diff options
Diffstat (limited to '731-0.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 731-0.txt | 29766 |
1 files changed, 29766 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/731-0.txt b/731-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7518ea9 --- /dev/null +++ b/731-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,29766 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you +will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before +using this eBook. + +Title: The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire + Volume 1 + +Author: Edward Gibbon + +Commentator: H. H. Milman + +Release Date: November, 1996 [eBook #731] +[Most recently updated: March 7, 2021] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +Produced by: David Reed and David Widger + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE *** + + + + + HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE + + Edward Gibbon, Esq. + + With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman + + Vol. 1 + + 1782 (Written), 1845 (Revised) + + CONTENTS + + Introduction + + Preface By The Editor. + + Preface Of The Author. + + Preface To The First Volume. + + Preface To The Fourth Volume Of The Original Quarto Edition. + + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The + Antonines—Part I. + + The Extent And Military Force Of The Empire In The Age Of The + Antonines. + + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part II. + + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part III. + + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part I. + + Of The Union And Internal Prosperity Of The Roman Empire, In The + Age Of The Antonines. + + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part II. + + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part III. + + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The + Antonines. Part IV. + + Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part I. + + Of The Constitution Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of The + Antonines. + + Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part II. + + Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.—Part + I. + + The Cruelty, Follies, And Murder Of Commodus—Election Of + Pertinax—His Attempts To Reform The State—His Assassination By The + Prætorian Guards. + + Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.—Part + II. + + Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus.—Part I. + + Public Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus By The Prætorian + Guards—Clodius Albinus In Britain, Pescennius Niger In Syria, And + Septimius Severus In Pannonia, Declare Against The Murderers Of + Pertinax—Civil Wars And Victory Of Severus Over His Three + Rivals—Relaxation Of Discipline—New Maxims Of Government. + + Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus.—Part II. + + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation + Of Marcinus.—Part I. + + The Death Of Severus.—Tyranny Of Caracalla.—Usurpation Of + Macrinus.—Follies Of Elagabalus.—Virtues Of Alexander + Severus.—Licentiousness Of The Army.—General State Of The Roman + Finances. + + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation + Of Marcinus.—Part II. + + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation + Of Marcinus.—Part III. + + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation + Of Marcinus.—Part IV. + + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death + Of Maximin.—Part I. + + The Elevation And Tyranny Of Maximin.—Rebellion In Africa And + Italy, Under The Authority Of The Senate.—Civil Wars And + Seditions.—Violent Deaths Of Maximin And His Son, Of Maximus And + Balbinus, And Of The Three Gordians.— Usurpation And Secular Games + Of Philip. + + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death + Of Maximin.—Part II. + + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death + Of Maximin.—Part III. + + Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The + Monarchy.—Part I. + + Of The State Of Persia After The Restoration Of The Monarchy By + Artaxerxes. + + Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The + Monarchy.—Part II. + + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part I. + + The State Of Germany Till The Invasion Of The Barbarians In The + Time Of The Emperor Decius. + + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part II. + + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part III. + + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus—Part I. + + The Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian, And + Gallienus.—The General Irruption Of The Barbari Ans.—The Thirty + Tyrants. + + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part II. + + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part III. + + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part IV. + + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part I. + + Reign Of Claudius.—Defeat Of The Goths.—Victories, Triumph, And + Death Of Aurelian. + + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part II. + + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part III. + + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His + Sons.—Part I. + + Conduct Of The Army And Senate After The Death Of Aurelian. + —Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus, And His Sons. + + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His + Sons.—Part II. + + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His + Sons.—Part III. + + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three + Associates.—Part I. + + The Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates, Maximian, + Galerius, And Constantius.—General Reestablishment Of Order And + Tranquillity.—The Persian War, Victory, And Triumph.—The New Form + Of Administration.—Abdication And Retirement Of Diocletian And + Maximian. + + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three + Associates.—Part II. + + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three + Associates.—Part III. + + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three + Associates.—Part IV. + + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The + Empire.—Part I. + + Troubles After The Abdication Of Diocletian.—Death Of + Constantius.—Elevation Of Constantine And Maxen Tius.— Six + Emperors At The Same Time.—Death Of Maximian And + Galerius.—Victories Of Constantine Over Maxentius And + Licinus.—Reunion Of The Empire Under The Authority Of Constantine. + + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The + Empire.—Part II. + + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The + Empire.—Part III. + + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The + Empire.—Part IV. + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part I. + + The Progress Of The Christian Religion, And The Sentiments, + Manners, Numbers, And Condition Of The Primitive Christians. + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part II. + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part III. + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part IV. + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part V. + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VI. + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VII + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VIII. + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part IX. + + + + + Introduction + + Preface By The Editor. + + + The great work of Gibbon is indispensable to the student of + history. The literature of Europe offers no substitute for “The + Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.” It has obtained undisputed + possession, as rightful occupant, of the vast period which it + comprehends. However some subjects, which it embraces, may have + undergone more complete investigation, on the general view of the + whole period, this history is the sole undisputed authority to + which all defer, and from which few appeal to the original + writers, or to more modern compilers. The inherent interest of + the subject, the inexhaustible labor employed upon it; the + immense condensation of matter; the luminous arrangement; the + general accuracy; the style, which, however monotonous from its + uniform stateliness, and sometimes wearisome from its elaborate + ar., is throughout vigorous, animated, often picturesque, always + commands attention, always conveys its meaning with emphatic + energy, describes with singular breadth and fidelity, and + generalizes with unrivalled felicity of expression; all these + high qualifications have secured, and seem likely to secure, its + permanent place in historic literature. + + This vast design of Gibbon, the magnificent whole into which he + has cast the decay and ruin of the ancient civilization, the + formation and birth of the new order of things, will of itself, + independent of the laborious execution of his immense plan, + render “The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire” an + unapproachable subject to the future historian: 101 in the + eloquent language of his recent French editor, M. Guizot:— + + 101 (return) [ A considerable portion of this preface has already + appeared before us public in the Quarterly Review.] + + “The gradual decline of the most extraordinary dominion which has + ever invaded and oppressed the world; the fall of that immense + empire, erected on the ruins of so many kingdoms, republics, and + states both barbarous and civilized; and forming in its turn, by + its dismemberment, a multitude of states, republics, and + kingdoms; the annihilation of the religion of Greece and Rome; + the birth and the progress of the two new religions which have + shared the most beautiful regions of the earth; the decrepitude + of the ancient world, the spectacle of its expiring glory and + degenerate manners; the infancy of the modern world, the picture + of its first progress, of the new direction given to the mind and + character of man—such a subject must necessarily fix the + attention and excite the interest of men, who cannot behold with + indifference those memorable epochs, during which, in the fine + language of Corneille— + + ‘Un grand destin commence, un grand destin s’achève.’” + + This extent and harmony of design is unquestionably that which + distinguishes the work of Gibbon from all other great historical + compositions. He has first bridged the abyss between ancient and + modern times, and connected together the two great worlds of + history. The great advantage which the classical historians + possess over those of modern times is in unity of plan, of course + greatly facilitated by the narrower sphere to which their + researches were confined. Except Herodotus, the great historians + of Greece—we exclude the more modern compilers, like Diodorus + Siculus—limited themselves to a single period, or at ‘east to the + contracted sphere of Grecian affairs. As far as the Barbarians + trespassed within the Grecian boundary, or were necessarily + mingled up with Grecian politics, they were admitted into the + pale of Grecian history; but to Thucydides and to Xenophon, + excepting in the Persian inroad of the latter, Greece was the + world. Natural unity confined their narrative almost to + chronological order, the episodes were of rare occurrence and + extremely brief. To the Roman historians the course was equally + clear and defined. Rome was their centre of unity; and the + uniformity with which the circle of the Roman dominion spread + around, the regularity with which their civil polity expanded, + forced, as it were, upon the Roman historian that plan which + Polybius announces as the subject of his history, the means and + the manner by which the whole world became subject to the Roman + sway. How different the complicated politics of the European + kingdoms! Every national history, to be complete, must, in a + certain sense, be the history of Europe; there is no knowing to + how remote a quarter it may be necessary to trace our most + domestic events; from a country, how apparently disconnected, may + originate the impulse which gives its direction to the whole + course of affairs. + + In imitation of his classical models, Gibbon places _Rome_ as the + cardinal point from which his inquiries diverge, and to which + they bear constant reference; yet how immeasurable the space over + which those inquiries range! how complicated, how confused, how + apparently inextricable the causes which tend to the decline of + the Roman empire! how countless the nations which swarm forth, in + mingling and indistinct hordes, constantly changing the + geographical limits—incessantly confounding the natural + boundaries! At first sight, the whole period, the whole state of + the world, seems to offer no more secure footing to an historical + adventurer than the chaos of Milton—to be in a state of + irreclaimable disorder, best described in the language of the + poet:— + + —“A dark Illimitable ocean, without bound, Without dimension, + where length, breadth, and height, + And time, and place, are lost: where eldest Night And Chaos, + ancestors of Nature, hold Eternal anarchy, amidst the noise Of + endless wars, and by confusion stand.” + + We feel that the unity and harmony of narrative, which shall + comprehend this period of social disorganization, must be + ascribed entirely to the skill and luminous disposition of the + historian. It is in this sublime Gothic architecture of his work, + in which the boundless range, the infinite variety, the, at first + sight, incongruous gorgeousness of the separate parts, + nevertheless are all subordinate to one main and predominant + idea, that Gibbon is unrivalled. We cannot but admire the manner + in which he masses his materials, and arranges his facts in + successive groups, not according to chronological order, but to + their moral or political connection; the distinctness with which + he marks his periods of gradually increasing decay; and the skill + with which, though advancing on separate parallels of history, he + shows the common tendency of the slower or more rapid religious + or civil innovations. However these principles of composition may + demand more than ordinary attention on the part of the reader, + they can alone impress upon the memory the real course, and the + relative importance of the events. Whoever would justly + appreciate the superiority of Gibbon’s lucid arrangement, should + attempt to make his way through the regular but wearisome annals + of Tillemont, or even the less ponderous volumes of Le Beau. Both + these writers adhere, almost entirely, to chronological order; + the consequence is, that we are twenty times called upon to break + off, and resume the thread of six or eight wars in different + parts of the empire; to suspend the operations of a military + expedition for a court intrigue; to hurry away from a siege to a + council; and the same page places us in the middle of a campaign + against the barbarians, and in the depths of the Monophysite + controversy. In Gibbon it is not always easy to bear in mind the + exact dates but the course of events is ever clear and distinct; + like a skilful general, though his troops advance from the most + remote and opposite quarters, they are constantly bearing down + and concentrating themselves on one point—that which is still + occupied by the name, and by the waning power of Rome. Whether he + traces the progress of hostile religions, or leads from the + shores of the Baltic, or the verge of the Chinese empire, the + successive hosts of barbarians—though one wave has hardly burst + and discharged itself, before another swells up and + approaches—all is made to flow in the same direction, and the + impression which each makes upon the tottering fabric of the + Roman greatness, connects their distant movements, and measures + the relative importance assigned to them in the panoramic + history. The more peaceful and didactic episodes on the + development of the Roman law, or even on the details of + ecclesiastical history, interpose themselves as resting-places or + divisions between the periods of barbaric invasion. In short, + though distracted first by the two capitals, and afterwards by + the formal partition of the empire, the extraordinary felicity of + arrangement maintains an order and a regular progression. As our + horizon expands to reveal to us the gathering tempests which are + forming far beyond the boundaries of the civilized world—as we + follow their successive approach to the trembling frontier—the + compressed and receding line is still distinctly visible; though + gradually dismembered and the broken fragments assuming the form + of regular states and kingdoms, the real relation of those + kingdoms to the empire is maintained and defined; and even when + the Roman dominion has shrunk into little more than the province + of Thrace—when the name of Rome, confined, in Italy, to the walls + of the city—yet it is still the memory, the shade of the Roman + greatness, which extends over the wide sphere into which the + historian expands his later narrative; the whole blends into the + unity, and is manifestly essential to the double catastrophe of + his tragic drama. + + But the amplitude, the magnificence, or the harmony of design, + are, though imposing, yet unworthy claims on our admiration, + unless the details are filled up with correctness and accuracy. + No writer has been more severely tried on this point than Gibbon. + He has undergone the triple scrutiny of theological zeal + quickened by just resentment, of literary emulation, and of that + mean and invidious vanity which delights in detecting errors in + writers of established fame. On the result of the trial, we may + be permitted to summon competent witnesses before we deliver our + own judgment. + + M. Guizot, in his preface, after stating that in France and + Germany, as well as in England, in the most enlightened countries + of Europe, Gibbon is constantly cited as an authority, thus + proceeds:— + + “I have had occasion, during my labors, to consult the writings + of philosophers, who have treated on the finances of the Roman + empire; of scholars, who have investigated the chronology; of + theologians, who have searched the depths of ecclesiastical + history; of writers on law, who have studied with care the Roman + jurisprudence; of Orientalists, who have occupied themselves with + the Arabians and the Koran; of modern historians, who have + entered upon extensive researches touching the crusades and their + influence; each of these writers has remarked and pointed out, in + the ‘History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,’ some + negligences, some false or imperfect views, some omissions, which + it is impossible not to suppose voluntary; they have rectified + some facts, combated with advantage some assertions; but in + general they have taken the researches and the ideas of Gibbon, + as points of departure, or as proofs of the researches or of the + new opinions which they have advanced.” + + M. Guizot goes on to state his own impressions on reading + Gibbon’s history, and no authority will have greater weight with + those to whom the extent and accuracy of his historical + researches are known:— + + “After a first rapid perusal, which allowed me to feel nothing + but the interest of a narrative, always animated, and, + notwithstanding its extent and the variety of objects which it + makes to pass before the view, always perspicuous, I entered upon + a minute examination of the details of which it was composed; and + the opinion which I then formed was, I confess, singularly + severe. I discovered, in certain chapters, errors which appeared + to me sufficiently important and numerous to make me believe that + they had been written with extreme negligence; in others, I was + struck with a certain tinge of partiality and prejudice, which + imparted to the exposition of the facts that want of truth and + justice, which the English express by their happy term + _misrepresentation_. Some imperfect (_tronquées_) quotations; + some passages, omitted unintentionally or designedly cast a + suspicion on the honesty (_bonne foi_) of the author; and his + violation of the first law of history—increased to my eye by the + prolonged attention with which I occupied myself with every + phrase, every note, every reflection—caused me to form upon the + whole work, a judgment far too rigorous. After having finished my + labors, I allowed some time to elapse before I reviewed the + whole. A second attentive and regular perusal of the entire work, + of the notes of the author, and of those which I had thought it + right to subjoin, showed me how much I had exaggerated the + importance of the reproaches which Gibbon really deserved; I was + struck with the same errors, the same partiality on certain + subjects; but I had been far from doing adequate justice to the + immensity of his researches, the variety of his knowledge, and + above all, to that truly philosophical discrimination (_justesse + d’esprit_) which judges the past as it would judge the present; + which does not permit itself to be blinded by the clouds which + time gathers around the dead, and which prevent us from seeing + that, under the toga, as under the modern dress, in the senate as + in our councils, men were what they still are, and that events + took place eighteen centuries ago, as they take place in our + days. I then felt that his book, in spite of its faults, will + always be a noble work—and that we may correct his errors and + combat his prejudices, without ceasing to admit that few men have + combined, if we are not to say in so high a degree, at least in a + manner so complete, and so well regulated, the necessary + qualifications for a writer of history.” + + The present editor has followed the track of Gibbon through many + parts of his work; he has read his authorities with constant + reference to his pages, and must pronounce his deliberate + judgment, in terms of the highest admiration as to his general + accuracy. Many of his seeming errors are almost inevitable from + the close condensation of his matter. From the immense range of + his history, it was sometimes necessary to compress into a single + sentence, a whole vague and diffuse page of a Byzantine + chronicler. Perhaps something of importance may have thus + escaped, and his expressions may not quite contain the whole + substance of the passage from which they are taken. His limits, + at times, compel him to sketch; where that is the case, it is not + fair to expect the full details of the finished picture. At times + he can only deal with important results; and in his account of a + war, it sometimes requires great attention to discover that the + events which seem to be comprehended in a single campaign, occupy + several years. But this admirable skill in selecting and giving + prominence to the points which are of real weight and + importance—this distribution of light and shade—though perhaps it + may occasionally betray him into vague and imperfect statements, + is one of the highest excellencies of Gibbon’s historic manner. + It is the more striking, when we pass from the works of his chief + authorities, where, after laboring through long, minute, and + wearisome descriptions of the accessary and subordinate + circumstances, a single unmarked and undistinguished sentence, + which we may overlook from the inattention of fatigue, contains + the great moral and political result. + + Gibbon’s method of arrangement, though on the whole most + favorable to the clear comprehension of the events, leads + likewise to apparent inaccuracy. That which we expect to find in + one part is reserved for another. The estimate which we are to + form, depends on the accurate balance of statements in remote + parts of the work; and we have sometimes to correct and modify + opinions, formed from one chapter by those of another. Yet, on + the other hand, it is astonishing how rarely we detect + contradiction; the mind of the author has already harmonized the + whole result to truth and probability; the general impression is + almost invariably the same. The quotations of Gibbon have + likewise been called in question;—I have, _in general_, been more + inclined to admire their exactitude, than to complain of their + indistinctness, or incompleteness. Where they are imperfect, it + is commonly from the study of brevity, and rather from the desire + of compressing the substance of his notes into pointed and + emphatic sentences, than from dishonesty, or uncandid suppression + of truth. + + These observations apply more particularly to the accuracy and + fidelity of the historian as to his facts; his inferences, of + course, are more liable to exception. It is almost impossible to + trace the line between unfairness and unfaithfulness; between + intentional misrepresentation and undesigned false coloring. The + relative magnitude and importance of events must, in some + respect, depend upon the mind before which they are presented; + the estimate of character, on the habits and feelings of the + reader. Christians, like M. Guizot and ourselves, will see some + things, and some persons, in a different light from the historian + of the Decline and Fall. We may deplore the bias of his mind; we + may ourselves be on our guard against the danger of being misled, + and be anxious to warn less wary readers against the same perils; + but we must not confound this secret and unconscious departure + from truth, with the deliberate violation of that veracity which + is the only title of an historian to our confidence. Gibbon, it + may be fearlessly asserted, is rarely chargeable even with the + suppression of any material fact, which bears upon individual + character; he may, with apparently invidious hostility, enhance + the errors and crimes, and disparage the virtues of certain + persons; yet, in general, he leaves us the materials for forming + a fairer judgment; and if he is not exempt from his own + prejudices, perhaps we might write _passions_, yet it must be + candidly acknowledged, that his philosophical bigotry is not more + unjust than the theological partialities of those ecclesiastical + writers who were before in undisputed possession of this province + of history. + + We are thus naturally led to that great misrepresentation which + pervades his history—his false estimate of the nature and + influence of Christianity. + + But on this subject some preliminary caution is necessary, lest + that should be expected from a new edition, which it is + impossible that it should completely accomplish. We must first be + prepared with the only sound preservative against the false + impression likely to be produced by the perusal of Gibbon; and we + must see clearly the real cause of that false impression. The + former of these cautions will be briefly suggested in its proper + place, but it may be as well to state it, here, somewhat more at + length. The art of Gibbon, or at least the unfair impression + produced by his two memorable chapters, consists in his + confounding together, in one indistinguishable mass, the _origin_ + and _apostolic_ propagation of the new religion, with its _later_ + progress. No argument for the divine authority of Christianity + has been urged with greater force, or traced with higher + eloquence, than that deduced from its primary development, + explicable on no other hypothesis than a heavenly origin, and + from its rapid extension through great part of the Roman empire. + But this argument—one, when confined within reasonable limits, of + unanswerable force—becomes more feeble and disputable in + proportion as it recedes from the birthplace, as it were, of the + religion. The further Christianity advanced, the more causes + purely human were enlisted in its favor; nor can it be doubted + that those developed with such artful exclusiveness by Gibbon did + concur most essentially to its establishment. It is in the + Christian dispensation, as in the material world. In both it is + as the great First Cause, that the Deity is most undeniably + manifest. When once launched in regular motion upon the bosom of + space, and endowed with all their properties and relations of + weight and mutual attraction, the heavenly bodies appear to + pursue their courses according to secondary laws, which account + for all their sublime regularity. So Christianity proclaims its + Divine Author chiefly in its first origin and development. When + it had once received its impulse from above—when it had once been + infused into the minds of its first teachers—when it had gained + full possession of the reason and affections of the favored + few—it _might be_—and to the Protestant, the rationa Christian, + it is impossible to define _when_ it really _was_—left to make + its way by its native force, under the ordinary secret agencies + of all-ruling Providence. The main question, the _divine origin + of the religion_, was dexterously eluded, or speciously conceded + by Gibbon; his plan enabled him to commence his account, in most + parts, _below the apostolic times;_ and it was only by the + strength of the dark coloring with which he brought out the + failings and the follies of the succeeding ages, that a shadow of + doubt and suspicion was thrown back upon the primitive period of + Christianity. + + “The theologian,” says Gibbon, “may indulge the pleasing task of + describing religion as she descended from heaven, arrayed in her + native purity; a more melancholy duty is imposed upon the + historian:—he must discover the inevitable mixture of error and + corruption which she contracted in a long residence upon earth + among a weak and degenerate race of beings.” Divest this passage + of the latent sarcasm betrayed by the subsequent tone of the + whole disquisition, and it might commence a Christian history + written in the most Christian spirit of candor. But as the + historian, by seeming to respect, yet by dexterously confounding + the limits of the sacred land, contrived to insinuate that it was + an Utopia which had no existence but in the imagination of the + theologian—as he _suggested_ rather than affirmed that the days + of Christian purity were a kind of poetic golden age;—so the + theologian, by venturing too far into the domain of the + historian, has been perpetually obliged to contest points on + which he had little chance of victory—to deny facts established + on unshaken evidence—and thence, to retire, if not with the shame + of defeat, yet with but doubtful and imperfect success. Paley, + with his intuitive sagacity, saw through the difficulty of + answering Gibbon by the ordinary arts of controversy; his + emphatic sentence, “Who can refute a sneer?” contains as much + truth as point. But full and pregnant as this phrase is, it is + not quite the whole truth; it is the tone in which the progress + of Christianity is traced, in _comparison_ with the rest of the + splendid and prodigally ornamented work, which is the radical + defect in the “Decline and Fall.” Christianity alone receives no + embellishment from the magic of Gibbon’s language; his + imagination is dead to its moral dignity; it is kept down by a + general zone of jealous disparagement, or neutralized by a + painfully elaborate exposition of its darker and degenerate + periods. There are occasions, indeed, when its pure and exalted + humanity, when its manifestly beneficial influence, can compel + even him, as it were, to fairness, and kindle his unguarded + eloquence to its usual fervor; but, in general, he soon relapses + into a frigid apathy; _affects_ an ostentatiously severe + impartiality; notes all the faults of Christians in every age + with bitter and almost malignant sarcasm; reluctantly, and with + exception and reservation, admits their claim to admiration. This + inextricable bias appears even to influence his manner of + composition. While all the other assailants of the Roman empire, + whether warlike or religious, the Goth, the Hun, the Arab, the + Tartar, Alaric and Attila, Mahomet, and Zengis, and Tamerlane, + are each introduced upon the scene almost with dramatic + animation—their progress related in a full, complete, and + unbroken narrative—the triumph of Christianity alone takes the + form of a cold and critical disquisition. The successes of + barbarous energy and brute force call forth all the consummate + skill of composition; while the moral triumphs of Christian + benevolence—the tranquil heroism of endurance, the blameless + purity, the contempt of guilty fame and of honors destructive to + the human race, which, had they assumed the proud name of + philosophy, would have been blazoned in his brightest words, + because they own religion as their principle—sink into narrow + asceticism. The _glories_ of Christianity, in short, touch on no + chord in the heart of the writer; his imagination remains + unkindled; his words, though they maintain their stately and + measured march, have become cool, argumentative, and inanimate. + Who would obscure one hue of that gorgeous coloring in which + Gibbon has invested the dying forms of Paganism, or darken one + paragraph in his splendid view of the rise and progress of + Mahometanism? But who would not have wished that the same equal + justice had been done to Christianity; that its real character + and deeply penetrating influence had been traced with the same + philosophical sagacity, and represented with more sober, as would + become its quiet course, and perhaps less picturesque, but still + with lively and attractive, descriptiveness? He might have thrown + aside, with the same scorn, the mass of ecclesiastical fiction + which envelops the early history of the church, stripped off the + legendary romance, and brought out the facts in their primitive + nakedness and simplicity—if he had but allowed those facts the + benefit of the glowing eloquence which he denied to them alone. + He might have annihilated the whole fabric of post-apostolic + miracles, if he had left uninjured by sarcastic insinuation those + of the New Testament; he might have cashiered, with Dodwell, the + whole host of martyrs, which owe their existence to the prodigal + invention of later days, had he but bestowed fair room, and dwelt + with his ordinary energy on the sufferings of the genuine + witnesses to the truth of Christianity, the Polycarps, or the + martyrs of Vienne. And indeed, if, after all, the view of the + early progress of Christianity be melancholy and humiliating we + must beware lest we charge the whole of this on the infidelity of + the historian. It is idle, it is disingenuous, to deny or to + dissemble the early depravations of Christianity, its gradual but + rapid departure from its primitive simplicity and purity, still + more, from its spirit of universal love. It may be no unsalutary + lesson to the Christian world, that this silent, this + unavoidable, perhaps, yet fatal change shall have been drawn by + an impartial, or even an hostile hand. The Christianity of every + age may take warning, lest by its own narrow views, its want of + wisdom, and its want of charity, it give the same advantage to + the future unfriendly historian, and disparage the cause of true + religion. + + The design of the present edition is partly corrective, partly + supplementary: corrective, by notes, which point out (it is + hoped, in a perfectly candid and dispassionate spirit with no + desire but to establish the truth) such inaccuracies or + misstatements as may have been detected, particularly with regard + to Christianity; and which thus, with the previous caution, may + counteract to a considerable extent the unfair and unfavorable + impression created against rational religion: supplementary, by + adding such additional information as the editor’s reading may + have been able to furnish, from original documents or books, not + accessible at the time when Gibbon wrote. + + The work originated in the editor’s habit of noting on the margin + of his copy of Gibbon references to such authors as had + discovered errors, or thrown new light on the subjects treated by + Gibbon. These had grown to some extent, and seemed to him likely + to be of use to others. The annotations of M. Guizot also + appeared to him worthy of being better known to the English + public than they were likely to be, as appended to the French + translation. + + The chief works from which the editor has derived his materials + are, I. The French translation, with notes by M. Guizot; 2d + edition, Paris, 1828. The editor has translated almost all the + notes of M. Guizot. Where he has not altogether agreed with him, + his respect for the learning and judgment of that writer has, in + general, induced him to retain the statement from which he has + ventured to differ, with the grounds on which he formed his own + opinion. In the notes on Christianity, he has retained all those + of M. Guizot, with his own, from the conviction, that on such a + subject, to many, the authority of a French statesman, a + Protestant, and a rational and sincere Christian, would appear + more independent and unbiassed, and therefore be more commanding, + than that of an English clergyman. + + The editor has not scrupled to transfer the notes of M. Guizot to + the present work. The well-known zeal for knowledge, displayed in + all the writings of that distinguished historian, has led to the + natural inference, that he would not be displeased at the attempt + to make them of use to the English readers of Gibbon. The notes + of M. Guizot are signed with the letter G. + + II. The German translation, with the notes of Wenck. + Unfortunately this learned translator died, after having + completed only the first volume; the rest of the work was + executed by a very inferior hand. + + The notes of Wenck are extremely valuable; many of them have been + adopted by M. Guizot; they are distinguished by the letter W. 102 + + 102 (return) [ The editor regrets that he has not been able to + find the Italian translation, mentioned by Gibbon himself with + some respect. It is not in our great libraries, the Museum or the + Bodleian; and he has never found any bookseller in London who has + seen it.] + + III. The new edition of Le Beau’s “Histoire du Bas Empire, with + notes by M. St. Martin, and M. Brosset.” That distinguished + Armenian scholar, M. St. Martin (now, unhappily, deceased) had + added much information from Oriental writers, particularly from + those of Armenia, as well as from more general sources. Many of + his observations have been found as applicable to the work of + Gibbon as to that of Le Beau. + + IV. The editor has consulted the various answers made to Gibbon + on the first appearance of his work; he must confess, with little + profit. They were, in general, hastily compiled by inferior and + now forgotten writers, with the exception of Bishop Watson, whose + able apology is rather a general argument, than an examination of + misstatements. The name of Milner stands higher with a certain + class of readers, but will not carry much weight with the severe + investigator of history. + + V. Some few classical works and fragments have come to light, + since the appearance of Gibbon’s History, and have been noticed + in their respective places; and much use has been made, in the + latter volumes particularly, of the increase to our stores of + Oriental literature. The editor cannot, indeed, pretend to have + followed his author, in these gleanings, over the whole vast + field of his inquiries; he may have overlooked or may not have + been able to command some works, which might have thrown still + further light on these subjects; but he trusts that what he has + adduced will be of use to the student of historic truth. + + The editor would further observe, that with regard to some other + objectionable passages, which do not involve misstatement or + inaccuracy, he has intentionally abstained from directing + particular attention towards them by any special protest. + + The editor’s notes are marked M. + + A considerable part of the quotations (some of which in the later + editions had fallen into great confusion) have been verified, and + have been corrected by the latest and best editions of the + authors. + + June, 1845. + + In this new edition, the text and the notes have been carefully + revised, the latter by the editor. + + Some additional notes have been subjoined, distinguished by the + signature M. 1845. + + + + + Preface Of The Author. + + + It is not my intention to detain the reader by expatiating on the + variety or the importance of the subject, which I have undertaken + to treat; since the merit of the choice would serve to render the + weakness of the execution still more apparent, and still less + excusable. But as I have presumed to lay before the public a + _first_ volume only 1 of the History of the Decline and Fall of + the Roman Empire, it will, perhaps, be expected that I should + explain, in a few words, the nature and limits of my general + plan. + + 1 (return) [ The first volume of the quarto, which contained the + sixteen first chapters.] + + The memorable series of revolutions, which in the course of about + thirteen centuries gradually undermined, and at length destroyed, + the solid fabric of human greatness, may, with some propriety, be + divided into the three following periods: + + I. The first of these periods may be traced from the age of + Trajan and the Antonines, when the Roman monarchy, having + attained its full strength and maturity, began to verge towards + its decline; and will extend to the subversion of the Western + Empire, by the barbarians of Germany and Scythia, the rude + ancestors of the most polished nations of modern Europe. This + extraordinary revolution, which subjected Rome to the power of a + Gothic conqueror, was completed about the beginning of the sixth + century. + + II. The second period of the Decline and Fall of Rome may be + supposed to commence with the reign of Justinian, who, by his + laws, as well as by his victories, restored a transient splendor + to the Eastern Empire. It will comprehend the invasion of Italy + by the Lombards; the conquest of the Asiatic and African + provinces by the Arabs, who embraced the religion of Mahomet; the + revolt of the Roman people against the feeble princes of + Constantinople; and the elevation of Charlemagne, who, in the + year eight hundred, established the second, or German Empire of + the West. + + III. The last and longest of these periods includes about six + centuries and a half; from the revival of the Western Empire, + till the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, and the + extinction of a degenerate race of princes, who continued to + assume the titles of Cæsar and Augustus, after their dominions + were contracted to the limits of a single city; in which the + language, as well as manners, of the ancient Romans, had been + long since forgotten. The writer who should undertake to relate + the events of this period, would find himself obliged to enter + into the general history of the Crusades, as far as they + contributed to the ruin of the Greek Empire; and he would + scarcely be able to restrain his curiosity from making some + inquiry into the state of the city of Rome, during the darkness + and confusion of the middle ages. + + As I have ventured, perhaps too hastily, to commit to the press a + work which in every sense of the word, deserves the epithet of + imperfect. I consider myself as contracting an engagement to + finish, most probably in a second volume, 2a the first of these + memorable periods; and to deliver to the Public the complete + History of the Decline and Fall of Rome, from the age of the + Antonines to the subversion of the Western Empire. With regard to + the subsequent periods, though I may entertain some hopes, I dare + not presume to give any assurances. The execution of the + extensive plan which I have described, would connect the ancient + and modern history of the world; but it would require many years + of health, of leisure, and of perseverance. + + 2a (return) [ The Author, as it frequently happens, took an + inadequate measure of his growing work. The remainder of the + first period has filled _two_ volumes in quarto, being the third, + fourth, fifth, and sixth volumes of the octavo edition.] + + BENTINCK STREET, _February_ 1, 1776. + + P. S. The entire History, which is now published, of the Decline + and Fall of the Roman Empire in the West, abundantly discharges + my engagements with the Public. Perhaps their favorable opinion + may encourage me to prosecute a work, which, however laborious it + may seem, is the most agreeable occupation of my leisure hours. + + BENTINCK STREET, _March_ 1, 1781. + + An Author easily persuades himself that the public opinion is + still favorable to his labors; and I have now embraced the + serious resolution of proceeding to the last period of my + original design, and of the Roman Empire, the taking of + Constantinople by the Turks, in the year one thousand four + hundred and fifty-three. The most patient Reader, who computes + that three ponderous 3 volumes have been already employed on the + events of four centuries, may, perhaps, be alarmed at the long + prospect of nine hundred years. But it is not my intention to + expatiate with the same minuteness on the whole series of the + Byzantine history. At our entrance into this period, the reign of + Justinian, and the conquests of the Mahometans, will deserve and + detain our attention, and the last age of Constantinople (the + Crusades and the Turks) is connected with the revolutions of + Modern Europe. From the seventh to the eleventh century, the + obscure interval will be supplied by a concise narrative of such + facts as may still appear either interesting or important. + + BENTINCK STREET, _March_ 1, 1782. + + 3 (return) [ The first six volumes of the octavo edition.] + + + + + Preface To The First Volume. + + + Diligence and accuracy are the only merits which an historical + writer may ascribe to himself; if any merit, indeed, can be + assumed from the performance of an indispensable duty. I may + therefore be allowed to say, that I have carefully examined all + the original materials that could illustrate the subject which I + had undertaken to treat. Should I ever complete the extensive + design which has been sketched out in the Preface, I might + perhaps conclude it with a critical account of the authors + consulted during the progress of the whole work; and however such + an attempt might incur the censure of ostentation, I am persuaded + that it would be susceptible of entertainment, as well as + information. + + At present I shall content myself with a single observation. + + The biographers, who, under the reigns of Diocletian and + Constantine, composed, or rather compiled, the lives of the + Emperors, from Hadrian to the sons of Carus, are usually + mentioned under the names of Ælius Spartianus, Julius + Capitolinus, Ælius Lampridius, Vulcatius Gallicanus, Trebellius + Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus. But there is so much perplexity in + the titles of the MSS., and so many disputes have arisen among + the critics (see Fabricius, Biblioth. Latin. l. iii. c. 6) + concerning their number, their names, and their respective + property, that for the most part I have quoted them without + distinction, under the general and well-known title of the + _Augustan History_. + + + + + Preface To The Fourth Volume Of The Original Quarto Edition. + + I now discharge my promise, and complete my design, of writing + the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, both in + the West and the East. The whole period extends from the age of + Trajan and the Antonines, to the taking of Constantinople by + Mahomet the Second; and includes a review of the Crusades, and + the state of Rome during the middle ages. Since the publication + of the first volume, twelve years have elapsed; twelve years, + according to my wish, “of health, of leisure, and of + perseverance.” I may now congratulate my deliverance from a long + and laborious service, and my satisfaction will be pure and + perfect, if the public favor should be extended to the conclusion + of my work. + + It was my first intention to have collected, under one view, the + numerous authors, of every age and language, from whom I have + derived the materials of this history; and I am still convinced + that the apparent ostentation would be more than compensated by + real use. If I have renounced this idea, if I have declined an + undertaking which had obtained the approbation of a + master-artist,4 my excuse may be found in the extreme difficulty + of assigning a proper measure to such a catalogue. A naked list + of names and editions would not be satisfactory either to myself + or my readers: the characters of the principal Authors of the + Roman and Byzantine History have been occasionally connected with + the events which they describe; a more copious and critical + inquiry might indeed deserve, but it would demand, an elaborate + volume, which might swell by degrees into a general library of + historical writers. For the present, I shall content myself with + renewing my serious protestation, that I have always endeavored + to draw from the fountain-head; that my curiosity, as well as a + sense of duty, has always urged me to study the originals; and + that, if they have sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully + marked the secondary evidence, on whose faith a passage or a fact + were reduced to depend. + + 4 (return) [ See Dr. Robertson’s Preface to his History of + America.] + + I shall soon revisit the banks of the Lake of Lausanne, a country + which I have known and loved from my early youth. Under a mild + government, amidst a beauteous landscape, in a life of leisure + and independence, and among a people of easy and elegant manners, + I have enjoyed, and may again hope to enjoy, the varied pleasures + of retirement and society. But I shall ever glory in the name and + character of an Englishman: I am proud of my birth in a free and + enlightened country; and the approbation of that country is the + best and most honorable reward of my labors. Were I ambitious of + any other Patron than the Public, I would inscribe this work to a + Statesman, who, in a long, a stormy, and at length an unfortunate + administration, had many political opponents, almost without a + personal enemy; who has retained, in his fall from power, many + faithful and disinterested friends; and who, under the pressure + of severe infirmity, enjoys the lively vigor of his mind, and the + felicity of his incomparable temper. Lord North will permit me to + express the feelings of friendship in the language of truth: but + even truth and friendship should be silent, if he still dispensed + the favors of the crown. + + In a remote solitude, vanity may still whisper in my ear, that my + readers, perhaps, may inquire whether, in the conclusion of the + present work, I am now taking an everlasting farewell. They shall + hear all that I know myself, and all that I could reveal to the + most intimate friend. The motives of action or silence are now + equally balanced; nor can I pronounce, in my most secret + thoughts, on which side the scale will preponderate. I cannot + dissemble that six quartos must have tried, and may have + exhausted, the indulgence of the Public; that, in the repetition + of similar attempts, a successful Author has much more to lose + than he can hope to gain; that I am now descending into the vale + of years; and that the most respectable of my countrymen, the men + whom I aspire to imitate, have resigned the pen of history about + the same period of their lives. Yet I consider that the annals of + ancient and modern times may afford many rich and interesting + subjects; that I am still possessed of health and leisure; that + by the practice of writing, some skill and facility must be + acquired; and that, in the ardent pursuit of truth and knowledge, + I am not conscious of decay. To an active mind, indolence is more + painful than labor; and the first months of my liberty will be + occupied and amused in the excursions of curiosity and taste. By + such temptations, I have been sometimes seduced from the rigid + duty even of a pleasing and voluntary task: but my time will now + be my own; and in the use or abuse of independence, I shall no + longer fear my own reproaches or those of my friends. I am fairly + entitled to a year of jubilee: next summer and the following + winter will rapidly pass away; and experience only can determine + whether I shall still prefer the freedom and variety of study to + the design and composition of a regular work, which animates, + while it confines, the daily application of the Author. + + Caprice and accident may influence my choice; but the dexterity + of self-love will contrive to applaud either active industry or + philosophic repose. + + DOWNING STREET, _May_ 1, 1788. + + P. S. I shall embrace this opportunity of introducing two + _verbal_ remarks, which have not conveniently offered themselves + to my notice. 1. As often as I use the definitions of _beyond_ + the Alps, the Rhine, the Danube, &c., I generally suppose myself + at Rome, and afterwards at Constantinople; without observing + whether this relative geography may agree with the local, but + variable, situation of the reader, or the historian. 2. In proper + names of foreign, and especially of Oriental origin, it should be + always our aim to express, in our English version, a faithful + copy of the original. But this rule, which is founded on a just + regard to uniformity and truth, must often be relaxed; and the + exceptions will be limited or enlarged by the custom of the + language and the taste of the interpreter. Our alphabets may be + often defective; a harsh sound, an uncouth spelling, might offend + the ear or the eye of our countrymen; and some words, notoriously + corrupt, are fixed, and, as it were, naturalized in the vulgar + tongue. The prophet _Mohammed_ can no longer be stripped of the + famous, though improper, appellation of Mahomet: the well-known + cities of Aleppo, Damascus, and Cairo, would almost be lost in + the strange descriptions of _Haleb, Demashk_, and _Al Cahira:_ + the titles and offices of the Ottoman empire are fashioned by the + practice of three hundred years; and we are pleased to blend the + three Chinese monosyllables, _Con-fû-tzee_, in the respectable + name of Confucius, or even to adopt the Portuguese corruption of + Mandarin. But I would vary the use of Zoroaster and _Zerdusht_, + as I drew my information from Greece or Persia: since our + connection with India, the genuine _Timour_ is restored to the + throne of Tamerlane: our most correct writers have retrenched the + _Al_, the superfluous article, from the Koran; and we escape an + ambiguous termination, by adopting _Moslem_ instead of Musulman, + in the plural number. In these, and in a thousand examples, the + shades of distinction are often minute; and I can feel, where I + cannot explain, the motives of my choice. + + + + + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The + Antonines—Part I. + + Introduction. + + The Extent And Military Force Of The Empire In The Age Of The + Antonines. + + In the second century of the Christian Æra, the empire of Rome + comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and the most + civilized portion of mankind. The frontiers of that extensive + monarchy were guarded by ancient renown and disciplined valor. + The gentle but powerful influence of laws and manners had + gradually cemented the union of the provinces. Their peaceful + inhabitants enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth and + luxury. The image of a free constitution was preserved with + decent reverence: the Roman senate appeared to possess the + sovereign authority, and devolved on the emperors all the + executive powers of government. During a happy period of more + than fourscore years, the public administration was conducted by + the virtue and abilities of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two + Antonines. It is the design of this, and of the two succeeding + chapters, to describe the prosperous condition of their empire; + and afterwards, from the death of Marcus Antoninus, to deduce the + most important circumstances of its decline and fall; a + revolution which will ever be remembered, and is still felt by + the nations of the earth. + + The principal conquests of the Romans were achieved under the + republic; and the emperors, for the most part, were satisfied + with preserving those dominions which had been acquired by the + policy of the senate, the active emulations of the consuls, and + the martial enthusiasm of the people. The seven first centuries + were filled with a rapid succession of triumphs; but it was + reserved for Augustus to relinquish the ambitious design of + subduing the whole earth, and to introduce a spirit of moderation + into the public councils. Inclined to peace by his temper and + situation, it was easy for him to discover that Rome, in her + present exalted situation, had much less to hope than to fear + from the chance of arms; and that, in the prosecution of remote + wars, the undertaking became every day more difficult, the event + more doubtful, and the possession more precarious, and less + beneficial. The experience of Augustus added weight to these + salutary reflections, and effectually convinced him that, by the + prudent vigor of his counsels, it would be easy to secure every + concession which the safety or the dignity of Rome might require + from the most formidable barbarians. Instead of exposing his + person and his legions to the arrows of the Parthians, he + obtained, by an honorable treaty, the restitution of the + standards and prisoners which had been taken in the defeat of + Crassus. 1a + + 1 (return) [ Dion Cassius, (l. liv. p. 736,) with the annotations + of Reimar, who has collected all that Roman vanity has left upon + the subject. The marble of Ancyra, on which Augustus recorded his + own exploits, asserted that _he compelled_ the Parthians to + restore the ensigns of Crassus.] + + His generals, in the early part of his reign, attempted the + reduction of Ethiopia and Arabia Felix. They marched near a + thousand miles to the south of the tropic; but the heat of the + climate soon repelled the invaders, and protected the un-warlike + natives of those sequestered regions. 2c The northern countries + of Europe scarcely deserved the expense and labor of conquest. + The forests and morasses of Germany were filled with a hardy race + of barbarians, who despised life when it was separated from + freedom; and though, on the first attack, they seemed to yield to + the weight of the Roman power, they soon, by a signal act of + despair, regained their independence, and reminded Augustus of + the vicissitude of fortune. 3a On the death of that emperor, his + testament was publicly read in the senate. He bequeathed, as a + valuable legacy to his successors, the advice of confining the + empire within those limits which nature seemed to have placed as + its permanent bulwarks and boundaries: on the west, the Atlantic + Ocean; the Rhine and Danube on the north; the Euphrates on the + east; and towards the south, the sandy deserts of Arabia and + Africa. 4a + + 2c (return) [ Strabo, (l. xvi. p. 780,) Pliny the elder, (Hist. + Natur. l. vi. c. 32, 35, [28, 29,]) and Dion Cassius, (l. liii. + p. 723, and l. liv. p. 734,) have left us very curious details + concerning these wars. The Romans made themselves masters of + Mariaba, or Merab, a city of Arabia Felix, well known to the + Orientals. (See Abulfeda and the Nubian geography, p. 52) They + were arrived within three days’ journey of the spice country, the + rich object of their invasion. + + Note: It is this city of Merab that the Arabs say was the + residence of Belkis, queen of Saba, who desired to see Solomon. A + dam, by which the waters collected in its neighborhood were kept + back, having been swept away, the sudden inundation destroyed + this city, of which, nevertheless, vestiges remain. It bordered + on a country called Adramout, where a particular aromatic plant + grows: it is for this reason that we real in the history of the + Roman expedition, that they were arrived within three days’ + journey of the spice country.—G. Compare _Malte-Brun, Geogr_. + Eng. trans. vol. ii. p. 215. The period of this flood has been + copiously discussed by Reiske, (_Program. de vetustâ Epochâ + Arabum, rupturâ cataractæ Merabensis_.) Add. Johannsen, _Hist. + Yemanæ_, p. 282. Bonn, 1828; and see Gibbon, note 16. to Chap. + L.—M. + + Note: Two, according to Strabo. The detailed account of Strabo + makes the invaders fail before Marsuabæ this cannot be the same + place as Mariaba. Ukert observes, that Ælius Gallus would not + have failed for want of water before Mariaba. (See M. Guizot’s + note above.) “Either, therefore, they were different places, or + Strabo is mistaken.” (Ukert, _Geographie der Griechen und Römer_, + vol. i. p. 181.) Strabo, indeed, mentions Mariaba distinct from + Marsuabæ. Gibbon has followed Pliny in reckoning Mariaba among + the conquests of Gallus. There can be little doubt that he is + wrong, as Gallus did not approach the capital of Sabæa. Compare + the note of the Oxford editor of Strabo.—M.] + + 3a (return) [ By the slaughter of Varus and his three legions. + See the first book of the Annals of Tacitus. Sueton. in August. + c. 23, and Velleius Paterculus, l. ii. c. 117, &c. Augustus did + not receive the melancholy news with all the temper and firmness + that might have been expected from his character.] + + 4a (return) [ Tacit. Annal. l. ii. Dion Cassius, l. lvi. p. 833, + and the speech of Augustus himself, in Julian’s Cæsars. It + receives great light from the learned notes of his French + translator, M. Spanheim.] + + Happily for the repose of mankind, the moderate system + recommended by the wisdom of Augustus, was adopted by the fears + and vices of his immediate successors. Engaged in the pursuit of + pleasure, or in the exercise of tyranny, the first Cæsars seldom + showed themselves to the armies, or to the provinces; nor were + they disposed to suffer, that those triumphs which _their_ + indolence neglected, should be usurped by the conduct and valor + of their lieutenants. The military fame of a subject was + considered as an insolent invasion of the Imperial prerogative; + and it became the duty, as well as interest, of every Roman + general, to guard the frontiers intrusted to his care, without + aspiring to conquests which might have proved no less fatal to + himself than to the vanquished barbarians. 5 + + 5 (return) [ Germanicus, Suetonius Paulinus, and Agricola were + checked and recalled in the course of their victories. Corbulo + was put to death. Military merit, as it is admirably expressed by + Tacitus, was, in the strictest sense of the word, _imperatoria + virtus_.] + + The only accession which the Roman empire received, during the + first century of the Christian Æra, was the province of Britain. + In this single instance, the successors of Cæsar and Augustus + were persuaded to follow the example of the former, rather than + the precept of the latter. The proximity of its situation to the + coast of Gaul seemed to invite their arms; the pleasing though + doubtful intelligence of a pearl fishery attracted their avarice; + 6 and as Britain was viewed in the light of a distinct and + insulated world, the conquest scarcely formed any exception to + the general system of continental measures. After a war of about + forty years, undertaken by the most stupid, 7 maintained by the + most dissolute, and terminated by the most timid of all the + emperors, the far greater part of the island submitted to the + Roman yoke. 8 The various tribes of Britain possessed valor + without conduct, and the love of freedom without the spirit of + union. They took up arms with savage fierceness; they laid them + down, or turned them against each other, with wild inconsistency; + and while they fought singly, they were successively subdued. + Neither the fortitude of Caractacus, nor the despair of Boadicea, + nor the fanaticism of the Druids, could avert the slavery of + their country, or resist the steady progress of the Imperial + generals, who maintained the national glory, when the throne was + disgraced by the weakest, or the most vicious of mankind. At the + very time when Domitian, confined to his palace, felt the terrors + which he inspired, his legions, under the command of the virtuous + Agricola, defeated the collected force of the Caledonians, at the + foot of the Grampian Hills; and his fleets, venturing to explore + an unknown and dangerous navigation, displayed the Roman arms + round every part of the island. The conquest of Britain was + considered as already achieved; and it was the design of Agricola + to complete and insure his success, by the easy reduction of + Ireland, for which, in his opinion, one legion and a few + auxiliaries were sufficient. 9 The western isle might be improved + into a valuable possession, and the Britons would wear their + chains with the less reluctance, if the prospect and example of + freedom were on every side removed from before their eyes. + + 6 (return) [ Cæsar himself conceals that ignoble motive; but it + is mentioned by Suetonius, c. 47. The British pearls proved, + however, of little value, on account of their dark and livid + color. Tacitus observes, with reason, (in Agricola, c. 12,) that + it was an inherent defect. “Ego facilius crediderim, naturam + margaritis deesse quam nobis avaritiam.”] + + 7 (return) [ Claudius, Nero, and Domitian. A hope is expressed by + Pomponius Mela, l. iii. c. 6, (he wrote under Claudius,) that, by + the success of the Roman arms, the island and its savage + inhabitants would soon be better known. It is amusing enough to + peruse such passages in the midst of London.] + + 8 (return) [ See the admirable abridgment given by Tacitus, in + the life of Agricola, and copiously, though perhaps not + completely, illustrated by our own antiquarians, Camden and + Horsley.] + + 9 (return) [ The Irish writers, jealous of their national honor, + are extremely provoked on this occasion, both with Tacitus and + with Agricola.] + + But the superior merit of Agricola soon occasioned his removal + from the government of Britain; and forever disappointed this + rational, though extensive scheme of conquest. Before his + departure, the prudent general had provided for security as well + as for dominion. He had observed, that the island is almost + divided into two unequal parts by the opposite gulfs, or, as they + are now called, the Friths of Scotland. Across the narrow + interval of about forty miles, he had drawn a line of military + stations, which was afterwards fortified, in the reign of + Antoninus Pius, by a turf rampart, erected on foundations of + stone. 10 This wall of Antoninus, at a small distance beyond the + modern cities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, was fixed as the limit of + the Roman province. The native Caledonians preserved, in the + northern extremity of the island, their wild independence, for + which they were not less indebted to their poverty than to their + valor. Their incursions were frequently repelled and chastised; + but their country was never subdued. 11 The masters of the + fairest and most wealthy climates of the globe turned with + contempt from gloomy hills, assailed by the winter tempest, from + lakes concealed in a blue mist, and from cold and lonely heaths, + over which the deer of the forest were chased by a troop of naked + barbarians. 12 + + 10 (return) [ See Horsley’s Britannia Romana, l. i. c. 10. Note: + Agricola fortified the line from Dumbarton to Edinburgh, + consequently within Scotland. The emperor Hadrian, during his + residence in Britain, about the year 121, caused a rampart of + earth to be raised between Newcastle and Carlisle. Antoninus + Pius, having gained new victories over the Caledonians, by the + ability of his general, Lollius, Urbicus, caused a new rampart of + earth to be constructed between Edinburgh and Dumbarton. Lastly, + Septimius Severus caused a wall of stone to be built parallel to + the rampart of Hadrian, and on the same locality. See John + Warburton’s Vallum Romanum, or the History and Antiquities of the + Roman Wall. London, 1754, 4to.—W. See likewise a good note on the + Roman wall in Lingard’s History of England, vol. i. p. 40, 4to + edit—M.] + + 11 (return) [ The poet Buchanan celebrates with elegance and + spirit (see his Sylvæ, v.) the unviolated independence of his + native country. But, if the single testimony of Richard of + Cirencester was sufficient to create a Roman province of + Vespasiana to the north of the wall, that independence would be + reduced within very narrow limits.] + + 12 (return) [ See Appian (in Proœm.) and the uniform imagery of + Ossian’s Poems, which, according to every hypothesis, were + composed by a native Caledonian.] + + Such was the state of the Roman frontiers, and such the maxims of + Imperial policy, from the death of Augustus to the accession of + Trajan. That virtuous and active prince had received the + education of a soldier, and possessed the talents of a general. + 13 The peaceful system of his predecessors was interrupted by + scenes of war and conquest; and the legions, after a long + interval, beheld a military emperor at their head. The first + exploits of Trajan were against the Dacians, the most warlike of + men, who dwelt beyond the Danube, and who, during the reign of + Domitian, had insulted, with impunity, the Majesty of Rome. 14 To + the strength and fierceness of barbarians they added a contempt + for life, which was derived from a warm persuasion of the + immortality and transmigration of the soul. 15 Decebalus, the + Dacian king, approved himself a rival not unworthy of Trajan; nor + did he despair of his own and the public fortune, till, by the + confession of his enemies, he had exhausted every resource both + of valor and policy. 16 This memorable war, with a very short + suspension of hostilities, lasted five years; and as the emperor + could exert, without control, the whole force of the state, it + was terminated by an absolute submission of the barbarians. 17 + The new province of Dacia, which formed a second exception to the + precept of Augustus, was about thirteen hundred miles in + circumference. Its natural boundaries were the Niester, the Teyss + or Tibiscus, the Lower Danube, and the Euxine Sea. The vestiges + of a military road may still be traced from the banks of the + Danube to the neighborhood of Bender, a place famous in modern + history, and the actual frontier of the Turkish and Russian + empires. 18 + + 13 (return) [ See Pliny’s Panegyric, which seems founded on + facts.] + + 14 (return) [ Dion Cassius, l. lxvii.] + + 15 (return) [ Herodotus, l. iv. c. 94. Julian in the Cæsars, with + Spanheims observations.] + + 16 (return) [ Plin. Epist. viii. 9.] + + 17 (return) [ Dion Cassius, l. lxviii. p. 1123, 1131. Julian in + Cæsaribus Eutropius, viii. 2, 6. Aurelius Victor in Epitome.] + + 18 (return) [ See a Memoir of M. d’Anville, on the Province of + Dacia, in the Academie des Inscriptions, tom. xxviii. p. + 444—468.] + + Trajan was ambitious of fame; and as long as mankind shall + continue to bestow more liberal applause on their destroyers than + on their benefactors, the thirst of military glory will ever be + the vice of the most exalted characters. The praises of + Alexander, transmitted by a succession of poets and historians, + had kindled a dangerous emulation in the mind of Trajan. Like + him, the Roman emperor undertook an expedition against the + nations of the East; but he lamented with a sigh, that his + advanced age scarcely left him any hopes of equalling the renown + of the son of Philip. 19 Yet the success of Trajan, however + transient, was rapid and specious. The degenerate Parthians, + broken by intestine discord, fled before his arms. He descended + the River Tigris in triumph, from the mountains of Armenia to the + Persian Gulf. He enjoyed the honor of being the first, as he was + the last, of the Roman generals, who ever navigated that remote + sea. His fleets ravaged the coast of Arabia; and Trajan vainly + flattered himself that he was approaching towards the confines of + India. 20 Every day the astonished senate received the + intelligence of new names and new nations, that acknowledged his + sway. They were informed that the kings of Bosphorus, Colchos, + Iberia, Albania, Osrhoene, and even the Parthian monarch himself, + had accepted their diadems from the hands of the emperor; that + the independent tribes of the Median and Carduchian hills had + implored his protection; and that the rich countries of Armenia, + Mesopotamia, and Assyria, were reduced into the state of + provinces. 21 But the death of Trajan soon clouded the splendid + prospect; and it was justly to be dreaded, that so many distant + nations would throw off the unaccustomed yoke, when they were no + longer restrained by the powerful hand which had imposed it. + + 19 (return) [ Trajan’s sentiments are represented in a very just + and lively manner in the Cæsars of Julian.] + + 20 (return) [ Eutropius and Sextus Rufus have endeavored to + perpetuate the illusion. See a very sensible dissertation of M. + Freret in the Académie des Inscriptions, tom. xxi. p. 55.] + + 21 (return) [Dion Cassius, l. lxviii.; and the Abbreviators.] + + + + + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part II. + + It was an ancient tradition, that when the Capitol was founded by + one of the Roman kings, the god Terminus (who presided over + boundaries, and was represented, according to the fashion of that + age, by a large stone) alone, among all the inferior deities, + refused to yield his place to Jupiter himself. A favorable + inference was drawn from his obstinacy, which was interpreted by + the augurs as a sure presage that the boundaries of the Roman + power would never recede. 22 During many ages, the prediction, as + it is usual, contributed to its own accomplishment. But though + Terminus had resisted the Majesty of Jupiter, he submitted to the + authority of the emperor Hadrian. 23 The resignation of all the + eastern conquests of Trajan was the first measure of his reign. + He restored to the Parthians the election of an independent + sovereign; withdrew the Roman garrisons from the provinces of + Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria; and, in compliance with the + precept of Augustus, once more established the Euphrates as the + frontier of the empire. 24 Censure, which arraigns the public + actions and the private motives of princes, has ascribed to envy, + a conduct which might be attributed to the prudence and + moderation of Hadrian. The various character of that emperor, + capable, by turns, of the meanest and the most generous + sentiments, may afford some color to the suspicion. It was, + however, scarcely in his power to place the superiority of his + predecessor in a more conspicuous light, than by thus confessing + himself unequal to the task of defending the conquests of Trajan. + + 22 (return) [ Ovid. Fast. l. ii. ver. 667. See Livy, and + Dionysius of Halicarnassus, under the reign of Tarquin.] + + 23 (return) [ St. Augustin is highly delighted with the proof of + the weakness of Terminus, and the vanity of the Augurs. See De + Civitate Dei, iv. 29. * Note: The turn of Gibbon’s sentence is + Augustin’s: “Plus Hadrianum regem hominum, quam regem Deorum + timuisse videatur.”—M] + + 24 (return) [ See the Augustan History, p. 5, Jerome’s Chronicle, + and all the Epitomizers. It is somewhat surprising, that this + memorable event should be omitted by Dion, or rather by + Xiphilin.] + + The martial and ambitious spirit of Trajan formed a very singular + contrast with the moderation of his successor. The restless + activity of Hadrian was not less remarkable when compared with + the gentle repose of Antoninus Pius. The life of the former was + almost a perpetual journey; and as he possessed the various + talents of the soldier, the statesman, and the scholar, he + gratified his curiosity in the discharge of his duty. + + Careless of the difference of seasons and of climates, he marched + on foot, and bare-headed, over the snows of Caledonia, and the + sultry plains of the Upper Egypt; nor was there a province of the + empire which, in the course of his reign, was not honored with + the presence of the monarch. 25 But the tranquil life of + Antoninus Pius was spent in the bosom of Italy, and, during the + twenty-three years that he directed the public administration, + the longest journeys of that amiable prince extended no farther + than from his palace in Rome to the retirement of his Lanuvian + villa. 26 + + 25 (return) [ Dion, l. lxix. p. 1158. Hist. August. p. 5, 8. If + all our historians were lost, medals, inscriptions, and other + monuments, would be sufficient to record the travels of Hadrian. + Note: The journeys of Hadrian are traced in a note on Solvet’s + translation of Hegewisch, Essai sur l’Epoque de Histoire Romaine + la plus heureuse pour Genre Humain Paris, 1834, p. 123.—M.] + + 26 (return) [ See the Augustan History and the Epitomes.] + + Notwithstanding this difference in their personal conduct, the + general system of Augustus was equally adopted and uniformly + pursued by Hadrian and by the two Antonines. They persisted in + the design of maintaining the dignity of the empire, without + attempting to enlarge its limits. By every honorable expedient + they invited the friendship of the barbarians; and endeavored to + convince mankind that the Roman power, raised above the + temptation of conquest, was actuated only by the love of order + and justice. During a long period of forty-three years, their + virtuous labors were crowned with success; and if we except a few + slight hostilities, that served to exercise the legions of the + frontier, the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius offer the fair + prospect of universal peace. 27 The Roman name was revered among + the most remote nations of the earth. The fiercest barbarians + frequently submitted their differences to the arbitration of the + emperor; and we are informed by a contemporary historian that he + had seen ambassadors who were refused the honor which they came + to solicit of being admitted into the rank of subjects. 28 + + 27 (return) [ We must, however, remember, that in the time of + Hadrian, a rebellion of the Jews raged with religious fury, + though only in a single province. Pausanias (l. viii. c. 43) + mentions two necessary and successful wars, conducted by the + generals of Pius: 1st. Against the wandering Moors, who were + driven into the solitudes of Atlas. 2d. Against the Brigantes of + Britain, who had invaded the Roman province. Both these wars + (with several other hostilities) are mentioned in the Augustan + History, p. 19.] + + 28 (return) [ Appian of Alexandria, in the preface to his History + of the Roman Wars.] + + The terror of the Roman arms added weight and dignity to the + moderation of the emperors. They preserved peace by a constant + preparation for war; and while justice regulated their conduct, + they announced to the nations on their confines, that they were + as little disposed to endure, as to offer an injury. The military + strength, which it had been sufficient for Hadrian and the elder + Antoninus to display, was exerted against the Parthians and the + Germans by the emperor Marcus. The hostilities of the barbarians + provoked the resentment of that philosophic monarch, and, in the + prosecution of a just defence, Marcus and his generals obtained + many signal victories, both on the Euphrates and on the Danube. + 29 The military establishment of the Roman empire, which thus + assured either its tranquillity or success, will now become the + proper and important object of our attention. + + 29 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxi. Hist. August. in Marco. The Parthian + victories gave birth to a crowd of contemptible historians, whose + memory has been rescued from oblivion and exposed to ridicule, in + a very lively piece of criticism of Lucian.] + + In the purer ages of the commonwealth, the use of arms was + reserved for those ranks of citizens who had a country to love, a + property to defend, and some share in enacting those laws, which + it was their interest as well as duty to maintain. But in + proportion as the public freedom was lost in extent of conquest, + war was gradually improved into an art, and degraded into a + trade. 30 The legions themselves, even at the time when they were + recruited in the most distant provinces, were supposed to consist + of Roman citizens. That distinction was generally considered, + either as a legal qualification or as a proper recompense for the + soldier; but a more serious regard was paid to the essential + merit of age, strength, and military stature. 31 In all levies, a + just preference was given to the climates of the North over those + of the South: the race of men born to the exercise of arms was + sought for in the country rather than in cities; and it was very + reasonably presumed, that the hardy occupations of smiths, + carpenters, and huntsmen, would supply more vigor and resolution + than the sedentary trades which are employed in the service of + luxury. 32 After every qualification of property had been laid + aside, the armies of the Roman emperors were still commanded, for + the most part, by officers of liberal birth and education; but + the common soldiers, like the mercenary troops of modern Europe, + were drawn from the meanest, and very frequently from the most + profligate, of mankind. + + 30 (return) [ The poorest rank of soldiers possessed above forty + pounds sterling, (Dionys. Halicarn. iv. 17,) a very high + qualification at a time when money was so scarce, that an ounce + of silver was equivalent to seventy pounds weight of brass. The + populace, excluded by the ancient constitution, were + indiscriminately admitted by Marius. See Sallust. de Bell. + Jugurth. c. 91. * Note: On the uncertainty of all these + estimates, and the difficulty of fixing the relative value of + brass and silver, compare Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 473, &c. Eng. + trans. p. 452. According to Niebuhr, the relative disproportion + in value, between the two metals, arose, in a great degree from + the abundance of brass or copper.—M. Compare also Dureau ‘de la + Malle Economie Politique des Romains especially L. l. c. ix.—M. + 1845.] + + 31 (return) [ Cæsar formed his legion Alauda of Gauls and + strangers; but it was during the license of civil war; and after + the victory, he gave them the freedom of the city for their + reward.] + + 32 (return) [ See Vegetius, de Re Militari, l. i. c. 2—7.] + + That public virtue, which among the ancients was denominated + patriotism, is derived from a strong sense of our own interest in + the preservation and prosperity of the free government of which + we are members. Such a sentiment, which had rendered the legions + of the republic almost invincible, could make but a very feeble + impression on the mercenary servants of a despotic prince; and it + became necessary to supply that defect by other motives, of a + different, but not less forcible nature—honor and religion. The + peasant, or mechanic, imbibed the useful prejudice that he was + advanced to the more dignified profession of arms, in which his + rank and reputation would depend on his own valor; and that, + although the prowess of a private soldier must often escape the + notice of fame, his own behavior might sometimes confer glory or + disgrace on the company, the legion, or even the army, to whose + honors he was associated. On his first entrance into the service, + an oath was administered to him with every circumstance of + solemnity. He promised never to desert his standard, to submit + his own will to the commands of his leaders, and to sacrifice his + life for the safety of the emperor and the empire. 33 The + attachment of the Roman troops to their standards was inspired by + the united influence of religion and of honor. The golden eagle, + which glittered in the front of the legion, was the object of + their fondest devotion; nor was it esteemed less impious than it + was ignominious, to abandon that sacred ensign in the hour of + danger. 34 These motives, which derived their strength from the + imagination, were enforced by fears and hopes of a more + substantial kind. Regular pay, occasional donatives, and a stated + recompense, after the appointed time of service, alleviated the + hardships of the military life, 35 whilst, on the other hand, it + was impossible for cowardice or disobedience to escape the + severest punishment. The centurions were authorized to chastise + with blows, the generals had a right to punish with death; and it + was an inflexible maxim of Roman discipline, that a good soldier + should dread his officers far more than the enemy. From such + laudable arts did the valor of the Imperial troops receive a + degree of firmness and docility unattainable by the impetuous and + irregular passions of barbarians. + + 33 (return) [ The oath of service and fidelity to the emperor was + annually renewed by the troops on the first of January.] + + 34 (return) [ Tacitus calls the Roman eagles, Bellorum Deos. They + were placed in a chapel in the camp, and with the other deities + received the religious worship of the troops. * Note: See also + Dio. Cass. xl. c. 18. —M.] + + 35 (return) [ See Gronovius de Pecunia vetere, l. iii. p. 120, + &c. The emperor Domitian raised the annual stipend of the + legionaries to twelve pieces of gold, which, in his time, was + equivalent to about ten of our guineas. This pay, somewhat higher + than our own, had been, and was afterwards, gradually increased, + according to the progress of wealth and military government. + After twenty years’ service, the veteran received three thousand + denarii, (about one hundred pounds sterling,) or a proportionable + allowance of land. The pay and advantages of the guards were, in + general, about double those of the legions.] + + And yet so sensible were the Romans of the imperfection of valor + without skill and practice, that, in their language, the name of + an army was borrowed from the word which signified exercise. 36 + Military exercises were the important and unremitted object of + their discipline. The recruits and young soldiers were constantly + trained, both in the morning and in the evening, nor was age or + knowledge allowed to excuse the veterans from the daily + repetition of what they had completely learnt. Large sheds were + erected in the winter-quarters of the troops, that their useful + labors might not receive any interruption from the most + tempestuous weather; and it was carefully observed, that the arms + destined to this imitation of war, should be of double the weight + which was required in real action. 37 It is not the purpose of + this work to enter into any minute description of the Roman + exercises. We shall only remark, that they comprehended whatever + could add strength to the body, activity to the limbs, or grace + to the motions. The soldiers were diligently instructed to march, + to run, to leap, to swim, to carry heavy burdens, to handle every + species of arms that was used either for offence or for defence, + either in distant engagement or in a closer onset; to form a + variety of evolutions; and to move to the sound of flutes in the + Pyrrhic or martial dance. 38 In the midst of peace, the Roman + troops familiarized themselves with the practice of war; and it + is prettily remarked by an ancient historian who had fought + against them, that the effusion of blood was the only + circumstance which distinguished a field of battle from a field + of exercise. 39 It was the policy of the ablest generals, and + even of the emperors themselves, to encourage these military + studies by their presence and example; and we are informed that + Hadrian, as well as Trajan, frequently condescended to instruct + the unexperienced soldiers, to reward the diligent, and sometimes + to dispute with them the prize of superior strength or dexterity. + 40 Under the reigns of those princes, the science of tactics was + cultivated with success; and as long as the empire retained any + vigor, their military instructions were respected as the most + perfect model of Roman discipline. + + 36 (return) [ _Exercitus ab exercitando_, Varro de Lingua Latina, + l. iv. Cicero in Tusculan. l. ii. 37. 15. There is room for a + very interesting work, which should lay open the connection + between the languages and manners of nations. * Note I am not + aware of the existence, at present, of such a work; but the + profound observations of the late William von Humboldt, in the + introduction to his posthumously published Essay on the Language + of the Island of Java, (uber die Kawi-sprache, Berlin, 1836,) may + cause regret that this task was not completed by that + accomplished and universal scholar.—M.] + + 37 (return) [ Vegatius, l. ii. and the rest of his first book.] + + 38 (return) [ The Pyrrhic dance is extremely well illustrated by + M. le Beau, in the Academie des Inscriptions, tom. xxxv. p. 262, + &c. That learned academician, in a series of memoirs, has + collected all the passages of the ancients that relate to the + Roman legion.] + + 39 (return) [ Joseph. de Bell. Judaico, l. iii. c. 5. We are + indebted to this Jew for some very curious details of Roman + discipline.] + + 40 (return) [ Plin. Panegyr. c. 13. Life of Hadrian, in the + Augustan History.] + + Nine centuries of war had gradually introduced into the service + many alterations and improvements. The legions, as they are + described by Polybius, 41 in the time of the Punic wars, differed + very materially from those which achieved the victories of Cæsar, + or defended the monarchy of Hadrian and the Antonines. The + constitution of the Imperial legion may be described in a few + words. 42 The heavy-armed infantry, which composed its principal + strength, 43 was divided into ten cohorts, and fifty-five + companies, under the orders of a correspondent number of tribunes + and centurions. The first cohort, which always claimed the post + of honor and the custody of the eagle, was formed of eleven + hundred and five soldiers, the most approved for valor and + fidelity. The remaining nine cohorts consisted each of five + hundred and fifty-five; and the whole body of legionary infantry + amounted to six thousand one hundred men. Their arms were + uniform, and admirably adapted to the nature of their service: an + open helmet, with a lofty crest; a breastplate, or coat of mail; + greaves on their legs, and an ample buckler on their left arm. + The buckler was of an oblong and concave figure, four feet in + length, and two and a half in breadth, framed of a light wood, + covered with a bull’s hide, and strongly guarded with plates of + brass. Besides a lighter spear, the legionary soldier grasped in + his right hand the formidable _pilum_, a ponderous javelin, whose + utmost length was about six feet, and which was terminated by a + massy triangular point of steel of eighteen inches. 44 This + instrument was indeed much inferior to our modern fire-arms; + since it was exhausted by a single discharge, at the distance of + only ten or twelve paces. Yet when it was launched by a firm and + skilful hand, there was not any cavalry that durst venture within + its reach, nor any shield or corselet that could sustain the + impetuosity of its weight. As soon as the Roman had darted his + _pilum_, he drew his sword, and rushed forwards to close with the + enemy. His sword was a short well-tempered Spanish blade, that + carried a double edge, and was alike suited to the purpose of + striking or of pushing; but the soldier was always instructed to + prefer the latter use of his weapon, as his own body remained + less exposed, whilst he inflicted a more dangerous wound on his + adversary. 45 The legion was usually drawn up eight deep; and the + regular distance of three feet was left between the files as well + as ranks. 46 A body of troops, habituated to preserve this open + order, in a long front and a rapid charge, found themselves + prepared to execute every disposition which the circumstances of + war, or the skill of their leader, might suggest. The soldier + possessed a free space for his arms and motions, and sufficient + intervals were allowed, through which seasonable reinforcements + might be introduced to the relief of the exhausted combatants. 47 + The tactics of the Greeks and Macedonians were formed on very + different principles. The strength of the phalanx depended on + sixteen ranks of long pikes, wedged together in the closest + array. 48 But it was soon discovered by reflection, as well as by + the event, that the strength of the phalanx was unable to contend + with the activity of the legion. 49 + + 41 (return) [ See an admirable digression on the Roman + discipline, in the sixth book of his History.] + + 42 (return) [ Vegetius de Re Militari, l. ii. c. 4, &c. + Considerable part of his very perplexed abridgment was taken from + the regulations of Trajan and Hadrian; and the legion, as he + describes it, cannot suit any other age of the Roman empire.] + + 43 (return) [Vegetius de Re Militari, l. ii. c. 1. In the purer + age of Cæsar and Cicero, the word miles was almost confined to + the infantry. Under the lower empire, and the times of chivalry, + it was appropriated almost as exclusively to the men at arms, who + fought on horseback.] + + 44 (return) [ In the time of Polybius and Dionysius of + Halicarnassus, (l. v. c. 45,) the steel point of the pilum seems + to have been much longer. In the time of Vegetius, it was reduced + to a foot, or even nine inches. I have chosen a medium.] + + 45 (return) [ For the legionary arms, see Lipsius de Militia + Romana, l. iii. c. 2—7.] + + 46 (return) [ See the beautiful comparison of Virgil, Georgic ii. + v. 279.] + + 47 (return) [ M. Guichard, Memoires Militaires, tom. i. c. 4, and + Nouveaux Memoires, tom. i. p. 293—311, has treated the subject + like a scholar and an officer.] + + 48 (return) [ See Arrian’s Tactics. With the true partiality of a + Greek, Arrian rather chose to describe the phalanx, of which he + had read, than the legions which he had commanded.] + + 49 (return) [ Polyb. l. xvii. (xviii. 