successor, Mangu, a Franciscan,
+William of Ruysbroek or Rubruquis. It was afterwards reported to the
+Pope that Mangu and another Tartar Prince had been converted. Such
+fabricated stories were only too common. Rubruquis has left us much
+information about the Tartar Court; but his public discussions before
+the Khan with Nestorians, Mohammedans and Buddhists led to no
+practical result.
+
+[Sidenote: Tartars and Mohammedans.]
+
+On the death of Mangu (1257) his dominions were divided between his
+two brothers. Hulagu, who became Khan of Persia, overthrew the
+Caliphate of Bagdad; but the further progress of the Mongol armies was
+stayed by the Mohammedan General, Bibars who, as a consequence of his
+success, shortly became Sultan of Egypt. Henceforth the Mongols of
+Persia constantly sought an alliance with the Christians of the West
+against the Mohammedans as represented by Egypt, the one Mohammedan
+power which as yet had opposed them with success. Thus in 1274, at the
+second Council of Lyons, two Persian envoys invited the cooperation of
+Christendom, and, perhaps by way of raising the expectations of such
+contact, submitted to baptism; but the hostility of Greeks and Latins
+and the selfish projects of Charles of Anjou prevented any response.
+The long anarchy in Egypt which followed the death of Bibars (1277)
+was too good an opportunity for the Mongols to lose; but Kelaun
+secured the power in Egypt in time to repeat the exploits of Bibars.
+But the remaining Latin princes in Syria had veered between the
+Mohammedans and Mongols, and Kelaun determined to complete the
+destruction of such an alien element. By 1291 the kingdom of Jerusalem
+was wiped out. Europe watched with comparative indifference the easy
+triumph of Mohammedanism. Not so the Mongols. Arghun, who became Khan
+of Persia in 1284, made three definite efforts towards an alliance
+which would mean a new crusade. In 1287 the Vicar of the Nestorian
+Patriarch of China brought letters to the Pope and visited the Kings
+of France and England; in 1289 a Genoese resident in Persia brought
+the news of Arghun's intended invasion of Syria and his professed
+desire for baptism; in 1290, to a yet more pressing call the Pope
+returned a somewhat hopeful answer. But it was too late. Arghun died
+in 1291, and although his eldest son, Ghazan, ultimately took up his
+father's projects and even decisively defeated the Egyptian army in
+Syria (1299), his losses forced him to return to Persia. It was
+reported that he had died a Christian and in the Franciscan habit, but
+there is no proof of this.
+
+[Sidenote: Chinese missions.]
+
+The more purely missionary efforts which were being made
+contemporaneously with the events just related, were directed chiefly
+to China which, on the death of Mangu, had fallen to the lot of Kublai
+Khan. The opportunity for these was opened out by the relations
+already established with the Mongolians on other grounds. The first
+missionaries found Nestorian Christians who were subjects and others
+who were captives acting as clerks, artisans and merchants at the
+Tartar Court. Besides these, others in search of fortune or adventure
+occasionally found their way from the West. Such were two Venetians,
+Nicolo and Maffeo Polo, who, having traded with the Tartars of the
+Golden Horde (1260), were led by force of circumstances further into
+Asia, until they reached China. Kublai sent them back to Europe with a
+request to the Pope for at least a hundred well-instructed persons who
+should initiate his subjects in Western lore. They returned
+practically alone; but Nicolo's son Marco accompanied them. They
+remained for seventeen years in the service of the Khan (1275-93), and
+Marco Polo has left a very celebrated account of his travels. This
+establishment of friendly feeling was followed by a definite mission
+of Franciscans, headed by John of Monte Corvino, who had already
+organised the missions in Persia. He was welcomed by Kublai's
+successor, and was allowed to preach. Despite the violent opposition
+of the Nestorians he made converts and built churches. In 1307 he
+became the first Archbishop of Cambaluc or Peking, while subsequently
+no less than ten suffragans were grouped under him. Scarcely less
+remarkable was the organisation in Persia of the archbishopric at
+Sultanyeh and six subordinate sees. But this development belongs
+almost entirely to the following period.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+GUELF AND GHIBELLINE. (II)
+
+
+[Sidenote: Honorius III (1216-27) and the Crusade.]
+
+The bull of summons to the Lateran Council of 1215 mentions as the two
+great desires of the Pope's heart the recovery of the Holy Land and
+the reformation of the Church Universal; and it is made clear that the
+various measures of reform to be placed before the General Council are
+intended to bring Christian princes and peoples, both clergy and
+laity, into the frame of mind for sending aid to Palestine. Moreover,
+at the Council it was agreed that an expedition should start from
+Brindisi or Messina on June 1, 1216. In any case Innocent's death
+would probably have caused a delay. His successor, Honorius III, was a
+noble Roman of mild and gentle character, who, during Frederick's
+youth, had been his tutor and the guardian of the kingdom of Sicily.
+No less than his predecessor was he bent on carrying out the project
+of a crusade, and immediately on his accession he appealed to all
+Christians in the West to lay aside their enmities, and refused to
+allow any excuse for not setting out to those who had taken the
+crusading vow. But the apathy was general, and since Frederick could
+not leave Europe so long as his rival Otto was alive, the expedition
+was robbed of its natural chief. A crusade, however, did go, and in
+accordance with the plan agreed upon at the Council the attack was
+directed against Egypt. Damietta was taken (1219), but then a long
+pause was made in the expectation of Frederick's coming. In 1221
+arrived a German contingent under Frederick's friend Herman von Salza;
+but the crusaders were now defeated and could only secure their
+retreat by the surrender of Damietta.
+
+[Sidenote: Frederick II.]
+
+For despite the death of Otto in 1218 Frederick had been detained in
+Europe. Before leaving he was anxious to secure the election of his
+son Henry as King of Germany. This he did not accomplish until 1220,
+and then only by the surrender to the German princes of many important
+royal rights, especially the right of spoils. It was necessary also to
+reassure the Pope, who feared the continued union of Sicily and
+Germany. Honorius accepted Frederick's assurances and even crowned him
+Emperor in St. Peter's (November, 1220); and Frederick again took the
+cross. But he found that the royal rights in the kingdom of Sicily had
+been much impoverished during his minority and his subsequent absence.
+His efforts to recover them caused a further delay in his promised
+crusade and brought him into conflict with papal claims. Honorius was
+very long-suffering. In 1223 he agreed to a postponement of two years
+on condition that Frederick should affiance himself to Iolanthe, the
+daughter and heiress of John of Brienne, who in right of his wife bore
+the title of King of Jerusalem. In 1225 Frederick not only married
+Iolanthe but followed the example of his father-in-law by taking the
+title of King of Jerusalem in right of his wife, who since her
+mother's death was lawfully Queen. On the strength of this act of
+self-committal he obtained another delay of two years until August,
+1227, agreeing that if he did not then start he should be _ipso
+facto_ excommunicate.
+
+But lapse of time did not make it any easier for him to leave his
+dominions. In 1226 the Lombards, fearing that Frederick's success in
+the recovery of royal rights in the South was merely a prelude to his
+renewal of imperial claims in North Italy, revived the old Lombard
+League. Frederick put them to the ban of the Empire. But the Pope had
+approved the League; and when both parties agreed to refer the quarrel
+to him he naturally proposed an arrangement favourable to the
+Lombards. A breach with Frederick was only averted by Honorius' death
+(March, 1227).
+
+[Sidenote: Gregory IX (1227-41).]
+
+His successor was Gregory IX, a relative of Innocent III who had made
+him a Cardinal and employed him on important embassies. He has been
+described as a man "of strong passions and an iron strength of will."
+He is said to have been more than eighty years of age at his
+accession; but he was vigorous and alert in mind and body, a man of
+blameless life and ardent faith, eloquent and learned, especially in
+law. Hitherto he had been friendly to Frederick. But he held views
+even more advanced than those of Innocent regarding the power of the
+Papacy. Hence, while to Honorius the Crusade was the end towards which
+his whole policy was directed, Gregory only desired to use the
+crusading vow taken by temporal rulers as a weapon for the assertion
+of the papal power against them. It was Gregory who as Cardinal
+Ugolino had placed the cross in Frederick's hand at his imperial
+coronation. As Pope he now demanded the immediate fulfilment of
+Frederick's promise; and despite his reluctance to go and the outbreak
+of an epidemic in his army, Frederick embarked at Brindisi on
+September 18th, 1227. But three days later under the plea of sickness
+he turned back. Gregory never hesitated. On September 29th in the
+cathedral of Anagni in fulfilment of the terms agreed to by Frederick
+himself, he excommunicated the Emperor with the accompaniment of every
+kind of impressive ceremonial. There seems little doubt that the cause
+of Gregory's determination to exact from Frederick the utmost penalty
+for his failure to carry out the agreement lay in Frederick's Italian
+policy. Frederick had postponed the crusade in order to build up a
+power in Sicily, which he was now trying to extend to North Italy by
+crushing the Lombard League. This was a fatal bar to the policy of a
+papal state in Central Italy, inaugurated by Innocent III. No less
+imminent was the danger from the success of Frederick in baffling the
+papal schemes for the separation of the Sicilian and German crowns. It
+was becoming apparent that only by the extinction of the Hohenstaufen
+line could the papal policy be carried out.
+
+[Sidenote: Frederick's crusade.]
+
+The age of the Crusades was indeed over. Frederick, in justifying his
+action to the princes of Europe, pointed to the conduct of the Papacy
+to Raymond of Toulouse and John of England as a warning to secular
+princes, and attributed the papal hostility not to a desire for the
+promotion of a crusade, but to greed. Gregory's conduct seemed to bear
+out this interpretation of his motives. Despite the excommunication
+Frederick once more set sail in June, 1228. But an expedition under
+such circumstances was an independent act subversive of all
+ecclesiastical discipline. Consequently, instead of his departure
+being the signal for the removal of his sentence, Frederick was
+followed to Palestine by the anathema of the Church. The Pope having
+got Frederick into his power intended to keep him there. Thus when
+Frederick reached Palestine the Templars and Hospitallers held aloof,
+while the Mendicant Orders preached against him; and when, in
+accordance with his treaty with the Sultan, he entered Jerusalem, the
+city and all the holy places were laid under an interdict. But
+Frederick was not daunted. Since no ecclesiastic would crown him he
+took the crown himself off the altar and placed it on his head. For as
+in the case of the Pope, so with Frederick, it was from no religious
+motives that he persisted in the crusade. It was a purely political
+expedition. He put the Pope in the wrong in the eyes of European
+princes by refuting the charge of the Roman supporters that he never
+seriously intended to go on crusade. But, more important still, his
+own attitude and act were a manifesto on behalf of the Empire against
+the claim put forward by Innocent III for the Papacy as the head and
+leader of Christendom. But the very means of his success added to his
+enormities. It was nothing that he had gained for Christendom without
+fighting more than had been won since the First Crusade. For he had
+dealt with the Sultan of Egypt as an equal, and in the treaty which
+gave him Jerusalem and several other places he had undertaken to
+enforce certain articles favourable to the Sultan, even in the event
+of opposition from Christian Princes. Thus it is not astonishing that
+while Frederick was winning this success in Palestine Pope Gregory was
+using papal emissaries, in the shape of the lately founded Orders of
+mendicant friars, to denounce the Emperor in every country of Western
+Europe, and even let loose on Frederick's Sicilian territories an army
+of so-called crusaders under John of Brienne, who resented the
+adoption of the title of King of Jerusalem by his imperial son-in-law.
+This monstrous attack upon a successful crusader turned the sentiment
+of Europe against the Pope. Frederick returned in June, 1229, and by
+the help of his Saracen troops drove out the invaders. In return for
+peace with the Church Frederick was willing to give to the Pope almost
+extravagantly generous terms, and a treaty was arranged at San Germano
+in August, 1230, by which Frederick surrendered his claim over the
+Sicilian clergy and obtained in return the removal of the
+excommunication, which carried with it a tacit recognition of his
+crusade.
+
+[Sidenote: The Pope and Roman claims.]
+
+It was nine years before the struggle was openly renewed. There were
+many causes of difference in the interval, but Pope and Emperor found
+two occasions for common action. In the first place Gregory imitated
+the policy of his great relative in using every method for extending
+the immediate suzerainty of the Pope over the towns and barons within
+the Roman duchy. But despite Innocent's civic victory the Roman
+Commune desired to place themselves on a level with the other free
+cities of Italy such as Milan and Florence, and claimed jurisdiction
+over the whole district. Twice already had the Romans expelled Gregory
+and recalled him before they demanded from him, in 1234, the surrender
+of sovereign rights within the duchy. Gregory fled and appealed for
+help to Christendom; and Frederick supplied the troops which restored
+the Pope for the third time and forced the Romans to withdraw their
+claims.
+
+[Sidenote: Frederick and heresy.]
+
+Pope and Emperor also pursued a common policy against heretics. The
+Lateran Council of 1215 issued a series of ordinances against
+heretics, making it the duty of the secular power to punish them under
+pain of excommunication. But each country and even each city issued
+its own regulations for giving effect to the injunctions of the
+Council. Only gradually in the second quarter of the century was the
+old episcopal jurisdiction over heresy superseded by the establishment
+of the papal Inquisition. Meanwhile, in 1220 at his imperial
+coronation Frederick put out in his own name an edict for the secular
+suppression of heresy, which had been dictated to him from Rome. In
+1231 this edict was enforced in Rome itself when Gregory IX
+established the Inquisition there and made it the business of the
+Senator, the head of the civic commune, to execute the sentences of
+the Inquisitor. The regulations now drawn up for the conduct of the
+secular power in such cases, were sent over all Europe with orders for
+their enforcement. In the same year Frederick renewed his attack upon
+heretics in his Sicilian Constitutions, and in the course of the next
+eight years he issued "a complete and pitiless code" of "fiendish
+legislation," placing the whole of the machinery of state at the
+disposal of the Inquisitor. But Gregory was not deceived. Rather he
+complained that Frederick's orthodoxy took the form of the punishment
+of his personal enemies, of whom many were good Catholics. Certainly
+Frederick's anti-heretical edicts were not prompted by religious zeal.
+He was more detached than any ruler of the Middle Ages from the
+current ideas of the time. He seems to have been, if it is possible,
+utterly non-religious.
+
+[Sidenote: Legislation of Emperor and Pope.]
+
+Moreover, his regulations against heresy were part of his general code
+of law for the government of the diverse races in his kingdom of
+Sicily, and in this code issued in 1231, although their temporalities
+were secured to the clergy, as a class they were subjected to taxation
+and to the secular jurisdiction of the State. Pope Gregory's
+counter-blast to this policy is contained in his addition to the Canon
+Law known as his Decretals (1234). By these the clergy were declared
+entirely exempt from secular taxation and jurisdiction, on the ground
+that all secular law was subordinate to the law of the Church, and
+that the duty of the secular power was to carry out the commands of
+the Church.
+
+[Sidenote: The second contest.]
+
+Thus each side was maintaining its pretensions until the opportunity
+should come for asserting them. This was found for the second time in
+the affairs of Lombardy. The Lombard cities still feared the designs
+of Frederick. In 1235 they renewed their League. Again the Pope was
+accepted as arbiter, and again Frederick complained with justice that
+he was too favourable to the cities. In 1236 Frederick declared war
+against the League. His pretext of punishing heresy which was rife in
+Lombardy, deceived no one; while his declaration, when Gregory desired
+him to turn his arms to Palestine, that "Italy is my heritage, and
+this the whole world knows," confirmed the worst apprehensions of the
+Pope and the Lombards. Moreover, Frederick's first move was entirely
+successful, and in 1237 he completely defeated the Lombards in battle
+at Corte Nuova, took the Milanese standard and sent it to be placed in
+the Capitol at Rome. The subjugation of the Lombards would mean the
+union of Italy under Frederick's rule, while, since the acquisition of
+Sicily by the Hohenstanfen, the Lombards remained the only allies of
+the Papacy in Italy. Gregory therefore declared himself, and in March,
+1239, he excommunicated Frederick and released his subjects from their
+allegiance. Frederick issued a manifesto addressed to all Princes, in
+which he appealed to a General Council. Gregory's counter-manifesto
+was couched in terms of the most unrestrained violence. Frederick was
+described as the beast in the Apocalypse (Rev. xiii. 1), which had
+upon its seven heads the name of blasphemy; and he is charged with
+saying that the world had been deceived by three impostors, Christ,
+Moses and Mohammed, of whom two had died in glory, while the third had
+been crucified.