9.)] + + The cavalry, without which the force of the legion would have + remained imperfect, was divided into ten troops or squadrons; the + first, as the companion of the first cohort, consisted of a + hundred and thirty-two men; whilst each of the other nine + amounted only to sixty-six. The entire establishment formed a + regiment, if we may use the modern expression, of seven hundred + and twenty-six horse, naturally connected with its respective + legion, but occasionally separated to act in the line, and to + compose a part of the wings of the army. 50 The cavalry of the + emperors was no longer composed, like that of the ancient + republic, of the noblest youths of Rome and Italy, who, by + performing their military service on horseback, prepared + themselves for the offices of senator and consul; and solicited, + by deeds of valor, the future suffrages of their countrymen. 51 + Since the alteration of manners and government, the most wealthy + of the equestrian order were engaged in the administration of + justice, and of the revenue; 52 and whenever they embraced the + profession of arms, they were immediately intrusted with a troop + of horse, or a cohort of foot. 53 Trajan and Hadrian formed their + cavalry from the same provinces, and the same class of their + subjects, which recruited the ranks of the legion. The horses + were bred, for the most part, in Spain or Cappadocia. The Roman + troopers despised the complete armor with which the cavalry of + the East was encumbered. _Their_ more useful arms consisted in a + helmet, an oblong shield, light boots, and a coat of mail. A + javelin, and a long broad sword, were their principal weapons of + offence. The use of lances and of iron maces they seem to have + borrowed from the barbarians. 54 + + 50 (return) [ Veget. de Re Militari, l. ii. c. 6. His positive + testimony, which might be supported by circumstantial evidence, + ought surely to silence those critics who refuse the Imperial + legion its proper body of cavalry. Note: See also Joseph. B. J. + iii. vi. 2.—M.] + + 51 (return) [ See Livy almost throughout, particularly xlii. 61.] + + 52 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. xxxiii. 2. The true sense of + that very curious passage was first discovered and illustrated by + M. de Beaufort, Republique Romaine, l. ii. c. 2.] + + 53 (return) [ As in the instance of Horace and Agricola. This + appears to have been a defect in the Roman discipline; which + Hadrian endeavored to remedy by ascertaining the legal age of a + tribune. * Note: These details are not altogether accurate. + Although, in the latter days of the republic, and under the first + emperors, the young Roman nobles obtained the command of a + squadron or a cohort with greater facility than in the former + times, they never obtained it without passing through a tolerably + long military service. Usually they served first in the prætorian + cohort, which was intrusted with the guard of the general: they + were received into the companionship (contubernium) of some + superior officer, and were there formed for duty. Thus Julius + Cæsar, though sprung from a great family, served first as + contubernalis under the prætor, M. Thermus, and later under + Servilius the Isaurian. (Suet. Jul. 2, 5. Plut. in Par. p. 516. + Ed. Froben.) The example of Horace, which Gibbon adduces to prove + that young knights were made tribunes immediately on entering the + service, proves nothing. In the first place, Horace was not a + knight; he was the son of a freedman of Venusia, in Apulia, who + exercised the humble office of coactor exauctionum, (collector of + payments at auctions.) (Sat. i. vi. 45, or 86.) Moreover, when + the poet was made tribune, Brutus, whose army was nearly entirely + composed of Orientals, gave this title to all the Romans of + consideration who joined him. The emperors were still less + difficult in their choice; the number of tribunes was augmented; + the title and honors were conferred on persons whom they wished + to attack to the court. Augustus conferred on the sons of + senators, sometimes the tribunate, sometimes the command of a + squadron. Claudius gave to the knights who entered into the + service, first the command of a cohort of auxiliaries, later that + of a squadron, and at length, for the first time, the tribunate. + (Suet in Claud. with the notes of Ernesti.) The abuses that arose + caused by the edict of Hadrian, which fixed the age at which that + honor could be attained. (Spart. in Had. &c.) This edict was + subsequently obeyed; for the emperor Valerian, in a letter + addressed to Mulvius Gallinnus, prætorian præfect, excuses + himself for having violated it in favor of the young Probus + afterwards emperor, on whom he had conferred the tribunate at an + earlier age on account of his rare talents. (Vopisc. in Prob. + iv.)—W. and G. Agricola, though already invested with the title + of tribune, was contubernalis in Britain with Suetonius Paulinus. + Tac. Agr. v.—M.] + + 54 (return) [ See Arrian’s Tactics.] + + The safety and honor of the empire was principally intrusted to + the legions, but the policy of Rome condescended to adopt every + useful instrument of war. Considerable levies were regularly made + among the provincials, who had not yet deserved the honorable + distinction of Romans. Many dependent princes and communities, + dispersed round the frontiers, were permitted, for a while, to + hold their freedom and security by the tenure of military + service. 55 Even select troops of hostile barbarians were + frequently compelled or persuaded to consume their dangerous + valor in remote climates, and for the benefit of the state. 56 + All these were included under the general name of auxiliaries; + and howsoever they might vary according to the difference of + times and circumstances, their numbers were seldom much inferior + to those of the legions themselves. 57 Among the auxiliaries, the + bravest and most faithful bands were placed under the command of + præfects and centurions, and severely trained in the arts of + Roman discipline; but the far greater part retained those arms, + to which the nature of their country, or their early habits of + life, more peculiarly adapted them. By this institution, each + legion, to whom a certain proportion of auxiliaries was allotted, + contained within itself every species of lighter troops, and of + missile weapons; and was capable of encountering every nation, + with the advantages of its respective arms and discipline. 58 Nor + was the legion destitute of what, in modern language, would be + styled a train of artillery. It consisted in ten military engines + of the largest, and fifty-five of a smaller size; but all of + which, either in an oblique or horizontal manner, discharged + stones and darts with irresistible violence. 59 + + 55 (return) [ Such, in particular, was the state of the + Batavians. Tacit. Germania, c. 29.] + + 56 (return) [ Marcus Antoninus obliged the vanquished Quadi and + Marcomanni to supply him with a large body of troops, which he + immediately sent into Britain. Dion Cassius, l. lxxi. (c. 16.)] + + 57 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. iv. 5. Those who fix a regular + proportion of as many foot, and twice as many horse, confound the + auxiliaries of the emperors with the Italian allies of the + republic.] + + 58 (return) [ Vegetius, ii. 2. Arrian, in his order of march and + battle against the Alani.] + + 59 (return) [ The subject of the ancient machines is treated with + great knowledge and ingenuity by the Chevalier Folard, (Polybe, + tom. ii. p. 233-290.) He prefers them in many respects to our + modern cannon and mortars. We may observe, that the use of them + in the field gradually became more prevalent, in proportion as + personal valor and military skill declined with the Roman empire. + When men were no longer found, their place was supplied by + machines. See Vegetius, ii. 25. Arrian.] + + + + + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part III. + + The camp of a Roman legion presented the appearance of a + fortified city. 60 As soon as the space was marked out, the + pioneers carefully levelled the ground, and removed every + impediment that might interrupt its perfect regularity. Its form + was an exact quadrangle; and we may calculate, that a square of + about seven hundred yards was sufficient for the encampment of + twenty thousand Romans; though a similar number of our own troops + would expose to the enemy a front of more than treble that + extent. In the midst of the camp, the prætorium, or general’s + quarters, rose above the others; the cavalry, the infantry, and + the auxiliaries occupied their respective stations; the streets + were broad and perfectly straight, and a vacant space of two + hundred feet was left on all sides between the tents and the + rampart. The rampart itself was usually twelve feet high, armed + with a line of strong and intricate palisades, and defended by a + ditch of twelve feet in depth as well as in breadth. This + important labor was performed by the hands of the legionaries + themselves; to whom the use of the spade and the pickaxe was no + less familiar than that of the sword or _pilum_. Active valor may + often be the present of nature; but such patient diligence can be + the fruit only of habit and discipline. 61 + + 60 (return) [ Vegetius finishes his second book, and the + description of the legion, with the following emphatic + words:—“Universa quæ in quoque belli genere necessaria esse + creduntur, secum legio debet ubique portare, ut in quovis loco + fixerit castra, armatam faciat civitatem.”] + + 61 (return) [ For the Roman Castrametation, see Polybius, l. vi. + with Lipsius de Militia Romana, Joseph. de Bell. Jud. l. iii. c. + 5. Vegetius, i. 21—25, iii. 9, and Memoires de Guichard, tom. i. + c. 1.] + + Whenever the trumpet gave the signal of departure, the camp was + almost instantly broke up, and the troops fell into their ranks + without delay or confusion. Besides their arms, which the + legionaries scarcely considered as an encumbrance, they were + laden with their kitchen furniture, the instruments of + fortification, and the provision of many days. 62 Under this + weight, which would oppress the delicacy of a modern soldier, + they were trained by a regular step to advance, in about six + hours, near twenty miles. 63 On the appearance of an enemy, they + threw aside their baggage, and by easy and rapid evolutions + converted the column of march into an order of battle. 64 The + slingers and archers skirmished in the front; the auxiliaries + formed the first line, and were seconded or sustained by the + strength of the legions; the cavalry covered the flanks, and the + military engines were placed in the rear. + + 62 (return) [ Cicero in Tusculan. ii. 37, [15.]—Joseph. de Bell. + Jud. l. iii. 5, Frontinus, iv. 1.] + + 63 (return) [ Vegetius, i. 9. See Memoires de l’Academie des + Inscriptions, tom. xxv. p. 187.] + + 64 (return) [ See those evolutions admirably well explained by M. + Guichard Nouveaux Memoires, tom. i. p. 141—234.] + + Such were the arts of war, by which the Roman emperors defended + their extensive conquests, and preserved a military spirit, at a + time when every other virtue was oppressed by luxury and + despotism. If, in the consideration of their armies, we pass from + their discipline to their numbers, we shall not find it easy to + define them with any tolerable accuracy. We may compute, however, + that the legion, which was itself a body of six thousand eight + hundred and thirty-one Romans, might, with its attendant + auxiliaries, amount to about twelve thousand five hundred men. + The peace establishment of Hadrian and his successors was + composed of no less than thirty of these formidable brigades; and + most probably formed a standing force of three hundred and + seventy-five thousand men. Instead of being confined within the + walls of fortified cities, which the Romans considered as the + refuge of weakness or pusillanimity, the legions were encamped on + the banks of the great rivers, and along the frontiers of the + barbarians. As their stations, for the most part, remained fixed + and permanent, we may venture to describe the distribution of the + troops. Three legions were sufficient for Britain. The principal + strength lay upon the Rhine and Danube, and consisted of sixteen + legions, in the following proportions: two in the Lower, and + three in the Upper Germany; one in Rhætia, one in Noricum, four + in Pannonia, three in Mæsia, and two in Dacia. The defence of the + Euphrates was intrusted to eight legions, six of whom were + planted in Syria, and the other two in Cappadocia. With regard to + Egypt, Africa, and Spain, as they were far removed from any + important scene of war, a single legion maintained the domestic + tranquillity of each of those great provinces. Even Italy was not + left destitute of a military force. Above twenty thousand chosen + soldiers, distinguished by the titles of City Cohorts and + Prætorian Guards, watched over the safety of the monarch and the + capital. As the authors of almost every revolution that + distracted the empire, the Prætorians will, very soon, and very + loudly, demand our attention; but, in their arms and + institutions, we cannot find any circumstance which discriminated + them from the legions, unless it were a more splendid appearance, + and a less rigid discipline. 65 + + 65 (return) [ Tacitus (Annal. iv. 5) has given us a state of the + legions under Tiberius; and Dion Cassius (l. lv. p. 794) under + Alexander Severus. I have endeavored to fix on the proper medium + between these two periods. See likewise Lipsius de Magnitudine + Romana, l. i. c. 4, 5.] + + The navy maintained by the emperors might seem inadequate to + their greatness; but it was fully sufficient for every useful + purpose of government. The ambition of the Romans was confined to + the land; nor was that warlike people ever actuated by the + enterprising spirit which had prompted the navigators of Tyre, of + Carthage, and even of Marseilles, to enlarge the bounds of the + world, and to explore the most remote coasts of the ocean. To the + Romans the ocean remained an object of terror rather than of + curiosity; 66 the whole extent of the Mediterranean, after the + destruction of Carthage, and the extirpation of the pirates, was + included within their provinces. The policy of the emperors was + directed only to preserve the peaceful dominion of that sea, and + to protect the commerce of their subjects. With these moderate + views, Augustus stationed two permanent fleets in the most + convenient ports of Italy, the one at Ravenna, on the Adriatic, + the other at Misenum, in the Bay of Naples. Experience seems at + length to have convinced the ancients, that as soon as their + galleys exceeded two, or at the most three ranks of oars, they + were suited rather for vain pomp than for real service. Augustus + himself, in the victory of Actium, had seen the superiority of + his own light frigates (they were called Liburnians) over the + lofty but unwieldy castles of his rival. 67 Of these Liburnians + he composed the two fleets of Ravenna and Misenum, destined to + command, the one the eastern, the other the western division of + the Mediterranean; and to each of the squadrons he attached a + body of several thousand marines. Besides these two ports, which + may be considered as the principal seats of the Roman navy, a + very considerable force was stationed at Frejus, on the coast of + Provence, and the Euxine was guarded by forty ships, and three + thousand soldiers. To all these we add the fleet which preserved + the communication between Gaul and Britain, and a great number of + vessels constantly maintained on the Rhine and Danube, to harass + the country, or to intercept the passage of the barbarians. 68 If + we review this general state of the Imperial forces; of the + cavalry as well as infantry; of the legions, the auxiliaries, the + guards, and the navy; the most liberal computation will not allow + us to fix the entire establishment by sea and by land at more + than four hundred and fifty thousand men: a military power, + which, however formidable it may seem, was equalled by a monarch + of the last century, whose kingdom was confined within a single + province of the Roman empire. 69 + + 66 (return) [ The Romans tried to disguise, by the pretence of + religious awe their ignorance and terror. See Tacit. Germania, c. + 34.] + + 67 (return) [ Plutarch, in Marc. Anton. [c. 67.] And yet, if we + may credit Orosius, these monstrous castles were no more than ten + feet above the water, vi. 19.] + + 68 (return) [ See Lipsius, de Magnitud. Rom. l. i. c. 5. The + sixteen last chapters of Vegetius relate to naval affairs.] + + 69 (return) [ Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XIV. c. 29. It must, + however, be remembered, that France still feels that + extraordinary effort.] + + We have attempted to explain the spirit which moderated, and the + strength which supported, the power of Hadrian and the Antonines. + We shall now endeavor, with clearness and precision, to describe + the provinces once united under their sway, but, at present, + divided into so many independent and hostile states. Spain, the + western extremity of the empire, of Europe, and of the ancient + world, has, in every age, invariably preserved the same natural + limits; the Pyrenæan Mountains, the Mediterranean, and the + Atlantic Ocean. That great peninsula, at present so unequally + divided between two sovereigns, was distributed by Augustus into + three provinces, Lusitania, Bætica, and Tarraconensis. The + kingdom of Portugal now fills the place of the warlike country of + the Lusitanians; and the loss sustained by the former on the side + of the East, is compensated by an accession of territory towards + the North. The confines of Grenada and Andalusia correspond with + those of ancient Bætica. The remainder of Spain, Gallicia, and + the Asturias, Biscay, and Navarre, Leon, and the two Castiles, + Murcia, Valencia, Catalonia, and Arragon, all contributed to form + the third and most considerable of the Roman governments, which, + from the name of its capital, was styled the province of + Tarragona. 70 Of the native barbarians, the Celtiberians were the + most powerful, as the Cantabrians and Asturians proved the most + obstinate. Confident in the strength of their mountains, they + were the last who submitted to the arms of Rome, and the first + who threw off the yoke of the Arabs. + + 70 (return) [ See Strabo, l. ii. It is natural enough to suppose, + that Arragon is derived from Tarraconensis, and several moderns + who have written in Latin use those words as synonymous. It is, + however, certain, that the Arragon, a little stream which falls + from the Pyrenees into the Ebro, first gave its name to a + country, and gradually to a kingdom. See d’Anville, Geographie du + Moyen Age, p. 181.] + + Ancient Gaul, as it contained the whole country between the + Pyrenees, the Alps, the Rhine, and the Ocean, was of greater + extent than modern France. To the dominions of that powerful + monarchy, with its recent acquisitions of Alsace and Lorraine, we + must add the duchy of Savoy, the cantons of Switzerland, the four + electorates of the Rhine, and the territories of Liege, + Luxemburgh, Hainault, Flanders, and Brabant. When Augustus gave + laws to the conquests of his father, he introduced a division of + Gaul, equally adapted to the progress of the legions, to the + course of the rivers, and to the principal national distinctions, + which had comprehended above a hundred independent states. 71 The + sea-coast of the Mediterranean, Languedoc, Provence, and + Dauphiné, received their provincial appellation from the colony + of Narbonne. The government of Aquitaine was extended from the + Pyrenees to the Loire. The country between the Loire and the + Seine was styled the Celtic Gaul, and soon borrowed a new + denomination from the celebrated colony of Lugdunum, or Lyons. + The Belgic lay beyond the Seine, and in more ancient times had + been bounded only by the Rhine; but a little before the age of + Cæsar, the Germans, abusing their superiority of valor, had + occupied a considerable portion of the Belgic territory. The + Roman conquerors very eagerly embraced so flattering a + circumstance, and the Gallic frontier of the Rhine, from Basil to + Leyden, received the pompous names of the Upper and the Lower + Germany. 72 Such, under the reign of the Antonines, were the six + provinces of Gaul; the Narbonnese, Aquitaine, the Celtic, or + Lyonnese, the Belgic, and the two Germanies. + + 71 (return) [ One hundred and fifteen _cities_ appear in the + Notitia of Gaul; and it is well known that this appellation was + applied not only to the capital town, but to the whole territory + of each state. But Plutarch and Appian increase the number of + tribes to three or four hundred.] + + 72 (return) [ D’Anville. Notice de l’Ancienne Gaule.] + + We have already had occasion to mention the conquest of Britain, + and to fix the boundary of the Roman Province in this island. It + comprehended all England, Wales, and the Lowlands of Scotland, as + far as the Friths of Dumbarton and Edinburgh. Before Britain lost + her freedom, the country was irregularly divided between thirty + tribes of barbarians, of whom the most considerable were the + Belgæ in the West, the Brigantes in the North, the Silures in + South Wales, and the Iceni in Norfolk and Suffolk. 73 As far as + we can either trace or credit the resemblance of manners and + language, Spain, Gaul, and Britain were peopled by the same hardy + race of savages. Before they yielded to the Roman arms, they + often disputed the field, and often renewed the contest. After + their submission, they constituted the western division of the + European provinces, which extended from the columns of Hercules + to the wall of Antoninus, and from the mouth of the Tagus to the + sources of the Rhine and Danube. + + 73 (return) [ Whittaker’s History of Manchester, vol. i. c. 3.] + Before the Roman conquest, the country which is now called + Lombardy, was not considered as a part of Italy. It had been + occupied by a powerful colony of Gauls, who, settling themselves + along the banks of the Po, from Piedmont to Romagna, carried + their arms and diffused their name from the Alps to the Apennine. + + The Ligurians dwelt on the rocky coast which now forms the + republic of Genoa. Venice was yet unborn; but the territories of + that state, which lie to the east of the Adige, were inhabited by + the Venetians. 74 The middle part of the peninsula, that now + composes the duchy of Tuscany and the ecclesiastical state, was + the ancient seat of the Etruscans and Umbrians; to the former of + whom Italy was indebted for the first rudiments of civilized + life. 75 The Tyber rolled at the foot of the seven hills of Rome, + and the country of the Sabines, the Latins, and the Volsci, from + that river to the frontiers of Naples, was the theatre of her + infant victories. On that celebrated ground the first consuls + deserved triumphs, their successors adorned villas, and _their_ + posterity have erected convents. 76 Capua and Campania possessed + the immediate territory of Naples; the rest of the kingdom was + inhabited by many warlike nations, the Marsi, the Samnites, the + Apulians, and the Lucanians; and the sea-coasts had been covered + by the flourishing colonies of the Greeks. We may remark, that + when Augustus divided Italy into eleven regions, the little + province of Istria was annexed to that seat of Roman sovereignty. + 77 + + 74 (return) [ The Italian Veneti, though often confounded with + the Gauls, were more probably of Illyrian origin. See M. Freret, + Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. xviii. * Note: Or + Liburnian, according to Niebuhr. Vol. i. p. 172.—M.] + + 75 (return) [ See Maffei Verona illustrata, l. i. * Note: Add + Niebuhr, vol. i., and Otfried Müller, _die Etrusker_, which + contains much that is known, and much that is conjectured, about + this remarkable people. Also Micali, Storia degli antichi popoli + Italiani. Florence, 1832—M.] + + 76 (return) [ The first contrast was observed by the ancients. + See Florus, i. 11. The second must strike every modern + traveller.] + + 77 (return) [ Pliny (Hist. Natur. l. iii.) follows the division + of Italy by Augustus.] + + The European provinces of Rome were protected by the course of + the Rhine and the Danube. The latter of those mighty streams, + which rises at the distance of only thirty miles from the former, + flows above thirteen hundred miles, for the most part to the + south-east, collects the tribute of sixty navigable rivers, and + is, at length, through six mouths, received into the Euxine, + which appears scarcely equal to such an accession of waters. 78 + The provinces of the Danube soon acquired the general appellation + of Illyricum, or the Illyrian frontier, 79 and were esteemed the + most warlike of the empire; but they deserve to be more + particularly considered under the names of Rhætia, Noricum, + Pannonia, Dalmatia, Dacia, Mæsia, Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece. + + 78 (return) [ Tournefort, Voyages en Grece et Asie Mineure, + lettre xviii.] + + 79 (return) [ The name of Illyricum originally belonged to the + sea-coast of the Adriatic, and was gradually extended by the + Romans from the Alps to the Euxine Sea. See Severini Pannonia, l. + i. c. 3.] + + The province of Rhætia, which soon extinguished the name of the + Vindelicians, extended from the summit of the Alps to the banks + of the Danube; from its source, as far as its conflux with the + Inn. The greatest part of the flat country is subject to the + elector of Bavaria; the city of Augsburg is protected by the + constitution of the German empire; the Grisons are safe in their + mountains, and the country of Tirol is ranked among the numerous + provinces of the house of Austria. + + The wide extent of territory which is included between the Inn, + the Danube, and the Save,—Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, + the Lower Hungary, and Sclavonia,—was known to the ancients under + the names of Noricum and Pannonia. In their original state of + independence, their fierce inhabitants were intimately connected. + Under the Roman government they were frequently united, and they + still remain the patrimony of a single family. They now contain + the residence of a German prince, who styles himself Emperor of + the Romans, and form the centre, as well as strength, of the + Austrian power. It may not be improper to observe, that if we + except Bohemia, Moravia, the northern skirts of Austria, and a + part of Hungary between the Teyss and the Danube, all the other + dominions of the House of Austria were comprised within the + limits of the Roman Empire. + + Dalmatia, to which the name of Illyricum more properly belonged, + was a long, but narrow tract, between the Save and the Adriatic. + The best part of the sea-coast, which still retains its ancient + appellation, is a province of the Venetian state, and the seat of + the little republic of Ragusa. The inland parts have assumed the + Sclavonian names of Croatia and Bosnia; the former obeys an + Austrian governor, the latter a Turkish pacha; but the whole + country is still infested by tribes of barbarians, whose savage + independence irregularly marks the doubtful limit of the + Christian and Mahometan power. 80 + + 80 (return) [ A Venetian traveller, the Abbate Fortis, has lately + given us some account of those very obscure countries. But the + geography and antiquities of the western Illyricum can be + expected only from the munificence of the emperor, its + sovereign.] + + After the Danube had received the waters of the Teyss and the + Save, it acquired, at least among the Greeks, the name of Ister. + 81 It formerly divided Mæsia and Dacia, the latter of which, as + we have already seen, was a conquest of Trajan, and the only + province beyond the river. If we inquire into the present state + of those countries, we shall find that, on the left hand of the + Danube, Temeswar and Transylvania have been annexed, after many + revolutions, to the crown of Hungary; whilst the principalities + of Moldavia and Wallachia acknowledge the supremacy of the + Ottoman Porte. On the right hand of the Danube, Mæsia, which, + during the middle ages, was broken into the barbarian kingdoms of + Servia and Bulgaria, is again united in Turkish slavery. + + 81 (return) [ The Save rises near the confines of _Istria_, and + was considered by the more early Greeks as the principal stream + of the Danube.] + + The appellation of Roumelia, which is still bestowed by the Turks + on the extensive countries of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, + preserves the memory of their ancient state under the Roman + empire. In the time of the Antonines, the martial regions of + Thrace, from the mountains of Hæmus and Rhodope, to the Bosphorus + and the Hellespont, had assumed the form of a province. + Notwithstanding the change of masters and of religion, the new + city of Rome, founded by Constantine on the banks of the + Bosphorus, has ever since remained the capital of a great + monarchy. The kingdom of Macedonia, which, under the reign of + Alexander, gave laws to Asia, derived more solid advantages from + the policy of the two Philips; and with its dependencies of + Epirus and Thessaly, extended from the Ægean to the Ionian Sea. + When we reflect on the fame of Thebes and Argos, of Sparta and + Athens, we can scarcely persuade ourselves, that so many immortal + republics of ancient Greece were lost in a single province of the + Roman empire, which, from the superior influence of the Achæan + league, was usually denominated the province of Achaia. + + Such was the state of Europe under the Roman emperors. The + provinces of Asia, without excepting the transient conquests of + Trajan, are all comprehended within the limits of the Turkish + power. But, instead of following the arbitrary divisions of + despotism and ignorance, it will be safer for us, as well as more + agreeable, to observe the indelible characters of nature. The + name of Asia Minor is attributed with some propriety to the + peninsula, which, confined betwixt the Euxine and the + Mediterranean, advances from the Euphrates towards Europe. The + most extensive and flourishing district, westward of Mount Taurus + and the River Halys, was dignified by the Romans with the + exclusive title of Asia. The jurisdiction of that province + extended over the ancient monarchies of Troy, Lydia, and Phrygia, + the maritime countries of the Pamphylians, Lycians, and Carians, + and the Grecian colonies of Ionia, which equalled in arts, though + not in arms, the glory of their parent. The kingdoms of Bithynia + and Pontus possessed the northern side of the peninsula from + Constantinople to Trebizond. On the opposite side, the province + of Cilicia was terminated by the mountains of Syria: the inland + country, separated from the Roman Asia by the River Halys, and + from Armenia by the Euphrates, had once formed the independent + kingdom of Cappadocia. In this place we may observe, that the + northern shores of the Euxine, beyond Trebizond in Asia, and + beyond the Danube in Europe, acknowledged the sovereignty of the + emperors, and received at their hands either tributary princes or + Roman garrisons. Budzak, Crim Tartary, Circassia, and Mingrelia, + are the modern appellations of those savage countries. 82 + + 82 (return) [ See the Periplus of Arrian. He examined the coasts + of the Euxine, when he was governor of Cappadocia.] + + Under the successors of Alexander, Syria was the seat of the + Seleucidæ, who reigned over Upper Asia, till the successful + revolt of the Parthians confined their dominions between the + Euphrates and the Mediterranean. When Syria became subject to the + Romans, it formed the eastern frontier of their empire: nor did + that province, in its utmost latitude, know any other bounds than + the mountains of Cappadocia to the north, and towards the south, + the confines of Egypt, and the Red Sea. Phœnicia and Palestine + were sometimes annexed to, and sometimes separated from, the + jurisdiction of Syria. The former of these was a narrow and rocky + coast; the latter was a territory scarcely superior to Wales, + either in fertility or extent. 821 Yet Phœnicia and Palestine + will forever live in the memory of mankind; since America, as + well as Europe, has received letters from the one, and religion + from the other. 83 A sandy desert, alike destitute of wood and + water, skirts along the doubtful confine of Syria, from the + Euphrates to the Red Sea. The wandering life of the Arabs was + inseparably connected with their independence; and wherever, on + some spots less barren than the rest, they ventured to for many + settled habitations, they soon became subjects to the Roman + empire. 84 + + 821 (return) [ This comparison is exaggerated, with the + intention, no doubt, of attacking the authority of the Bible, + which boasts of the fertility of Palestine. Gibbon’s only + authorities were that of Strabo (l. xvi. 1104) and the present + state of the country. But Strabo only speaks of the neighborhood + of Jerusalem, which he calls barren and arid to the extent of + sixty stadia round the city: in other parts he gives a favorable + testimony to the fertility of many parts of Palestine: thus he + says, “Near Jericho there is a grove of palms, and a country of a + hundred stadia, full of springs, and well peopled.” Moreover, + Strabo had never seen Palestine; he spoke only after reports, + which may be as inaccurate as those according to which he has + composed that description of Germany, in which Gluverius has + detected so many errors. (Gluv. Germ. iii. 1.) Finally, his + testimony is contradicted and refuted by that of other ancient + authors, and by medals. Tacitus says, in speaking of Palestine, + “The inhabitants are healthy and robust; the rains moderate; the + soil fertile.” (Hist. v. 6.) Ammianus Macellinus says also, “The + last of the Syrias is Palestine, a country of considerable + extent, abounding in clean and well-cultivated land, and + containing some fine cities, none of which yields to the other; + but, as it were, being on a parallel, are rivals.”—xiv. 8. See + also the historian Josephus, Hist. vi. 1. Procopius of Cæserea, + who lived in the sixth century, says that Chosroes, king of + Persia, had a great desire to make himself master of Palestine, + _on account of its_ extraordinary fertility, its opulence, and + the great number of its inhabitants. The Saracens thought the + same, and were afraid that Omar. when he went to Jerusalem, + charmed with the fertility of the soil and the purity of the air, + would never return to Medina. (Ockley, Hist. of Sarac. i. 232.) + The importance attached by the Romans to the conquest of + Palestine, and the obstacles they encountered, prove also the + richness and population of the country. Vespasian and Titus + caused medals to be struck with trophies, in which Palestine is + represented by a female under a palm-tree, to signify the + richness of he country, with this legend: _Judæa capta_. Other + medals also indicate this fertility; for instance, that of Herod + holding a bunch of grapes, and that of the young Agrippa + displaying fruit. As to the present state of he country, one + perceives that it is not fair to draw any inference against its + ancient fertility: the disasters through which it has passed, the + government to which it is subject, the disposition of the + inhabitants, explain sufficiently the wild and uncultivated + appearance of the land, where, nevertheless, fertile and + cultivated districts are still found, according to the testimony + of travellers; among others, of Shaw, Maundrel, La Rocque, &c.—G. + The Abbé Guénée, in his _Lettres de quelques Juifs à Mons. de + Voltaire_, has exhausted the subject of the fertility of + Palestine; for Voltaire had likewise indulged in sarcasm on this + subject. Gibbon was assailed on this point, not, indeed, by Mr. + Davis, who, he slyly insinuates, was prevented by his patriotism + as a Welshman from resenting the comparison with Wales, but by + other writers. In his Vindication, he first established the + correctness of his measurement of Palestine, which he estimates + as 7600 square English miles, while Wales is about 7011. As to + fertility, he proceeds in the following dexterously composed and + splendid passage: “The emperor Frederick II., the enemy and the + victim of the clergy, is accused of saying, after his return from + his crusade, that the God of the Jews would have despised his + promised land, if he had once seen the fruitful realms of Sicily + and Naples.” (See Giannone, Istor. Civ. del R. di Napoli, ii. + 245.) This raillery, which malice has, perhaps, falsely imputed + to Frederick, is inconsistent with truth and piety; yet it must + be confessed that the soil of Palestine does not contain that + inexhaustible, and, as it were, spontaneous principle of + fertility, which, under the most unfavorable circumstances, has + covered with rich harvests the banks of the Nile, the fields of + Sicily, or the plains of Poland. The Jordan is the only navigable + river of Palestine: a considerable part of the narrow space is + occupied, or rather lost, in the _Dead Sea_ whose horrid aspect + inspires every sensation of disgust, and countenances every tale + of horror. The districts which border on Arabia partake of the + sandy quality of the adjacent desert. The face of the country, + except the sea-coast, and the valley of the Jordan, is covered + with mountains, which appear, for the most part, as naked and + barren rocks; and in the neighborhood of Jerusalem, there is a + real scarcity of the two elements of earth and water. (See + Maundrel’s Travels, p. 65, and Reland’s Palestin. i. 238, 395.) + These disadvantages, which now operate in their fullest extent, + were formerly corrected by the labors of a numerous people, and + the active protection of a wise government. The hills were + clothed with rich beds of artificial mould, the rain was + collected in vast cisterns, a supply of fresh water was conveyed + by pipes and aqueducts to the dry lands. The breed of cattle was + encouraged in those parts which were not adapted for tillage, and + almost every spot was compelled to yield some production for the + use of the inhabitants. + + Pater ispe colendi Haud facilem esse viam voluit, primusque par + artem Movit agros; curis acuens mortalia corda, Nec torpere gravi + passus sua Regna veterno. Gibbon, Misc. Works, iv. 540. + + But Gibbon has here eluded the question about the land “flowing + with milk and honey.” He is describing Judæa only, without + comprehending Galilee, or the rich pastures beyond the Jordan, + even now proverbial for their flocks and herds. (See Burckhardt’s + Travels, and Hist of Jews, i. 178.) The following is believed to + be a fair statement: “The extraordinary fertility of the whole + country must be taken into the account. No part was waste; very + little was occupied by unprofitable wood; the more fertile hills + were cultivated in artificial terraces, others were hung with + orchards of fruit trees the more rocky and barren districts were + covered with vineyards.” Even in the present day, the wars and + misgovernment of ages have not exhausted the natural richness of + the soil. “Galilee,” says Malte Brun, “would be a paradise were + it inhabited by an industrious people under an enlightened + government. No land could be less dependent on foreign + importation; it bore within itself every thing that could be + necessary for the subsistence and comfort of a simple + agricultural people. The climate was healthy, the seasons + regular; the former rains, which fell about October, after the + vintage, prepared the ground for the seed; that latter, which + prevailed during March and the beginning of April, made it grow + rapidly. Directly the rains ceased, the grain ripened with still + greater rapidity, and was gathered in before the end of May. The + summer months were dry and very hot, but the nights cool and + refreshed by copious dews. In September, the vintage was + gathered. Grain of all kinds, wheat, barley, millet, zea, and + other sorts, grew in abundance; the wheat commonly yielded thirty + for one. Besides the vine and the olive, the almond, the date, + figs of many kinds, the orange, the pomegranate, and many other + fruit trees, flourished in the greatest luxuriance. Great + quantity of honey was collected. The balm-tree, which produced + the opobalsamum, a great object of trade, was probably introduced + from Arabia, in the time of Solomon. It flourished about Jericho + and in Gilead.”—Milman’s Hist. of Jews. i. 177.—M.] + + 83 (return) [ The progress of religion is well known. The use of + letter was introduced among the savages of Europe about fifteen + hundred years before Christ; and the Europeans carried them to + America about fifteen centuries after the Christian Æra. But in a + period of three thousand years, the Phœnician alphabet received + considerable alterations, as it passed through the hands of the + Greeks and Romans.] + + 84 (return) [ Dion Cassius, lib. lxviii. p. 1131.] + + The geographers of antiquity have frequently hesitated to what + portion of the globe they should ascribe Egypt. 85 By its + situation that celebrated kingdom is included within the immense + peninsula of Africa; but it is accessible only on the side of + Asia, whose revolutions, in almost every period of history, Egypt + has humbly obeyed. A Roman præfect was seated on the splendid + throne of the Ptolemies; and the iron sceptre of the Mamelukes is + now in the hands of a Turkish pacha. The Nile flows down the + country, above five hundred miles from the tropic of Cancer to + the Mediterranean, and marks on either side the extent of + fertility by the measure of its inundations. Cyrene, situate + towards the west, and along the sea-coast, was first a Greek + colony, afterwards a province of Egypt, and is now lost in the + desert of Barca. 851 + + 85 (return) [ Ptolemy and Strabo, with the modern geographers, + fix the Isthmus of Suez as the boundary of Asia and Africa. + Dionysius, Mela, Pliny, Sallust, Hirtius, and Solinus, have + preferred for that purpose the western branch of the Nile, or + even the great Catabathmus, or descent, which last would assign + to Asia, not only Egypt, but part of Libya.] + + 851 (return) [ The French editor has a long and unnecessary note + on the History of Cyrene. For the present state of that coast and + country, the volume of Captain Beechey is full of interesting + details. Egypt, now an independent and improving kingdom, + appears, under the enterprising rule of Mahommed Ali, likely to + revenge its former oppression upon the decrepit power of the + Turkish empire.—M.—This note was written in 1838. The future + destiny of Egypt is an important problem, only to be solved by + time. This observation will also apply to the new French colony + in Algiers.—M. 1845.] + + From Cyrene to the ocean, the coast of Africa extends above + fifteen hundred miles; yet so closely is it pressed between the + Mediterranean and the Sahara, or sandy desert, that its breadth + seldom exceeds fourscore or a hundred miles. The eastern division + was considered by the Romans as the more peculiar and proper + province of Africa. Till the arrival of the Phœnician colonies, + that fertile country was inhabited by the Libyans, the most + savage of mankind. Under the immediate jurisdiction of Carthage, + it became the centre of commerce and empire; but the republic of + Carthage is now degenerated into the feeble and disorderly states + of Tripoli and Tunis. The military government of Algiers + oppresses the wide extent of Numidia, as it was once united under + Massinissa and Jugurtha; but in the time of Augustus, the limits + of Numidia were contracted; and, at least, two thirds of the + country acquiesced in the name of Mauritania, with the epithet of + Cæsariensis. The genuine Mauritania, or country of the Moors, + which, from the ancient city of Tingi, or Tangier, was + distinguished by the appellation of Tingitana, is represented by + the modern kingdom of Fez. Salle, on the Ocean, so infamous at + present for its piratical depredations, was noticed by the + Romans, as the extreme object of their power, and almost of their + geography. A city of their foundation may still be discovered + near Mequinez, the residence of the barbarian whom we condescend + to style the Emperor of Morocco; but it does not appear, that his + more southern dominions, Morocco itself, and Segelmessa, were + ever comprehended within the Roman province. The western parts of + Africa are intersected by the branches of Mount Atlas, a name so + idly celebrated by the fancy of poets; 86 but which is now + diffused over the immense ocean that rolls between the ancient + and the new continent. 87 + + 86 (return) [ The long range, moderate height, and gentle + declivity of Mount Atlas, (see Shaw’s Travels, p. 5,) are very + unlike a solitary mountain which rears its head into the clouds, + and seems to support the heavens. The peak of Teneriff, on the + contrary, rises a league and a half above the surface of the sea; + and, as it was frequently visited by the Phœnicians, might engage + the notice of the Greek poets. See Buffon, Histoire Naturelle, + tom. i. p. 312. Histoire des Voyages, tom. ii.] + + 87 (return) [ M. de Voltaire, tom. xiv. p. 297, unsupported by + either fact or probability, has generously bestowed the Canary + Islands on the Roman empire.] + + Having now finished the circuit of the Roman empire, we may + observe, that Africa is divided from Spain by a narrow strait of + about twelve miles, through which the Atlantic flows into the + Mediterranean. The columns of Hercules, so famous among the + ancients, were two mountains which seemed to have been torn + asunder by some convulsion of the elements; and at the foot of + the European mountain, the fortress of Gibraltar is now seated. + The whole extent of the Mediterranean Sea, its coasts and its + islands, were comprised within the Roman dominion. Of the larger + islands, the two Baleares, which derive their name of Majorca and + Minorca from their respective size, are subject at present, the + former to Spain, the latter to Great Britain. 871 It is easier to + deplore the fate, than to describe the actual condition, of + Corsica. 872 Two Italian sovereigns assume a regal title from + Sardinia and Sicily. Crete, or Candia, with Cyprus, and most of + the smaller islands of Greece and Asia, have been subdued by the + Turkish arms, whilst the little rock of Malta defies their power, + and has emerged, under the government of its military Order, into + fame and opulence. 873 + + 871 (return) [ Minorca was lost to Great Britain in 1782. Ann. + Register for that year.—M.] + + 872 (return) [ The gallant struggles of the Corsicans for their + independence, under Paoli, were brought to a close in the year + 1769. This volume was published in 1776. See Botta, Storia + d’Italia, vol. xiv.—M.] + + 873 (return) [ Malta, it need scarcely be said, is now in the + possession of the English. We have not, however, thought it + necessary to notice every change in the political state of the + world, since the time of Gibbon.—M] + + This long enumeration of provinces, whose broken fragments have + formed so many powerful kingdoms, might almost induce us to + forgive the vanity or ignorance of the ancients. Dazzled with the + extensive sway, the irresistible strength, and the real or + affected moderation of the emperors, they permitted themselves to + despise, and sometimes to forget, the outlying countries which + had been left in the enjoyment of a barbarous independence; and + they gradually usurped the license of confounding the Roman + monarchy with the globe of the earth. 88 But the temper, as well + as knowledge, of a modern historian, require a more sober and + accurate language. He may impress a juster image of the greatness + of Rome, by observing that the empire was above two thousand + miles in breadth, from the wall of Antoninus and the northern + limits of Dacia, to Mount Atlas and the tropic of Cancer; that it + extended in length more than three thousand miles from the + Western Ocean to the Euphrates; that it was situated in the + finest part of the Temperate Zone, between the twenty-fourth and + fifty-sixth degrees of northern latitude; and that it was + supposed to contain above sixteen hundred thousand square miles, + for the most part of fertile and well-cultivated land. 89 + + 88 (return) [ Bergier, Hist. des Grands Chemins, l. iii. c. 1, 2, + 3, 4, a very useful collection.] + + 89 (return) [ See Templeman’s Survey of the Globe; but I distrust + both the Doctor’s learning and his maps.] + + + + + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part I. + + Of The Union And Internal Prosperity Of The Roman Empire, In The + Age Of The Antonines. + + It is not alone by the rapidity, or extent of conquest, that we + should estimate the greatness of Rome. The sovereign of the + Russian deserts commands a larger portion of the globe. In the + seventh summer after his passage of the Hellespont, Alexander + erected the Macedonian trophies on the banks of the Hyphasis. 1 + Within less than a century, the irresistible Zingis, and the + Mogul princes of his race, spread their cruel devastations and + transient empire from the Sea of China, to the confines of Egypt + and Germany. 2 But the firm edifice of Roman power was raised and + preserved by the wisdom of ages. The obedient provinces of Trajan + and the Antonines were united by laws, and adorned by arts. They + might occasionally suffer from the partial abuse of delegated + authority; but the general principle of government was wise, + simple, and beneficent. They enjoyed the religion of their + ancestors, whilst in civil honors and advantages they were + exalted, by just degrees, to an equality with their conquerors. + + 1 (return) [ They were erected about the midway between Lahor and + Delhi. The conquests of Alexander in Hindostan were confined to + the Punjab, a country watered by the five great streams of the + Indus. * Note: The Hyphasis is one of the five rivers which join + the Indus or the Sind, after having traversed the province of the + Pendj-ab—a name which in Persian, signifies _five rivers_. * * * + G. The five rivers were, 1. The Hydaspes, now the Chelum, Behni, + or Bedusta, (_Sanscrit_, Vitashà, Arrow-swift.) 2. The Acesines, + the Chenab, (_Sanscrit_, Chandrabhágâ, Moon-gift.) 3. Hydraotes, + the Ravey, or Iraoty, (_Sanscrit_, Irâvatî.) 4. Hyphasis, the + Beyah, (_Sanscrit_, Vepâsà, Fetterless.) 5. The Satadru, + (_Sanscrit_, the Hundred Streamed,) the Sutledj, known first to + the Greeks in the time of Ptolemy. Rennel. Vincent, Commerce of + Anc. book 2. Lassen, Pentapotam. Ind. Wilson’s Sanscrit Dict., + and the valuable memoir of Lieut. Burnes, Journal of London + Geogr. Society, vol. iii. p. 2, with the travels of that very + able writer. Compare Gibbon’s own note, c. lxv. note 25.—M + substit. for G.] + + 2 (return) [ See M. de Guignes, Histoire des Huns, l. xv. xvi. + and xvii.] + + I. The policy of the emperors and the senate, as far as it + concerned religion, was happily seconded by the reflections of + the enlightened, and by the habits of the superstitious, part of + their subjects. The various modes of worship, which prevailed in + the Roman world, were all considered by the people, as equally + true; by the philosopher, as equally false; and by the + magistrate, as equally useful. And thus toleration produced not + only mutual indulgence, but even religious concord. + + The superstition of the people was not imbittered by any mixture + of theological rancor; nor was it confined by the chains of any + speculative system. The devout polytheist, though fondly attached + to his national rites, admitted with implicit faith the different + religions of the earth. 3 Fear, gratitude, and curiosity, a dream + or an omen, a singular disorder, or a distant journey, + perpetually disposed him to multiply the articles of his belief, + and to enlarge the list of his protectors. The thin texture of + the Pagan mythology was interwoven with various but not + discordant materials. As soon as it was allowed that sages and + heroes, who had lived or who had died for the benefit of their + country, were exalted to a state of power and immortality, it was + universally confessed, that they deserved, if not the adoration, + at least the reverence, of all mankind. The deities of a thousand + groves and a thousand streams possessed, in peace, their local + and respective influence; nor could the Romans who deprecated the + wrath of the Tiber, deride the Egyptian who presented his + offering to the beneficent genius of the Nile. The visible powers + of nature, the planets, and the elements were the same throughout + the universe. The invisible governors of the moral world were + inevitably cast in a similar mould of fiction and allegory. Every + virtue, and even vice, acquired its divine representative; every + art and profession its patron, whose attributes, in the most + distant ages and countries, were uniformly derived from the + character of their peculiar votaries. A republic of gods of such + opposite tempers and interests required, in every system, the + moderating hand of a supreme magistrate, who, by the progress of + knowledge and flattery, was gradually invested with the sublime + perfections of an Eternal Parent, and an Omnipotent Monarch. 4 + Such was the mild spirit of antiquity, that the nations were less + attentive to the difference, than to the resemblance, of their + religious worship. The Greek, the Roman, and the Barbarian, as + they met before their respective altars, easily persuaded + themselves, that under various names, and with various + ceremonies, they adored the same deities. 5 The elegant mythology + of Homer gave a beautiful, and almost a regular form, to the + polytheism of the ancient world. + + 3 (return) [ There is not any writer who describes in so lively a + manner as Herodotus the true genius of polytheism. The best + commentary may be found in Mr. Hume’s Natural History of + Religion; and the best contrast in Bossuet’s Universal History. + Some obscure traces of an intolerant spirit appear in the conduct + of the Egyptians, (see Juvenal, Sat. xv.;) and the Christians, as + well as Jews, who lived under the Roman empire, formed a very + important exception; so important indeed, that the discussion + will require a distinct chapter of this work. * Note: M. + Constant, in his very learned and eloquent work, “Sur la + Religion,” with the two additional volumes, “Du Polytheisme + Romain,” has considered the whole history of polytheism in a tone + of philosophy, which, without subscribing to all his opinions, we + may be permitted to admire. “The boasted tolerance of polytheism + did not rest upon the respect due from society to the freedom of + individual opinion. The polytheistic nations, tolerant as they + were towards each other, as separate states, were not the less + ignorant of the eternal principle, the only basis of enlightened + toleration, that every one has a right to worship God in the + manner which seems to him the best. Citizens, on the contrary, + were bound to conform to the religion of the state; they had not + the liberty to adopt a foreign religion, though that religion + might be legally recognized in their own city, for the strangers + who were its votaries.” —Sur la Religion, v. 184. Du. Polyth. + Rom. ii. 308. At this time, the growing religious indifference, + and the general administration of the empire by Romans, who, + being strangers, would do no more than protect, not enlist + themselves in the cause of the local superstitions, had + introduced great laxity. But intolerance was clearly the theory + both of the Greek and Roman law. The subject is more fully + considered in another place.—M.] + + 4 (return) [ The rights, powers, and pretensions of the sovereign + of Olympus are very clearly described in the xvth book of the + Iliad; in the Greek original, I mean; for Mr. Pope, without + perceiving it, has improved the theology of Homer. * Note: There + is a curious coincidence between Gibbon’s expressions and those + of the newly-recovered “De Republica” of Cicero, though the + argument is rather the converse, lib. i. c. 36. “Sive hæc ad + utilitatem vitæ constitute sint a principibus rerum publicarum, + ut rex putaretur unus esse in cœlo, qui nutu, ut ait Homerus, + totum Olympum converteret, idemque et rex et patos haberetur + omnium.”—M.] + + 5 (return) [ See, for instance, Cæsar de Bell. Gall. vi. 17. + Within a century or two, the Gauls themselves applied to their + gods the names of Mercury, Mars, Apollo, &c.] + + The philosophers of Greece deduced their morals from the nature + of man, rather than from that of God. They meditated, however, on + the Divine Nature, as a very curious and important speculation; + and in the profound inquiry, they displayed the strength and + weakness of the human understanding. 6 Of the four most + celebrated schools, the Stoics and the Platonists endeavored to + reconcile the jaring interests of reason and piety. They have + left us the most sublime proofs of the existence and perfections + of the first cause; but, as it was impossible for them to + conceive the creation of matter, the workman in the Stoic + philosophy was not sufficiently distinguished from the work; + whilst, on the contrary, the spiritual God of Plato and his + disciples resembled an idea, rather than a substance. The + opinions of the Academics and Epicureans were of a less religious + cast; but whilst the modest science of the former induced them to + doubt, the positive ignorance of the latter urged them to deny, + the providence of a Supreme Ruler. The spirit of inquiry, + prompted by emulation, and supported by freedom, had divided the + public teachers of philosophy into a variety of contending sects; + but the ingenious youth, who, from every part, resorted to + Athens, and the other seats of learning in the Roman empire, were + alike instructed in every school to reject and to despise the + religion of the multitude. How, indeed, was it possible that a + philosopher should accept, as divine truths, the idle tales of + the poets, and the incoherent traditions of antiquity; or that he + should adore, as gods, those imperfect beings whom he must have + despised, as men? Against such unworthy adversaries, Cicero + condescended to employ the arms of reason and eloquence; but the + satire of Lucian was a much more adequate, as well as more + efficacious, weapon. We may be well assured, that a writer, + conversant with the world, would never have ventured to expose + the gods of his country to public ridicule, had they not already + been the objects of secret contempt among the polished and + enlightened orders of society. 7 + + 6 (return) [ The admirable work of Cicero de Natura Deorum is the + best clew we have to guide us through the dark and profound + abyss. He represents with candor, and confutes with subtlety, the + opinions of the philosophers.] + + 7 (return) [ I do not pretend to assert, that, in this + irreligious age, the natural terrors of superstition, dreams, + omens, apparitions, &c., had lost their efficacy.] + + Notwithstanding the fashionable irreligion which prevailed in the + age of the Antonines, both the interest of the priests and the + credulity of the people were sufficiently respected. In their + writings and conversation, the philosophers of antiquity asserted + the independent dignity of reason; but they resigned their + actions to the commands of law and of custom. Viewing, with a + smile of pity and indulgence, the various errors of the vulgar, + they diligently practised the ceremonies of their fathers, + devoutly frequented the temples of the gods; and sometimes + condescending to act a part on the theatre of superstition, they + concealed the sentiments of an atheist under the sacerdotal + robes. Reasoners of such a temper were scarcely inclined to + wrangle about their respective modes of faith, or of worship. It + was indifferent to them what shape the folly of the multitude + might choose to assume; and they approached with the same inward + contempt, and the same external reverence, the altars of the + Libyan, the Olympian, or the Capitoline Jupiter. 8 + + 8 (return) [ Socrates, Epicurus, Cicero, and Plutarch always + inculcated a decent reverence for the religion of their own + country, and of mankind. The devotion of Epicurus was assiduous + and exemplary. Diogen. Lært. x. 10.] + + It is not easy to conceive from what motives a spirit of + persecution could introduce itself into the Roman councils. The + magistrates could not be actuated by a blind, though honest + bigotry, since the magistrates were themselves philosophers; and + the schools of Athens had given laws to the senate. They could + not be impelled by ambition or avarice, as the temporal and + ecclesiastical powers were united in the same hands. The pontiffs + were chosen among the most illustrious of the senators; and the + office of Supreme Pontiff was constantly exercised by the + emperors themselves. They knew and valued the advantages of + religion, as it is connected with civil government. They + encouraged the public festivals which humanize the manners of the + people. They managed the arts of divination as a convenient + instrument of policy; and they respected, as the firmest bond of + society, the useful persuasion, that, either in this or in a + future life, the crime of perjury is most assuredly punished by + the avenging gods. 9 But whilst they acknowledged the general + advantages of religion, they were convinced that the various + modes of worship contributed alike to the same salutary purposes; + and that, in every country, the form of superstition, which had + received the sanction of time and experience, was the best + adapted to the climate, and to its inhabitants. Avarice and taste + very frequently despoiled the vanquished nations of the elegant + statues of their gods, and the rich ornaments of their temples; + 10 but, in the exercise of the religion which they derived from + their ancestors, they uniformly experienced the indulgence, and + even protection, of the Roman conquerors. The province of Gaul + seems, and indeed only seems, an exception to this universal + toleration. Under the specious pretext of abolishing human + sacrifices, the emperors Tiberius and Claudius suppressed the + dangerous power of the Druids: 11 but the priests themselves, + their gods and their altars, subsisted in peaceful obscurity till + the final destruction of Paganism. 12 + + 9 (return) [ Polybius, l. vi. c. 53, 54. Juvenal, Sat. xiii. + laments that in his time this apprehension had lost much of its + effect.] + + 10 (return) [ See the fate of Syracuse, Tarentum, Ambracia, + Corinth, &c., the conduct of Verres, in Cicero, (Actio ii. Orat. + 4,) and the usual practice of governors, in the viiith Satire of + Juvenal.] + + 11 (return) [ Seuton. in Claud.—Plin. Hist. Nat. xxx. 1.] + + 12 (return) [ Pelloutier, Histoire des Celtes, tom. vi. p. + 230—252.] + + Rome, the capital of a great monarchy, was incessantly filled + with subjects and strangers from every part of the world, 13 who + all introduced and enjoyed the favorite superstitions of their + native country. 14 Every city in the empire was justified in + maintaining the purity of its ancient ceremonies; and the Roman + senate, using the common privilege, sometimes interposed, to + check this inundation of foreign rites. 141 The Egyptian + superstition, of all the most contemptible and abject, was + frequently prohibited: the temples of Serapis and Isis + demolished, and their worshippers banished from Rome and Italy. + 15 But the zeal of fanaticism prevailed over the cold and feeble + efforts of policy. The exiles returned, the proselytes + multiplied, the temples were restored with increasing splendor, + and Isis and Serapis at length assumed their place among the + Roman Deities. 151 16 Nor was this indulgence a departure from + the old maxims of government. In the purest ages of the + commonwealth, Cybele and Æsculapius had been invited by solemn + embassies; 17 and it was customary to tempt the protectors of + besieged cities, by the promise of more distinguished honors than + they possessed in their native country. 18 Rome gradually became + the common temple of her subjects; and the freedom of the city + was bestowed on all the gods of mankind. 19 + + 13 (return) [ Seneca, Consolat. ad Helviam, p. 74. Edit., Lips.] + + 14 (return) [ Dionysius Halicarn. Antiquitat. Roman. l. ii. (vol. + i. p. 275, edit. Reiske.)] + + 141 (return) [ Yet the worship of foreign gods at Rome was only + guarantied to the natives of those countries from whence they + came. The Romans administered the priestly offices only to the + gods of their fathers. Gibbon, throughout the whole preceding + sketch of the opinions of the Romans and their subjects, has + shown through what causes they were free from religious hatred + and its consequences. But, on the other hand the internal state + of these religions, the infidelity and hypocrisy of the upper + orders, the indifference towards all religion, in even the better + part of the common people, during the last days of the republic, + and under the Cæsars, and the corrupting principles of the + philosophers, had exercised a very pernicious influence on the + manners, and even on the constitution.—W.] + + 15 (return) [ In the year of Rome 701, the temple of Isis and + Serapis was demolished by the order of the Senate, (Dion Cassius, + l. xl. p. 252,) and even by the hands of the consul, (Valerius + Maximus, l. 3.) After the death of Cæsar it was restored at the + public expense, (Dion. l. xlvii. p. 501.) When Augustus was in + Egypt, he revered the majesty of Serapis, (Dion, l. li. p. 647;) + but in the Pomærium of Rome, and a mile round it, he prohibited + the worship of the Egyptian gods, (Dion, l. liii. p. 679; l. liv. + p. 735.) They remained, however, very fashionable under his reign + (Ovid. de Art. Amand. l. i.) and that of his successor, till the + justice of Tiberius was provoked to some acts of severity. (See + Tacit. Annal. ii. 85. Joseph. Antiquit. l. xviii. c. 3.) * Note: + See, in the pictures from the walls of Pompeii, the + representation of an Isiac temple and worship. Vestiges of + Egyptian worship have been traced in Gaul, and, I am informed, + recently in Britain, in excavations at York.— M.] + + 151 (return) [ Gibbon here blends into one, two events, distant a + hundred and sixty-six years from each other. It was in the year + of Rome 535, that the senate having ordered the destruction of + the temples of Isis and Serapis, the workman would lend his hand; + and the consul, L. Paulus himself (Valer. Max. 1, 3) seized the + axe, to give the first blow. Gibbon attribute this circumstance + to the second demolition, which took place in the year 701 and + which he considers as the first.—W.] + + 16 (return) [ Tertullian in Apologetic. c. 6, p. 74. Edit. + Havercamp. I am inclined to attribute their establishment to the + devotion of the Flavian family.] + + 17 (return) [ See Livy, l. xi. [Suppl.] and xxix.] + + 18 (return) [ Macrob. Saturnalia, l. iii. c. 9. He gives us a + form of evocation.] + + 19 (return) [ Minutius Fælix in Octavio, p. 54. Arnobius, l. vi. + p. 115.] + + II. The narrow policy of preserving, without any foreign mixture, + the pure blood of the ancient citizens, had checked the fortune, + and hastened the ruin, of Athens and Sparta. The aspiring genius + of Rome sacrificed vanity to ambition, and deemed it more + prudent, as well as honorable, to adopt virtue and merit for her + own wheresoever they were found, among slaves or strangers, + enemies or barbarians. 20 During the most flourishing æra of the + Athenian commonwealth, the number of citizens gradually decreased + from about thirty 21 to twenty-one thousand. 22 If, on the + contrary, we study the growth of the Roman republic, we may + discover, that, notwithstanding the incessant demands of wars and + colonies, the citizens, who, in the first census of Servius + Tullius, amounted to no more than eighty-three thousand, were + multiplied, before the commencement of the social war, to the + number of four hundred and sixty-three thousand men, able to bear + arms in the service of their country. 23 When the allies of Rome + claimed an equal share of honors and privileges, the senate + indeed preferred the chance of arms to an ignominious concession. + The Samnites and the Lucanians paid the severe penalty of their + rashness; but the rest of the Italian states, as they + successively returned to their duty, were admitted into the bosom + of the republic, 24 and soon contributed to the ruin of public + freedom. Under a democratical government, the citizens exercise + the powers of sovereignty; and those powers will be first abused, + and afterwards lost, if they are committed to an unwieldy + multitude. But when the popular assemblies had been suppressed by + the administration of the emperors, the conquerors were + distinguished from the vanquished nations, only as the first and + most honorable order of subjects; and their increase, however + rapid, was no longer exposed to the same dangers. Yet the wisest + princes, who adopted the maxims of Augustus, guarded with the + strictest care the dignity of the Roman name, and diffused the + freedom of the city with a prudent liberality. 25 + + 20 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. xi. 24. The Orbis Romanus of the + learned Spanheim is a complete history of the progressive + admission of Latium, Italy, and the provinces, to the freedom of + Rome. * Note: Democratic states, observes Denina, (delle Revoluz. + d’ Italia, l. ii. c. l.), are most jealous of communication the + privileges of citizenship; monarchies or oligarchies willingly + multiply the numbers of their free subjects. The most remarkable + accessions to the strength of Rome, by the aggregation of + conquered and foreign nations, took place under the regal and + patrician—we may add, the Imperial government.—M.] + + 21 (return) [ Herodotus, v. 97. It should seem, however, that he + followed a large and popular estimation.] + + 22 (return) [ Athenæus, Deipnosophist. l. vi. p. 272. Edit. + Casaubon. Meursius de Fortunâ Atticâ, c. 4. * Note: On the number + of citizens in Athens, compare Bœckh, Public Economy of Athens, + (English Tr.,) p. 45, et seq. Fynes Clinton, Essay in Fasti Hel + lenici, vol. i. 381.—M.] + + 23 (return) [ See a very accurate collection of the numbers of + each Lustrum in M. de Beaufort, Republique Romaine, l. iv. c. 4. + Note: All these questions are placed in an entirely new point of + view by Niebuhr, (Römische Geschichte, vol. i. p. 464.) He + rejects the census of Servius fullius as unhistoric, (vol. ii. p. + 78, et seq.,) and he establishes the principle that the census + comprehended all the confederate cities which had the right of + Isopolity.—M.] + + 24 (return) [ Appian. de Bell. Civil. l. i. Velleius Paterculus, + l. ii. c. 15, 16, 17.] + + 25 (return) [ Mæcenas had advised him to declare, by one edict, + all his subjects citizens. But we may justly suspect that the + historian Dion was the author of a counsel so much adapted to the + practice of his own age, and so little to that of Augustus.] + + + + + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part II. + + Till the privileges of Romans had been progressively extended to + all the inhabitants of the empire, an important distinction was + preserved between Italy and the provinces. The former was + esteemed the centre of public unity, and the firm basis of the + constitution. Italy claimed the birth, or at least the residence, + of the emperors and the senate. 26 The estates of the Italians + were exempt from taxes, their persons from the arbitrary + jurisdiction of governors. Their municipal corporations, formed + after the perfect model of the capital, 261 were intrusted, under + the immediate eye of the supreme power, with the execution of the + laws. From the foot of the Alps to the extremity of Calabria, all + the natives of Italy were born citizens of Rome. Their partial + distinctions were obliterated, and they insensibly coalesced into + one great nation, united by language, manners, and civil + institutions, and equal to the weight of a powerful empire. The + republic gloried in her generous policy, and was frequently + rewarded by the merit and services of her adopted sons. Had she + always confined the distinction of Romans to the ancient families + within the walls of the city, that immortal name would have been + deprived of some of its noblest ornaments. Virgil was a native of + Mantua; Horace was inclined to doubt whether he should call + himself an Apulian or a Lucanian; it was in Padua that an + historian was found worthy to record the majestic series of Roman + victories. The patriot family of the Catos emerged from Tusculum; + and the little town of Arpinum claimed the double honor of + producing Marius and Cicero, the former of whom deserved, after + Romulus and Camillus, to be styled the Third Founder of Rome; and + the latter, after saving his country from the designs of + Catiline, enabled her to contend with Athens for the palm of + eloquence. 27 + + 26 (return) [ The senators were obliged to have one third of + their own landed property in Italy. See Plin. l. vi. ep. 19. The + qualification was reduced by Marcus to one fourth. Since the + reign of Trajan, Italy had sunk nearer to the level of the + provinces.] + + 261 (return) [ It may be doubted whether the municipal government + of the cities was not the old Italian constitution rather than a + transcript from that of Rome. The free government of the cities, + observes Savigny, was the leading characteristic of Italy. + Geschichte des Römischen Rechts, i. p. G.—M.] + + 27 (return) [ The first part of the Verona Illustrata of the + Marquis Maffei gives the clearest and most comprehensive view of + the state of Italy under the Cæsars. * Note: Compare Denina, + Revol. d’ Italia, l. ii. c. 6, p. 100, 4 to edit.] + + The provinces of the empire (as they have been described in the + preceding chapter) were destitute of any public force, or + constitutional freedom. In Etruria, in Greece, 28 and in Gaul, 29 + it was the first care of the senate to dissolve those dangerous + confederacies, which taught mankind that, as the Roman arms + prevailed by division, they might be resisted by union. Those + princes, whom the ostentation of gratitude or generosity + permitted for a while to hold a precarious sceptre, were + dismissed from their thrones, as soon as they had performed their + appointed task of fashioning to the yoke the vanquished nations. + The free states and cities which had embraced the cause of Rome + were rewarded with a nominal alliance, and insensibly sunk into + real servitude. The public authority was everywhere exercised by + the ministers of the senate and of the emperors, and that + authority was absolute, and without control. 291 But the same + salutary maxims of government, which had secured the peace and + obedience of Italy were extended to the most distant conquests. A + nation of Romans was gradually formed in the provinces, by the + double expedient of introducing colonies, and of admitting the + most faithful and deserving of the provincials to the freedom of + Rome. + + 28 (return) [ See Pausanias, l. vii. The Romans condescended to + restore the names of those assemblies, when they could no longer + be dangerous.] + + 29 (return) [ They are frequently mentioned by Cæsar. The Abbé + Dubos attempts, with very little success, to prove that the + assemblies of Gaul were continued under the emperors. Histoire de + l’Etablissement de la Monarchie Francoise, l. i. c. 4.] + + 291 (return) [ This is, perhaps, rather overstated. Most cities + retained the choice of their municipal officers: some retained + valuable privileges; Athens, for instance, in form was still a + confederate city. (Tac. Ann. ii. 53.) These privileges, indeed, + depended entirely on the arbitrary will of the emperor, who + revoked or restored them according to his caprice. See Walther + Geschichte des Römischen Rechts, i. 324—an admirable summary of + the Roman constitutional history.—M.] + + “Wheresoever the Roman conquers, he inhabits,” is a very just + observation of Seneca, 30 confirmed by history and experience. + The natives of Italy, allured by pleasure or by interest, + hastened to enjoy the advantages of victory; and we may remark, + that, about forty years after the reduction of Asia, eighty + thousand Romans were massacred in one day, by the cruel orders of + Mithridates. 31 These voluntary exiles were engaged, for the most + part, in the occupations of commerce, agriculture, and the farm + of the revenue. But after the legions were rendered permanent by + the emperors, the provinces were peopled by a race of soldiers; + and the veterans, whether they received the reward of their + service in land or in money, usually settled with their families + in the country, where they had honorably spent their youth. + Throughout the empire, but more particularly in the western + parts, the most fertile districts, and the most convenient + situations, were reserved for the establishment of colonies; some + of which were of a civil, and others of a military nature. In + their manners and internal policy, the colonies formed a perfect + representation of their great parent; and they were soon endeared + to the natives by the ties of friendship and alliance, they + effectually diffused a reverence for the Roman name, and a + desire, which was seldom disappointed, of sharing, in due time, + its honors and advantages. 32 The municipal cities insensibly + equalled the rank and splendor of the colonies; and in the reign + of Hadrian, it was disputed which was the preferable condition, + of those societies which had issued from, or those which had been + received into, the bosom of Rome. 33 The right of Latium, as it + was called, 331 conferred on the cities to which it had been + granted, a more partial favor. The magistrates only, at the + expiration of their office, assumed the quality of Roman + citizens; but as those offices were annual, in a few years they + circulated round the principal families. 34 Those of the + provincials who were permitted to bear arms in the legions; 35 + those who exercised any civil employment; all, in a word, who + performed any public service, or displayed any personal talents, + were rewarded with a present, whose value was continually + diminished by the increasing liberality of the emperors. Yet + even, in the age of the Antonines, when the freedom of the city + had been bestowed on the greater number of their subjects, it was + still accompanied with very solid advantages. The bulk of the + people acquired, with that title, the benefit of the Roman laws, + particularly in the interesting articles of marriage, testaments, + and inheritances; and the road of fortune was open to those whose + pretensions were seconded by favor or merit. The grandsons of the + Gauls, who had besieged Julius Cæsar in Alesia, commanded + legions, governed provinces, and were admitted into the senate of + Rome. 36 Their ambition, instead of disturbing the tranquillity + of the state, was intimately connected with its safety and + greatness. + + 30 (return) [ Seneca in Consolat. ad Helviam, c. 6.] + + 31 (return) [ Memnon apud Photium, (c. 33,) [c. 224, p. 231, ed + Bekker.] Valer. Maxim. ix. 2. Plutarch and Dion Cassius swell the + massacre to 150,000 citizens; but I should esteem the smaller + number to be more than sufficient.] + + 32 (return) [ Twenty-five colonies were settled in Spain, (see + Plin. Hist. Nat. iii. 3, 4; iv. 35;) and nine in Britain, of + which London, Colchester, Lincoln, Chester, Gloucester, and Bath + still remain considerable cities. (See Richard of Cirencester, p. + 36, and Whittaker’s History of Manchester, l. i. c. 3.)] + + 33 (return) [ Aul. Gel. Noctes Atticæ, xvi 13. The Emperor + Hadrian expressed his surprise, that the cities of Utica, Gades, + and Italica, which already enjoyed the rights of _Municipia_, + should solicit the title of _colonies_. Their example, however, + became fashionable, and the empire was filled with honorary + colonies. See Spanheim, de Usu Numismatum Dissertat. xiii.] + + 331 (return) [ The right of Latium conferred an exemption from + the government of the Roman præfect. Strabo states this + distinctly, l. iv. p. 295, edit. Cæsar’s. See also Walther, p. + 233.—M] + + 34 (return) [ Spanheim, Orbis Roman. c. 8, p. 62.] + + 35 (return) [ Aristid. in Romæ Encomio. tom. i. p. 218, edit. + Jebb.] + + 36 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. xi. 23, 24. Hist. iv. 74.] + + So sensible were the Romans of the influence of language over + national manners, that it was their most serious care to extend, + with the progress of their arms, the use of the Latin tongue. 37 + The ancient dialects of Italy, the Sabine, the Etruscan, and the + Venetian, sunk into oblivion; but in the provinces, the east was + less docile than the west to the voice of its victorious + preceptors. This obvious difference marked the two portions of + the empire with a distinction of colors, which, though it was in + some degree concealed during the meridian splendor of prosperity, + became gradually more visible, as the shades of night descended + upon the Roman world. The western countries were civilized by the + same hands which subdued them. As soon as the barbarians were + reconciled to obedience, their minds were open to any new + impressions of knowledge and politeness. The language of Virgil + and Cicero, though with some inevitable mixture of corruption, + was so universally adopted in Africa, Spain, Gaul, Britain, and + Pannonia, 38 that the faint traces of the Punic or Celtic idioms + were preserved only in the mountains, or among the peasants. 39 + Education and study insensibly inspired the natives of those + countries with the sentiments of Romans; and Italy gave fashions, + as well as laws, to her Latin provincials. They solicited with + more ardor, and obtained with more facility, the freedom and + honors of the state; supported the national dignity in letters 40 + and in arms; and at length, in the person of Trajan, produced an + emperor whom the Scipios would not have disowned for their + countryman. The situation of the Greeks was very different from + that of the barbarians. The former had been long since civilized + and corrupted. They had too much taste to relinquish their + language, and too much vanity to adopt any foreign institutions. + Still preserving the prejudices, after they had lost the virtues, + of their ancestors, they affected to despise the unpolished + manners of the Roman conquerors, whilst they were compelled to + respect their superior wisdom and power. 41 Nor was the influence + of the Grecian language and sentiments confined to the narrow + limits of that once celebrated country. Their empire, by the + progress of colonies and conquest, had been diffused from the + Adriatic to the Euphrates and the Nile. Asia was covered with + Greek cities, and the long reign of the Macedonian kings had + introduced a silent revolution into Syria and Egypt. In their + pompous courts, those princes united the elegance of Athens with + the luxury of the East, and the example of the court was + imitated, at an humble distance, by the higher ranks of their + subjects. Such was the general division of the Roman empire into + the Latin and Greek languages. To these we may add a third + distinction for the body of the natives in Syria, and especially + in Egypt, the use of their ancient dialects, by secluding them + from the commerce of mankind, checked the improvements of those + barbarians. 42 The slothful effeminacy of the former exposed them + to the contempt, the sullen ferociousness of the latter excited + the aversion, of the conquerors. 43 Those nations had submitted + to the Roman power, but they seldom desired or deserved the + freedom of the city: and it was remarked, that more than two + hundred and thirty years elapsed after the ruin of the Ptolemies, + before an Egyptian was admitted into the senate of Rome. 44 + + 37 (return) [ See Plin. Hist. Natur. iii. 5. Augustin. de + Civitate Dei, xix 7 Lipsius de Pronunciatione Linguæ Latinæ, c. + 3.] + + 38 (return) [ Apuleius and Augustin will answer for Africa; + Strabo for Spain and Gaul; Tacitus, in the life of Agricola, for + Britain; and Velleius Paterculus, for Pannonia. To them we may + add the language of the Inscriptions. * Note: Mr. Hallam contests + this assertion as regards Britain. “Nor did the Romans ever + establish their language—I know not whether they wished to do + so—in this island, as we perceive by that stubborn British tongue + which has survived two conquests.” In his note, Mr. Hallam + examines the passage from Tacitus (Agric. xxi.) to which Gibbon + refers. It merely asserts the progress of Latin studies among the + higher orders. (Midd. Ages, iii. 314.) Probably it was a kind of + court language, and that of public affairs and prevailed in the + Roman colonies.—M.] + + 39 (return) [ The Celtic was preserved in the mountains of Wales, + Cornwall, and Armorica. We may observe, that Apuleius reproaches + an African youth, who lived among the populace, with the use of + the Punic; whilst he had almost forgot Greek, and neither could + nor would speak Latin, (Apolog. p. 596.) The greater part of St. + Austin’s congregations were strangers to the Punic.] + + 40 (return) [ Spain alone produced Columella, the Senecas, Lucan, + Martial, and Quintilian.] + + 41 (return) [ There is not, I believe, from Dionysius to Libanus, + a single Greek critic who mentions Virgil or Horace. They seem + ignorant that the Romans had any good writers.] + + 42 (return) [ The curious reader may see in Dupin, (Bibliotheque + Ecclesiastique, tom. xix. p. 1, c. 8,) how much the use of the + Syriac and Egyptian languages was still preserved.] + + 43 (return) [ See Juvenal, Sat. iii. and xv. Ammian. Marcellin. + xxii. 16.] + + 44 (return) [ Dion Cassius, l. lxxvii. p. 1275. The first + instance happened under the reign of Septimius Severus.] + + It is a just though trite observation, that victorious Rome was + herself subdued by the arts of Greece. Those immortal writers who + still command the admiration of modern Europe, soon became the + favorite object of study and imitation in Italy and the western + provinces. But the elegant amusements of the Romans were not + suffered to interfere with their sound maxims of policy. Whilst + they acknowledged the charms of the Greek, they asserted the + dignity of the Latin tongue, and the exclusive use of the latter + was inflexibly maintained in the administration of civil as well + as military government. 45 The two languages exercised at the + same time their separate jurisdiction throughout the empire: the + former, as the natural idiom of science; the latter, as the legal + dialect of public transactions. Those who united letters with + business were equally conversant with both; and it was almost + impossible, in any province, to find a Roman subject, of a + liberal education, who was at once a stranger to the Greek and to + the Latin language. + + 45 (return) [ See Valerius Maximus, l. ii. c. 2, n. 2. The + emperor Claudius disfranchised an eminent Grecian for not + understanding Latin. He was probably in some public office. + Suetonius in Claud. c. 16. * Note: Causes seem to have been + pleaded, even in the senate, in both languages. Val. Max. _loc. + cit_. Dion. l. lvii. c. 15.—M] + + It was by such institutions that the nations of the empire + insensibly melted away into the Roman name and people. But there + still remained, in the centre of every province and of every + family, an unhappy condition of men who endured the weight, + without sharing the benefits, of society. In the free states of + antiquity, the domestic slaves were exposed to the wanton rigor + of despotism. The perfect settlement of the Roman empire was + preceded by ages of violence and rapine. The slaves consisted, + for the most part, of barbarian captives, 451 taken in thousands + by the chance of war, purchased at a vile price, 46 accustomed to + a life of independence, and impatient to break and to revenge + their fetters. Against such internal enemies, whose desperate + insurrections had more than once reduced the republic to the + brink of destruction, 47 the most severe 471 regulations, 48 and + the most cruel treatment, seemed almost justified by the great + law of self-preservation. But when the principal nations of + Europe, Asia, and Africa were united under the laws of one + sovereign, the source of foreign supplies flowed with much less + abundance, and the Romans were reduced to the milder but more + tedious method of propagation. 481 In their numerous families, + and particularly in their country estates, they encouraged the + marriage of their slaves. 482 The sentiments of nature, the + habits of education, and the possession of a dependent species of + property, contributed to alleviate the hardships of servitude. 49 + The existence of a slave became an object of greater value, and + though his happiness still depended on the temper and + circumstances of the master, the humanity of the latter, instead + of being restrained by fear, was encouraged by the sense of his + own interest. The progress of manners was accelerated by the + virtue or policy of the emperors; and by the edicts of Hadrian + and the Antonines, the protection of the laws was extended to the + most abject part of mankind. The jurisdiction of life and death + over the slaves, a power long exercised and often abused, was + taken out of private hands, and reserved to the magistrates + alone. The subterraneous prisons were abolished; and, upon a just + complaint of intolerable treatment, the injured slave obtained + either his deliverance, or a less cruel master. 50 + + 451 (return) [ It was this which rendered the wars so sanguinary, + and the battles so obstinate. The immortal Robertson, in an + excellent discourse on the state of the world at the period of + the establishment of Christianity, has traced a picture of the + melancholy effects of slavery, in which we find all the depth of + his views and the strength of his mind. I shall oppose + successively some passages to the reflections of Gibbon. The + reader will see, not without interest, the truths which Gibbon + appears to have mistaken or voluntarily neglected, developed by + one of the best of modern historians. It is important to call + them to mind here, in order to establish the facts and their + consequences with accuracy. I shall more than once have occasion + to employ, for this purpose, the discourse of Robertson. + “Captives taken in war were, in all probability, the first + persons subjected to perpetual servitude; and, when the + necessities or luxury of mankind increased the demand for slaves, + every new war recruited their number, by reducing the vanquished + to that wretched condition. Hence proceeded the fierce and + desperate spirit with which wars were carried on among ancient + nations. While chains and slavery were the certain lot of the + conquered, battles were fought, and towns defended with a rage + and obstinacy which nothing but horror at such a fate could have + inspired; but, putting an end to the cruel institution of + slavery, Christianity extended its mild influences to the + practice of war, and that barbarous art, softened by its humane + spirit, ceased to be so destructive. Secure, in every event, of + personal liberty, the resistance of the vanquished became less + obstinate, and the triumph of the victor less cruel. Thus + humanity was introduced into the exercise of war, with which it + appears to be almost incompatible; and it is to the merciful + maxims of Christianity, much more than to any other cause, that + we must ascribe the little ferocity and bloodshed which accompany + modern victories.”—G.] + + 46 (return) [ In the camp of Lucullus, an ox sold for a drachma, + and a slave for four drachmæ, or about three shillings. Plutarch. + in Lucull. p. 580. * Note: Above 100,000 prisoners were taken in + the Jewish war.—G. Hist. of Jews, iii. 71. According to a + tradition preserved by S. Jerom, after the insurrection in the + time of Hadrian, they were sold as cheap as horse. Ibid. 124. + Compare Blair on Roman Slavery, p. 19.—M., and Dureau de la + blalle, Economie Politique des Romains, l. i. c. 15. But I cannot + think that this writer has made out his case as to the common + price of an agricultural slave being from 2000 to 2500 francs, + (80l. to 100l.) He has overlooked the passages which show the + ordinary prices, (i. e. Hor. Sat. ii. vii. 45,) and argued from + extraordinary and exceptional cases.