+
+This is not the place to investigate the interesting question of the
+truth of Gregory's charges against Frederick. The French sent a
+mission to Frederick to enquire as to the accusation of infidelity,
+and he thanked them warmly and denied it. The Duke of Bavaria told
+Gregory in 1241 that most of the German princes and prelates would
+shortly go to Frederick's aid. In fact, the papal exactions had caused
+intense disgust over all Western Europe, and no prince would allow
+himself to be set up as a rival to Frederick. Yet the papal
+condemnation caused many to hold aloof from the Emperor who, moreover,
+did not venture to set up an antipope. He contented himself with
+persecuting the friars who were the most active emissaries of Rome,
+and with confiscating the estates of the Church, until it was said at
+the papal Court that he had sworn to reduce the Pope to beggary and to
+stable his horses in St. Peter's.
+
+[Sidenote: Innocent IV (1243-54).]
+
+Frederick had suggested the calling of a council, and Gregory summoned
+one to Rome. But Frederick had begun to reduce the Roman duchy and,
+anyhow, he did not want a council which would merely register the
+papal decrees. So when a number of bishops ignored his prohibition and
+met at Genoa in order to embark for Rome, the fleets of Pisa and
+Sicily met them off the island of Meloria and captured nearly the
+whole of the prospective Council. Frederick's attack upon Rome itself
+was only averted by the death of Gregory IX on August 21, 1241. The
+new Pope died seventeen days after his election, and then, for some
+reason, the Papacy was vacant for two years. The delay was attributed
+to Frederick; and the French actually declared to the Cardinals that
+if a new Pope were not chosen quickly, the French nation, in
+accordance with an ancient privilege given by Pope Clement to St.
+Denys, would set up a Pope of their own. At length, in June, 1243,
+Innocent IV was chosen; and Frederick, alluding to previous dealings
+with him, remarked that by this election he had lost a friend among
+the Cardinals, since no Pope could be a Ghibelline.
+
+The truth of this was soon apparent. Innocent demanded the restoration
+of all Frederick's conquests in the States of the Church in return for
+peace; and although nothing was said about the time of the removal of
+the excommunication, Frederick accepted the terms. But when Frederick
+saw that there was no intention of absolving him, he refused to
+surrender the papal cities and thereby technically broke the treaty.
+Innocent intended to get a treaty which would carry an acknowledgment
+of the Emperor's failure, and then to reduce him to submission by a
+council held outside Italy. Negotiations continued until Innocent fled
+to Lyons, a practically independent city. France, England and Aragon,
+however, declined to receive him, and Innocent exclaimed that he must
+come to terms with the Emperor, "for when the dragon has been crushed
+or pacified, the little serpents will be quickly trodden underfoot."
+
+[Sidenote: First Council of Lyons.]
+
+At Lyons there met in 1245 the General Council to which Frederick had
+appealed, and which is reckoned by the Romans as the thirteenth of the
+OEcumenical Assemblies of the Church; 140 archbishops and bishops,
+besides numerous lesser clergy, were present. Frederick was
+represented by a celebrated jurist, Thaddeus of Suessa, who pleaded
+the Emperor's cause. Several points were proposed for settlement; but
+all other matters were brushed aside, and Innocent hurried on the
+third and last session of the Council in which Frederick was declared
+deposed, his subjects were released from their allegiance, the German
+princes told to elect another King, and Sicily kept for disposal by
+the Pope in consultation with the Cardinals. All remonstrances were
+unavailing; even Louis IX quite failed to move the Pope. Frederick
+realised that it was a fight to a finish, and in a protest he called
+upon the other princes of the West to help him in depriving the clergy
+of the wealth which had choked their spiritual power. But this was
+interpreted as a design for the destruction of the Church, and despite
+the testimonies to Frederick's orthodoxy published by the Archbishop
+of Palermo, the papal charge of heresy against him gained wide belief.
+Innocent in his reply asserted among other things that the Pope was
+the Legate of Christ who had entrusted him with full powers to act as
+judge over the earth, and that the Emperor should take an oath of
+subjection to the Pope who, as overlord, gave him his title and crown.
+Thus the claims now made on behalf of the Papacy left no room for a
+belief in the balance of spiritual and secular authority.
+
+[Sidenote: Death of Frederick.]
+
+Both sides resorted to every kind of expedient. Frederick, aiming
+especially at the friars, ordered that any who spread or even received
+the papal letters of condemnation against him should be burnt!
+Innocent declared an actual crusade against Frederick, stirred up
+revolt in Sicily, and at length succeeded in raising a rival King in
+Germany. Henry Raspe, Landgrave of Thuringia, owed his election (1246)
+almost exclusively to the great prelates of the Rhine; but he died the
+next year and, although another King was put forward in the person of
+William Count of Holland, a young man of twenty, he made no progress
+so long as Frederick lived. Moreover, in Italy Frederick's cause was
+gaining ground, until the revolt of Parma and the failure of his
+efforts to retake it ended in the complete rout of his forces (1248).
+In 1250 Frederick himself died directing by his will that all the
+rights of the Church should be restored in so far as they did not
+conflict with the claims of the Empire, provided that the Church
+herself should recognise the imperial rights. Almost to the last
+Frederick had been quite willing to be reconciled to the Church, and
+he died unsubdued. But the Papacy was fighting for that supremacy
+which experience had shown to be the condition of its existence. Not
+that any Emperor ever cherished the thought of destroying the Papacy
+any more than the Pope dreamed of annihilating the Empire. Many
+passages have been cited to prove that Frederick contemplated the
+establishment of a Church of his own in Sicily. Here perhaps he did
+not aim at anything more than Henry VIII afterwards accomplished in
+England or the barons under Louis IX, as we have seen, threatened on
+one occasion in France. The language used by his followers was
+extravagant, even blasphemous, and he did not discourage it. How far
+he ever aimed as setting himself up as Pope is more doubtful. But in
+any case, and however much we may be inclined to sympathise with him,
+it must be allowed that there was abundant reason for the hostility of
+the Pope.
+
+[Sidenote: A papal candidate for Sicily.]
+
+And the reasons which caused the Papacy to hound Frederick to death,
+also determined it not to rest until it had exterminated the whole
+"viper's brood." Innocent IV expressed the most indecent joy at
+Frederick's death, and refused all offers of peace from his son and
+successor, Conrad IV. But being too weak to wrest Sicily from the
+Hohenstaufen he sought for some prince who would accept it as a papal
+fief. It was refused on behalf of Louis IX's brother, Charles of
+Anjou, and also by Henry III's brother, Richard Earl of Cornwall, who
+said that the Pope might as well offer him the moon. Henry III,
+however, accepted it for his second son Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, a
+boy of eight, promising to pay the expenses of the conquest. The
+Pope's action was utterly unscrupulous. In May, 1254, Conrad died in
+the twenty-sixth year of his age, and the only legitimate Hohenstaufen
+representative who remained, was his son, distinguished as Conradin,
+who was under the guardianship of Berthold Marquis of Hohenburg.
+Conrad's Regent in Italy had been his half-brother Manfred, the son of
+Frederick by an Italian lady, and the most brilliant of all
+Frederick's children. Berthold, alarmed at the difficulties, made way
+for Manfred, who found Innocent ready to come to terms. To Manfred was
+confirmed the principality of Tarento originally the gift of his
+father, and he was recognised as Papal Vicar for the greater part of
+the Sicilian kingdom. But the grant of Sicily was confirmed to Edmund
+of Lancaster, and the Pope determined to take possession of the
+kingdom in person. Manfred, now a vassal of the Church, held the
+bridle of the Pope's horse as he entered his new dominions. But
+Manfred soon found that the Pope's object was to reduce him to
+harmlessness and then to get rid of him. He therefore raised the
+standard of revolt and defeated the papal forces (December, 1254).
+
+[Sidenote: Alexander IV (1254-61).]
+
+At this juncture Innocent IV died at Naples. Matthew Paris relates the
+dream of a Cardinal who saw the Church accusing the Pope before the
+throne of God because he had enslaved the Church, had made her a table
+of money-changers and had shaken faith, abolished justice, and
+obscured truth. However necessary to the independence of the Papacy
+was this strenuous struggle, the utterly unscrupulous means employed
+and the almost complete identification of its spiritual power with its
+temporal interests is impossible to justify or even to excuse. The new
+Pope, Alexander IV, a nephew of Gregory IX, without Innocent's ability
+tried to follow the policy of his predecessor. In 1255 he ratified the
+grant of Sicily to the young English prince on severe conditions.
+Indeed, he surpassed his predecessors in the demands made on Henry III
+and the English Church; until in 1258 his claim for the repayment of
+the money which he alleged to have been expended in the prosecution of
+Edmund's cause, brought on a grave constitutional crisis in England
+and reduced Henry III to impotence.
+
+[Sidenote: King Manfred.]
+
+Meanwhile Manfred had regained all the dominions of the Sicilian crown
+in the name of Conradin, but in 1258 he quietly set aside his nephew
+and accepted the throne for himself. However necessary such a step
+might be, it divided Sicily from Germany. This was what the papal
+party desired: but Manfred, the son of an Italian mother, aimed, like
+his father, at an Italian monarchy. Consequently Alexander declared
+against him. In Italy, however, the cessation of supplies from England
+left Alexander almost powerless, and Manfred was accepted as the head
+of the Ghibellines in the peninsula.
+
+[Sidenote: The rival Kings of the Romans.]
+
+But before his death in May, 1261, Alexander had gained a distinct
+success in Germany. The young King, William of Holland, the destined
+Emperor, had been killed in 1256. The Pope forbade the choice of
+Conradin, and the votes of the German princes were divided between the
+Englishman, Richard Earl of Cornwall, and Alfonso the Wise, King of
+Castile and grandson of Philip of Suabia. Richard, wealthy and
+attracted by the imperial title, was crowned Emperor at Aachen in 1257
+and bought himself a measure of support so long as he remained in
+Germany. Alfonso, on the other hand, did nothing to secure his new
+dominions. Alexander and his successors, by professing a judicial
+attitude, gradually established the impression in Germany that the
+decision in these matters rested with the Papacy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE AND OF THE PAPACY
+
+
+[Sidenote: Urban IV (1261-4).]
+
+The date of Alexander's death marks the beginning of a new episode in
+the history of the medićval Papacy. His successor, Urban IV, was a
+Frenchman. With more vigour than his predecessor he pursued the policy
+of the destruction of the Hohenstaufen. Since the English prince had
+proved a useless tool and no more money could be wrung from the
+English people, he obtained the renunciation of the claims of Edmund
+to the Sicilian crown and turned to his native country for a
+candidate. Louis IX refused the offer for a son, but it was accepted
+by his brother, Charles of Anjou, whose wife, the daughter and heiress
+of Raymond Berengar of Provence, desired to be the equal of her three
+elder sisters, the Queens, respectively, of France, England, and
+Germany. For the next twenty years the papal policy centres round the
+doings of Charles as much as it had centred for thirty years round the
+aims of Frederick II. The Guelf party in Rome had already elected
+Charles as senator, or head of the civic commune, in opposition to the
+Ghibelline Manfred. Thus the Pope and the Italian Guelfs once more
+combined to betray Italy to the foreign conqueror. Urban was able to
+obtain a promise that Charles would not accept the senatorship for
+life, although the need for Charles' presence in Italy as a check upon
+the victorious Manfred enabled the new King to obtain better terms in
+regard to Sicily than the Pope had offered at first.
+
+[Sidenote: Clement IV (1265-8).]
+
+Fortune favoured Charles from the outset. Before he could reach Italy
+Urban had died in Perugia (October, 1264), having never entered Rome
+during his pontificate. His successor, Clement IV, a Provençal and
+therefore a subject of Charles, had been overpersuaded to accept the
+tiara, and naturally continued his predecessor's work. Charles arrived
+by sea, was welcomed in Rome where he assumed the office of senator,
+and was invested with the crown of Sicily (June, 1265). But from the
+very first he showed the arbitrariness and violence which were to
+characterise his relations with Italy. He came destitute of money; he
+took possession of the Lateran palace until the Pope's remonstrances
+forced him to withdraw. His army marched through Italy to join him,
+plundering as it came. The Pope was helpless; he had not yet even
+ventured to come to Rome. Charles and his wife were crowned King and
+Queen of Sicily by a commission of Cardinals; and theirs was the first
+coronation of any sovereign other than an Emperor, which had taken
+place in St. Peter's.
+
+[Sidenote: End of the Hohenstaufen.]
+
+Meanwhile Manfred was doing everything to meet the new attack. But
+there was no patriotism among the Italians of the south. Frederick II
+in founding his strong monarchy had alienated nobles and the cities;
+the clergy, of course, were his bitter foes. All seemed to think that
+Charles' advent would bring freedom and peace. They were soon to be
+disabused. On Charles' march southwards Manfred, relying solely on
+Germans and Saracens, met him at Benevento, but was beaten and fell in
+the fight (February 26, 1266). Charles entered Naples and the papal
+aims seemed attained. Charles was their vassal for Sicily, and was now
+obliged to lay down his office of senator. The German influence in
+Italy was destroyed; the "German" Empire was a thing of the past. But
+the Romans still kept the Pope at arms' length. In 1252 they had for
+the first time introduced a foreign senator in the Bolognese
+Brancaleone who, before his death in 1258, was twice overthrown and
+restored to power. Thus the election of Charles was no new departure.
+And as his successor was chosen Henry, brother of Alfonso the Wise of
+Castile, titular King of the Romans. He maintained the interests of
+the commune against the Pope, and then, from hatred to Charles, the
+Ghibelline cause against the papal party. The Ghibellines found a
+rallying ground in Tuscany, and sent to Germany for Conradin. The boy,
+now fourteen years of age, was welcomed by the senator in Rome; but
+his forces were utterly defeated by Charles at Tagliacozzo on August
+23, 1268. Conradin fled, but was captured and executed.
+
+[Sidenote: Schemes of Charles.]
+
+This time it was Charles, and not the Pope, whose success was the
+obvious fact. Whether the Pope interceded for the last of the
+Hohenstaufens or approved his execution, is a matter of some doubt.
+But Charles was now elected senator of Rome for life, and Clement
+offered no opposition to this violation of the original agreement.
+Moreover, on Clement's death (November, 1268), the divisions among the
+Cardinals assembled at Viterbo prolonged the vacancy in the papal
+chair for nearly three years. During that time Charles developed the
+most ambitious schemes. With the Ghibelline position he took up the
+Ghibelline aims. Thus the papal plans for reviving the Crusades were
+nothing to him, but he desired to obtain for himself the crown of
+Jerusalem; and since Constantinople had been recovered by the Greeks
+in 1261, while on the one side he make a treaty with the Latin
+ex-Emperor, Baldwin II, whereby the reversion of the Byzantine throne
+should go to the King of Sicily, on the other side the papal project
+for an union of the Greek and Latin Churches was an obstacle to his
+hostile design. Charles, in fact, began to equip an expedition against
+Constantinople. Louis IX for the moment checked his brother's schemes
+and took him off on the crusade from which Louis himself was not to
+return. The diversion of the expedition from Palestine or Egypt to
+Tunis is generally attributed to the influence of the King of Sicily,
+whose Norman predecessors had once held the north coast of Africa: but
+this charge can scarcely be maintained, for the crusade thither
+interfered with his schemes against Constantinople, which were resumed
+immediately on his return to Europe.
+
+[Sidenote: Gregory X (1272-6).]