—M. 1845.] + + 47 (return) [ Diodorus Siculus in Eclog. Hist. l. xxxiv. and + xxxvi. Florus, iii. 19, 20.] + + 471 (return) [ The following is the example: we shall see whether + the word “severe” is here in its place. “At the time in which L. + Domitius was prætor in Sicily, a slave killed a wild boar of + extraordinary size. The prætor, struck by the dexterity and + courage of the man, desired to see him. The poor wretch, highly + gratified with the distinction, came to present himself before + the prætor, in hopes, no doubt, of praise and reward; but + Domitius, on learning that he had only a javelin to attack and + kill the boar, ordered him to be instantly crucified, under the + barbarous pretext that the law prohibited the use of this weapon, + as of all others, to slaves.” Perhaps the cruelty of Domitius is + less astonishing than the indifference with which the Roman + orator relates this circumstance, which affects him so little + that he thus expresses himself: “Durum hoc fortasse videatur, + neque ego in ullam partem disputo.” “This may appear harsh, nor + do I give any opinion on the subject.” And it is the same orator + who exclaims in the same oration, “Facinus est cruciare civem + Romanum; scelus verberare; prope parricidium necare: quid dicam + in crucem tollere?” “It is a crime to imprison a Roman citizen; + wickedness to scourge; next to parricide to put to death, what + shall I call it to crucify?” + + In general, this passage of Gibbon on slavery, is full, not only + of blamable indifference, but of an exaggeration of impartiality + which resembles dishonesty. He endeavors to extenuate all that is + appalling in the condition and treatment of the slaves; he would + make us consider those cruelties as possibly “justified by + necessity.” He then describes, with minute accuracy, the + slightest mitigations of their deplorable condition; he + attributes to the virtue or the policy of the emperors the + progressive amelioration in the lot of the slaves; and he passes + over in silence the most influential cause, that which, after + rendering the slaves less miserable, has contributed at length + entirely to enfranchise them from their sufferings and their + chains,—Christianity. It would be easy to accumulate the most + frightful, the most agonizing details, of the manner in which the + Romans treated their slaves; whole works have been devoted to the + description. I content myself with referring to them. Some + reflections of Robertson, taken from the discourse already + quoted, will make us feel that Gibbon, in tracing the mitigation + of the condition of the slaves, up to a period little later than + that which witnessed the establishment of Christianity in the + world, could not have avoided the acknowledgment of the influence + of that beneficent cause, if he had not already determined not to + speak of it. + + “Upon establishing despotic government in the Roman empire, + domestic tyranny rose, in a short time, to an astonishing height. + In that rank soil, every vice, which power nourishes in the + great, or oppression engenders in the mean, thrived and grew up + apace. * * * It is not the authority of any single detached + precept in the gospel, but the spirit and genius of the Christian + religion, more powerful than any particular command, which hath + abolished the practice of slavery throughout the world. The + temper which Christianity inspired was mild and gentle; and the + doctrines it taught added such dignity and lustre to human + nature, as rescued it from the dishonorable servitude into which + it was sunk.” + + It is in vain, then, that Gibbon pretends to attribute solely to + the desire of keeping up the number of slaves, the milder conduct + which the Romans began to adopt in their favor at the time of the + emperors. This cause had hitherto acted in an opposite direction; + how came it on a sudden to have a different influence? “The + masters,” he says, “encouraged the marriage of their slaves; * * + * the sentiments of nature, the habits of education, contributed + to alleviate the hardships of servitude.” The children of slaves + were the property of their master, who could dispose of or + alienate them like the rest of his property. Is it in such a + situation, with such notions, that the sentiments of nature + unfold themselves, or habits of education become mild and + peaceful? We must not attribute to causes inadequate or + altogether without force, effects which require to explain them a + reference to more influential causes; and even if these slighter + causes had in effect a manifest influence, we must not forget + that they are themselves the effect of a primary, a higher, and + more extensive cause, which, in giving to the mind and to the + character a more disinterested and more humane bias, disposed men + to second or themselves to advance, by their conduct, and by the + change of manners, the happy results which it tended to + produce.—G. + + I have retained the whole of M. Guizot’s note, though, in his + zeal for the invaluable blessings of freedom and Christianity, he + has done Gibbon injustice. The condition of the slaves was + undoubtedly improved under the emperors. What a great authority + has said, “The condition of a slave is better under an arbitrary + than under a free government,” (Smith’s Wealth of Nations, iv. + 7,) is, I believe, supported by the history of all ages and + nations. The protecting edicts of Hadrian and the Antonines are + historical facts, and can as little be attributed to the + influence of Christianity, as the milder language of heathen + writers, of Seneca, (particularly Ep. 47,) of Pliny, and of + Plutarch. The latter influence of Christianity is admitted by + Gibbon himself. The subject of Roman slavery has recently been + investigated with great diligence in a very modest but valuable + volume, by Wm. Blair, Esq., Edin. 1833. May we be permitted, + while on the subject, to refer to the most splendid passage + extant of Mr. Pitt’s eloquence, the description of the Roman + slave-dealer. on the shores of Britain, condemning the island to + irreclaimable barbarism, as a perpetual and prolific nursery of + slaves? Speeches, vol. ii. p. 80. + + Gibbon, it should be added, was one of the first and most + consistent opponents of the African slave-trade. (See Hist. ch. + xxv. and Letters to Lor Sheffield, Misc. Works)—M.] + + 48 (return) [ See a remarkable instance of severity in Cicero in + Verrem, v. 3.] + + 481 (return) [ An active slave-trade, which was carried on in + many quarters, particularly the Euxine, the eastern provinces, + the coast of Africa, and British must be taken into the account. + Blair, 23—32.—M.] + + 482 (return) [ The Romans, as well in the first ages of the + republic as later, allowed to their slaves a kind of marriage, + (contubernium: ) notwithstanding this, luxury made a greater + number of slaves in demand. The increase in their population was + not sufficient, and recourse was had to the purchase of slaves, + which was made even in the provinces of the East subject to the + Romans. It is, moreover, known that slavery is a state little + favorable to population. (See Hume’s Essay, and Malthus on + population, i. 334.—G.) The testimony of Appian (B.C. l. i. c. 7) + is decisive in favor of the rapid multiplication of the + agricultural slaves; it is confirmed by the numbers engaged in + the servile wars. Compare also Blair, p. 119; likewise Columella + l. viii.—M.] + + 49 (return) [ See in Gruter, and the other collectors, a great + number of inscriptions addressed by slaves to their wives, + children, fellow-servants, masters, &c. They are all most + probably of the Imperial age.] + + 50 (return) [ See the Augustan History, and a Dissertation of M. + de Burigny, in the xxxvth volume of the Academy of Inscriptions, + upon the Roman slaves.] + + Hope, the best comfort of our imperfect condition, was not denied + to the Roman slave; and if he had any opportunity of rendering + himself either useful or agreeable, he might very naturally + expect that the diligence and fidelity of a few years would be + rewarded with the inestimable gift of freedom. The benevolence of + the master was so frequently prompted by the meaner suggestions + of vanity and avarice, that the laws found it more necessary to + restrain than to encourage a profuse and undistinguishing + liberality, which might degenerate into a very dangerous abuse. + 51 It was a maxim of ancient jurisprudence, that a slave had not + any country of his own; he acquired with his liberty an admission + into the political society of which his patron was a member. The + consequences of this maxim would have prostituted the privileges + of the Roman city to a mean and promiscuous multitude. Some + seasonable exceptions were therefore provided; and the honorable + distinction was confined to such slaves only as, for just causes, + and with the approbation of the magistrate, should receive a + solemn and legal manumission. Even these chosen freedmen obtained + no more than the private rights of citizens, and were rigorously + excluded from civil or military honors. Whatever might be the + merit or fortune of their sons, _they_ likewise were esteemed + unworthy of a seat in the senate; nor were the traces of a + servile origin allowed to be completely obliterated till the + third or fourth generation. 52 Without destroying the distinction + of ranks, a distant prospect of freedom and honors was presented, + even to those whom pride and prejudice almost disdained to number + among the human species. + + 51 (return) [ See another Dissertation of M. de Burigny, in the + xxxviith volume, on the Roman freedmen.] + + 52 (return) [ Spanheim, Orbis Roman. l. i. c. 16, p. 124, &c.] It + was once proposed to discriminate the slaves by a peculiar habit; + but it was justly apprehended that there might be some danger in + acquainting them with their own numbers. 53 Without interpreting, + in their utmost strictness, the liberal appellations of legions + and myriads, 54 we may venture to pronounce, that the proportion + of slaves, who were valued as property, was more considerable + than that of servants, who can be computed only as an expense. 55 + The youths of a promising genius were instructed in the arts and + sciences, and their price was ascertained by the degree of their + skill and talents. 56 Almost every profession, either liberal 57 + or mechanical, might be found in the household of an opulent + senator. The ministers of pomp and sensuality were multiplied + beyond the conception of modern luxury. 58 It was more for the + interest of the merchant or manufacturer to purchase, than to + hire his workmen; and in the country, slaves were employed as the + cheapest and most laborious instruments of agriculture. To + confirm the general observation, and to display the multitude of + slaves, we might allege a variety of particular instances. It was + discovered, on a very melancholy occasion, that four hundred + slaves were maintained in a single palace of Rome. 59 The same + number of four hundred belonged to an estate which an African + widow, of a very private condition, resigned to her son, whilst + she reserved for herself a much larger share of her property. 60 + A freedman, under the name of Augustus, though his fortune had + suffered great losses in the civil wars, left behind him three + thousand six hundred yoke of oxen, two hundred and fifty thousand + head of smaller cattle, and what was almost included in the + description of cattle, four thousand one hundred and sixteen + slaves. 61 + + 53 (return) [ Seneca de Clementia, l. i. c. 24. The original is + much stronger, “Quantum periculum immineret si servi nostri + numerare nos cœpissent.”] + + 54 (return) [ See Pliny (Hist. Natur. l. xxxiii.) and Athenæus + (Deipnosophist. l. vi. p. 272.) The latter boldly asserts, that + he knew very many Romans who possessed, not for use, but + ostentation, ten and even twenty thousand slaves.] + + 55 (return) [ In Paris there are not more than 43,000 domestics + of every sort, and not a twelfth part of the inhabitants. + Messange, Recherches sui la Population, p. 186.] + + 56 (return) [ A learned slave sold for many hundred pounds + sterling: Atticus always bred and taught them himself. Cornel. + Nepos in Vit. c. 13, [on the prices of slaves. Blair, 149.]—M.] + + 57 (return) [ Many of the Roman physicians were slaves. See Dr. + Middleton’s Dissertation and Defence.] + + 58 (return) [ Their ranks and offices are very copiously + enumerated by Pignorius de Servis.] + + 59 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. xiv. 43. They were all executed for + not preventing their master’s murder. * Note: The remarkable + speech of Cassius shows the proud feelings of the Roman + aristocracy on this subject.—M] + + 60 (return) [ Apuleius in Apolog. p. 548. edit. Delphin] + + 61 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. l. xxxiii. 47.] + + The number of subjects who acknowledged the laws of Rome, of + citizens, of provincials, and of slaves, cannot now be fixed with + such a degree of accuracy, as the importance of the object would + deserve. We are informed, that when the Emperor Claudius + exercised the office of censor, he took an account of six + millions nine hundred and forty-five thousand Roman citizens, + who, with the proportion of women and children, must have + amounted to about twenty millions of souls. The multitude of + subjects of an inferior rank was uncertain and fluctuating. But, + after weighing with attention every circumstance which could + influence the balance, it seems probable that there existed, in + the time of Claudius, about twice as many provincials as there + were citizens, of either sex, and of every age; and that the + slaves were at least equal in number to the free inhabitants of + the Roman world.611 The total amount of this imperfect + calculation would rise to about one hundred and twenty millions + of persons; a degree of population which possibly exceeds that of + modern Europe, 62 and forms the most numerous society that has + ever been united under the same system of government. + + 611] ( return) + [ According to Robertson, there were twice as many slaves as free + citizens.—G. Mr. Blair (p. 15) estimates three slaves to one + freeman, between the conquest of Greece, B.C. 146, and the reign + of Alexander Severus, A. D. 222, 235. The proportion was probably + larger in Italy than in the provinces.—M. On the other hand, + Zumpt, in his Dissertation quoted below, (p. 86,) asserts it to + be a gross error in Gibbon to reckon the number of slaves equal + to that of the free population. The luxury and magnificence of + the great, (he observes,) at the commencement of the empire, must + not be taken as the groundwork of calculations for the whole + Roman world. “The agricultural laborer, and the artisan, in + Spain, Gaul, Britain, Syria, and Egypt, maintained himself, as in + the present day, by his own labor and that of his household, + without possessing a single slave.” The latter part of my note + was intended to suggest this consideration. Yet so completely was + slavery rooted in the social system, both in the east and the + west, that in the great diffusion of wealth at this time, every + one, I doubt not, who could afford a domestic slave, kept one; + and generally, the number of slaves was in proportion to the + wealth. I do not believe that the cultivation of the soil by + slaves was confined to Italy; the holders of large estates in the + provinces would probably, either from choice or necessity, adopt + the same mode of cultivation. The latifundia, says Pliny, had + ruined Italy, and had begun to ruin the provinces. Slaves were no + doubt employed in agricultural labor to a great extent in Sicily, + and were the estates of those six enormous landholders who were + said to have possessed the whole province of Africa, cultivated + altogether by free coloni? Whatever may have been the case in the + rural districts, in the towns and cities the household duties + were almost entirely discharged by slaves, and vast numbers + belonged to the public establishments. I do not, however, differ + so far from Zumpt, and from M. Dureau de la Malle, as to adopt + the higher and bolder estimate of Robertson and Mr. Blair, rather + than the more cautious suggestions of Gibbon. I would reduce + rather than increase the proportion of the slave population. The + very ingenious and elaborate calculations of the French writer, + by which he deduces the amount of the population from the produce + and consumption of corn in Italy, appear to me neither precise + nor satisfactory bases for such complicated political arithmetic. + I am least satisfied with his views as to the population of the + city of Rome; but this point will be more fitly reserved for a + note on the thirty-first chapter of Gibbon. The work, however, of + M. Dureau de la Malle is very curious and full on some of the + minuter points of Roman statistics.—M. 1845.] + + 62 (return) [ Compute twenty millions in France, twenty-two in + Germany, four in Hungary, ten in Italy with its islands, eight in + Great Britain and Ireland, eight in Spain and Portugal, ten or + twelve in the European Russia, six in Poland, six in Greece and + Turkey, four in Sweden, three in Denmark and Norway, four in the + Low Countries. The whole would amount to one hundred and five, or + one hundred and seven millions. See Voltaire, de l’Histoire + Generale. * Note: The present population of Europe is estimated + at 227,700,000. Malts Bran, Geogr. Trans edit. 1832 See details + in the different volumes Another authority, (Almanach de Gotha,) + quoted in a recent English publication, gives the following + details:— + + France, 32,897,521 Germany, (including Hungary, Prussian and + Austrian Poland,) 56,136,213 Italy, 20,548,616 Great Britain and + Ireland, 24,062,947 Spain and Portugal, 13,953,959. 3,144,000 + Russia, including Poland, 44,220,600 Cracow, 128,480 Turkey, + (including Pachalic of Dschesair,) 9,545,300 Greece, 637,700 + Ionian Islands, 208,100 Sweden and Norway, 3,914,963 Denmark, + 2,012,998 Belgium, 3,533,538 Holland, 2,444,550 Switzerland, + 985,000. Total, 219,344,116 + + Since the publication of my first annotated edition of Gibbon, + the subject of the population of the Roman empire has been + investigated by two writers of great industry and learning; Mons. + Dureau de la Malle, in his Economie Politique des Romains, liv. + ii. c. 1. to 8, and M. Zumpt, in a dissertation printed in the + Transactions of the Berlin Academy, 1840. M. Dureau de la Malle + confines his inquiry almost entirely to the city of Rome, and + Roman Italy. Zumpt examines at greater length the axiom, which he + supposes to have been assumed by Gibbon as unquestionable, “that + Italy and the Roman world was never so populous as in the time of + the Antonines.” Though this probably was Gibbon’s opinion, he has + not stated it so peremptorily as asserted by Mr. Zumpt. It had + before been expressly laid down by Hume, and his statement was + controverted by Wallace and by Malthus. Gibbon says (p. 84) that + there is no reason to believe the country (of Italy) less + populous in the age of the Antonines, than in that of Romulus; + and Zumpt acknowledges that we have no satisfactory knowledge of + the state of Italy at that early age. Zumpt, in my opinion with + some reason, takes the period just before the first Punic war, as + that in which Roman Italy (all south of the Rubicon) was most + populous. From that time, the numbers began to diminish, at first + from the enormous waste of life out of the free population in the + foreign, and afterwards in the civil wars; from the cultivation + of the soil by slaves; towards the close of the republic, from + the repugnance to marriage, which resisted alike the dread of + legal punishment and the offer of legal immunity and privilege; + and from the depravity of manners, which interfered with the + procreation, the birth, and the rearing of children. The + arguments and the authorities of Zumpt are equally conclusive as + to the decline of population in Greece. Still the details, which + he himself adduces as to the prosperity and populousness of Asia + Minor, and the whole of the Roman East, with the advancement of + the European provinces, especially Gaul, Spain, and Britain, in + civilization, and therefore in populousness, (for I have no + confidence in the vast numbers sometimes assigned to the + barbarous inhabitants of these countries,) may, I think, fairly + compensate for any deduction to be made from Gibbon’s general + estimate on account of Greece and Italy. Gibbon himself + acknowledges his own estimate to be vague and conjectural; and I + may venture to recommend the dissertation of Zumpt as deserving + respectful consideration.—M 1815.] + + + + + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The + Antonines.—Part III. + + Domestic peace and union were the natural consequences of the + moderate and comprehensive policy embraced by the Romans. If we + turn our eyes towards the monarchies of Asia, we shall behold + despotism in the centre, and weakness in the extremities; the + collection of the revenue, or the administration of justice, + enforced by the presence of an army; hostile barbarians + established in the heart of the country, hereditary satraps + usurping the dominion of the provinces, and subjects inclined to + rebellion, though incapable of freedom. But the obedience of the + Roman world was uniform, voluntary, and permanent. The vanquished + nations, blended into one great people, resigned the hope, nay, + even the wish, of resuming their independence, and scarcely + considered their own existence as distinct from the existence of + Rome. The established authority of the emperors pervaded without + an effort the wide extent of their dominions, and was exercised + with the same facility on the banks of the Thames, or of the + Nile, as on those of the Tyber. The legions were destined to + serve against the public enemy, and the civil magistrate seldom + required the aid of a military force. 63 In this state of general + security, the leisure, as well as opulence, both of the prince + and people, were devoted to improve and to adorn the Roman + empire. + + 63 (return) [ Joseph. de Bell. Judaico, l. ii. c. 16. The oration + of Agrippa, or rather of the historian, is a fine picture of the + Roman empire.] + + Among the innumerable monuments of architecture constructed by + the Romans, how many have escaped the notice of history, how few + have resisted the ravages of time and barbarism! And yet, even + the majestic ruins that are still scattered over Italy and the + provinces, would be sufficient to prove that those countries were + once the seat of a polite and powerful empire. Their greatness + alone, or their beauty, might deserve our attention: but they are + rendered more interesting, by two important circumstances, which + connect the agreeable history of the arts with the more useful + history of human manners. Many of those works were erected at + private expense, and almost all were intended for public benefit. + + It is natural to suppose that the greatest number, as well as the + most considerable of the Roman edifices, were raised by the + emperors, who possessed so unbounded a command both of men and + money. Augustus was accustomed to boast that he had found his + capital of brick, and that he had left it of marble. 64 The + strict economy of Vespasian was the source of his magnificence. + The works of Trajan bear the stamp of his genius. The public + monuments with which Hadrian adorned every province of the + empire, were executed not only by his orders, but under his + immediate inspection. He was himself an artist; and he loved the + arts, as they conduced to the glory of the monarch. They were + encouraged by the Antonines, as they contributed to the happiness + of the people. But if the emperors were the first, they were not + the only architects of their dominions. Their example was + universally imitated by their principal subjects, who were not + afraid of declaring to the world that they had spirit to + conceive, and wealth to accomplish, the noblest undertakings. + Scarcely had the proud structure of the Coliseum been dedicated + at Rome, before the edifices, of a smaller scale indeed, but of + the same design and materials, were erected for the use, and at + the expense, of the cities of Capua and Verona. 65 The + inscription of the stupendous bridge of Alcantara attests that it + was thrown over the Tagus by the contribution of a few Lusitanian + communities. When Pliny was intrusted with the government of + Bithynia and Pontus, provinces by no means the richest or most + considerable of the empire, he found the cities within his + jurisdiction striving with each other in every useful and + ornamental work, that might deserve the curiosity of strangers, + or the gratitude of their citizens. It was the duty of the + proconsul to supply their deficiencies, to direct their taste, + and sometimes to moderate their emulation. 66 The opulent + senators of Rome and the provinces esteemed it an honor, and + almost an obligation, to adorn the splendor of their age and + country; and the influence of fashion very frequently supplied + the want of taste or generosity. Among a crowd of these private + benefactors, we may select Herodes Atticus, an Athenian citizen, + who lived in the age of the Antonines. Whatever might be the + motive of his conduct, his magnificence would have been worthy of + the greatest kings. + + 64 (return) [ Sueton. in August. c. 28. Augustus built in Rome + the temple and forum of Mars the Avenger; the temple of Jupiter + Tonans in the Capitol; that of Apollo Palatine, with public + libraries; the portico and basilica of Caius and Lucius; the + porticos of Livia and Octavia; and the theatre of Marcellus. The + example of the sovereign was imitated by his ministers and + generals; and his friend Agrippa left behind him the immortal + monument of the Pantheon.] + + 65 (return) [ See Maffei, Veroni Illustrata, l. iv. p. 68.] + + 66 (return) [Footnote 66: See the xth book of Pliny’s Epistles. + He mentions the following works carried on at the expense of the + cities. At Nicomedia, a new forum, an aqueduct, and a canal, left + unfinished by a king; at Nice, a gymnasium, and a theatre, which + had already cost near ninety thousand pounds; baths at Prusa and + Claudiopolis, and an aqueduct of sixteen miles in length for the + use of Sinope.] + + The family of Herod, at least after it had been favored by + fortune, was lineally descended from Cimon and Miltiades, Theseus + and Cecrops, Æacus and Jupiter. But the posterity of so many gods + and heroes was fallen into the most abject state. His grandfather + had suffered by the hands of justice, and Julius Atticus, his + father, must have ended his life in poverty and contempt, had he + not discovered an immense treasure buried under an old house, the + last remains of his patrimony. According to the rigor of the law, + the emperor might have asserted his claim, and the prudent + Atticus prevented, by a frank confession, the officiousness of + informers. But the equitable Nerva, who then filled the throne, + refused to accept any part of it, and commanded him to use, + without scruple, the present of fortune. The cautious Athenian + still insisted, that the treasure was too considerable for a + subject, and that he knew not how to _use it. Abuse it then_, + replied the monarch, with a good-natured peevishness; for it is + your own. 67 Many will be of opinion, that Atticus literally + obeyed the emperor’s last instructions; since he expended the + greatest part of his fortune, which was much increased by an + advantageous marriage, in the service of the public. He had + obtained for his son Herod the prefecture of the free cities of + Asia; and the young magistrate, observing that the town of Troas + was indifferently supplied with water, obtained from the + munificence of Hadrian three hundred myriads of drachms, (about a + hundred thousand pounds,) for the construction of a new aqueduct. + But in the execution of the work, the charge amounted to more + than double the estimate, and the officers of the revenue began + to murmur, till the generous Atticus silenced their complaints, + by requesting that he might be permitted to take upon himself the + whole additional expense. 68 + + 67 (return) [ Hadrian afterwards made a very equitable + regulation, which divided all treasure-trove between the right of + property and that of discovery. Hist. August. p. 9.] + + 68 (return) [ Philostrat. in Vit. Sophist. l. ii. p. 548.] + + The ablest preceptors of Greece and Asia had been invited by + liberal rewards to direct the education of young Herod. Their + pupil soon became a celebrated orator, according to the useless + rhetoric of that age, which, confining itself to the schools, + disdained to visit either the Forum or the Senate. + + He was honored with the consulship at Rome: but the greatest part + of his life was spent in a philosophic retirement at Athens, and + his adjacent villas; perpetually surrounded by sophists, who + acknowledged, without reluctance, the superiority of a rich and + generous rival. 69 The monuments of his genius have perished; + some considerable ruins still preserve the fame of his taste and + munificence: modern travellers have measured the remains of the + stadium which he constructed at Athens. It was six hundred feet + in length, built entirely of white marble, capable of admitting + the whole body of the people, and finished in four years, whilst + Herod was president of the Athenian games. To the memory of his + wife Regilla he dedicated a theatre, scarcely to be paralleled in + the empire: no wood except cedar, very curiously carved, was + employed in any part of the building. The Odeum, 691 designed by + Pericles for musical performances, and the rehearsal of new + tragedies, had been a trophy of the victory of the arts over + barbaric greatness; as the timbers employed in the construction + consisted chiefly of the masts of the Persian vessels. + Notwithstanding the repairs bestowed on that ancient edifice by a + king of Cappadocia, it was again fallen to decay. Herod restored + its ancient beauty and magnificence. Nor was the liberality of + that illustrious citizen confined to the walls of Athens. The + most splendid ornaments bestowed on the temple of Neptune in the + Isthmus, a theatre at Corinth, a stadium at Delphi, a bath at + Thermopylæ, and an aqueduct at Canusium in Italy, were + insufficient to exhaust his treasures. The people of Epirus, + Thessaly, Eubœa, Bœotia, and Peloponnesus, experienced his + favors; and many inscriptions of the cities of Greece and Asia + gratefully style Herodes Atticus their patron and benefactor. 70 + + 69 (return) [ Aulus Gellius, in Noct. Attic. i. 2, ix. 2, xviii. + 10, xix. 12. Phil ostrat. p. 564.] + + 691 (return) [ The Odeum served for the rehearsal of new comedies + as well as tragedies; they were read or repeated, before + representation, without music or decorations, &c. No piece could + be represented in the theatre if it had not been previously + approved by judges for this purpose. The king of Cappadocia who + restored the Odeum, which had been burnt by Sylla, was + Araobarzanes. See Martini, Dissertation on the Odeons of the + Ancients, Leipsic. 1767, p. 10—91.—W.] + + 70 (return) [ See Philostrat. l. ii. p. 548, 560. Pausanias, l. + i. and vii. 10. The life of Herodes, in the xxxth volume of the + Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions.] + + In the commonwealths of Athens and Rome, the modest simplicity of + private houses announced the equal condition of freedom; whilst + the sovereignty of the people was represented in the majestic + edifices designed to the public use; 71 nor was this republican + spirit totally extinguished by the introduction of wealth and + monarchy. It was in works of national honor and benefit, that the + most virtuous of the emperors affected to display their + magnificence. The golden palace of Nero excited a just + indignation, but the vast extent of ground which had been usurped + by his selfish luxury was more nobly filled under the succeeding + reigns by the Coliseum, the baths of Titus, the Claudian portico, + and the temples dedicated to the goddess of Peace, and to the + genius of Rome. 72 These monuments of architecture, the property + of the Roman people, were adorned with the most beautiful + productions of Grecian painting and sculpture; and in the temple + of Peace, a very curious library was open to the curiosity of the + learned. 721 At a small distance from thence was situated the + Forum of Trajan. It was surrounded by a lofty portico, in the + form of a quadrangle, into which four triumphal arches opened a + noble and spacious entrance: in the centre arose a column of + marble, whose height, of one hundred and ten feet, denoted the + elevation of the hill that had been cut away. This column, which + still subsists in its ancient beauty, exhibited an exact + representation of the Dacian victories of its founder. The + veteran soldier contemplated the story of his own campaigns, and + by an easy illusion of national vanity, the peaceful citizen + associated himself to the honors of the triumph. All the other + quarters of the capital, and all the provinces of the empire, + were embellished by the same liberal spirit of public + magnificence, and were filled with amphitheatres, theatres, + temples, porticoes, triumphal arches, baths and aqueducts, all + variously conducive to the health, the devotion, and the + pleasures of the meanest citizen. The last mentioned of those + edifices deserve our peculiar attention. The boldness of the + enterprise, the solidity of the execution, and the uses to which + they were subservient, rank the aqueducts among the noblest + monuments of Roman genius and power. The aqueducts of the capital + claim a just preeminence; but the curious traveller, who, without + the light of history, should examine those of Spoleto, of Metz, + or of Segovia, would very naturally conclude that those + provincial towns had formerly been the residence of some potent + monarch. The solitudes of Asia and Africa were once covered with + flourishing cities, whose populousness, and even whose existence, + was derived from such artificial supplies of a perennial stream + of fresh water. 73 + + 71 (return) [ It is particularly remarked of Athens by + Dicæarchus, de Statu Græciæ, p. 8, inter Geographos Minores, + edit. Hudson.] + + 72 (return) [ Donatus de Roma Vetere, l. iii. c. 4, 5, 6. Nardini + Roma Antica, l. iii. 11, 12, 13, and a Ms. description of ancient + Rome, by Bernardus Oricellarius, or Rucellai, of which I obtained + a copy from the library of the Canon Ricardi at Florence. Two + celebrated pictures of Timanthes and of Protogenes are mentioned + by Pliny, as in the Temple of Peace; and the Laocoon was found in + the baths of Titus.] + + 721 (return) [ The Emperor Vespasian, who had caused the Temple + of Peace to be built, transported to it the greatest part of the + pictures, statues, and other works of art which had escaped the + civil tumults. It was there that every day the artists and the + learned of Rome assembled; and it is on the site of this temple + that a multitude of antiques have been dug up. See notes of + Reimar on Dion Cassius, lxvi. c. 15, p. 1083.—W.] + + 73 (return) [ Montfaucon l’Antiquite Expliquee, tom. iv. p. 2, l. + i. c. 9. Fabretti has composed a very learned treatise on the + aqueducts of Rome.] + + We have computed the inhabitants, and contemplated the public + works, of the Roman empire. The observation of the number and + greatness of its cities will serve to confirm the former, and to + multiply the latter. It may not be unpleasing to collect a few + scattered instances relative to that subject without forgetting, + however, that from the vanity of nations and the poverty of + language, the vague appellation of city has been indifferently + bestowed on Rome and upon Laurentum. + + I. _Ancient_ Italy is said to have contained eleven hundred and + ninety-seven cities; and for whatsoever æra of antiquity the + expression might be intended, 74 there is not any reason to + believe the country less populous in the age of the Antonines, + than in that of Romulus. The petty states of Latium were + contained within the metropolis of the empire, by whose superior + influence they had been attracted. 741 Those parts of Italy which + have so long languished under the lazy tyranny of priests and + viceroys, had been afflicted only by the more tolerable + calamities of war; and the first symptoms of decay which _they_ + experienced, were amply compensated by the rapid improvements of + the Cisalpine Gaul. The splendor of Verona may be traced in its + remains: yet Verona was less celebrated than Aquileia or Padua, + Milan or Ravenna. II. The spirit of improvement had passed the + Alps, and been felt even in the woods of Britain, which were + gradually cleared away to open a free space for convenient and + elegant habitations. York was the seat of government; London was + already enriched by commerce; and Bath was celebrated for the + salutary effects of its medicinal waters. Gaul could boast of her + twelve hundred cities; 75 and though, in the northern parts, many + of them, without excepting Paris itself, were little more than + the rude and imperfect townships of a rising people, the southern + provinces imitated the wealth and elegance of Italy. 76 Many were + the cities of Gaul, Marseilles, Arles, Nismes, Narbonne, + Thoulouse, Bourdeaux, Autun, Vienna, Lyons, Langres, and Treves, + whose ancient condition might sustain an equal, and perhaps + advantageous comparison with their present state. With regard to + Spain, that country flourished as a province, and has declined as + a kingdom. Exhausted by the abuse of her strength, by America, + and by superstition, her pride might possibly be confounded, if + we required such a list of three hundred and sixty cities, as + Pliny has exhibited under the reign of Vespasian. 77 III. Three + hundred African cities had once acknowledged the authority of + Carthage, 78 nor is it likely that their numbers diminished under + the administration of the emperors: Carthage itself rose with new + splendor from its ashes; and that capital, as well as Capua and + Corinth, soon recovered all the advantages which can be separated + from independent sovereignty. IV. The provinces of the East + present the contrast of Roman magnificence with Turkish + barbarism. The ruins of antiquity scattered over uncultivated + fields, and ascribed, by ignorance, to the power of magic, + scarcely afford a shelter to the oppressed peasant or wandering + Arab. Under the reign of the Cæsars, the proper Asia alone + contained five hundred populous cities, 79 enriched with all the + gifts of nature, and adorned with all the refinements of art. + Eleven cities of Asia had once disputed the honor of dedicating a + temple of Tiberius, and their respective merits were examined by + the senate. 80 Four of them were immediately rejected as unequal + to the burden; and among these was Laodicea, whose splendor is + still displayed in its ruins. 81 Laodicea collected a very + considerable revenue from its flocks of sheep, celebrated for the + fineness of their wool, and had received, a little before the + contest, a legacy of above four hundred thousand pounds by the + testament of a generous citizen. 82 If such was the poverty of + Laodicea, what must have been the wealth of those cities, whose + claim appeared preferable, and particularly of Pergamus, of + Smyrna, and of Ephesus, who so long disputed with each other the + titular primacy of Asia? 83 The capitals of Syria and Egypt held + a still superior rank in the empire; Antioch and Alexandria + looked down with disdain on a crowd of dependent cities, 84 and + yielded, with reluctance, to the majesty of Rome itself. + + 74 (return) [ Ælian. Hist. Var. lib. ix. c. 16. He lived in the + time of Alexander Severus. See Fabricius, Biblioth. Græca, l. iv. + c. 21.] + + 741 (return) [ This may in some degree account for the difficulty + started by Livy, as to the incredibly numerous armies raised by + the small states around Rome where, in his time, a scanty stock + of free soldiers among a larger population of Roman slaves broke + the solitude. Vix seminario exiguo militum relicto servitia + Romana ab solitudine vindicant, Liv. vi. vii. Compare Appian Bel + Civ. i. 7.—M. subst. for G.] + + 75 (return) [ Joseph. de Bell. Jud. ii. 16. The number, however, + is mentioned, and should be received with a degree of latitude. + Note: Without doubt no reliance can be placed on this passage of + Josephus. The historian makes Agrippa give advice to the Jews, as + to the power of the Romans; and the speech is full of declamation + which can furnish no conclusions to history. While enumerating + the nations subject to the Romans, he speaks of the Gauls as + submitting to 1200 soldiers, (which is false, as there were eight + legions in Gaul, Tac. iv. 5,) while there are nearly twelve + hundred cities.—G. Josephus (infra) places these eight legions on + the Rhine, as Tacitus does.—M.] + + 76 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. iii. 5.] + + 77 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. iii. 3, 4, iv. 35. The list + seems authentic and accurate; the division of the provinces, and + the different condition of the cities, are minutely + distinguished.] + + 78 (return) [ Strabon. Geograph. l. xvii. p. 1189.] + + 79 (return) [ Joseph. de Bell. Jud. ii. 16. Philostrat. in Vit. + Sophist. l. ii. p. 548, edit. Olear.] + + 80 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. iv. 55. I have taken some pains in + consulting and comparing modern travellers, with regard to the + fate of those eleven cities of Asia. Seven or eight are totally + destroyed: Hypæpe, Tralles, Laodicea, Hium, Halicarnassus, + Miletus, Ephesus, and we may add Sardes. Of the remaining three, + Pergamus is a straggling village of two or three thousand + inhabitants; Magnesia, under the name of Guzelhissar, a town of + some consequence; and Smyrna, a great city, peopled by a hundred + thousand souls. But even at Smyrna, while the Franks have + maintained a commerce, the Turks have ruined the arts.] + + 81 (return) [ See a very exact and pleasing description of the + ruins of Laodicea, in Chandler’s Travels through Asia Minor, p. + 225, &c.] + + 82 (return) [ Strabo, l. xii. p. 866. He had studied at Tralles.] + + 83 (return) [ See a Dissertation of M. de Boze, Mem. de + l’Academie, tom. xviii. Aristides pronounced an oration, which is + still extant, to recommend concord to the rival cities.] + + 84 (return) [ The inhabitants of Egypt, exclusive of Alexandria, + amounted to seven millions and a half, (Joseph. de Bell. Jud. ii. + 16.) Under the military government of the Mamelukes, Syria was + supposed to contain sixty thousand villages, (Histoire de Timur + Bec, l. v. c. 20.)] + + + + + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines. + Part IV. + + All these cities were connected with each other, and with the + capital, by the public highways, which, issuing from the Forum of + Rome, traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were + terminated only by the frontiers of the empire. If we carefully + trace the distance from the wall of Antoninus to Rome, and from + thence to Jerusalem, it will be found that the great chain of + communication, from the north-west to the south-east point of the + empire, was drawn out to the length of four thousand and eighty + Roman miles. 85 The public roads were accurately divided by + mile-stones, and ran in a direct line from one city to another, + with very little respect for the obstacles either of nature or + private property. Mountains were perforated, and bold arches + thrown over the broadest and most rapid streams. 86 The middle + part of the road was raised into a terrace which commanded the + adjacent country, consisted of several strata of sand, gravel, + and cement, and was paved with large stones, or, in some places + near the capital, with granite. 87 Such was the solid + construction of the Roman highways, whose firmness has not + entirely yielded to the effort of fifteen centuries. They united + the subjects of the most distant provinces by an easy and + familiar intercourse; but their primary object had been to + facilitate the marches of the legions; nor was any country + considered as completely subdued, till it had been rendered, in + all its parts, pervious to the arms and authority of the + conqueror. The advantage of receiving the earliest intelligence, + and of conveying their orders with celerity, induced the emperors + to establish, throughout their extensive dominions, the regular + institution of posts. 88 Houses were everywhere erected at the + distance only of five or six miles; each of them was constantly + provided with forty horses, and by the help of these relays, it + was easy to travel a hundred miles in a day along the Roman + roads. 89 891 The use of posts was allowed to those who claimed + it by an Imperial mandate; but though originally intended for the + public service, it was sometimes indulged to the business or + conveniency of private citizens. 90 Nor was the communication of + the Roman empire less free and open by sea than it was by land. + The provinces surrounded and enclosed the Mediterranean: and + Italy, in the shape of an immense promontory, advanced into the + midst of that great lake. The coasts of Italy are, in general, + destitute of safe harbors; but human industry had corrected the + deficiencies of nature; and the artificial port of Ostia, in + particular, situate at the mouth of the Tyber, and formed by the + emperor Claudius, was a useful monument of Roman greatness. 91 + From this port, which was only sixteen miles from the capital, a + favorable breeze frequently carried vessels in seven days to the + columns of Hercules, and in nine or ten, to Alexandria in Egypt. + 92 + + 85 (return) [ The following Itinerary may serve to convey some + idea of the direction of the road, and of the distance between + the principal towns. I. From the wall of Antoninus to York, 222 + Roman miles. II. London, 227. III. Rhutupiæ or Sandwich, 67. IV. + The navigation to Boulogne, 45. V. Rheims, 174. VI. Lyons, 330. + VII. Milan, 324. VIII. Rome, 426. IX. Brundusium, 360. X. The + navigation to Dyrrachium, 40. XI. Byzantium, 711. XII. Ancyra, + 283. XIII. Tarsus, 301. XIV. Antioch, 141. XV. Tyre, 252. XVI. + Jerusalem, 168. In all 4080 Roman, or 3740 English miles. See the + Itineraries published by Wesseling, his annotations; Gale and + Stukeley for Britain, and M. d’Anville for Gaul and Italy.] + + 86 (return) [ Montfaucon, l’Antiquite Expliquee, (tom. 4, p. 2, + l. i. c. 5,) has described the bridges of Narni, Alcantara, + Nismes, &c.] + + 87 (return) [ Bergier, Histoire des grands Chemins de l’Empire + Romain, l. ii. c. l. l—28.] + + 88 (return) [ Procopius in Hist. Arcana, c. 30. Bergier, Hist. + des grands Chemins, l. iv. Codex Theodosian. l. viii. tit. v. + vol. ii. p. 506—563 with Godefroy’s learned commentary.] + + 89 (return) [ In the time of Theodosius, Cæsarius, a magistrate + of high rank, went post from Antioch to Constantinople. He began + his journey at night, was in Cappadocia (165 miles from Antioch) + the ensuing evening, and arrived at Constantinople the sixth day + about noon. The whole distance was 725 Roman, or 665 English + miles. See Libanius, Orat. xxii., and the Itineria, p. 572—581. + Note: A courier is mentioned in Walpole’s Travels, ii. 335, who + was to travel from Aleppo to Constantinople, more than 700 miles, + in eight days, an unusually short journey.—M.] + + 891 (return) [ Posts for the conveyance of intelligence were + established by Augustus. Suet. Aug. 49. The couriers travelled + with amazing speed. Blair on Roman Slavery, note, p. 261. It is + probable that the posts, from the time of Augustus, were confined + to the public service, and supplied by impressment Nerva, as it + appears from a coin of his reign, made an important change; “he + established posts upon all the public roads of Italy, and made + the service chargeable upon his own exchequer. Hadrian, + perceiving the advantage of this improvement, extended it to all + the provinces of the empire.” Cardwell on Coins, p. 220.—M.] + + 90 (return) [ Pliny, though a favorite and a minister, made an + apology for granting post-horses to his wife on the most urgent + business. Epist. x. 121, 122.] + + 91 (return) [ Bergier, Hist. des grands Chemins, l. iv. c. 49.] + + 92 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. xix. i. [In Proœm.] * Note: + Pliny says Puteoli, which seems to have been the usual landing + place from the East. See the voyages of St. Paul, Acts xxviii. + 13, and of Josephus, Vita, c. 3—M.] + + Whatever evils either reason or declamation have imputed to + extensive empire, the power of Rome was attended with some + beneficial consequences to mankind; and the same freedom of + intercourse which extended the vices, diffused likewise the + improvements, of social life. In the more remote ages of + antiquity, the world was unequally divided. The East was in the + immemorial possession of arts and luxury; whilst the West was + inhabited by rude and warlike barbarians, who either disdained + agriculture, or to whom it was totally unknown. Under the + protection of an established government, the productions of + happier climates, and the industry of more civilized nations, + were gradually introduced into the western countries of Europe; + and the natives were encouraged, by an open and profitable + commerce, to multiply the former, as well as to improve the + latter. It would be almost impossible to enumerate all the + articles, either of the animal or the vegetable reign, which were + successively imported into Europe from Asia and Egypt: 93 but it + will not be unworthy of the dignity, and much less of the + utility, of an historical work, slightly to touch on a few of the + principal heads. 1. Almost all the flowers, the herbs, and the + fruits, that grow in our European gardens, are of foreign + extraction, which, in many cases, is betrayed even by their + names: the apple was a native of Italy, and when the Romans had + tasted the richer flavor of the apricot, the peach, the + pomegranate, the citron, and the orange, they contented + themselves with applying to all these new fruits the common + denomination of apple, discriminating them from each other by the + additional epithet of their country. 2. In the time of Homer, the + vine grew wild in the island of Sicily, and most probably in the + adjacent continent; but it was not improved by the skill, nor did + it afford a liquor grateful to the taste, of the savage + inhabitants. 94 A thousand years afterwards, Italy could boast, + that of the fourscore most generous and celebrated wines, more + than two thirds were produced from her soil. 95 The blessing was + soon communicated to the Narbonnese province of Gaul; but so + intense was the cold to the north of the Cevennes, that, in the + time of Strabo, it was thought impossible to ripen the grapes in + those parts of Gaul. 96 This difficulty, however, was gradually + vanquished; and there is some reason to believe, that the + vineyards of Burgundy are as old as the age of the Antonines. 97 + 3. The olive, in the western world, followed the progress of + peace, of which it was considered as the symbol. Two centuries + after the foundation of Rome, both Italy and Africa were + strangers to that useful plant: it was naturalized in those + countries; and at length carried into the heart of Spain and + Gaul. The timid errors of the ancients, that it required a + certain degree of heat, and could only flourish in the + neighborhood of the sea, were insensibly exploded by industry and + experience. 4. The cultivation of flax was transported from Egypt + to Gaul, and enriched the whole country, however it might + impoverish the particular lands on which it was sown. 99 5. The + use of artificial grasses became familiar to the farmers both of + Italy and the provinces, particularly the Lucerne, which derived + its name and origin from Media. 100 The assured supply of + wholesome and plentiful food for the cattle during winter, + multiplied the number of the docks and herds, which in their turn + contributed to the fertility of the soil. To all these + improvements may be added an assiduous attention to mines and + fisheries, which, by employing a multitude of laborious hands, + serve to increase the pleasures of the rich and the subsistence + of the poor. The elegant treatise of Columella describes the + advanced state of the Spanish husbandry under the reign of + Tiberius; and it may be observed, that those famines, which so + frequently afflicted the infant republic, were seldom or never + experienced by the extensive empire of Rome. The accidental + scarcity, in any single province, was immediately relieved by the + plenty of its more fortunate neighbors. + + 93 (return) [ It is not improbable that the Greeks and Phœnicians + introduced some new arts and productions into the neighborhood of + Marseilles and Gades.] + + 94 (return) [ See Homer, Odyss. l. ix. v. 358.] + + 95 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. l. xiv.] + + 96 (return) [ Strab. Geograph. l. iv. p. 269. The intense cold of + a Gallic winter was almost proverbial among the ancients. * Note: + Strabo only says that the grape does not ripen. Attempts had been + made in the time of Augustus to naturalize the vine in the north + of Gaul; but the cold was too great. Diod. Sic. edit. Rhodom. p. + 304.—W. Diodorus (lib. v. 26) gives a curious picture of the + Italian traders bartering, with the savages of Gaul, a cask of + wine for a slave.—M. —It appears from the newly discovered + treatise of Cicero de Republica, that there was a law of the + republic prohibiting the culture of the vine and olive beyond the + Alps, in order to keep up the value of those in Italy. Nos + justissimi homines, qui transalpinas gentes oleam et vitem serere + non sinimus, quo pluris sint nostra oliveta nostræque vineæ. Lib. + iii. 9. The restrictive law of Domitian was veiled under the + decent pretext of encouraging the cultivation of grain. Suet. + Dom. vii. It was repealed by Probus Vopis Strobus, 18.—M.] + + 97 (return) [ In the beginning of the fourth century, the orator + Eumenius (Panegyr. Veter. viii. 6, edit. Delphin.) speaks of the + vines in the territory of Autun, which were decayed through age, + and the first plantation of which was totally unknown. The Pagus + Arebrignus is supposed by M. d’Anville to be the district of + Beaune, celebrated, even at present for one of the first growths + of Burgundy. * Note: This is proved by a passage of Pliny the + Elder, where he speaks of a certain kind of grape (vitis picata. + vinum picatum) which grows naturally to the district of Vienne, + and had recently been transplanted into the country of the + Arverni, (Auvergne,) of the Helvii, (the Vivarias.) and the + Burgundy and Franche Compte. Pliny wrote A.D. 77. Hist. Nat. xiv. + 1.— W.] + + 99 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. l. xix.] + + 100 (return) [ See the agreeable Essays on Agriculture by Mr. + Harte, in which he has collected all that the ancients and + moderns have said of Lucerne.] + + Agriculture is the foundation of manufactures; since the + productions of nature are the materials of art. Under the Roman + empire, the labor of an industrious and ingenious people was + variously, but incessantly, employed in the service of the rich. + In their dress, their table, their houses, and their furniture, + the favorites of fortune united every refinement of conveniency, + of elegance, and of splendor, whatever could soothe their pride + or gratify their sensuality. Such refinements, under the odious + name of luxury, have been severely arraigned by the moralists of + every age; and it might perhaps be more conducive to the virtue, + as well as happiness, of mankind, if all possessed the + necessaries, and none the superfluities, of life. But in the + present imperfect condition of society, luxury, though it may + proceed from vice or folly, seems to be the only means that can + correct the unequal distribution of property. The diligent + mechanic, and the skilful artist, who have obtained no share in + the division of the earth, receive a voluntary tax from the + possessors of land; and the latter are prompted, by a sense of + interest, to improve those estates, with whose produce they may + purchase additional pleasures. This operation, the particular + effects of which are felt in every society, acted with much more + diffusive energy in the Roman world. The provinces would soon + have been exhausted of their wealth, if the manufactures and + commerce of luxury had not insensibly restored to the industrious + subjects the sums which were exacted from them by the arms and + authority of Rome. As long as the circulation was confined within + the bounds of the empire, it impressed the political machine with + a new degree of activity, and its consequences, sometimes + beneficial, could never become pernicious. + + But it is no easy task to confine luxury within the limits of an + empire. The most remote countries of the ancient world were + ransacked to supply the pomp and delicacy of Rome. The forests of + Scythia afforded some valuable furs. Amber was brought over land + from the shores of the Baltic to the Danube; and the barbarians + were astonished at the price which they received in exchange for + so useless a commodity. 101 There was a considerable demand for + Babylonian carpets, and other manufactures of the East; but the + most important and unpopular branch of foreign trade was carried + on with Arabia and India. Every year, about the time of the + summer solstice, a fleet of a hundred and twenty vessels sailed + from Myos-hormos, a port of Egypt, on the Red Sea. By the + periodical assistance of the monsoons, they traversed the ocean + in about forty days. The coast of Malabar, or the island of + Ceylon, 102 was the usual term of their navigation, and it was in + those markets that the merchants from the more remote countries + of Asia expected their arrival. The return of the fleet of Egypt + was fixed to the months of December or January; and as soon as + their rich cargo had been transported on the backs of camels, + from the Red Sea to the Nile, and had descended that river as far + as Alexandria, it was poured, without delay, into the capital of + the empire. 103 The objects of oriental traffic were splendid and + trifling; silk, a pound of which was esteemed not inferior in + value to a pound of gold; 104 precious stones, among which the + pearl claimed the first rank after the diamond; 105 and a variety + of aromatics, that were consumed in religious worship and the + pomp of funerals. The labor and risk of the voyage was rewarded + with almost incredible profit; but the profit was made upon Roman + subjects, and a few individuals were enriched at the expense of + the public. As the natives of Arabia and India were contented + with the productions and manufactures of their own country, + silver, on the side of the Romans, was the principal, if not the + only 1051 instrument of commerce. It was a complaint worthy of + the gravity of the senate, that, in the purchase of female + ornaments, the wealth of the state was irrecoverably given away + to foreign and hostile nations. 106 The annual loss is computed, + by a writer of an inquisitive but censorious temper, at upwards + of eight hundred thousand pounds sterling. 107 Such was the style + of discontent, brooding over the dark prospect of approaching + poverty. And yet, if we compare the proportion between gold and + silver, as it stood in the time of Pliny, and as it was fixed in + the reign of Constantine, we shall discover within that period a + very considerable increase. 108 There is not the least reason to + suppose that gold was become more scarce; it is therefore evident + that silver was grown more common; that whatever might be the + amount of the Indian and Arabian exports, they were far from + exhausting the wealth of the Roman world; and that the produce of + the mines abundantly supplied the demands of commerce. + + 101 (return) [ Tacit. Germania, c. 45. Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxvii. + 13. The latter observed, with some humor, that even fashion had + not yet found out the use of amber. Nero sent a Roman knight to + purchase great quantities on the spot where it was produced, the + coast of modern Prussia.] + + 102 (return) [ Called Taprobana by the Romans, and Serindib by + the Arabs. It was discovered under the reign of Claudius, and + gradually became the principal mart of the East.] + + 103 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. l. vi. Strabo, l. xvii.] + + 104 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 224. A silk garment was + considered as an ornament to a woman, but as a disgrace to a + man.] + + 105 (return) [ The two great pearl fisheries were the same as at + present, Ormuz and Cape Comorin. As well as we can compare + ancient with modern geography, Rome was supplied with diamonds + from the mine of Jumelpur, in Bengal, which is described in the + Voyages de Tavernier, tom. ii. p. 281.] + + 1051 (return) [ Certainly not the only one. The Indians were not + so contented with regard to foreign productions. Arrian has a + long list of European wares, which they received in exchange for + their own; Italian and other wines, brass, tin, lead, coral, + chrysolith, storax, glass, dresses of one or many colors, zones, + &c. See Periplus Maris Erythræi in Hudson, Geogr. Min. i. p. + 27.—W. The German translator observes that Gibbon has confined + the use of aromatics to religious worship and funerals. His error + seems the omission of other spices, of which the Romans must have + consumed great quantities in their cookery. Wenck, however, + admits that silver was the chief article of exchange.—M. In 1787, + a peasant (near Nellore in the Carnatic) struck, in digging, on + the remains of a Hindu temple; he found, also, a pot which + contained Roman coins and medals of the second century, mostly + Trajans, Adrians, and Faustinas, all of gold, many of them fresh + and beautiful, others defaced or perforated, as if they had been + worn as ornaments. (Asiatic Researches, ii. 19.)—M.] + + 106 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. iii. 53. In a speech of Tiberius.] + + 107 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. xii. 18. In another place he + computes half that sum; Quingenties H. S. for India exclusive of + Arabia.] + + 108 (return) [ The proportion, which was 1 to 10, and 12 1/2, + rose to 14 2/5, the legal regulation of Constantine. See + Arbuthnot’s Tables of ancient Coins, c. 5.] + + Notwithstanding the propensity of mankind to exalt the past, and + to depreciate the present, the tranquil and prosperous state of + the empire was warmly felt, and honestly confessed, by the + provincials as well as Romans. “They acknowledged that the true + principles of social life, laws, agriculture, and science, which + had been first invented by the wisdom of Athens, were now firmly + established by the power of Rome, under whose auspicious + influence the fiercest barbarians were united by an equal + government and common language. They affirm, that with the + improvement of arts, the human species were visibly multiplied. + They celebrate the increasing splendor of the cities, the + beautiful face of the country, cultivated and adorned like an + immense garden; and the long festival of peace which was enjoyed + by so many nations, forgetful of the ancient animosities, and + delivered from the apprehension of future danger.” 109 Whatever + suspicions may be suggested by the air of rhetoric and + declamation, which seems to prevail in these passages, the + substance of them is perfectly agreeable to historic truth. + + 109 (return) [ Among many other passages, see Pliny, (Hist. + Natur. iii. 5.) Aristides, (de Urbe Roma,) and Tertullian, (de + Anima, c. 30.)] + + It was scarcely possible that the eyes of contemporaries should + discover in the public felicity the latent causes of decay and + corruption. This long peace, and the uniform government of the + Romans, introduced a slow and secret poison into the vitals of + the empire. The minds of men were gradually reduced to the same + level, the fire of genius was extinguished, and even the military + spirit evaporated. The natives of Europe were brave and robust. + Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Illyricum supplied the legions with + excellent soldiers, and constituted the real strength of the + monarchy. Their personal valor remained, but they no longer + possessed that public courage which is nourished by the love of + independence, the sense of national honor, the presence of + danger, and the habit of command. They received laws and + governors from the will of their sovereign, and trusted for their + defence to a mercenary army. The posterity of their boldest + leaders was contented with the rank of citizens and subjects. The + most aspiring spirits resorted to the court or standard of the + emperors; and the deserted provinces, deprived of political + strength or union, insensibly sunk into the languid indifference + of private life. + + The love of letters, almost inseparable from peace and + refinement, was fashionable among the subjects of Hadrian and the + Antonines, who were themselves men of learning and curiosity. It + was diffused over the whole extent of their empire; the most + northern tribes of Britons had acquired a taste for rhetoric; + Homer as well as Virgil were transcribed and studied on the banks + of the Rhine and Danube; and the most liberal rewards sought out + the faintest glimmerings of literary merit. 110 The sciences of + physic and astronomy were successfully cultivated by the Greeks; + the observations of Ptolemy and the writings of Galen are studied + by those who have improved their discoveries and corrected their + errors; but if we except the inimitable Lucian, this age of + indolence passed away without having produced a single writer of + original genius, or who excelled in the arts of elegant + composition.1101 The authority of Plato and Aristotle, of Zeno + and Epicurus, still reigned in the schools; and their systems, + transmitted with blind deference from one generation of disciples + to another, precluded every generous attempt to exercise the + powers, or enlarge the limits, of the human mind. The beauties of + the poets and orators, instead of kindling a fire like their own, + inspired only cold and servile imitations: or if any ventured to + deviate from those models, they deviated at the same time from + good sense and propriety. On the revival of letters, the youthful + vigor of the imagination, after a long repose, national + emulation, a new religion, new languages, and a new world, called + forth the genius of Europe. But the provincials of Rome, trained + by a uniform artificial foreign education, were engaged in a very + unequal competition with those bold ancients, who, by expressing + their genuine feelings in their native tongue, had already + occupied every place of honor. The name of Poet was almost + forgotten; that of Orator was usurped by the sophists. A cloud of + critics, of compilers, of commentators, darkened the face of + learning, and the decline of genius was soon followed by the + corruption of taste. + + 110 (return) [ Herodes Atticus gave the sophist Polemo above + eight thousand pounds for three declamations. See Philostrat. l. + i. p. 538. The Antonines founded a school at Athens, in which + professors of grammar, rhetoric, politics, and the four great + sects of philosophy were maintained at the public expense for the + instruction of youth. The salary of a philosopher was ten + thousand drachmæ, between three and four hundred pounds a year. + Similar establishments were formed in the other great cities of + the empire. See Lucian in Eunuch. tom. ii. p. 352, edit. Reitz. + Philostrat. l. ii. p. 566. Hist. August. p. 21. Dion Cassius, l. + lxxi. p. 1195. Juvenal himself, in a morose satire, which in + every line betrays his own disappointment and envy, is obliged, + however, to say,—“—O Juvenes, circumspicit et stimulat vos. + Materiamque sibi Ducis indulgentia quærit.”—Satir. vii. 20. Note: + Vespasian first gave a salary to professors: he assigned to each + professor of rhetoric, Greek and Roman, centena sestertia. + (Sueton. in Vesp. 18). Hadrian and the Antonines, though still + liberal, were less profuse.—G. from W. Suetonius wrote annua + centena L. 807, 5, 10.—M.] + + 1101 (return) [ This judgment is rather severe: besides the + physicians, astronomers, and grammarians, among whom there were + some very distinguished men, there were still, under Hadrian, + Suetonius, Florus, Plutarch; under the Antonines, Arrian, + Pausanias, Appian, Marcus Aurelius himself, Sextus Empiricus, &c. + Jurisprudence gained much by the labors of Salvius Julianus, + Julius Celsus, Sex. Pomponius, Caius, and others.—G. from W. Yet + where, among these, is the writer of original genius, unless, + perhaps Plutarch? or even of a style really elegant?— M.] + + The sublime Longinus, who, in somewhat a later period, and in the + court of a Syrian queen, preserved the spirit of ancient Athens, + observes and laments this degeneracy of his contemporaries, which + debased their sentiments, enervated their courage, and depressed + their talents. “In the same manner,” says he, “as some children + always remain pygmies, whose infant limbs have been too closely + confined, thus our tender minds, fettered by the prejudices and + habits of a just servitude, are unable to expand themselves, or + to attain that well-proportioned greatness which we admire in the + ancients; who, living under a popular government, wrote with the + same freedom as they acted.” 111 This diminutive stature of + mankind, if we pursue the metaphor, was daily sinking below the + old standard, and the Roman world was indeed peopled by a race of + pygmies; when the fierce giants of the north broke in, and mended + the puny breed. They restored a manly spirit of freedom; and + after the revolution of ten centuries, freedom became the happy + parent of taste and science. + + 111 (return) [ Longin. de Sublim. c. 44, p. 229, edit. Toll. + Here, too, we may say of Longinus, “his own example strengthens + all his laws.” Instead of proposing his sentiments with a manly + boldness, he insinuates them with the most guarded caution; puts + them into the mouth of a friend, and as far as we can collect + from a corrupted text, makes a show of refuting them himself.] + + + + + Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part + I. + + Of The Constitution Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of The + Antonines. + + The obvious definition of a monarchy seems to be that of a state, + in which a single person, by whatsoever name he may be + distinguished, is intrusted with the execution of the laws, the + management of the revenue, and the command of the army. But, + unless public liberty is protected by intrepid and vigilant + guardians, the authority of so formidable a magistrate will soon + degenerate into despotism. The influence of the clergy, in an age + of superstition, might be usefully employed to assert the rights + of mankind; but so intimate is the connection between the throne + and the altar, that the banner of the church has very seldom been + seen on the side of the people. 101 A martial nobility and + stubborn commons, possessed of arms, tenacious of property, and + collected into constitutional assemblies, form the only balance + capable of preserving a free constitution against enterprises of + an aspiring prince. + + 101 (return) [ Often enough in the ages of superstition, but not + in the interest of the people or the state, but in that of the + church to which all others were subordinate. Yet the power of the + pope has often been of great service in repressing the excesses + of sovereigns, and in softening manners.—W. The history of the + Italian republics proves the error of Gibbon, and the justice of + his German translator’s comment.—M.] + + Every barrier of the Roman constitution had been levelled by the + vast ambition of the dictator; every fence had been extirpated by + the cruel hand of the triumvir. After the victory of Actium, the + fate of the Roman world depended on the will of Octavianus, + surnamed Cæsar, by his uncle’s adoption, and afterwards Augustus, + by the flattery of the senate. The conqueror was at the head of + forty-four veteran legions, 1 conscious of their own strength, + and of the weakness of the constitution, habituated, during + twenty years’ civil war, to every act of blood and violence, and + passionately devoted to the house of Cæsar, from whence alone + they had received, and expected the most lavish rewards. The + provinces, long oppressed by the ministers of the republic, + sighed for the government of a single person, who would be the + master, not the accomplice, of those petty tyrants. The people of + Rome, viewing, with a secret pleasure, the humiliation of the + aristocracy, demanded only bread and public shows; and were + supplied with both by the liberal hand of Augustus. The rich and + polite Italians, who had almost universally embraced the + philosophy of Epicurus, enjoyed the present blessings of ease and + tranquillity, and suffered not the pleasing dream to be + interrupted by the memory of their old tumultuous freedom. With + its power, the senate had lost its dignity; many of the most + noble families were extinct. The republicans of spirit and + ability had perished in the field of battle, or in the + proscription. The door of the assembly had been designedly left + open, for a mixed multitude of more than a thousand persons, who + reflected disgrace upon their rank, instead of deriving honor + from it. 2 + + 1 (return) [ Orosius, vi. 18. * Note: Dion says twenty-five, (or + three,) (lv. 23.) The united triumvirs had but forty-three. + (Appian. Bell. Civ. iv. 3.) The testimony of Orosius is of little + value when more certain may be had.—W. But all the legions, + doubtless, submitted to Augustus after the battle of Actium.—M.] + + 2 (return) [ Julius Cæsar introduced soldiers, strangers, and + half-barbarians into the senate (Sueton. in Cæsar. c. 77, 80.) + The abuse became still more scandalous after his death.] + + The reformation of the senate was one of the first steps in which + Augustus laid aside the tyrant, and professed himself the father + of his country. He was elected censor; and, in concert with his + faithful Agrippa, he examined the list of the senators, expelled + a few members, 201 whose vices or whose obstinacy required a + public example, persuaded near two hundred to prevent the shame + of an expulsion by a voluntary retreat, raised the qualification + of a senator to about ten thousand pounds, created a sufficient + number of patrician families, and accepted for himself the + honorable title of Prince of the Senate, 202 which had always + been bestowed, by the censors, on the citizen the most eminent + for his honors and services. 3 But whilst he thus restored the + dignity, he destroyed the independence, of the senate. The + principles of a free constitution are irrecoverably lost, when + the legislative power is nominated by the executive. + + 201 (return) [ Of these Dion and Suetonius knew nothing.—W. Dion + says the contrary.—M.] + + 202 (return) [ But Augustus, then Octavius, was censor, and in + virtue of that office, even according to the constitution of the + free republic, could reform the senate, expel unworthy members, + name the Princeps Senatus, &c. That was called, as is well known, + Senatum legere. It was customary, during the free republic, for + the censor to be named Princeps Senatus, (S. Liv. l. xxvii. c. + 11, l. xl. c. 51;) and Dion expressly says, that this was done + according to ancient usage. He was empowered by a decree of the + senate to admit a number of families among the patricians. + Finally, the senate was not the legislative power.—W] + + 3 (return) [ Dion Cassius, l. liii. p. 693. Suetonius in August. + c. 35.] + + Before an assembly thus modelled and prepared, Augustus + pronounced a studied oration, which displayed his patriotism, and + disguised his ambition. “He lamented, yet excused, his past + conduct. Filial piety had required at his hands the revenge of + his father’s murder; the humanity of his own nature had sometimes + given way to the stern laws of necessity, and to a forced + connection with two unworthy colleagues: as long as Antony lived, + the republic forbade him to abandon her to a degenerate Roman, + and a barbarian queen. He was now at liberty to satisfy his duty + and his inclination. He solemnly restored the senate and people + to all their ancient rights; and wished only to mingle with the + crowd of his fellow-citizens, and to share the blessings which he + had obtained for his country.” 4 + + 4 (return) [ Dion (l. liii. p. 698) gives us a prolix and bombast + speech on this great occasion. I have borrowed from Suetonius and + Tacitus the general language of Augustus.] + + It would require the pen of Tacitus (if Tacitus had assisted at + this assembly) to describe the various emotions of the senate, + those that were suppressed, and those that were affected. It was + dangerous to trust the sincerity of Augustus; to seem to distrust + it was still more dangerous. The respective advantages of + monarchy and a republic have often divided speculative inquirers; + the present greatness of the Roman state, the corruption of + manners, and the license of the soldiers, supplied new arguments + to the advocates of monarchy; and these general views of + government were again warped by the hopes and fears of each + individual. Amidst this confusion of sentiments, the answer of + the senate was unanimous and decisive. They refused to accept the + resignation of Augustus; they conjured him not to desert the + republic, which he had saved. After a decent resistance, the + crafty tyrant submitted to the orders of the senate; and + consented to receive the government of the provinces, and the + general command of the Roman armies, under the well-known names + of PROCONSUL and IMPERATOR. 5 But he would receive them only for + ten years. Even before the expiration of that period, he hope + that the wounds of civil discord would be completely healed, and + that the republic, restored to its pristine health and vigor, + would no longer require the dangerous interposition of so + extraordinary a magistrate. The memory of this comedy, repeated + several times during the life of Augustus, was preserved to the + last ages of the empire, by the peculiar pomp with which the + perpetual monarchs of Rome always solemnized the tenth years of + their reign. 6 + + 5 (return) [ Imperator (from which we have derived Emperor) + signified under her republic no more than general, and was + emphatically bestowed by the soldiers, when on the field of + battle they proclaimed their victorious leader worthy of that + title. When the Roman emperors assumed it in that sense, they + placed it after their name, and marked how often they had taken + it.] + + 6 (return) [ Dion. l. liii. p. 703, &c.] + + Without any violation of the principles of the constitution, the + general of the Roman armies might receive and exercise an + authority almost despotic over the soldiers, the enemies, and the + subjects of the republic. With regard to the soldiers, the + jealousy of freedom had, even from the earliest ages of Rome, + given way to the hopes of conquest, and a just sense of military + discipline. The dictator, or consul, had a right to command the + service of the Roman youth; and to punish an obstinate or + cowardly disobedience by the most severe and ignominious + penalties, by striking the offender out of the list of citizens, + by confiscating his property, and by selling his person into + slavery. 7 The most sacred rights of freedom, confirmed by the + Porcian and Sempronian laws, were suspended by the military + engagement. In his camp the general exercised an absolute power + of life and death; his jurisdiction was not confined by any forms + of trial, or rules of proceeding, and the execution of the + sentence was immediate and without appeal. 8 The choice of the + enemies of Rome was regularly decided by the legislative + authority. The most important resolutions of peace and war were + seriously debated in the senate, and solemnly ratified by the + people. But when the arms of the legions were carried to a great + distance from Italy, the general assumed the liberty of directing + them against whatever people, and in whatever manner, they judged + most advantageous for the public service. It was from the + success, not from the justice, of their enterprises, that they + expected the honors of a triumph. In the use of victory, + especially after they were no longer controlled by the + commissioners of the senate, they exercised the most unbounded + despotism. When Pompey commanded in the East, he rewarded his + soldiers and allies, dethroned princes, divided kingdoms, founded + colonies, and distributed the treasures of Mithridates. On his + return to Rome, he obtained, by a single act of the senate and + people, the universal ratification of all his proceedings. 9 Such + was the power over the soldiers, and over the enemies of Rome, + which was either granted to, or assumed by, the generals of the + republic. They were, at the same time, the governors, or rather + monarchs, of the conquered provinces, united the civil with the + military character, administered justice as well as the finances, + and exercised both the executive and legislative power of the + state. + + 7 (return) [ Livy Epitom. l. xiv. [c. 27.] Valer. Maxim. vi. 3.] + + 8 (return) [ See, in the viiith book of Livy, the conduct of + Manlius Torquatus and Papirius Cursor. They violated the laws of + nature and humanity, but they asserted those of military + discipline; and the people, who abhorred the action, was obliged + to respect the principle.] + + 9 (return) [ By the lavish but unconstrained suffrages of the + people, Pompey had obtained a military command scarcely inferior + to that of Augustus. Among the extraordinary acts of power + executed by the former we may remark the foundation of + twenty-nine cities, and the distribution of three or four + millions sterling to his troops. The ratification of his acts met + with some opposition and delays in the senate See Plutarch, + Appian, Dion Cassius, and the first book of the epistles to + Atticus.] + + From what has already been observed in the first chapter of this + work, some notion may be formed of the armies and provinces thus + intrusted to the ruling hand of Augustus. But as it was + impossible that he could personally command the regions of so + many distant frontiers, he was indulged by the senate, as Pompey + had already been, in the permission of devolving the execution of + his great office on a sufficient number of lieutenants. In rank + and authority these officers seemed not inferior to the ancient + proconsuls; but their station was dependent and precarious. They + received and held their commissions at the will of a superior, to + whose auspicious influence the merit of their action was legally + attributed. 10 They were the representatives of the emperor. The + emperor alone was the general of the republic, and his + jurisdiction, civil as well as military, extended over all the + conquests of Rome. It was some satisfaction, however, to the + senate, that he always delegated his power to the members of + their body. The imperial lieutenants were of consular or + prætorian dignity; the legions were commanded by senators, and + the præfecture of Egypt was the only important trust committed to + a Roman knight. + + 10 (return) [ Under the commonwealth, a triumph could only be + claimed by the general, who was authorized to take the Auspices + in the name of the people. By an exact consequence, drawn from + this principle of policy and religion, the triumph was reserved + to the emperor; and his most successful lieutenants were + satisfied with some marks of distinction, which, under the name + of triumphal honors, were invented in their favor.] + + Within six days after Augustus had been compelled to accept so + very liberal a grant, he resolved to gratify the pride of the + senate by an easy sacrifice. He represented to them, that they + had enlarged his powers, even beyond that degree which might be + required by the melancholy condition of the times. They had not + permitted him to refuse the laborious command of the armies and + the frontiers; but he must insist on being allowed to restore the + more peaceful and secure provinces to the mild administration of + the civil magistrate. In the division of the provinces, Augustus + provided for his own power and for the dignity of the republic. + The proconsuls of the senate, particularly those of Asia, Greece, + and Africa, enjoyed a more honorable character than the + lieutenants of the emperor, who commanded in Gaul or Syria. The + former were attended by lictors, the latter by soldiers. 105 A + law was passed, that wherever the emperor was present, his + extraordinary commission should supersede the ordinary + jurisdiction of the governor; a custom was introduced, that the + new conquests belonged to the imperial portion; and it was soon + discovered that the authority of the _Prince_, the favorite + epithet of Augustus, was the same in every part of the empire. + + 105 (return) [ This distinction is without foundation. The + lieutenants of the emperor, who were called Proprætors, whether + they had been prætors or consuls, were attended by six lictors; + those who had the right of the sword, (of life and death over the + soldiers.—M.) bore the military habit (paludamentum) and the + sword. The provincial governors commissioned by the senate, who, + whether they had been consuls or not, were called Pronconsuls, + had twelve lictors when they had been consuls, and six only when + they had but been prætors. The provinces of Africa and Asia were + only given to ex-consuls. See, on the Organization of the + Provinces, Dion, liii. 12, 16 Strabo, xvii 840.—W] + + In return for this imaginary concession, Augustus obtained an + important privilege, which rendered him master of Rome and Italy. + By a dangerous exception to the ancient maxims, he was authorized + to preserve his military command, supported by a numerous body of + guards, even in time of peace, and in the heart of the capital. + His command, indeed, was confined to those citizens who were + engaged in the service by the military oath; but such was the + propensity of the Romans to servitude, that the oath was + voluntarily taken by the magistrates, the senators, and the + equestrian order, till the homage of flattery was insensibly + converted into an annual and solemn protestation of fidelity. + + Although Augustus considered a military force as the firmest + foundation, he wisely rejected it, as a very odious instrument of + government. It was more agreeable to his temper, as well as to + his policy, to reign under the venerable names of ancient + magistracy, and artfully to collect, in his own person, all the + scattered rays of civil jurisdiction. With this view, he + permitted the senate to confer upon him, for his life, the powers + of the consular 11 and tribunitian offices, 12 which were, in the + same manner, continued to all his successors. The consuls had + succeeded to the kings of Rome, and represented the dignity of + the state. They superintended the ceremonies of religion, levied + and commanded the legions, gave audience to foreign ambassadors, + and presided in the assemblies both of the senate and people. The + general control of the finances was intrusted to their care; and + though they seldom had leisure to administer justice in person, + they were considered as the supreme guardians of law, equity, and + the public peace. Such was their ordinary jurisdiction; but + whenever the senate empowered the first magistrate to consult the + safety of the commonwealth, he was raised by that decree above + the laws, and exercised, in the defence of liberty, a temporary + despotism. 13 The character of the tribunes was, in every + respect, different from that of the consuls. The appearance of + the former was modest and humble; but their persons were sacred + and inviolable. Their force was suited rather for opposition than + for action. They were instituted to defend the oppressed, to + pardon offences, to arraign the enemies of the people, and, when + they judged it necessary, to stop, by a single word, the whole + machine of government. As long as the republic subsisted, the + dangerous influence, which either the consul or the tribune might + derive from their respective jurisdiction, was diminished by + several important restrictions. Their authority expired with the + year in which they were elected; the former office was divided + between two, the latter among ten persons; and, as both in their + private and public interest they were averse to each other, their + mutual conflicts contributed, for the most part, to strengthen + rather than to destroy the balance of the constitution. 131 But + when the consular and tribunitian powers were united, when they + were vested for life in a single person, when the general of the + army was, at the same time, the minister of the senate and the + representative of the Roman people, it was impossible to resist + the exercise, nor was it easy to define the limits, of his + imperial prerogative. + + 11 (return) [ Cicero (de Legibus, iii. 3) gives the consular + office the name of egia potestas; and Polybius (l. vi. c. 3) + observes three powers in the Roman constitution. The monarchical + was represented and exercised by the consuls.] + + 12 (return) [ As the tribunitian power (distinct from the annual + office) was first invented by the dictator Cæsar, (Dion, l. xliv. + p. 384,) we may easily conceive, that it was given as a reward + for having so nobly asserted, by arms, the sacred rights of the + tribunes and people. See his own Commentaries, de Bell. Civil. l. + i.] + + 13 (return) [ Augustus exercised nine annual consulships without + interruption. He then most artfully refused the magistracy, as + well as the dictatorship, absented himself from Rome, and waited + till the fatal effects of tumult and faction forced the senate to + invest him with a perpetual consulship. Augustus, as well as his + successors, affected, however, to conceal so invidious a title.] + + 131 (return) [ The note of M. Guizot on the tribunitian power + applies to the French translation rather than to the original. + The former has, maintenir la balance toujours egale, which + implies much more than Gibbon’s general expression. The note + belongs rather to the history of the Republic than that of the + Empire.—M] + + To these accumulated honors, the policy of Augustus soon added + the splendid as well as important dignities of supreme pontiff, + and of censor. By the former he acquired the management of the + religion, and by the latter a legal inspection over the manners + and fortunes, of the Roman people. If so many distinct and + independent powers did not exactly unite with each other, the + complaisance of the senate was prepared to supply every + deficiency by the most ample and extraordinary concessions. The + emperors, as the first ministers of the republic, were exempted + from the obligation and penalty of many inconvenient laws: they + were authorized to convoke the senate, to make several motions in + the same day, to recommend candidates for the honors of the + state, to enlarge the bounds of the city, to employ the revenue + at their discretion, to declare peace and war, to ratify + treaties; and by a most comprehensive clause, they were empowered + to execute whatsoever they should judge advantageous to the + empire, and agreeable to the majesty of things private or public, + human of divine. 14 + + 14 (return) [ See a fragment of a Decree of the Senate, + conferring on the emperor Vespasian all the powers granted to his + predecessors, Augustus, Tiberius, and Claudius. This curious and + important monument is published in Gruter’s Inscriptions, No. + ccxlii. * Note: It is also in the editions of Tacitus by Ryck, + (Annal. p. 420, 421,) and Ernesti, (Excurs. ad lib. iv. 6;) but + this fragment contains so many inconsistencies, both in matter + and form, that its authenticity may be doubted—W.] + + When all the various powers of executive government were + committed to the _Imperial magistrate_, the ordinary magistrates + of the commonwealth languished in obscurity, without vigor, and + almost without business. The names and forms of the ancient + administration were preserved by Augustus with the most anxious + care. The usual number of consuls, prætors, and tribunes, 15 were + annually invested with their respective ensigns of office, and + continued to discharge some of their least important functions. + Those honors still attracted the vain ambition of the Romans; and + the emperors themselves, though invested for life with the powers + of the consulship, frequently aspired to the title of that annual + dignity, which they condescended to share with the most + illustrious of their fellow-citizens. 16 In the election of these + magistrates, the people, during the reign of Augustus, were + permitted to expose all the inconveniences of a wild democracy. + That artful prince, instead of discovering the least symptom of + impatience, humbly solicited their suffrages for himself or his + friends, and scrupulously practised all the duties of an ordinary + candidate. 17 But we may venture to ascribe to his councils the + first measure of the succeeding reign, by which the elections + were transferred to the senate. 18 The assemblies of the people + were forever abolished, and the emperors were delivered from a + dangerous multitude, who, without restoring liberty, might have + disturbed, and perhaps endangered, the established government. + + 15 (return) [ Two consuls were created on the Calends of January; + but in the course of the year others were substituted in their + places, till the annual number seems to have amounted to no less + than twelve. The prætors were usually sixteen or eighteen, + (Lipsius in Excurs. D. ad Tacit. Annal. l. i.) I have not + mentioned the Ædiles or Quæstors Officers of the police or + revenue easily adapt themselves to any form of government. In the + time of Nero, the tribunes legally possessed the right of + intercession, though it might be dangerous to exercise it (Tacit. + Annal. xvi. 26.) In the time of Trajan, it was doubtful whether + the tribuneship was an office or a name, (Plin. Epist. i. 23.)] + + 16 (return) [ The tyrants themselves were ambitious of the + consulship. The virtuous princes were moderate in the pursuit, + and exact in the discharge of it. Trajan revived the ancient + oath, and swore before the consul’s tribunal that he would + observe the laws, (Plin. Panegyric c. 64.)] + + 17 (return) [ Quoties Magistratuum Comitiis interesset. Tribus + cum candidatis suis circunbat: supplicabatque more solemni. + Ferebat et ipse suffragium in tribubus, ut unus e populo. + Suetonius in August c. 56.] + + 18 (return) [ Tum primum Comitia e campo ad patres translata + sunt. Tacit. Annal. i. 15. The word primum seems to allude to + some faint and unsuccessful efforts which were made towards + restoring them to the people. Note: The emperor Caligula made the + attempt: he rest red the Comitia to the people, but, in a short + time, took them away again. Suet. in Caio. c. 16. Dion. lix. 9, + 20. Nevertheless, at the time of Dion, they preserved still the + form of the Comitia. Dion. lviii. 20.—W.] + + By declaring themselves the protectors of the people, Marius and + Cæsar had subverted the constitution of their country. But as + soon as the senate had been humbled and disarmed, such an + assembly, consisting of five or six hundred persons, was found a + much more tractable and useful instrument of dominion. It was on + the dignity of the senate that Augustus and his successors + founded their new empire; and they affected, on every occasion, + to adopt the language and principles of Patricians. In the + administration of their own powers, they frequently consulted the + great national council, and _seemed_ to refer to its decision the + most important concerns of peace and war. Rome, Italy, and the + internal provinces, were subject to the immediate jurisdiction of + the senate. With regard to civil objects, it was the supreme + court of appeal; with regard to criminal matters, a tribunal, + constituted for the trial of all offences that were committed by + men in any public station, or that affected the peace and majesty + of the Roman people. The exercise of the judicial power became + the most frequent and serious occupation of the senate; and the + important causes that were pleaded before them afforded a last + refuge to the spirit of ancient eloquence. As a council of state, + and as a court of justice, the senate possessed very considerable + prerogatives; but in its legislative capacity, in which it was + supposed virtually to represent the people, the rights of + sovereignty were acknowledged to reside in that assembly. Every + power was derived from their authority, every law was ratified by + their sanction. Their regular meetings were held on three stated + days in every month, the Calends, the Nones, and the Ides. The + debates were conducted with decent freedom; and the emperors + themselves, who gloried in the name of senators, sat, voted, and + divided with their equals. To resume, in a few words, the system + of the Imperial government; as it was instituted by Augustus, and + maintained by those princes who understood their own interest and + that of the people, it may be defined an absolute monarchy + disguised by the forms of a commonwealth. The masters of the + Roman world surrounded their throne with darkness, concealed + their irresistible strength, and humbly professed themselves the + accountable ministers of the senate, whose supreme decrees they + dictated and obeyed. 19 + + 19 (return) [Dion Cassius (l. liii. p. 703—714) has given a very + loose and partial sketch of the Imperial system. To illustrate + and often to correct him, I have meditated Tacitus, examined + Suetonius, and consulted the following moderns: the Abbé de la + Bleterie, in the Memoires de l’Academie des Inscriptions, tom. + xix. xxi. xxiv. xxv. xxvii. Beaufort Republique Romaine, tom. i. + p. 255—275. The Dissertations of Noodt and Gronovius de lege + Regia, printed at Leyden, in the year 1731 Gravina de Imperio + Romano, p. 479—544 of his Opuscula. Maffei, Verona Illustrata, p. + i. p. 245, &c.] + + The face of the court corresponded with the forms of the + administration. The emperors, if we except those tyrants whose + capricious folly violated every law of nature and decency, + disdained that pomp and ceremony which might offend their + countrymen, but could add nothing to their real power. In all the + offices of life, they affected to confound themselves with their + subjects, and maintained with them an equal intercourse of visits + and entertainments. Their habit, their palace, their table, were + suited only to the rank of an opulent senator. Their family, + however numerous or splendid, was composed entirely of their + domestic slaves and freedmen. 20 Augustus or Trajan would have + blushed at employing the meanest of the Romans in those menial + offices, which, in the household and bedchamber of a limited + monarch, are so eagerly solicited by the proudest nobles of + Britain. + + 20 (return) [ A weak prince will always be governed by his + domestics. The power of slaves aggravated the shame of the + Romans; and the senate paid court to a Pallas or a Narcissus. + There is a chance that a modern favorite may be a gentleman.] + + The deification of the emperors 21 is the only instance in which + they departed from their accustomed prudence and modesty. The + Asiatic Greeks were the first inventors, the successors of + Alexander the first objects, of this servile and impious mode of + adulation. 211 It was easily transferred from the kings to the + governors of Asia; and the Roman magistrates very frequently were + adored as provincial deities, with the pomp of altars and + temples, of festivals and sacrifices. 22 It was natural that the + emperors should not refuse what the proconsuls had accepted; and + the divine honors which both the one and the other received from + the provinces, attested rather the despotism than the servitude + of Rome. But the conquerors soon imitated the vanquished nations + in the arts of flattery; and the imperious spirit of the first + Cæsar too easily consented to assume, during his lifetime, a + place among the tutelar deities of Rome. The milder temper of his + successor declined so dangerous an ambition, which was never + afterwards revived, except by the madness of Caligula and + Domitian. Augustus permitted indeed some of the provincial cities + to erect temples to his honor, on condition that they should + associate the worship of Rome with that of the sovereign; he + tolerated private superstition, of which he might be the object; + 23 but he contented himself with being revered by the senate and + the people in his human character, and wisely left to his + successor the care of his public deification. A regular custom + was introduced, that on the decease of every emperor who had + neither lived nor died like a tyrant, the senate by a solemn + decree should place him in the number of the gods: and the + ceremonies of his apotheosis were blended with those of his + funeral. 231 This legal, and, as it should seem, injudicious + profanation, so abhorrent to our stricter principles, was + received with a very faint murmur, 24 by the easy nature of + Polytheism; but it was received as an institution, not of + religion, but of policy. We should disgrace the virtues of the + Antonines by comparing them with the vices of Hercules or + Jupiter. Even the characters of Cæsar or Augustus were far + superior to those of the popular deities. But it was the + misfortune of the former to live in an enlightened age, and their + actions were too faithfully recorded to admit of such a mixture + of fable and mystery, as the devotion of the vulgar requires. As + soon as their divinity was established by law, it sunk into + oblivion, without contributing either to their own fame, or to + the dignity of succeeding princes. + + 21 (return) [ See a treatise of Vandale de Consecratione + Principium. It would be easier for me to copy, than it has been + to verify, the quotations of that learned Dutchman.] + + 211 (return) [ This is inaccurate. The successors of Alexander + were not the first deified sovereigns; the Egyptians had deified + and worshipped many of their kings; the Olympus of the Greeks was + peopled with divinities who had reigned on earth; finally, + Romulus himself had received the honors of an apotheosis (Tit. + Liv. i. 16) a long time before Alexander and his successors. It + is also an inaccuracy to confound the honors offered in the + provinces to the Roman governors, by temples and altars, with the + true apotheosis of the emperors; it was not a religious worship, + for it had neither priests nor sacrifices. Augustus was severely + blamed for having permitted himself to be worshipped as a god in + the provinces, (Tac. Ann. i. 10: ) he would not have incurred + that blame if he had only done what the governors were accustomed + to do.—G. from W. M. Guizot has been guilty of a still greater + inaccuracy in confounding the deification of the living with the + apotheosis of the dead emperors. The nature of the king-worship + of Egypt is still very obscure; the hero-worship of the Greeks + very different from the adoration of the “præsens numen” in the + reigning sovereign.—M.] + + 22 (return) [ See a dissertation of the Abbé Mongault in the + first volume of the Academy of Inscriptions.] + + 23 (return) [ Jurandasque tuum per nomen ponimus aras, says + Horace to the emperor himself, and Horace was well acquainted + with the court of Augustus. Note: The good princes were not those + who alone obtained the honors of an apotheosis: it was conferred + on many tyrants. See an excellent treatise of Schæpflin, de + Consecratione Imperatorum Romanorum, in his Commentationes + historicæ et criticæ. Bale, 1741, p. 184.—W.] + + 231 (return) [ The curious satire in the works of Seneca, is the + strongest remonstrance of profaned religion.—M.] + + 24 (return) [ See Cicero in Philippic. i. 6. Julian in Cæsaribus. + Inque Deum templis jurabit Roma per umbras, is the indignant + expression of Lucan; but it is a patriotic rather than a devout + indignation.] + + In the consideration of the Imperial government, we have + frequently mentioned the artful founder, under his well-known + title of Augustus, which was not, however, conferred upon him + till the edifice was almost completed. The obscure name of + Octavianus he derived from a mean family, in the little town of + Aricia. 241 It was stained with the blood of the proscription; + and he was desirous, had it been possible, to erase all memory of + his former life. The illustrious surname of Cæsar he had assumed, + as the adopted son of the dictator: but he had too much good + sense, either to hope to be confounded, or to wish to be compared + with that extraordinary man. It was proposed in the senate to + dignify their minister with a new appellation; and after a + serious discussion, that of Augustus was chosen, among several + others, as being the most expressive of the character of peace + and sanctity, which he uniformly affected. 25 _Augustus_ was + therefore a personal, _Cæsar_ a family distinction. The former + should naturally have expired with the prince on whom it was + bestowed; and however the latter was diffused by adoption and + female alliance, Nero was the last prince who could allege any + hereditary claim to the honors of the Julian line. But, at the + time of his death, the practice of a century had inseparably + connected those appellations with the Imperial dignity, and they + have been preserved by a long succession of emperors, Romans, + Greeks, Franks, and Germans, from the fall of the republic to the + present time. A distinction was, however, soon introduced. The + sacred title of Augustus was always reserved for the monarch, + whilst the name of Cæsar was more freely communicated to his + relations; and, from the reign of Hadrian, at least, was + appropriated to the second person in the state, who was + considered as the presumptive heir of the empire. 251 + + 241 (return) [ Octavius was not of an obscure family, but of a + considerable one of the equestrian order. His father, C. + Octavius, who possessed great property, had been prætor, governor + of Macedonia, adorned with the title of Imperator, and was on the + point of becoming consul when he died. His mother Attia, was + daughter of M. Attius Balbus, who had also been prætor. M. + Anthony reproached Octavius with having been born in Aricia, + which, nevertheless, was a considerable municipal city: he was + vigorously refuted by Cicero. Philip. iii. c. 6.—W. Gibbon + probably meant that the family had but recently emerged into + notice.—M.] + + 25 (return) [ Dion. Cassius, l. liii. p. 710, with the curious + Annotations of Reimar.] + + 251 (return) [ The princes who by their birth or their adoption + belonged to the family of the Cæsars, took the name of Cæsar. + After the death of Nero, this name designated the Imperial + dignity itself, and afterwards the appointed successor. The time + at which it was employed in the latter sense, cannot be fixed + with certainty. Bach (Hist. Jurisprud. Rom. 304) affirms from + Tacitus, H. i. 15, and Suetonius, Galba, 17, that Galba conferred + on Piso Lucinianus the title of Cæsar, and from that time the + term had this meaning: but these two historians simply say that + he appointed Piso his successor, and do not mention the word + Cæsar. Aurelius Victor (in Traj. 348, ed. Artzen) says that + Hadrian first received this title on his adoption; but as the + adoption of Hadrian is still doubtful, and besides this, as + Trajan, on his death-bed, was not likely to have created a new + title for his successor, it is more probable that Ælius Verus was + the first who was called Cæsar when adopted by Hadrian. Spart. in + Ælio Vero, 102.—W.] + + + + + Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part + II. + + The tender respect of Augustus for a free constitution which he + had destroyed, can only be explained by an attentive + consideration of the character of that subtle tyrant. A cool + head, an unfeeling heart, and a cowardly disposition, prompted + him at the age of nineteen to assume the mask of hypocrisy, which + he never afterwards laid aside. With the same hand, and probably + with the same temper, he signed the proscription of Cicero, and + the pardon of Cinna. His virtues, and even his vices, were + artificial; and according to the various dictates of his + interest, he was at first the enemy, and at last the father, of + the Roman world. 26 When he framed the artful system of the + Imperial authority, his moderation was inspired by his fears. He + wished to deceive the people by an image of civil liberty, and + the armies by an image of civil government. + + 26 (return) [ As Octavianus advanced to the banquet of the + Cæsars, his color changed like that of the chameleon; pale at + first, then red, afterwards black, he at last assumed the mild + livery of Venus and the Graces, (Cæsars, p. 309.) This image, + employed by Julian in his ingenious fiction, is just and elegant; + but when he considers this change of character as real and + ascribes it to the power of philosophy, he does too much honor to + philosophy and to Octavianus.] + + I. The death of Cæsar was ever before his eyes. He had lavished + wealth and honors on his adherents; but the most favored friends + of his uncle were in the number of the conspirators. The fidelity + of the legions might defend his authority against open rebellion; + but their vigilance could not secure his person from the dagger + of a determined republican; and the Romans, who revered the + memory of Brutus, 27 would applaud the imitation of his virtue. + Cæsar had provoked his fate, as much as by the ostentation of his + power, as by his power itself. The consul or the tribune might + have reigned in peace. The title of king had armed the Romans + against his life. Augustus was sensible that mankind is governed + by names; nor was he deceived in his expectation, that the senate + and people would submit to slavery, provided they were + respectfully assured that they still enjoyed their ancient + freedom. A feeble senate and enervated people cheerfully + acquiesced in the pleasing illusion, as long as it was supported + by the virtue, or even by the prudence, of the successors of + Augustus. It was a motive of self-preservation, not a principle + of liberty, that animated the conspirators against Caligula, + Nero, and Domitian. They attacked the person of the tyrant, + without aiming their blow at the authority of the emperor. + + 27 (return) [ Two centuries after the establishment of monarchy, + the emperor Marcus Antoninus recommends the character of Brutus + as a perfect model of Roman virtue. * Note: In a very ingenious + essay, Gibbon has ventured to call in question the preeminent + virtue of Brutus. Misc Works, iv. 95.—M.] + + There appears, indeed, _one_ memorable occasion, in which the + senate, after seventy years of patience, made an ineffectual + attempt to re-assume its long-forgotten rights. When the throne + was vacant by the murder of Caligula, the consuls convoked that + assembly in the Capitol, condemned the memory of the Cæsars, gave + the watchword _liberty_ to the few cohorts who faintly adhered to + their standard, and during eight-and-forty hours acted as the + independent chiefs of a free commonwealth. But while they + deliberated, the prætorian guards had resolved. The stupid + Claudius, brother of Germanicus, was already in their camp, + invested with the Imperial purple, and prepared to support his + election by arms. The dream of liberty was at an end; and the + senate awoke to all the horrors of inevitable servitude. Deserted + by the people, and threatened by a military force, that feeble + assembly was compelled to ratify the choice of the prætorians, + and to embrace the benefit of an amnesty, which Claudius had the + prudence to offer, and the generosity to observe. 28 + + 28 (return) [ It is much to be regretted that we have lost the + part of Tacitus which treated of that transaction. We are forced + to content ourselves with the popular rumors of Josephus, and the + imperfect hints of Dion and Suetonius.] + + II. The insolence of the armies inspired Augustus with fears of a + still more alarming nature. The despair of the citizens could + only attempt, what the power of the soldiers was, at any time, + able to execute. How precarious was his own authority over men + whom he had taught to violate every social duty! He had heard + their seditious clamors; he dreaded their calmer moments of + reflection. One revolution had been purchased by immense rewards; + but a second revolution might double those rewards. The troops + professed the fondest attachment to the house of Cæsar; but the + attachments of the multitude are capricious and inconstant. + Augustus summoned to his aid whatever remained in those fierce + minds of Roman prejudices; enforced the rigor of discipline by + the sanction of law; and, interposing the majesty of the senate + between the emperor and the army, boldly claimed their + allegiance, as the first magistrate of the republic. + + During a long period of two hundred and twenty years from the + establishment of this artful system to the death of Commodus, the + dangers inherent to a military government were, in a great + measure, suspended. The soldiers were seldom roused to that fatal + sense of their own strength, and of the weakness of the civil + authority, which was, before and afterwards, productive of such + dreadful calamities. Caligula and Domitian were assassinated in + their palace by their own domestics: 281 the convulsions which + agitated Rome on the death of the former, were confined to the + walls of the city. But Nero involved the whole empire in his + ruin. In the space of eighteen months, four princes perished by + the sword; and the Roman world was shaken by the fury of the + contending armies. Excepting only this short, though violent + eruption of military license, the two centuries from Augustus 29 + to Commodus passed away unstained with civil blood, and + undisturbed by revolutions. The emperor was elected by _the + authority of the senate_, and _the consent of the soldiers_. 30 + The legions respected their oath of fidelity; and it requires a + minute inspection of the Roman annals to discover three + inconsiderable rebellions, which were all suppressed in a few + months, and without even the hazard of a battle. 31 + + 281 (return) [ Caligula perished by a conspiracy formed by the + officers of the prætorian troops, and Domitian would not, + perhaps, have been assassinated without the participation of the + two chiefs of that guard in his death.—W.] + + 29 (return) [ Augustus restored the ancient severity of + discipline. After the civil wars, he dropped the endearing name + of Fellow-Soldiers, and called them only Soldiers, (Sueton. in + August. c. 25.) See the use Tiberius made of the Senate in the + mutiny of the Pannonian legions, (Tacit. Annal. i.)] + + 30 (return) [ These words seem to have been the constitutional + language. See Tacit. Annal. xiii. 4. * Note: This panegyric on + the soldiery is rather too liberal. Claudius was obliged to + purchase their consent to his coronation: the presents which he + made, and those which the prætorians received on other occasions, + considerably embarrassed the finances. Moreover, this formidable + guard favored, in general, the cruelties of the tyrants. The + distant revolts were more frequent than Gibbon thinks: already, + under Tiberius, the legions of Germany would have seditiously + constrained Germanicus to assume the Imperial purple. On the + revolt of Claudius Civilis, under Vespasian, the legions of Gaul + murdered their general, and offered their assistance to the Gauls + who were in insurrection. Julius Sabinus made himself be + proclaimed emperor, &c. The wars, the merit, and the severe + discipline of Trajan, Hadrian, and the two Antonines, + established, for some time, a greater degree of subordination.—W] + + 31 (return) [ The first was Camillus Scribonianus, who took up + arms in Dalmatia against Claudius, and was deserted by his own + troops in five days, the second, L. Antonius, in Germany, who + rebelled against Domitian; and the third, Avidius Cassius, in the + reign of M. Antoninus. The two last reigned but a few months, and + were cut off by their own adherents. We may observe, that both + Camillus and Cassius colored their ambition with the design of + restoring the republic; a task, said Cassius peculiarly reserved + for his name and family.] + + In elective monarchies, the vacancy of the throne is a moment big + with danger and mischief. The Roman emperors, desirous to spare + the legions that interval of suspense, and the temptation of an + irregular choice, invested their designed successor with so large + a share of present power, as should enable him, after their + decease, to assume the remainder, without suffering the empire to + perceive the change of masters. Thus Augustus, after all his + fairer prospects had been snatched from him by untimely deaths, + rested his last hopes on Tiberius, obtained for his adopted son + the censorial and tribunitian powers, and dictated a law, by + which the future prince was invested with an authority equal to + his own, over the provinces and the armies. 32 Thus Vespasian + subdued the generous mind of his eldest son. Titus was adored by + the eastern legions, which, under his command, had recently + achieved the conquest of Judæa. His power was dreaded, and, as + his virtues were clouded by the intemperance of youth, his + designs were suspected. Instead of listening to such unworthy + suspicions, the prudent monarch associated Titus to the full + powers of the Imperial dignity; and the grateful son ever + approved himself the humble and faithful minister of so indulgent + a father. 33 + + 32 (return) [ Velleius Paterculus, l. ii. c. 121. Sueton. in + Tiber. c. 26.] + + 33 (return) [ Sueton. in Tit. c. 6. Plin. in Præfat. Hist. + Natur.] + + The good sense of Vespasian engaged him indeed to embrace every + measure that might confirm his recent and precarious elevation. + The military oath, and the fidelity of the troops, had been + consecrated, by the habits of a hundred years, to the name and + family of the Cæsars; and although that family had been continued + only by the fictitious rite of adoption, the Romans still + revered, in the person of Nero, the grandson of Germanicus, and + the lineal successor of Augustus. It was not without reluctance + and remorse, that the prætorian guards had been persuaded to + abandon the cause of the tyrant. 34 The rapid downfall of Galba, + Otho, and Vitellus, taught the armies to consider the emperors as + the creatures of _their_ will, and the instruments of _their_ + license. The birth of Vespasian was mean: his grandfather had + been a private soldier, his father a petty officer of the + revenue; 35 his own merit had raised him, in an advanced age, to + the empire; but his merit was rather useful than shining, and his + virtues were disgraced by a strict and even sordid parsimony. + Such a prince consulted his true interest by the association of a + son, whose more splendid and amiable character might turn the + public attention from the obscure origin, to the future glories, + of the Flavian house. Under the mild administration of Titus, the + Roman world enjoyed a transient felicity, and his beloved memory + served to protect, above fifteen years, the vices of his brother + Domitian. + + 34 (return) [ This idea is frequently and strongly inculcated by + Tacitus. See Hist. i. 5, 16, ii. 76.] + + 35 (return) [ The emperor Vespasian, with his usual good sense, + laughed at the genealogists, who deduced his family from Flavius, + the founder of Reate, (his native country,) and one of the + companions of Hercules Suet in Vespasian, c. 12.] + + Nerva had scarcely accepted the purple from the assassins of + Domitian, before he discovered that his feeble age was unable to + stem the torrent of public disorders, which had multiplied under + the long tyranny of his predecessor. His mild disposition was + respected by the good; but the degenerate Romans required a more + vigorous character, whose justice should strike terror into the + guilty. Though he had several relations, he fixed his choice on a + stranger. He adopted Trajan, then about forty years of age, and + who commanded a powerful army in the Lower Germany; and + immediately, by a decree of the senate, declared him his + colleague and successor in the empire. 36 It is sincerely to be + lamented, that whilst we are fatigued with the disgustful + relation of Nero’s crimes and follies, we are reduced to collect + the actions of Trajan from the glimmerings of an abridgment, or + the doubtful light of a panegyric. There remains, however, one + panegyric far removed beyond the suspicion of flattery. Above two + hundred and fifty years after the death of Trajan, the senate, in + pouring out the customary acclamations on the accession of a new + emperor, wished that he might surpass the felicity of Augustus, + and the virtue of Trajan. 37 + + 36 (return) [ Dion, l. lxviii. p. 1121. Plin. Secund. in + Panegyric.] + + 37 (return) [ Felicior Augusto, Melior Trajano. Eutrop. viii. 5.] + + We may readily believe, that the father of his country hesitated + whether he ought to intrust the various and doubtful character of + his kinsman Hadrian with sovereign power. In his last moments the + arts of the empress Plotina either fixed the irresolution of + Trajan, or boldly supposed a fictitious adoption; 38 the truth of + which could not be safely disputed, and Hadrian was peaceably + acknowledged as his lawful successor. Under his reign, as has + been already mentioned, the empire flourished in peace and + prosperity. He encouraged the arts, reformed the laws, asserted + military discipline, and visited all his provinces in person. His + vast and active genius was equally suited to the most enlarged + views, and the minute details of civil policy. But the ruling + passions of his soul were curiosity and vanity. As they + prevailed, and as they were attracted by different objects, + Hadrian was, by turns, an excellent prince, a ridiculous sophist, + and a jealous tyrant. The general tenor of his conduct deserved + praise for its equity and moderation. Yet in the first days of + his reign, he put to death four consular senators, his personal + enemies, and men who had been judged worthy of empire; and the + tediousness of a painful illness rendered him, at last, peevish + and cruel. The senate doubted whether they should pronounce him a + god or a tyrant; and the honors decreed to his memory were + granted to the prayers of the pious Antoninus. 39 + + 38 (return) [ Dion (l. lxix. p. 1249) affirms the whole to have + been a fiction, on the authority of his father, who, being + governor of the province where Trajan died, had very good + opportunities of sifting this mysterious transaction. Yet Dodwell + (Prælect. Camden. xvii.) has maintained that Hadrian was called + to the certain hope of the empire, during the lifetime of + Trajan.] + + 39 (return) [ Dion, (l. lxx. p. 1171.) Aurel. Victor.] + + The caprice of Hadrian influenced his choice of a successor. + + After revolving in his mind several men of distinguished merit, + whom he esteemed and hated, he adopted Ælius Verus a gay and + voluptuous nobleman, recommended by uncommon beauty to the lover + of Antinous. 40 But whilst Hadrian was delighting himself with + his own applause, and the acclamations of the soldiers, whose + consent had been secured by an immense donative, the new Cæsar 41 + was ravished from his embraces by an untimely death. He left only + one son. Hadrian commended the boy to the gratitude of the + Antonines. He was adopted by Pius; and, on the accession of + Marcus, was invested with an equal share of sovereign power. + Among the many vices of this younger Verus, he possessed one + virtue; a dutiful reverence for his wiser colleague, to whom he + willingly abandoned the ruder cares of empire. The philosophic + emperor dissembled his follies, lamented his early death, and + cast a decent veil over his memory. + + 40 (return) [ The deification of Antinous, his medals, his + statues, temples, city, oracles, and constellation, are well + known, and still dishonor the memory of Hadrian. Yet we may + remark, that of the first fifteen emperors, Claudius was the only + one whose taste in love was entirely correct. For the honors of + Antinous, see Spanheim, Commentaire sui les Cæsars de Julien, p. + 80.] + + 41 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 13. Aurelius Victor in Epitom.] + + As soon as Hadrian’s passion was either gratified or + disappointed, he resolved to deserve the thanks of posterity, by + placing the most exalted merit on the Roman throne. His + discerning eye easily discovered a senator about fifty years of + age, blameless in all the offices of life; and a youth of about + seventeen, whose riper years opened a fair prospect of every + virtue: the elder of these was declared the son and successor of + Hadrian, on condition, however, that he himself should + immediately adopt the younger. The two Antonines (for it is of + them that we are now speaking,) governed the Roman world + forty-two years, with the same invariable spirit of wisdom and + virtue. Although Pius had two sons, 42 he preferred the welfare + of Rome to the interest of his family, gave his daughter + Faustina, in marriage to young Marcus, obtained from the senate + the tribunitian and proconsular powers, and, with a noble + disdain, or rather ignorance of jealousy, associated him to all + the labors of government. Marcus, on the other hand, revered the + character of his benefactor, loved him as a parent, obeyed him as + his sovereign, 43 and, after he was no more, regulated his own + administration by the example and maxims of his predecessor. + Their united reigns are possibly the only period of history in + which the happiness of a great people was the sole object of + government. + + 42 (return) [ Without the help of medals and inscriptions, we + should be ignorant of this fact, so honorable to the memory of + Pius. Note: Gibbon attributes to Antoninus Pius a merit which he + either did not possess, or was not in a situation to display. + + 1. He was adopted only on the condition that he would adopt, in + his turn, Marcus Aurelius and L. Verus. + + 2. His two sons died children, and one of them, M. Galerius, + alone, appears to have survived, for a few years, his father’s + coronation. Gibbon is also mistaken when he says (note 42) that + “without the help of medals and inscriptions, we should be + ignorant that Antoninus had two sons.” Capitolinus says + expressly, (c. 1,) Filii mares duo, duæ-fœminæ; we only owe + their names to the medals. Pagi. Cont. Baron, i. 33, edit + Paris.—W.] + + 43 (return) [ During the twenty-three years of Pius’s reign, + Marcus was only two nights absent from the palace, and even those + were at different times. Hist. August. p. 25.] + + Titus Antoninus Pius has been justly denominated a second Numa. + The same love of religion, justice, and peace, was the + distinguishing characteristic of both princes. But the situation + of the latter opened a much larger field for the exercise of + those virtues. Numa could only prevent a few neighboring villages + from plundering each other’s harvests. Antoninus diffused order + and tranquillity over the greatest part of the earth. His reign + is marked by the rare advantage of furnishing very few materials + for history; which is, indeed, little more than the register of + the crimes, follies, and misfortunes of mankind. In private life, + he was an amiable, as well as a good man. The native simplicity + of his virtue was a stranger to vanity or affectation. He enjoyed + with moderation the conveniences of his fortune, and the innocent + pleasures of society; 44 and the benevolence of his soul + displayed itself in a cheerful serenity of temper. + + 44 (return) [ He was fond of the theatre, and not insensible to + the charms of the fair sex. Marcus Antoninus, i. 16. Hist. + August. p. 20, 21. Julian in Cæsar.] + + The virtue of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was of severer and more + laborious kind. 45 It was the well-earned harvest of many a + learned conference, of many a patient lecture, and many a + midnight lucubration. At the age of twelve years he embraced the + rigid system of the Stoics, which taught him to submit his body + to his mind, his passions to his reason; to consider virtue as + the only good, vice as the only evil, all things external as + things indifferent. 46 His meditations, composed in the tumult of + the camp, are still extant; and he even condescended to give + lessons of philosophy, in a more public manner than was perhaps + consistent with the modesty of sage, or the dignity of an + emperor. 47 But his life was the noblest commentary on the + precepts of Zeno. He was severe to himself, indulgent to the + imperfections of others, just and beneficent to all mankind. He + regretted that Avidius Cassius, who excited a rebellion in Syria, + had disappointed him, by a voluntary death, 471 of the pleasure + of converting an enemy into a friend;; and he justified the + sincerity of that sentiment, by moderating the zeal of the senate + against the adherents of the traitor. 48 War he detested, as the + disgrace and calamity of human nature; 481 but when the necessity + of a just defence called upon him to take up arms, he readily + exposed his person to eight winter campaigns, on the frozen banks + of the Danube, the severity of which was at last fatal to the + weakness of his constitution. His memory was revered by a + grateful posterity, and above a century after his death, many + persons preserved the image of Marcus Antoninus among those of + their household gods. 49 + + 45 (return) [ The enemies of Marcus charged him with hypocrisy, + and with a want of that simplicity which distinguished Pius and + even Verus. (Hist. August. 6, 34.) This suspicions, unjust as it + was, may serve to account for the superior applause bestowed upon + personal qualifications, in preference to the social virtues. + Even Marcus Antoninus has been called a hypocrite; but the + wildest scepticism never insinuated that Cæsar might probably be + a coward, or Tully a fool. Wit and valor are qualifications more + easily ascertained than humanity or the love of justice.] + + 46 (return) [ Tacitus has characterized, in a few words, the + principles of the portico: Doctores sapientiæ secutus est, qui + sola bona quæ honesta, main tantum quæ turpia; potentiam, + nobilitatem, æteraque extra... bonis neque malis adnumerant. + Tacit. Hist. iv. 5.] + + 47 (return) [ Before he went on the second expedition against the + Germans, he read lectures of philosophy to the Roman people, + during three days. He had already done the same in the cities of + Greece and Asia. Hist. August. in Cassio, c. 3.] + + 471 (return) [ Cassius was murdered by his own partisans. Vulcat. + Gallic. in Cassio, c. 7. Dion, lxxi. c. 27.—W.] + + 48 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxi. p. 1190. Hist. August. in Avid. + Cassio. Note: See one of the newly discovered passages of Dion + Cassius. Marcus wrote to the senate, who urged the execution of + the partisans of Cassius, in these words: “I entreat and beseech + you to preserve my reign unstained by senatorial blood. None of + your order must perish either by your desire or mine.” Mai. + Fragm. Vatican. ii. p. 224.—M.] + + 481 (return) [ Marcus would not accept the services of any of the + barbarian allies who crowded to his standard in the war against + Avidius Cassius. “Barbarians,” he said, with wise but vain + sagacity, “must not become acquainted with the dissensions of the + Roman people.” Mai. Fragm Vatican l. 224.—M.] + + 49 (return) [ Hist. August. in Marc. Antonin. c. 18.] + + If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the + world, during which the condition of the human race was most + happy and prosperous, he would, without hesitation, name that + which elapsed from the death of Domitian to the accession of + Commodus. The vast extent of the Roman empire was governed by + absolute power, under the guidance of virtue and wisdom. The + armies were restrained by the firm but gentle hand of four + successive emperors, whose characters and authority commanded + involuntary respect. The forms of the civil administration were + carefully preserved by Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, + who delighted in the image of liberty, and were pleased with + considering themselves as the accountable ministers of the laws. + Such princes deserved the honor of restoring the republic, had + the Romans of their days been capable of enjoying a rational + freedom. + + The labors of these monarchs were overpaid by the immense reward + that inseparably waited on their success; by the honest pride of + virtue, and by the exquisite delight of beholding the general + happiness of which they were the authors. A just but melancholy + reflection imbittered, however, the noblest of human enjoyments. + They must often have recollected the instability of a happiness + which depended on the character of single man. The fatal moment + was perhaps approaching, when some licentious youth, or some + jealous tyrant, would abuse, to the destruction, that absolute + power, which they had exerted for the benefit of their people. + The ideal restraints of the senate and the laws might serve to + display the virtues, but could never correct the vices, of the + emperor. The military force was a blind and irresistible + instrument of oppression; and the corruption of Roman manners + would always supply flatterers eager to applaud, and ministers + prepared to serve, the fear or the avarice, the lust or the + cruelty, of their master. These gloomy apprehensions had been + already justified by the experience of the Romans. The annals of + the emperors exhibit a strong and various picture of human + nature, which we should vainly seek among the mixed and doubtful + characters of modern history. In the conduct of those monarchs we + may trace the utmost lines of vice and virtue; the most exalted + perfection, and the meanest degeneracy of our own species. The + golden age of Trajan and the Antonines had been preceded by an + age of iron. It is almost superfluous to enumerate the unworthy + successors of Augustus. Their unparalleled vices, and the + splendid theatre on which they were acted, have saved them from + oblivion. The dark, unrelenting Tiberius, the furious Caligula, + the feeble Claudius, the profligate and cruel Nero, the beastly + Vitellius, 50 and the timid, inhuman Domitian, are condemned to + everlasting infamy. During fourscore years (excepting only the + short and doubtful respite of Vespasian’s reign) 51 Rome groaned + beneath an unremitting tyranny, which exterminated the ancient + families of the republic, and was fatal to almost every virtue + and every talent that arose in that unhappy period. + + 50 (return) [ Vitellius consumed in mere eating at least six + millions of our money in about seven months. It is not easy to + express his vices with dignity, or even decency. Tacitus fairly + calls him a hog, but it is by substituting for a coarse word a + very fine image. “At Vitellius, umbraculis hortorum abditus, ut + ignava animalia, quibus si cibum suggeras, jacent torpentque, + præterita, instantia, futura, pari oblivione dimiserat. Atque + illum nemore Aricino desidem et marcentum,” &c. Tacit. Hist. iii. + 36, ii. 95. Sueton. in Vitell. c. 13. Dion. Cassius, l xv. p. + 1062.] + + 51 (return) [ The execution of Helvidius Priscus, and of the + virtuous Eponina, disgraced the reign of Vespasian.] + + Under the reign of these monsters, the slavery of the Romans was + accompanied with two peculiar circumstances, the one occasioned + by their former liberty, the other by their extensive conquests, + which rendered their condition more completely wretched than that + of the victims of tyranny in any other age or country. From these + causes were derived, 1. The exquisite sensibility of the + sufferers; and, 2. The impossibility of escaping from the hand of + the oppressor. + + I. When Persia was governed by the descendants of Sefi, a race of + princes whose wanton cruelty often stained their divan, their + table, and their bed, with the blood of their favorites, there is + a saying recorded of a young nobleman, that he never departed + from the sultan’s presence, without satisfying himself whether + his head was still on his shoulders. The experience of every day + might almost justify the scepticism of Rustan. 52 Yet the fatal + sword, suspended above him by a single thread, seems not to have + disturbed the slumbers, or interrupted the tranquillity, of the + Persian. The monarch’s frown, he well knew, could level him with + the dust; but the stroke of lightning or apoplexy might be + equally fatal; and it was the part of a wise man to forget the + inevitable calamities of human life in the enjoyment of the + fleeting hour. He was dignified with the appellation of the + king’s slave; had, perhaps, been purchased from obscure parents, + in a country which he had never known; and was trained up from + his infancy in the severe discipline of the seraglio. 53 His + name, his wealth, his honors, were the gift of a master, who + might, without injustice, resume what he had bestowed. Rustan’s + knowledge, if he possessed any, could only serve to confirm his + habits by prejudices. His language afforded not words for any + form of government, except absolute monarchy. The history of the + East informed him, that such had ever been the condition of + mankind. 54 The Koran, and the interpreters of that divine book, + inculcated to him, that the sultan was the descendant of the + prophet, and the vicegerent of heaven; that patience was the + first virtue of a Mussulman, and unlimited obedience the great + duty of a subject. + + 52 (return) [ Voyage de Chardin en Perse, vol. iii. p. 293.] + + 53 (return) [ The practice of raising slaves to the great offices + of state is still more common among the Turks than among the + Persians. The miserable countries of Georgia and Circassia supply + rulers to the greatest part of the East.] + + 54 (return) [ Chardin says, that European travellers have + diffused among the Persians some ideas of the freedom and + mildness of our governments. They have done them a very ill + office.] + + The minds of the Romans were very differently prepared for + slavery. Oppressed beneath the weight of their own corruption and + of military violence, they for a long while preserved the + sentiments, or at least the ideas, of their free-born ancestors. + The education of Helvidius and Thrasea, of Tacitus and Pliny, was + the same as that of Cato and Cicero. From Grecian philosophy, + they had imbibed the justest and most liberal notions of the + dignity of human nature, and the origin of civil society. The + history of their own country had taught them to revere a free, a + virtuous, and a victorious commonwealth; to abhor the successful + crimes of Cæsar and Augustus; and inwardly to despise those + tyrants whom they adored with the most abject flattery. As + magistrates and senators they were admitted into the great + council, which had once dictated laws to the earth, whose + authority was so often prostituted to the vilest purposes of + tyranny. Tiberius, and those emperors who adopted his maxims, + attempted to disguise their murders by the formalities of + justice, and perhaps enjoyed a secret pleasure in rendering the + senate their accomplice as well as their victim. By this + assembly, the last of the Romans were condemned for imaginary + crimes and real virtues. Their infamous accusers assumed the + language of independent patriots, who arraigned a dangerous + citizen before the tribunal of his country; and the public + service was rewarded by riches and honors. 55 The servile judges + professed to assert the majesty of the commonwealth, violated in + the person of its first magistrate, 56 whose clemency they most + applauded when they trembled the most at his inexorable and + impending cruelty. 57 The tyrant beheld their baseness with just + contempt, and encountered their secret sentiments of detestation + with sincere and avowed hatred for the whole body of the senate. + + 55 (return) [ They alleged the example of Scipio and Cato, + (Tacit. Annal. iii. 66.) Marcellus Epirus and Crispus Vibius had + acquired two millions and a half under Nero. Their wealth, which + aggravated their crimes, protected them under Vespasian. See + Tacit. Hist. iv. 43. Dialog. de Orator. c. 8. For one accusation, + Regulus, the just object of Pliny’s satire, received from the + senate the consular ornaments, and a present of sixty thousand + pounds.] + + 56 (return) [ The crime of majesty was formerly a treasonable + offence against the Roman people. As tribunes of the people, + Augustus and Tiberius applied tit to their own persons, and + extended it to an infinite latitude. Note: It was Tiberius, not + Augustus, who first took in this sense the words crimen læsæ + majestatis. Bachii Trajanus, 27. —W.] + + 57 (return) [ After the virtuous and unfortunate widow of + Germanicus had been put to death, Tiberius received the thanks of + the senate for his clemency. she had not been publicly strangled; + nor was the body drawn with a hook to the Gemoniæ, where those of + common male factors were exposed. See Tacit. Annal. vi. 25. + Sueton. in Tiberio c. 53.] + + II. The division of Europe into a number of independent states, + connected, however, with each other by the general resemblance of + religion, language, and manners, is productive of the most + beneficial consequences to the liberty of mankind. A modern + tyrant, who should find no resistance either in his own breast, + or in his people, would soon experience a gentle restraint from + the example of his equals, the dread of present censure, the + advice of his allies, and the apprehension of his enemies. The + object of his displeasure, escaping from the narrow limits of his + dominions, would easily obtain, in a happier climate, a secure + refuge, a new fortune adequate to his merit, the freedom of + complaint, and perhaps the means of revenge. But the empire of + the Romans filled the world, and when the empire fell into the + hands of a single person, the world became a safe and dreary + prison for his enemies. The slave of Imperial despotism, whether + he was condemned to drag his gilded chain in rome and the senate, + or to were out a life of exile on the barren rock of Seriphus, or + the frozen bank of the Danube, expected his fate in silent + despair. 58 To resist was fatal, and it was impossible to fly. On + every side he was encompassed with a vast extent of sea and land, + which he could never hope to traverse without being discovered, + seized, and restored to his irritated master. Beyond the + frontiers, his anxious view could discover nothing, except the + ocean, inhospitable deserts, hostile tribes of barbarians, of + fierce manners and unknown language, or dependent kings, who + would gladly purchase the emperor’s protection by the sacrifice + of an obnoxious fugitive. 59 “Wherever you are,” said Cicero to + the exiled Marcellus, “remember that you are equally within the + power of the conqueror.” 60 + + 58 (return) [ Seriphus was a small rocky island in the Ægean Sea, + the inhabitants of which were despised for their ignorance and + obscurity. The place of Ovid’s exile is well known, by his just, + but unmanly lamentations. It should seem, that he only received + an order to leave rome in so many days, and to transport himself + to Tomi. Guards and jailers were unnecessary.] + + 59 (return) [ Under Tiberius, a Roman knight attempted to fly to + the Parthians. He was stopped in the straits of Sicily; but so + little danger did there appear in the example, that the most + jealous of tyrants disdained to punish it. Tacit. Annal. vi. 14.] + + 60 (return) [ Cicero ad Familiares, iv. 7.] + + + + + Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.—Part I. + + The Cruelty, Follies, And Murder Of Commodus—Election Of + Pertinax—His Attempts To Reform The State—His Assassination By The + Prætorian Guards. + + The mildness of Marcus, which the rigid discipline of the Stoics + was unable to eradicate, formed, at the same time, the most + amiable, and the only defective part of his character. His + excellent understanding was often deceived by the unsuspecting + goodness of his heart. Artful men, who study the passions of + princes, and conceal their own, approached his person in the + disguise of philosophic sanctity, and acquired riches and honors + by affecting to despise them. 1 His excessive indulgence to his + brother, 105 his wife, and his son, exceeded the bounds of + private virtue, and became a public injury, by the example and + consequences of their vices. + + 1 (return) [ See the complaints of Avidius Cassius, Hist. August. + p. 45. These are, it is true, the complaints of faction; but even + faction exaggerates, rather than invents.] + + 105 (return) [ His brother by adoption, and his colleague, L. + Verus. Marcus Aurelius had no other brother.—W.] + + Faustina, the daughter of Pius and the wife of Marcus, has been + as much celebrated for her gallantries as for her beauty. The + grave simplicity of the philosopher was ill calculated to engage + her wanton levity, or to fix that unbounded passion for variety, + which often discovered personal merit in the meanest of mankind. + 2 The Cupid of the ancients was, in general, a very sensual + deity; and the amours of an empress, as they exact on her side + the plainest advances, are seldom susceptible of much sentimental + delicacy. Marcus was the only man in the empire who seemed + ignorant or insensible of the irregularities of Faustina; which, + according to the prejudices of every age, reflected some disgrace + on the injured husband. He promoted several of her lovers to + posts of honor and profit, 3 and during a connection of thirty + years, invariably gave her proofs of the most tender confidence, + and of a respect which ended not with her life. In his + Meditations, he thanks the gods, who had bestowed on him a wife + so faithful, so gentle, and of such a wonderful simplicity of + manners. 4 The obsequious senate, at his earnest request, + declared her a goddess. She was represented in her temples, with + the attributes of Juno, Venus, and Ceres; and it was decreed, + that, on the day of their nuptials, the youth of either sex + should pay their vows before the altar of their chaste patroness. + 5 + + 2 (return) [ Faustinam satis constat apud Cajetam conditiones + sibi et nauticas et gladiatorias, elegisse. Hist. August. p. 30. + Lampridius explains the sort of merit which Faustina chose, and + the conditions which she exacted. Hist. August. p. 102.] + + 3 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 34.] + + 4 (return) [ Meditat. l. i. The world has laughed at the + credulity of Marcus but Madam Dacier assures us, (and we may + credit a lady,) that the husband will always be deceived, if the + wife condescends to dissemble.] + + 5 (return) [Footnote 5: Dion Cassius, l. lxxi. [c. 31,] p. 1195. + Hist. August. p. 33. Commentaire de Spanheim sur les Cæsars de + Julien, p. 289. The deification of Faustina is the only defect + which Julian’s criticism is able to discover in the + all-accomplished character of Marcus.] + + The monstrous vices of the son have cast a shade on the purity of + the father’s virtues. It has been objected to Marcus, that he + sacrificed the happiness of millions to a fond partiality for a + worthless boy; and that he chose a successor in his own family, + rather than in the republic. Nothing however, was neglected by + the anxious father, and by the men of virtue and learning whom he + summoned to his assistance, to expand the narrow mind of young + Commodus, to correct his growing vices, and to render him worthy + of the throne for which he was designed. But the power of + instruction is seldom of much efficacy, except in those happy + dispositions where it is almost superfluous. The distasteful + lesson of a grave philosopher was, in a moment, obliterated by + the whisper of a profligate favorite; and Marcus himself blasted + the fruits of this labored education, by admitting his son, at + the age of fourteen or fifteen, to a full participation of the + Imperial power. He lived but four years afterwards: but he lived + long enough to repent a rash measure, which raised the impetuous + youth above the restraint of reason and authority. + + Most of the crimes which disturb the internal peace of society, + are produced by the restraints which the necessary but unequal + laws of property have imposed on the appetites of mankind, by + confining to a few the possession of those objects that are + coveted by many. Of all our passions and appetites, the love of + power is of the most imperious and unsociable nature, since the + pride of one man requires the submission of the multitude. In the + tumult of civil discord, the laws of society lose their force, + and their place is seldom supplied by those of humanity. The + ardor of contention, the pride of victory, the despair of + success, the memory of past injuries, and the fear of future + dangers, all contribute to inflame the mind, and to silence the + voice of pity. From such motives almost every page of history has + been stained with civil blood; but these motives will not account + for the unprovoked cruelties of Commodus, who had nothing to wish + and every thing to enjoy. The beloved son of Marcus succeeded to + his father, amidst the acclamations of the senate and armies; 6 + and when he ascended the throne, the happy youth saw round him + neither competitor to remove, nor enemies to punish. In this + calm, elevated station, it was surely natural that he should + prefer the love of mankind to their detestation, the mild glories + of his five predecessors to the ignominious fate of Nero and + Domitian. + + 6 (return) [ Commodus was the first _Porphyrogenitus_, (born + since his father’s accession to the throne.) By a new strain of + flattery, the Egyptian medals date by the years of his life; as + if they were synonymous to those of his reign. Tillemont, Hist. + des Empereurs, tom. ii. p. 752.] + + Yet Commodus was not, as he has been represented, a tiger born + with an insatiate thirst of human blood, and capable, from his + infancy, of the most inhuman actions. 7 Nature had formed him of + a weak rather than a wicked disposition. His simplicity and + timidity rendered him the slave of his attendants, who gradually + corrupted his mind. His cruelty, which at first obeyed the + dictates of others, degenerated into habit, and at length became + the ruling passion of his soul. 8 + + 7 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 46.] + + 8 (return) [ Dion Cassius, l. lxxii. p. 1203.] + + Upon the death of his father, Commodus found himself embarrassed + with the command of a great army, and the conduct of a difficult + war against the Quadi and Marcomanni. 9 The servile and + profligate youths whom Marcus had banished, soon regained their + station and influence about the new emperor. They exaggerated the + hardships and dangers of a campaign in the wild countries beyond + the Danube; and they assured the indolent prince that the terror + of his name, and the arms of his lieutenants, would be sufficient + to complete the conquest of the dismayed barbarians, or to impose + such conditions as were more advantageous than any conquest. By a + dexterous application to his sensual appetites, they compared the + tranquillity, the splendor, the refined pleasures of Rome, with + the tumult of a Pannonian camp, which afforded neither leisure + nor materials for luxury. 10 Commodus listened to the pleasing + advice; but whilst he hesitated between his own inclination and + the awe which he still retained for his father’s counsellors, the + summer insensibly elapsed, and his triumphal entry into the + capital was deferred till the autumn. His graceful person, 11 + popular address, and imagined virtues, attracted the public + favor; the honorable peace which he had recently granted to the + barbarians, diffused a universal joy; 12 his impatience to + revisit Rome was fondly ascribed to the love of his country; and + his dissolute course of amusements was faintly condemned in a + prince of nineteen years of age. + + 9 (return) [ According to Tertullian, (Apolog. c. 25,) he died at + Sirmium. But the situation of Vindobona, or Vienna, where both + the Victors place his death, is better adapted to the operations + of the war against the Marcomanni and Quadi.] + + 10 (return) [ Herodian, l. i. p. 12.] + + 11 (return) [ Herodian, l. i. p. 16.] + + 12 (return) [ This universal joy is well described (from the + medals as well as historians) by Mr. Wotton, Hist. of Rome, p. + 192, 193.] During the three first years of his reign, the forms, + and even the spirit, of the old administration, were maintained + by those faithful counsellors, to whom Marcus had recommended his + son, and for whose wisdom and integrity Commodus still + entertained a reluctant esteem. The young prince and his + profligate favorites revelled in all the license of sovereign + power; but his hands were yet unstained with blood; and he had + even displayed a generosity of sentiment, which might perhaps + have ripened into solid virtue. 13 A fatal incident decided his + fluctuating character. + + 13 (return) [ Manilius, the confidential secretary of Avidius + Cassius, was discovered after he had lain concealed several + years. The emperor nobly relieved the public anxiety by refusing + to see him, and burning his papers without opening them. Dion + Cassius, l. lxxii. p. 1209.] + + One evening, as the emperor was returning to the palace, through + a dark and narrow portico in the amphitheatre, 14 an assassin, + who waited his passage, rushed upon him with a drawn sword, + loudly exclaiming, “_The senate sends you this_.” The menace + prevented the deed; the assassin was seized by the guards, and + immediately revealed the authors of the conspiracy. It had been + formed, not in the state, but within the walls of the palace. + Lucilla, the emperor’s sister, and widow of Lucius Verus, + impatient of the second rank, and jealous of the reigning + empress, had armed the murderer against her brother’s life. She + had not ventured to communicate the black design to her second + husband, Claudius Pompeiarus, a senator of distinguished merit + and unshaken loyalty; but among the crowd of her lovers (for she + imitated the manners of Faustina) she found men of desperate + fortunes and wild ambition, who were prepared to serve her more + violent, as well as her tender passions. The conspirators + experienced the rigor of justice, and the abandoned princess was + punished, first with exile, and afterwards with death. 15 + + 14 (return) [See Maffei degli Amphitheatri, p. 126.] + + 15 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxi. p. 1205 Herodian, l. i. p. 16 Hist. + August p. 46.] + + But the words of the assassin sunk deep into the mind of + Commodus, and left an indelible impression of fear and hatred + against the whole body of the senate. 151 Those whom he had + dreaded as importunate ministers, he now suspected as secret + enemies. The Delators, a race of men discouraged, and almost + extinguished, under the former reigns, again became formidable, + as soon as they discovered that the emperor was desirous of + finding disaffection and treason in the senate. That assembly, + whom Marcus had ever considered as the great council of the + nation, was composed of the most distinguished of the Romans; and + distinction of every kind soon became criminal. The possession of + wealth stimulated the diligence of the informers; rigid virtue + implied a tacit censure of the irregularities of Commodus; + important services implied a dangerous superiority of merit; and + the friendship of the father always insured the aversion of the + son. Suspicion was equivalent to proof; trial to condemnation. + The execution of a considerable senator was attended with the + death of all who might lament or revenge his fate; and when + Commodus had once tasted human blood, he became incapable of pity + or remorse. + + 151 (return) [ The conspirators were senators, even the assassin + himself. Herod. 81.—G.] + + Of these innocent victims of tyranny, none died more lamented + than the two brothers of the Quintilian family, Maximus and + Condianus; whose fraternal love has saved their names from + oblivion, and endeared their memory to posterity. Their studies + and their occupations, their pursuits and their pleasures, were + still the same. In the enjoyment of a great estate, they never + admitted the idea of a separate interest: some fragments are now + extant of a treatise which they composed in common; 152 and in + every action of life it was observed that their two bodies were + animated by one soul. The Antonines, who valued their virtues, + and delighted in their union, raised them, in the same year, to + the consulship; and Marcus afterwards intrusted to their joint + care the civil administration of Greece, and a great military + command, in which they obtained a signal victory over the + Germans. The kind cruelty of Commodus united them in death. 16 + + 152 (return) [ This work was on agriculture, and is often quoted + by later writers. See P. Needham, Proleg. ad Geoponic. Camb. + 1704.—W.] + + 16 (return) [ In a note upon the Augustan History, Casaubon has + collected a number of particulars concerning these celebrated + brothers. See p. 96 of his learned commentary.] + + The tyrant’s rage, after having shed the noblest blood of the + senate, at length recoiled on the principal instrument of his + cruelty. Whilst Commodus was immersed in blood and luxury, he + devolved the detail of the public business on Perennis, a servile + and ambitious minister, who had obtained his post by the murder + of his predecessor, but who possessed a considerable share of + vigor and ability. By acts of extortion, and the forfeited + estates of the nobles sacrificed to his avarice, he had + accumulated an immense treasure. The Prætorian guards were under + his immediate command; and his son, who already discovered a + military genius, was at the head of the Illyrian legions. + Perennis aspired to the empire; or what, in the eyes of Commodus, + amounted to the same crime, he was capable of aspiring to it, had + he not been prevented, surprised, and put to death. The fall of a + minister is a very trifling incident in the general history of + the empire; but it was hastened by an extraordinary circumstance, + which proved how much the nerves of discipline were already + relaxed. The legions of Britain, discontented with the + administration of Perennis, formed a deputation of fifteen + hundred select men, with instructions to march to Rome, and lay + their complaints before the emperor. These military petitioners, + by their own determined behaviour, by inflaming the divisions of + the guards, by exaggerating the strength of the British army, and + by alarming the fears of Commodus, exacted and obtained the + minister’s death, as the only redress of their grievances. 17 + This presumption of a distant army, and their discovery of the + weakness of government, was a sure presage of the most dreadful + convulsions. + + 17 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxii. p. 1210. Herodian, l. i. p. 22. + Hist. August. p. 48. Dion gives a much less odious character of + Perennis, than the other historians. His moderation is almost a + pledge of his veracity. Note: Gibbon praises Dion for the + moderation with which he speaks of Perennis: he follows, + nevertheless, in his own narrative, Herodian and Lampridius. Dion + speaks of Perennis not only with moderation, but with admiration; + he represents him as a great man, virtuous in his life, and + blameless in his death: perhaps he may be suspected of + partiality; but it is singular that Gibbon, having adopted, from + Herodian and Lampridius, their judgment on this minister, follows + Dion’s improbable account of his death. What likelihood, in fact, + that fifteen hundred men should have traversed Gaul and Italy, + and have arrived at Rome without any understanding with the + Prætorians, or without detection or opposition from Perennis, the + Prætorian præfect? Gibbon, foreseeing, perhaps, this difficulty, + has added, that the military deputation inflamed the divisions of + the guards; but Dion says expressly that they did not reach Rome, + but that the emperor went out to meet them: he even reproaches + him for not having opposed them with the guards, who were + superior in number. Herodian relates that Commodus, having + learned, from a soldier, the ambitious designs of Perennis and + his son, caused them to be attacked and massacred by night.—G. + from W. Dion’s narrative is remarkably circumstantial, and his + authority higher than either of the other writers. He hints that + Cleander, a new favorite, had already undermined the influence of + Perennis.—M.] + + The negligence of the public administration was betrayed, soon + afterwards, by a new disorder, which arose from the smallest + beginnings. A spirit of desertion began to prevail among the + troops: and the deserters, instead of seeking their safety in + flight or concealment, infested the highways. Maternus, a private + soldier, of a daring boldness above his station, collected these + bands of robbers into a little army, set open the prisons, + invited the slaves to assert their freedom, and plundered with + impunity the rich and defenceless cities of Gaul and Spain. The + governors of the provinces, who had long been the spectators, and + perhaps the partners, of his depredations, were, at length, + roused from their supine indolence by the threatening commands of + the emperor. Maternus found that he was encompassed, and foresaw + that he must be overpowered. A great effort of despair was his + last resource. He ordered his followers to disperse, to pass the + Alps in small parties and various disguises, and to assemble at + Rome, during the licentious tumult of the festival of Cybele. 18 + To murder Commodus, and to ascend the vacant throne, was the + ambition of no vulgar robber. His measures were so ably concerted + that his concealed troops already filled the streets of Rome. The + envy of an accomplice discovered and ruined this singular + enterprise, in a moment when it was ripe for execution. 19 + + 18 (return) [ During the second Punic war, the Romans imported + from Asia the worship of the mother of the gods. Her festival, + the Megalesia, began on the fourth of April, and lasted six days. + The streets were crowded with mad processions, the theatres with + spectators, and the public tables with unbidden guests. Order and + police were suspended, and pleasure was the only serious business + of the city. See Ovid. de Fastis, l. iv. 189, &c.] + + 19 (return) [ Herodian, l. i. p. 23, 23.] + + Suspicious princes often promote the last of mankind, from a vain + persuasion, that those who have no dependence, except on their + favor, will have no attachment, except to the person of their + benefactor. Cleander, the successor of Perennis, was a Phrygian + by birth; of a nation over whose stubborn, but servile temper, + blows only could prevail. 20 He had been sent from his native + country to Rome, in the capacity of a slave. As a slave he + entered the Imperial palace, rendered himself useful to his + master’s passions, and rapidly ascended to the most exalted + station which a subject could enjoy. His influence over the mind + of Commodus was much greater than that of his predecessor; for + Cleander was devoid of any ability or virtue which could inspire + the emperor with envy or distrust. Avarice was the reigning + passion of his soul, and the great principle of his + administration. The rank of Consul, of Patrician, of Senator, was + exposed to public sale; and it would have been considered as + disaffection, if any one had refused to purchase these empty and + disgraceful honors with the greatest part of his fortune. 21 In + the lucrative provincial employments, the minister shared with + the governor the spoils of the people. The execution of the laws + was penal and arbitrary. A wealthy criminal might obtain, not + only the reversal of the sentence by which he was justly + condemned, but might likewise inflict whatever punishment he + pleased on the accuser, the witnesses, and the judge. + + 20 (return) [ Cicero pro Flacco, c. 27.] + + 21 (return) [ One of these dear-bought promotions occasioned a + current... that Julius Solon was banished into the senate.] + + By these means, Cleander, in the space of three years, had + accumulated more wealth than had ever yet been possessed by any + freedman. 22 Commodus was perfectly satisfied with the + magnificent presents which the artful courtier laid at his feet + in the most seasonable moments. To divert the public envy, + Cleander, under the emperor’s name, erected baths, porticos, and + places of exercise, for the use of the people. 23 He flattered + himself that the Romans, dazzled and amused by this apparent + liberality, would be less affected by the bloody scenes which + were daily exhibited; that they would forget the death of + Byrrhus, a senator to whose superior merit the late emperor had + granted one of his daughters; and that they would forgive the + execution of Arrius Antoninus, the last representative of the + name and virtues of the Antonines. The former, with more + integrity than prudence, had attempted to disclose, to his + brother-in-law, the true character of Cleander. An equitable + sentence pronounced by the latter, when proconsul of Asia, + against a worthless creature of the favorite, proved fatal to + him. 24 After the fall of Perennis, the terrors of Commodus had, + for a short time, assumed the appearance of a return to virtue. + He repealed the most odious of his acts; loaded his memory with + the public execration, and ascribed to the pernicious counsels of + that wicked minister all the errors of his inexperienced youth. + But his repentance lasted only thirty days; and, under Cleander’s + tyranny, the administration of Perennis was often regretted. + + 22 (return) [ Dion (l. lxxii. p. 12, 13) observes, that no + freedman had possessed riches equal to those of Cleander. The + fortune of Pallas amounted, however, to upwards of five and + twenty hundred thousand pounds; Ter millies.] + + 23 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxii. p. 12, 13. Herodian, l. i. p. 29. + Hist. August. p. 52. These baths were situated near the Porta + Capena. See Nardini Roma Antica, p. 79.] + + 24 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 79.] + + + + + Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.—Part II. + + Pestilence and famine contributed to fill up the measure of the + calamities of Rome. 25 The first could be only imputed to the + just indignation of the gods; but a monopoly of corn, supported + by the riches and power of the minister, was considered as the + immediate cause of the second. The popular discontent, after it + had long circulated in whispers, broke out in the assembled + circus. The people quitted their favorite amusements for the more + delicious pleasure of revenge, rushed in crowds towards a palace + in the suburbs, one of the emperor’s retirements, and demanded, + with angry clamors, the head of the public enemy. Cleander, who + commanded the Prætorian guards, 26 ordered a body of cavalry to + sally forth, and disperse the seditious multitude. The multitude + fled with precipitation towards the city; several were slain, and + many more were trampled to death; but when the cavalry entered + the streets, their pursuit was checked by a shower of stones and + darts from the roofs and windows of the houses. The foot guards, + 27 who had been long jealous of the prerogatives and insolence of + the Prætorian cavalry, embraced the party of the people. The + tumult became a regular engagement, and threatened a general + massacre. The Prætorians, at length, gave way, oppressed with + numbers; and the tide of popular fury returned with redoubled + violence against the gates of the palace, where Commodus lay, + dissolved in luxury, and alone unconscious of the civil war. It + was death to approach his person with the unwelcome news. He + would have perished in this supine security, had not two women, + his eldest sister Fadilla, and Marcia, the most favored of his + concubines, ventured to break into his presence. Bathed in tears, + and with dishevelled hair, they threw themselves at his feet; and + with all the pressing eloquence of fear, discovered to the + affrighted emperor the crimes of the minister, the rage of the + people, and the impending ruin, which, in a few minutes, would + burst over his palace and person. Commodus started from his dream + of pleasure, and commanded that the head of Cleander should be + thrown out to the people. The desired spectacle instantly + appeased the tumult; and the son of Marcus might even yet have + regained the affection and confidence of his subjects. 28 + + 25 (return) [ Herodian, l. i. p. 28. Dion, l. lxxii. p. 1215. The + latter says that two thousand persons died every day at Rome, + during a considerable length of time.] + + 26 (return) [ Tuneque primum tres præfecti prætorio fuere: inter + quos libertinus. From some remains of modesty, Cleander declined + the title, whilst he assumed the powers, of Prætorian præfect. As + the other freedmen were styled, from their several departments, a + rationibus, ab epistolis, Cleander called himself a pugione, as + intrusted with the defence of his master’s person. Salmasius and + Casaubon seem to have talked very idly upon this passage. * Note: + M. Guizot denies that Lampridius means Cleander as præfect a + pugione. The Libertinus seems to me to mean him.—M.] + + 27 (return) [ Herodian, l. i. p. 31. It is doubtful whether he + means the Prætorian infantry, or the cohortes urbanæ, a body of + six thousand men, but whose rank and discipline were not equal to + their numbers. Neither Tillemont nor Wotton choose to decide this + question.] + + 28 (return) [ Dion Cassius, l. lxxii. p. 1215. Herodian, l. i. p. + 32. Hist. August. p. 48.] + + But every sentiment of virtue and humanity was extinct in the + mind of Commodus. Whilst he thus abandoned the reins of empire to + these unworthy favorites, he valued nothing in sovereign power, + except the unbounded license of indulging his sensual appetites. + His hours were spent in a seraglio of three hundred beautiful + women, and as many boys, of every rank, and of every province; + and, wherever the arts of seduction proved ineffectual, the + brutal lover had recourse to violence. The ancient historians 29 + have expatiated on these abandoned scenes of prostitution, which + scorned every restraint of nature or modesty; but it would not be + easy to translate their too faithful descriptions into the + decency of modern language. The intervals of lust were filled up + with the basest amusements. The influence of a polite age, and + the labor of an attentive education, had never been able to + infuse into his rude and brutish mind the least tincture of + learning; and he was the first of the Roman emperors totally + devoid of taste for the pleasures of the understanding. Nero + himself excelled, or affected to excel, in the elegant arts of + music and poetry: nor should we despise his pursuits, had he not + converted the pleasing relaxation of a leisure hour into the + serious business and ambition of his life. But Commodus, from his + earliest infancy, discovered an aversion to whatever was rational + or liberal, and a fond attachment to the amusements of the + populace; the sports of the circus and amphitheatre, the combats + of gladiators, and the hunting of wild beasts. The masters in + every branch of learning, whom Marcus provided for his son, were + heard with inattention and disgust; whilst the Moors and + Parthians, who taught him to dart the javelin and to shoot with + the bow, found a disciple who delighted in his application, and + soon equalled the most skilful of his instructors in the + steadiness of the eye and the dexterity of the hand. + + 29 (return) [ Sororibus suis constupratis. Ipsas concubinas suas + sub oculis...stuprari jubebat. Nec irruentium in se juvenum + carebat infamia, omni parte corporis atque ore in sexum utrumque + pollutus. Hist. Aug. p. 47.] + + The servile crowd, whose fortune depended on their master’s + vices, applauded these ignoble pursuits. The perfidious voice of + flattery reminded him, that by exploits of the same nature, by + the defeat of the Nemæan lion, and the slaughter of the wild boar + of Erymanthus, the Grecian Hercules had acquired a place among + the gods, and an immortal memory among men. They only forgot to + observe, that, in the first ages of society, when the fiercer + animals often dispute with man the possession of an unsettled + country, a successful war against those savages is one of the + most innocent and beneficial labors of heroism. In the civilized + state of the Roman empire, the wild beasts had long since retired + from the face of man, and the neighborhood of populous cities. To + surprise them in their solitary haunts, and to transport them to + Rome, that they might be slain in pomp by the hand of an emperor, + was an enterprise equally ridiculous for the prince and + oppressive for the people. 30 Ignorant of these distinctions, + Commodus eagerly embraced the glorious resemblance, and styled + himself (as we still read on his medals31) the _Roman Hercules_. + 311 The club and the lion’s hide were placed by the side of the + throne, amongst the ensigns of sovereignty; and statues were + erected, in which Commodus was represented in the character, and + with the attributes, of the god, whose valor and dexterity he + endeavored to emulate in the daily course of his ferocious + amusements. 32 + + 30 (return) [ The African lions, when pressed by hunger, infested + the open villages and cultivated country; and they infested them + with impunity. The royal beast was reserved for the pleasures of + the emperor and the capital; and the unfortunate peasant who + killed one of them though in his own defence, incurred a very + heavy penalty. This extraordinary game-law was mitigated by + Honorius, and finally repealed by Justinian. Codex Theodos. tom. + v. p. 92, et Comment Gothofred.] + + 31 (return) [ Spanheim de Numismat. Dissertat. xii. tom. ii. p. + 493.] + + 311 (return) [ Commodus placed his own head on the colossal + statue of Hercules with the inscription, Lucius Commodus + Hercules. The wits of Rome, according to a new fragment of Dion, + published an epigram, of which, like many other ancient jests, + the point is not very clear. It seems to be a protest of the god + against being confounded with the emperor. Mai Fragm. Vatican. + ii. 225.—M.] + + 32 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxii. p. 1216. Hist. August. p. 49.] + + Elated with these praises, which gradually extinguished the + innate sense of shame, Commodus resolved to exhibit before the + eyes of the Roman people those exercises, which till then he had + decently confined within the walls of his palace, and to the + presence of a few favorites. On the appointed day, the various + motives of flattery, fear, and curiosity, attracted to the + amphitheatre an innumerable multitude of spectators; and some + degree of applause was deservedly bestowed on the uncommon skill + of the Imperial performer. Whether he aimed at the head or heart + of the animal, the wound was alike certain and mortal. With + arrows whose point was shaped into the form of crescent, Commodus + often intercepted the rapid career, and cut asunder the long, + bony neck of the ostrich. 33 A panther was let loose; and the + archer waited till he had leaped upon a trembling malefactor. In + the same instant the shaft flew, the beast dropped dead, and the + man remained unhurt. The dens of the amphitheatre disgorged at + once a hundred lions: a hundred darts from the unerring hand of + Commodus laid them dead as they run raging round the _Arena_. + Neither the huge bulk of the elephant, nor the scaly hide of the + rhinoceros, could defend them from his stroke. Æthiopia and India + yielded their most extraordinary productions; and several animals + were slain in the amphitheatre, which had been seen only in the + representations of art, or perhaps of fancy. 34 In all these + exhibitions, the securest precautions were used to protect the + person of the Roman Hercules from the desperate spring of any + savage, who might possibly disregard the dignity of the emperor + and the sanctity of the god. 35 + + 33 (return) [ The ostrich’s neck is three feet long, and composed + of seventeen vertebræ. See Buffon, Hist. Naturelle.] + + 34 (return) [ Commodus killed a camelopardalis or Giraffe, (Dion, + l. lxxii. p. 1211,) the tallest, the most gentle, and the most + useless of the large quadrupeds. This singular animal, a native + only of the interior parts of Africa, has not been seen in Europe + since the revival of letters; and though M. de Buffon (Hist. + Naturelle, tom. xiii.) has endeavored to describe, he has not + ventured to delineate, the Giraffe. * Note: The naturalists of + our days have been more fortunate. London probably now contains + more specimens of this animal than have been seen in Europe since + the fall of the Roman empire, unless in the pleasure gardens of + the emperor Frederic II., in Sicily, which possessed several. + Frederic’s collections of wild beasts were exhibited, for the + popular amusement, in many parts of Italy. Raumer, Geschichte der + Hohenstaufen, v. iii. p. 571. Gibbon, moreover, is mistaken; as a + giraffe was presented to Lorenzo de Medici, either by the sultan + of Egypt or the king of Tunis. Contemporary authorities are + quoted in the old work, Gesner de Quadrupedibum p. 162.—M.] + + 35 (return) [ Herodian, l. i. p. 37. Hist. August. p. 50.] + + But the meanest of the populace were affected with shame and + indignation when they beheld their sovereign enter the lists as a + gladiator, and glory in a profession which the laws and manners + of the Romans had branded with the justest note of infamy. 36 He + chose the habit and arms of the _Secutor_, whose combat with the + _Retiarius_ formed one of the most lively scenes in the bloody + sports of the amphitheatre. The _Secutor_ was armed with a + helmet, sword, and buckler; his naked antagonist had only a large + net and a trident; with the one he endeavored to entangle, with + the other to despatch his enemy. If he missed the first throw, he + was obliged to fly from the pursuit of the _Secutor_, till he had + prepared his net for a second cast. 37 The emperor fought in this + character seven hundred and thirty-five several times. These + glorious achievements were carefully recorded in the public acts + of the empire; and that he might omit no circumstance of infamy, + he received from the common fund of gladiators a stipend so + exorbitant that it became a new and most ignominious tax upon the + Roman people. 38 It may be easily supposed, that in these + engagements the master of the world was always successful; in the + amphitheatre, his victories were not often sanguinary; but when + he exercised his skill in the school of gladiators, or his own + palace, his wretched antagonists were frequently honored with a + mortal wound from the hand of Commodus, and obliged to seal their + flattery with their blood. 39 He now disdained the appellation of + Hercules. The name of Paulus, a celebrated Secutor, was the only + one which delighted his ear. It was inscribed on his colossal + statues, and repeated in the redoubled acclamations 40 of the + mournful and applauding senate. 41 Claudius Pompeianus, the + virtuous husband of Lucilla, was the only senator who asserted + the honor of his rank. As a father, he permitted his sons to + consult their safety by attending the amphitheatre. As a Roman, + he declared, that his own life was in the emperor’s hands, but + that he would never behold the son of Marcus prostituting his + person and dignity. Notwithstanding his manly resolution + Pompeianus escaped the resentment of the tyrant, and, with his + honor, had the good fortune to preserve his life. 42 + + 36 (return) [ The virtuous and even the wise princes forbade the + senators and knights to embrace this scandalous profession, under + pain of infamy, or, what was more dreaded by those profligate + wretches, of exile. The tyrants allured them to dishonor by + threats and rewards. Nero once produced in the arena forty + senators and sixty knights. See Lipsius, Saturnalia, l. ii. c. 2. + He has happily corrected a passage of Suetonius in Nerone, c. + 12.] + + 37 (return) [ Lipsius, l. ii. c. 7, 8. Juvenal, in the eighth + satire, gives a picturesque description of this combat.] + + 38 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 50. Dion, l. lxxii. p. 1220. He + received, for each time, decies, about 8000l. sterling.] + + 39 (return) [ Victor tells us, that Commodus only allowed his + antagonists a...weapon, dreading most probably the consequences + of their despair.] + + 40 (return) [Footnote 40: They were obliged to repeat, six + hundred and twenty-six times, Paolus first of the Secutors, &c.] + + 41 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxii. p. 1221. He speaks of his own + baseness and danger.] + + 42 (return) [ He mixed, however, some prudence with his courage, + and passed the greatest part of his time in a country retirement; + alleging his advanced age, and the weakness of his eyes. “I never + saw him in the senate,” says Dion, “except during the short reign + of Pertinax.” All his infirmities had suddenly left him, and they + returned as suddenly upon the murder of that excellent prince. + Dion, l. lxxiii. p. 1227.] + + Commodus had now attained the summit of vice and infamy. Amidst + the acclamations of a flattering court, he was unable to disguise + from himself, that he had deserved the contempt and hatred of + every man of sense and virtue in his empire. His ferocious spirit + was irritated by the consciousness of that hatred, by the envy of + every kind of merit, by the just apprehension of danger, and by + the habit of slaughter, which he contracted in his daily + amusements. History has preserved a long list of consular + senators sacrificed to his wanton suspicion, which sought out, + with peculiar anxiety, those unfortunate persons connected, + however remotely, with the family of the Antonines, without + sparing even the ministers of his crimes or pleasures. 43 His + cruelty proved at last fatal to himself. He had shed with + impunity the noblest blood of Rome: he perished as soon as he was + dreaded by his own domestics. Marcia, his favorite concubine, + Eclectus, his chamberlain, and Lætus, his Prætorian præfect, + alarmed by the fate of their companions and predecessors, + resolved to prevent the destruction which every hour hung over + their heads, either from the mad caprice of the tyrant, 431 or + the sudden indignation of the people. Marcia seized the occasion + of presenting a draught of wine to her lover, after he had + fatigued himself with hunting some wild beasts. Commodus retired + to sleep; but whilst he was laboring with the effects of poison + and drunkenness, a robust youth, by profession a wrestler, + entered his chamber, and strangled him without resistance. The + body was secretly conveyed out of the palace, before the least + suspicion was entertained in the city, or even in the court, of + the emperor’s death. Such was the fate of the son of Marcus, and + so easy was it to destroy a hated tyrant, who, by the artificial + powers of government, had oppressed, during thirteen years, so + many millions of subjects, each of whom was equal to their master + in personal strength and personal abilities. 44 + + 43 (return) [ The prefects were changed almost hourly or daily; + and the caprice of Commodus was often fatal to his most favored + chamberlains. Hist. August. p. 46, 51.] + + 431 (return) [ Commodus had already resolved to massacre them the + following night they determined o anticipate his design. Herod. + i. 17.—W.] + + 44 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxii. p. 1222. Herodian, l. i. p. 43. + Hist. August. p. 52.] + + The measures of the conspirators were conducted with the + deliberate coolness and celerity which the greatness of the + occasion required. They resolved instantly to fill the vacant + throne with an emperor whose character would justify and maintain + the action that had been committed. They fixed on Pertinax, + præfect of the city, an ancient senator of consular rank, whose + conspicuous merit had broke through the obscurity of his birth, + and raised him to the first honors of the state. He had + successively governed most of the provinces of the empire; and in + all his great employments, military as well as civil, he had + uniformly distinguished himself by the firmness, the prudence, + and the integrity of his conduct. 45 He now remained almost alone + of the friends and ministers of Marcus; and when, at a late hour + of the night, he was awakened with the news, that the chamberlain + and the præfect were at his door, he received them with intrepid + resignation, and desired they would execute their master’s + orders. Instead of death, they offered him the throne of the + Roman world. During some moments he distrusted their intentions + and assurances. Convinced at length of the death of Commodus, he + accepted the purple with a sincere reluctance, the natural effect + of his knowledge both of the duties and of the dangers of the + supreme rank. 46 + + 45 (return) [ Pertinax was a native of Alba Pompeia, in Piedmont, + and son of a timber merchant. The order of his employments (it is + marked by Capitolinus) well deserves to be set down, as + expressive of the form of government and manners of the age. 1. + He was a centurion. 2. Præfect of a cohort in Syria, in the + Parthian war, and in Britain. 3. He obtained an Ala, or squadron + of horse, in Mæsia. 4. He was commissary of provisions on the + Æmilian way. 5. He commanded the fleet upon the Rhine. 6. He was + procurator of Dacia, with a salary of about 1600l. a year. 7. He + commanded the veterans of a legion. 8. He obtained the rank of + senator. 9. Of prætor. 10. With the command of the first legion + in Rhætia and Noricum. 11. He was consul about the year 175. 12. + He attended Marcus into the East. 13. He commanded an army on the + Danube. 14. He was consular legate of Mæsia. 15. Of Dacia. 16. Of + Syria. 17. Of Britain. 18. He had the care of the public + provisions at Rome. 19. He was proconsul of Africa. 20. Præfect + of the city. Herodian (l. i. p. 48) does justice to his + disinterested spirit; but Capitolinus, who collected every + popular rumor, charges him with a great fortune acquired by + bribery and corruption.] + + 46 (return) [ Julian, in the Cæsars, taxes him with being + accessory to the death of Commodus.] + + Lætus conducted without delay his new emperor to the camp of the + Prætorians, diffusing at the same time through the city a + seasonable report that Commodus died suddenly of an apoplexy; and + that the virtuous Pertinax had _already_ succeeded to the throne. + The guards were rather surprised than pleased with the suspicious + death of a prince, whose indulgence and liberality they alone had + experienced; but the emergency of the occasion, the authority of + their præfect, the reputation of Pertinax, and the clamors of the + people, obliged them to stifle their secret discontents, to + accept the donative promised by the new emperor, to swear + allegiance to him, and with joyful acclamations and laurels in + their hands to conduct him to the senate house, that the military + consent might be ratified by the civil authority. This important + night was now far spent; with the dawn of day, and the + commencement of the new year, the senators expected a summons to + attend an ignominious ceremony. 461 In spite of all + remonstrances, even of those of his creatures who yet preserved + any regard for prudence or decency, Commodus had resolved to pass + the night in the gladiators’ school, and from thence to take + possession of the consulship, in the habit and with the + attendance of that infamous crew. On a sudden, before the break + of day, the senate was called together in the temple of Concord, + to meet the guards, and to ratify the election of a new emperor. + For a few minutes they sat in silent suspense, doubtful of their + unexpected deliverance, and suspicious of the cruel artifices of + Commodus: but when at length they were assured that the tyrant + was no more, they resigned themselves to all the transports of + joy and indignation. Pertinax, who modestly represented the + meanness of his extraction, and pointed out several noble + senators more deserving than himself of the empire, was + constrained by their dutiful violence to ascend the throne, and + received all the titles of Imperial power, confirmed by the most + sincere vows of fidelity. The memory of Commodus was branded with + eternal infamy. The names of tyrant, of gladiator, of public + enemy resounded in every corner of the house. They decreed in + tumultuous votes, 462 that his honors should be reversed, his + titles erased from the public monuments, his statues thrown down, + his body dragged with a hook into the stripping room of the + gladiators, to satiate the public fury; and they expressed some + indignation against those officious servants who had already + presumed to screen his remains from the justice of the senate. + But Pertinax could not refuse those last rites to the memory of + Marcus, and the tears of his first protector Claudius Pompeianus, + who lamented the cruel fate of his brother-in-law, and lamented + still more that he had deserved it. 47 + + 461 (return) [ The senate always assembled at the beginning of + the year, on the night of the 1st January, (see Savaron on Sid. + Apoll. viii. 6,) and this happened the present year, as usual, + without any particular order.