+
+But again Charles was destined to meet with a serious check. When at
+length the Church obtained a new Pope it was no servile henchman of
+Charles who was elected. Gregory X, a Visconti of Piacenza, had spent
+his life outside Italy, and was with Edward I of England in Palestine
+when he was chosen. He was the first Pope since Honorius III, who set
+before himself the promotion of a crusade as his primary object. As an
+indispensable prerequisite of this be desired to promote the union of
+the Latin and Greek Churches. It was these unselfish objects of his
+which enabled him to check both Charles' power and his schemes. There
+was a still further point. The fall of the Hohenstaufen had destroyed
+the imperial house, and had left the Papacy not only isolated but face
+to face with one who was proving himself "a burdensome protector." The
+equilibrium of Europe had been seriously shaken. The election of two
+rival Kings of the Romans had not helped to restore it. But now
+Richard of Cornwall, who had tried to assert his position, was dead,
+and Gregory refused to recognise the claims of Alfonso of Castile. But
+Louis IX was dead also, and Charles would be likely to influence his
+nephew the new King of France more than he had ever influenced his
+high-souled brother. It was necessary to find a new King of the Romans
+who might be a counterpoise in Europe, and perhaps even in Italy, to
+Charles. Thus encouraged and almost coerced by the Pope, the German
+princes elected Rudolf Count of Hapsburg (September 1273), a man of
+"popular qualities" who was not too powerful.
+
+[Sidenote: Second Council of Lyons.]
+
+The success of the papal policy was to be advertised to Europe in a
+second Council of Lyons (May-July, 1274). This was attended by five
+hundred bishops and innumerable other clergy. An opportunity was taken
+to issue a canon, the object of which was to prevent the recurrence of
+the long vacancy in the papal see which had preceded Gregory's
+election. It was decreed that ten days after the death of the Pope the
+Cardinals should meet and should be confined in one conclave until a
+choice had been made. All intercourse with the outside world was
+forbidden; the food was to be supplied through a window, the amount of
+it being diminished after three days; while a further diminution was
+to take place five days later. The duty of supervision was entrusted
+to the magistrates of the city in which the election might be held.
+Despite the stringent resistance of the Cardinals the canon was passed
+with the aid of the bishops; and although it was more than once
+suspended, it has continued to direct the procedure at papal elections
+to the present day.
+
+[Sidenote: Union of Eastern and Western Churches.]
+
+But the real object of the meeting of the Council was that it should
+witness the reconciliation of the Eastern Church with the Western.
+More than two centuries earlier (1054) the long jealousy of Rome and
+Constantinople had ended in the rupture of communion between the
+Christians of West and East; and the Crusades and the Latin Empire of
+Constantinople had prevented any real attempt at re-union. But just
+now circumstances were favourable. Michael Palćologus, who had
+reconquered Constantinople for the Greeks and made himself Emperor,
+was in difficulties at home with a section of the clergy, and,
+threatened by the designs of Charles of Sicily, he coerced the Greek
+clergy into accepting the union with the Western Church, which gave
+the only chance of such help as would hold Charles in check. An
+embassy of Greeks appeared at Lyons; and although Bonaventura and
+Thomas Aquinas were present to argue the case for the Western Church,
+no persuasion was needed. The Greeks expressed a readiness to accept
+the primacy of Rome, the doctrine that the Holy Ghost proceeded from
+both Father and Son (whereas they had maintained His procession from
+the Father alone), and all the customs of the Western Church. It
+seemed as if at length a crusade were really possible. The chief
+sovereigns of Europe had taken the cross, and Gregory had even
+persuaded Charles of Sicily and the Greek Emperor to sign a truce.
+
+[Sidenote: Nicholas III (1277-80).]
+
+But it was not to be. Gregory's death (January 10, 1276) undid all his
+work. Charles of Sicily alone rejoiced at the vacancy, and made
+desperate efforts to secure the nomination to the Papacy again. But
+two nominees died in quick succession; and when on the death of John
+XXI after a similarly short reign, Charles again interfered, he was
+met by the election of Nicholas III of the family of Orsini, who
+returned to Rome and spent the three years of his pontificate in
+neutralising Charles' power. For this purpose he used the new King of
+the Romans. Charles was forced to resign the vicariate of Tuscany,
+which was made over to Rudolf. Charles also resigned the senatorship
+of Rome which he had held for ten years. To this Nicholas got himself
+elected, and issued a decree by which he hoped to make it impossible
+for any foreign prince to be elected, or for anyone to hold the post
+for more than a year without the papal favour.
+
+[Sidenote: Revival of the Empire.]
+
+But Nicholas was only able to give a German prince once more a footing
+in Italy because Rudolf had been effectually barred from reviving the
+Hohenstaufen claims. Already at the Council of Lyons the envoys of
+Rudolf had appeared and in his name had taken the oaths previously
+exacted from Otto IV and Frederick II. Rudolf had subsequently met
+Pope Gregory at Lausanne in 1275, and had confirmed the act of his
+representatives. Thus Gregory obtained from a crowned German King an
+acknowledgment of all the claims advanced by the Papacy since the days
+of Charles the Great. Rudolf was too busy ever to visit Rome; but in
+negotiations with regard to his coronation as Emperor, Nicholas III
+exacted the confirmation of all that was promised to Gregory, and this
+included especially the lands of the old Exarchate and the district of
+Pentapolis, which had never yet been actually in the hands of papal
+officers.
+
+[Sidenote: Martin IV (1281-5).]
+
+Dante has banned the memory of Nicholas as the simoniacal Pope. He
+certainly used his enormous patronage to enrich his own family. But
+his death (August, 1280) nearly proved fatal to the freedom of Europe;
+for Charles at length obtained his own nominee to the Papacy in the
+person of a Frenchman, Martin IV, who proceeded to hand over to the
+King for life the Roman senatorship conferred upon the Pope. All the
+work of the preceding Popes was undone. The temporary union of the
+Churches was dissolved by the excommunication of the Greek Emperor on
+the pretext that he had not carried out his promises; and Charles, who
+had obtained a footing in the Greek peninsula and made a league with
+Venice, prepared to start on his expedition against Constantinople.
+There seemed every prospect of his success.
+
+[Sidenote: Sicilian Vespers]
+
+But Charles' brutality had been imitated by his French officials; and
+the rising known as the "Sicilian Vespers" in March, 1282, cleared the
+French out of Sicily and finally overthrew all Charles' plans. The
+fleet prepared for Constantinople had to be turned against the rebel
+islanders. The Pope, thinking to play the game of his royal master,
+refused to mediate; the Sicilians thereupon declared that from St.
+Peter they would turn for aid to another Peter, and offered the crown
+to Peter, King of Aragon, the husband of Manfred's daughter,
+Constance, who for some years had welcomed Sicilian refugees at his
+court and had been ready for the summons. The Pope deprived Peter of
+his hereditary dominions and bestowed them on Charles' great nephew
+Charles of Valois, a son of Philip III of France; but the Aragonese
+fleet under Roger di Loria defeated Charles' fleet and captured his
+son and heir Charles the Lame. On January 7, 1285, Charles himself
+died, and was followed to the grave very shortly by Pope Martin IV.
+The same year saw also the death of Philip III of France and of Peter
+of Aragon. Pope Honorius IV followed the policy of his predecessor,
+and to him succeeded Nicholas IV. It was during his pontificate that
+the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, the result of the First Crusade, was
+finally wiped out by the capture of Acre (1291), and the little stir
+made by this event affords a measure of the decay of the crusading
+spirit.
+
+[Sidenote: Celestine V (1294).]
+
+On the death of Nicholas the division among the Cardinals reflecting
+the jealousies of the Roman families of Orsini and Colonna, caused a
+vacancy in the papal office for more than two years. Then by a sudden
+whim, which in the event of a successful result would have been called
+an inspiration, the name of a hermit, Peter, whose austerities in his
+cell on Monte Murrone in the Abruzzi had won him great reverence, was
+suggested apparently in all sincerity to the wearied and perplexed
+Cardinals. He was elected and took the title of Celestine V. In
+accordance with the desire of Charles II of Naples, he took up his
+abode at Naples. But he was utterly unfit for his high office, and
+after a pontificate of less than four months (August to December,
+1294) he resigned, thus perpetrating that "great refusal" which won
+Dante's immortal phrase of scorn. How far his act was due to the
+machinations of Cardinal Gaetani is uncertain. At any rate Gaetani had
+evidently obtained Charles' sanction beforehand to his own elevation,
+which took place ten days later. But the new Pope did not intend that
+anyone should be his master. For the moment he and Charles needed each
+other, and it was agreed between them that Sicily should be recovered
+for Charles, while Celestine should be given into the keeping of his
+successor lest he should become a centre for disaffection.