—G from W.] + + 462 (return) [ What Gibbon improperly calls, both here and in the + note, tumultuous decrees, were no more than the applauses and + acclamations which recur so often in the history of the emperors. + The custom passed from the theatre to the forum, from the forum + to the senate. Applauses on the adoption of the Imperial decrees + were first introduced under Trajan. (Plin. jun. Panegyr. 75.) One + senator read the form of the decree, and all the rest answered by + acclamations, accompanied with a kind of chant or rhythm. These + were some of the acclamations addressed to Pertinax, and against + the memory of Commodus. Hosti patriæ honores detrahantur. + Parricidæ honores detrahantur. Ut salvi simus, Jupiter, optime, + maxime, serva nobis Pertinacem. This custom prevailed not only in + the councils of state, but in all the meetings of the senate. + However inconsistent it may appear with the solemnity of a + religious assembly, the early Christians adopted and introduced + it into their synods, notwithstanding the opposition of some of + the Fathers, particularly of St. Chrysostom. See the Coll. of + Franc. Bern. Ferrarius de veterum acclamatione in Grævii Thesaur. + Antiq. Rom. i. 6.—W. This note is rather hypercritical, as + regards Gibbon, but appears to be worthy of preservation.—M.] + + 47 (return) [ Capitolinus gives us the particulars of these + tumultuary votes, which were moved by one senator, and repeated, + or rather chanted by the whole body. Hist. August. p. 52.] + + These effusions of impotent rage against a dead emperor, whom the + senate had flattered when alive with the most abject servility, + betrayed a just but ungenerous spirit of revenge. + + The legality of these decrees was, however, supported by the + principles of the Imperial constitution. To censure, to depose, + or to punish with death, the first magistrate of the republic, + who had abused his delegated trust, was the ancient and undoubted + prerogative of the Roman senate; 48 but the feeble assembly was + obliged to content itself with inflicting on a fallen tyrant that + public justice, from which, during his life and reign, he had + been shielded by the strong arm of military despotism. 481 + + 48 (return) [ The senate condemned Nero to be put to death more + majorum. Sueton. c. 49.] + + 481 (return) [ No particular law assigned this right to the + senate: it was deduced from the ancient principles of the + republic. Gibbon appears to infer, from the passage of Suetonius, + that the senate, according to its ancient right, punished Nero + with death. The words, however, more majerum refer not to the + decree of the senate, but to the kind of death, which was taken + from an old law of Romulus. (See Victor. Epit. Ed. Artzen p. 484, + n. 7.)—W.] + + Pertinax found a nobler way of condemning his predecessor’s + memory; by the contrast of his own virtues with the vices of + Commodus. On the day of his accession, he resigned over to his + wife and son his whole private fortune; that they might have no + pretence to solicit favors at the expense of the state. He + refused to flatter the vanity of the former with the title of + Augusta; or to corrupt the inexperienced youth of the latter by + the rank of Cæsar. Accurately distinguishing between the duties + of a parent and those of a sovereign, he educated his son with a + severe simplicity, which, while it gave him no assured prospect + of the throne, might in time have rendered him worthy of it. In + public, the behavior of Pertinax was grave and affable. He lived + with the virtuous part of the senate, (and, in a private station, + he had been acquainted with the true character of each + individual,) without either pride or jealousy; considered them as + friends and companions, with whom he had shared the danger of the + tyranny, and with whom he wished to enjoy the security of the + present time. He very frequently invited them to familiar + entertainments, the frugality of which was ridiculed by those who + remembered and regretted the luxurious prodigality of Commodus. + 49 + + 49 (return) [ Dion (l. lxxiii. p. 1223) speaks of these + entertainments, as a senator who had supped with the emperor; + Capitolinus, (Hist. August. p. 58,) like a slave, who had + received his intelligence from one the scullions.] + + To heal, as far as it was possible, the wounds inflicted by the + hand of tyranny, was the pleasing, but melancholy, task of + Pertinax. The innocent victims, who yet survived, were recalled + from exile, released from prison, and restored to the full + possession of their honors and fortunes. The unburied bodies of + murdered senators (for the cruelty of Commodus endeavored to + extend itself beyond death) were deposited in the sepulchres of + their ancestors; their memory was justified and every consolation + was bestowed on their ruined and afflicted families. Among these + consolations, one of the most grateful was the punishment of the + Delators; the common enemies of their master, of virtue, and of + their country. Yet even in the inquisition of these legal + assassins, Pertinax proceeded with a steady temper, which gave + every thing to justice, and nothing to popular prejudice and + resentment. + + The finances of the state demanded the most vigilant care of the + emperor. Though every measure of injustice and extortion had been + adopted, which could collect the property of the subject into the + coffers of the prince, the rapaciousness of Commodus had been so + very inadequate to his extravagance, that, upon his death, no + more than eight thousand pounds were found in the exhausted + treasury, 50 to defray the current expenses of government, and to + discharge the pressing demand of a liberal donative, which the + new emperor had been obliged to promise to the Prætorian guards. + Yet under these distressed circumstances, Pertinax had the + generous firmness to remit all the oppressive taxes invented by + Commodus, and to cancel all the unjust claims of the treasury; + declaring, in a decree of the senate, “that he was better + satisfied to administer a poor republic with innocence, than to + acquire riches by the ways of tyranny and dishonor.” Economy and + industry he considered as the pure and genuine sources of wealth; + and from them he soon derived a copious supply for the public + necessities. The expense of the household was immediately reduced + to one half. All the instruments of luxury Pertinax exposed to + public auction, 51 gold and silver plate, chariots of a singular + construction, a superfluous wardrobe of silk and embroidery, and + a great number of beautiful slaves of both sexes; excepting only, + with attentive humanity, those who were born in a state of + freedom, and had been ravished from the arms of their weeping + parents. At the same time that he obliged the worthless favorites + of the tyrant to resign a part of their ill-gotten wealth, he + satisfied the just creditors of the state, and unexpectedly + discharged the long arrears of honest services. He removed the + oppressive restrictions which had been laid upon commerce, and + granted all the uncultivated lands in Italy and the provinces to + those who would improve them; with an exemption from tribute + during the term of ten years. 52 + + 50 (return) [ Decies. The blameless economy of Pius left his + successors a treasure of vicies septies millies, above two and + twenty millions sterling. Dion, l. lxxiii. p. 1231.] + + 51 (return) [ Besides the design of converting these useless + ornaments into money, Dion (l. lxxiii. p. 1229) assigns two + secret motives of Pertinax. He wished to expose the vices of + Commodus, and to discover by the purchasers those who most + resembled him.] + + 52 (return) [ Though Capitolinus has picked up many idle tales of + the private life of Pertinax, he joins with Dion and Herodian in + admiring his public conduct.] + + Such a uniform conduct had already secured to Pertinax the + noblest reward of a sovereign, the love and esteem of his people. + + Those who remembered the virtues of Marcus were happy to + contemplate in their new emperor the features of that bright + original; and flattered themselves, that they should long enjoy + the benign influence of his administration. A hasty zeal to + reform the corrupted state, accompanied with less prudence than + might have been expected from the years and experience of + Pertinax, proved fatal to himself and to his country. His honest + indiscretion united against him the servile crowd, who found + their private benefit in the public disorders, and who preferred + the favor of a tyrant to the inexorable equality of the laws. 53 + + 53 (return) [ Leges, rem surdam, inexorabilem esse. T. Liv. ii. + 3.] + + Amidst the general joy, the sullen and angry countenance of the + Prætorian guards betrayed their inward dissatisfaction. They had + reluctantly submitted to Pertinax; they dreaded the strictness of + the ancient discipline, which he was preparing to restore; and + they regretted the license of the former reign. Their discontents + were secretly fomented by Lætus, their præfect, who found, when + it was too late, that his new emperor would reward a servant, but + would not be ruled by a favorite. On the third day of his reign, + the soldiers seized on a noble senator, with a design to carry + him to the camp, and to invest him with the Imperial purple. + Instead of being dazzled by the dangerous honor, the affrighted + victim escaped from their violence, and took refuge at the feet + of Pertinax. A short time afterwards, Sosius Falco, one of the + consuls of the year, a rash youth, 54 but of an ancient and + opulent family, listened to the voice of ambition; and a + conspiracy was formed during a short absence of Pertinax, which + was crushed by his sudden return to Rome, and his resolute + behavior. Falco was on the point of being justly condemned to + death as a public enemy had he not been saved by the earnest and + sincere entreaties of the injured emperor, who conjured the + senate, that the purity of his reign might not be stained by the + blood even of a guilty senator. + + 54 (return) [ If we credit Capitolinus, (which is rather + difficult,) Falco behaved with the most petulant indecency to + Pertinax, on the day of his accession. The wise emperor only + admonished him of his youth and in experience. Hist. August. p. + 55.] + + These disappointments served only to irritate the rage of the + Prætorian guards. On the twenty-eighth of March, eighty-six days + only after the death of Commodus, a general sedition broke out in + the camp, which the officers wanted either power or inclination + to suppress. Two or three hundred of the most desperate soldiers + marched at noonday, with arms in their hands and fury in their + looks, towards the Imperial palace. The gates were thrown open by + their companions upon guard, and by the domestics of the old + court, who had already formed a secret conspiracy against the + life of the too virtuous emperor. On the news of their approach, + Pertinax, disdaining either flight or concealment, advanced to + meet his assassins; and recalled to their minds his own + innocence, and the sanctity of their recent oath. For a few + moments they stood in silent suspense, ashamed of their atrocious + design, and awed by the venerable aspect and majestic firmness of + their sovereign, till at length, the despair of pardon reviving + their fury, a barbarian of the country of Tongress 55 levelled + the first blow against Pertinax, who was instantly despatched + with a multitude of wounds. His head, separated from his body, + and placed on a lance, was carried in triumph to the Prætorian + camp, in the sight of a mournful and indignant people, who + lamented the unworthy fate of that excellent prince, and the + transient blessings of a reign, the memory of which could serve + only to aggravate their approaching misfortunes. 56 + + 55 (return) [ The modern bishopric of Liege. This soldier + probably belonged to the Batavian horse-guards, who were mostly + raised in the duchy of Gueldres and the neighborhood, and were + distinguished by their valor, and by the boldness with which they + swam their horses across the broadest and most rapid rivers. + Tacit. Hist. iv. 12 Dion, l. lv p. 797 Lipsius de magnitudine + Romana, l. i. c. 4.] + + 56 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxiii. p. 1232. Herodian, l. ii. p. 60. + Hist. August. p. 58. Victor in Epitom. et in Cæsarib. Eutropius, + viii. 16.] + + + + + Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus.—Part I. + + Public Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus By The Prætorian + Guards—Clodius Albinus In Britain, Pescennius Niger In Syria, And + Septimius Severus In Pannonia, Declare Against The Murderers Of + Pertinax—Civil Wars And Victory Of Severus Over His Three + Rivals—Relaxation Of Discipline—New Maxims Of Government. + + The power of the sword is more sensibly felt in an extensive + monarchy, than in a small community. It has been calculated by + the ablest politicians, that no state, without being soon + exhausted, can maintain above the hundredth part of its members + in arms and idleness. But although this relative proportion may + be uniform, the influence of the army over the rest of the + society will vary according to the degree of its positive + strength. The advantages of military science and discipline + cannot be exerted, unless a proper number of soldiers are united + into one body, and actuated by one soul. With a handful of men, + such a union would be ineffectual; with an unwieldy host, it + would be impracticable; and the powers of the machine would be + alike destroyed by the extreme minuteness or the excessive weight + of its springs. To illustrate this observation, we need only + reflect, that there is no superiority of natural strength, + artificial weapons, or acquired skill, which could enable one man + to keep in constant subjection one hundred of his + fellow-creatures: the tyrant of a single town, or a small + district, would soon discover that a hundred armed followers were + a weak defence against ten thousand peasants or citizens; but a + hundred thousand well-disciplined soldiers will command, with + despotic sway, ten millions of subjects; and a body of ten or + fifteen thousand guards will strike terror into the most numerous + populace that ever crowded the streets of an immense capital. + + The Prætorian bands, whose licentious fury was the first symptom + and cause of the decline of the Roman empire, scarcely amounted + to the last-mentioned number. 1 They derived their institution + from Augustus. That crafty tyrant, sensible that laws might + color, but that arms alone could maintain, his usurped dominion, + had gradually formed this powerful body of guards, in constant + readiness to protect his person, to awe the senate, and either to + prevent or to crush the first motions of rebellion. He + distinguished these favored troops by a double pay and superior + privileges; but, as their formidable aspect would at once have + alarmed and irritated the Roman people, three cohorts only were + stationed in the capital, whilst the remainder was dispersed in + the adjacent towns of Italy. 2 But after fifty years of peace and + servitude, Tiberius ventured on a decisive measure, which forever + rivetted the fetters of his country. Under the fair pretences of + relieving Italy from the heavy burden of military quarters, and + of introducing a stricter discipline among the guards, he + assembled them at Rome, in a permanent camp, 3 which was + fortified with skilful care, 4 and placed on a commanding + situation. 5 + + 1 (return) [ They were originally nine or ten thousand men, (for + Tacitus and son are not agreed upon the subject,) divided into as + many cohorts. Vitellius increased them to sixteen thousand, and + as far as we can learn from inscriptions, they never afterwards + sunk much below that number. See Lipsius de magnitudine Romana, + i. 4.] + + 2 (return) [ Sueton. in August. c. 49.] + + 3 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. iv. 2. Sueton. in Tiber. c. 37. Dion + Cassius, l. lvii. p. 867.] + + 4 (return) [ In the civil war between Vitellius and Vespasian, + the Prætorian camp was attacked and defended with all the + machines used in the siege of the best fortified cities. Tacit. + Hist. iii. 84.] + + 5 (return) [ Close to the walls of the city, on the broad summit + of the Quirinal and Viminal hills. See Nardini Roma Antica, p. + 174. Donatus de Roma Antiqua, p. 46. * Note: Not on both these + hills: neither Donatus nor Nardini justify this position. + (Whitaker’s Review. p. 13.) At the northern extremity of this + hill (the Viminal) are some considerable remains of a walled + enclosure which bears all the appearance of a Roman camp, and + therefore is generally thought to correspond with the Castra + Prætoria. Cramer’s Italy 390.—M.] + + Such formidable servants are always necessary, but often fatal to + the throne of despotism. By thus introducing the Prætorian guards + as it were into the palace and the senate, the emperors taught + them to perceive their own strength, and the weakness of the + civil government; to view the vices of their masters with + familiar contempt, and to lay aside that reverential awe, which + distance only, and mystery, can preserve towards an imaginary + power. In the luxurious idleness of an opulent city, their pride + was nourished by the sense of their irresistible weight; nor was + it possible to conceal from them, that the person of the + sovereign, the authority of the senate, the public treasure, and + the seat of empire, were all in their hands. To divert the + Prætorian bands from these dangerous reflections, the firmest and + best established princes were obliged to mix blandishments with + commands, rewards with punishments, to flatter their pride, + indulge their pleasures, connive at their irregularities, and to + purchase their precarious faith by a liberal donative; which, + since the elevation of Claudius, was enacted as a legal claim, on + the accession of every new emperor. 6 + + 6 (return) [ Claudius, raised by the soldiers to the empire, was + the first who gave a donative. He gave quina dena, 120l. (Sueton. + in Claud. c. 10: ) when Marcus, with his colleague Lucius Versus, + took quiet possession of the throne, he gave vicena, 160l. to + each of the guards. Hist. August. p. 25, (Dion, l. lxxiii. p. + 1231.) We may form some idea of the amount of these sums, by + Hadrian’s complaint that the promotion of a Cæsar had cost him + ter millies, two millions and a half sterling.] + + The advocate of the guards endeavored to justify by arguments the + power which they asserted by arms; and to maintain that, + according to the purest principles of the constitution, _their_ + consent was essentially necessary in the appointment of an + emperor. The election of consuls, of generals, and of + magistrates, however it had been recently usurped by the senate, + was the ancient and undoubted right of the Roman people. 7 But + where was the Roman people to be found? Not surely amongst the + mixed multitude of slaves and strangers that filled the streets + of Rome; a servile populace, as devoid of spirit as destitute of + property. The defenders of the state, selected from the flower of + the Italian youth, 8 and trained in the exercise of arms and + virtue, were the genuine representatives of the people, and the + best entitled to elect the military chief of the republic. These + assertions, however defective in reason, became unanswerable when + the fierce Prætorians increased their weight, by throwing, like + the barbarian conqueror of Rome, their swords into the scale. 9 + + 7 (return) [ Cicero de Legibus, iii. 3. The first book of Livy, + and the second of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, show the authority + of the people, even in the election of the kings.] + + 8 (return) [ They were originally recruited in Latium, Etruria, + and the old colonies, (Tacit. Annal. iv. 5.) The emperor Otho + compliments their vanity with the flattering titles of Italiæ, + Alumni, Romana were juventus. Tacit. Hist. i. 84.] + + 9 (return) [ In the siege of Rome by the Gauls. See Livy, v. 48. + Plutarch. in Camill. p. 143.] + + The Prætorians had violated the sanctity of the throne by the + atrocious murder of Pertinax; they dishonored the majesty of it + by their subsequent conduct. The camp was without a leader, for + even the præfect Lætus, who had excited the tempest, prudently + declined the public indignation. Amidst the wild disorder, + Sulpicianus, the emperor’s father-in-law, and governor of the + city, who had been sent to the camp on the first alarm of mutiny, + was endeavoring to calm the fury of the multitude, when he was + silenced by the clamorous return of the murderers, bearing on a + lance the head of Pertinax. Though history has accustomed us to + observe every principle and every passion yielding to the + imperious dictates of ambition, it is scarcely credible that, in + these moments of horror, Sulpicianus should have aspired to + ascend a throne polluted with the recent blood of so near a + relation and so excellent a prince. He had already begun to use + the only effectual argument, and to treat for the Imperial + dignity; but the more prudent of the Prætorians, apprehensive + that, in this private contract, they should not obtain a just + price for so valuable a commodity, ran out upon the ramparts; + and, with a loud voice, proclaimed that the Roman world was to be + disposed of to the best bidder by public auction. 10 + + 10 (return) [ Dion, L. lxxiii. p. 1234. Herodian, l. ii. p. 63. + Hist. August p. 60. Though the three historians agree that it was + in fact an auction, Herodian alone affirms that it was proclaimed + as such by the soldiers.] + + This infamous offer, the most insolent excess of military + license, diffused a universal grief, shame, and indignation + throughout the city. It reached at length the ears of Didius + Julianus, a wealthy senator, who, regardless of the public + calamities, was indulging himself in the luxury of the table. 11 + His wife and his daughter, his freedmen and his parasites, easily + convinced him that he deserved the throne, and earnestly conjured + him to embrace so fortunate an opportunity. The vain old man + hastened to the Prætorian camp, where Sulpicianus was still in + treaty with the guards, and began to bid against him from the + foot of the rampart. The unworthy negotiation was transacted by + faithful emissaries, who passed alternately from one candidate to + the other, and acquainted each of them with the offers of his + rival. Sulpicianus had already promised a donative of five + thousand drachms (above one hundred and sixty pounds) to each + soldier; when Julian, eager for the prize, rose at once to the + sum of six thousand two hundred and fifty drachms, or upwards of + two hundred pounds sterling. The gates of the camp were instantly + thrown open to the purchaser; he was declared emperor, and + received an oath of allegiance from the soldiers, who retained + humanity enough to stipulate that he should pardon and forget the + competition of Sulpicianus. 111 + + 11 (return) [ Spartianus softens the most odious parts of the + character and elevation of Julian.] + + 111 (return) [ One of the principal causes of the preference of + Julianus by the soldiers, was the dexterty dexterity with which + he reminded them that Sulpicianus would not fail to revenge on + them the death of his son-in-law. (See Dion, p. 1234, 1234. c. + 11. Herod. ii. 6.)—W.] + + It was now incumbent on the Prætorians to fulfil the conditions + of the sale. They placed their new sovereign, whom they served + and despised, in the centre of their ranks, surrounded him on + every side with their shields, and conducted him in close order + of battle through the deserted streets of the city. The senate + was commanded to assemble; and those who had been the + distinguished friends of Pertinax, or the personal enemies of + Julian, found it necessary to affect a more than common share of + satisfaction at this happy revolution. 12 After Julian had filled + the senate house with armed soldiers, he expatiated on the + freedom of his election, his own eminent virtues, and his full + assurance of the affections of the senate. The obsequious + assembly congratulated their own and the public felicity; engaged + their allegiance, and conferred on him all the several branches + of the Imperial power. 13 From the senate Julian was conducted, + by the same military procession, to take possession of the + palace. The first objects that struck his eyes, were the + abandoned trunk of Pertinax, and the frugal entertainment + prepared for his supper. The one he viewed with indifference, the + other with contempt. A magnificent feast was prepared by his + order, and he amused himself, till a very late hour, with dice, + and the performances of Pylades, a celebrated dancer. Yet it was + observed, that after the crowd of flatterers dispersed, and left + him to darkness, solitude, and terrible reflection, he passed a + sleepless night; revolving most probably in his mind his own rash + folly, the fate of his virtuous predecessor, and the doubtful and + dangerous tenure of an empire which had not been acquired by + merit, but purchased by money. 14 + + 12 (return) [ Dion Cassius, at that time prætor, had been a + personal enemy to Julian, i. lxxiii. p. 1235.] + + 13 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 61. We learn from thence one + curious circumstance, that the new emperor, whatever had been his + birth, was immediately aggregated to the number of patrician + families. Note: A new fragment of Dion shows some shrewdness in + the character of Julian. When the senate voted him a golden + statue, he preferred one of brass, as more lasting. He “had + always observed,” he said, “that the statues of former emperors + were soon destroyed. Those of brass alone remained.” The + indignant historian adds that he was wrong. The virtue of + sovereigns alone preserves their images: the brazen statue of + Julian was broken to pieces at his death. Mai. Fragm. Vatican. p. + 226.—M.] + + 14 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxiii. p. 1235. Hist. August. p. 61. I + have endeavored to blend into one consistent story the seeming + contradictions of the two writers. * Note: The contradiction as + M. Guizot observed, is irreconcilable. He quotes both passages: + in one Julianus is represented as a miser, in the other as a + voluptuary. In the one he refuses to eat till the body of + Pertinax has been buried; in the other he gluts himself with + every luxury almost in the sight of his headless remains.—M.] + + He had reason to tremble. On the throne of the world he found + himself without a friend, and even without an adherent. The + guards themselves were ashamed of the prince whom their avarice + had persuaded them to accept; nor was there a citizen who did not + consider his elevation with horror, as the last insult on the + Roman name. The nobility, whose conspicuous station, and ample + possessions, exacted the strictest caution, dissembled their + sentiments, and met the affected civility of the emperor with + smiles of complacency and professions of duty. But the people, + secure in their numbers and obscurity, gave a free vent to their + passions. The streets and public places of Rome resounded with + clamors and imprecations. The enraged multitude affronted the + person of Julian, rejected his liberality, and, conscious of the + impotence of their own resentment, they called aloud on the + legions of the frontiers to assert the violated majesty of the + Roman empire. The public discontent was soon diffused from the + centre to the frontiers of the empire. The armies of Britain, of + Syria, and of Illyricum, lamented the death of Pertinax, in whose + company, or under whose command, they had so often fought and + conquered. They received with surprise, with indignation, and + perhaps with envy, the extraordinary intelligence, that the + Prætorians had disposed of the empire by public auction; and they + sternly refused to ratify the ignominious bargain. Their + immediate and unanimous revolt was fatal to Julian, but it was + fatal at the same time to the public peace, as the generals of + the respective armies, Clodius Albinus, Pescennius Niger, and + Septimius Severus, were still more anxious to succeed than to + revenge the murdered Pertinax. Their forces were exactly + balanced. Each of them was at the head of three legions, 15 with + a numerous train of auxiliaries; and however different in their + characters, they were all soldiers of experience and capacity. + + 15 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxiii. p. 1235.] + + Clodius Albinus, governor of Britain, surpassed both his + competitors in the nobility of his extraction, which he derived + from some of the most illustrious names of the old republic. 16 + But the branch from which he claimed his descent was sunk into + mean circumstances, and transplanted into a remote province. It + is difficult to form a just idea of his true character. Under the + philosophic cloak of austerity, he stands accused of concealing + most of the vices which degrade human nature. 17 But his accusers + are those venal writers who adored the fortune of Severus, and + trampled on the ashes of an unsuccessful rival. Virtue, or the + appearances of virtue, recommended Albinus to the confidence and + good opinion of Marcus; and his preserving with the son the same + interest which he had acquired with the father, is a proof at + least that he was possessed of a very flexible disposition. The + favor of a tyrant does not always suppose a want of merit in the + object of it; he may, without intending it, reward a man of worth + and ability, or he may find such a man useful to his own service. + It does not appear that Albinus served the son of Marcus, either + as the minister of his cruelties, or even as the associate of his + pleasures. He was employed in a distant honorable command, when + he received a confidential letter from the emperor, acquainting + him of the treasonable designs of some discontented generals, and + authorizing him to declare himself the guardian and successor of + the throne, by assuming the title and ensigns of Cæsar. 18 The + governor of Britain wisely declined the dangerous honor, which + would have marked him for the jealousy, or involved him in the + approaching ruin, of Commodus. He courted power by nobler, or, at + least, by more specious arts. On a premature report of the death + of the emperor, he assembled his troops; and, in an eloquent + discourse, deplored the inevitable mischiefs of despotism, + described the happiness and glory which their ancestors had + enjoyed under the consular government, and declared his firm + resolution to reinstate the senate and people in their legal + authority. This popular harangue was answered by the loud + acclamations of the British legions, and received at Rome with a + secret murmur of applause. Safe in the possession of his little + world, and in the command of an army less distinguished indeed + for discipline than for numbers and valor, 19 Albinus braved the + menaces of Commodus, maintained towards Pertinax a stately + ambiguous reserve, and instantly declared against the usurpation + of Julian. The convulsions of the capital added new weight to his + sentiments, or rather to his professions of patriotism. A regard + to decency induced him to decline the lofty titles of Augustus + and Emperor; and he imitated perhaps the example of Galba, who, + on a similar occasion, had styled himself the Lieutenant of the + senate and people. 20 + + 16 (return) [ The Posthumian and the Ce’onian; the former of whom + was raised to the consulship in the fifth year after its + institution.] + + 17 (return) [ Spartianus, in his undigested collections, mixes up + all the virtues and all the vices that enter into the human + composition, and bestows them on the same object. Such, indeed + are many of the characters in the Augustan History.] + + 18 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 80, 84.] + + 19 (return) [ Pertinax, who governed Britain a few years before, + had been left for dead, in a mutiny of the soldiers. Hist. + August. p 54. Yet they loved and regretted him; admirantibus eam + virtutem cui irascebantur.] + + 20 (return) [ Sueton. in Galb. c. 10.] + + Personal merit alone had raised Pescennius Niger, from an obscure + birth and station, to the government of Syria; a lucrative and + important command, which in times of civil confusion gave him a + near prospect of the throne. Yet his parts seem to have been + better suited to the second than to the first rank; he was an + unequal rival, though he might have approved himself an excellent + lieutenant, to Severus, who afterwards displayed the greatness of + his mind by adopting several useful institutions from a + vanquished enemy. 21 In his government Niger acquired the esteem + of the soldiers and the love of the provincials. His rigid + discipline fortified the valor and confirmed the obedience of the + former, whilst the voluptuous Syrians were less delighted with + the mild firmness of his administration, than with the affability + of his manners, and the apparent pleasure with which he attended + their frequent and pompous festivals. 22 As soon as the + intelligence of the atrocious murder of Pertinax had reached + Antioch, the wishes of Asia invited Niger to assume the Imperial + purple and revenge his death. The legions of the eastern frontier + embraced his cause; the opulent but unarmed provinces, from the + frontiers of Æthiopia 23 to the Hadriatic, cheerfully submitted + to his power; and the kings beyond the Tigris and the Euphrates + congratulated his election, and offered him their homage and + services. The mind of Niger was not capable of receiving this + sudden tide of fortune: he flattered himself that his accession + would be undisturbed by competition and unstained by civil blood; + and whilst he enjoyed the vain pomp of triumph, he neglected to + secure the means of victory. Instead of entering into an + effectual negotiation with the powerful armies of the West, whose + resolution might decide, or at least must balance, the mighty + contest; instead of advancing without delay towards Rome and + Italy, where his presence was impatiently expected, 24 Niger + trifled away in the luxury of Antioch those irretrievable moments + which were diligently improved by the decisive activity of + Severus. 25 + + 21 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 76.] + + 22 (return) [ Herod. l. ii. p. 68. The Chronicle of John Malala, + of Antioch, shows the zealous attachment of his countrymen to + these festivals, which at once gratified their superstition, and + their love of pleasure.] + + 23 (return) [ A king of Thebes, in Egypt, is mentioned, in the + Augustan History, as an ally, and, indeed, as a personal friend + of Niger. If Spartianus is not, as I strongly suspect, mistaken, + he has brought to light a dynasty of tributary princes totally + unknown to history.] + + 24 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxiii. p. 1238. Herod. l. ii. p. 67. A + verse in every one’s mouth at that time, seems to express the + general opinion of the three rivals; Optimus est _Niger_, + [_Fuscus_, which preserves the quantity.—M.] bonus _Afer_, + pessimus _Albus_. Hist. August. p. 75.] + + 25 (return) [ Herodian, l. ii. p. 71.] + + The country of Pannonia and Dalmatia, which occupied the space + between the Danube and the Hadriatic, was one of the last and + most difficult conquests of the Romans. In the defence of + national freedom, two hundred thousand of these barbarians had + once appeared in the field, alarmed the declining age of + Augustus, and exercised the vigilant prudence of Tiberius at the + head of the collected force of the empire. 26 The Pannonians + yielded at length to the arms and institutions of Rome. Their + recent subjection, however, the neighborhood, and even the + mixture, of the unconquered tribes, and perhaps the climate, + adapted, as it has been observed, to the production of great + bodies and slow minds, 27 all contributed to preserve some + remains of their original ferocity, and under the tame and + uniform countenance of Roman provincials, the hardy features of + the natives were still to be discerned. Their warlike youth + afforded an inexhaustible supply of recruits to the legions + stationed on the banks of the Danube, and which, from a perpetual + warfare against the Germans and Sarmazans, were deservedly + esteemed the best troops in the service. + + 26 (return) [ See an account of that memorable war in Velleius + Paterculus, is 110, &c., who served in the army of Tiberius.] + + 27 (return) [ Such is the reflection of Herodian, l. ii. p. 74. + Will the modern Austrians allow the influence?] + + The Pannonian army was at this time commanded by Septimius + Severus, a native of Africa, who, in the gradual ascent of + private honors, had concealed his daring ambition, which was + never diverted from its steady course by the allurements of + pleasure, the apprehension of danger, or the feelings of + humanity. 28 On the first news of the murder of Pertinax, he + assembled his troops, painted in the most lively colors the + crime, the insolence, and the weakness of the Prætorian guards, + and animated the legions to arms and to revenge. He concluded + (and the peroration was thought extremely eloquent) with + promising every soldier about four hundred pounds; an honorable + donative, double in value to the infamous bribe with which Julian + had purchased the empire. 29 The acclamations of the army + immediately saluted Severus with the names of Augustus, Pertinax, + and Emperor; and he thus attained the lofty station to which he + was invited, by conscious merit and a long train of dreams and + omens, the fruitful offsprings either of his superstition or + policy. 30 + + 28 (return) [ In the letter to Albinus, already mentioned, + Commodus accuses Severus, as one of the ambitious generals who + censured his conduct, and wished to occupy his place. Hist. + August. p. 80.] + + 29 (return) [ Pannonia was too poor to supply such a sum. It was + probably promised in the camp, and paid at Rome, after the + victory. In fixing the sum, I have adopted the conjecture of + Casaubon. See Hist. August. p. 66. Comment. p. 115.] + + 30 (return) [ Herodian, l. ii. p. 78. Severus was declared + emperor on the banks of the Danube, either at Carnuntum, + according to Spartianus, (Hist. August. p. 65,) or else at + Sabaria, according to Victor. Mr. Hume, in supposing that the + birth and dignity of Severus were too much inferior to the + Imperial crown, and that he marched into Italy as general only, + has not considered this transaction with his usual accuracy, + (Essay on the original contract.) * Note: Carnuntum, opposite to + the mouth of the Morava: its position is doubtful, either + Petronel or Haimburg. A little intermediate village seems to + indicate by its name (Altenburg) the site of an old town. + D’Anville Geogr. Anc. Sabaria, now Sarvar.—G. Compare note + 37.—M.] + + The new candidate for empire saw and improved the peculiar + advantage of his situation. His province extended to the Julian + Alps, which gave an easy access into Italy; and he remembered the + saying of Augustus, that a Pannonian army might in ten days + appear in sight of Rome. 31 By a celerity proportioned to the + greatness of the occasion, he might reasonably hope to revenge + Pertinax, punish Julian, and receive the homage of the senate and + people, as their lawful emperor, before his competitors, + separated from Italy by an immense tract of sea and land, were + apprised of his success, or even of his election. During the + whole expedition, he scarcely allowed himself any moments for + sleep or food; marching on foot, and in complete armor, at the + head of his columns, he insinuated himself into the confidence + and affection of his troops, pressed their diligence, revived + their spirits, animated their hopes, and was well satisfied to + share the hardships of the meanest soldier, whilst he kept in + view the infinite superiority of his reward. + + 31 (return) [ Velleius Paterculus, l. ii. c. 3. We must reckon + the march from the nearest verge of Pannonia, and extend the + sight of the city as far as two hundred miles.] + + The wretched Julian had expected, and thought himself prepared, + to dispute the empire with the governor of Syria; but in the + invincible and rapid approach of the Pannonian legions, he saw + his inevitable ruin. The hasty arrival of every messenger + increased his just apprehensions. He was successively informed, + that Severus had passed the Alps; that the Italian cities, + unwilling or unable to oppose his progress, had received him with + the warmest professions of joy and duty; that the important place + of Ravenna had surrendered without resistance, and that the + Hadriatic fleet was in the hands of the conqueror. The enemy was + now within two hundred and fifty miles of Rome; and every moment + diminished the narrow span of life and empire allotted to Julian. + + He attempted, however, to prevent, or at least to protract, his + ruin. He implored the venal faith of the Prætorians, filled the + city with unavailing preparations for war, drew lines round the + suburbs, and even strengthened the fortifications of the palace; + as if those last intrenchments could be defended, without hope of + relief, against a victorious invader. Fear and shame prevented + the guards from deserting his standard; but they trembled at the + name of the Pannonian legions, commanded by an experienced + general, and accustomed to vanquish the barbarians on the frozen + Danube. 32 They quitted, with a sigh, the pleasures of the baths + and theatres, to put on arms, whose use they had almost + forgotten, and beneath the weight of which they were oppressed. + The unpractised elephants, whose uncouth appearance, it was + hoped, would strike terror into the army of the north, threw + their unskilful riders; and the awkward evolutions of the + marines, drawn from the fleet of Misenum, were an object of + ridicule to the populace; whilst the senate enjoyed, with secret + pleasure, the distress and weakness of the usurper. 33 + + 32 (return) [ This is not a puerile figure of rhetoric, but an + allusion to a real fact recorded by Dion, l. lxxi. p. 1181. It + probably happened more than once.] + + 33 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxiii. p. 1233. Herodian, l. ii. p. 81. + There is no surer proof of the military skill of the Romans, than + their first surmounting the idle terror, and afterwards + disdaining the dangerous use, of elephants in war. Note: These + elephants were kept for processions, perhaps for the games. Se + Herod. in loc.—M.] + + Every motion of Julian betrayed his trembling perplexity. He + insisted that Severus should be declared a public enemy by the + senate. He entreated that the Pannonian general might be + associated to the empire. He sent public ambassadors of consular + rank to negotiate with his rival; he despatched private assassins + to take away his life. He designed that the Vestal virgins, and + all the colleges of priests, in their sacerdotal habits, and + bearing before them the sacred pledges of the Roman religion, + should advance in solemn procession to meet the Pannonian + legions; and, at the same time, he vainly tried to interrogate, + or to appease, the fates, by magic ceremonies and unlawful + sacrifices. 34 + + 34 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 62, 63. * Note: Quæ ad speculum + dicunt fieri in quo pueri præligatis oculis, incantate..., + respicere dicuntur. * * * Tuncque puer vidisse dicitur et + adventun Severi et Juliani decessionem. This seems to have been a + practice somewhat similar to that of which our recent Egyptian + travellers relate such extraordinary circumstances. See also + Apulius, Orat. de Magia.—M.] + + + + + Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus.—Part II. + + Severus, who dreaded neither his arms nor his enchantments, + guarded himself from the only danger of secret conspiracy, by the + faithful attendance of six hundred chosen men, who never quitted + his person or their cuirasses, either by night or by day, during + the whole march. Advancing with a steady and rapid course, he + passed, without difficulty, the defiles of the Apennine, received + into his party the troops and ambassadors sent to retard his + progress, and made a short halt at Interamnia, about seventy + miles from Rome. His victory was already secure, but the despair + of the Prætorians might have rendered it bloody; and Severus had + the laudable ambition of ascending the throne without drawing the + sword. 35 His emissaries, dispersed in the capital, assured the + guards, that provided they would abandon their worthless prince, + and the perpetrators of the murder of Pertinax, to the justice of + the conqueror, he would no longer consider that melancholy event + as the act of the whole body. The faithless Prætorians, whose + resistance was supported only by sullen obstinacy, gladly + complied with the easy conditions, seized the greatest part of + the assassins, and signified to the senate, that they no longer + defended the cause of Julian. That assembly, convoked by the + consul, unanimously acknowledged Severus as lawful emperor, + decreed divine honors to Pertinax, and pronounced a sentence of + deposition and death against his unfortunate successor. Julian + was conducted into a private apartment of the baths of the + palace, and beheaded as a common criminal, after having + purchased, with an immense treasure, an anxious and precarious + reign of only sixty-six days. 36 The almost incredible expedition + of Severus, who, in so short a space of time, conducted a + numerous army from the banks of the Danube to those of the Tyber, + proves at once the plenty of provisions produced by agriculture + and commerce, the goodness of the roads, the discipline of the + legions, and the indolent, subdued temper of the provinces. 37 + + 35 (return) [ Victor and Eutropius, viii. 17, mention a combat + near the Milvian bridge, the Ponte Molle, unknown to the better + and more ancient writers.] + + 36 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxiii. p. 1240. Herodian, l. ii. p. 83. + Hist. August. p. 63.] + + 37 (return) [ From these sixty-six days, we must first deduct + sixteen, as Pertinax was murdered on the 28th of March, and + Severus most probably elected on the 13th of April, (see Hist. + August. p. 65, and Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iii. p. + 393, note 7.) We cannot allow less than ten days after his + election, to put a numerous army in motion. Forty days remain for + this rapid march; and as we may compute about eight hundred miles + from Rome to the neighborhood of Vienna, the army of Severus + marched twenty miles every day, without halt or intermission.] + + The first cares of Severus were bestowed on two measures, the one + dictated by policy, the other by decency; the revenge, and the + honors, due to the memory of Pertinax. Before the new emperor + entered Rome, he issued his commands to the Prætorian guards, + directing them to wait his arrival on a large plain near the + city, without arms, but in the habits of ceremony, in which they + were accustomed to attend their sovereign. He was obeyed by those + haughty troops, whose contrition was the effect of their just + terrors. A chosen part of the Illyrian army encompassed them with + levelled spears. Incapable of flight or resistance, they expected + their fate in silent consternation. Severus mounted the tribunal, + sternly reproached them with perfidy and cowardice, dismissed + them with ignominy from the trust which they had betrayed, + despoiled them of their splendid ornaments, and banished them, on + pain of death, to the distance of a hundred miles from the + capital. During the transaction, another detachment had been sent + to seize their arms, occupy their camp, and prevent the hasty + consequences of their despair. 38 + + 38 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxiv. p. 1241. Herodian, l. ii. p. 84.] + The funeral and consecration of Pertinax was next solemnized with + every circumstance of sad magnificence. 39 The senate, with a + melancholy pleasure, performed the last rites to that excellent + prince, whom they had loved, and still regretted. The concern of + his successor was probably less sincere; he esteemed the virtues + of Pertinax, but those virtues would forever have confined his + ambition to a private station. Severus pronounced his funeral + oration with studied eloquence, inward satisfaction, and + well-acted sorrow; and by this pious regard to his memory, + convinced the credulous multitude, that _he alone_ was worthy to + supply his place. Sensible, however, that arms, not ceremonies, + must assert his claim to the empire, he left Rome at the end of + thirty days, and without suffering himself to be elated by this + easy victory, prepared to encounter his more formidable rivals. + + 39 (return) [ Dion, (l. lxxiv. p. 1244,) who assisted at the + ceremony as a senator, gives a most pompous description of it.] + + The uncommon abilities and fortune of Severus have induced an + elegant historian to compare him with the first and greatest of + the Cæsars. 40 The parallel is, at least, imperfect. Where shall + we find, in the character of Severus, the commanding superiority + of soul, the generous clemency, and the various genius, which + could reconcile and unite the love of pleasure, the thirst of + knowledge, and the fire of ambition? 41 In one instance only, + they may be compared, with some degree of propriety, in the + celerity of their motions, and their civil victories. In less + than four years, 42 Severus subdued the riches of the East, and + the valor of the West. He vanquished two competitors of + reputation and ability, and defeated numerous armies, provided + with weapons and discipline equal to his own. In that age, the + art of fortification, and the principles of tactics, were well + understood by all the Roman generals; and the constant + superiority of Severus was that of an artist, who uses the same + instruments with more skill and industry than his rivals. I shall + not, however, enter into a minute narrative of these military + operations; but as the two civil wars against Niger and against + Albinus were almost the same in their conduct, event, and + consequences, I shall collect into one point of view the most + striking circumstances, tending to develop the character of the + conqueror and the state of the empire. + + 40 (return) [ Herodian, l. iii. p. 112] + + 41 (return) [ Though it is not, most assuredly, the intention of + Lucan to exalt the character of Cæsar, yet the idea he gives of + that hero, in the tenth book of the Pharsalia, where he describes + him, at the same time, making love to Cleopatra, sustaining a + siege against the power of Egypt, and conversing with the sages + of the country, is, in reality, the noblest panegyric. * Note: + Lord Byron wrote, no doubt, from a reminiscence of that + passage—“It is possible to be a very great man, and to be still + very inferior to Julius Cæsar, the most complete character, so + Lord Bacon thought, of all antiquity. Nature seems incapable of + such extraordinary combinations as composed his versatile + capacity, which was the wonder even of the Romans themselves. The + first general; the only triumphant politician; inferior to none + in point of eloquence; comparable to any in the attainments of + wisdom, in an age made up of the greatest commanders, statesmen, + orators, and philosophers, that ever appeared in the world; an + author who composed a perfect specimen of military annals in his + travelling carriage; at one time in a controversy with Cato, at + another writing a treatise on punuing, and collecting a set of + good sayings; fighting and making love at the same moment, and + willing to abandon both his empire and his mistress for a sight + of the fountains of the Nile. Such did Julius Cæsar appear to his + contemporaries, and to those of the subsequent ages who were the + most inclined to deplore and execrate his fatal genius.” Note 47 + to Canto iv. of Childe Harold.—M.] + + 42 (return) [ Reckoning from his election, April 13, 193, to the + death of Albinus, February 19, 197. See Tillemont’s Chronology.] + + Falsehood and insincerity, unsuitable as they seem to the dignity + of public transactions, offend us with a less degrading idea of + meanness, than when they are found in the intercourse of private + life. In the latter, they discover a want of courage; in the + other, only a defect of power: and, as it is impossible for the + most able statesmen to subdue millions of followers and enemies + by their own personal strength, the world, under the name of + policy, seems to have granted them a very liberal indulgence of + craft and dissimulation. Yet the arts of Severus cannot be + justified by the most ample privileges of state reason. He + promised only to betray, he flattered only to ruin; and however + he might occasionally bind himself by oaths and treaties, his + conscience, obsequious to his interest, always released him from + the inconvenient obligation. 43 + + 43 (return) [ Herodian, l. ii. p. 85.] + + If his two competitors, reconciled by their common danger, had + advanced upon him without delay, perhaps Severus would have sunk + under their united effort. Had they even attacked him, at the + same time, with separate views and separate armies, the contest + might have been long and doubtful. But they fell, singly and + successively, an easy prey to the arts as well as arms of their + subtle enemy, lulled into security by the moderation of his + professions, and overwhelmed by the rapidity of his action. He + first marched against Niger, whose reputation and power he the + most dreaded: but he declined any hostile declarations, + suppressed the name of his antagonist, and only signified to the + senate and people his intention of regulating the eastern + provinces. In private, he spoke of Niger, his old friend and + intended successor, 44 with the most affectionate regard, and + highly applauded his generous design of revenging the murder of + Pertinax. To punish the vile usurper of the throne, was the duty + of every Roman general. To persevere in arms, and to resist a + lawful emperor, acknowledged by the senate, would alone render + him criminal. 45 The sons of Niger had fallen into his hands + among the children of the provincial governors, detained at Rome + as pledges for the loyalty of their parents. 46 As long as the + power of Niger inspired terror, or even respect, they were + educated with the most tender care, with the children of Severus + himself; but they were soon involved in their father’s ruin, and + removed first by exile, and afterwards by death, from the eye of + public compassion. 47 + + 44 (return) [ Whilst Severus was very dangerously ill, it was + industriously given out, that he intended to appoint Niger and + Albinus his successors. As he could not be sincere with respect + to both, he might not be so with regard to either. Yet Severus + carried his hypocrisy so far, as to profess that intention in the + memoirs of his own life.] + + 45 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 65.] + + 46 (return) [ This practice, invented by Commodus, proved very + useful to Severus. He found at Rome the children of many of the + principal adherents of his rivals; and he employed them more than + once to intimidate, or seduce, the parents.] + + 47 (return) [ Herodian, l. iii. p. 95. Hist. August. p. 67, 68.] + + Whilst Severus was engaged in his eastern war, he had reason to + apprehend that the governor of Britain might pass the sea and the + Alps, occupy the vacant seat of empire, and oppose his return + with the authority of the senate and the forces of the West. The + ambiguous conduct of Albinus, in not assuming the Imperial title, + left room for negotiation. Forgetting, at once, his professions + of patriotism, and the jealousy of sovereign power, he accepted + the precarious rank of Cæsar, as a reward for his fatal + neutrality. Till the first contest was decided, Severus treated + the man, whom he had doomed to destruction, with every mark of + esteem and regard. Even in the letter, in which he announced his + victory over Niger, he styles Albinus the brother of his soul and + empire, sends him the affectionate salutations of his wife Julia, + and his young family, and entreats him to preserve the armies and + the republic faithful to their common interest. The messengers + charged with this letter were instructed to accost the Cæsar with + respect, to desire a private audience, and to plunge their + daggers into his heart. 48 The conspiracy was discovered, and the + too credulous Albinus, at length, passed over to the continent, + and prepared for an unequal contest with his rival, who rushed + upon him at the head of a veteran and victorious army. + + 48 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 84. Spartianus has inserted this + curious letter at full length.] + + The military labors of Severus seem inadequate to the importance + of his conquests. Two engagements, 481 the one near the + Hellespont, the other in the narrow defiles of Cilicia, decided + the fate of his Syrian competitor; and the troops of Europe + asserted their usual ascendant over the effeminate natives of + Asia. 49 The battle of Lyons, where one hundred and fifty + thousand Romans 50 were engaged, was equally fatal to Albinus. + The valor of the British army maintained, indeed, a sharp and + doubtful contest, with the hardy discipline of the Illyrian + legions. The fame and person of Severus appeared, during a few + moments, irrecoverably lost, till that warlike prince rallied his + fainting troops, and led them on to a decisive victory. 51 The + war was finished by that memorable day. 511 + + 481 (return) [ There were three actions; one near Cyzicus, on the + Hellespont, one near Nice, in Bithynia, the third near the Issus, + in Cilicia, where Alexander conquered Darius. (Dion, lxiv. c. 6. + Herodian, iii. 2, 4.)—W Herodian represents the second battle as + of less importance than Dion—M.] + + 49 (return) [ Consult the third book of Herodian, and the + seventy-fourth book of Dion Cassius.] + + 50 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxv. p. 1260.] + + 51 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxv. p. 1261. Herodian, l. iii. p. 110. + Hist. August. p. 68. The battle was fought in the plain of + Trevoux, three or four leagues from Lyons. See Tillemont, tom. + iii. p. 406, note 18.] + + 511 (return) [ According to Herodian, it was his lieutenant Lætus + who led back the troops to the battle, and gained the day, which + Severus had almost lost. Dion also attributes to Lætus a great + share in the victory. Severus afterwards put him to death, either + from fear or jealousy.—W. and G. Wenck and M. Guizot have not + given the real statement of Herodian or of Dion. According to the + former, Lætus appeared with his own army entire, which he was + suspected of having designedly kept disengaged when the battle + was still doudtful, or rather after the rout of severus. Dion + says that he did not move till Severus had won the victory.—M.] + + The civil wars of modern Europe have been distinguished, not only + by the fierce animosity, but likewise by the obstinate + perseverance, of the contending factions. They have generally + been justified by some principle, or, at least, colored by some + pretext, of religion, freedom, or loyalty. The leaders were + nobles of independent property and hereditary influence. The + troops fought like men interested in the decision of the quarrel; + and as military spirit and party zeal were strongly diffused + throughout the whole community, a vanquished chief was + immediately supplied with new adherents, eager to shed their + blood in the same cause. But the Romans, after the fall of the + republic, combated only for the choice of masters. Under the + standard of a popular candidate for empire, a few enlisted from + affection, some from fear, many from interest, none from + principle. The legions, uninflamed by party zeal, were allured + into civil war by liberal donatives, and still more liberal + promises. A defeat, by disabling the chief from the performance + of his engagements, dissolved the mercenary allegiance of his + followers, and left them to consult their own safety by a timely + desertion of an unsuccessful cause. It was of little moment to + the provinces, under whose name they were oppressed or governed; + they were driven by the impulsion of the present power, and as + soon as that power yielded to a superior force, they hastened to + implore the clemency of the conqueror, who, as he had an immense + debt to discharge, was obliged to sacrifice the most guilty + countries to the avarice of his soldiers. In the vast extent of + the Roman empire, there were few fortified cities capable of + protecting a routed army; nor was there any person, or family, or + order of men, whose natural interest, unsupported by the powers + of government, was capable of restoring the cause of a sinking + party. 52 + + 52 (return) [ Montesquieu, Considerations sur la Grandeur et la + Decadence des Romains, c. xiii.] + + Yet, in the contest between Niger and Severus, a single city + deserves an honorable exception. As Byzantium was one of the + greatest passages from Europe into Asia, it had been provided + with a strong garrison, and a fleet of five hundred vessels was + anchored in the harbor. 53 The impetuosity of Severus + disappointed this prudent scheme of defence; he left to his + generals the siege of Byzantium, forced the less guarded passage + of the Hellespont, and, impatient of a meaner enemy, pressed + forward to encounter his rival. Byzantium, attacked by a numerous + and increasing army, and afterwards by the whole naval power of + the empire, sustained a siege of three years, and remained + faithful to the name and memory of Niger. The citizens and + soldiers (we know not from what cause) were animated with equal + fury; several of the principal officers of Niger, who despaired + of, or who disdained, a pardon, had thrown themselves into this + last refuge: the fortifications were esteemed impregnable, and, + in the defence of the place, a celebrated engineer displayed all + the mechanic powers known to the ancients. 54 Byzantium, at + length, surrendered to famine. The magistrates and soldiers were + put to the sword, the walls demolished, the privileges + suppressed, and the destined capital of the East subsisted only + as an open village, subject to the insulting jurisdiction of + Perinthus. The historian Dion, who had admired the flourishing, + and lamented the desolate, state of Byzantium, accused the + revenge of Severus, for depriving the Roman people of the + strongest bulwark against the barbarians of Pontus and Asia 55 + The truth of this observation was but too well justified in the + succeeding age, when the Gothic fleets covered the Euxine, and + passed through the undefined Bosphorus into the centre of the + Mediterranean. + + 53 (return) [ Most of these, as may be supposed, were small open + vessels; some, however, were galleys of two, and a few of three + ranks of oars.] + + 54 (return) [The engineer’s name was Priscus. His skill saved his + life, and he was taken into the service of the conqueror. For the + particular facts of the siege, consult Dion Cassius (l. lxxv. p. + 1251) and Herodian, (l. iii. p. 95;) for the theory of it, the + fanciful chevalier de Folard may be looked into. See Polybe, tom. + i. p. 76.] + + 55 (return) [ Notwithstanding the authority of Spartianus, and + some modern Greeks, we may be assured, from Dion and Herodian, + that Byzantium, many years after the death of Severus, lay in + ruins. There is no contradiction between the relation of Dion and + that of Spartianus and the modern Greeks. Dion does not say that + Severus destroyed Byzantium, but that he deprived it of its + franchises and privileges, stripped the inhabitants of their + property, razed the fortifications, and subjected the city to the + jurisdiction of Perinthus. Therefore, when Spartian, Suidas, + Cedrenus, say that Severus and his son Antoninus restored to + Byzantium its rights and franchises, ordered temples to be built, + &c., this is easily reconciled with the relation of Dion. Perhaps + the latter mentioned it in some of the fragments of his history + which have been lost. As to Herodian, his expressions are + evidently exaggerated, and he has been guilty of so many + inaccuracies in the history of Severus, that we have a right to + suppose one in this passage.—G. from W Wenck and M. Guizot have + omitted to cite Zosimus, who mentions a particular portico built + by Severus, and called, apparently, by his name. Zosim. Hist. ii. + c. xxx. p. 151, 153, edit Heyne.—M.] + + Both Niger and Albinus were discovered and put to death in their + flight from the field of battle. Their fate excited neither + surprise nor compassion. They had staked their lives against the + chance of empire, and suffered what they would have inflicted; + nor did Severus claim the arrogant superiority of suffering his + rivals to live in a private station. But his unforgiving temper, + stimulated by avarice, indulged a spirit of revenge, where there + was no room for apprehension. The most considerable of the + provincials, who, without any dislike to the fortunate candidate, + had obeyed the governor under whose authority they were + accidentally placed, were punished by death, exile, and + especially by the confiscation of their estates. Many cities of + the East were stripped of their ancient honors, and obliged to + pay, into the treasury of Severus, four times the amount of the + sums contributed by them for the service of Niger. 56 + + 56 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxiv. p. 1250.] + + Till the final decision of the war, the cruelty of Severus was, + in some measure, restrained by the uncertainty of the event, and + his pretended reverence for the senate. The head of Albinus, + accompanied with a menacing letter, announced to the Romans that + he was resolved to spare none of the adherents of his unfortunate + competitors. He was irritated by the just auspicion that he had + never possessed the affections of the senate, and he concealed + his old malevolence under the recent discovery of some + treasonable correspondences. Thirty-five senators, however, + accused of having favored the party of Albinus, he freely + pardoned, and, by his subsequent behavior, endeavored to convince + them, that he had forgotten, as well as forgiven, their supposed + offences. But, at the same time, he condemned forty-one 57 other + senators, whose names history has recorded; their wives, + children, and clients attended them in death, 571 and the noblest + provincials of Spain and Gaul were involved in the same ruin. 572 + Such rigid justice—for so he termed it—was, in the opinion of + Severus, the only conduct capable of insuring peace to the people + or stability to the prince; and he condescended slightly to + lament, that to be mild, it was necessary that he should first be + cruel. 58 + + 57 (return) [ Dion, (l. lxxv. p. 1264;) only twenty-nine senators + are mentioned by him, but forty-one are named in the Augustan + History, p. 69, among whom were six of the name of Pescennius. + Herodian (l. iii. p. 115) speaks in general of the cruelties of + Severus.] + + 571 (return) [ Wenck denies that there is any authority for this + massacre of the wives of the senators. He adds, that only the + children and relatives of Niger and Albinus were put to death. + This is true of the family of Albinus, whose bodies were thrown + into the Rhone; those of Niger, according to Lampridius, were + sent into exile, but afterwards put to death. Among the partisans + of Albinus who were put to death were many women of rank, multæ + fœminæ illustres. Lamprid. in Sever.—M.] + + 572 (return) [ A new fragment of Dion describes the state of Rome + during this contest. All pretended to be on the side of Severus; + but their secret sentiments were often betrayed by a change of + countenance on the arrival of some sudden report. Some were + detected by overacting their loyalty, Mai. Fragm. Vatican. p. 227 + Severus told the senate he would rather have their hearts than + their votes.—Ibid.—M.] + + 58 (return) [ Aurelius Victor.] + + The true interest of an absolute monarch generally coincides with + that of his people. Their numbers, their wealth, their order, and + their security, are the best and only foundations of his real + greatness; and were he totally devoid of virtue, prudence might + supply its place, and would dictate the same rule of conduct. + Severus considered the Roman empire as his property, and had no + sooner secured the possession, than he bestowed his care on the + cultivation and improvement of so valuable an acquisition. + Salutary laws, executed with inflexible firmness, soon corrected + most of the abuses with which, since the death of Marcus, every + part of the government had been infected. In the administration + of justice, the judgments of the emperor were characterized by + attention, discernment, and impartiality; and whenever he + deviated from the strict line of equity, it was generally in + favor of the poor and oppressed; not so much indeed from any + sense of humanity, as from the natural propensity of a despot to + humble the pride of greatness, and to sink all his subjects to + the same common level of absolute dependence. His expensive taste + for building, magnificent shows, and above all a constant and + liberal distribution of corn and provisions, were the surest + means of captivating the affection of the Roman people. 59 The + misfortunes of civil discord were obliterated. The calm of peace + and prosperity was once more experienced in the provinces; and + many cities, restored by the munificence of Severus, assumed the + title of his colonies, and attested by public monuments their + gratitude and felicity. 60 The fame of the Roman arms was revived + by that warlike and successful emperor, 61 and he boasted, with a + just pride, that, having received the empire oppressed with + foreign and domestic wars, he left it established in profound, + universal, and honorable peace. 62 + + 59 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1272. Hist. August. p. 67. + Severus celebrated the secular games with extraordinary + magnificence, and he left in the public granaries a provision of + corn for seven years, at the rate of 75,000 modii, or about 2500 + quarters per day. I am persuaded that the granaries of Severus + were supplied for a long term, but I am not less persuaded, that + policy on one hand, and admiration on the other, magnified the + hoard far beyond its true contents.] + + 60 (return) [ See Spanheim’s treatise of ancient medals, the + inscriptions, and our learned travellers Spon and Wheeler, Shaw, + Pocock, &c, who, in Africa, Greece, and Asia, have found more + monuments of Severus than of any other Roman emperor whatsoever.] + + 61 (return) [ He carried his victorious arms to Seleucia and + Ctesiphon, the capitals of the Parthian monarchy. I shall have + occasion to mention this war in its proper place.] + + 62 (return) [ Etiam in Britannis, was his own just and emphatic + expression Hist. August. 73.] + + Although the wounds of civil war appeared completely healed, its + mortal poison still lurked in the vitals of the constitution. + Severus possessed a considerable share of vigor and ability; but + the daring soul of the first Cæsar, or the deep policy of + Augustus, were scarcely equal to the task of curbing the + insolence of the victorious legions. By gratitude, by misguided + policy, by seeming necessity, Severus was reduced to relax the + nerves of discipline. 63 The vanity of his soldiers was flattered + with the honor of wearing gold rings; their ease was indulged in + the permission of living with their wives in the idleness of + quarters. He increased their pay beyond the example of former + times, and taught them to expect, and soon to claim, + extraordinary donatives on every public occasion of danger or + festivity. Elated by success, enervated by luxury, and raised + above the level of subjects by their dangerous privileges, 64 + they soon became incapable of military fatigue, oppressive to the + country, and impatient of a just subordination. Their officers + asserted the superiority of rank by a more profuse and elegant + luxury. There is still extant a letter of Severus, lamenting the + licentious stage of the army, 641 and exhorting one of his + generals to begin the necessary reformation from the tribunes + themselves; since, as he justly observes, the officer who has + forfeited the esteem, will never command the obedience, of his + soldiers. 65 Had the emperor pursued the train of reflection, he + would have discovered, that the primary cause of this general + corruption might be ascribed, not indeed to the example, but to + the pernicious indulgence, however, of the commander-in-chief. + + 63 (return) [ Herodian, l. iii. p. 115. Hist. August. p. 68.] + + 64 (return) [ Upon the insolence and privileges of the soldier, + the 16th satire, falsely ascribed to Juvenal, may be consulted; + the style and circumstances of it would induce me to believe, + that it was composed under the reign of Severus, or that of his + son.] + + 641 (return) [ Not of the army, but of the troops in Gaul. The + contents of this letter seem to prove that Severus was really + anxious to restore discipline Herodian is the only historian who + accuses him of being the first cause of its relaxation.—G. from W + Spartian mentions his increase of the pays.—M.] + + 65 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 73.] + + The Prætorians, who murdered their emperor and sold the empire, + had received the just punishment of their treason; but the + necessary, though dangerous, institution of guards was soon + restored on a new model by Severus, and increased to four times + the ancient number. 66 Formerly these troops had been recruited + in Italy; and as the adjacent provinces gradually imbibed the + softer manners of Rome, the levies were extended to Macedonia, + Noricum, and Spain. In the room of these elegant troops, better + adapted to the pomp of courts than to the uses of war, it was + established by Severus, that from all the legions of the + frontiers, the soldiers most distinguished for strength, valor, + and fidelity, should be occasionally draughted; and promoted, as + an honor and reward, into the more eligible service of the + guards. 67 By this new institution, the Italian youth were + diverted from the exercise of arms, and the capital was terrified + by the strange aspect and manners of a multitude of barbarians. + But Severus flattered himself, that the legions would consider + these chosen Prætorians as the representatives of the whole + military order; and that the present aid of fifty thousand men, + superior in arms and appointments to any force that could be + brought into the field against them, would forever crush the + hopes of rebellion, and secure the empire to himself and his + posterity. + + 66 (return) [ Herodian, l. iii. p. 131.] + + 67 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxiv. p. 1243.] + + The command of these favored and formidable troops soon became + the first office of the empire. As the government degenerated + into military despotism, the Prætorian Præfect, who in his origin + had been a simple captain of the guards, 671 was placed not only + at the head of the army, but of the finances, and even of the + law. In every department of administration, he represented the + person, and exercised the authority, of the emperor. The first + præfect who enjoyed and abused this immense power was Plautianus, + the favorite minister of Severus. His reign lasted above ten + years, till the marriage of his daughter with the eldest son of + the emperor, which seemed to assure his fortune, proved the + occasion of his ruin. 68 The animosities of the palace, by + irritating the ambition and alarming the fears of Plautianus, 681 + threatened to produce a revolution, and obliged the emperor, who + still loved him, to consent with reluctance to his death. 69 + After the fall of Plautianus, an eminent lawyer, the celebrated + Papinian, was appointed to execute the motley office of Prætorian + Præfect. + + 671 (return) [ The Prætorian Præfect had never been a simple + captain of the guards; from the first creation of this office, + under Augustus, it possessed great power. That emperor, + therefore, decreed that there should be always two Prætorian + Præfects, who could only be taken from the equestrian order + Tiberius first departed from the former clause of this edict; + Alexander Severus violated the second by naming senators + præfects. It appears that it was under Commodus that the + Prætorian Præfects obtained the province of civil jurisdiction. + It extended only to Italy, with the exception of Rome and its + district, which was governed by the Præfectus urbi. As to the + control of the finances, and the levying of taxes, it was not + intrusted to them till after the great change that Constantine I. + made in the organization of the empire at least, I know no + passage which assigns it to them before that time; and + Drakenborch, who has treated this question in his Dissertation de + official præfectorum prætorio, vi., does not quote one.—W.] + + 68 (return) [ One of his most daring and wanton acts of power, + was the castration of a hundred free Romans, some of them married + men, and even fathers of families; merely that his daughter, on + her marriage with the young emperor, might be attended by a train + of eunuchs worthy of an eastern queen. Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1271.] + + 681 (return) [ Plautianus was compatriot, relative, and the old + friend, of Severus; he had so completely shut up all access to + the emperor, that the latter was ignorant how far he abused his + powers: at length, being informed of it, he began to limit his + authority. The marriage of Plautilla with Caracalla was + unfortunate; and the prince who had been forced to consent to it, + menaced the father and the daughter with death when he should + come to the throne. It was feared, after that, that Plautianus + would avail himself of the power which he still possessed, + against the Imperial family; and Severus caused him to be + assassinated in his presence, upon the pretext of a conspiracy, + which Dion considers fictitious.—W. This note is not, perhaps, + very necessary and does not contain the whole facts. Dion + considers the conspiracy the invention of Caracalla, by whose + command, almost by whose hand, Plautianus was slain in the + presence of Severus.—M.] + + 69 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1274. Herodian, l. iii. p. 122, + 129. The grammarian of Alexander seems, as is not unusual, much + better acquainted with this mysterious transaction, and more + assured of the guilt of Plautianus than the Roman senator + ventures to be.] + + Till the reign of Severus, the virtue and even the good sense of + the emperors had been distinguished by their zeal or affected + reverence for the senate, and by a tender regard to the nice + frame of civil policy instituted by Augustus. But the youth of + Severus had been trained in the implicit obedience of camps, and + his riper years spent in the despotism of military command. His + haughty and inflexible spirit could not discover, or would not + acknowledge, the advantage of preserving an intermediate power, + however imaginary, between the emperor and the army. He disdained + to profess himself the servant of an assembly that detested his + person and trembled at his frown; he issued his commands, where + his requests would have proved as effectual; assumed the conduct + and style of a sovereign and a conqueror, and exercised, without + disguise, the whole legislative, as well as the executive power. + + The victory over the senate was easy and inglorious. Every eye + and every passion were directed to the supreme magistrate, who + possessed the arms and treasure of the state; whilst the senate, + neither elected by the people, nor guarded by military force, nor + animated by public spirit, rested its declining authority on the + frail and crumbling basis of ancient opinion. The fine theory of + a republic insensibly vanished, and made way for the more natural + and substantial feelings of monarchy. As the freedom and honors + of Rome were successively communicated to the provinces, in which + the old government had been either unknown, or was remembered + with abhorrence, the tradition of republican maxims was gradually + obliterated. The Greek historians of the age of the Antonines 70 + observe, with a malicious pleasure, that although the sovereign + of Rome, in compliance with an obsolete prejudice, abstained from + the name of king, he possessed the full measure of regal power. + In the reign of Severus, the senate was filled with polished and + eloquent slaves from the eastern provinces, who justified + personal flattery by speculative principles of servitude. These + new advocates of prerogative were heard with pleasure by the + court, and with patience by the people, when they inculcated the + duty of passive obedience, and descanted on the inevitable + mischiefs of freedom. The lawyers and historians concurred in + teaching, that the Imperial authority was held, not by the + delegated commission, but by the irrevocable resignation of the + senate; that the emperor was freed from the restraint of civil + laws, could command by his arbitrary will the lives and fortunes + of his subjects, and might dispose of the empire as of his + private patrimony. 71 The most eminent of the civil lawyers, and + particularly Papinian, Paulus, and Ulpian, flourished under the + house of Severus; and the Roman jurisprudence, having closely + united itself with the system of monarchy, was supposed to have + attained its full majority and perfection. + + 70 (return) [ Appian in Proœm.] + + 71 (return) [ Dion Cassius seems to have written with no other + view than to form these opinions into an historical system. The + Pandea’s will how how assiduously the lawyers, on their side, + laboree in the cause of prerogative.] + + The contemporaries of Severus in the enjoyment of the peace and + glory of his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had been + introduced. Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of his + maxims and example, justly considered him as the principal author + of the decline of the Roman empire. + + + + + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Marcinus.—Part I. + + The Death Of Severus.—Tyranny Of Caracalla.—Usurpation Of + Macrinus.—Follies Of Elagabalus.—Virtues Of Alexander + Severus.—Licentiousness Of The Army.—General State Of The Roman + Finances. + + The ascent to greatness, however steep and dangerous, may + entertain an active spirit with the consciousness and exercise of + its own powers: but the possession of a throne could never yet + afford a lasting satisfaction to an ambitious mind. This + melancholy truth was felt and acknowledged by Severus. Fortune + and merit had, from an humble station, elevated him to the first + place among mankind. “He had been all things,” as he said + himself, “and all was of little value.” 1 Distracted with the + care, not of acquiring, but of preserving an empire, oppressed + with age and infirmities, careless of fame, 2 and satiated with + power, all his prospects of life were closed. The desire of + perpetuating the greatness of his family was the only remaining + wish of his ambition and paternal tenderness. + + 1 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 71. “Omnia fui, et nihil expedit.”] + + 2 (return) [ Dion Cassius, l. lxxvi. p. 1284.] + + Like most of the Africans, Severus was passionately addicted to + the vain studies of magic and divination, deeply versed in the + interpretation of dreams and omens, and perfectly acquainted with + the science of judicial astrology; which, in almost every age + except the present, has maintained its dominion over the mind of + man. He had lost his first wife, while he was governor of the + Lionnese Gaul. 3 In the choice of a second, he sought only to + connect himself with some favorite of fortune; and as soon as he + had discovered that the young lady of Emesa in Syria had _a royal + nativity_, he solicited and obtained her hand. 4 Julia Domna (for + that was her name) deserved all that the stars could promise her. + + She possessed, even in advanced age, the attractions of beauty, 5 + and united to a lively imagination a firmness of mind, and + strength of judgment, seldom bestowed on her sex. Her amiable + qualities never made any deep impression on the dark and jealous + temper of her husband; but in her son’s reign, she administered + the principal affairs of the empire, with a prudence that + supported his authority, and with a moderation that sometimes + corrected his wild extravagancies. 6 Julia applied herself to + letters and philosophy, with some success, and with the most + splendid reputation. She was the patroness of every art, and the + friend of every man of genius. 7 The grateful flattery of the + learned has celebrated her virtues; but, if we may credit the + scandal of ancient history, chastity was very far from being the + most conspicuous virtue of the empress Julia. 8 + + 3 (return) [ About the year 186. M. de Tillemont is miserably + embarrassed with a passage of Dion, in which the empress + Faustina, who died in the year 175, is introduced as having + contributed to the marriage of Severus and Julia, (l. lxxiv. p. + 1243.) The learned compiler forgot that Dion is relating not a + real fact, but a dream of Severus; and dreams are circumscribed + to no limits of time or space. Did M. de Tillemont imagine that + marriages were consummated in the temple of Venus at Rome? Hist. + des Empereurs, tom. iii. p. 389. Note 6.] + + 4 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 65.] + + 5 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 5.] + + 6 (return) [ Dion Cassius, l. lxxvii. p. 1304, 1314.] + + 7 (return) [ See a dissertation of Menage, at the end of his + edition of Diogenes Lærtius, de Fœminis Philosophis.] + + 8 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1285. Aurelius Victor.] + + Two sons, Caracalla 9 and Geta, were the fruit of this marriage, + and the destined heirs of the empire. The fond hopes of the + father, and of the Roman world, were soon disappointed by these + vain youths, who displayed the indolent security of hereditary + princes; and a presumption that fortune would supply the place of + merit and application. Without any emulation of virtue or + talents, they discovered, almost from their infancy, a fixed and + implacable antipathy for each other. + + 9 (return) [ Bassianus was his first name, as it had been that of + his maternal grandfather. During his reign, he assumed the + appellation of Antoninus, which is employed by lawyers and + ancient historians. After his death, the public indignation + loaded him with the nicknames of Tarantus and Caracalla. The + first was borrowed from a celebrated Gladiator, the second from a + long Gallic gown which he distributed to the people of Rome.] + + Their aversion, confirmed by years, and fomented by the arts of + their interested favorites, broke out in childish, and gradually + in more serious competitions; and, at length, divided the + theatre, the circus, and the court, into two factions, actuated + by the hopes and fears of their respective leaders. The prudent + emperor endeavored, by every expedient of advice and authority, + to allay this growing animosity. The unhappy discord of his sons + clouded all his prospects, and threatened to overturn a throne + raised with so much labor, cemented with so much blood, and + guarded with every defence of arms and treasure. With an + impartial hand he maintained between them an exact balance of + favor, conferred on both the rank of Augustus, with the revered + name of Antoninus; and for the first time the Roman world beheld + three emperors. 10 Yet even this equal conduct served only to + inflame the contest, whilst the fierce Caracalla asserted the + right of primogeniture, and the milder Geta courted the + affections of the people and the soldiers. In the anguish of a + disappointed father, Severus foretold that the weaker of his sons + would fall a sacrifice to the stronger; who, in his turn, would + be ruined by his own vices. 11 + + 10 (return) [ The elevation of Caracalla is fixed by the accurate + M. de Tillemont to the year 198; the association of Geta to the + year 208.] + + 11 (return) [ Herodian, l. iii. p. 130. The lives of Caracalla + and Geta, in the Augustan History.] + + In these circumstances the intelligence of a war in Britain, and + of an invasion of the province by the barbarians of the North, + was received with pleasure by Severus. Though the vigilance of + his lieutenants might have been sufficient to repel the distant + enemy, he resolved to embrace the honorable pretext of + withdrawing his sons from the luxury of Rome, which enervated + their minds and irritated their passions; and of inuring their + youth to the toils of war and government. Notwithstanding his + advanced age, (for he was above threescore,) and his gout, which + obliged him to be carried in a litter, he transported himself in + person into that remote island, attended by his two sons, his + whole court, and a formidable army. He immediately passed the + walls of Hadrian and Antoninus, and entered the enemy’s country, + with a design of completing the long attempted conquest of + Britain. He penetrated to the northern extremity of the island, + without meeting an enemy. But the concealed ambuscades of the + Caledonians, who hung unseen on the rear and flanks of his army, + the coldness of the climate and the severity of a winter march + across the hills and morasses of Scotland, are reported to have + cost the Romans above fifty thousand men. The Caledonians at + length yielded to the powerful and obstinate attack, sued for + peace, and surrendered a part of their arms, and a large tract of + territory. But their apparent submission lasted no longer than + the present terror. As soon as the Roman legions had retired, + they resumed their hostile independence. Their restless spirit + provoked Severus to send a new army into Caledonia, with the most + bloody orders, not to subdue, but to extirpate the natives. They + were saved by the death of their haughty enemy. 12 + + 12 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1280, &c. Herodian, l. iii. p. + 132, &c.] + + This Caledonian war, neither marked by decisive events, nor + attended with any important consequences, would ill deserve our + attention; but it is supposed, not without a considerable degree + of probability, that the invasion of Severus is connected with + the most shining period of the British history or fable. Fingal, + whose fame, with that of his heroes and bards, has been revived + in our language by a recent publication, is said to have + commanded the Caledonians in that memorable juncture, to have + eluded the power of Severus, and to have obtained a signal + victory on the banks of the Carun, in which the son of _the King + of the World_, Caracul, fled from his arms along the fields of + his pride. 13 Something of a doubtful mist still hangs over these + Highland traditions; nor can it be entirely dispelled by the most + ingenious researches of modern criticism; 14 but if we could, + with safety, indulge the pleasing supposition, that Fingal lived, + and that Ossian sung, the striking contrast of the situation and + manners of the contending nations might amuse a philosophic mind. + + The parallel would be little to the advantage of the more + civilized people, if we compared the unrelenting revenge of + Severus with the generous clemency of Fingal; the timid and + brutal cruelty of Caracalla with the bravery, the tenderness, the + elegant genius of Ossian; the mercenary chiefs, who, from motives + of fear or interest, served under the imperial standard, with the + free-born warriors who started to arms at the voice of the king + of Morven; if, in a word, we contemplated the untutored + Caledonians, glowing with the warm virtues of nature, and the + degenerate Romans, polluted with the mean vices of wealth and + slavery. + + 13 (return) [ Ossian’s Poems, vol. i. p. 175.] + + 14 (return) [ That the Caracul of Ossian is the Caracalla of the + Roman History, is, perhaps, the only point of British antiquity + in which Mr. Macpherson and Mr. Whitaker are of the same opinion; + and yet the opinion is not without difficulty. In the Caledonian + war, the son of Severus was known only by the appellation of + Antoninus, and it may seem strange that the Highland bard should + describe him by a nickname, invented four years afterwards, + scarcely used by the Romans till after the death of that emperor, + and seldom employed by the most ancient historians. See Dion, l. + lxxvii. p. 1317. Hist. August. p. 89 Aurel. Victor. Euseb. in + Chron. ad ann. 214. Note: The historical authority of + Macpherson’s Ossian has not increased since Gibbon wrote. We may, + indeed, consider it exploded. Mr. Whitaker, in a letter to Gibbon + (Misc. Works, vol. ii. p. 100,) attempts, not very successfully, + to weaken this objection of the historian.—M.] + + The declining health and last illness of Severus inflamed the + wild ambition and black passions of Caracalla’s soul. Impatient + of any delay or division of empire, he attempted, more than once, + to shorten the small remainder of his father’s days, and + endeavored, but without success, to excite a mutiny among the + troops. 15 The old emperor had often censured the misguided + lenity of Marcus, who, by a single act of justice, might have + saved the Romans from the tyranny of his worthless son. Placed in + the same situation, he experienced how easily the rigor of a + judge dissolves away in the tenderness of a parent. He + deliberated, he threatened, but he could not punish; and this + last and only instance of mercy was more fatal to the empire than + a long series of cruelty. 16 The disorder of his mind irritated + the pains of his body; he wished impatiently for death, and + hastened the instant of it by his impatience. He expired at York + in the sixty-fifth year of his life, and in the eighteenth of a + glorious and successful reign. In his last moments he recommended + concord to his sons, and his sons to the army. The salutary + advice never reached the heart, or even the understanding, of the + impetuous youths; but the more obedient troops, mindful of their + oath of allegiance, and of the authority of their deceased + master, resisted the solicitations of Caracalla, and proclaimed + both brothers emperors of Rome. The new princes soon left the + Caledonians in peace, returned to the capital, celebrated their + father’s funeral with divine honors, and were cheerfully + acknowledged as lawful sovereigns, by the senate, the people, and + the provinces. Some preeminence of rank seems to have been + allowed to the elder brother; but they both administered the + empire with equal and independent power. 17 + + 15 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1282. Hist. August. p. 71. + Aurel. Victor.] + + 16 (return) [Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1283. Hist. August. p. 89] + + 17 (return) [Footnote 17: Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1284. Herodian, l. + iii. p. 135.] + + Such a divided form of government would have proved a source of + discord between the most affectionate brothers. It was impossible + that it could long subsist between two implacable enemies, who + neither desired nor could trust a reconciliation. It was visible + that one only could reign, and that the other must fall; and each + of them, judging of his rival’s designs by his own, guarded his + life with the most jealous vigilance from the repeated attacks of + poison or the sword. Their rapid journey through Gaul and Italy, + during which they never ate at the same table, or slept in the + same house, displayed to the provinces the odious spectacle of + fraternal discord. On their arrival at Rome, they immediately + divided the vast extent of the imperial palace. 18 No + communication was allowed between their apartments; the doors and + passages were diligently fortified, and guards posted and + relieved with the same strictness as in a besieged place. The + emperors met only in public, in the presence of their afflicted + mother; and each surrounded by a numerous train of armed + followers. Even on these occasions of ceremony, the dissimulation + of courts could ill disguise the rancor of their hearts. 19 + + 18 (return) [ Mr. Hume is justly surprised at a passage of + Herodian, (l. iv. p. 139,) who, on this occasion, represents the + Imperial palace as equal in extent to the rest of Rome. The whole + region of the Palatine Mount, on which it was built, occupied, at + most, a circumference of eleven or twelve thousand feet, (see the + Notitia and Victor, in Nardini’s Roma Antica.) But we should + recollect that the opulent senators had almost surrounded the + city with their extensive gardens and suburb palaces, the + greatest part of which had been gradually confiscated by the + emperors. If Geta resided in the gardens that bore his name on + the Janiculum, and if Caracalla inhabited the gardens of Mæcenas + on the Esquiline, the rival brothers were separated from each + other by the distance of several miles; and yet the intermediate + space was filled by the Imperial gardens of Sallust, of Lucullus, + of Agrippa, of Domitian, of Caius, &c., all skirting round the + city, and all connected with each other, and with the palace, by + bridges thrown over the Tiber and the streets. But this + explanation of Herodian would require, though it ill deserves, a + particular dissertation, illustrated by a map of ancient Rome. + (Hume, Essay on Populousness of Ancient Nations.—M.)] + + 19 (return) [ Herodian, l. iv. p. 139] + + This latent civil war already distracted the whole government, + when a scheme was suggested that seemed of mutual benefit to the + hostile brothers. It was proposed, that since it was impossible + to reconcile their minds, they should separate their interest, + and divide the empire between them. The conditions of the treaty + were already drawn with some accuracy. It was agreed that + Caracalla, as the elder brother should remain in possession of + Europe and the western Africa; and that he should relinquish the + sovereignty of Asia and Egypt to Geta, who might fix his + residence at Alexandria or Antioch, cities little inferior to + Rome itself in wealth and greatness; that numerous armies should + be constantly encamped on either side of the Thracian Bosphorus, + to guard the frontiers of the rival monarchies; and that the + senators of European extraction should acknowledge the sovereign + of Rome, whilst the natives of Asia followed the emperor of the + East. The tears of the empress Julia interrupted the negotiation, + the first idea of which had filled every Roman breast with + surprise and indignation. The mighty mass of conquest was so + intimately united by the hand of time and policy, that it + required the most forcible violence to rend it asunder. The + Romans had reason to dread, that the disjointed members would + soon be reduced by a civil war under the dominion of one master; + but if the separation was permanent, the division of the + provinces must terminate in the dissolution of an empire whose + unity had hitherto remained inviolate. 20 + + 20 (return) [ Herodian, l. iv. p. 144.] + + Had the treaty been carried into execution, the sovereign of + Europe might soon have been the conqueror of Asia; but Caracalla + obtained an easier, though a more guilty, victory. He artfully + listened to his mother’s entreaties, and consented to meet his + brother in her apartment, on terms of peace and reconciliation. + In the midst of their conversation, some centurions, who had + contrived to conceal themselves, rushed with drawn swords upon + the unfortunate Geta. His distracted mother strove to protect him + in her arms; but, in the unavailing struggle, she was wounded in + the hand, and covered with the blood of her younger son, while + she saw the elder animating and assisting 21 the fury of the + assassins. As soon as the deed was perpetrated, Caracalla, with + hasty steps, and horror in his countenance, ran towards the + Prætorian camp, as his only refuge, and threw himself on the + ground before the statues of the tutelar deities. 22 The soldiers + attempted to raise and comfort him. In broken and disordered + words he informed them of his imminent danger, and fortunate + escape; insinuating that he had prevented the designs of his + enemy, and declared his resolution to live and die with his + faithful troops. Geta had been the favorite of the soldiers; but + complaint was useless, revenge was dangerous, and they still + reverenced the son of Severus. Their discontent died away in idle + murmurs, and Caracalla soon convinced them of the justice of his + cause, by distributing in one lavish donative the accumulated + treasures of his father’s reign. 23 The real _sentiments_ of the + soldiers alone were of importance to his power or safety. Their + declaration in his favor commanded the dutiful _professions_ of + the senate. The obsequious assembly was always prepared to ratify + the decision of fortune; 231 but as Caracalla wished to assuage + the first emotions of public indignation, the name of Geta was + mentioned with decency, and he received the funeral honors of a + Roman emperor. 24 Posterity, in pity to his misfortune, has cast + a veil over his vices. We consider that young prince as the + innocent victim of his brother’s ambition, without recollecting + that he himself wanted power, rather than inclination, to + consummate the same attempts of revenge and murder. 241 + + 21 (return) [ Caracalla consecrated, in the temple of Serapis, + the sword with which, as he boasted, he had slain his brother + Geta. Dion, l. lxxvii p. 1307.] + + 22 (return) [ Herodian, l. iv. p. 147. In every Roman camp there + was a small chapel near the head-quarters, in which the statues + of the tutelar deities were preserved and adored; and we may + remark that the eagles, and other military ensigns, were in the + first rank of these deities; an excellent institution, which + confirmed discipline by the sanction of religion. See Lipsius de + Militia Romana, iv. 5, v. 2.] + + 23 (return) [ Herodian, l. iv. p. 148. Dion, l. lxxvii. p. 1289.] + + 231 (return) [ The account of this transaction, in a new passage + of Dion, varies in some degree from this statement. It adds that + the next morning, in the senate, Antoninus requested their + indulgence, not because he had killed his brother, but because he + was hoarse, and could not address them. Mai. Fragm. p. 228.—M.] + + 24 (return) [ Geta was placed among the gods. Sit divus, dum non + sit vivus said his brother. Hist. August. p. 91. Some marks of + Geta’s consecration are still found upon medals.] + + 241 (return) [ The favorable judgment which history has given of + Geta is not founded solely on a feeling of pity; it is supported + by the testimony of contemporary historians: he was too fond of + the pleasures of the table, and showed great mistrust of his + brother; but he was humane, well instructed; he often endeavored + to mitigate the rigorous decrees of Severus and Caracalla. Herod + iv. 3. Spartian in Geta.—W.] + + The crime went not unpunished. Neither business, nor pleasure, + nor flattery, could defend Caracalla from the stings of a guilty + conscience; and he confessed, in the anguish of a tortured mind, + that his disordered fancy often beheld the angry forms of his + father and his brother rising into life, to threaten and upbraid + him. 25 The consciousness of his crime should have induced him to + convince mankind, by the virtues of his reign, that the bloody + deed had been the involuntary effect of fatal necessity. But the + repentance of Caracalla only prompted him to remove from the + world whatever could remind him of his guilt, or recall the + memory of his murdered brother. On his return from the senate to + the palace, he found his mother in the company of several noble + matrons, weeping over the untimely fate of her younger son. The + jealous emperor threatened them with instant death; the sentence + was executed against Fadilla, the last remaining daughter of the + emperor Marcus; 251 and even the afflicted Julia was obliged to + silence her lamentations, to suppress her sighs, and to receive + the assassin with smiles of joy and approbation. It was computed + that, under the vague appellation of the friends of Geta, above + twenty thousand persons of both sexes suffered death. His guards + and freedmen, the ministers of his serious business, and the + companions of his looser hours, those who by his interest had + been promoted to any commands in the army or provinces, with the + long connected chain of their dependants, were included in the + proscription; which endeavored to reach every one who had + maintained the smallest correspondence with Geta, who lamented + his death, or who even mentioned his name. 26 Helvius Pertinax, + son to the prince of that name, lost his life by an unseasonable + witticism. 27 It was a sufficient crime of Thrasea Priscus to be + descended from a family in which the love of liberty seemed an + hereditary quality. 28 The particular causes of calumny and + suspicion were at length exhausted; and when a senator was + accused of being a secret enemy to the government, the emperor + was satisfied with the general proof that he was a man of + property and virtue. From this well-grounded principle he + frequently drew the most bloody inferences. 281 + + 25 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxvii. p. 1307] + + 251 (return) [ The most valuable paragraph of dion, which the + industry of M. Manas recovered, relates to this daughter of + Marcus, executed by Caracalla. Her name, as appears from Fronto, + as well as from Dion, was Cornificia. When commanded to choose + the kind of death she was to suffer, she burst into womanish + tears; but remembering her father Marcus, she thus spoke:—“O my + hapless soul, (... animula,) now imprisoned in the body, burst + forth! be free! show them, however reluctant to believe it, that + thou art the daughter of Marcus.” She then laid aside all her + ornaments, and preparing herself for death, ordered her veins to + be opened. Mai. Fragm. Vatican ii p. 220.—M.] + + 26 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxvii. p. 1290. Herodian, l. iv. p. 150. + Dion (p. 2298) says, that the comic poets no longer durst employ + the name of Geta in their plays, and that the estates of those + who mentioned it in their testaments were confiscated.] + + 27 (return) [ Caracalla had assumed the names of several + conquered nations; Pertinax observed, that the name of Geticus + (he had obtained some advantage over the Goths, or Getæ) would be + a proper addition to Parthieus, Alemannicus, &c. Hist. August. p. + 89.] + + 28 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxvii. p. 1291. He was probably descended + from Helvidius Priscus, and Thrasea Pætus, those patriots, whose + firm, but useless and unseasonable, virtue has been immortalized + by Tacitus. Note: M. Guizot is indignant at this “cold” + observation of Gibbon on the noble character of Thrasea; but he + admits that his virtue was useless to the public, and + unseasonable amidst the vices of his age.—M.] + + 281 (return) [ Caracalla reproached all those who demanded no + favors of him. “It is clear that if you make me no requests, you + do not trust me; if you do not trust me, you suspect me; if you + suspect me, you fear me; if you fear me, you hate me.” And + forthwith he condemned them as conspirators, a good specimen of + the sorites in a tyrant’s logic. See Fragm. Vatican p.—M.] + + + + + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Marcinus.—Part II. + + The execution of so many innocent citizens was bewailed by the + secret tears of their friends and families. The death of + Papinian, the Prætorian Præfect, was lamented as a public + calamity. 282 During the last seven years of Severus, he had + exercised the most important offices of the state, and, by his + salutary influence, guided the emperor’s steps in the paths of + justice and moderation. In full assurance of his virtue and + abilities, Severus, on his death-bed, had conjured him to watch + over the prosperity and union of the Imperial family. 29 The + honest labors of Papinian served only to inflame the hatred which + Caracalla had already conceived against his father’s minister. + After the murder of Geta, the Præfect was commanded to exert the + powers of his skill and eloquence in a studied apology for that + atrocious deed. The philosophic Seneca had condescended to + compose a similar epistle to the senate, in the name of the son + and assassin of Agrippina. 30 “That it was easier to commit than + to justify a parricide,” was the glorious reply of Papinian; 31 + who did not hesitate between the loss of life and that of honor. + Such intrepid virtue, which had escaped pure and unsullied from + the intrigues of courts, the habits of business, and the arts of + his profession, reflects more lustre on the memory of Papinian, + than all his great employments, his numerous writings, and the + superior reputation as a lawyer, which he has preserved through + every age of the Roman jurisprudence. 32 + + 282 (return) [ Papinian was no longer Prætorian Præfect. + Caracalla had deprived him of that office immediately after the + death of Severus. Such is the statement of Dion; and the + testimony of Spartian, who gives Papinian the Prætorian + præfecture till his death, is of little weight opposed to that of + a senator then living at Rome.—W.] + + 29 (return) [ It is said that Papinian was himself a relation of + the empress Julia.] + + 30 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. xiv. 2.] + + 31 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 88.] + + 32 (return) [ With regard to Papinian, see Heineccius’s Historia + Juris Roma ni, l. 330, &c.] + + It had hitherto been the peculiar felicity of the Romans, and in + the worst of times the consolation, that the virtue of the + emperors was active, and their vice indolent. Augustus, Trajan, + Hadrian, and Marcus visited their extensive dominions in person, + and their progress was marked by acts of wisdom and beneficence. + The tyranny of Tiberius, Nero, and Domitian, who resided almost + constantly at Rome, or in the adjacent was confined to the + senatorial and equestrian orders. 33 But Caracalla was the common + enemy of mankind. He left the capital (and he never returned to + it) about a year after the murder of Geta. The rest of his reign + was spent in the several provinces of the empire, particularly + those of the East, and every province was by turns the scene of + his rapine and cruelty. The senators, compelled by fear to attend + his capricious motions, were obliged to provide daily + entertainments at an immense expense, which he abandoned with + contempt to his guards; and to erect, in every city, magnificent + palaces and theatres, which he either disdained to visit, or + ordered immediately thrown down. The most wealthy families were + ruined by partial fines and confiscations, and the great body of + his subjects oppressed by ingenious and aggravated taxes. 34 In + the midst of peace, and upon the slightest provocation, he issued + his commands, at Alexandria, in Egypt for a general massacre. + From a secure post in the temple of Serapis, he viewed and + directed the slaughter of many thousand citizens, as well as + strangers, without distinguishing the number or the crime of the + sufferers; since as he coolly informed the senate, _all_ the + Alexandrians, those who had perished, and those who had escaped, + were alike guilty. 35 + + 33 (return) [ Tiberius and Domitian never moved from the + neighborhood of Rome. Nero made a short journey into Greece. “Et + laudatorum Principum usus ex æquo, quamvis procul agentibus. Sævi + proximis ingruunt.” Tacit. Hist. iv. 74.] + + 34 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxvii. p. 1294.] + + 35 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxvii. p. 1307. Herodian, l. iv. p. 158. + The former represents it as a cruel massacre, the latter as a + perfidious one too. It seems probable that the Alexandrians has + irritated the tyrant by their railleries, and perhaps by their + tumults. * Note: After these massacres, Caracalla also deprived + the Alexandrians of their spectacles and public feasts; he + divided the city into two parts by a wall with towers at + intervals, to prevent the peaceful communications of the + citizens. Thus was treated the unhappy Alexandria, says Dion, by + the savage beast of Ausonia. This, in fact, was the epithet which + the oracle had applied to him; it is said, indeed, that he was + much pleased with the name and often boasted of it. Dion, lxxvii. + p. 1307.—G.] + + The wise instructions of Severus never made any lasting + impression on the mind of his son, who, although not destitute of + imagination and eloquence, was equally devoid of judgment and + humanity. 36 One dangerous maxim, worthy of a tyrant, was + remembered and abused by Caracalla. “To secure the affections of + the army, and to esteem the rest of his subjects as of little + moment.” 37 But the liberality of the father had been restrained + by prudence, and his indulgence to the troops was tempered by + firmness and authority. The careless profusion of the son was the + policy of one reign, and the inevitable ruin both of the army and + of the empire. The vigor of the soldiers, instead of being + confirmed by the severe discipline of camps, melted away in the + luxury of cities. The excessive increase of their pay and + donatives 38 exhausted the state to enrich the military order, + whose modesty in peace, and service in war, is best secured by an + honorable poverty. The demeanor of Caracalla was haughty and full + of pride; but with the troops he forgot even the proper dignity + of his rank, encouraged their insolent familiarity, and, + neglecting the essential duties of a general, affected to imitate + the dress and manners of a common soldier. + + 36 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxvii. p. 1296.] + + 37 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1284. Mr. Wotton (Hist. of Rome, + p. 330) suspects that this maxim was invented by Caracalla + himself, and attributed to his father.] + + 38 (return) [ Dion (l. lxxviii. p. 1343) informs us that the + extraordinary gifts of Caracalla to the army amounted annually to + seventy millions of drachmæ (about two millions three hundred and + fifty thousand pounds.) There is another passage in Dion, + concerning the military pay, infinitely curious, were it not + obscure, imperfect, and probably corrupt. The best sense seems to + be, that the Prætorian guards received twelve hundred and fifty + drachmæ, (forty pounds a year,) (Dion, l. lxxvii. p. 1307.) Under + the reign of Augustus, they were paid at the rate of two drachmæ, + or denarii, per day, 720 a year, (Tacit. Annal. i. 17.) Domitian, + who increased the soldiers’ pay one fourth, must have raised the + Prætorians to 960 drachmæ, (Gronoviue de Pecunia Veteri, l. iii. + c. 2.) These successive augmentations ruined the empire; for, + with the soldiers’ pay, their numbers too were increased. We have + seen the Prætorians alone increased from 10,000 to 50,000 men. + Note: Valois and Reimar have explained in a very simple and + probable manner this passage of Dion, which Gibbon seems to me + not to have understood. He ordered that the soldiers should + receive, as the reward of their services the Prætorians 1250 + drachms, the other 5000 drachms. Valois thinks that the numbers + have been transposed, and that Caracalla added 5000 drachms to + the donations made to the Prætorians, 1250 to those of the + legionaries. The Prætorians, in fact, always received more than + the others. The error of Gibbon arose from his considering that + this referred to the annual pay of the soldiers, while it relates + to the sum they received as a reward for their services on their + discharge: donatives means recompense for service. Augustus had + settled that the Prætorians, after sixteen campaigns, should + receive 5000 drachms: the legionaries received only 3000 after + twenty years. Caracalla added 5000 drachms to the donative of the + Prætorians, 1250 to that of the legionaries. Gibbon appears to + have been mistaken both in confounding this donative on discharge + with the annual pay, and in not paying attention to the remark of + Valois on the transposition of the numbers in the text.—G] + + It was impossible that such a character, and such conduct as that + of Caracalla, could inspire either love or esteem; but as long as + his vices were beneficial to the armies, he was secure from the + danger of rebellion. A secret conspiracy, provoked by his own + jealousy, was fatal to the tyrant. The Prætorian præfecture was + divided between two ministers. The military department was + intrusted to Adventus, an experienced rather than able soldier; + and the civil affairs were transacted by Opilius Macrinus, who, + by his dexterity in business, had raised himself, with a fair + character, to that high office. But his favor varied with the + caprice of the emperor, and his life might depend on the + slightest suspicion, or the most casual circumstance. Malice or + fanaticism had suggested to an African, deeply skilled in the + knowledge of futurity, a very dangerous prediction, that Macrinus + and his son were destined to reign over the empire. The report + was soon diffused through the province; and when the man was sent + in chains to Rome, he still asserted, in the presence of the + præfect of the city, the faith of his prophecy. That magistrate, + who had received the most pressing instructions to inform himself + of the _successors_ of Caracalla, immediately communicated the + examination of the African to the Imperial court, which at that + time resided in Syria. But, notwithstanding the diligence of the + public messengers, a friend of Macrinus found means to apprise + him of the approaching danger. The emperor received the letters + from Rome; and as he was then engaged in the conduct of a chariot + race, he delivered them unopened to the Prætorian Præfect, + directing him to despatch the ordinary affairs, and to report the + more important business that might be contained in them. Macrinus + read his fate, and resolved to prevent it. He inflamed the + discontents of some inferior officers, and employed the hand of + Martialis, a desperate soldier, who had been refused the rank of + centurion. The devotion of Caracalla prompted him to make a + pilgrimage from Edessa to the celebrated temple of the Moon at + Carrhæ. 381 He was attended by a body of cavalry: but having + stopped on the road for some necessary occasion, his guards + preserved a respectful distance, and Martialis, approaching his + person under a presence of duty, stabbed him with a dagger. The + bold assassin was instantly killed by a Scythian archer of the + Imperial guard. Such was the end of a monster whose life + disgraced human nature, and whose reign accused the patience of + the Romans. 39 The grateful soldiers forgot his vices, remembered + only his partial liberality, and obliged the senate to prostitute + their own dignity and that of religion, by granting him a place + among the gods. Whilst he was upon earth, Alexander the Great was + the only hero whom this god deemed worthy his admiration. He + assumed the name and ensigns of Alexander, formed a Macedonian + phalanx of guards, persecuted the disciples of Aristotle, and + displayed, with a puerile enthusiasm, the only sentiment by which + he discovered any regard for virtue or glory. We can easily + conceive, that after the battle of Narva, and the conquest of + Poland, Charles XII. (though he still wanted the more elegant + accomplishments of the son of Philip) might boast of having + rivalled his valor and magnanimity; but in no one action of his + life did Caracalla express the faintest resemblance of the + Macedonian hero, except in the murder of a great number of his + own and of his father’s friends. 40 + + 381 (return) [ Carrhæ, now Harran, between Edessan and Nisibis, + famous for the defeat of Crassus—the Haran from whence Abraham + set out for the land of Canaan. This city has always been + remarkable for its attachment to Sabaism—G] + + 39 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxviii. p. 1312. Herodian, l. iv. p. + 168.] + + 40 (return) [ The fondness of Caracalla for the name and ensigns + of Alexander is still preserved on the medals of that emperor. + See Spanheim, de Usu Numismatum, Dissertat. xii. Herodian (l. iv. + p. 154) had seen very ridiculous pictures, in which a figure was + drawn with one side of the face like Alexander, and the other + like Caracalla.] + + After the extinction of the house of Severus, the Roman world + remained three days without a master. The choice of the army (for + the authority of a distant and feeble senate was little regarded) + hung in anxious suspense, as no candidate presented himself whose + distinguished birth and merit could engage their attachment and + unite their suffrages. The decisive weight of the Prætorian + guards elevated the hopes of their præfects, and these powerful + ministers began to assert their _legal_ claim to fill the vacancy + of the Imperial throne. Adventus, however, the senior præfect, + conscious of his age and infirmities, of his small reputation, + and his smaller abilities, resigned the dangerous honor to the + crafty ambition of his colleague Macrinus, whose well-dissembled + grief removed all suspicion of his being accessary to his + master’s death. 41 The troops neither loved nor esteemed his + character. They cast their eyes around in search of a competitor, + and at last yielded with reluctance to his promises of unbounded + liberality and indulgence. A short time after his accession, he + conferred on his son Diadumenianus, at the age of only ten years, + the Imperial title, and the popular name of Antoninus. The + beautiful figure of the youth, assisted by an additional + donative, for which the ceremony furnished a pretext, might + attract, it was hoped, the favor of the army, and secure the + doubtful throne of Macrinus. + + 41 (return) [ Herodian, l. iv. p. 169. Hist. August. p. 94.] + + The authority of the new sovereign had been ratified by the + cheerful submission of the senate and provinces. They exulted in + their unexpected deliverance from a hated tyrant, and it seemed + of little consequence to examine into the virtues of the + successor of Caracalla. But as soon as the first transports of + joy and surprise had subsided, they began to scrutinize the + merits of Macrinus with a critical severity, and to arraign the + nasty choice of the army. It had hitherto been considered as a + fundamental maxim of the constitution, that the emperor must be + always chosen in the senate, and the sovereign power, no longer + exercised by the whole body, was always delegated to one of its + members. But Macrinus was not a senator. 42 The sudden elevation + of the Prætorian præfects betrayed the meanness of their origin; + and the equestrian order was still in possession of that great + office, which commanded with arbitrary sway the lives and + fortunes of the senate. A murmur of indignation was heard, that a + man, whose obscure 43 extraction had never been illustrated by + any signal service, should dare to invest himself with the + purple, instead of bestowing it on some distinguished senator, + equal in birth and dignity to the splendor of the Imperial + station. As soon as the character of Macrinus was surveyed by the + sharp eye of discontent, some vices, and many defects, were + easily discovered. The choice of his ministers was in many + instances justly censured, and the dissatisfied people, with + their usual candor, accused at once his indolent tameness and his + excessive severity. 44 + + 42 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxxviii. p. 1350. Elagabalus reproached + his predecessor with daring to seat himself on the throne; + though, as Prætorian præfect, he could not have been admitted + into the senate after the voice of the crier had cleared the + house. The personal favor of Plautianus and Sejanus had broke + through the established rule. They rose, indeed, from the + equestrian order; but they preserved the præfecture, with the + rank of senator and even with the annulship.] + + 43 (return) [ He was a native of Cæsarea, in Numidia, and began + his fortune by serving in the household of Plautian, from whose + ruin he narrowly escaped. His enemies asserted that he was born a + slave, and had exercised, among other infamous professions, that + of Gladiator. The fashion of aspersing the birth and condition of + an adversary seems to have lasted from the time of the Greek + orators to the learned grammarians of the last age.] + + 44 (return) [ Both Dion and Herodian speak of the virtues and + vices of Macrinus with candor and impartiality; but the author of + his life, in the Augustan History, seems to have implicitly + copied some of the venal writers, employed by Elagabalus, to + blacken the memory of his predecessor.] + + His rash ambition had climbed a height where it was difficult to + stand with firmness, and impossible to fall without instant + destruction. Trained in the arts of courts and the forms of civil + business, he trembled in the presence of the fierce and + undisciplined multitude, over whom he had assumed the command; + his military talents were despised, and his personal courage + suspected; a whisper that circulated in the camp, disclosed the + fatal secret of the conspiracy against the late emperor, + aggravated the guilt of murder by the baseness of hypocrisy, and + heightened contempt by detestation. To alienate the soldiers, and + to provoke inevitable ruin, the character of a reformer was only + wanting; and such was the peculiar hardship of his fate, that + Macrinus was compelled to exercise that invidious office. The + prodigality of Caracalla had left behind it a long train of ruin + and disorder; and if that worthless tyrant had been capable of + reflecting on the sure consequences of his own conduct, he would + perhaps have enjoyed the dark prospect of the distress and + calamities which he bequeathed to his successors. + + In the management of this necessary reformation, Macrinus + proceeded with a cautious prudence, which would have restored + health and vigor to the Roman army in an easy and almost + imperceptible manner. To the soldiers already engaged in the + service, he was constrained to leave the dangerous privileges and + extravagant pay given by Caracalla; but the new recruits were + received on the more moderate though liberal establishment of + Severus, and gradually formed to modesty and obedience. 45 One + fatal error destroyed the salutary effects of this judicious + plan. The numerous army, assembled in the East by the late + emperor, instead of being immediately dispersed by Macrinus + through the several provinces, was suffered to remain united in + Syria, during the winter that followed his elevation. In the + luxurious idleness of their quarters, the troops viewed their + strength and numbers, communicated their complaints, and revolved + in their minds the advantages of another revolution. The + veterans, instead of being flattered by the advantageous + distinction, were alarmed by the first steps of the emperor, + which they considered as the presage of his future intentions. + The recruits, with sullen reluctance, entered on a service, whose + labors were increased while its rewards were diminished by a + covetous and unwarlike sovereign. The murmurs of the army swelled + with impunity into seditious clamors; and the partial mutinies + betrayed a spirit of discontent and disaffection that waited only + for the slightest occasion to break out on every side into a + general rebellion. To minds thus disposed, the occasion soon + presented itself. + + 45 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxxiii. p. 1336. The sense of the author + is as the intention of the emperor; but Mr. Wotton has mistaken + both, by understanding the distinction, not of veterans and + recruits, but of old and new legions. History of Rome, p. 347.] + + The empress Julia had experienced all the vicissitudes of + fortune. From an humble station she had been raised to greatness, + only to taste the superior bitterness of an exalted rank. She was + doomed to weep over the death of one of her sons, and over the + life of the other. The cruel fate of Caracalla, though her good + sense must have long taught her to expect it, awakened the + feelings of a mother and of an empress. Notwithstanding the + respectful civility expressed by the usurper towards the widow of + Severus, she descended with a painful struggle into the condition + of a subject, and soon withdrew herself, by a voluntary death, + from the anxious and humiliating dependence. 46 461 Julia Mæsa, + her sister, was ordered to leave the court and Antioch. She + retired to Emesa with an immense fortune, the fruit of twenty + years’ favor accompanied by her two daughters, Soæmias and Mamæ, + each of whom was a widow, and each had an only son. Bassianus, + 462 for that was the name of the son of Soæmias, was consecrated + to the honorable ministry of high priest of the Sun; and this + holy vocation, embraced either from prudence or superstition, + contributed to raise the Syrian youth to the empire of Rome. A + numerous body of troops was stationed at Emesa; and as the severe + discipline of Macrinus had constrained them to pass the winter + encamped, they were eager to revenge the cruelty of such + unaccustomed hardships. The soldiers, who resorted in crowds to + the temple of the Sun, beheld with veneration and delight the + elegant dress and figure of the young pontiff; they recognized, + or they thought that they recognized, the features of Caracalla, + whose memory they now adored. The artful Mæsa saw and cherished + their rising partiality, and readily sacrificing her daughter’s + reputation to the fortune of her grandson, she insinuated that + Bassianus was the natural son of their murdered sovereign. The + sums distributed by her emissaries with a lavish hand silenced + every objection, and the profusion sufficiently proved the + affinity, or at least the resemblance, of Bassianus with the + great original. The young Antoninus (for he had assumed and + polluted that respectable name) was declared emperor by the + troops of Emesa, asserted his hereditary right, and called aloud + on the armies to follow the standard of a young and liberal + prince, who had taken up arms to revenge his father’s death and + the oppression of the military order. 47 + + 46 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxviii. p. 1330. The abridgment of + Xiphilin, though less particular, is in this place clearer than + the original.] + + 461 (return) [ As soon as this princess heard of the death of + Caracalla, she wished to starve herself to death: the respect + shown to her by Macrinus, in making no change in her attendants + or her court, induced her to prolong her life. But it appears, as + far as the mutilated text of Dion and the imperfect epitome of + Xiphilin permit us to judge, that she conceived projects of + ambition, and endeavored to raise herself to the empire. She + wished to tread in the steps of Semiramis and Nitocris, whose + country bordered on her own. Macrinus sent her an order + immediately to leave Antioch, and to retire wherever she chose. + She returned to her former purpose, and starved herself to + death.—G.] + + 462 (return) [ He inherited this name from his great-grandfather + of the mother’s side, Bassianus, father of Julia Mæsa, his + grandmother, and of Julia Domna, wife of Severus. Victor (in his + epitome) is perhaps the only historian who has given the key to + this genealogy, when speaking of Caracalla. His Bassianus ex avi + materni nomine dictus. Caracalla, Elagabalus, and Alexander + Seyerus, bore successively this name.—G.] + + 47 (return) [ According to Lampridius, (Hist. August. p. 135,) + Alexander Severus lived twenty-nine years three months and seven + days. As he was killed March 19, 235, he was born December 12, + 205 and was consequently about this time thirteen years old, as + his elder cousin might be about seventeen. This computation suits + much better the history of the young princes than that of + Herodian, (l. v. p. 181,) who represents them as three years + younger; whilst, by an opposite error of chronology, he lengthens + the reign of Elagabalus two years beyond its real duration. For + the particulars of the conspiracy, see Dion, l. lxxviii. p. 1339. + Herodian, l. v. p. 184.] + + Whilst a conspiracy of women and eunuchs was concerted with + prudence, and conducted with rapid vigor, Macrinus, who, by a + decisive motion, might have crushed his infant enemy, floated + between the opposite extremes of terror and security, which alike + fixed him inactive at Antioch. A spirit of rebellion diffused + itself through all the camps and garrisons of Syria, successive + detachments murdered their officers, 48 and joined the party of + the rebels; and the tardy restitution of military pay and + privileges was imputed to the acknowledged weakness of Macrinus. + At length he marched out of Antioch, to meet the increasing and + zealous army of the young pretender. His own troops seemed to + take the field with faintness and reluctance; but, in the heat of + the battle, 49 the Prætorian guards, almost by an involuntary + impulse, asserted the superiority of their valor and discipline. + The rebel ranks were broken; when the mother and grandmother of + the Syrian prince, who, according to their eastern custom, had + attended the army, threw themselves from their covered chariots, + and, by exciting the compassion of the soldiers, endeavored to + animate their drooping courage. Antoninus himself, who, in the + rest of his life, never acted like a man, in this important + crisis of his fate, approved himself a hero, mounted his horse, + and, at the head of his rallied troops, charged sword in hand + among the thickest of the enemy; whilst the eunuch Gannys, 491 + whose occupations had been confined to female cares and the soft + luxury of Asia, displayed the talents of an able and experienced + general. The battle still raged with doubtful violence, and + Macrinus might have obtained the victory, had he not betrayed his + own cause by a shameful and precipitate flight. His cowardice + served only to protract his life a few days, and to stamp + deserved ignominy on his misfortunes. It is scarcely necessary to + add, that his son Diadumenianus was involved in the same fate. + + As soon as the stubborn Prætorians could be convinced that they + fought for a prince who had basely deserted them, they + surrendered to the conqueror: the contending parties of the Roman + army, mingling tears of joy and tenderness, united under the + banners of the imagined son of Caracalla, and the East + acknowledged with pleasure the first emperor of Asiatic + extraction. + + 48 (return) [ By a most dangerous proclamation of the pretended + Antoninus, every soldier who brought in his officer’s head became + entitled to his private estate, as well as to his military + commission.] + + 49 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxviii. p. 1345. Herodian, l. v. p. 186. + The battle was fought near the village of Immæ, about + two-and-twenty miles from Antioch.] + + 491 (return) [ Gannys was not a eunuch. Dion, p. 1355.—W] + + The letters of Macrinus had condescended to inform the senate of + the slight disturbance occasioned by an impostor in Syria, and a + decree immediately passed, declaring the rebel and his family + public enemies; with a promise of pardon, however, to such of his + deluded adherents as should merit it by an immediate return to + their duty. During the twenty days that elapsed from the + declaration of the victory of Antoninus (for in so short an + interval was the fate of the Roman world decided,) the capital + and the provinces, more especially those of the East, were + distracted with hopes and fears, agitated with tumult, and + stained with a useless effusion of civil blood, since whosoever + of the rivals prevailed in Syria must reign over the empire. The + specious letters in which the young conqueror announced his + victory to the obedient senate were filled with professions of + virtue and moderation; the shining examples of Marcus and + Augustus, he should ever consider as the great rule of his + administration; and he affected to dwell with pride on the + striking resemblance of his own age and fortunes with those of + Augustus, who in the earliest youth had revenged, by a successful + war, the murder of his father. By adopting the style of Marcus + Aurelius Antoninus, son of Antoninus and grandson of Severus, he + tacitly asserted his hereditary claim to the empire; but, by + assuming the tribunitian and proconsular powers before they had + been conferred on him by a decree of the senate, he offended the + delicacy of Roman prejudice. This new and injudicious violation + of the constitution was probably dictated either by the ignorance + of his Syrian courtiers, or the fierce disdain of his military + followers. 50 + + 50 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxix. p. 1353.] + + As the attention of the new emperor was diverted by the most + trifling amusements, he wasted many months in his luxurious + progress from Syria to Italy, passed at Nicomedia his first + winter after his victory, and deferred till the ensuing summer + his triumphal entry into the capital. A faithful picture, + however, which preceded his arrival, and was placed by his + immediate order over the altar of Victory in the senate house, + conveyed to the Romans the just but unworthy resemblance of his + person and manners. He was drawn in his sacerdotal robes of silk + and gold, after the loose flowing fashion of the Medes and + Phœnicians; his head was covered with a lofty tiara, his numerous + collars and bracelets were adorned with gems of an inestimable + value. His eyebrows were tinged with black, and his cheeks + painted with an artificial red and white. 51 The grave senators + confessed with a sigh, that, after having long experienced the + stern tyranny of their own countrymen, Rome was at length humbled + beneath the effeminate luxury of Oriental despotism. + + 51 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxix. p. 1363. Herodian, l. v. p. 189.] + + The Sun was worshipped at Emesa, under the name of Elagabalus, 52 + and under the form of a black conical stone, which, as it was + universally believed, had fallen from heaven on that sacred + place. To this protecting deity, Antoninus, not without some + reason, ascribed his elevation to the throne. The display of + superstitious gratitude was the only serious business of his + reign. The triumph of the god of Emesa over all the religions of + the earth, was the great object of his zeal and vanity; and the + appellation of Elagabalus (for he presumed as pontiff and + favorite to adopt that sacred name) was dearer to him than all + the titles of Imperial greatness. In a solemn procession through + the streets of Rome, the way was strewed with gold dust; the + black stone, set in precious gems, was placed on a chariot drawn + by six milk-white horses richly caparisoned. The pious emperor + held the reins, and, supported by his ministers, moved slowly + backwards, that he might perpetually enjoy the felicity of the + divine presence. In a magnificent temple raised on the Palatine + Mount, the sacrifices of the god Elagabalus were celebrated with + every circumstance of cost and solemnity. The richest wines, the + most extraordinary victims, and the rarest aromatics, were + profusely consumed on his altar. Around the altar, a chorus of + Syrian damsels performed their lascivious dances to the sound of + barbarian music, whilst the gravest personages of the state and + army, clothed in long Phœnician tunics, officiated in the meanest + functions, with affected zeal and secret indignation. 53 + + 52 (return) [ This name is derived by the learned from two Syrian + words, Ela a God, and Gabal, to form, the forming or plastic god, + a proper, and even happy epithet for the sun. Wotton’s History of + Rome, p. 378 Note: The name of Elagabalus has been disfigured in + various ways. Herodian calls him; Lampridius, and the more modern + writers, make him Heliogabalus. Dion calls him Elegabalus; but + Elegabalus was the true name, as it appears on the medals. + (Eckhel. de Doct. num. vet. t. vii. p. 250.) As to its etymology, + that which Gibbon adduces is given by Bochart, Chan. ii. 5; but + Salmasius, on better grounds. (not. in Lamprid. in Elagab.,) + derives the name of Elagabalus from the idol of that god, + represented by Herodian and the medals in the form of a mountain, + (gibel in Hebrew,) or great stone cut to a point, with marks + which represent the sun. As it was not permitted, at Hierapolis, + in Syria, to make statues of the sun and moon, because, it was + said, they are themselves sufficiently visible, the sun was + represented at Emesa in the form of a great stone, which, as it + appeared, had fallen from heaven. Spanheim, Cæsar. notes, p. + 46.—G. The name of Elagabalus, in “nummis rarius legetur.” + Rasche, Lex. Univ. Ref. Numm. Rasche quotes two.—M] + + 53 (return) [ Herodian, l. v. p. 190.] + + + + + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Marcinus.—Part III. + + To this temple, as to the common centre of religious worship, the + Imperial fanatic attempted to remove the Ancilia, the Palladium, + 54 and all the sacred pledges of the faith of Numa. A crowd of + inferior deities attended in various stations the majesty of the + god of Emesa; but his court was still imperfect, till a female of + distinguished rank was admitted to his bed. Pallas had been first + chosen for his consort; but as it was dreaded lest her warlike + terrors might affright the soft delicacy of a Syrian deity, the + Moon, adored by the Africans under the name of Astarte, was + deemed a more suitable companion for the Sun. Her image, with the + rich offerings of her temple as a marriage portion, was + transported with solemn pomp from Carthage to Rome, and the day + of these mystic nuptials was a general festival in the capital + and throughout the empire. 55 + + 54 (return) [ He broke into the sanctuary of Vesta, and carried + away a statue, which he supposed to be the palladium; but the + vestals boasted that, by a pious fraud, they had imposed a + counterfeit image on the profane intruder. Hist. August., p. + 103.] + + 55 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxix. p. 1360. Herodian, l. v. p. 193. + The subjects of the empire were obliged to make liberal presents + to the new married couple; and whatever they had promised during + the life of Elagabalus was carefully exacted under the + administration of Mamæa.] + + A rational voluptuary adheres with invariable respect to the + temperate dictates of nature, and improves the gratifications of + sense by social intercourse, endearing connections, and the soft + coloring of taste and the imagination. But Elagabalus, (I speak + of the emperor of that name,) corrupted by his youth, his + country, and his fortune, abandoned himself to the grossest + pleasures with ungoverned fury, and soon found disgust and + satiety in the midst of his enjoyments. The inflammatory powers + of art were summoned to his aid: the confused multitude of women, + of wines, and of dishes, and the studied variety of attitude and + sauces, served to revive his languid appetites. New terms and new + inventions in these sciences, the only ones cultivated and + patronized by the monarch, 56 signalized his reign, and + transmitted his infamy to succeeding times. A capricious + prodigality supplied the want of taste and elegance; and whilst + Elagabalus lavished away the treasures of his people in the + wildest extravagance, his own voice and that of his flatterers + applauded a spirit of magnificence unknown to the tameness of his + predecessors. To confound the order of seasons and climates, 57 + to sport with the passions and prejudices of his subjects, and to + subvert every law of nature and decency, were in the number of + his most delicious amusements. A long train of concubines, and a + rapid succession of wives, among whom was a vestal virgin, + ravished by force from her sacred asylum, 58 were insufficient to + satisfy the impotence of his passions. The master of the Roman + world affected to copy the dress and manners of the female sex, + preferred the distaff to the sceptre, and dishonored the + principal dignities of the empire by distributing them among his + numerous lovers; one of whom was publicly invested with the title + and authority of the emperor’s, or, as he more properly styled + himself, of the empress’s husband. 59 + + 56 (return) [ The invention of a new sauce was liberally + rewarded; but if it was not relished, the inventor was confined + to eat of nothing else till he had discovered another more + agreeable to the Imperial palate Hist. August. p. 111.] + + 57 (return) [ He never would eat sea-fish except at a great + distance from the sea; he then would distribute vast quantities + of the rarest sorts, brought at an immense expense, to the + peasants of the inland country. Hist. August. p. 109.] + + 58 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxix. p. 1358. Herodian, l. v. p. 192.] + + 59 (return) [ Hierocles enjoyed that honor; but he would have + been supplanted by one Zoticus, had he not contrived, by a + potion, to enervate the powers of his rival, who, being found on + trial unequal to his reputation, was driven with ignominy from + the palace. Dion, l. lxxix. p. 1363, 1364. A dancer was made + præfect of the city, a charioteer præfect of the watch, a barber + præfect of the provisions. These three ministers, with many + inferior officers, were all recommended enormitate membrorum. + Hist. August. p. 105.] + + It may seem probable, the vices and follies of Elagabalus have + been adorned by fancy, and blackened by prejudice. 60 Yet, + confining ourselves to the public scenes displayed before the + Roman people, and attested by grave and contemporary historians, + their inexpressible infamy surpasses that of any other age or + country. The license of an eastern monarch is secluded from the + eye of curiosity by the inaccessible walls of his seraglio. The + sentiments of honor and gallantry have introduced a refinement of + pleasure, a regard for decency, and a respect for the public + opinion, into the modern courts of Europe; 601 but the corrupt + and opulent nobles of Rome gratified every vice that could be + collected from the mighty conflux of nations and manners. Secure + of impunity, careless of censure, they lived without restraint in + the patient and humble society of their slaves and parasites. The + emperor, in his turn, viewing every rank of his subjects with the + same contemptuous indifference, asserted without control his + sovereign privilege of lust and luxury. + + 60 (return) [ Even the credulous compiler of his life, in the + Augustan History (p. 111) is inclined to suspect that his vices + may have been exaggerated.] + + 601 (return) [ Wenck has justly observed that Gibbon should have + reckoned the influence of Christianity in this great change. In + the most savage times, and the most corrupt courts, since the + introduction of Christianity there have been no Neros or + Domitians, no Commodus or Elagabalus.—M.] + + The most worthless of mankind are not afraid to condemn in others + the same disorders which they allow in themselves; and can + readily discover some nice difference of age, character, or + station, to justify the partial distinction. The licentious + soldiers, who had raised to the throne the dissolute son of + Caracalla, blushed at their ignominious choice, and turned with + disgust from that monster, to contemplate with pleasure the + opening virtues of his cousin Alexander, the son of Mamæa. The + crafty Mæsa, sensible that her grandson Elagabalus must + inevitably destroy himself by his own vices, had provided another + and surer support of her family. Embracing a favorable moment of + fondness and devotion, she had persuaded the young emperor to + adopt Alexander, and to invest him with the title of Cæsar, that + his own divine occupations might be no longer interrupted by the + care of the earth. In the second rank that amiable prince soon + acquired the affections of the public, and excited the tyrant’s + jealousy, who resolved to terminate the dangerous competition, + either by corrupting the manners, or by taking away the life, of + his rival. His arts proved unsuccessful; his vain designs were + constantly discovered by his own loquacious folly, and + disappointed by those virtuous and faithful servants whom the + prudence of Mamæa had placed about the person of her son. In a + hasty sally of passion, Elagabalus resolved to execute by force + what he had been unable to compass by fraud, and by a despotic + sentence degraded his cousin from the rank and honors of Cæsar. + The message was received in the senate with silence, and in the + camp with fury. The Prætorian guards swore to protect Alexander, + and to revenge the dishonored majesty of the throne. The tears + and promises of the trembling Elagabalus, who only begged them to + spare his life, and to leave him in the possession of his beloved + Hierocles, diverted their just indignation; and they contented + themselves with empowering their præfects to watch over the + safety of Alexander, and the conduct of the emperor. 61 + + 61 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxix. p. 1365. Herodian, l. v. p. + 195—201. Hist. August. p. 105. The last of the three historians + seems to have followed the best authors in his account of the + revolution.] + + It was impossible that such a reconciliation should last, or that + even the mean soul of Elagabalus could hold an empire on such + humiliating terms of dependence. He soon attempted, by a + dangerous experiment, to try the temper of the soldiers. The + report of the death of Alexander, and the natural suspicion that + he had been murdered, inflamed their passions into fury, and the + tempest of the camp could only be appeased by the presence and + authority of the popular youth. Provoked at this new instance of + their affection for his cousin, and their contempt for his + person, the emperor ventured to punish some of the leaders of the + mutiny. His unseasonable severity proved instantly fatal to his + minions, his mother, and himself. Elagabalus was massacred by the + indignant Prætorians, his mutilated corpse dragged through the + streets of the city, and thrown into the Tiber. His memory was + branded with eternal infamy by the senate; the justice of whose + decree has been ratified by posterity. 62 + + 62 (return) [ The æra of the death of Elagabalus, and of the + accession of Alexander, has employed the learning and ingenuity + of Pagi, Tillemont, Valsecchi, Vignoli, and Torre, bishop of + Adria. The question is most assuredly intricate; but I still + adhere to the authority of Dion, the truth of whose calculations + is undeniable, and the purity of whose text is justified by the + agreement of Xiphilin, Zonaras, and Cedrenus. Elagabalus reigned + three years nine months and four days, from his victory over + Macrinus, and was killed March 10, 222. But what shall we reply + to the medals, undoubtedly genuine, which reckon the fifth year + of his tribunitian power? We shall reply, with the learned + Valsecchi, that the usurpation of Macrinus was annihilated, and + that the son of Caracalla dated his reign from his father’s + death? After resolving this great difficulty, the smaller knots + of this question may be easily untied, or cut asunder. Note: This + opinion of Valsecchi has been triumphantly contested by Eckhel, + who has shown the impossibility of reconciling it with the medals + of Elagabalus, and has given the most satisfactory explanation of + the five tribunates of that emperor. He ascended the throne and + received the tribunitian power the 16th of May, in the year of + Rome 971; and on the 1st January of the next year, 972, he began + a new tribunate, according to the custom established by preceding + emperors. During the years 972, 973, 974, he enjoyed the + tribunate, and commenced his fifth in the year 975, during which + he was killed on the 10th March. Eckhel de Doct. Num. viii. 430 + &c.—G.] + + In the room of Elagabalus, his cousin Alexander was raised to the + throne by the Prætorian guards. His relation to the family of + Severus, whose name he assumed, was the same as that of his + predecessor; his virtue and his danger had already endeared him + to the Romans, and the eager liberality of the senate conferred + upon him, in one day, the various titles and powers of the + Imperial dignity. 63 But as Alexander was a modest and dutiful + youth, of only seventeen years of age, the reins of government + were in the hands of two women, of his mother, Mamæa, and of + Mæsa, his grandmother. After the death of the latter, who + survived but a short time the elevation of Alexander, Mamæa + remained the sole regent of her son and of the empire. + + 63 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 114. By this unusual + precipitation, the senate meant to confound the hopes of + pretenders, and prevent the factions of the armies.] + + In every age and country, the wiser, or at least the stronger, of + the two sexes, has usurped the powers of the state, and confined + the other to the cares and pleasures of domestic life. In + hereditary monarchies, however, and especially in those of modern + Europe, the gallant spirit of chivalry, and the law of + succession, have accustomed us to allow a singular exception; and + a woman is often acknowledged the absolute sovereign of a great + kingdom, in which she would be deemed incapable of exercising the + smallest employment, civil or military. But as the Roman emperors + were still considered as the generals and magistrates of the + republic, their wives and mothers, although distinguished by the + name of Augusta, were never associated to their personal honors; + and a female reign would have appeared an inexpiable prodigy in + the eyes of those primitive Romans, who married without love, or + loved without delicacy and respect. 64 The haughty Agrippina + aspired, indeed, to share the honors of the empire which she had + conferred on her son; but her mad ambition, detested by every + citizen who felt for the dignity of Rome, was disappointed by the + artful firmness of Seneca and Burrhus. 65 The good sense, or the + indifference, of succeeding princes, restrained them from + offending the prejudices of their subjects; and it was reserved + for the profligate Elagabalus to discharge the acts of the senate + with the name of his mother Soæmias, who was placed by the side + of the consuls, and subscribed, as a regular member, the decrees + of the legislative assembly. Her more prudent sister, Mamæa, + declined the useless and odious prerogative, and a solemn law was + enacted, excluding women forever from the senate, and devoting to + the infernal gods the head of the wretch by whom this sanction + should be violated. 66 The substance, not the pageantry, of power + was the object of Mamæa’s manly ambition. She maintained an + absolute and lasting empire over the mind of her son, and in his + affection the mother could not brook a rival. Alexander, with her + consent, married the daughter of a patrician; but his respect for + his father-in-law, and love for the empress, were inconsistent + with the tenderness of interest of Mamæa. The patrician was + executed on the ready accusation of treason, and the wife of + Alexander driven with ignominy from the palace, and banished into + Africa. 67 + + 64 (return) [ Metellus Numidicus, the censor, acknowledged to the + Roman people, in a public oration, that had kind nature allowed + us to exist without the help of women, we should be delivered + from a very troublesome companion; and he could recommend + matrimony only as the sacrifice of private pleasure to public + duty. Aulus Gellius, i. 6.] + + 65 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. xiii. 5.] + + 66 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 102, 107.] + + 67 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxx. p. 1369. Herodian, l. vi. p. 206. + Hist. August. p. 131. Herodian represents the patrician as + innocent. The Augustian History, on the authority of Dexippus, + condemns him, as guilty of a conspiracy against the life of + Alexander. It is impossible to pronounce between them; but Dion + is an irreproachable witness of the jealousy and cruelty of Mamæa + towards the young empress, whose hard fate Alexander lamented, + but durst not oppose.] + + Notwithstanding this act of jealous cruelty, as well as some + instances of avarice, with which Mamæa is charged, the general + tenor of her administration was equally for the benefit of her + son and of the empire. With the approbation of the senate, she + chose sixteen of the wisest and most virtuous senators as a + perpetual council of state, before whom every public business of + moment was debated and determined. The celebrated Ulpian, equally + distinguished by his knowledge of, and his respect for, the laws + of Rome, was at their head; and the prudent firmness of this + aristocracy restored order and authority to the government. As + soon as they had purged the city from foreign superstition and + luxury, the remains of the capricious tyranny of Elagabalus, they + applied themselves to remove his worthless creatures from every + department of the public administration, and to supply their + places with men of virtue and ability. Learning, and the love of + justice, became the only recommendations for civil offices; + valor, and the love of discipline, the only qualifications for + military employments. 68 + + 68 (return) [ Herodian, l. vi. p. 203. Hist. August. p. 119. The + latter insinuates, that when any law was to be passed, the + council was assisted by a number of able lawyers and experienced + senators, whose opinions were separately given, and taken down in + writing.] + + But the most important care of Mamæa and her wise counsellors, + was to form the character of the young emperor, on whose personal + qualities the happiness or misery of the Roman world must + ultimately depend. The fortunate soil assisted, and even + prevented, the hand of cultivation. An excellent understanding + soon convinced Alexander of the advantages of virtue, the + pleasure of knowledge, and the necessity of labor. A natural + mildness and moderation of temper preserved him from the assaults + of passion, and the allurements of vice. His unalterable regard + for his mother, and his esteem for the wise Ulpian, guarded his + unexperienced youth from the poison of flattery. 581 + + 581 (return) [ Alexander received into his chapel all the + religions which prevailed in the empire; he admitted Jesus + Christ, Abraham, Orpheus, Apollonius of Tyana, &c. It was almost + certain that his mother Mamæa had instructed him in the morality + of Christianity. Historians in general agree in calling her a + Christian; there is reason to believe that she had begun to have + a taste for the principles of Christianity. (See Tillemont, + Alexander Severus) Gibbon has not noticed this circumstance; he + appears to have wished to lower the character of this empress; he + has throughout followed the narrative of Herodian, who, by the + acknowledgment of Capitolinus himself, detested Alexander. + Without believing the exaggerated praises of Lampridius, he ought + not to have followed the unjust severity of Herodian, and, above + all, not to have forgotten to say that the virtuous Alexander + Severus had insured to the Jews the preservation of their + privileges, and permitted the exercise of Christianity. Hist. + Aug. p. 121. The Christians had established their worship in a + public place, of which the victuallers (cauponarii) claimed, not + the property, but possession by custom. Alexander answered, that + it was better that the place should be used for the service of + God, in any form, than for victuallers.—G. I have scrupled to + omit this note, as it contains some points worthy of notice; but + it is very unjust to Gibbon, who mentions almost all the + circumstances, which he is accused of omitting, in another, and, + according to his plan, a better place, and, perhaps, in stronger + terms than M. Guizot. See Chap. xvi.— M.] + + The simple journal of his ordinary occupations exhibits a + pleasing picture of an accomplished emperor, 69 and, with some + allowance for the difference of manners, might well deserve the + imitation of modern princes. Alexander rose early: the first + moments of the day were consecrated to private devotion, and his + domestic chapel was filled with the images of those heroes, who, + by improving or reforming human life, had deserved the grateful + reverence of posterity. But as he deemed the service of mankind + the most acceptable worship of the gods, the greatest part of his + morning hours was employed in his council, where he discussed + public affairs, and determined private causes, with a patience + and discretion above his years. The dryness of business was + relieved by the charms of literature; and a portion of time was + always set apart for his favorite studies of poetry, history, and + philosophy. The works of Virgil and Horace, the republics of + Plato and Cicero, formed his taste, enlarged his understanding, + and gave him the noblest ideas of man and government. The + exercises of the body succeeded to those of the mind; and + Alexander, who was tall, active, and robust, surpassed most of + his equals in the gymnastic arts. Refreshed by the use of the + bath and a slight dinner, he resumed, with new vigor, the + business of the day; and, till the hour of supper, the principal + meal of the Romans, he was attended by his secretaries, with whom + he read and answered the multitude of letters, memorials, and + petitions, that must have been addressed to the master of the + greatest part of the world. His table was served with the most + frugal simplicity, and whenever he was at liberty to consult his + own inclination, the company consisted of a few select friends, + men of learning and virtue, amongst whom Ulpian was constantly + invited. Their conversation was familiar and instructive; and the + pauses were occasionally enlivened by the recital of some + pleasing composition, which supplied the place of the dancers, + comedians, and even gladiators, so frequently summoned to the + tables of the rich and luxurious Romans. 70 The dress of + Alexander was plain and modest, his demeanor courteous and + affable: at the proper hours his palace was open to all his + subjects, but the voice of a crier was heard, as in the + Eleusinian mysteries, pronouncing the same salutary admonition: + “Let none enter these holy walls, unless he is conscious of a + pure and innocent mind.” 71 + + 69 (return) [ See his life in the Augustan History. The + undistinguishing compiler has buried these interesting anecdotes + under a load of trivial unmeaning circumstances.] + + 70 (return) [ See the 13th Satire of Juvenal.] + + 71 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 119.] + + Such a uniform tenor of life, which left not a moment for vice or + folly, is a better proof of the wisdom and justice of Alexander’s + government, than all the trifling details preserved in the + compilation of Lampridius. Since the accession of Commodus, the + Roman world had experienced, during the term of forty years, the + successive and various vices of four tyrants. From the death of + Elagabalus, it enjoyed an auspicious calm of thirteen years. 711 + The provinces, relieved from the oppressive taxes invented by + Caracalla and his pretended son, flourished in peace and + prosperity, under the administration of magistrates who were + convinced by experience that to deserve the love of the subjects + was their best and only method of obtaining the favor of their + sovereign. While some gentle restraints were imposed on the + innocent luxury of the Roman people, the price of provisions and + the interest of money, were reduced by the paternal care of + Alexander, whose prudent liberality, without distressing the + industrious, supplied the wants and amusements of the populace. + The dignity, the freedom, the authority of the senate was + restored; and every virtuous senator might approach the person of + the emperor without a fear and without a blush. + + 711 (return) [ Wenck observes that Gibbon, enchanted with the + virtue of Alexander has heightened, particularly in this + sentence, its effect on the state of the world. His own account, + which follows, of the insurrections and foreign wars, is not in + harmony with this beautiful picture.—M.] + + The name of Antoninus, ennobled by the virtues of Pius and + Marcus, had been communicated by adoption to the dissolute Verus, + and by descent to the cruel Commodus. It became the honorable + appellation of the sons of Severus, was bestowed on young + Diadumenianus, and at length prostituted to the infamy of the + high priest of Emesa. Alexander, though pressed by the studied, + and, perhaps, sincere importunity of the senate, nobly refused + the borrowed lustre of a name; whilst in his whole conduct he + labored to restore the glories and felicity of the age of the + genuine Antonines. 72 + + 72 (return) [ See, in the Hist. August. p. 116, 117, the whole + contest between Alexander and the senate, extracted from the + journals of that assembly. It happened on the sixth of March, + probably of the year 223, when the Romans had enjoyed, almost a + twelvemonth, the blessings of his reign. Before the appellation + of Antoninus was offered him as a title of honor, the senate + waited to see whether Alexander would not assume it as a family + name.] + + In the civil administration of Alexander, wisdom was enforced by + power, and the people, sensible of the public felicity, repaid + their benefactor with their love and gratitude. There still + remained a greater, a more necessary, but a more difficult + enterprise; the reformation of the military order, whose interest + and temper, confirmed by long impunity, rendered them impatient + of the restraints of discipline, and careless of the blessings of + public tranquillity. In the execution of his design, the emperor + affected to display his love, and to conceal his fear of the + army. The most rigid economy in every other branch of the + administration supplied a fund of gold and silver for the + ordinary pay and the extraordinary rewards of the troops. In + their marches he relaxed the severe obligation of carrying + seventeen days’ provision on their shoulders. Ample magazines + were formed along the public roads, and as soon as they entered + the enemy’s country, a numerous train of mules and camels waited + on their haughty laziness. As Alexander despaired of correcting + the luxury of his soldiers, he attempted, at least, to direct it + to objects of martial pomp and ornament, fine horses, splendid + armor, and shields enriched with silver and gold. He shared + whatever fatigues he was obliged to impose, visited, in person, + the sick and wounded, preserved an exact register of their + services and his own gratitude, and expressed on every occasion, + the warmest regard for a body of men, whose welfare, as he + affected to declare, was so closely connected with that of the + state. 73 By the most gentle arts he labored to inspire the + fierce multitude with a sense of duty, and to restore at least a + faint image of that discipline to which the Romans owed their + empire over so many other nations, as warlike and more powerful + than themselves. But his prudence was vain, his courage fatal, + and the attempt towards a reformation served only to inflame the + ills it was meant to cure. + + 73 (return) [ It was a favorite saying of the emperor’s Se + milites magis servare, quam seipsum, quod salus publica in his + esset. Hist. Aug. p. 130.] + + The Prætorian guards were attached to the youth of Alexander. + They loved him as a tender pupil, whom they had saved from a + tyrant’s fury, and placed on the Imperial throne. That amiable + prince was sensible of the obligation; but as his gratitude was + restrained within the limits of reason and justice, they soon + were more dissatisfied with the virtues of Alexander, than they + had ever been with the vices of Elagabalus. Their præfect, the + wise Ulpian, was the friend of the laws and of the people; he was + considered as the enemy of the soldiers, and to his pernicious + counsels every scheme of reformation was imputed. Some trifling + accident blew up their discontent into a furious mutiny; and the + civil war raged, during three days, in Rome, whilst the life of + that excellent minister was defended by the grateful people. + Terrified, at length, by the sight of some houses in flames, and + by the threats of a general conflagration, the people yielded + with a sigh, and left the virtuous but unfortunate Ulpian to his + fate. He was pursued into the Imperial palace, and massacred at + the feet of his master, who vainly strove to cover him with the + purple, and to obtain his pardon from the inexorable soldiers. + 731 Such was the deplorable weakness of government, that the + emperor was unable to revenge his murdered friend and his + insulted dignity, without stooping to the arts of patience and + dissimulation. Epagathus, the principal leader of the mutiny, was + removed from Rome, by the honorable employment of præfect of + Egypt: from that high rank he was gently degraded to the + government of Crete; and when at length, his popularity among the + guards was effaced by time and absence, Alexander ventured to + inflict the tardy but deserved punishment of his crimes. 74 Under + the reign of a just and virtuous prince, the tyranny of the army + threatened with instant death his most faithful ministers, who + were suspected of an intention to correct their intolerable + disorders. The historian Dion Cassius had commanded the Pannonian + legions with the spirit of ancient discipline. Their brethren of + Rome, embracing the common cause of military license, demanded + the head of the reformer. Alexander, however, instead of yielding + to their seditious clamors, showed a just sense of his merit and + services, by appointing him his colleague in the consulship, and + defraying from his own treasury the expense of that vain dignity: + but as was justly apprehended, that if the soldiers beheld him + with the ensigns of his office, they would revenge the insult in + his blood, the nominal first magistrate of the state retired, by + the emperor’s advice, from the city, and spent the greatest part + of his consulship at his villas in Campania. 75 751 + + 731 (return) [ Gibbon has confounded two events altogether + different— the quarrel of the people with the Prætorians, which + lasted three days, and the assassination of Ulpian by the latter. + Dion relates first the death of Ulpian, afterwards, reverting + back according to a manner which is usual with him, he says that + during the life of Ulpian, there had been a war of three days + between the Prætorians and the people. But Ulpian was not the + cause. Dion says, on the contrary, that it was occasioned by some + unimportant circumstance; whilst he assigns a weighty reason for + the murder of Ulpian, the judgment by which that Prætorian + præfect had condemned his predecessors, Chrestus and Flavian, to + death, whom the soldiers wished to revenge. Zosimus (l. 1, c. + xi.) attributes this sentence to Mamæra; but, even then, the + troops might have imputed it to Ulpian, who had reaped all the + advantage and was otherwise odious to them.—W.] + + 74 (return) [ Though the author of the life of Alexander (Hist. + August. p. 182) mentions the sedition raised against Ulpian by + the soldiers, he conceals the catastrophe, as it might discover a + weakness in the administration of his hero. From this designed + omission, we may judge of the weight and candor of that author.] + + 75 (return) [ For an account of Ulpian’s fate and his own danger, + see the mutilated conclusion of Dion’s History, l. lxxx. p. + 1371.] + + 751 (return) [ Dion possessed no estates in Campania, and was not + rich. He only says that the emperor advised him to reside, during + his consulate, in some place out of Rome; that he returned to + Rome after the end of his consulate, and had an interview with + the emperor in Campania. He asked and obtained leave to pass the + rest of his life in his native city, (Nice, in Bithynia: ) it was + there that he finished his history, which closes with his second + consulship.—W.] + + + + + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Marcinus.—Part IV. + + The lenity of the emperor confirmed the insolence of the troops; + the legions imitated the example of the guards, and defended + their prerogative of licentiousness with the same furious + obstinacy. The administration of Alexander was an unavailing + struggle against the corruption of his age. In llyricum, in + Mauritania, in Armenia, in Mesopotamia, in Germany, fresh + mutinies perpetually broke out; his officers were murdered, his + authority was insulted, and his life at last sacrificed to the + fierce discontents of the army. 76 One particular fact well + deserves to be recorded, as it illustrates the manners of the + troops, and exhibits a singular instance of their return to a + sense of duty and obedience. Whilst the emperor lay at Antioch, + in his Persian expedition, the particulars of which we shall + hereafter relate, the punishment of some soldiers, who had been + discovered in the baths of women, excited a sedition in the + legion to which they belonged. Alexander ascended his tribunal, + and with a modest firmness represented to the armed multitude the + absolute necessity, as well as his inflexible resolution, of + correcting the vices introduced by his impure predecessor, and of + maintaining the discipline, which could not be relaxed without + the ruin of the Roman name and empire. Their clamors interrupted + his mild expostulation. “Reserve your shout,” said the undaunted + emperor, “till you take the field against the Persians, the + Germans, and the Sarmatians. Be silent in the presence of your + sovereign and benefactor, who bestows upon you the corn, the + clothing, and the money of the provinces. Be silent, or I shall + no longer style you solders, but _citizens_, 77 if those indeed + who disclaim the laws of Rome deserve to be ranked among the + meanest of the people.” His menaces inflamed the fury of the + legion, and their brandished arms already threatened his person. + “Your courage,” resumed the intrepid Alexander, “would be more + nobly displayed in the field of battle; _me_ you may destroy, you + cannot intimidate; and the severe justice of the republic would + punish your crime and revenge my death.” The legion still + persisted in clamorous sedition, when the emperor pronounced, + with a loud voice, the decisive sentence, “_Citizens!_ lay down + your arms, and depart in peace to your respective habitations.” + The tempest was instantly appeased: the soldiers, filled with + grief and shame, silently confessed the justice of their + punishment, and the power of discipline, yielded up their arms + and military ensigns, and retired in confusion, not to their + camp, but to the several inns of the city. Alexander enjoyed, + during thirty days, the edifying spectacle of their repentance; + nor did he restore them to their former rank in the army, till he + had punished with death those tribunes whose connivance had + occasioned the mutiny. The grateful legion served the emperor + whilst living, and revenged him when dead. 78 + + 76 (return) [ Annot. Reimar. ad Dion Cassius, l. lxxx. p. 1369.] + + 77 (return) [ Julius Cæsar had appeased a sedition with the same + word, Quirites; which, thus opposed to soldiers, was used in a + sense of contempt, and reduced the offenders to the less + honorable condition of mere citizens. Tacit. Annal. i. 43.] + + 78 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 132.] + + The resolutions of the multitude generally depend on a moment; + and the caprice of passion might equally determine the seditious + legion to lay down their arms at the emperor’s feet, or to plunge + them into his breast. Perhaps, if this singular transaction had + been investigated by the penetration of a philosopher, we should + discover the secret causes which on that occasion authorized the + boldness of the prince, and commanded the obedience of the + troops; and perhaps, if it had been related by a judicious + historian, we should find this action, worthy of Cæsar himself, + reduced nearer to the level of probability and the common + standard of the character of Alexander Severus. The abilities of + that amiable prince seem to have been inadequate to the + difficulties of his situation, the firmness of his conduct + inferior to the purity of his intentions. His virtues, as well as + the vices of Elagabalus, contracted a tincture of weakness and + effeminacy from the soft climate of Syria, of which he was a + native; though he blushed at his foreign origin, and listened + with a vain complacency to the flattering genealogists, who + derived his race from the ancient stock of Roman nobility. 79 The + pride and avarice of his mother cast a shade on the glories of + his reign; and by exacting from his riper years the same dutiful + obedience which she had justly claimed from his unexperienced + youth, Mamæa exposed to public ridicule both her son’s character + and her own. 80 The fatigues of the Persian war irritated the + military discontent; the unsuccessful event 801 degraded the + reputation of the emperor as a general, and even as a soldier. + Every cause prepared, and every circumstance hastened, a + revolution, which distracted the Roman empire with a long series + of intestine calamities. + + 79 (return) [ From the Metelli. Hist. August. p. 119. The choice + was judicious. In one short period of twelve years, the Metelli + could reckon seven consulships and five triumphs. See Velleius + Paterculus, ii. 11, and the Fasti.] + + 80 (return) [ The life of Alexander, in the Augustan History, is + the mere idea of a perfect prince, an awkward imitation of the + Cyropædia. The account of his reign, as given by Herodian, is + rational and moderate, consistent with the general history of the + age; and, in some of the most invidious particulars, confirmed by + the decisive fragments of Dion. Yet from a very paltry prejudice, + the greater number of our modern writers abuse Herodian, and copy + the Augustan History. See Mess de Tillemont and Wotton. From the + opposite prejudice, the emperor Julian (in Cæsarib. p. 315) + dwells with a visible satisfaction on the effeminate weakness of + the Syrian, and the ridiculous avarice of his mother.] + + 801 (return) [ Historians are divided as to the success of the + campaign against the Persians; Herodian alone speaks of defeat. + Lampridius, Eutropius, Victor, and others, say that it was very + glorious to Alexander; that he beat Artaxerxes in a great battle, + and repelled him from the frontiers of the empire. This much is + certain, that Alexander, on his return to Rome, (Lamp. Hist. Aug. + c. 56, 133, 134,) received the honors of a triumph, and that he + said, in his oration to the people. Quirites, vicimus Persas, + milites divites reduximus, vobis congiarium pollicemur, cras + ludos circenses Persicos donabimus. Alexander, says Eckhel, had + too much modesty and wisdom to permit himself to receive honors + which ought only to be the reward of victory, if he had not + deserved them; he would have contented himself with dissembling + his losses. Eckhel, Doct. Num. vet. vii. 276. The medals + represent him as in triumph; one, among others, displays him + crowned by Victory between two rivers, the Euphrates and the + Tigris. P. M. TR. P. xii. Cos. iii. PP. Imperator paludatus D. + hastam. S. parazonium, stat inter duos fluvios humi jacentes, et + ab accedente retro Victoria coronatur. Æ. max. mod. (Mus. Reg. + Gall.) Although Gibbon treats this question more in detail when + he speaks of the Persian monarchy, I have thought fit to place + here what contradicts his opinion.—G] + + The dissolute tyranny of Commodus, the civil wars occasioned by + his death, and the new maxims of policy introduced by the house + of Severus, had all contributed to increase the dangerous power + of the army, and to obliterate the faint image of laws and + liberty that was still impressed on the minds of the Romans. The + internal change, which undermined the foundations of the empire, + we have endeavored to explain with some degree of order and + perspicuity. The personal characters of the emperors, their + victories, laws, follies, and fortunes, can interest us no + farther than as they are connected with the general history of + the Decline and Fall of the monarchy. Our constant attention to + that great object will not suffer us to overlook a most important + edict of Antoninus Caracalla, which communicated to all the free + inhabitants of the empire the name and privileges of Roman + citizens. His unbounded liberality flowed not, however, from the + sentiments of a generous mind; it was the sordid result of + avarice, and will naturally be illustrated by some observations + on the finances of that state, from the victorious ages of the + commonwealth to the reign of Alexander Severus. + + The siege of Veii in Tuscany, the first considerable enterprise + of the Romans, was protracted to the tenth year, much less by the + strength of the place than by the unskilfulness of the besiegers. + The unaccustomed hardships of so many winter campaigns, at the + distance of near twenty miles from home, 81 required more than + common encouragements; and the senate wisely prevented the + clamors of the people, by the institution of a regular pay for + the soldiers, which was levied by a general tribute, assessed + according to an equitable proportion on the property of the + citizens. 82 During more than two hundred years after the + conquest of Veii, the victories of the republic added less to the + wealth than to the power of Rome. The states of Italy paid their + tribute in military service only, and the vast force, both by sea + and land, which was exerted in the Punic wars, was maintained at + the expense of the Romans themselves. That high-spirited people + (such is often the generous enthusiasm of freedom) cheerfully + submitted to the most excessive but voluntary burdens, in the + just confidence that they should speedily enjoy the rich harvest + of their labors. Their expectations were not disappointed. In the + course of a few years, the riches of Syracuse, of Carthage, of + Macedonia, and of Asia, were brought in triumph to Rome. The + treasures of Perseus alone amounted to near two millions + sterling, and the Roman people, the sovereign of so many nations, + was forever delivered from the weight of taxes. 83 The increasing + revenue of the provinces was found sufficient to defray the + ordinary establishment of war and government, and the superfluous + mass of gold and silver was deposited in the temple of Saturn, + and reserved for any unforeseen emergency of the state. 84 + + 81 (return) [ According to the more accurate Dionysius, the city + itself was only a hundred stadia, or twelve miles and a half, + from Rome, though some out-posts might be advanced farther on the + side of Etruria. Nardini, in a professed treatise, has combated + the popular opinion and the authority of two popes, and has + removed Veii from Civita Castellana, to a little spot called + Isola, in the midway between Rome and the Lake Bracianno. * Note: + See the interesting account of the site and ruins of Veii in Sir + W Gell’s topography of Rome and its Vicinity. v. ii. p. 303.—M.] + + 82 (return) [ See the 4th and 5th books of Livy. In the Roman + census, property, power, and taxation were commensurate with each + other.] + + 83 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. l. xxxiii. c. 3. Cicero de + Offic. ii. 22. Plutarch, P. Æmil. p. 275.] + + 84 (return) [ See a fine description of this accumulated wealth + of ages in Phars. l. iii. v. 155, &c.] + + History has never, perhaps, suffered a greater or more + irreparable injury than in the loss of the curious register 841 + bequeathed by Augustus to the senate, in which that experienced + prince so accurately balanced the revenues and expenses of the + Roman empire. 85 Deprived of this clear and comprehensive + estimate, we are reduced to collect a few imperfect hints from + such of the ancients as have accidentally turned aside from the + splendid to the more useful parts of history. We are informed + that, by the conquests of Pompey, the tributes of Asia were + raised from fifty to one hundred and thirty-five millions of + drachms; or about four millions and a half sterling. 86 861 Under + the last and most indolent of the Ptolemies, the revenue of Egypt + is said to have amounted to twelve thousand five hundred talents; + a sum equivalent to more than two millions and a half of our + money, but which was afterwards considerably improved by the more + exact economy of the Romans, and the increase of the trade of + Æthiopia and India. 87 Gaul was enriched by rapine, as Egypt was + by commerce, and the tributes of those two great provinces have + been compared as nearly equal to each other in value. 88 The ten + thousand Euboic or Phœnician talents, about four millions + sterling, 89 which vanquished Carthage was condemned to pay + within the term of fifty years, were a slight acknowledgment of + the superiority of Rome, 90 and cannot bear the least proportion + with the taxes afterwards raised both on the lands and on the + persons of the inhabitants, when the fertile coast of Africa was + reduced into a province. 91 + + 841 (return) [ See Rationarium imperii. Compare besides Tacitus, + Suet. Aug. c. ult. Dion, p. 832. Other emperors kept and + published similar registers. See a dissertation of Dr. Wolle, de + Rationario imperii Rom. Leipsig, 1773. The last book of Appian + also contained the statistics of the Roman empire, but it is + lost.—W.] + + 85 (return) [ Tacit. in Annal. i. ll. It seems to have existed in + the time of Appian.] + + 86 (return) [ Plutarch, in Pompeio, p. 642.] + + 861 (return) [ Wenck contests the accuracy of Gibbon’s version of + Plutarch, and supposes that Pompey only raised the revenue from + 50,000,000 to 85,000,000 of drachms; but the text of Plutarch + seems clearly to mean that his conquests added 85,000,000 to the + ordinary revenue. Wenck adds, “Plutarch says in another part, + that Antony made Asia pay, at one time, 200,000 talents, that is + to say, 38,875,000 L. sterling.” But Appian explains this by + saying that it was the revenue of ten years, which brings the + annual revenue, at the time of Antony, to 3,875,000 L. + sterling.—M.] + + 87 (return) [ Strabo, l. xvii. p. 798.] + + 88 (return) [ Velleius Paterculus, l. ii. c. 39. He seems to give + the preference to the revenue of Gaul.] + + 89 (return) [ The Euboic, the Phœnician, and the Alexandrian + talents were double in weight to the Attic. See Hooper on ancient + weights and measures, p. iv. c. 5. It is very probable that the + same talent was carried from Tyre to Carthage.] + + 90 (return) [ Polyb. l. xv. c. 2.] + + 91 (return) [ Appian in Punicis, p. 84.] + + Spain, by a very singular fatality, was the Peru and Mexico of + the old world. The discovery of the rich western continent by the + Phœnicians, and the oppression of the simple natives, who were + compelled to labor in their own mines for the benefit of + strangers, form an exact type of the more recent history of + Spanish America. 92 The Phœnicians were acquainted only with the + sea-coast of Spain; avarice, as well as ambition, carried the + arms of Rome and Carthage into the heart of the country, and + almost every part of the soil was found pregnant with copper, + silver, and gold. 921 Mention is made of a mine near Carthagena + which yielded every day twenty-five thousand drachmns of silver, + or about three hundred thousand pounds a year. 93 Twenty thousand + pound weight of gold was annually received from the provinces of + Asturia, Gallicia, and Lusitania. 