+
+[Sidenote: Boniface VIII (1294-1303).]
+
+Boniface VIII--such was the name of the new Pope--returned to Rome
+escorted by Charles II and his son, Charles Martel of Hungary; and his
+coronation surpassed that of all previous Popes in magnificence. The
+late Pope was soon secured and placed in a tower on the top of a
+mountain, where he died in 1296. It was not so easy for Boniface to
+fulfil his part of the compact with regard to Sicily. James, the son
+of Peter of Aragon, agreed to surrender Sicily on the understanding
+that the new Pope would withdraw the award of Aragon made by Martin IV
+to a French prince, and confirm it him. But the Sicilians refused to
+return to their French ruler and found a champion in James' younger
+brother Frederick, who was their Governor. He was crowned King of
+Sicily at Palermo in 1296. Charles II was too feeble to make any real
+headway against Frederick, and even the title of Standard-bearer of
+the Church conferred by the Pope on James of Aragon, did not keep
+Frederick's brother permanently on the papal side. In 1301 Boniface
+fell back upon the French prince Charles of Valois, to whom Pope
+Martin had given Aragon, and sent for him to attack "the new Manfred"
+in Sicily. Charles having first failed in an attempt to appease the
+Florentine factions, passed on to the south, and here Frederick
+ultimately forced him to peace and a recognition of his title as King
+of Sicily (1302). At first Boniface would not ratify a peace from
+which all reference to Pope or Church had been omitted; but in 1303
+circumstances caused him to accept it, though he exacted as a
+condition that Frederick should acknowledge himself a papal vassal.
+Frederick, however, never paid any tribute.
+
+[Sidenote: Quarrel with Colonnas.]
+
+Boniface held views of the papal power of the most exalted kind. It
+was in accordance with these that he once more made Rome the
+headquarters of the papacy. But he soon found himself involved in a
+quarrel which, purely local in origin, assumed an European importance.
+The family of Colonna by favour of Pope Nicholas IV had become one of
+the most powerful in Rome and the neighbourhood. The centre of the
+family property was the city of Palestrina. Cardinal Jacopo Colonna,
+who as the eldest brother administered it, did not distribute it
+fairly to his brothers, but rather favoured his nephews, the sons of
+his dead brother John who had been Senator of Rome. One of these was
+the Cardinal Peter. Uncle and nephew were the most influential members
+of the Roman Curia, and as Roman nobles they resented Boniface's
+design of humbling the Roman aristocracy. They refused the papal
+admonitions to deal justly with the other members of the family; they
+withdrew from the papal Court, and having already turned from
+Ghibelline to Guelf, they once more became Ghibelline and made an
+alliance with Frederick of Sicily. They published a manifesto in which
+they refused to recognise Boniface on the ground that Pope Celestine's
+abdication had been unlawful. But Celestine was dead and the Colonnas
+had voted for his successor. Boniface deposed the Cardinals and
+excommunicated them, even declaring a crusade against them! The
+struggle centred round Palestrina, and it is said that the Pope
+fetched from a Franciscan cloister a once famous Ghibelline general,
+Guy of Montefeltro, by whose advice he decoyed the Colonnas out of
+their fortress by promises which he did not intend to keep. Palestrina
+was levelled to the ground and the Colonnas fled (1298), finding
+refuge among the enemies of Boniface and preparing the way for the
+final catastrophe.
+
+[Sidenote: Papal Jubilee.]
+
+Boniface, however, had become his own master at home to an extent
+attained by none of his predecessors since Innocent III. His reign
+reached what may be termed its high-water mark in the Papal Jubilee of
+1300. The cessation of the Crusades had largely increased the crowds
+of pilgrims to Rome, until in 1299 there awoke an expectation of
+special spiritual privileges in connection with the end of the
+century. Indulgences had been so freely scattered in attempts to
+promote the Crusades that a craving for them had been created.
+Boniface recognised the importance of exploiting the popular feeling,
+and after a mock enquiry he issued a bull promising generous
+indulgences to all who should visit the Churches of SS. Peter and Paul
+during the year for so many successive days, and directing that a
+similar pilgrimage should be proclaimed every hundredth year. Pilgrims
+flocked to Rome; 30,000 are reckoned to have entered and left daily,
+while 200,000 were in Rome at any given moment. The amount of the
+offerings must have been enormous, and the Ghibellines naturally
+declared that the Jubilee had its origin in the papal need for money.
+But most of the pilgrims were poor; and even if the size of the crowds
+were a just measure of the continued hold of the Roman Church upon the
+people of Western Europe, the absence of all the monarchs except
+Charles Martel, the claimant of Hungary, was significant. Indeed,
+Boniface had already experienced a foretaste of the independent
+attitude of the secular princes, which eventually proved fatal to him.
+Rudolf of Hapsburg died in 1291, and the German princes, rejecting the
+claims of his son Albert, elected Adolf of Nassau as their King. But
+Adolf proved less submissive than his electors had hoped to find him.
+He was deposed and fell in battle, and Albert was chosen and crowned
+without any reference to the Pope--the first occasion on which the
+German princes had acted without papal authority. Boniface had already
+barred Albert's claims. He now refused to recognise him, declaring
+that the Empire owed all its honour and dignity to the papal favour.
+Nevertheless, in 1303 circumstances forced him to accept Albert,
+especially since Albert was willing in return to confirm all that his
+father Rudolf had granted to the Papacy.
+
+[Sidenote: First quarrel with France and England.]
+
+But this quarrel with Germany sinks into insignificance before the
+great contest of Boniface with France, with which his English dispute
+was also closely connected. The Hohenstaufen had fallen before the
+Papacy because their German kingdom and the "German" Empire rested on
+no solid foundation. But in his attempts to coerce France and England
+into obedience the Pope found himself face to face with two strong
+national monarchies. Boniface failed to grasp the position. Edward I
+of England and Philip IV of France were engaged in war. Each resorted
+to every available method of raising money for the conduct of the war,
+and among other ways laid heavy taxes on the clergy. Boniface having
+failed to make the Kings submit their quarrels to his judgment, issued
+a bull, _Clericis Laicos_ (February, 1296), by which he forbade,
+under pain of excommunication, that any prelate or ecclesiastical body
+should pay or laymen should exact from the clergy any taxes under any
+pretext without papal leave. Edward I met this manifesto by
+confiscating the lay fees of all ecclesiastics; while Philip forbade
+the export of all money from France, thus depriving the Pope and all
+Italian ecclesiastics endowed with French benefices, of the usual
+sources of income from France. The English clergy, with the exception
+of the Archbishop of Canterbury, made their own arrangements with the
+King. But in order to avoid a rupture with France Boniface issued
+another bull, _Ineffabilis_, in which he explained that
+ecclesiastics were not forbidden to contribute to the needs of the
+State; and by subsequent letters he allowed that they might pay taxes
+of their own free will, and even that in cases of necessity the King
+might take taxes without waiting for the papal leave. He certainly
+told his legates to excommunicate the King and his officials if they
+should prevent money coming from France; but in order to gain Philip's
+favour he granted him the tithe of the French clergy for three years,
+he placed Louis IX among the recognised saints of the Church, and he
+promised that Philip's brother, Charles of Valois, should be made
+German King and Emperor.
+
+Good relations having been established Philip and Edward now agreed to
+submit their differences to Boniface. Philip, however, stipulated that
+Boniface should act in the matter not as Pope but in a personal
+capacity, and the Pope issued his award "as a private person and
+Master Benedict Gaetani" (June 30,1298). But the judgment was in the
+form of a bull, and ordered that the lands to be surrendered on either
+side should be placed in the custody of the papal officers. Philip
+could not reject the award; but he determined to prepare for a
+conflict which was clearly inevitable. He gave refuge to some members
+of the Colonna family, and he made an alliance with Albert of Austria
+(1299).
+
+[Sidenote: Second quarrel with England.]