94 + + 92 (return) [ Diodorus Siculus, l. 5. Oadiz was built by the + Phœnicians a little more than a thousand years before Christ. See + Vell. Pa ter. i.2.] + + 921 (return) [ Compare Heeren’s Researches vol. i. part ii. p.] + + 93 (return) [ Strabo, l. iii. p. 148.] + + 94 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. l. xxxiii. c. 3. He mentions + likewise a silver mine in Dalmatia, that yielded every day fifty + pounds to the state.] We want both leisure and materials to + pursue this curious inquiry through the many potent states that + were annihilated in the Roman empire. Some notion, however, may + be formed of the revenue of the provinces where considerable + wealth had been deposited by nature, or collected by man, if we + observe the severe attention that was directed to the abodes of + solitude and sterility. Augustus once received a petition from + the inhabitants of Gyarus, humbly praying that they might be + relieved from one third of their excessive impositions. Their + whole tax amounted indeed to no more than one hundred and fifty + drachms, or about five pounds: but Gyarus was a little island, or + rather a rock, of the Ægean Sea, destitute of fresh water and + every necessary of life, and inhabited only by a few wretched + fishermen. 95 + + 95 (return) [ Strabo, l. x. p. 485. Tacit. Annal. iu. 69, and iv. + 30. See Tournefort (Voyages au Levant, Lettre viii.) a very + lively picture of the actual misery of Gyarus.] + + From the faint glimmerings of such doubtful and scattered lights, + we should be inclined to believe, 1st, That (with every fair + allowance for the differences of times and circumstances) the + general income of the Roman provinces could seldom amount to less + than fifteen or twenty millions of our money; 96 and, 2dly, That + so ample a revenue must have been fully adequate to all the + expenses of the moderate government instituted by Augustus, whose + court was the modest family of a private senator, and whose + military establishment was calculated for the defence of the + frontiers, without any aspiring views of conquest, or any serious + apprehension of a foreign invasion. + + 96 (return) [ Lipsius de magnitudine Romana (l. ii. c. 3) + computes the revenue at one hundred and fifty millions of gold + crowns; but his whole book, though learned and ingenious, betrays + a very heated imagination. Note: If Justus Lipsius has + exaggerated the revenue of the Roman empire Gibbon, on the other + hand, has underrated it. He fixes it at fifteen or twenty + millions of our money. But if we take only, on a moderate + calculation, the taxes in the provinces which he has already + cited, they will amount, considering the augmentations made by + Augustus, to nearly that sum. There remain also the provinces of + Italy, of Rhætia, of Noricum, Pannonia, and Greece, &c., &c. Let + us pay attention, besides, to the prodigious expenditure of some + emperors, (Suet. Vesp. 16;) we shall see that such a revenue + could not be sufficient. The authors of the Universal History, + part xii., assign forty millions sterling as the sum to about + which the public revenue might amount.—G. from W.] + + Notwithstanding the seeming probability of both these + conclusions, the latter of them at least is positively disowned + by the language and conduct of Augustus. It is not easy to + determine whether, on this occasion, he acted as the common + father of the Roman world, or as the oppressor of liberty; + whether he wished to relieve the provinces, or to impoverish the + senate and the equestrian order. But no sooner had he assumed the + reins of government, than he frequently intimated the + insufficiency of the tributes, and the necessity of throwing an + equitable proportion of the public burden upon Rome and Italy. + 961 In the prosecution of this unpopular design, he advanced, + however, by cautious and well-weighed steps. The introduction of + customs was followed by the establishment of an excise, and the + scheme of taxation was completed by an artful assessment on the + real and personal property of the Roman citizens, who had been + exempted from any kind of contribution above a century and a + half. + + 961 (return) [ It is not astonishing that Augustus held this + language. The senate declared also under Nero, that the state + could not exist without the imposts as well augmented as founded + by Augustus. Tac. Ann. xiii. 50. After the abolition of the + different tributes paid by Italy, an abolition which took place + A. U. 646, 694, and 695, the state derived no revenues from that + great country, but the twentieth part of the manumissions, + (vicesima manumissionum,) and Ciero laments this in many places, + particularly in his epistles to ii. 15.—G. from W.] + + I. In a great empire like that of Rome, a natural balance of + money must have gradually established itself. It has been already + observed, that as the wealth of the provinces was attracted to + the capital by the strong hand of conquest and power, so a + considerable part of it was restored to the industrious provinces + by the gentle influence of commerce and arts. In the reign of + Augustus and his successors, duties were imposed on every kind of + merchandise, which through a thousand channels flowed to the + great centre of opulence and luxury; and in whatsoever manner the + law was expressed, it was the Roman purchaser, and not the + provincial merchant, who paid the tax. 97 The rate of the customs + varied from the eighth to the fortieth part of the value of the + commodity; and we have a right to suppose that the variation was + directed by the unalterable maxims of policy; that a higher duty + was fixed on the articles of luxury than on those of necessity, + and that the productions raised or manufactured by the labor of + the subjects of the empire were treated with more indulgence than + was shown to the pernicious, or at least the unpopular, commerce + of Arabia and India. 98 There is still extant a long but + imperfect catalogue of eastern commodities, which about the time + of Alexander Severus were subject to the payment of duties; + cinnamon, myrrh, pepper, ginger, and the whole tribe of + aromatics; a great variety of precious stones, among which the + diamond was the most remarkable for its price, and the emerald + for its beauty; 99 Parthian and Babylonian leather, cottons, + silks, both raw and manufactured, ebony ivory, and eunuchs. 100 + We may observe that the use and value of those effeminate slaves + gradually rose with the decline of the empire. + + 97 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. xiii. 31. * Note: The customs + (portoria) existed in the times of the ancient kings of Rome. + They were suppressed in Italy, A. U. 694, by the Prætor, Cecilius + Matellus Nepos. Augustus only reestablished them. See note + above.—W.] + + 98 (return) [See Pliny, (Hist. Natur. l. vi. c. 23, lxii. c. 18.) + His observation that the Indian commodities were sold at Rome at + a hundred times their original price, may give us some notion of + the produce of the customs, since that original price amounted to + more than eight hundred thousand pounds.] + + 99 (return) [ The ancients were unacquainted with the art of + cutting diamonds.] + + 100 (return) [ M. Bouchaud, in his treatise de l’Impot chez les + Romains, has transcribed this catalogue from the Digest, and + attempts to illustrate it by a very prolix commentary. * Note: In + the Pandects, l. 39, t. 14, de Publican. Compare Cicero in + Verrem. c. 72—74.—W.] + + II. The excise, introduced by Augustus after the civil wars, was + extremely moderate, but it was general. It seldom exceeded one + _per cent_.; but it comprehended whatever was sold in the markets + or by public auction, from the most considerable purchases of + lands and houses, to those minute objects which can only derive a + value from their infinite multitude and daily consumption. Such a + tax, as it affects the body of the people, has ever been the + occasion of clamor and discontent. An emperor well acquainted + with the wants and resources of the state was obliged to declare, + by a public edict, that the support of the army depended in a + great measure on the produce of the excise. 101 + + 101 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. i. 78. Two years afterwards, the + reduction of the poor kingdom of Cappadocia gave Tiberius a + pretence for diminishing the excise of one half, but the relief + was of very short duration.] + + III. When Augustus resolved to establish a permanent military + force for the defence of his government against foreign and + domestic enemies, he instituted a peculiar treasury for the pay + of the soldiers, the rewards of the veterans, and the + extra-ordinary expenses of war. The ample revenue of the excise, + though peculiarly appropriated to those uses, was found + inadequate. To supply the deficiency, the emperor suggested a new + tax of five per cent. on all legacies and inheritances. But the + nobles of Rome were more tenacious of property than of freedom. + Their indignant murmurs were received by Augustus with his usual + temper. He candidly referred the whole business to the senate, + and exhorted them to provide for the public service by some other + expedient of a less odious nature. They were divided and + perplexed. He insinuated to them, that their obstinacy would + oblige him to _propose_ a general land tax and capitation. They + acquiesced in silence. 102 The new imposition on legacies and + inheritances was, however, mitigated by some restrictions. It did + not take place unless the object was of a certain value, most + probably of fifty or a hundred pieces of gold; 103 nor could it + be exacted from the nearest of kin on the father’s side. 104 When + the rights of nature and poverty were thus secured, it seemed + reasonable, that a stranger, or a distant relation, who acquired + an unexpected accession of fortune, should cheerfully resign a + twentieth part of it, for the benefit of the state. 105 + + 102 (return) [ Dion Cassius, l. lv. p. 794, l. lvi. p. 825. Note: + Dion neither mentions this proposition nor the capitation. He + only says that the emperor imposed a tax upon landed property, + and sent every where men employed to make a survey, without + fixing how much, and for how much each was to pay. The senators + then preferred giving the tax on legacies and inheritances.—W.] + + 103 (return) [ The sum is only fixed by conjecture.] + + 104 (return) [ As the Roman law subsisted for many ages, the + Cognati, or relations on the mother’s side, were not called to + the succession. This harsh institution was gradually undermined + by humanity, and finally abolished by Justinian.] + + 105 (return) [ Plin. Panegyric. c. 37.] + + Such a tax, plentiful as it must prove in every wealthy + community, was most happily suited to the situation of the + Romans, who could frame their arbitrary wills, according to the + dictates of reason or caprice, without any restraint from the + modern fetters of entails and settlements. From various causes, + the partiality of paternal affection often lost its influence + over the stern patriots of the commonwealth, and the dissolute + nobles of the empire; and if the father bequeathed to his son the + fourth part of his estate, he removed all ground of legal + complaint. 106 But a rich childish old man was a domestic tyrant, + and his power increased with his years and infirmities. A servile + crowd, in which he frequently reckoned prætors and consuls, + courted his smiles, pampered his avarice, applauded his follies, + served his passions, and waited with impatience for his death. + The arts of attendance and flattery were formed into a most + lucrative science; those who professed it acquired a peculiar + appellation; and the whole city, according to the lively + descriptions of satire, was divided between two parties, the + hunters and their game. 107 Yet, while so many unjust and + extravagant wills were every day dictated by cunning and + subscribed by folly, a few were the result of rational esteem and + virtuous gratitude. Cicero, who had so often defended the lives + and fortunes of his fellow-citizens, was rewarded with legacies + to the amount of a hundred and seventy thousand pounds; 108 nor + do the friends of the younger Pliny seem to have been less + generous to that amiable orator. 109 Whatever was the motive of + the testator, the treasury claimed, without distinction, the + twentieth part of his estate: and in the course of two or three + generations, the whole property of the subject must have + gradually passed through the coffers of the state. + + 106 (return) [ See Heineccius in the Antiquit. Juris Romani, l. + ii.] + + 107 (return) [ Horat. l. ii. Sat. v. Potron. c. 116, &c. Plin. l. + ii. Epist. 20.] + + 108 (return) [ Cicero in Philip. ii. c. 16.] + + 109 (return) [ See his epistles. Every such will gave him an + occasion of displaying his reverence to the dead, and his justice + to the living. He reconciled both in his behavior to a son who + had been disinherited by his mother, (v.l.)] + + In the first and golden years of the reign of Nero, that prince, + from a desire of popularity, and perhaps from a blind impulse of + benevolence, conceived a wish of abolishing the oppression of the + customs and excise. The wisest senators applauded his + magnanimity: but they diverted him from the execution of a design + which would have dissolved the strength and resources of the + republic. 110 Had it indeed been possible to realize this dream + of fancy, such princes as Trajan and the Antonines would surely + have embraced with ardor the glorious opportunity of conferring + so signal an obligation on mankind. Satisfied, however, with + alleviating the public burden, they attempted not to remove it. + The mildness and precision of their laws ascertained the rule and + measure of taxation, and protected the subject of every rank + against arbitrary interpretations, antiquated claims, and the + insolent vexation of the farmers of the revenue. 111 For it is + somewhat singular, that, in every age, the best and wisest of the + Roman governors persevered in this pernicious method of + collecting the principal branches at least of the excise and + customs. 112 + + 110 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. xiii. 50. Esprit des Loix, l. xii. + c. 19.] + + 111 (return) [ See Pliny’s Panegyric, the Augustan History, and + Burman de Vectigal. passim.] + + 112 (return) [ The tributes (properly so called) were not farmed; + since the good princes often remitted many millions of arrears.] + + The sentiments, and, indeed, the situation, of Caracalla were + very different from those of the Antonines. Inattentive, or + rather averse, to the welfare of his people, he found himself + under the necessity of gratifying the insatiate avarice which he + had excited in the army. Of the several impositions introduced by + Augustus, the twentieth on inheritances and legacies was the most + fruitful, as well as the most comprehensive. As its influence was + not confined to Rome or Italy, the produce continually increased + with the gradual extension of the Roman City. The new citizens, + though charged, on equal terms, 113 with the payment of new + taxes, which had not affected them as subjects, derived an ample + compensation from the rank they obtained, the privileges they + acquired, and the fair prospect of honors and fortune that was + thrown open to their ambition. But the favor which implied a + distinction was lost in the prodigality of Caracalla, and the + reluctant provincials were compelled to assume the vain title, + and the real obligations, of Roman citizens. 1131 Nor was the + rapacious son of Severus contented with such a measure of + taxation as had appeared sufficient to his moderate predecessors. + Instead of a twentieth, he exacted a tenth of all legacies and + inheritances; and during his reign (for the ancient proportion + was restored after his death) he crushed alike every part of the + empire under the weight of his iron sceptre. 114 + + 113 (return) [ The situation of the new citizens is minutely + described by Pliny, (Panegyric, c. 37, 38, 39). Trajan published + a law very much in their favor.] + + 1131 (return) [ Gibbon has adopted the opinion of Spanheim and of + Burman, which attributes to Caracalla this edict, which gave the + right of the city to all the inhabitants of the provinces. This + opinion may be disputed. Several passages of Spartianus, of + Aurelius Victor, and of Aristides, attribute this edict to Marc. + Aurelius. See a learned essay, entitled Joh. P. Mahneri Comm. de + Marc. Aur. Antonino Constitutionis de Civitate Universo Orbi + Romano data auctore. Halæ, 1772, 8vo. It appears that Marc. + Aurelius made some modifications of this edict, which released + the provincials from some of the charges imposed by the right of + the city, and deprived them of some of the advantages which it + conferred. Caracalla annulled these modifications.—W.] + + 114 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxvii. p. 1295.] + + When all the provincials became liable to the peculiar + impositions of Roman citizens, they seemed to acquire a legal + exemption from the tributes which they had paid in their former + condition of subjects. Such were not the maxims of government + adopted by Caracalla and his pretended son. The old as well as + the new taxes were, at the same time, levied in the provinces. It + was reserved for the virtue of Alexander to relieve them in a + great measure from this intolerable grievance, by reducing the + tributes to a thirteenth part of the sum exacted at the time of + his accession. 115 It is impossible to conjecture the motive that + engaged him to spare so trifling a remnant of the public evil; + but the noxious weed, which had not been totally eradicated, + again sprang up with the most luxuriant growth, and in the + succeeding age darkened the Roman world with its deadly shade. In + the course of this history, we shall be too often summoned to + explain the land tax, the capitation, and the heavy contributions + of corn, wine, oil, and meat, which were exacted from the + provinces for the use of the court, the army, and the capital. + + 115 (return) [ He who paid ten aurei, the usual tribute, was + charged with no more than the third part of an aureus, and + proportional pieces of gold were coined by Alexander’s order. + Hist. August. p. 127, with the commentary of Salmasius.] + + As long as Rome and Italy were respected as the centre of + government, a national spirit was preserved by the ancient, and + insensibly imbibed by the adopted, citizens. The principal + commands of the army were filled by men who had received a + liberal education, were well instructed in the advantages of laws + and letters, and who had risen, by equal steps, through the + regular succession of civil and military honors. 116 To their + influence and example we may partly ascribe the modest obedience + of the legions during the two first centuries of the Imperial + history. + + 116 (return) [ See the lives of Agricola, Vespasian, Trajan, + Severus, and his three competitors; and indeed of all the eminent + men of those times.] + + But when the last enclosure of the Roman constitution was + trampled down by Caracalla, the separation of professions + gradually succeeded to the distinction of ranks. The more + polished citizens of the internal provinces were alone qualified + to act as lawyers and magistrates. The rougher trade of arms was + abandoned to the peasants and barbarians of the frontiers, who + knew no country but their camp, no science but that of war, no + civil laws, and scarcely those of military discipline. With + bloody hands, savage manners, and desperate resolutions, they + sometimes guarded, but much oftener subverted, the throne of the + emperors. + + + + + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of + Maximin.—Part I. + + The Elevation And Tyranny Of Maximin.—Rebellion In Africa And + Italy, Under The Authority Of The Senate.—Civil Wars And + Seditions.—Violent Deaths Of Maximin And His Son, Of Maximus And + Balbinus, And Of The Three Gordians.— Usurpation And Secular Games + Of Philip. + + Of the various forms of government which have prevailed in the + world, an hereditary monarchy seems to present the fairest scope + for ridicule. Is it possible to relate without an indignant + smile, that, on the father’s decease, the property of a nation, + like that of a drove of oxen, descends to his infant son, as yet + unknown to mankind and to himself; and that the bravest warriors + and the wisest statesmen, relinquishing their natural right to + empire, approach the royal cradle with bended knees and + protestations of inviolable fidelity? Satire and declamation may + paint these obvious topics in the most dazzling colors, but our + more serious thoughts will respect a useful prejudice, that + establishes a rule of succession, independent of the passions of + mankind; and we shall cheerfully acquiesce in any expedient which + deprives the multitude of the dangerous, and indeed the ideal, + power of giving themselves a master. + + In the cool shade of retirement, we may easily devise imaginary + forms of government, in which the sceptre shall be constantly + bestowed on the most worthy, by the free and incorrupt suffrage + of the whole community. Experience overturns these airy fabrics, + and teaches us, that in a large society, the election of a + monarch can never devolve to the wisest, or to the most numerous + part of the people. The army is the only order of men + sufficiently united to concur in the same sentiments, and + powerful enough to impose them on the rest of their + fellow-citizens; but the temper of soldiers, habituated at once + to violence and to slavery, renders them very unfit guardians of + a legal, or even a civil constitution. Justice, humanity, or + political wisdom, are qualities they are too little acquainted + with in themselves, to appreciate them in others. Valor will + acquire their esteem, and liberality will purchase their + suffrage; but the first of these merits is often lodged in the + most savage breasts; the latter can only exert itself at the + expense of the public; and both may be turned against the + possessor of the throne, by the ambition of a daring rival. + + The superior prerogative of birth, when it has obtained the + sanction of time and popular opinion, is the plainest and least + invidious of all distinctions among mankind. The acknowledged + right extinguishes the hopes of faction, and the conscious + security disarms the cruelty of the monarch. To the firm + establishment of this idea we owe the peaceful succession and + mild administration of European monarchies. To the defect of it + we must attribute the frequent civil wars, through which an + Asiatic despot is obliged to cut his way to the throne of his + fathers. Yet, even in the East, the sphere of contention is + usually limited to the princes of the reigning house, and as soon + as the more fortunate competitor has removed his brethren by the + sword and the bowstring, he no longer entertains any jealousy of + his meaner subjects. But the Roman empire, after the authority of + the senate had sunk into contempt, was a vast scene of confusion. + The royal, and even noble, families of the provinces had long + since been led in triumph before the car of the haughty + republicans. The ancient families of Rome had successively fallen + beneath the tyranny of the Cæsars; and whilst those princes were + shackled by the forms of a commonwealth, and disappointed by the + repeated failure of their posterity, 1 it was impossible that any + idea of hereditary succession should have taken root in the minds + of their subjects. The right to the throne, which none could + claim from birth, every one assumed from merit. The daring hopes + of ambition were set loose from the salutary restraints of law + and prejudice; and the meanest of mankind might, without folly, + entertain a hope of being raised by valor and fortune to a rank + in the army, in which a single crime would enable him to wrest + the sceptre of the world from his feeble and unpopular master. + After the murder of Alexander Severus, and the elevation of + Maximin, no emperor could think himself safe upon the throne, and + every barbarian peasant of the frontier might aspire to that + august, but dangerous station. + + 1 (return) [ There had been no example of three successive + generations on the throne; only three instances of sons who + succeeded their fathers. The marriages of the Cæsars + (notwithstanding the permission, and the frequent practice of + divorces) were generally unfruitful.] + + About thirty-two years before that event, the emperor Severus, + returning from an eastern expedition, halted in Thrace, to + celebrate, with military games, the birthday of his younger son, + Geta. The country flocked in crowds to behold their sovereign, + and a young barbarian of gigantic stature earnestly solicited, in + his rude dialect, that he might be allowed to contend for the + prize of wrestling. As the pride of discipline would have been + disgraced in the overthrow of a Roman soldier by a Thracian + peasant, he was matched with the stoutest followers of the camp, + sixteen of whom he successively laid on the ground. His victory + was rewarded by some trifling gifts, and a permission to enlist + in the troops. The next day, the happy barbarian was + distinguished above a crowd of recruits, dancing and exulting + after the fashion of his country. As soon as he perceived that he + had attracted the emperor’s notice, he instantly ran up to his + horse, and followed him on foot, without the least appearance of + fatigue, in a long and rapid career. “Thracian,” said Severus + with astonishment, “art thou disposed to wrestle after thy race?” + “Most willingly, sir,” replied the unwearied youth; and, almost + in a breath, overthrew seven of the strongest soldiers in the + army. A gold collar was the prize of his matchless vigor and + activity, and he was immediately appointed to serve in the + horseguards who always attended on the person of the sovereign. 2 + + 2 (return) [ Hist. August p. 138.] + + Maximin, for that was his name, though born on the territories of + the empire, descended from a mixed race of barbarians. His father + was a Goth, and his mother of the nation of the Alani. He + displayed on every occasion a valor equal to his strength; and + his native fierceness was soon tempered or disguised by the + knowledge of the world. Under the reign of Severus and his son, + he obtained the rank of centurion, with the favor and esteem of + both those princes, the former of whom was an excellent judge of + merit. Gratitude forbade Maximin to serve under the assassin of + Caracalla. Honor taught him to decline the effeminate insults of + Elagabalus. On the accession of Alexander he returned to court, + and was placed by that prince in a station useful to the service, + and honorable to himself. The fourth legion, to which he was + appointed tribune, soon became, under his care, the best + disciplined of the whole army. With the general applause of the + soldiers, who bestowed on their favorite hero the names of Ajax + and Hercules, he was successively promoted to the first military + command; 3 and had not he still retained too much of his savage + origin, the emperor might perhaps have given his own sister in + marriage to the son of Maximin. 4 + + 3 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 140. Herodian, l. vi. p. 223. + Aurelius Victor. By comparing these authors, it should seem that + Maximin had the particular command of the Tribellian horse, with + the general commission of disciplining the recruits of the whole + army. His biographer ought to have marked, with more care, his + exploits, and the successive steps of his military promotions.] + + 4 (return) [ See the original letter of Alexander Severus, Hist. + August. p. 149.] + + Instead of securing his fidelity, these favors served only to + inflame the ambition of the Thracian peasant, who deemed his + fortune inadequate to his merit, as long as he was constrained to + acknowledge a superior. Though a stranger to real wisdom, he was + not devoid of a selfish cunning, which showed him that the + emperor had lost the affection of the army, and taught him to + improve their discontent to his own advantage. It is easy for + faction and calumny to shed their poison on the administration of + the best of princes, and to accuse even their virtues by artfully + confounding them with those vices to which they bear the nearest + affinity. The troops listened with pleasure to the emissaries of + Maximin. They blushed at their own ignominious patience, which, + during thirteen years, had supported the vexatious discipline + imposed by an effeminate Syrian, the timid slave of his mother + and of the senate. It was time, they cried, to cast away that + useless phantom of the civil power, and to elect for their prince + and general a real soldier, educated in camps, exercised in war, + who would assert the glory, and distribute among his companions + the treasures, of the empire. A great army was at that time + assembled on the banks of the Rhine, under the command of the + emperor himself, who, almost immediately after his return from + the Persian war, had been obliged to march against the barbarians + of Germany. The important care of training and reviewing the new + levies was intrusted to Maximin. One day, as he entered the field + of exercise, the troops, either from a sudden impulse, or a + formed conspiracy, saluted him emperor, silenced by their loud + acclamations his obstinate refusal, and hastened to consummate + their rebellion by the murder of Alexander Severus. + + The circumstances of his death are variously related. The + writers, who suppose that he died in ignorance of the ingratitude + and ambition of Maximin affirm that, after taking a frugal repast + in the sight of the army, he retired to sleep, and that, about + the seventh hour of the day, a part of his own guards broke into + the imperial tent, and, with many wounds, assassinated their + virtuous and unsuspecting prince. 5 If we credit another, and + indeed a more probable account, Maximin was invested with the + purple by a numerous detachment, at the distance of several miles + from the head-quarters; and he trusted for success rather to the + secret wishes than to the public declarations of the great army. + Alexander had sufficient time to awaken a faint sense of loyalty + among the troops; but their reluctant professions of fidelity + quickly vanished on the appearance of Maximin, who declared + himself the friend and advocate of the military order, and was + unanimously acknowledged emperor of the Romans by the applauding + legions. The son of Mamæa, betrayed and deserted, withdrew into + his tent, desirous at least to conceal his approaching fate from + the insults of the multitude. He was soon followed by a tribune + and some centurions, the ministers of death; but instead of + receiving with manly resolution the inevitable stroke, his + unavailing cries and entreaties disgraced the last moments of his + life, and converted into contempt some portion of the just pity + which his innocence and misfortunes must inspire. His mother, + Mamæa, whose pride and avarice he loudly accused as the cause of + his ruin, perished with her son. The most faithful of his friends + were sacrificed to the first fury of the soldiers. Others were + reserved for the more deliberate cruelty of the usurper; and + those who experienced the mildest treatment, were stripped of + their employments, and ignominiously driven from the court and + army. 6 + + 5 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 135. I have softened some of the + most improbable circumstances of this wretched biographer. From + his ill-worded narration, it should seem that the prince’s + buffoon having accidentally entered the tent, and awakened the + slumbering monarch, the fear of punishment urged him to persuade + the disaffected soldiers to commit the murder.] + + 6 (return) [ Herodian, l. vi. 223-227.] + + The former tyrants, Caligula and Nero, Commodus, and Caracalla, + were all dissolute and unexperienced youths, 7 educated in the + purple, and corrupted by the pride of empire, the luxury of Rome, + and the perfidious voice of flattery. The cruelty of Maximin was + derived from a different source, the fear of contempt. Though he + depended on the attachment of the soldiers, who loved him for + virtues like their own, he was conscious that his mean and + barbarian origin, his savage appearance, and his total ignorance + of the arts and institutions of civil life, 8 formed a very + unfavorable contrast with the amiable manners of the unhappy + Alexander. He remembered, that, in his humbler fortune, he had + often waited before the door of the haughty nobles of Rome, and + had been denied admittance by the insolence of their slaves. He + recollected too the friendship of a few who had relieved his + poverty, and assisted his rising hopes. But those who had + spurned, and those who had protected, the Thracian, were guilty + of the same crime, the knowledge of his original obscurity. For + this crime many were put to death; and by the execution of + several of his benefactors, Maximin published, in characters of + blood, the indelible history of his baseness and ingratitude. 9 + + 7 (return) [ Caligula, the eldest of the four, was only + twenty-five years of age when he ascended the throne; Caracalla + was twenty-three, Commodus nineteen, and Nero no more than + seventeen.] + + 8 (return) [ It appears that he was totally ignorant of the Greek + language; which, from its universal use in conversation and + letters, was an essential part of every liberal education.] + + 9 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 141. Herodian, l. vii. p. 237. The + latter of these historians has been most unjustly censured for + sparing the vices of Maximin.] + + The dark and sanguinary soul of the tyrant was open to every + suspicion against those among his subjects who were the most + distinguished by their birth or merit. Whenever he was alarmed + with the sound of treason, his cruelty was unbounded and + unrelenting. A conspiracy against his life was either discovered + or imagined, and Magnus, a consular senator, was named as the + principal author of it. Without a witness, without a trial, and + without an opportunity of defence, Magnus, with four thousand of + his supposed accomplices, was put to death. Italy and the whole + empire were infested with innumerable spies and informers. On the + slightest accusation, the first of the Roman nobles, who had + governed provinces, commanded armies, and been adorned with the + consular and triumphal ornaments, were chained on the public + carriages, and hurried away to the emperor’s presence. + Confiscation, exile, or simple death, were esteemed uncommon + instances of his lenity. Some of the unfortunate sufferers he + ordered to be sewed up in the hides of slaughtered animals, + others to be exposed to wild beasts, others again to be beaten to + death with clubs. During the three years of his reign, he + disdained to visit either Rome or Italy. His camp, occasionally + removed from the banks of the Rhine to those of the Danube, was + the seat of his stern despotism, which trampled on every + principle of law and justice, and was supported by the avowed + power of the sword. 10 No man of noble birth, elegant + accomplishments, or knowledge of civil business, was suffered + near his person; and the court of a Roman emperor revived the + idea of those ancient chiefs of slaves and gladiators, whose + savage power had left a deep impression of terror and + detestation. 11 + + 10 (return) [ The wife of Maximin, by insinuating wise counsels + with female gentleness, sometimes brought back the tyrant to the + way of truth and humanity. See Ammianus Marcellinus, l. xiv. c. + l, where he alludes to the fact which he had more fully related + under the reign of the Gordians. We may collect from the medals, + that Paullina was the name of this benevolent empress; and from + the title of Diva, that she died before Maximin. (Valesius ad + loc. cit. Ammian.) Spanheim de U. et P. N. tom. ii. p. 300. Note: + If we may believe Syrcellus and Zonaras, in was Maximin himself + who ordered her death—G] + + 11 (return) [ He was compared to Spartacus and Athenio. Hist. + August p. 141.] + + As long as the cruelty of Maximin was confined to the illustrious + senators, or even to the bold adventurers, who in the court or + army expose themselves to the caprice of fortune, the body of the + people viewed their sufferings with indifference, or perhaps with + pleasure. But the tyrant’s avarice, stimulated by the insatiate + desires of the soldiers, at length attacked the public property. + Every city of the empire was possessed of an independent revenue, + destined to purchase corn for the multitude, and to supply the + expenses of the games and entertainments. By a single act of + authority, the whole mass of wealth was at once confiscated for + the use of the Imperial treasury. The temples were stripped of + their most valuable offerings of gold and silver, and the statues + of gods, heroes, and emperors, were melted down and coined into + money. These impious orders could not be executed without tumults + and massacres, as in many places the people chose rather to die + in the defence of their altars, than to behold in the midst of + peace their cities exposed to the rapine and cruelty of war. The + soldiers themselves, among whom this sacrilegious plunder was + distributed, received it with a blush; and hardened as they were + in acts of violence, they dreaded the just reproaches of their + friends and relations. Throughout the Roman world a general cry + of indignation was heard, imploring vengeance on the common enemy + of human kind; and at length, by an act of private oppression, a + peaceful and unarmed province was driven into rebellion against + him. 12 + + 12 (return) [ Herodian, l. vii. p. 238. Zosim. l. i. p. 15.] + + The procurator of Africa was a servant worthy of such a master, + who considered the fines and confiscations of the rich as one of + the most fruitful branches of the Imperial revenue. An iniquitous + sentence had been pronounced against some opulent youths of that + country, the execution of which would have stripped them of far + the greater part of their patrimony. In this extremity, a + resolution that must either complete or prevent their ruin, was + dictated by despair. A respite of three days, obtained with + difficulty from the rapacious treasurer, was employed in + collecting from their estates a great number of slaves and + peasants blindly devoted to the commands of their lords, and + armed with the rustic weapons of clubs and axes. The leaders of + the conspiracy, as they were admitted to the audience of the + procurator, stabbed him with the daggers concealed under their + garments, and, by the assistance of their tumultuary train, + seized on the little town of Thysdrus, 13 and erected the + standard of rebellion against the sovereign of the Roman empire. + They rested their hopes on the hatred of mankind against Maximin, + and they judiciously resolved to oppose to that detested tyrant + an emperor whose mild virtues had already acquired the love and + esteem of the Romans, and whose authority over the province would + give weight and stability to the enterprise. Gordianus, their + proconsul, and the object of their choice, refused, with + unfeigned reluctance, the dangerous honor, and begged with tears, + that they would suffer him to terminate in peace a long and + innocent life, without staining his feeble age with civil blood. + Their menaces compelled him to accept the Imperial purple, his + only refuge, indeed, against the jealous cruelty of Maximin; + since, according to the reasoning of tyrants, those who have been + esteemed worthy of the throne deserve death, and those who + deliberate have already rebelled. 14 + + 13 (return) [ In the fertile territory of Byzacium, one hundred + and fifty miles to the south of Carthage. This city was + decorated, probably by the Gordians, with the title of colony, + and with a fine amphitheatre, which is still in a very perfect + state. See Intinerar. Wesseling, p. 59; and Shaw’s Travels, p. + 117.] + + 14 (return) [ Herodian, l. vii. p. 239. Hist. August. p. 153.] + + The family of Gordianus was one of the most illustrious of the + Roman senate. On the father’s side he was descended from the + Gracchi; on his mother’s, from the emperor Trajan. A great estate + enabled him to support the dignity of his birth, and in the + enjoyment of it, he displayed an elegant taste and beneficent + disposition. The palace in Rome, formerly inhabited by the great + Pompey, had been, during several generations, in the possession + of Gordian’s family. 15 It was distinguished by ancient trophies + of naval victories, and decorated with the works of modern + painting. His villa on the road to Præneste was celebrated for + baths of singular beauty and extent, for three stately rooms of a + hundred feet in length, and for a magnificent portico, supported + by two hundred columns of the four most curious and costly sorts + of marble. 16 The public shows exhibited at his expense, and in + which the people were entertained with many hundreds of wild + beasts and gladiators, 17 seem to surpass the fortune of a + subject; and whilst the liberality of other magistrates was + confined to a few solemn festivals at Rome, the magnificence of + Gordian was repeated, when he was ædile, every month in the year, + and extended, during his consulship, to the principal cities of + Italy. He was twice elevated to the last-mentioned dignity, by + Caracalla and by Alexander; for he possessed the uncommon talent + of acquiring the esteem of virtuous princes, without alarming the + jealousy of tyrants. His long life was innocently spent in the + study of letters and the peaceful honors of Rome; and, till he + was named proconsul of Africa by the voice of the senate and the + approbation of Alexander, 18 he appears prudently to have + declined the command of armies and the government of provinces. + 181 As long as that emperor lived, Africa was happy under the + administration of his worthy representative: after the barbarous + Maximin had usurped the throne, Gordianus alleviated the miseries + which he was unable to prevent. When he reluctantly accepted the + purple, he was above fourscore years old; a last and valuable + remains of the happy age of the Antonines, whose virtues he + revived in his own conduct, and celebrated in an elegant poem of + thirty books. With the venerable proconsul, his son, who had + accompanied him into Africa as his lieutenant, was likewise + declared emperor. His manners were less pure, but his character + was equally amiable with that of his father. Twenty-two + acknowledged concubines, and a library of sixty-two thousand + volumes, attested the variety of his inclinations; and from the + productions which he left behind him, it appears that the former + as well as the latter were designed for use rather than for + ostentation. 19 The Roman people acknowledged in the features of + the younger Gordian the resemblance of Scipio Africanus, 191 + recollected with pleasure that his mother was the granddaughter + of Antoninus Pius, and rested the public hope on those latent + virtues which had hitherto, as they fondly imagined, lain + concealed in the luxurious indolence of private life. + + 15 (return) [ Hist. Aug. p. 152. The celebrated house of Pompey + in carinis was usurped by Marc Antony, and consequently became, + after the Triumvir’s death, a part of the Imperial domain. The + emperor Trajan allowed, and even encouraged, the rich senators to + purchase those magnificent and useless places, (Plin. Panegyric. + c. 50;) and it may seem probable, that, on this occasion, + Pompey’s house came into the possession of Gordian’s + great-grandfather.] + + 16 (return) [ The Claudian, the Numidian, the Carystian, and the + Synnadian. The colors of Roman marbles have been faintly + described and imperfectly distinguished. It appears, however, + that the Carystian was a sea-green, and that the marble of + Synnada was white mixed with oval spots of purple. See Salmasius + ad Hist. August. p. 164.] + + 17 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 151, 152. He sometimes gave five + hundred pair of gladiators, never less than one hundred and + fifty. He once gave for the use of the circus one hundred + Sicilian, and as many Cappæcian Cappadecian horses. The animals + designed for hunting were chiefly bears, boars, bulls, stags, + elks, wild asses, &c. Elephants and lions seem to have been + appropriated to Imperial magnificence.] + + 18 (return) [ See the original letter, in the Augustan History, + p. 152, which at once shows Alexander’s respect for the authority + of the senate, and his esteem for the proconsul appointed by that + assembly.] + + 181 (return) [ Herodian expressly says that he had administered + many provinces, lib. vii. 10.—W.] + + 19 (return) [ By each of his concubines, the younger Gordian left + three or four children. His literary productions, though less + numerous, were by no means contemptible.] + + 191 (return) [ Not the personal likeness, but the family descent + from the Scipiod.—W.] + + As soon as the Gordians had appeased the first tumult of a + popular election, they removed their court to Carthage. They were + received with the acclamations of the Africans, who honored their + virtues, and who, since the visit of Hadrian, had never beheld + the majesty of a Roman emperor. But these vain acclamations + neither strengthened nor confirmed the title of the Gordians. + They were induced by principle, as well as interest, to solicit + the approbation of the senate; and a deputation of the noblest + provincials was sent, without delay, to Rome, to relate and + justify the conduct of their countrymen, who, having long + suffered with patience, were at length resolved to act with + vigor. The letters of the new princes were modest and respectful, + excusing the necessity which had obliged them to accept the + Imperial title; but submitting their election and their fate to + the supreme judgment of the senate. 20 + + 20 (return) [ Herodian, l. vii. p. 243. Hist. August. p. 144.] + + The inclinations of the senate were neither doubtful nor divided. + The birth and noble alliances of the Gordians had intimately + connected them with the most illustrious houses of Rome. Their + fortune had created many dependants in that assembly, their merit + had acquired many friends. Their mild administration opened the + flattering prospect of the restoration, not only of the civil but + even of the republican government. The terror of military + violence, which had first obliged the senate to forget the murder + of Alexander, and to ratify the election of a barbarian peasant, + 21 now produced a contrary effect, and provoked them to assert + the injured rights of freedom and humanity. The hatred of Maximin + towards the senate was declared and implacable; the tamest + submission had not appeased his fury, the most cautious innocence + would not remove his suspicions; and even the care of their own + safety urged them to share the fortune of an enterprise, of which + (if unsuccessful) they were sure to be the first victims. These + considerations, and perhaps others of a more private nature, were + debated in a previous conference of the consuls and the + magistrates. As soon as their resolution was decided, they + convoked in the temple of Castor the whole body of the senate, + according to an ancient form of secrecy, 22 calculated to awaken + their attention, and to conceal their decrees. “Conscript + fathers,” said the consul Syllanus, “the two Gordians, both of + consular dignity, the one your proconsul, the other your + lieutenant, have been declared emperors by the general consent of + Africa. Let us return thanks,” he boldly continued, “to the youth + of Thysdrus; let us return thanks to the faithful people of + Carthage, our generous deliverers from a horrid monster—Why do + you hear me thus coolly, thus timidly? Why do you cast those + anxious looks on each other? Why hesitate? Maximin is a public + enemy! may his enmity soon expire with him, and may we long enjoy + the prudence and felicity of Gordian the father, the valor and + constancy of Gordian the son!” 23 The noble ardor of the consul + revived the languid spirit of the senate. By a unanimous decree, + the election of the Gordians was ratified, Maximin, his son, and + his adherents, were pronounced enemies of their country, and + liberal rewards were offered to whomsoever had the courage and + good fortune to destroy them. + + 21 (return) [ Quod. tamen patres dum periculosum existimant; + inermes armato esistere approbaverunt.—Aurelius Victor.] + + 22 (return) [ Even the servants of the house, the scribes, &c., + were excluded, and their office was filled by the senators + themselves. We are obliged to the Augustan History. p. 159, for + preserving this curious example of the old discipline of the + commonwealth.] + + 23 (return) [ This spirited speech, translated from the Augustan + historian, p. 156, seems transcribed by him from the origina + registers of the senate] + + During the emperor’s absence, a detachment of the Prætorian + guards remained at Rome, to protect, or rather to command, the + capital. The præfect Vitalianus had signalized his fidelity to + Maximin, by the alacrity with which he had obeyed, and even + prevented the cruel mandates of the tyrant. His death alone could + rescue the authority of the senate, and the lives of the senators + from a state of danger and suspense. Before their resolves had + transpired, a quæstor and some tribunes were commissioned to take + his devoted life. They executed the order with equal boldness and + success; and, with their bloody daggers in their hands, ran + through the streets, proclaiming to the people and the soldiers + the news of the happy revolution. The enthusiasm of liberty was + seconded by the promise of a large donative, in lands and money; + the statues of Maximin were thrown down; the capital of the + empire acknowledged, with transport, the authority of the two + Gordians and the senate; 24 and the example of Rome was followed + by the rest of Italy. + + 24 (return) [ Herodian, l. vii. p. 244] + + A new spirit had arisen in that assembly, whose long patience had + been insulted by wanton despotism and military license. The + senate assumed the reins of government, and, with a calm + intrepidity, prepared to vindicate by arms the cause of freedom. + Among the consular senators recommended by their merit and + services to the favor of the emperor Alexander, it was easy to + select twenty, not unequal to the command of an army, and the + conduct of a war. To these was the defence of Italy intrusted. + Each was appointed to act in his respective department, + authorized to enroll and discipline the Italian youth; and + instructed to fortify the ports and highways, against the + impending invasion of Maximin. A number of deputies, chosen from + the most illustrious of the senatorian and equestrian orders, + were despatched at the same time to the governors of the several + provinces, earnestly conjuring them to fly to the assistance of + their country, and to remind the nations of their ancient ties of + friendship with the Roman senate and people. The general respect + with which these deputies were received, and the zeal of Italy + and the provinces in favor of the senate, sufficiently prove that + the subjects of Maximin were reduced to that uncommon distress, + in which the body of the people has more to fear from oppression + than from resistance. The consciousness of that melancholy truth, + inspires a degree of persevering fury, seldom to be found in + those civil wars which are artificially supported for the benefit + of a few factious and designing leaders. 25 + + 25 (return) [ Herodian, l. vii. p. 247, l. viii. p. 277. Hist. + August. p 156-158.] + + For while the cause of the Gordians was embraced with such + diffusive ardor, the Gordians themselves were no more. The feeble + court of Carthage was alarmed by the rapid approach of + Capelianus, governor of Mauritania, who, with a small band of + veterans, and a fierce host of barbarians, attacked a faithful, + but unwarlike province. The younger Gordian sallied out to meet + the enemy at the head of a few guards, and a numerous + undisciplined multitude, educated in the peaceful luxury of + Carthage. His useless valor served only to procure him an + honorable death on the field of battle. His aged father, whose + reign had not exceeded thirty-six days, put an end to his life on + the first news of the defeat. Carthage, destitute of defence, + opened her gates to the conqueror, and Africa was exposed to the + rapacious cruelty of a slave, obliged to satisfy his unrelenting + master with a large account of blood and treasure. 26 + + 26 (return) [ Herodian, l. vii. p. 254. Hist. August. p. 150-160. + We may observe, that one month and six days, for the reign of + Gordian, is a just correction of Casaubon and Panvinius, instead + of the absurd reading of one year and six months. See Commentar. + p. 193. Zosimus relates, l. i. p. 17, that the two Gordians + perished by a tempest in the midst of their navigation. A strange + ignorance of history, or a strange abuse of metaphors!] + + The fate of the Gordians filled Rome with just but unexpected + terror. The senate, convoked in the temple of Concord, affected + to transact the common business of the day; and seemed to + decline, with trembling anxiety, the consideration of their own + and the public danger. A silent consternation prevailed in the + assembly, till a senator, of the name and family of Trajan, + awakened his brethren from their fatal lethargy. He represented + to them that the choice of cautious, dilatory measures had been + long since out of their power; that Maximin, implacable by + nature, and exasperated by injuries, was advancing towards Italy, + at the head of the military force of the empire; and that their + only remaining alternative was either to meet him bravely in the + field, or tamely to expect the tortures and ignominious death + reserved for unsuccessful rebellion. “We have lost,” continued + he, “two excellent princes; but unless we desert ourselves, the + hopes of the republic have not perished with the Gordians. Many + are the senators whose virtues have deserved, and whose abilities + would sustain, the Imperial dignity. Let us elect two emperors, + one of whom may conduct the war against the public enemy, whilst + his colleague remains at Rome to direct the civil administration. + I cheerfully expose myself to the danger and envy of the + nomination, and give my vote in favor of Maximus and Balbinus. + Ratify my choice, conscript fathers, or appoint in their place, + others more worthy of the empire.” The general apprehension + silenced the whispers of jealousy; the merit of the candidates + was universally acknowledged; and the house resounded with the + sincere acclamations of “Long life and victory to the emperors + Maximus and Balbinus. You are happy in the judgment of the + senate; may the republic be happy under your administration!” 27 + + 27 (return) [ See the Augustan History, p. 166, from the + registers of the senate; the date is confessedly faulty but the + coincidence of the Apollinatian games enables us to correct it.] + + + + + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of + Maximin.—Part II. + + The virtues and the reputation of the new emperors justified the + most sanguine hopes of the Romans. The various nature of their + talents seemed to appropriate to each his peculiar department of + peace and war, without leaving room for jealous emulation. + Balbinus was an admired orator, a poet of distinguished fame, and + a wise magistrate, who had exercised with innocence and applause + the civil jurisdiction in almost all the interior provinces of + the empire. His birth was noble, 28 his fortune affluent, his + manners liberal and affable. In him the love of pleasure was + corrected by a sense of dignity, nor had the habits of ease + deprived him of a capacity for business. The mind of Maximus was + formed in a rougher mould. By his valor and abilities he had + raised himself from the meanest origin to the first employments + of the state and army. His victories over the Sarmatians and the + Germans, the austerity of his life, and the rigid impartiality of + his justice, while he was a Præfect of the city, commanded the + esteem of a people whose affections were engaged in favor of the + more amiable Balbinus. The two colleagues had both been consuls, + (Balbinus had twice enjoyed that honorable office,) both had been + named among the twenty lieutenants of the senate; and since the + one was sixty and the other seventy-four years old, 29 they had + both attained the full maturity of age and experience. + + 28 (return) [ He was descended from Cornelius Balbus, a noble + Spaniard, and the adopted son of Theophanes, the Greek historian. + Balbus obtained the freedom of Rome by the favor of Pompey, and + preserved it by the eloquence of Cicero. (See Orat. pro Cornel. + Balbo.) The friendship of Cæsar, (to whom he rendered the most + important secret services in the civil war) raised him to the + consulship and the pontificate, honors never yet possessed by a + stranger. The nephew of this Balbus triumphed over the + Garamantes. See Dictionnaire de Bayle, au mot Balbus, where he + distinguishes the several persons of that name, and rectifies, + with his usual accuracy, the mistakes of former writers + concerning them.] + + 29 (return) [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. 622. But little dependence is + to be had on the authority of a modern Greek, so grossly ignorant + of the history of the third century, that he creates several + imaginary emperors, and confounds those who really existed.] + + After the senate had conferred on Maximus and Balbinus an equal + portion of the consular and tribunitian powers, the title of + Fathers of their country, and the joint office of Supreme + Pontiff, they ascended to the Capitol to return thanks to the + gods, protectors of Rome. 30 The solemn rites of sacrifice were + disturbed by a sedition of the people. The licentious multitude + neither loved the rigid Maximus, nor did they sufficiently fear + the mild and humane Balbinus. Their increasing numbers surrounded + the temple of Jupiter; with obstinate clamors they asserted their + inherent right of consenting to the election of their sovereign; + and demanded, with an apparent moderation, that, besides the two + emperors, chosen by the senate, a third should be added of the + family of the Gordians, as a just return of gratitude to those + princes who had sacrificed their lives for the republic. At the + head of the city-guards, and the youth of the equestrian order, + Maximus and Balbinus attempted to cut their way through the + seditious multitude. The multitude, armed with sticks and stones, + drove them back into the Capitol. It is prudent to yield when the + contest, whatever may be the issue of it, must be fatal to both + parties. A boy, only thirteen years of age, the grandson of the + elder, and nephew 301 of the younger Gordian, was produced to the + people, invested with the ornaments and title of Cæsar. The + tumult was appeased by this easy condescension; and the two + emperors, as soon as they had been peaceably acknowledged in + Rome, prepared to defend Italy against the common enemy. + + 30 (return) [ Herodian, l. vii. p. 256, supposes that the senate + was at first convoked in the Capitol, and is very eloquent on the + occasion. The Augustar History p. 116, seems much more + authentic.] + + 301 (return) [ According to some, the son.—G.] + + Whilst in Rome and Africa, revolutions succeeded each other with + such amazing rapidity, that the mind of Maximin was agitated by + the most furious passions. He is said to have received the news + of the rebellion of the Gordians, and of the decree of the senate + against him, not with the temper of a man, but the rage of a wild + beast; which, as it could not discharge itself on the distant + senate, threatened the life of his son, of his friends, and of + all who ventured to approach his person. The grateful + intelligence of the death of the Gordians was quickly followed by + the assurance that the senate, laying aside all hopes of pardon + or accommodation, had substituted in their room two emperors, + with whose merit he could not be unacquainted. Revenge was the + only consolation left to Maximin, and revenge could only be + obtained by arms. The strength of the legions had been assembled + by Alexander from all parts of the empire. Three successful + campaigns against the Germans and the Sarmatians, had raised + their fame, confirmed their discipline, and even increased their + numbers, by filling the ranks with the flower of the barbarian + youth. The life of Maximin had been spent in war, and the candid + severity of history cannot refuse him the valor of a soldier, or + even the abilities of an experienced general. 31 It might + naturally be expected, that a prince of such a character, instead + of suffering the rebellion to gain stability by delay, should + immediately have marched from the banks of the Danube to those of + the Tyber, and that his victorious army, instigated by contempt + for the senate, and eager to gather the spoils of Italy, should + have burned with impatience to finish the easy and lucrative + conquest. Yet as far as we can trust to the obscure chronology of + that period, 32 it appears that the operations of some foreign + war deferred the Italian expedition till the ensuing spring. From + the prudent conduct of Maximin, we may learn that the savage + features of his character have been exaggerated by the pencil of + party, that his passions, however impetuous, submitted to the + force of reason, and that the barbarian possessed something of + the generous spirit of Sylla, who subdued the enemies of Rome + before he suffered himself to revenge his private injuries. 33 + + 31 (return) [ In Herodian, l. vii. p. 249, and in the Augustan + History, we have three several orations of Maximin to his army, + on the rebellion of Africa and Rome: M. de Tillemont has very + justly observed that they neither agree with each other nor with + truth. Histoire des Empereurs, tom. iii. p. 799.] + + 32 (return) [ The carelessness of the writers of that age, leaves + us in a singular perplexity. 1. We know that Maximus and Balbinus + were killed during the Capitoline games. Herodian, l. viii. p. + 285. The authority of Censorinus (de Die Natali, c. 18) enables + us to fix those games with certainty to the year 238, but leaves + us in ignorance of the month or day. 2. The election of Gordian + by the senate is fixed with equal certainty to the 27th of May; + but we are at a loss to discover whether it was in the same or + the preceding year. Tillemont and Muratori, who maintain the two + opposite opinions, bring into the field a desultory troop of + authorities, conjectures and probabilities. The one seems to draw + out, the other to contract the series of events between those + periods, more than can be well reconciled to reason and history. + Yet it is necessary to choose between them. Note: Eckhel has more + recently treated these chronological questions with a perspicuity + which gives great probability to his conclusions. Setting aside + all the historians, whose contradictions are irreconcilable, he + has only consulted the medals, and has arranged the events before + us in the following order:— Maximin, A. U. 990, after having + conquered the Germans, reenters Pannonia, establishes his winter + quarters at Sirmium, and prepares himself to make war against the + people of the North. In the year 991, in the cal ends of January, + commences his fourth tribunate. The Gordians are chosen emperors + in Africa, probably at the beginning of the month of March. The + senate confirms this election with joy, and declares Maximin the + enemy of Rome. Five days after he had heard of this revolt, + Maximin sets out from Sirmium on his march to Italy. These events + took place about the beginning of April; a little after, the + Gordians are slain in Africa by Capellianus, procurator of + Mauritania. The senate, in its alarm, names as emperors Balbus + and Maximus Pupianus, and intrusts the latter with the war + against Maximin. Maximin is stopped on his road near Aquileia, by + the want of provisions, and by the melting of the snows: he + begins the siege of Aquileia at the end of April. Pupianus + assembles his army at Ravenna. Maximin and his son are + assassinated by the soldiers enraged at the resistance of + Aquileia: and this was probably in the middle of May. Pupianus + returns to Rome, and assumes the government with Balbinus; they + are assassinated towards the end of July Gordian the younger + ascends the throne. Eckhel de Doct. Vol vii 295.—G.] + + 33 (return) [ Velleius Paterculus, l. ii. c. 24. The president de + Montesquieu (in his dialogue between Sylla and Eucrates) + expresses the sentiments of the dictator in a spirited, and even + a sublime manner.] + + When the troops of Maximin, advancing in excellent order, arrived + at the foot of the Julian Alps, they were terrified by the + silence and desolation that reigned on the frontiers of Italy. + The villages and open towns had been abandoned on their approach + by the inhabitants, the cattle was driven away, the provisions + removed or destroyed, the bridges broken down, nor was any thing + left which could afford either shelter or subsistence to an + invader. Such had been the wise orders of the generals of the + senate: whose design was to protract the war, to ruin the army of + Maximin by the slow operation of famine, and to consume his + strength in the sieges of the principal cities of Italy, which + they had plentifully stored with men and provisions from the + deserted country. Aquileia received and withstood the first shock + of the invasion. The streams that issue from the head of the + Hadriatic Gulf, swelled by the melting of the winter snows, 34 + opposed an unexpected obstacle to the arms of Maximin. At length, + on a singular bridge, constructed with art and difficulty, of + large hogsheads, he transported his army to the opposite bank, + rooted up the beautiful vineyards in the neighborhood of + Aquileia, demolished the suburbs, and employed the timber of the + buildings in the engines and towers, with which on every side he + attacked the city. The walls, fallen to decay during the security + of a long peace, had been hastily repaired on this sudden + emergency: but the firmest defence of Aquileia consisted in the + constancy of the citizens; all ranks of whom, instead of being + dismayed, were animated by the extreme danger, and their + knowledge of the tyrant’s unrelenting temper. Their courage was + supported and directed by Crispinus and Menophilus, two of the + twenty lieutenants of the senate, who, with a small body of + regular troops, had thrown themselves into the besieged place. + The army of Maximin was repulsed in repeated attacks, his + machines destroyed by showers of artificial fire; and the + generous enthusiasm of the Aquileians was exalted into a + confidence of success, by the opinion that Belenus, their tutelar + deity, combated in person in the defence of his distressed + worshippers. 35 + + 34 (return) [ Muratori (Annali d’ Italia, tom. ii. p. 294) thinks + the melting of the snows suits better with the months of June or + July, than with those of February. The opinion of a man who + passed his life between the Alps and the Apennines, is + undoubtedly of great weight; yet I observe, 1. That the long + winter, of which Muratori takes advantage, is to be found only in + the Latin version, and not in the Greek text of Herodian. 2. That + the vicissitudes of suns and rains, to which the soldiers of + Maximin were exposed, (Herodian, l. viii. p. 277,) denote the + spring rather than the summer. We may observe, likewise, that + these several streams, as they melted into one, composed the + Timavus, so poetically (in every sense of the word) described by + Virgil. They are about twelve miles to the east of Aquileia. See + Cluver. Italia Antiqua, tom. i. p. 189, &c.] + + 35 (return) [ Herodian, l. viii. p. 272. The Celtic deity was + supposed to be Apollo, and received under that name the thanks of + the senate. A temple was likewise built to Venus the Bald, in + honor of the women of Aquileia, who had given up their hair to + make ropes for the military engines.] + + The emperor Maximus, who had advanced as far as Ravenna, to + secure that important place, and to hasten the military + preparations, beheld the event of the war in the more faithful + mirror of reason and policy. He was too sensible, that a single + town could not resist the persevering efforts of a great army; + and he dreaded, lest the enemy, tired with the obstinate + resistance of Aquileia, should on a sudden relinquish the + fruitless siege, and march directly towards Rome. The fate of the + empire and the cause of freedom must then be committed to the + chance of a battle; and what arms could he oppose to the veteran + legions of the Rhine and Danube? Some troops newly levied among + the generous but enervated youth of Italy; and a body of German + auxiliaries, on whose firmness, in the hour of trial, it was + dangerous to depend. In the midst of these just alarms, the + stroke of domestic conspiracy punished the crimes of Maximin, and + delivered Rome and the senate from the calamities that would + surely have attended the victory of an enraged barbarian. + + The people of Aquileia had scarcely experienced any of the common + miseries of a siege; their magazines were plentifully supplied, + and several fountains within the walls assured them of an + inexhaustible resource of fresh water. The soldiers of Maximin + were, on the contrary, exposed to the inclemency of the season, + the contagion of disease, and the horrors of famine. The open + country was ruined, the rivers filled with the slain, and + polluted with blood. A spirit of despair and disaffection began + to diffuse itself among the troops; and as they were cut off from + all intelligence, they easily believed that the whole empire had + embraced the cause of the senate, and that they were left as + devoted victims to perish under the impregnable walls of + Aquileia. The fierce temper of the tyrant was exasperated by + disappointments, which he imputed to the cowardice of his army; + and his wanton and ill-timed cruelty, instead of striking terror, + inspired hatred, and a just desire of revenge. A party of + Prætorian guards, who trembled for their wives and children in + the camp of Alba, near Rome, executed the sentence of the senate. + Maximin, abandoned by his guards, was slain in his tent, with his + son (whom he had associated to the honors of the purple), + Anulinus the præfect, and the principal ministers of his tyranny. + 36 The sight of their heads, borne on the point of spears, + convinced the citizens of Aquileia that the siege was at an end; + the gates of the city were thrown open, a liberal market was + provided for the hungry troops of Maximin, and the whole army + joined in solemn protestations of fidelity to the senate and the + people of Rome, and to their lawful emperors Maximus and + Balbinus. Such was the deserved fate of a brutal savage, + destitute, as he has generally been represented, of every + sentiment that distinguishes a civilized, or even a human being. + The body was suited to the soul. The stature of Maximin exceeded + the measure of eight feet, and circumstances almost incredible + are related of his matchless strength and appetite. 37 Had he + lived in a less enlightened age, tradition and poetry might well + have described him as one of those monstrous giants, whose + supernatural power was constantly exerted for the destruction of + mankind. + + 36 (return) [ Herodian, l. viii. p. 279. Hist. August. p. 146. + The duration of Maximin’s reign has not been defined with much + accuracy, except by Eutropius, who allows him three years and a + few days, (l. ix. 1;) we may depend on the integrity of the text, + as the Latin original is checked by the Greek version of + Pæanius.] + + 37 (return) [ Eight Roman feet and one third, which are equal to + above eight English feet, as the two measures are to each other + in the proportion of 967 to 1000. See Graves’s discourse on the + Roman foot. We are told that Maximin could drink in a day an + amphora (or about seven gallons) of wine, and eat thirty or forty + pounds of meat. He could move a loaded wagon, break a horse’s leg + with his fist, crumble stones in his hand, and tear up small + trees by the roots. See his life in the Augustan History.] + + It is easier to conceive than to describe the universal joy of + the Roman world on the fall of the tyrant, the news of which is + said to have been carried in four days from Aquileia to Rome. The + return of Maximus was a triumphal procession; his colleague and + young Gordian went out to meet him, and the three princes made + their entry into the capital, attended by the ambassadors of + almost all the cities of Italy, saluted with the splendid + offerings of gratitude and superstition, and received with the + unfeigned acclamations of the senate and people, who persuaded + themselves that a golden age would succeed to an age of iron. 38 + The conduct of the two emperors corresponded with these + expectations. They administered justice in person; and the rigor + of the one was tempered by the other’s clemency. The oppressive + taxes with which Maximin had loaded the rights of inheritance and + succession, were repealed, or at least moderated. Discipline was + revived, and with the advice of the senate many wise laws were + enacted by their imperial ministers, who endeavored to restore a + civil constitution on the ruins of military tyranny. “What reward + may we expect for delivering Rome from a monster?” was the + question asked by Maximus, in a moment of freedom and confidence. + + Balbinus answered it without hesitation—“The love of the senate, + of the people, and of all mankind.” “Alas!” replied his more + penetrating colleague—“alas! I dread the hatred of the soldiers, + and the fatal effects of their resentment.” 39 His apprehensions + were but too well justified by the event. + + 38 (return) [ See the congratulatory letter of Claudius Julianus, + the consul to the two emperors, in the Augustan History.] + + 39 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 171.] + + Whilst Maximus was preparing to defend Italy against the common + foe, Balbinus, who remained at Rome, had been engaged in scenes + of blood and intestine discord. Distrust and jealousy reigned in + the senate; and even in the temples where they assembled, every + senator carried either open or concealed arms. In the midst of + their deliberations, two veterans of the guards, actuated either + by curiosity or a sinister motive, audaciously thrust themselves + into the house, and advanced by degrees beyond the altar of + Victory. Gallicanus, a consular, and Mæcenas, a Prætorian + senator, viewed with indignation their insolent intrusion: + drawing their daggers, they laid the spies (for such they deemed + them) dead at the foot of the altar, and then, advancing to the + door of the senate, imprudently exhorted the multitude to + massacre the Prætorians, as the secret adherents of the tyrant. + Those who escaped the first fury of the tumult took refuge in the + camp, which they defended with superior advantage against the + reiterated attacks of the people, assisted by the numerous bands + of gladiators, the property of opulent nobles. The civil war + lasted many days, with infinite loss and confusion on both sides. + When the pipes were broken that supplied the camp with water, the + Prætorians were reduced to intolerable distress; but in their + turn they made desperate sallies into the city, set fire to a + great number of houses, and filled the streets with the blood of + the inhabitants. The emperor Balbinus attempted, by ineffectual + edicts and precarious truces, to reconcile the factions at Rome. + But their animosity, though smothered for a while, burnt with + redoubled violence. The soldiers, detesting the senate and the + people, despised the weakness of a prince, who wanted either the + spirit or the power to command the obedience of his subjects. 40 + + 40 (return) [ Herodian, l. viii. p. 258.] + + After the tyrant’s death, his formidable army had acknowledged, + from necessity rather than from choice, the authority of Maximus, + who transported himself without delay to the camp before + Aquileia. As soon as he had received their oath of fidelity, he + addressed them in terms full of mildness and moderation; + lamented, rather than arraigned the wild disorders of the times, + and assured the soldiers, that of all their past conduct the + senate would remember only their generous desertion of the + tyrant, and their voluntary return to their duty. Maximus + enforced his exhortations by a liberal donative, purified the + camp by a solemn sacrifice of expiation, and then dismissed the + legions to their several provinces, impressed, as he hoped, with + a lively sense of gratitude and obedience. 41 But nothing could + reconcile the haughty spirit of the Prætorians. They attended the + emperors on the memorable day of their public entry into Rome; + but amidst the general acclamations, the sullen, dejected + countenance of the guards sufficiently declared that they + considered themselves as the object, rather than the partners, of + the triumph. When the whole body was united in their camp, those + who had served under Maximin, and those who had remained at Rome, + insensibly communicated to each other their complaints and + apprehensions. The emperors chosen by the army had perished with + ignominy; those elected by the senate were seated on the throne. + 42 The long discord between the civil and military powers was + decided by a war, in which the former had obtained a complete + victory. The soldiers must now learn a new doctrine of submission + to the senate; and whatever clemency was affected by that politic + assembly, they dreaded a slow revenge, colored by the name of + discipline, and justified by fair pretences of the public good. + But their fate was still in their own hands; and if they had + courage to despise the vain terrors of an impotent republic, it + was easy to convince the world, that those who were masters of + the arms, were masters of the authority, of the state. + + 41 (return) [ Herodian, l. viii. p. 213.] + + 42 (return) [ The observation had been made imprudently enough in + the acclamations of the senate, and with regard to the soldiers + it carried the appearance of a wanton insult. Hist. August. p. + 170.] + + When the senate elected two princes, it is probable that, besides + the declared reason of providing for the various emergencies of + peace and war, they were actuated by the secret desire of + weakening by division the despotism of the supreme magistrate. + Their policy was effectual, but it proved fatal both to their + emperors and to themselves. The jealousy of power was soon + exasperated by the difference of character. Maximus despised + Balbinus as a luxurious noble, and was in his turn disdained by + his colleague as an obscure soldier. Their silent discord was + understood rather than seen; 43 but the mutual consciousness + prevented them from uniting in any vigorous measures of defence + against their common enemies of the Prætorian camp. The whole + city was employed in the Capitoline games, and the emperors were + left almost alone in the palace. On a sudden, they were alarmed + by the approach of a troop of desperate assassins. Ignorant of + each other’s situation or designs (for they already occupied very + distant apartments), afraid to give or to receive assistance, + they wasted the important moments in idle debates and fruitless + recriminations. The arrival of the guards put an end to the vain + strife. They seized on these emperors of the senate, for such + they called them with malicious contempt, stripped them of their + garments, and dragged them in insolent triumph through the + streets of Rome, with the design of inflicting a slow and cruel + death on these unfortunate princes. The fear of a rescue from the + faithful Germans of the Imperial guards shortened their tortures; + and their bodies, mangled with a thousand wounds, were left + exposed to the insults or to the pity of the populace. 44 + + 43 (return) [ Discordiæ tacitæ, et quæ intelligerentur potius + quam viderentur. _Hist. August_. p. 170. This well-chosen + expression is probably stolen from some better writer.] + + 44 (return) [ Herodian, l. viii. p. 287, 288.] + + In the space of a few months, six princes had been cut off by the + sword. Gordian, who had already received the title of Cæsar, was + the only person that occurred to the soldiers as proper to fill + the vacant throne. 45 They carried him to the camp, and + unanimously saluted him Augustus and Emperor. His name was dear + to the senate and people; his tender age promised a long impunity + of military license; and the submission of Rome and the provinces + to the choice of the Prætorian guards saved the republic, at the + expense indeed of its freedom and dignity, from the horrors of a + new civil war in the heart of the capital. 46 + + 45 (return) [ Quia non alius erat in præsenti, is the expression + of the Augustan History.] + + 46 (return) [ Quintus Curtius (l. x. c. 9,) pays an elegant + compliment to the emperor of the day, for having, by his happy + accession, extinguished so many firebrands, sheathed so many + swords, and put an end to the evils of a divided government. + After weighing with attention every word of the passage, I am of + opinion, that it suits better with the elevation of Gordian, than + with any other period of the Roman history. In that case, it may + serve to decide the age of Quintus Curtius. Those who place him + under the first Cæsars, argue from the purity of his style but + are embarrassed by the silence of Quintilian, in his accurate + list of Roman historians. * Note: This conjecture of Gibbon is + without foundation. Many passages in the work of Quintus Curtius + clearly place him at an earlier period. Thus, in speaking of the + Parthians, he says, Hinc in Parthicum perventum est, tunc + ignobilem gentem: nunc caput omnium qui post Euphratem et Tigrim + amnes siti Rubro mari terminantur. The Parthian empire had this + extent only in the first age of the vulgar æra: to that age, + therefore, must be assigned the date of Quintus Curtius. Although + the critics (says M. de Sainte Croix) have multiplied conjectures + on this subject, most of them have ended by adopting the opinion + which places Quintus Curtius under the reign of Claudius. See + Just. Lips. ad Ann. Tac. ii. 20. Michel le Tellier Præf. in Curt. + Tillemont Hist. des Emp. i. p. 251. Du Bos Reflections sur la + Poesie, 2d Partie. Tiraboschi Storia della, Lett. Ital. ii. 149. + Examen. crit. des Historiens d’Alexandre, 2d ed. p. 104, 849, + 850.—G. ——This interminable question seems as much perplexed as + ever. The first argument of M. Guizot is a strong one, except + that Parthian is often used by later writers for Persian. + Cunzius, in his preface to an edition published at Helmstadt, + (1802,) maintains the opinion of Bagnolo, which assigns Q. + Curtius to the time of Constantine the Great. Schmieder, in his + edit. Gotting. 1803, sums up in this sentence, ætatem Curtii + ignorari pala mest.—M.] + + As the third Gordian was only nineteen years of age at the time + of his death, the history of his life, were it known to us with + greater accuracy than it really is, would contain little more + than the account of his education, and the conduct of the + ministers, who by turns abused or guided the simplicity of his + unexperienced youth. Immediately after his accession, he fell + into the hands of his mother’s eunuchs, that pernicious vermin of + the East, who, since the days of Elagabalus, had infested the + Roman palace. By the artful conspiracy of these wretches, an + impenetrable veil was drawn between an innocent prince and his + oppressed subjects, the virtuous disposition of Gordian was + deceived, and the honors of the empire sold without his + knowledge, though in a very public manner, to the most worthless + of mankind. We are ignorant by what fortunate accident the + emperor escaped from this ignominious slavery, and devolved his + confidence on a minister, whose wise counsels had no object + except the glory of his sovereign and the happiness of the + people. It should seem that love and learning introduced + Misitheus to the favor of Gordian. The young prince married the + daughter of his master of rhetoric, and promoted his + father-in-law to the first offices of the empire. Two admirable + letters that passed between them are still extant. The minister, + with the conscious dignity of virtue, congratulates Gordian that + he is delivered from the tyranny of the eunuchs, 47 and still + more that he is sensible of his deliverance. The emperor + acknowledges, with an amiable confusion, the errors of his past + conduct; and laments, with singular propriety, the misfortune of + a monarch from whom a venal tribe of courtiers perpetually labor + to conceal the truth. 48 + + 47 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 161. From some hints in the two + letters, I should expect that the eunuchs were not expelled the + palace without some degree of gentle violence, and that the young + Gordian rather approved of, than consented to, their disgrace.] + + 48 (return) [ Duxit uxorem filiam Misithei, quem causa eloquentiæ + dignum parentela sua putavit; et præfectum statim fecit; post + quod, non puerile jam et contemptibile videbatur imperium.] + + The life of Misitheus had been spent in the profession of + letters, not of arms; yet such was the versatile genius of that + great man, that, when he was appointed Prætorian Præfect, he + discharged the military duties of his place with vigor and + ability. The Persians had invaded Mesopotamia, and threatened + Antioch. By the persuasion of his father-in-law, the young + emperor quitted the luxury of Rome, opened, for the last time + recorded in history, the temple of Janus, and marched in person + into the East. On his approach, with a great army, the Persians + withdrew their garrisons from the cities which they had already + taken, and retired from the Euphrates to the Tigris. Gordian + enjoyed the pleasure of announcing to the senate the first + success of his arms, which he ascribed, with a becoming modesty + and gratitude, to the wisdom of his father and Præfect. During + the whole expedition, Misitheus watched over the safety and + discipline of the army; whilst he prevented their dangerous + murmurs by maintaining a regular plenty in the camp, and by + establishing ample magazines of vinegar, bacon, straw, barley, + and wheat in all the cities of the frontier. 49 But the + prosperity of Gordian expired with Misitheus, who died of a flux, + not without very strong suspicions of poison. Philip, his + successor in the præfecture, was an Arab by birth, and + consequently, in the earlier part of his life, a robber by + profession. His rise from so obscure a station to the first + dignities of the empire, seems to prove that he was a bold and + able leader. But his boldness prompted him to aspire to the + throne, and his abilities were employed to supplant, not to + serve, his indulgent master. The minds of the soldiers were + irritated by an artificial scarcity, created by his contrivance + in the camp; and the distress of the army was attributed to the + youth and incapacity of the prince. It is not in our power to + trace the successive steps of the secret conspiracy and open + sedition, which were at length fatal to Gordian. A sepulchral + monument was erected to his memory on the spot 50 where he was + killed, near the conflux of the Euphrates with the little river + Aboras. 51 The fortunate Philip, raised to the empire by the + votes of the soldiers, found a ready obedience from the senate + and the provinces. 52 + + 49 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 162. Aurelius Victor. Porphyrius + in Vit Plotin. ap. Fabricium, Biblioth. Græc. l. iv. c. 36. The + philosopher Plotinus accompanied the army, prompted by the love + of knowledge, and by the hope of penetrating as far as India.] + + 50 (return) [ About twenty miles from the little town of + Circesium, on the frontier of the two empires. * Note: Now + Kerkesia; placed in the angle formed by the juncture of the + Chaboras, or al Khabour, with the Euphrates. This situation + appeared advantageous to Diocletian, that he raised + fortifications to make it the but wark of the empire on the side + of Mesopotamia. D’Anville. Geog. Anc. ii. 196.—G. It is the + Carchemish of the Old Testament, 2 Chron. xxxv. 20. ler. xlvi. + 2.—M.] + + 51 (return) [ The inscription (which contained a very singular + pun) was erased by the order of Licinius, who claimed some degree + of relationship to Philip, (Hist. August. p. 166;) but the + tumulus, or mound of earth which formed the sepulchre, still + subsisted in the time of Julian. See Ammian Marcellin. xxiii. 5.] + + 52 (return) [ Aurelius Victor. Eutrop. ix. 2. Orosius, vii. 20. + Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 5. Zosimus, l. i. p. 19. Philip, who + was a native of Bostra, was about forty years of age. * Note: Now + Bosra. It was once the metropolis of a province named Arabia, and + the chief city of Auranitis, of which the name is preserved in + Beled Hauran, the limits of which meet the desert. D’Anville. + Geog. Anc. ii. 188. According to Victor, (in Cæsar.,) Philip was + a native of Tracbonitis another province of Arabia.—G.] + + We cannot forbear transcribing the ingenious, though somewhat + fanciful description, which a celebrated writer of our own times + has traced of the military government of the Roman empire. What + in that age was called the Roman empire, was only an irregular + republic, not unlike the aristocracy 53 of Algiers, 54 where the + militia, possessed of the sovereignty, creates and deposes a + magistrate, who is styled a Dey. Perhaps, indeed, it may be laid + down as a general rule, that a military government is, in some + respects, more republican than monarchical. Nor can it be said + that the soldiers only partook of the government by their + disobedience and rebellions. The speeches made to them by the + emperors, were they not at length of the same nature as those + formerly pronounced to the people by the consuls and the + tribunes? And although the armies had no regular place or forms + of assembly; though their debates were short, their action + sudden, and their resolves seldom the result of cool reflection, + did they not dispose, with absolute sway, of the public fortune? + What was the emperor, except the minister of a violent + government, elected for the private benefit of the soldiers? + + 53 (return) [ Can the epithet of Aristocracy be applied, with any + propriety, to the government of Algiers? Every military + government floats between two extremes of absolute monarchy and + wild democracy.] + + 54 (return) [ The military republic of the Mamelukes in Egypt + would have afforded M. de Montesquieu (see Considerations sur la + Grandeur et la Decadence des Romains, c. 16) a juster and more + noble parallel.] + + “When the army had elected Philip, who was Prætorian præfect to + the third Gordian, the latter demanded that he might remain sole + emperor; he was unable to obtain it. He requested that the power + might be equally divided between them; the army would not listen + to his speech. He consented to be degraded to the rank of Cæsar; + the favor was refused him. He desired, at least, he might be + appointed Prætorian præfect; his prayer was rejected. Finally, he + pleaded for his life. The army, in these several judgments, + exercised the supreme magistracy.” According to the historian, + whose doubtful narrative the President De Montesquieu has + adopted, Philip, who, during the whole transaction, had preserved + a sullen silence, was inclined to spare the innocent life of his + benefactor; till, recollecting that his innocence might excite a + dangerous compassion in the Roman world, he commanded, without + regard to his suppliant cries, that he should be seized, + stripped, and led away to instant death. After a moment’s pause, + the inhuman sentence was executed. 55 + + 55 (return) [ The Augustan History (p. 163, 164) cannot, in this + instance, be reconciled with itself or with probability. How + could Philip condemn his predecessor, and yet consecrate his + memory? How could he order his public execution, and yet, in his + letters to the senate, exculpate himself from the guilt of his + death? Philip, though an ambitious usurper, was by no means a mad + tyrant. Some chronological difficulties have likewise been + discovered by the nice eyes of Tillemont and Muratori, in this + supposed association of Philip to the empire. * Note: Wenck + endeavors to reconcile these discrepancies. He supposes that + Gordian was led away, and died a natural death in prison. This is + directly contrary to the statement of Capitolinus and of Zosimus, + whom he adduces in support of his theory. He is more successful + in his precedents of usurpers deifying the victims of their + ambition. Sit divus, dummodo non sit vivus.—M.] + + + + + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of + Maximin.