+
+Meanwhile Boniface began a second quarrel with England. Edward I had
+refused the papal offers of mediation on behalf of Scotland. But after
+the battle of Falkirk the national representatives of Scotland
+appealed to Boniface as suzerain of the kingdom. The Pope wrote to
+Edward claiming that from ancient times the kingdom of Scotland had
+belonged by full right to the Roman Church, and demanding that Edward
+should submit all causes of difference between himself and the Scots
+to the Papacy. The English answer was given in a Parliament called for
+the purpose to Lincoln (1301), by which a document addressed to the
+Pope asserted for the English Kings a right over Scotland from the
+first institution of the English kingdom, and denied that Scotland had
+ever depended in temporal matters on the Roman Pontiff. Any further
+action was prevented by the beginning of the final quarrel between
+Boniface and Philip.
+
+[Sidenote: With France.]
+
+The Pope found it necessary to complain frequently of Philip's misuse
+of the royal right of regale, and in 1301 relations became so strained
+that he sent a legate, Bernard of Saisset, Bishop of Pamiers in the
+south of France. But Bernard was arrogant, and on being claimed by
+Philip as a subject, he exclaimed that he owned no lord but the Pope.
+Since Boniface administered no reproof Philip procured the
+condemnation of the Bishop for treason. The Pope in fury issued four
+bulls in one day, the most important addressed to Philip and beginning
+_Ausculta fili_, in which he asserted that God had set up the
+Pope over Kings and kingdoms in order to destroy, to scatter, to build
+and to plant in His name and doctrine. Philip caused the bull to be
+publicly burnt--"the first flame which consumed a papal bull"--and
+called an Assembly of the Estates of the Realm, in which for the first
+time the commons were included. The Cardinals, in answering the
+remonstrances sent by the nobles and commons, denied that the Pope had
+ever told the King that he should be subject in temporal matters to
+Rome; and Boniface assured the French clergy that he merely claimed
+that the King was subject to him "in respect of sin."
+
+[Sidenote: The final struggle.]
+
+But in July, 1302, the burghers of Flanders inflicted a severe defeat
+on the French forces in the battle of Courtray; and the Pope, taking
+advantage of Philip's humiliation before Europe, immediately assumed a
+more defiant attitude. In a Council at Rome and before the French
+envoys, he declared that his predecessors had deposed three Kings of
+France and, if necessary, he would depose the King "like a groom"
+(_garcio_). He followed this up by issuing the most famous of his
+bulls, _Unam Sanctam_, in which he roundly asserted that the
+submission of every human creature to Rome was a condition of
+salvation. Finally, while on the one side he excommunicated Philip
+(April 13, 1303), he hastened to recognise Albert as King of Germany,
+and ratified the peace made between Frederick of Sicily and Charles of
+Valois. Philip on his side abandoned his Scots allies in order to make
+peace with England (May 20, 1303), and called for a second time an
+Assembly of the Estates. Before its members the aged Pope was accused
+of heresy, murder, and even lust; and the appeal to a General Council
+was now adopted by the representatives of the whole French nation. But
+it was certain that the excommunication of Philip would be followed by
+his deposition; and Philip and his councillors determined to forestall
+this. Urged on by the Colonnas the French King conceived the plan of
+seizing the person of the Pope and bringing him before a council to be
+held at Lyons. Boniface was at his native Anagni, and Philip's
+emissaries, in conjunction with many Italian enemies of the Pope,
+forced their way into the town and seized the old man (September 3,
+1303). He was rescued and taken back to Rome; but the shock of the
+attack unhinged his reason and hastened his end. He died on October 11
+at the age of eighty-six. His foes described his last days in lurid
+colours; but the violent behaviour of his enemies caused strong
+disgust throughout Christendom.
+
+To a contemporary, Boniface was "magnanimus peccator," the
+great-hearted sinner; while a modern historian describes him as
+"devoid of every spiritual virtue." If Canossa was the humiliation for
+the Empire which the ecclesiastical annalists describe, in the
+pettiness of the stage and the insignificance of the actors Anagni was
+an ample revenge of the lay spirit. The Papacy which had worn down the
+Empire had dashed itself in vain against the new phenomenon of a
+strong national spirit.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE CHURCHES OF THE EAST
+
+
+[Sidenote: The Eastern Church.]
+
+A history of the Church Universal must needs take some notice of those
+Christian communities which never acknowledged the supremacy of Rome.
+Chief among these stands the Church of the Eastern Empire where the
+Patriarch of Constantinople strove to make himself at least the equal
+of the Bishop of Rome. This mutual jealousy of the old and the new
+Rome was only one of the causes of quarrel between them, a quarrel
+which was fanned from time to time by the appeal of a defeated party
+in some ecclesiastical dispute at Constantinople to the Pope. The most
+famous of these disputes was that begun by the deposition of the
+aristocratic Ignatius from the patriarchate in favour of the learned
+Photius. Both Emperor and Patriarch appealed from Constantinople to
+Pope Nicholas I; but when that masterful bishop decided against the
+new patriarch, Photius used his learning to summarise in eight
+articles the differences between east and west. Of these, two
+concerned such important matters as the doctrine of the procession of
+the Holy Ghost and the practice of clerical celibacy.
+
+[Sidenote: Breach between East and West.]
+
+The schism made by this quarrel was healed for the moment, but for the
+first time the points of difference between the two Churches had been
+crystallised. The Eastern Emperors, however, who still possessed lands
+in the Italian peninsula, felt it to their interest to remain friendly
+with the pope, and in 1024 an attempt on the part of Basil II to
+adjust the question of dignity by the suggestion that both the
+Patriarch and the Pope should assume the title of Universal bishop,
+was only defeated by the inextinguishable jealousy of the Western
+Church. The presence of the Normans in Southern Italy should have
+united Pope and Eastern Emperor against the intruders; but the Greek
+Church only saw in the Norman successes a danger lest Southern Italy
+should pass from the Greek to the Latin communion, and the Patriarch
+Michael Caerularius joined with the Bulgarian Archbishop of Achrida in
+publicly warning the inhabitants of Apulia against the errors of the
+Latin Church. The one especially noted was the use of unleavened bread
+at the Sacrament, with the addition of others of even less importance.
+The Emperor Constantine Monomachos strove hard in the interests of
+peace and even compelled a literary champion of the Greek Church,
+Nicetas Pectoratus, a monk of the monastery of Studium, to repudiate
+his own arguments. But the violence of the papal envoys and the
+obstinacy of the Patriarch made agreement impossible. Finally the
+legates laid upon the altar of St. Sophia's Church a document in which
+Michael and all his party were anathematised; and the Patriarch
+responded by summoning a Council, which in like manner banned the
+Western Church (1054). Not only was Michael's action supported by the
+clergy and people of Constantinople, but it was ratified by the
+approval of the Patriarchs of Bulgaria and Antioch.
+
+[Sidenote: Attempts at reconciliation.]
+
+Attempts to promote reunion between the Churches were made at
+intervals. The danger from the Mohammedans forced the Emperors of the
+East to seek help in the West and encouraged the theologians of the
+West in their maintenance of a perfectly rigid attitude. These
+approaches began with the forced intercourse of the First Crusade, and
+in 1098 Urban II held a Council at Bari among the Greeks of Southern
+Italy, at which Anselm of Canterbury, then in voluntary exile, was put
+forward to propound the Roman view. In 1112 Peter Grosolanus the
+defeated candidate for the archbishopric of Milan, as an emissary of
+Pope Pascal II discussed the points at issue before the Emperor
+Alexius Comnenus and was answered by Eustratius Archbishop of Nicaea.
+Again in 1135 Lothair III had sent as ambassador to John Comnenus a
+Premonstratensian Canon Anselm afterwards Bishop of Havelberg, who
+held a debate with Nicetas Archbishop of Nicomedia. According to the
+report which he subsequently drew up at the request of Eugenius III,
+the points discussed were the procession of the Holy Ghost, the use of
+unleavened bread and the claims of Rome. A generation later the
+Emperor Manuel Comnenus held a conference at Constantinople (1170) for
+the promotion of a union which he sincerely desired; while extant
+letters of Eugenius III and Hadrian IV to ecclesiastics of the Eastern
+Church show that the head of the Western Church did not ignore the
+question of Christian unity. But there were too many political causes
+of division. The success of the crusaders involved the establishment
+of the Latin Church in lands claimed by the Eastern Empire. And this
+affected not only the principalities of Syria, but also Cyprus which
+Richard Coeur de Lion conquered and handed over to Guy of Lusignan in
+compensation for his lost kingdom of Jerusalem; as a consequence of
+which the Greek clergy and monks there were cruelly persecuted. The
+aggression of the Latin Church was even more conspicuous when the
+Normans conquered Thessalonica in 1186 and treated the Greek churches
+and services with contumely, and when Innocent III took advantage of
+the fact that the Bulgarian monarch had repudiated the suzerainty of
+Constantinople, to reassert over the Bulgarian Church the supremacy of
+Rome. The Greeks did not suffer without protest and the massacre of
+the Latins of Constantinople under the usurper Andronicus (1183)
+showed the depth as well as the impotence of the Greek hatred. The
+climax of all previous acts of usurpation was reached in the capture
+of Constantinople and the organisation of a Latin Church beside the
+Latin empire. But the Greek Emperors who ruled at Nicaea found it
+politic to pretend a desire for union of the Churches, and in 1233 and
+again in 1234 negotiations were carried on between the Greek Patriarch
+Germanus and some Dominican and Franciscan emissaries of Gregory IX.
+But the bargaining was one-sided; for while with Rome Christian unity
+never rose above an object to be kept in view, to the Greeks of the
+East it presented itself as the only condition on which they could
+claim the help which might save them from gradual extinction. And this
+became even more apparent than hitherto after the reconquest of
+Constantinople by the Greeks; for it seemed as if the prospect of a
+peaceful reunion of the Churches alone might remove the pretext now
+given to the princes of the West for a new crusade directed against
+Constantinople. This was no imaginary danger; for Charles of Anjou and
+Naples had made himself the champion of the dispossessed Latin Emperor
+and was preparing to attack. So Michael Palaeologus who had rewon
+Constantinople for the Greeks and himself, made overtures to Pope
+Urban IV; and negotiations were thus begun which ended in the
+appearance of Greek delegates at the second Council of Lyons in 1274.
+These accepted, on behalf of the Greek Church and empire, the primacy
+of Rome and the Latin Creed. In return, the Bulgarian Church was once
+more restored to its own Metropolitan at Achrida. But all Michael's
+coercive efforts failed to make the union acceptable to his own clergy
+and people. It was so difficult to carry out the promised assimilation
+of the Greek to the Latin forms that the Popes became impatient; and
+when Nicholas III, the opponent of Charles of Sicily, was succeeded by
+Martin IV, the tool of that ambitious monarch, the excommunication
+launched by the new Pope against the Eastern Emperor was merely a
+preliminary step to the general attack on the empire planned by
+Charles. Michael's son and successor Andronicus entirely repudiated
+the agreement made at Lyons; but the misfortunes of Charles in Sicily
+removed the serious danger of invasion from the West. Overtures for
+ecclesiastical union were not renewed until the conquests of the Turks
+in the Balkan peninsula forced the Greeks to seek external aid.
+
+[Sidenote: Internal condition of Church.]
+
+The internal condition of the Eastern Church during these centuries
+does not call for much detailed treatment. The end of the iconoclastic
+quarrel had been followed by the development of great elaboration of
+ceremonial in the services. It is true that learning was not dead and
+that the Emperors of the Comnenan house distinctly encouraged it. But
+the literature of ancient Greece and the theological works of the
+Fathers of the early Church appeared to the writers of these centuries
+to have exhausted all earthly possibilities in their respective
+spheres. The writings of learned Christians did not rescue their
+religion from pure formalism; while the study of the classics led them
+to the ancient philosophers and landed many of the students in
+paganism. Under the circumstances it is not perhaps wonderful that
+there arose a sect called Gnosimachi who deprecated any attempt after
+knowledge of the Scriptures on the ground that God demands good deeds
+done in all simplicity. It is, however, among the monks, if anywhere,
+that personal piety should have been retained. But such as existed,
+was inclined to take fantastic forms; and we are told of those who
+wrapped themselves round with the odour of sanctity by self-inflicted
+tortures of a useless and meaningless kind. There was no foundation of
+new monastic Orders in the East such as during these centuries led to
+the maintenance of the missionary spirit in the West. But it was from
+the monastic bodies alone that any opposition was offered to the
+actions of the Emperor. The most noteworthy case was that of the Abbot
+Nicephorus Blemmydes whose attempts to promote an understanding
+between the Eastern and Western Churches (1245) were foiled, because
+he had the temerity to deal harshly with the mistress of the Emperor
+John Dukas. Indeed the imperial authority was an influence stronger
+than any other, with the possible exception of hatred of the Latin
+Church. Such dogmatic discussions as occasionally arose, were
+concerned with unimportant points: but the participation of the
+Emperor did not necessarily tend to either truth or peace. Manuel I
+not only intervened in such disputes, but even started them himself
+and enforced his view by punishing those who took the opposite side.
+
+[Sidenote: Heresies.]
+
+The Eastern Church, like that of the West, had to deal with heretical
+sects. The Paulicians who in the ninth century had formed a
+politico-religious community on the confines of the empire, were
+deprived of their political power by Basil I in 872; while in 969 John
+Tzimisces transferred a portion of them from their settlements in Asia
+Minor to the district of Philippopolis in Thrace. Here they throve,
+until their desertion of the Emperor Alexius in his war against Robert
+Guiscard and the Normans ended the toleration hitherto extended to the
+exercise of their religion, and the "thirteenth apostle," as his
+literary daughter Anna Comnena styles him, entered on a plan of
+forcible conversion. Alexius also dealt severely with another body of
+heretics. The Bogomiles were perhaps a revival of the earlier sect of
+the Euchites or Messalians who are mentioned by writers of the fourth
+century. The origin of the name is obscure, but it is said to mean
+"Friends of God." Their tenets resembled those of the Cathari with
+whom they were most probably connected. Alexius by pretending sympathy
+got from their leader an avowal of his doctrines and then had him
+burnt (1116). But in neither of these cases did violent suppression
+achieve its purpose. Despite the foundation of the orthodox city of
+Alexiopolis in the neighbourhood, the Paulicians still continued about
+Philippopolis, where they were secretly strengthened in their
+particularist attitude by the continued presence of the remnants of
+the Bogomiles. Even a century later the Patriarch Germanus (1230)
+attacks the latter on the plea that they are still secretly making
+converts.
+
+[Sidenote: Other Eastern Churches.]
+
+Of the other Christian Churches of the East we have seen that the
+Nestorians were very active among the Tartars throughout Asia. They
+and their Syrian neighbours but dogmatic opponents, the Jacobites, a
+monophysite body, adopted a conciliatory disposition towards the
+crusaders. In 1237 the prior of the Dominicans in Jerusalem reported
+to Gregory IX that the Maphrian of the Jacobites, a kind of lesser
+patriarch, had acknowledged the supremacy of Rome; but a submission
+given from stress of circumstances carried no permanent weight; and
+subsequent correspondence between Innocent IV and officials of both
+churches seems to have been wilfully misunderstood at Rome. There were
+two other Christian churches whose conduct was guided by proximity to
+the Mohammedans. The small body of the Maronites on Mount Lebanon kept
+their ancient customs but attached themselves to the Roman Church in
+1182 and remained faithful to her. The more important Armenian Church
+wavered between Rome and Constantinople. Manuel Comnenus made
+overtures to the Patriarch or Catholicos, which were prevented from
+coming to any result by the emperor's death. Shortly afterwards Leo
+the Great of Armenia was recognised as King by the Emperor Henry VI
+and was crowned by the Archbishop of Mainz; and in return he and his
+Catholicos recognised the supremacy of Rome. In 1240 the Greek
+patriarch tried to win over the Catholicos to the Eastern Church. In
+1292 the Armenian King Haiton II, who became a Franciscan friar,
+persuaded his church to accept the Roman customs: but despite this
+nominal subjection to Rome, the obstinacy of the people prevented any
+real change in either doctrine or organisation.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Church and the Empire, by D. J. Medley
+
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