—Part III. + + On his return from the East to Rome, Philip, desirous of + obliterating the memory of his crimes, and of captivating the + affections of the people, solemnized the secular games with + infinite pomp and magnificence. Since their institution or + revival by Augustus, 56 they had been celebrated by Claudius, by + Domitian, and by Severus, and were now renewed the fifth time, on + the accomplishment of the full period of a thousand years from + the foundation of Rome. Every circumstance of the secular games + was skillfully adapted to inspire the superstitious mind with + deep and solemn reverence. The long interval between them 57 + exceeded the term of human life; and as none of the spectators + had already seen them, none could flatter themselves with the + expectation of beholding them a second time. The mystic + sacrifices were performed, during three nights, on the banks of + the Tyber; and the Campus Martius resounded with music and + dances, and was illuminated with innumerable lamps and torches. + Slaves and strangers were excluded from any participation in + these national ceremonies. A chorus of twenty-seven youths, and + as many virgins, of noble families, and whose parents were both + alive, implored the propitious gods in favor of the present, and + for the hope of the rising generation; requesting, in religious + hymns, that according to the faith of their ancient oracles, they + would still maintain the virtue, the felicity, and the empire of + the Roman people. The magnificence of Philip’s shows and + entertainments dazzled the eyes of the multitude. The devout were + employed in the rites of superstition, whilst the reflecting few + revolved in their anxious minds the past history and the future + fate of the empire.58 + + 56 (return) [ The account of the last supposed celebration, + though in an enlightened period of history, was so very doubtful + and obscure, that the alternative seems not doubtful. When the + popish jubilees, the copy of the secular games, were invented by + Boniface VII., the crafty pope pretended that he only revived an + ancient institution. See M. le Chais, Lettres sur les Jubiles.] + + 57 (return) [ Either of a hundred or a hundred and ten years. + Varro and Livy adopted the former opinion, but the infallible + authority of the Sybil consecrated the latter, (Censorinus de Die + Natal. c. 17.) The emperors Claudius and Philip, however, did not + treat the oracle with implicit respect.] + + 58 (return) [ The idea of the secular games is best understood + from the poem of Horace, and the description of Zosimus, 1. l. + ii. p. 167, &c.] Since Romulus, with a small band of shepherds + and outlaws, fortified himself on the hills near the Tyber, ten + centuries had already elapsed. 59 During the four first ages, the + Romans, in the laborious school of poverty, had acquired the + virtues of war and government: by the vigorous exertion of those + virtues, and by the assistance of fortune, they had obtained, in + the course of the three succeeding centuries, an absolute empire + over many countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The last three + hundred years had been consumed in apparent prosperity and + internal decline. The nation of soldiers, magistrates, and + legislators, who composed the thirty-five tribes of the Roman + people, were dissolved into the common mass of mankind, and + confounded with the millions of servile provincials, who had + received the name, without adopting the spirit, of Romans. A + mercenary army, levied among the subjects and barbarians of the + frontier, was the only order of men who preserved and abused + their independence. By their tumultuary election, a Syrian, a + Goth, or an Arab, was exalted to the throne of Rome, and invested + with despotic power over the conquests and over the country of + the Scipios. + + 59 (return) [The received calculation of Varro assigns to the + foundation of Rome an æra that corresponds with the 754th year + before Christ. But so little is the chronology of Rome to be + depended on, in the more early ages, that Sir Isaac Newton has + brought the same event as low as the year 627 (Compare Niebuhr + vol. i. p. 271.—M.)] + + The limits of the Roman empire still extended from the Western + Ocean to the Tigris, and from Mount Atlas to the Rhine and the + Danube. To the undiscerning eye of the vulgar, Philip appeared a + monarch no less powerful than Hadrian or Augustus had formerly + been. The form was still the same, but the animating health and + vigor were fled. The industry of the people was discouraged and + exhausted by a long series of oppression. The discipline of the + legions, which alone, after the extinction of every other virtue, + had propped the greatness of the state, was corrupted by the + ambition, or relaxed by the weakness, of the emperors. The + strength of the frontiers, which had always consisted in arms + rather than in fortifications, was insensibly undermined; and the + fairest provinces were left exposed to the rapaciousness or + ambition of the barbarians, who soon discovered the decline of + the Roman empire. + + + + + Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The + Monarchy.—Part I. + + Of The State Of Persia After The Restoration Of The Monarchy By + Artaxerxes. + + Whenever Tacitus indulges himself in those beautiful episodes, in + which he relates some domestic transaction of the Germans or of + the Parthians, his principal object is to relieve the attention + of the reader from a uniform scene of vice and misery. From the + reign of Augustus to the time of Alexander Severus, the enemies + of Rome were in her bosom—the tyrants and the soldiers; and her + prosperity had a very distant and feeble interest in the + revolutions that might happen beyond the Rhine and the Euphrates. + But when the military order had levelled, in wild anarchy, the + power of the prince, the laws of the senate, and even the + discipline of the camp, the barbarians of the North and of the + East, who had long hovered on the frontier, boldly attacked the + provinces of a declining monarchy. Their vexatious inroads were + changed into formidable irruptions, and, after a long vicissitude + of mutual calamities, many tribes of the victorious invaders + established themselves in the provinces of the Roman Empire. To + obtain a clearer knowledge of these great events, we shall + endeavor to form a previous idea of the character, forces, and + designs of those nations who avenged the cause of Hannibal and + Mithridates. + + In the more early ages of the world, whilst the forest that + covered Europe afforded a retreat to a few wandering savages, the + inhabitants of Asia were already collected into populous cities, + and reduced under extensive empires the seat of the arts, of + luxury, and of despotism. The Assyrians reigned over the East, 1 + till the sceptre of Ninus and Semiramis dropped from the hands of + their enervated successors. The Medes and the Babylonians divided + their power, and were themselves swallowed up in the monarchy of + the Persians, whose arms could not be confined within the narrow + limits of Asia. Followed, as it is said, by two millions of + _men_, Xerxes, the descendant of Cyrus, invaded Greece. + + Thirty thousand _soldiers_, under the command of Alexander, the + son of Philip, who was intrusted by the Greeks with their glory + and revenge, were sufficient to subdue Persia. The princes of the + house of Seleucus usurped and lost the Macedonian command over + the East. About the same time, that, by an ignominious treaty, + they resigned to the Romans the country on this side Mount Tarus, + they were driven by the Parthians, 1001 an obscure horde of + Scythian origin, from all the provinces of Upper Asia. The + formidable power of the Parthians, which spread from India to the + frontiers of Syria, was in its turn subverted by Ardshir, or + Artaxerxes; the founder of a new dynasty, which, under the name + of Sassanides, governed Persia till the invasion of the Arabs. + This great revolution, whose fatal influence was soon experienced + by the Romans, happened in the fourth year of Alexander Severus, + two hundred and twenty-six years after the Christian era. 2 201 + + 1 (return) [ An ancient chronologist, quoted by Valleius + Paterculus, (l. i. c. 6,) observes, that the Assyrians, the + Medes, the Persians, and the Macedonians, reigned over Asia one + thousand nine hundred and ninety-five years, from the accession + of Ninus to the defeat of Antiochus by the Romans. As the latter + of these great events happened 289 years before Christ, the + former may be placed 2184 years before the same æra. The + Astronomical Observations, found at Babylon, by Alexander, went + fifty years higher.] + + 1001 (return) [ The Parthians were a tribe of the Indo-Germanic + branch which dwelt on the south-east of the Caspian, and belonged + to the same race as the Getæ, the Massagetæ, and other nations, + confounded by the ancients under the vague denomination of + Scythians. Klaproth, Tableaux Hist. d l’Asie, p. 40. Strabo (p. + 747) calls the Parthians Carduchi, i.e., the inhabitants of + Curdistan.—M.] + + 2 (return) [ In the five hundred and thirty-eighth year of the + æra of Seleucus. See Agathias, l. ii. p. 63. This great event + (such is the carelessness of the Orientals) is placed by + Eutychius as high as the tenth year of Commodus, and by Moses of + Chorene as low as the reign of Philip. Ammianus Marcellinus has + so servilely copied (xxiii. 6) his ancient materials, which are + indeed very good, that he describes the family of the Arsacides + as still seated on the Persian throne in the middle of the fourth + century.] + + 201 (return) [ The Persian History, if the poetry of the Shah + Nameh, the Book of Kings, may deserve that name mentions four + dynasties from the earliest ages to the invasion of the Saracens. + The Shah Nameh was composed with the view of perpetuating the + remains of the original Persian records or traditions which had + survived the Saracenic invasion. The task was undertaken by the + poet Dukiki, and afterwards, under the patronage of Mahmood of + Ghazni, completed by Ferdusi. The first of these dynasties is + that of Kaiomors, as Sir W. Jones observes, the dark and fabulous + period; the second, that of the Kaianian, the heroic and + poetical, in which the earned have discovered some curious, and + imagined some fanciful, analogies with the Jewish, the Greek, and + the Roman accounts of the eastern world. See, on the Shah Nameh, + Translation by Goerres, with Von Hammer’s Review, Vienna Jahrbuch + von Lit. 17, 75, 77. Malcolm’s Persia, 8vo. ed. i. 503. Macan’s + Preface to his Critical Edition of the Shah Nameh. On the early + Persian History, a very sensible abstract of various opinions in + Malcolm’s Hist. of Persian.—M.] + + Artaxerxes had served with great reputation in the armies of + Artaban, the last king of the Parthians, and it appears that he + was driven into exile and rebellion by royal ingratitude, the + customary reward for superior merit. His birth was obscure, and + the obscurity equally gave room to the aspersions of his enemies, + and the flattery of his adherents. If we credit the scandal of + the former, Artaxerxes sprang from the illegitimate commerce of a + tanner’s wife with a common soldier. 3 The latter represent him + as descended from a branch of the ancient kings of Persian, + though time and misfortune had gradually reduced his ancestors to + the humble station of private citizens. 4 As the lineal heir of + the monarchy, he asserted his right to the throne, and challenged + the noble task of delivering the Persians from the oppression + under which they groaned above five centuries since the death of + Darius. The Parthians were defeated in three great battles. 401 + In the last of these their king Artaban was slain, and the spirit + of the nation was forever broken. 5 The authority of Artaxerxes + was solemnly acknowledged in a great assembly held at Balch in + Khorasan. 501 Two younger branches of the royal house of Arsaces + were confounded among the prostrate satraps. A third, more + mindful of ancient grandeur than of present necessity, attempted + to retire, with a numerous train of vessels, towards their + kinsman, the king of Armenia; but this little army of deserters + was intercepted, and cut off, by the vigilance of the conqueror, + 6 who boldly assumed the double diadem, and the title of King of + Kings, which had been enjoyed by his predecessor. But these + pompous titles, instead of gratifying the vanity of the Persian, + served only to admonish him of his duty, and to inflame in his + soul the ambition of restoring in their full splendor, the + religion and empire of Cyrus. + + 3 (return) [ The tanner’s name was Babec; the soldier’s, Sassan: + from the former Artaxerxes obtained the surname of Babegan, from + the latter all his descendants have been styled Sassanides.] + + 4 (return) [ D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, Ardshir.] + + 401 (return) [ In the plain of Hoormuz, the son of Babek was + hailed in the field with the proud title of Shahan Shah, king of + kings—a name ever since assumed by the sovereigns of Persia. + Malcolm, i. 71.—M.] + + 5 (return) [ Dion Cassius, l. lxxx. Herodian, l. vi. p. 207. + Abulpharagins Dynast. p. 80.] + + 501 (return) [ See the Persian account of the rise of Ardeschir + Babegan in Malcolm l 69.—M.] + + 6 (return) [ See Moses Chorenensis, l. ii. c. 65—71.] + + I. During the long servitude of Persia under the Macedonian and + the Parthian yoke, the nations of Europe and Asia had mutually + adopted and corrupted each other’s superstitions. The Arsacides, + indeed, practised the worship of the Magi; but they disgraced and + polluted it with a various mixture of foreign idolatry. 601 The + memory of Zoroaster, the ancient prophet and philosopher of the + Persians, 7 was still revered in the East; but the obsolete and + mysterious language, in which the Zendavesta was composed, 8 + opened a field of dispute to seventy sects, who variously + explained the fundamental doctrines of their religion, and were + all indifferently devided by a crowd of infidels, who rejected + the divine mission and miracles of the prophet. To suppress the + idolaters, reunite the schismatics, and confute the unbelievers, + by the infallible decision of a general council, the pious + Artaxerxes summoned the Magi from all parts of his dominions. + These priests, who had so long sighed in contempt and obscurity + obeyed the welcome summons; and, on the appointed day, appeared, + to the number of about eighty thousand. But as the debates of so + tumultuous an assembly could not have been directed by the + authority of reason, or influenced by the art of policy, the + Persian synod was reduced, by successive operations, to forty + thousand, to four thousand, to four hundred, to forty, and at + last to seven Magi, the most respected for their learning and + piety. One of these, Erdaviraph, a young but holy prelate, + received from the hands of his brethren three cups of + soporiferous wine. He drank them off, and instantly fell into a + long and profound sleep. As soon as he waked, he related to the + king and to the believing multitude, his journey to heaven, and + his intimate conferences with the Deity. Every doubt was silenced + by this supernatural evidence; and the articles of the faith of + Zoroaster were fixed with equal authority and precision. 9 A + short delineation of that celebrated system will be found useful, + not only to display the character of the Persian nation, but to + illustrate many of their most important transactions, both in + peace and war, with the Roman empire. 10 + + 601 (return) [ Silvestre de Sacy (Antiquites de la Perse) had + proved the neglect of the Zoroastrian religion under the Parthian + kings.—M.] + + 7 (return) [ Hyde and Prideaux, working up the Persian legends + and their own conjectures into a very agreeable story, represent + Zoroaster as a contemporary of Darius Hystaspes. But it is + sufficient to observe, that the Greek writers, who lived almost + in the age of Darius, agree in placing the æra of Zoroaster many + hundred, or even thousand, years before their own time. The + judicious criticisms of Mr. Moyle perceived, and maintained + against his uncle, Dr. Prideaux, the antiquity of the Persian + prophet. See his work, vol. ii. * Note: There are three leading + theories concerning the age of Zoroaster: 1. That which assigns + him to an age of great and almost indefinite antiquity—it is that + of Moyle, adopted by Gibbon, Volney, Recherches sur l’Histoire, + ii. 2. Rhode, also, (die Heilige Sage, &c.,) in a very ingenious + and ably-developed theory, throws the Bactrian prophet far back + into antiquity 2. Foucher, (Mem. de l’Acad. xxvii. 253,) Tychsen, + (in Com. Soc. Gott. ii. 112), Heeren, (ldeen. i. 459,) and + recently Holty, identify the Gushtasp of the Persian mythological + history with Cyaxares the First, the king of the Medes, and + consider the religion to be Median in its origin. M. Guizot + considers this opinion most probable, note in loc. 3. Hyde, + Prideaux, Anquetil du Perron, Kleuker, Herder, Goerres, + (Mythen-Geschichte,) Von Hammer. (Wien. Jahrbuch, vol. ix.,) + Malcolm, (i. 528,) De Guigniaut, (Relig. de l’Antiq. 2d part, + vol. iii.,) Klaproth, (Tableaux de l’Asie, p. 21,) make Gushtasp + Darius Hystaspes, and Zoroaster his contemporary. The silence of + Herodotus appears the great objection to this theory. Some + writers, as M. Foucher (resting, as M. Guizot observes, on the + doubtful authority of Pliny,) make more than one Zoroaster, and + so attempt to reconcile the conflicting theories.— M.] + + 8 (return) [ That ancient idiom was called the Zend. The language + of the commentary, the Pehlvi, though much more modern, has + ceased many ages ago to be a living tongue. This fact alone (if + it is allowed as authentic) sufficiently warrants the antiquity + of those writings which M d’Anquetil has brought into Europe, and + translated into French. * Note: Zend signifies life, living. The + word means, either the collection of the canonical books of the + followers of Zoroaster, or the language itself in which they are + written. They are the books that contain the word of life whether + the language was originally called Zend, or whether it was so + called from the contents of the books. Avesta means word, oracle, + revelation: this term is not the title of a particular work, but + of the collection of the books of Zoroaster, as the revelation of + Ormuzd. This collection is sometimes called Zendavesta, sometimes + briefly Zend. The Zend was the ancient language of Media, as is + proved by its affinity with the dialects of Armenia and Georgia; + it was already a dead language under the Arsacides in the country + which was the scene of the events recorded in the Zendavesta. + Some critics, among others Richardson and Sir W. Jones, have + called in question the antiquity of these books. The former + pretended that Zend had never been a written or spoken language, + but had been invented in the later times by the Magi, for the + purposes of their art; but Kleuker, in the dissertations which he + added to those of Anquetil and the Abbé Foucher, has proved that + the Zend was a living and spoken language.—G. Sir W. Jones + appears to have abandoned his doubts, on discovering the affinity + between the Zend and the Sanskrit. Since the time of Kleuker, + this question has been investigated by many learned scholars. Sir + W. Jones, Leyden, (Asiat. Research. x. 283,) and Mr. Erskine, + (Bombay Trans. ii. 299,) consider it a derivative from the + Sanskrit. The antiquity of the Zendavesta has likewise been + asserted by Rask, the great Danish linguist, who, according to + Malcolm, brought back from the East fresh transcripts and + additions to those published by Anquetil. According to Rask, the + Zend and Sanskrit are sister dialects; the one the parent of the + Persian, the other of the Indian family of languages.—G. and + M.——But the subject is more satisfactorily illustrated in Bopp’s + comparative Grammar of the Sanscrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, + Lithuanian, Gothic, and German languages. Berlin. 1833-5. + According to Bopp, the Zend is, in some respects, of a more + remarkable structure than the Sanskrit. Parts of the Zendavesta + have been published in the original, by M. Bournouf, at Paris, + and M. Ol. shausen, in Hamburg.—M.——The Pehlvi was the language + of the countries bordering on Assyria, and probably of Assyria + itself. Pehlvi signifies valor, heroism; the Pehlvi, therefore, + was the language of the ancient heroes and kings of Persia, the + valiant. (Mr. Erskine prefers the derivation from Pehla, a + border.—M.) It contains a number of Aramaic roots. Anquetil + considered it formed from the Zend. Kleuker does not adopt this + opinion. The Pehlvi, he says, is much more flowing, and less + overcharged with vowels, than the Zend. The books of Zoroaster, + first written in Zend, were afterwards translated into Pehlvi and + Parsi. The Pehlvi had fallen into disuse under the dynasty of the + Sassanides, but the learned still wrote it. The Parsi, the + dialect of Pars or Farristan, was then prevailing dialect. + Kleuker, Anhang zum Zend Avesta, 2, ii. part i. p. 158, part ii. + 31.—G.——Mr. Erskine (Bombay Transactions) considers the existing + Zendavesta to have been compiled in the time of Ardeschir + Babegan.—M.] + + 9 (return) [ Hyde de Religione veterum Pers. c. 21.] + + 10 (return) [ I have principally drawn this account from the + Zendavesta of M. d’Anquetil, and the Sadder, subjoined to Dr. + Hyde’s treatise. It must, however, be confessed, that the studied + obscurity of a prophet, the figurative style of the East, and the + deceitful medium of a French or Latin version may have betrayed + us into error and heresy, in this abridgment of Persian theology. + * Note: It is to be regretted that Gibbon followed the + post-Mahometan Sadder of Hyde.—M.] + + The great and fundamental article of the system was the + celebrated doctrine of the two principles; a bold and injudicious + attempt of Eastern philosophy to reconcile the existence of moral + and physical evil with the attributes of a beneficent Creator and + Governor of the world. The first and original Being, in whom, or + by whom, the universe exists, is denominated in the writings of + Zoroaster, _Time without bounds_; 1001a but it must be confessed, + that this infinite substance seems rather a metaphysical + abstraction of the mind than a real object endowed with + self-consciousness, or possessed of moral perfections. From + either the blind or the intelligent operation of this infinite + Time, which bears but too near an affinity with the chaos of the + Greeks, the two secondary but active principles of the universe + were from all eternity produced, Ormusd and Ahriman, each of them + possessed of the powers of creation, but each disposed, by his + invariable nature, to exercise them with different designs. 1002 + The principle of good is eternally aborbed in light; the + principle of evil eternally buried in darkness. The wise + benevolence of Ormusd formed man capable of virtue, and + abundantly provided his fair habitation with the materials of + happiness. By his vigilant providence, the motion of the planets, + the order of the seasons, and the temperate mixture of the + elements, are preserved. But the malice of Ahriman has long since + pierced _Ormusd’s egg;_ or, in other words, has violated the + harmony of his works. Since that fatal eruption, the most minute + articles of good and evil are intimately intermingled and + agitated together; the rankest poisons spring up amidst the most + salutary plants; deluges, earthquakes, and conflagrations attest + the conflict of Nature, and the little world of man is + perpetually shaken by vice and misfortune. Whilst the rest of + human kind are led away captives in the chains of their infernal + enemy, the faithful Persian alone reserves his religious + adoration for his friend and protector Ormusd, and fights under + his banner of light, in the full confidence that he shall, in the + last day, share the glory of his triumph. At that decisive + period, the enlightened wisdom of goodness will render the power + of Ormusd superior to the furious malice of his rival. Ahriman + and his followers, disarmed and subdued, will sink into their + native darkness; and virtue will maintain the eternal peace and + harmony of the universe. 11 1101 + + 1001a (return) [ Zeruane Akerene, so translated by Anquetil and + Kleuker. There is a dissertation of Foucher on this subject, Mem. + de l’Acad. des Inscr. t. xxix. According to Bohlen (das alte + Indien) it is the Sanskrit Sarvan Akaranam, the Uncreated Whole; + or, according to Fred. Schlegel, Sarvan Akharyam the Uncreate + Indivisible.—M.] + + 1002 (return) [ This is an error. Ahriman was not forced by his + invariable nature to do evil; the Zendavesta expressly recognizes + (see the Izeschne) that he was born good, that in his origin he + was light; envy rendered him evil; he became jealous of the power + and attributes of Ormuzd; then light was changed into darkness, + and Ahriman was precipitated into the abyss. See the Abridgment + of the Doctrine of the Ancient Persians, by Anquetil, c. ii + Section 2.—G.] + + 11 (return) [ The modern Parsees (and in some degree the Sadder) + exalt Ormusd into the first and omnipotent cause, whilst they + degrade Ahriman into an inferior but rebellious spirit. Their + desire of pleasing the Mahometans may have contributed to refine + their theological systems.] + + 1101 (return) [ According to the Zendavesta, Ahriman will not be + annihilated or precipitated forever into darkness: at the + resurrection of the dead he will be entirely defeated by Ormuzd, + his power will be destroyed, his kingdom overthrown to its + foundations, he will himself be purified in torrents of melting + metal; he will change his heart and his will, become holy, + heavenly establish in his dominions the law and word of Ormuzd, + unite himself with him in everlasting friendship, and both will + sing hymns in honor of the Great Eternal. See Anquetil’s + Abridgment. Kleuker, Anhang part iii. p 85, 36; and the Izeschne, + one of the books of the Zendavesta. According to the Sadder + Bun-Dehesch, a more modern work, Ahriman is to be annihilated: + but this is contrary to the text itself of the Zendavesta, and to + the idea its author gives of the kingdom of Eternity, after the + twelve thousand years assigned to the contest between Good and + Evil.—G.] + + + + + Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The + Monarchy.—Part II. + + The theology of Zoroaster was darkly comprehended by foreigners, + and even by the far greater number of his disciples; but the most + careless observers were struck with the philosophic simplicity of + the Persian worship. “That people,” said Herodotus, 12 “rejects + the use of temples, of altars, and of statues, and smiles at the + folly of those nations who imagine that the gods are sprung from, + or bear any affinity with, the human nature. The tops of the + highest mountains are the places chosen for sacrifices. Hymns and + prayers are the principal worship; the Supreme God, who fills the + wide circle of heaven, is the object to whom they are addressed.” + Yet, at the same time, in the true spirit of a polytheist, he + accuseth them of adoring Earth, Water, Fire, the Winds, and the + Sun and Moon. But the Persians of every age have denied the + charge, and explained the equivocal conduct, which might appear + to give a color to it. The elements, and more particularly Fire, + Light, and the Sun, whom they called Mithra, 1201 were the + objects of their religious reverence because they considered them + as the purest symbols, the noblest productions, and the most + powerful agents of the Divine Power and Nature. 13 + + 12 (return) [ Herodotus, l. i. c. 131. But Dr. Prideaux thinks, + with reason, that the use of temples was afterwards permitted in + the Magian religion. Note: The Pyræa, or fire temples of the + Zoroastrians, (observes Kleuker, Persica, p. 16,) were only to be + found in Media or Aderbidjan, provinces into which Herodotus did + not penetrate.—M.] + + 1201 (return) [ Among the Persians Mithra is not the Sun: + Anquetil has contested and triumphantly refuted the opinion of + those who confound them, and it is evidently contrary to the text + of the Zendavesta. Mithra is the first of the genii, or jzeds, + created by Ormuzd; it is he who watches over all nature. Hence + arose the misapprehension of some of the Greeks, who have said + that Mithra was the summus deus of the Persians: he has a + thousand ears and ten thousand eyes. The Chaldeans appear to have + assigned him a higher rank than the Persians. It is he who + bestows upon the earth the light of the sun. The sun. named Khor, + (brightness,) is thus an inferior genius, who, with many other + genii, bears a part in the functions of Mithra. These assistant + genii to another genius are called his kamkars; but in the + Zendavesta they are never confounded. On the days sacred to a + particular genius, the Persian ought to recite, not only the + prayers addressed to him, but those also which are addressed to + his kamkars; thus the hymn or iescht of Mithra is recited on the + day of the sun, (Khor,) and vice versa. It is probably this which + has sometimes caused them to be confounded; but Anquetil had + himself exposed this error, which Kleuker, and all who have + studied the Zendavesta, have noticed. See viii. Diss. of + Anquetil. Kleuker’s Anhang, part iii. p. 132.—G. M. Guizot is + unquestionably right, according to the pure and original doctrine + of the Zend. The Mithriac worship, which was so extensively + propagated in the West, and in which Mithra and the sun were + perpetually confounded, seems to have been formed from a fusion + of Zoroastrianism and Chaldaism, or the Syrian worship of the + sun. An excellent abstract of the question, with references to + the works of the chief modern writers on his curious subject, De + Sacy, Kleuker, Von Hammer, &c., may be found in De Guigniaut’s + translation of Kreuzer. Relig. d’Antiquite, notes viii. ix. to + book ii. vol. i. 2d part, page 728.—M.] + + 13 (return) [ Hyde de Relig. Pers. c. 8. Notwithstanding all + their distinctions and protestations, which seem sincere enough, + their tyrants, the Mahometans, have constantly stigmatized them + as idolatrous worshippers of the fire.] + + Every mode of religion, to make a deep and lasting impression on + the human mind, must exercise our obedience, by enjoining + practices of devotion, for which we can assign no reason; and + must acquire our esteem, by inculcating moral duties analogous to + the dictates of our own hearts. The religion of Zoroaster was + abundantly provided with the former and possessed a sufficient + portion of the latter. At the age of puberty, the faithful + Persian was invested with a mysterious girdle, the badge of the + divine protection; and from that moment all the actions of his + life, even the most indifferent, or the most necessary, were + sanctified by their peculiar prayers, ejaculations, or + genuflections; the omission of which, under any circumstances, + was a grievous sin, not inferior in guilt to the violation of the + moral duties. The moral duties, however, of justice, mercy, + liberality, &c., were in their turn required of the disciple of + Zoroaster, who wished to escape the persecution of Ahriman, and + to live with Ormusd in a blissful eternity, where the degree of + felicity will be exactly proportioned to the degree of virtue and + piety. 14 + + 14 (return) [ See the Sadder, the smallest part of which consists + of moral precepts. The ceremonies enjoined are infinite and + trifling. Fifteen genuflections, prayers, &c., were required + whenever the devout Persian cut his nails or made water; or as + often as he put on the sacred girdle Sadder, Art. 14, 50, 60. * + Note: Zoroaster exacted much less ceremonial observance, than at + a later period, the priests of his doctrines. This is the + progress of all religions the worship, simple in its origin, is + gradually overloaded with minute superstitions. The maxim of the + Zendavesta, on the relative merit of sowing the earth and of + prayers, quoted below by Gibbon, proves that Zoroaster did not + attach too much importance to these observances. Thus it is not + from the Zendavesta that Gibbon derives the proof of his + allegation, but from the Sadder, a much later work.—G] + + But there are some remarkable instances in which Zoroaster lays + aside the prophet, assumes the legislator, and discovers a + liberal concern for private and public happiness, seldom to be + found among the grovelling or visionary schemes of superstition. + Fasting and celibacy, the common means of purchasing the divine + favor, he condemns with abhorrence as a criminal rejection of the + best gifts of Providence. The saint, in the Magian religion, is + obliged to beget children, to plant useful trees, to destroy + noxious animals, to convey water to the dry lands of Persia, and + to work out his salvation by pursuing all the labors of + agriculture. 1401 We may quote from the Zendavesta a wise and + benevolent maxim, which compensates for many an absurdity. “He + who sows the ground with care and diligence acquires a greater + stock of religious merit than he could gain by the repetition of + ten thousand prayers.” 15 In the spring of every year a festival + was celebrated, destined to represent the primitive equality, and + the present connection, of mankind. The stately kings of Persia, + exchanging their vain pomp for more genuine greatness, freely + mingled with the humblest but most useful of their subjects. On + that day the husbandmen were admitted, without distinction, to + the table of the king and his satraps. The monarch accepted their + petitions, inquired into their grievances, and conversed with + them on the most equal terms. “From your labors,” was he + accustomed to say, (and to say with truth, if not with + sincerity,) “from your labors we receive our subsistence; you + derive your tranquillity from our vigilance: since, therefore, we + are mutually necessary to each other, let us live together like + brothers in concord and love.” 16 Such a festival must indeed + have degenerated, in a wealthy and despotic empire, into a + theatrical representation; but it was at least a comedy well + worthy of a royal audience, and which might sometimes imprint a + salutary lesson on the mind of a young prince. + + 1401 (return) [ See, on Zoroaster’s encouragement of agriculture, + the ingenious remarks of Heeren, Ideen, vol. i. p. 449, &c., and + Rhode, Heilige Sage, p. 517—M.] + + 15 (return) [ Zendavesta, tom. i. p. 224, and Precis du Systeme + de Zoroastre, tom. iii.] + + 16 (return) [ Hyde de Religione Persarum, c. 19.] + + Had Zoroaster, in all his institutions, invariably supported this + exalted character, his name would deserve a place with those of + Numa and Confucius, and his system would be justly entitled to + all the applause, which it has pleased some of our divines, and + even some of our philosophers, to bestow on it. But in that + motley composition, dictated by reason and passion, by enthusiasm + and by selfish motives, some useful and sublime truths were + disgraced by a mixture of the most abject and dangerous + superstition. The Magi, or sacerdotal order, were extremely + numerous, since, as we have already seen, fourscore thousand of + them were convened in a general council. Their forces were + multiplied by discipline. A regular hierarchy was diffused + through all the provinces of Persia; and the Archimagus, who + resided at Balch, was respected as the visible head of the + church, and the lawful successor of Zoroaster. 17 The property of + the Magi was very considerable. Besides the less invidious + possession of a large tract of the most fertile lands of Media, + 18 they levied a general tax on the fortunes and the industry of + the Persians. 19 “Though your good works,” says the interested + prophet, “exceed in number the leaves of the trees, the drops of + rain, the stars in the heaven, or the sands on the sea-shore, + they will all be unprofitable to you, unless they are accepted by + the _destour_, or priest. To obtain the acceptation of this guide + to salvation, you must faithfully pay him _tithes_ of all you + possess, of your goods, of your lands, and of your money. If the + destour be satisfied, your soul will escape hell tortures; you + will secure praise in this world and happiness in the next. For + the destours are the teachers of religion; they know all things, + and they deliver all men.” 20 201a + + 17 (return) [ Hyde de Religione Persarum, c. 28. Both Hyde and + Prideaux affect to apply to the Magian the terms consecrated to + the Christian hierarchy.] + + 18 (return) [ Ammian. Marcellin. xxiii. 6. He informs us (as far + as we may credit him) of two curious particulars: 1. That the + Magi derived some of their most secret doctrines from the Indian + Brachmans; and 2. That they were a tribe, or family, as well as + order.] + + 19 (return) [ The divine institution of tithes exhibits a + singular instance of conformity between the law of Zoroaster and + that of Moses. Those who cannot otherwise account for it, may + suppose, if they please that the Magi of the latter times + inserted so useful an interpolation into the writings of their + prophet.] + + 20 (return) [ Sadder, Art. viii.] + + 201a (return) [ The passage quoted by Gibbon is not taken from + the writings of Zoroaster, but from the Sadder, a work, as has + been before said, much later than the books which form the + Zendavesta. and written by a Magus for popular use; what it + contains, therefore, cannot be attributed to Zoroaster. It is + remarkable that Gibbon should fall into this error, for Hyde + himself does not ascribe the Sadder to Zoroaster; he remarks that + it is written inverse, while Zoroaster always wrote in prose. + Hyde, i. p. 27. Whatever may be the case as to the latter + assertion, for which there appears little foundation, it is + unquestionable that the Sadder is of much later date. The Abbé + Foucher does not even believe it to be an extract from the works + of Zoroaster. See his Diss. before quoted. Mem. de l’Acad. des + Ins. t. xxvii.—G. Perhaps it is rash to speak of any part of the + Zendavesta as the writing of Zoroaster, though it may be a + genuine representation of his. As to the Sadder, Hyde (in Præf.) + considered it not above 200 years old. It is manifestly + post-Mahometan. See Art. xxv. on fasting.—M.] + + These convenient maxims of reverence and implicit faith were + doubtless imprinted with care on the tender minds of youth; since + the Magi were the masters of education in Persia, and to their + hands the children even of the royal family were intrusted. 21 + The Persian priests, who were of a speculative genius, preserved + and investigated the secrets of Oriental philosophy; and + acquired, either by superior knowledge, or superior art, the + reputation of being well versed in some occult sciences, which + have derived their appellation from the Magi. 22 Those of more + active dispositions mixed with the world in courts and cities; + and it is observed, that the administration of Artaxerxes was in + a great measure directed by the counsels of the sacerdotal order, + whose dignity, either from policy or devotion, that prince + restored to its ancient splendor. 23 + + 21 (return) [ Plato in Alcibiad.] + + 22 (return) [ Pliny (Hist. Natur. l. xxx. c. 1) observes, that + magic held mankind by the triple chain of religion, of physic, + and of astronomy.] + + 23 (return) [ Agathias, l. iv. p. 134.] + + The first counsel of the Magi was agreeable to the unsociable + genius of their faith, 24 to the practice of ancient kings, 25 + and even to the example of their legislator, who had fallen a + victim to a religious war, excited by his own intolerant zeal. 26 + By an edict of Artaxerxes, the exercise of every worship, except + that of Zoroaster, was severely prohibited. The temples of the + Parthians, and the statues of their deified monarchs, were thrown + down with ignominy. 27 The sword of Aristotle (such was the name + given by the Orientals to the polytheism and philosophy of the + Greeks) was easily broken; 28 the flames of persecution soon + reached the more stubborn Jews and Christians; 29 nor did they + spare the heretics of their own nation and religion. The majesty + of Ormusd, who was jealous of a rival, was seconded by the + despotism of Artaxerxes, who could not suffer a rebel; and the + schismatics within his vast empire were soon reduced to the + inconsiderable number of eighty thousand. 30 301 This spirit of + persecution reflects dishonor on the religion of Zoroaster; but + as it was not productive of any civil commotion, it served to + strengthen the new monarchy, by uniting all the various + inhabitants of Persia in the bands of religious zeal. 302 + + 24 (return) [ Mr. Hume, in the Natural History of Religion, + sagaciously remarks, that the most refined and philosophic sects + are constantly the most intolerant. * Note: Hume’s comparison is + rather between theism and polytheism. In India, in Greece, and in + modern Europe, philosophic religion has looked down with + contemptuous toleration on the superstitions of the vulgar.—M.] + + 25 (return) [ Cicero de Legibus, ii. 10. Xerxes, by the advice of + the Magi, destroyed the temples of Greece.] + + 26 (return) [ Hyde de Relig. Persar. c. 23, 24. D’Herbelot, + Bibliotheque Orientale, Zurdusht. Life of Zoroaster in tom. ii. + of the Zendavesta.] + + 27 (return) [ Compare Moses of Chorene, l. ii. c. 74, with + Ammian. Marcel lin. xxiii. 6. Hereafter I shall make use of these + passages.] + + 28 (return) [ Rabbi Abraham, in the Tarikh Schickard, p. 108, + 109.] + + 29 (return) [ Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, l. viii. c. 3. + Sozomen, l. ii. c. 1 Manes, who suffered an ignominious death, + may be deemed a Magian as well as a Christian heretic.] + + 30 (return) [ Hyde de Religione Persar. c. 21.] + + 301 (return) [ It is incorrect to attribute these persecutions to + Artaxerxes. The Jews were held in honor by him, and their schools + flourished during his reign. Compare Jost, Geschichte der + Isræliter, b. xv. 5, with Basnage. Sapor was forced by the people + to temporary severities; but their real persecution did not begin + till the reigns of Yezdigerd and Kobad. Hist. of Jews, iii. 236. + According to Sozomen, i. viii., Sapor first persecuted the + Christians. Manes was put to death by Varanes the First, A. D. + 277. Beausobre, Hist. de Man. i. 209.—M.] + + 302 (return) [ In the testament of Ardischer in Ferdusi, the poet + assigns these sentiments to the dying king, as he addresses his + son: Never forget that as a king, you are at once the protector + of religion and of your country. Consider the altar and the + throne as inseparable; they must always sustain each other. + Malcolm’s Persia. i. 74—M] + + II. Artaxerxes, by his valor and conduct, had wrested the sceptre + of the East from the ancient royal family of Parthia. There still + remained the more difficult task of establishing, throughout the + vast extent of Persia, a uniform and vigorous administration. The + weak indulgence of the Arsacides had resigned to their sons and + brothers the principal provinces, and the greatest offices of the + kingdom in the nature of hereditary possessions. The _vitaxæ_, or + eighteen most powerful satraps, were permitted to assume the + regal title; and the vain pride of the monarch was delighted with + a nominal dominion over so many vassal kings. Even tribes of + barbarians in their mountains, and the Greek cities of Upper + Asia, 31 within their walls, scarcely acknowledged, or seldom + obeyed. any superior; and the Parthian empire exhibited, under + other names, a lively image of the feudal system 32 which has + since prevailed in Europe. But the active victor, at the head of + a numerous and disciplined army, visited in person every province + of Persia. The defeat of the boldest rebels, and the reduction of + the strongest fortifications, 33 diffused the terror of his arms, + and prepared the way for the peaceful reception of his authority. + An obstinate resistance was fatal to the chiefs; but their + followers were treated with lenity. 34 A cheerful submission was + rewarded with honors and riches, but the prudent Artaxerxes, + suffering no person except himself to assume the title of king, + abolished every intermediate power between the throne and the + people. His kingdom, nearly equal in extent to modern Persia, + was, on every side, bounded by the sea, or by great rivers; by + the Euphrates, the Tigris, the Araxes, the Oxus, and the Indus, + by the Caspian Sea, and the Gulf of Persia. 35 That country was + computed to contain, in the last century, five hundred and + fifty-four cities, sixty thousand villages, and about forty + millions of souls. 36 If we compare the administration of the + house of Sassan with that of the house of Sefi, the political + influence of the Magian with that of the Mahometan religion, we + shall probably infer, that the kingdom of Artaxerxes contained at + least as great a number of cities, villages, and inhabitants. But + it must likewise be confessed, that in every age the want of + harbors on the sea-coast, and the scarcity of fresh water in the + inland provinces, have been very unfavorable to the commerce and + agriculture of the Persians; who, in the calculation of their + numbers, seem to have indulged one of the meanest, though most + common, artifices of national vanity. + + 31 (return) [ These colonies were extremely numerous. Seleucus + Nicator founded thirty-nine cities, all named from himself, or + some of his relations, (see Appian in Syriac. p. 124.) The æra of + Seleucus (still in use among the eastern Christians) appears as + late as the year 508, of Christ 196, on the medals of the Greek + cities within the Parthian empire. See Moyle’s works, vol. i. p. + 273, &c., and M. Freret, Mem. de l’Academie, tom. xix.] + + 32 (return) [ The modern Persians distinguish that period as the + dynasty of the kings of the nations. See Plin. Hist. Nat. vi. + 25.] + + 33 (return) [ Eutychius (tom. i. p. 367, 371, 375) relates the + siege of the island of Mesene in the Tigris, with some + circumstances not unlike the story of Nysus and Scylla.] + + 34 (return) [ Agathias, ii. 64, [and iv. p. 260.] The princes of + Segestan de fended their independence during many years. As + romances generally transport to an ancient period the events of + their own time, it is not impossible that the fabulous exploits + of Rustan, Prince of Segestan, many have been grafted on this + real history.] + + 35 (return) [ We can scarcely attribute to the Persian monarchy + the sea-coast of Gedrosia or Macran, which extends along the + Indian Ocean from Cape Jask (the promontory Capella) to Cape + Goadel. In the time of Alexander, and probably many ages + afterwards, it was thinly inhabited by a savage people of + Icthyophagi, or Fishermen, who knew no arts, who acknowledged no + master, and who were divided by in-hospitable deserts from the + rest of the world. (See Arrian de Reb. Indicis.) In the twelfth + century, the little town of Taiz (supposed by M. d’Anville to be + the Teza of Ptolemy) was peopled and enriched by the resort of + the Arabian merchants. (See Geographia Nubiens, p. 58, and + d’Anville, Geographie Ancienne, tom. ii. p. 283.) In the last + age, the whole country was divided between three princes, one + Mahometan and two Idolaters, who maintained their independence + against the successors of Shah Abbas. (Voyages de Tavernier, part + i. l. v. p. 635.)] + + 36 (return) [ Chardin, tom. iii c 1 2, 3.] + + As soon as the ambitious mind of Artaxerxes had triumphed ever + the resistance of his vassals, he began to threaten the + neighboring states, who, during the long slumber of his + predecessors, had insulted Persia with impunity. He obtained some + easy victories over the wild Scythians and the effeminate + Indians; but the Romans were an enemy, who, by their past + injuries and present power, deserved the utmost efforts of his + arms. A forty years’ tranquillity, the fruit of valor and + moderation, had succeeded the victories of Trajan. During the + period that elapsed from the accession of Marcus to the reign of + Alexander, the Roman and the Parthian empires were twice engaged + in war; and although the whole strength of the Arsacides + contended with a part only of the forces of Rome, the event was + most commonly in favor of the latter. Macrinus, indeed, prompted + by his precarious situation and pusillanimous temper, purchased a + peace at the expense of near two millions of our money; 37 but + the generals of Marcus, the emperor Severus, and his son, erected + many trophies in Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria. Among their + exploits, the imperfect relation of which would have unseasonably + interrupted the more important series of domestic revolutions, we + shall only mention the repeated calamities of the two great + cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon. + + 37 (return) [ Dion, l. xxviii. p. 1335.] + + Seleucia, on the western bank of the Tigris, about forty-five + miles to the north of ancient Babylon, was the capital of the + Macedonian conquests in Upper Asia. 38 Many ages after the fall + of their empire, Seleucia retained the genuine characters of a + Grecian colony, arts, military virtue, and the love of freedom. + The independent republic was governed by a senate of three + hundred nobles; the people consisted of six hundred thousand + citizens; the walls were strong, and as long as concord prevailed + among the several orders of the state, they viewed with contempt + the power of the Parthian: but the madness of faction was + sometimes provoked to implore the dangerous aid of the common + enemy, who was posted almost at the gates of the colony. 39 The + Parthian monarchs, like the Mogul sovereigns of Hindostan, + delighted in the pastoral life of their Scythian ancestors; and + the Imperial camp was frequently pitched in the plain of + Ctesiphon, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, at the distance of + only three miles from Seleucia. 40 The innumerable attendants on + luxury and despotism resorted to the court, and the little + village of Ctesiphon insensibly swelled into a great city. 41 + Under the reign of Marcus, the Roman generals penetrated as far + as Ctesiphon and Seleucia. They were received as friends by the + Greek colony; they attacked as enemies the seat of the Parthian + kings; yet both cities experienced the same treatment. The sack + and conflagration of Seleucia, with the massacre of three hundred + thousand of the inhabitants, tarnished the glory of the Roman + triumph. 42 Seleucia, already exhausted by the neighborhood of a + too powerful rival, sunk under the fatal blow; but Ctesiphon, in + about thirty-three years, had sufficiently recovered its strength + to maintain an obstinate siege against the emperor Severus. The + city was, however, taken by assault; the king, who defended it in + person, escaped with precipitation; a hundred thousand captives, + and a rich booty, rewarded the fatigues of the Roman soldiers. 43 + Notwithstanding these misfortunes, Ctesiphon succeeded to Babylon + and to Seleucia, as one of the great capitals of the East. In + summer, the monarch of Persia enjoyed at Ecbatana the cool + breezes of the mountains of Media; but the mildness of the + climate engaged him to prefer Ctesiphon for his winter residence. + + 38 (return) [ For the precise situation of Babylon, Seleucia, + Ctesiphon, Moiain, and Bagdad, cities often confounded with each + other, see an excellent Geographical Tract of M. d’Anville, in + Mem. de l’Academie, tom. xxx.] + + 39 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. xi. 42. Plin. Hist. Nat. vi. 26.] + + 40 (return) [ This may be inferred from Strabo, l. xvi. p. 743.] + + 41 (return) [ That most curious traveller, Bernier, who followed + the camp of Aurengzebe from Delhi to Cashmir, describes with + great accuracy the immense moving city. The guard of cavalry + consisted of 35,000 men, that of infantry of 10,000. It was + computed that the camp contained 150,000 horses, mules, and + elephants; 50,000 camels, 50,000 oxen, and between 300,000 and + 400,000 persons. Almost all Delhi followed the court, whose + magnificence supported its industry.] + + 42 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxi. p. 1178. Hist. August. p. 38. + Eutrop. viii. 10 Euseb. in Chronic. Quadratus (quoted in the + Augustan History) attempted to vindicate the Romans by alleging + that the citizens of Seleucia had first violated their faith.] + + 43 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxv. p. 1263. Herodian, l. iii. p. 120. + Hist. August. p. 70.] + + From these successful inroads the Romans derived no real or + lasting benefit; nor did they attempt to preserve such distant + conquests, separated from the provinces of the empire by a large + tract of intermediate desert. The reduction of the kingdom of + Osrhoene was an acquisition of less splendor indeed, but of a far + more solid advantage. That little state occupied the northern and + most fertile part of Mesopotamia, between the Euphrates and the + Tigris. Edessa, its capital, was situated about twenty miles + beyond the former of those rivers; and the inhabitants, since the + time of Alexander, were a mixed race of Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, + and Armenians. 44 The feeble sovereigns of Osrhoene, placed on + the dangerous verge of two contending empires, were attached from + inclination to the Parthian cause; but the superior power of Rome + exacted from them a reluctant homage, which is still attested by + their medals. After the conclusion of the Parthian war under + Marcus, it was judged prudent to secure some substantial pledges + of their doubtful fidelity. Forts were constructed in several + parts of the country, and a Roman garrison was fixed in the + strong town of Nisibis. During the troubles that followed the + death of Commodus, the princes of Osrhoene attempted to shake off + the yoke; but the stern policy of Severus confirmed their + dependence, 45 and the perfidy of Caracalla completed the easy + conquest. Abgarus, the last king of Edessa, was sent in chains to + Rome, his dominions reduced into a province, and his capital + dignified with the rank of colony; and thus the Romans, about ten + years before the fall of the Parthian monarchy, obtained a firm + and permanent establishment beyond the Euphrates. 46 + + 44 (return) [ The polished citizens of Antioch called those of + Edessa mixed barbarians. It was, however, some praise, that of + the three dialects of the Syriac, the purest and most elegant + (the Aramæan) was spoken at Edessa. This remark M. Bayer (Hist. + Edess. p 5) has borrowed from George of Malatia, a Syrian + writer.] + + 45 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxv. p. 1248, 1249, 1250. M. Bayer has + neglected to use this most important passage.] + + 46 (return) [ This kingdom, from Osrhoes, who gave a new name to + the country, to the last Abgarus, had lasted 353 years. See the + learned work of M. Bayer, Historia Osrhoena et Edessena.] + + Prudence as well as glory might have justified a war on the side + of Artaxerxes, had his views been confined to the defence or + acquisition of a useful frontier. but the ambitious Persian + openly avowed a far more extensive design of conquest; and he + thought himself able to support his lofty pretensions by the arms + of reason as well as by those of power. Cyrus, he alleged, had + first subdued, and his successors had for a long time possessed, + the whole extent of Asia, as far as the Propontis and the Ægean + Sea; the provinces of Caria and Ionia, under their empire, had + been governed by Persian satraps, and all Egypt, to the confines + of Æthiopia, had acknowledged their sovereignty. 47 Their rights + had been suspended, but not destroyed, by a long usurpation; and + as soon as he received the Persian diadem, which birth and + successful valor had placed upon his head, the first great duty + of his station called upon him to restore the ancient limits and + splendor of the monarchy. The Great King, therefore, (such was + the haughty style of his embassies to the emperor Alexander,) + commanded the Romans instantly to depart from all the provinces + of his ancestors, and, yielding to the Persians the empire of + Asia, to content themselves with the undisturbed possession of + Europe. This haughty mandate was delivered by four hundred of the + tallest and most beautiful of the Persians; who, by their fine + horses, splendid arms, and rich apparel, displayed the pride and + greatness of their master. 48 Such an embassy was much less an + offer of negotiation than a declaration of war. Both Alexander + Severus and Artaxerxes, collecting the military force of the + Roman and Persian monarchies, resolved in this important contest + to lead their armies in person. + + 47 (return) [ Xenophon, in the preface to the Cyropædia, gives a + clear and magnificent idea of the extent of the empire of Cyrus. + Herodotus (l. iii. c. 79, &c.) enters into a curious and + particular description of the twenty great Satrapies into which + the Persian empire was divided by Darius Hystaspes.] + + 48 (return) [ Herodian, vi. 209, 212.] + + If we credit what should seem the most authentic of all records, + an oration, still extant, and delivered by the emperor himself to + the senate, we must allow that the victory of Alexander Severus + was not inferior to any of those formerly obtained over the + Persians by the son of Philip. The army of the Great King + consisted of one hundred and twenty thousand horse, clothed in + complete armor of steel; of seven hundred elephants, with towers + filled with archers on their backs, and of eighteen hundred + chariots armed with scythes. This formidable host, the like of + which is not to be found in eastern history, and has scarcely + been imagined in eastern romance, 49 was discomfited in a great + battle, in which the Roman Alexander proved himself an intrepid + soldier and a skilful general. The Great King fled before his + valor; an immense booty, and the conquest of Mesopotamia, were + the immediate fruits of this signal victory. Such are the + circumstances of this ostentatious and improbable relation, + dictated, as it too plainly appears, by the vanity of the + monarch, adorned by the unblushing servility of his flatterers, + and received without contradiction by a distant and obsequious + senate. 50 Far from being inclined to believe that the arms of + Alexander obtained any memorable advantage over the Persians, we + are induced to suspect that all this blaze of imaginary glory was + designed to conceal some real disgrace. + + 49 (return) [ There were two hundred scythed chariots at the + battle of Arbela, in the host of Darius. In the vast army of + Tigranes, which was vanquished by Lucullus, seventeen thousand + horse only were completely armed. Antiochus brought fifty-four + elephants into the field against the Romans: by his frequent wars + and negotiations with the princes of India, he had once collected + a hundred and fifty of those great animals; but it may be + questioned whether the most powerful monarch of Hindostan evci + formed a line of battle of seven hundred elephants. Instead of + three or four thousand elephants, which the Great Mogul was + supposed to possess, Tavernier (Voyages, part ii. l. i. p. 198) + discovered, by a more accurate inquiry, that he had only five + hundred for his baggage, and eighty or ninety for the service of + war. The Greeks have varied with regard to the number which Porus + brought into the field; but Quintus Curtius, (viii. 13,) in this + instance judicious and moderate, is contented with eighty-five + elephants, distinguished by their size and strength. In Siam, + where these animals are the most numerous and the most esteemed, + eighteen elephants are allowed as a sufficient proportion for + each of the nine brigades into which a just army is divided. The + whole number, of one hundred and sixty-two elephants of war, may + sometimes be doubled. Hist. des Voyages, tom. ix. p. 260. * Note: + Compare Gibbon’s note 10 to ch. lvii—M.] + + 50 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 133. * Note: See M. Guizot’s note, + p. 267. According to the Persian authorities Ardeschir extended + his conquests to the Euphrates. Malcolm i. 71.—M.] + + Our suspicions are confirmed by the authority of a contemporary + historian, who mentions the virtues of Alexander with respect, + and his faults with candor. He describes the judicious plan which + had been formed for the conduct of the war. Three Roman armies + were destined to invade Persia at the same time, and by different + roads. But the operations of the campaign, though wisely + concerted, were not executed either with ability or success. The + first of these armies, as soon as it had entered the marshy + plains of Babylon, towards the artificial conflux of the + Euphrates and the Tigris, 51 was encompassed by the superior + numbers, and destroyed by the arrows of the enemy. The alliance + of Chosroes, king of Armenia, 52 and the long tract of + mountainous country, in which the Persian cavalry was of little + service, opened a secure entrance into the heart of Media, to the + second of the Roman armies. These brave troops laid waste the + adjacent provinces, and by several successful actions against + Artaxerxes, gave a faint color to the emperor’s vanity. But the + retreat of this victorious army was imprudent, or at least + unfortunate. In repassing the mountains, great numbers of + soldiers perished by the badness of the roads, and the severity + of the winter season. It had been resolved, that whilst these two + great detachments penetrated into the opposite extremes of the + Persian dominions, the main body, under the command of Alexander + himself, should support their attack, by invading the centre of + the kingdom. But the unexperienced youth, influenced by his + mother’s counsels, and perhaps by his own fears, deserted the + bravest troops, and the fairest prospect of victory; and after + consuming in Mesopotamia an inactive and inglorious summer, he + led back to Antioch an army diminished by sickness, and provoked + by disappointment. The behavior of Artaxerxes had been very + different. Flying with rapidity from the hills of Media to the + marshes of the Euphrates, he had everywhere opposed the invaders + in person; and in either fortune had united with the ablest + conduct the most undaunted resolution. But in several obstinate + engagements against the veteran legions of Rome, the Persian + monarch had lost the flower of his troops. Even his victories had + weakened his power. The favorable opportunities of the absence of + Alexander, and of the confusions that followed that emperor’s + death, presented themselves in vain to his ambition. Instead of + expelling the Romans, as he pretended, from the continent of + Asia, he found himself unable to wrest from their hands the + little province of Mesopotamia. 53 + + 51 (return) [ M. de Tillemont has already observed, that + Herodian’s geography is somewhat confused.] + + 52 (return) [ Moses of Chorene (Hist. Armen. l. ii. c. 71) + illustrates this invasion of Media, by asserting that Chosroes, + king of Armenia, defeated Artaxerxes, and pursued him to the + confines of India. The exploits of Chosroes have been magnified; + and he acted as a dependent ally to the Romans.] + + 53 (return) [ For the account of this war, see Herodian, l. vi. + p. 209, 212. The old abbreviators and modern compilers have + blindly followed the Augustan History.] + + The reign of Artaxerxes, which, from the last defeat of the + Parthians, lasted only fourteen years, forms a memorable æra in + the history of the East, and even in that of Rome. His character + seems to have been marked by those bold and commanding features, + that generally distinguish the princes who conquer, from those + who inherit, an empire. Till the last period of the Persian + monarchy, his code of laws was respected as the groundwork of + their civil and religious policy. 54 Several of his sayings are + preserved. One of them in particular discovers a deep insight + into the constitution of government. “The authority of the + prince,” said Artaxerxes, “must be defended by a military force; + that force can only be maintained by taxes; all taxes must, at + last, fall upon agriculture; and agriculture can never flourish + except under the protection of justice and moderation.” 55 + Artaxerxes bequeathed his new empire, and his ambitious designs + against the Romans, to Sapor, a son not unworthy of his great + father; but those designs were too extensive for the power of + Persia, and served only to involve both nations in a long series + of destructive wars and reciprocal calamities. + + 54 (return) [Eutychius, tom. ii. p. 180, vers. Pocock. The great + Chosroes Noushirwan sent the code of Artaxerxes to all his + satraps, as the invariable rule of their conduct.] + + 55 (return) [ D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, au mot Ardshir. + We may observe, that after an ancient period of fables, and a + long interval of darkness, the modern histories of Persia begin + to assume an air of truth with the dynasty of Sassanides. Compare + Malcolm, i. 79.—M.] + + The Persians, long since civilized and corrupted, were very far + from possessing the martial independence, and the intrepid + hardiness, both of mind and body, which have rendered the + northern barbarians masters of the world. The science of war, + that constituted the more rational force of Greece and Rome, as + it now does of Europe, never made any considerable progress in + the East. Those disciplined evolutions which harmonize and + animate a confused multitude, were unknown to the Persians. They + were equally unskilled in the arts of constructing, besieging, or + defending regular fortifications. They trusted more to their + numbers than to their courage; more to their courage than to + their discipline. The infantry was a half-armed, spiritless crowd + of peasants, levied in haste by the allurements of plunder, and + as easily dispersed by a victory as by a defeat. The monarch and + his nobles transported into the camp the pride and luxury of the + seraglio. Their military operations were impeded by a useless + train of women, eunuchs, horses, and camels; and in the midst of + a successful campaign, the Persian host was often separated or + destroyed by an unexpected famine. 56 + + 56 (return) [ Herodian, l. vi. p. 214. Ammianus Marcellinus, l. + xxiii. c. 6. Some differences may be observed between the two + historians, the natural effects of the changes produced by a + century and a half.] + + But the nobles of Persia, in the bosom of luxury and despotism, + preserved a strong sense of personal gallantry and national + honor. From the age of seven years they were taught to speak + truth, to shoot with the bow, and to ride; and it was universally + confessed that in the two last of these arts they had made a more + than common proficiency. 57 The most distinguished youth were + educated under the monarch’s eye, practised their exercises in + the gate of his palace, and were severely trained up to the + habits of temperance and obedience, in their long and laborious + parties of hunting. In every province, the satrap maintained a + like school of military virtue. The Persian nobles (so natural is + the idea of feudal tenures) received from the king’s bounty lands + and houses, on the condition of their service in war. They were + ready on the first summons to mount on horseback, with a martial + and splendid train of followers, and to join the numerous bodies + of guards, who were carefully selected from among the most robust + slaves, and the bravest adventurers of Asia. These armies, both + of light and of heavy cavalry, equally formidable by the + impetuosity of their charge and the rapidity of their motions, + threatened, as an impending cloud, the eastern provinces of the + declining empire of Rome. 58 + + 57 (return) [ The Persians are still the most skilful horsemen, + and their horses the finest in the East.] + + 58 (return) [ From Herodotus, Xenophon, Herodian, Ammianus, + Chardin, &c., I have extracted such probable accounts of the + Persian nobility, as seem either common to every age, or + particular to that of the Sassanides.] + + + + + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part I. + + The State Of Germany Till The Invasion Of The Barbarians In The + Time Of The Emperor Decius. + + The government and religion of Persia have deserved some notice, + from their connection with the decline and fall of the Roman + empire. We shall occasionally mention the Scythian or Sarmatian + tribes, 1001 which, with their arms and horses, their flocks and + herds, their wives and families, wandered over the immense plains + which spread themselves from the Caspian Sea to the Vistula, from + the confines of Persia to those of Germany. But the warlike + Germans, who first resisted, then invaded, and at length + overturned the Western monarchy of Rome, will occupy a much more + important place in this history, and possess a stronger, and, if + we may use the expression, a more domestic, claim to our + attention and regard. The most civilized nations of modern Europe + issued from the woods of Germany; and in the rude institutions of + those barbarians we may still distinguish the original principles + of our present laws and manners. In their primitive state of + simplicity and independence, the Germans were surveyed by the + discerning eye, and delineated by the masterly pencil, of + Tacitus, 1002 the first of historians who applied the science of + philosophy to the study of facts. The expressive conciseness of + his descriptions has served to exercise the diligence of + innumerable antiquarians, and to excite the genius and + penetration of the philosophic historians of our own times. The + subject, however various and important, has already been so + frequently, so ably, and so successfully discussed, that it is + now grown familiar to the reader, and difficult to the writer. We + shall therefore content ourselves with observing, and indeed with + repeating, some of the most important circumstances of climate, + of manners, and of institutions, which rendered the wild + barbarians of Germany such formidable enemies to the Roman power. + + 1001 (return) [ The Scythians, even according to the ancients, + are not Sarmatians. It may be doubted whether Gibbon intended to + confound them.—M. ——The Greeks, after having divided the world + into Greeks and barbarians. divided the barbarians into four + great classes, the Celts, the Scythians, the Indians, and the + Ethiopians. They called Celts all the inhabitants of Gaul. + Scythia extended from the Baltic Sea to the Lake Aral: the people + enclosed in the angle to the north-east, between Celtica and + Scythia, were called Celto-Scythians, and the Sarmatians were + placed in the southern part of that angle. But these names of + Celts, of Scythians, of Celto-Scythians, and Sarmatians, were + invented, says Schlozer, by the profound cosmographical ignorance + of the Greeks, and have no real ground; they are purely + geographical divisions, without any relation to the true + affiliation of the different races. Thus all the inhabitants of + Gaul are called Celts by most of the ancient writers; yet Gaul + contained three totally distinct nations, the Belgæ, the + Aquitani, and the Gauls, properly so called. Hi omnes lingua + institutis, legibusque inter se differunt. Cæsar. Com. c. i. It + is thus the Turks call all Europeans Franks. Schlozer, Allgemeine + Nordische Geschichte, p. 289. 1771. Bayer (de Origine et priscis + Sedibus Scytharum, in Opusc. p. 64) says, Primus eorum, de quibus + constat, Ephorus, in quarto historiarum libro, orbem terrarum + inter Scythas, Indos, Æthiopas et Celtas divisit. Fragmentum ejus + loci Cosmas Indicopleustes in topographia Christiana, f. 148, + conservavit. Video igitur Ephorum, cum locorum positus per certa + capita distribuere et explicare constitueret, insigniorum nomina + gentium vastioribus spatiis adhibuisse, nulla mala fraude et + successu infelici. Nam Ephoro quoquomodo dicta pro exploratis + habebant Græci plerique et Romani: ita gliscebat error + posteritate. Igitur tot tamque diversæ stirpis gentes non modo + intra communem quandam regionem definitæ, unum omnes Scytharum + nomen his auctoribus subierunt, sed etiam ab illa regionis + adpellatione in eandem nationem sunt conflatæ. Sic Cimmeriorum + res cum Scythicis, Scytharum cum Sarmaticis, Russicis, Hunnicis, + Tataricis commiscentur.—G.] + + 1002 (return) [ The Germania of Tacitus has been a fruitful + source of hypothesis to the ingenuity of modern writers, who have + endeavored to account for the form of the work and the views of + the author. According to Luden, (Geschichte des T. V. i. 432, and + note,) it contains the unfinished and disarranged for a larger + work. An anonymous writer, supposed by Luden to be M. Becker, + conceives that it was intended as an episode in his larger + history. According to M. Guizot, “Tacite a peint les Germains + comme Montaigne et Rousseau les sauvages, dans un acces d’humeur + contre sa patrie: son livre est une satire des mœurs Romaines, + l’eloquente boutade d’un patriote philosophe qui veut voir la + vertu la, ou il ne rencontre pas la mollesse honteuse et la + depravation savante d’une vielle societe.” Hist. de la + Civilisation Moderne, i. 258.—M.] + + Ancient Germany, excluding from its independent limits the + province westward of the Rhine, which had submitted to the Roman + yoke, extended itself over a third part of Europe. 1 Almost the + whole of modern Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, + Livonia, Prussia, and the greater part of Poland, were peopled by + the various tribes of one great nation, whose complexion, + manners, and language denoted a common origin, and preserved a + striking resemblance. On the west, ancient Germany was divided by + the Rhine from the Gallic, and on the south, by the Danube, from + the Illyrian, provinces of the empire. A ridge of hills, rising + from the Danube, and called the Carpathian Mountains, covered + Germany on the side of Dacia or Hungary. The eastern frontier was + faintly marked by the mutual fears of the Germans and the + Sarmatians, and was often confounded by the mixture of warring + and confederating tribes of the two nations. In the remote + darkness of the north, the ancients imperfectly descried a frozen + ocean that lay beyond the Baltic Sea, and beyond the Peninsula, + or islands 1001a of Scandinavia. + + 1 (return) [ Germany was not of such vast extent. It is from + Cæsar, and more particularly from Ptolemy, (says Gatterer,) that + we can know what was the state of ancient Germany before the wars + with the Romans had changed the positions of the tribes. Germany, + as changed by these wars, has been described by Strabo, Pliny, + and Tacitus. Germany, properly so called, was bounded on the west + by the Rhine, on the east by the Vistula, on the north by the + southern point of Norway, by Sweden, and Esthonia. On the south, + the Maine and the mountains to the north of Bohemia formed the + limits. Before the time of Cæsar, the country between the Maine + and the Danube was partly occupied by the Helvetians and other + Gauls, partly by the Hercynian forest but, from the time of Cæsar + to the great migration, these boundaries were advanced as far as + the Danube, or, what is the same thing, to the Suabian Alps, + although the Hercynian forest still occupied, from north to + south, a space of nine days’ journey on both banks of the Danube. + “Gatterer, Versuch einer all-gemeinen Welt-Geschichte,” p. 424, + edit. de 1792. This vast country was far from being inhabited by + a single nation divided into different tribes of the same origin. + We may reckon three principal races, very distinct in their + language, their origin, and their customs. 1. To the east, the + Slaves or Vandals. 2. To the west, the Cimmerians or Cimbri. 3. + Between the Slaves and Cimbrians, the Germans, properly so + called, the Suevi of Tacitus. The South was inhabited, before + Julius Cæsar, by nations of Gaulish origin, afterwards by the + Suevi.—G. On the position of these nations, the German + antiquaries differ. I. The Slaves, or Sclavonians, or Wendish + tribes, according to Schlozer, were originally settled in parts + of Germany unknown to the Romans, Mecklenburgh, Pomerania, + Brandenburgh, Upper Saxony; and Lusatia. According to Gatterer, + they remained to the east of the Theiss, the Niemen, and the + Vistula, till the third century. The Slaves, according to + Procopius and Jornandes, formed three great divisions. 1. The + Venedi or Vandals, who took the latter name, (the Wenden,) having + expelled the Vandals, properly so called, (a Suevian race, the + conquerors of Africa,) from the country between the Memel and the + Vistula. 2. The Antes, who inhabited between the Dneister and the + Dnieper. 3. The Sclavonians, properly so called, in the north of + Dacia. During the great migration, these races advanced into + Germany as far as the Saal and the Elbe. The Sclavonian language + is the stem from which have issued the Russian, the Polish, the + Bohemian, and the dialects of Lusatia, of some parts of the duchy + of Luneburgh, of Carniola, Carinthia, and Styria, &c.; those of + Croatia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria. Schlozer, Nordische Geschichte, p. + 323, 335. II. The Cimbric race. Adelung calls by this name all + who were not Suevi. This race had passed the Rhine, before the + time of Cæsar, occupied Belgium, and are the Belgæ of Cæsar and + Pliny. The Cimbrians also occupied the Isle of Jutland. The Cymri + of Wales and of Britain are of this race. Many tribes on the + right bank of the Rhine, the Guthini in Jutland, the Usipeti in + Westphalia, the Sigambri in the duchy of Berg, were German + Cimbrians. III. The Suevi, known in very early times by the + Romans, for they are mentioned by L. Corn. Sisenna, who lived 123 + years before Christ, (Nonius v. Lancea.) This race, the real + Germans, extended to the Vistula, and from the Baltic to the + Hercynian forest. The name of Suevi was sometimes confined to a + single tribe, as by Cæsar to the Catti. The name of the Suevi has + been preserved in Suabia. These three were the principal races + which inhabited Germany; they moved from east to west, and are + the parent stem of the modern natives. But northern Europe, + according to Schlozer, was not peopled by them alone; other + races, of different origin, and speaking different languages, + have inhabited and left descendants in these countries. The + German tribes called themselves, from very remote times, by the + generic name of Teutons, (Teuten, Deutschen,) which Tacitus + derives from that of one of their gods, Tuisco. It appears more + probable that it means merely men, people. Many savage nations + have given themselves no other name. Thus the Laplanders call + themselves Almag, people; the Samoiedes Nilletz, Nissetsch, men, + &c. As to the name of Germans, (Germani,) Cæsar found it in use + in Gaul, and adopted it as a word already known to the Romans. + Many of the learned (from a passage of Tacitus, de Mor Germ. c. + 2) have supposed that it was only applied to the Teutons after + Cæsar’s time; but Adelung has triumphantly refuted this opinion. + The name of Germans is found in the Fasti Capitolini. See Gruter, + Iscrip. 2899, in which the consul Marcellus, in the year of Rome + 531, is said to have defeated the Gauls, the Insubrians, and the + Germans, commanded by Virdomar. See Adelung, Ælt. Geschichte der + Deutsch, p. 102.—Compressed from G.] + + 1001a (return) [ The modern philosophers of Sweden seem agreed + that the waters of the Baltic gradually sink in a regular + proportion, which they have ventured to estimate at half an inch + every year. Twenty centuries ago the flat country of Scandinavia + must have been covered by the sea; while the high lands rose + above the waters, as so many islands of various forms and + dimensions. Such, indeed, is the notion given us by Mela, Pliny, + and Tacitus, of the vast countries round the Baltic. See in the + Bibliotheque Raisonnee, tom. xl. and xlv. a large abstract of + Dalin’s History of Sweden, composed in the Swedish language. * + Note: Modern geologists have rejected this theory of the + depression of the Baltic, as inconsistent with recent + observation. The considerable changes which have taken place on + its shores, Mr. Lyell, from actual observation now decidedly + attributes to the regular and uniform elevation of the + land.—Lyell’s Geology, b. ii. c. 17—M.] + + Some ingenious writers 2 have suspected that Europe was much + colder formerly than it is at present; and the most ancient + descriptions of the climate of Germany tend exceedingly to + confirm their theory. The general complaints of intense frost and + eternal winter are perhaps little to be regarded, since we have + no method of reducing to the accurate standard of the + thermometer, the feelings, or the expressions, of an orator born + in the happier regions of Greece or Asia. But I shall select two + remarkable circumstances of a less equivocal nature. 1. The great + rivers which covered the Roman provinces, the Rhine and the + Danube, were frequently frozen over, and capable of supporting + the most enormous weights. The barbarians, who often chose that + severe season for their inroads, transported, without + apprehension or danger, their numerous armies, their cavalry, and + their heavy wagons, over a vast and solid bridge of ice. 3 Modern + ages have not presented an instance of a like phenomenon. 2. The + reindeer, that useful animal, from whom the savage of the North + derives the best comforts of his dreary life, is of a + constitution that supports, and even requires, the most intense + cold. He is found on the rock of Spitzberg, within ten degrees of + the Pole; he seems to delight in the snows of Lapland and + Siberia: but at present he cannot subsist, much less multiply, in + any country to the south of the Baltic. 4 In the time of Cæsar + the reindeer, as well as the elk and the wild bull, was a native + of the Hercynian forest, which then overshadowed a great part of + Germany and Poland. 5 The modern improvements sufficiently + explain the causes of the diminution of the cold. These immense + woods have been gradually cleared, which intercepted from the + earth the rays of the sun. 6 The morasses have been drained, and, + in proportion as the soil has been cultivated, the air has become + more temperate. Canada, at this day, is an exact picture of + ancient Germany. Although situated in the same parallel with the + finest provinces of France and England, that country experiences + the most rigorous cold. The reindeer are very numerous, the + ground is covered with deep and lasting snow, and the great river + of St. Lawrence is regularly frozen, in a season when the waters + of the Seine and the Thames are usually free from ice. 7 + + 2 (return) [ In particular, Mr. Hume, the Abbé du Bos, and M. + Pelloutier. Hist. des Celtes, tom. i.] + + 3 (return) [ Diodorus Siculus, l. v. p. 340, edit. Wessel. + Herodian, l. vi. p. 221. Jornandes, c. 55. On the banks of the + Danube, the wine, when brought to table, was frequently frozen + into great lumps, frusta vini. Ovid. Epist. ex Ponto, l. iv. 7, + 9, 10. Virgil. Georgic. l. iii. 355. The fact is confirmed by a + soldier and a philosopher, who had experienced the intense cold + of Thrace. See Xenophon, Anabasis, l. vii. p. 560, edit. + Hutchinson. Note: The Danube is constantly frozen over. At Pesth + the bridge is usually taken up, and the traffic and communication + between the two banks carried on over the ice. The Rhine is + likewise in many parts passable at least two years out of five. + Winter campaigns are so unusual, in modern warfare, that I + recollect but one instance of an army crossing either river on + the ice. In the thirty years’ war, (1635,) Jan van Werth, an + Imperialist partisan, crossed the Rhine from Heidelberg on the + ice with 5000 men, and surprised Spiers. Pichegru’s memorable + campaign, (1794-5,) when the freezing of the Meuse and Waal + opened Holland to his conquests, and his cavalry and artillery + attacked the ships frozen in, on the Zuyder Zee, was in a winter + of unprecedented severity.—M. 1845.] + + 4 (return) [ Buffon, Histoire Naturelle, tom. xii. p. 79, 116.] + + 5 (return) [ Cæsar de Bell. Gallic. vi. 23, &c. The most + inquisitive of the Germans were ignorant of its utmost limits, + although some of them had travelled in it more than sixty days’ + journey. * Note: The passage of Cæsar, “parvis renonum tegumentis + utuntur,” is obscure, observes Luden, (Geschichte des Teutschen + Volkes,) and insufficient to prove the reindeer to have existed + in Germany. It is supported however, by a fragment of Sallust. + Germani intectum rhenonibus corpus tegunt.—M. It has been + suggested to me that Cæsar (as old Gesner supposed) meant the + reindeer in the following description. Est bos cervi figura cujus + a media fronte inter aures unum cornu existit, excelsius magisque + directum (divaricatum, qu?) his quæ nobis nota sunt cornibus. At + ejus summo, sicut palmæ, rami quam late diffunduntur. Bell. + vi.—M. 1845.] + + 6 (return) [ Cluverius (Germania Antiqua, l. iii. c. 47) + investigates the small and scattered remains of the Hercynian + wood.] + + 7 (return) [ Charlevoix, Histoire du Canada.] + + It is difficult to ascertain, and easy to exaggerate, the + influence of the climate of ancient Germany over the minds and + bodies of the natives. Many writers have supposed, and most have + allowed, though, as it should seem, without any adequate proof, + that the rigorous cold of the North was favorable to long life + and generative vigor, that the women were more fruitful, and the + human species more prolific, than in warmer or more temperate + climates. 8 We may assert, with greater confidence, that the keen + air of Germany formed the large and masculine limbs of the + natives, who were, in general, of a more lofty stature than the + people of the South, 9 gave them a kind of strength better + adapted to violent exertions than to patient labor, and inspired + them with constitutional bravery, which is the result of nerves + and spirits. The severity of a winter campaign, that chilled the + courage of the Roman troops, was scarcely felt by these hardy + children of the North, 10 who, in their turn, were unable to + resist the summer heats, and dissolved away in languor and + sickness under the beams of an Italian sun. 11 + + 8 (return) [ Olaus Rudbeck asserts that the Swedish women often + bear ten or twelve children, and not uncommonly twenty or thirty; + but the authority of Rudbeck is much to be suspected.] + + 9 (return) [ In hos artus, in hæc corpora, quæ miramur, + excrescunt. Tæit Germania, 3, 20. Cluver. l. i. c. 14.] + + 10 (return) [ Plutarch. in Mario. The Cimbri, by way of + amusement, often did down mountains of snow on their broad + shields.] + + 11 (return) [ The Romans made war in all climates, and by their + excellent discipline were in a great measure preserved in health + and vigor. It may be remarked, that man is the only animal which + can live and multiply in every country from the equator to the + poles. The hog seems to approach the nearest to our species in + that privilege.] + + + + + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part II. + + There is not anywhere upon the globe a large tract of country, + which we have discovered destitute of inhabitants, or whose first + population can be fixed with any degree of historical certainty. + And yet, as the most philosophic minds can seldom refrain from + investigating the infancy of great nations, our curiosity + consumes itself in toilsome and disappointed efforts. When + Tacitus considered the purity of the German blood, and the + forbidding aspect of the country, he was disposed to pronounce + those barbarians _Indigenæ_, or natives of the soil. We may allow + with safety, and perhaps with truth, that ancient Germany was not + originally peopled by any foreign colonies already formed into a + political society; 12 but that the name and nation received their + existence from the gradual union of some wandering savages of the + Hercynian woods. To assert those savages to have been the + spontaneous production of the earth which they inhabited would be + a rash inference, condemned by religion, and unwarranted by + reason. + + 12 (return) [ Facit. Germ. c. 3. The emigration of the Gauls + followed the course of the Danube, and discharged itself on + Greece and Asia. Tacitus could discover only one inconsiderable + tribe that retained any traces of a Gallic origin. * Note: The + Gothini, who must not be confounded with the Gothi, a Suevian + tribe. In the time of Cæsar many other tribes of Gaulish origin + dwelt along the course of the Danube, who could not long resist + the attacks of the Suevi. The Helvetians, who dwelt on the + borders of the Black Forest, between the Maine and the Danube, + had been expelled long before the time of Cæsar. He mentions also + the Volci Tectosagi, who came from Languedoc and settled round + the Black Forest. The Boii, who had penetrated into that forest, + and also have left traces of their name in Bohemia, were subdued + in the first century by the Marcomanni. The Boii settled in + Noricum, were mingled afterwards with the Lombards, and received + the name of Boio Arii (Bavaria) or Boiovarii: var, in some German + dialects, appearing to mean remains, descendants. Compare Malte + B-m, Geography, vol. i. p. 410, edit 1832—M.] + + Such rational doubt is but ill suited with the genius of popular + vanity. Among the nations who have adopted the Mosaic history of + the world, the ark of Noah has been of the same use, as was + formerly to the Greeks and Romans the siege of Troy. On a narrow + basis of acknowledged truth, an immense but rude superstructure + of fable has been erected; and the wild Irishman, 13 as well as + the wild Tartar, 14 could point out the individual son of Japhet, + from whose loins his ancestors were lineally descended. The last + century abounded with antiquarians of profound learning and easy + faith, who, by the dim light of legends and traditions, of + conjectures and etymologies, conducted the great grandchildren of + Noah from the Tower of Babel to the extremities of the globe. Of + these judicious critics, one of the most entertaining was Olaus + Rudbeck, professor in the university of Upsal. 15 Whatever is + celebrated either in history or fable this zealous patriot + ascribes to his country. From Sweden (which formed so + considerable a part of ancient Germany) the Greeks themselves + derived their alphabetical characters, their astronomy, and their + religion. Of that delightful region (for such it appeared to the + eyes of a native) the Atlantis of Plato, the country of the + Hyperboreans, the gardens of the Hesperides, the Fortunate + Islands, and even the Elysian Fields, were all but faint and + imperfect transcripts. A clime so profusely favored by Nature + could not long remain desert after the flood. The learned Rudbeck + allows the family of Noah a few years to multiply from eight to + about twenty thousand persons. He then disperses them into small + colonies to replenish the earth, and to propagate the human + species. The German or Swedish detachment (which marched, if I am + not mistaken, under the command of Askenaz, the son of Gomer, the + son of Japhet) distinguished itself by a more than common + diligence in the prosecution of this great work. The northern + hive cast its swarms over the greatest part of Europe, Africa, + and Asia; and (to use the author’s metaphor) the blood circulated + from the extremities to the heart. + + 13 (return) [ According to Dr. Keating, (History of Ireland, p. + 13, 14,) the giant Portholanus, who was the son of Seara, the son + of Esra, the son of Sru, the son of Framant, the son of + Fathaclan, the son of Magog, the son of Japhet, the son of Noah, + landed on the coast of Munster the 14th day of May, in the year + of the world one thousand nine hundred and seventy-eight. Though + he succeeded in his great enterprise, the loose behavior of his + wife rendered his domestic life very unhappy, and provoked him to + such a degree, that he killed—her favorite greyhound. This, as + the learned historian very properly observes, was the first + instance of female falsehood and infidelity ever known in + Ireland.] + + 14 (return) [ Genealogical History of the Tartars, by Abulghazi + Bahadur Khan.] + + 15 (return) [ His work, entitled Atlantica, is uncommonly scarce. + Bayle has given two most curious extracts from it. Republique des + Lettres Janvier et Fevrier, 1685.] + + But all this well-labored system of German antiquities is + annihilated by a single fact, too well attested to admit of any + doubt, and of too decisive a nature to leave room for any reply. + The Germans, in the age of Tacitus, were unacquainted with the + use of letters; 16 and the use of letters is the principal + circumstance that distinguishes a civilized people from a herd of + savages incapable of knowledge or reflection. Without that + artificial help, the human memory soon dissipates or corrupts the + ideas intrusted to her charge; and the nobler faculties of the + mind, no longer supplied with models or with materials, gradually + forget their powers; the judgment becomes feeble and lethargic, + the imagination languid or irregular. Fully to apprehend this + important truth, let us attempt, in an improved society, to + calculate the immense distance between the man of learning and + the _illiterate_ peasant. The former, by reading and reflection, + multiplies his own experience, and lives in distant ages and + remote countries; whilst the latter, rooted to a single spot, and + confined to a few years of existence, surpasses but very little + his fellow-laborer, the ox, in the exercise of his mental + faculties. The same, and even a greater, difference will be found + between nations than between individuals; and we may safely + pronounce, that without some species of writing, no people has + ever preserved the faithful annals of their history, ever made + any considerable progress in the abstract sciences, or ever + possessed, in any tolerable degree of perfection, the useful and + agreeable arts of life. + + 16 (return) [ Tacit. Germ. ii. 19. Literarum secreta viri pariter + ac fœminæ ignorant. We may rest contented with this decisive + authority, without entering into the obscure disputes concerning + the antiquity of the Runic characters. The learned Celsius, a + Swede, a scholar, and a philosopher, was of opinion, that they + were nothing more than the Roman letters, with the curves changed + into straight lines for the ease of engraving. See Pelloutier, + Histoire des Celtes, l. ii. c. 11. Dictionnaire Diplomatique, + tom. i. p. 223. We may add, that the oldest Runic inscriptions + are supposed to be of the third century, and the most ancient + writer who mentions the Runic characters is Venan tius + Frotunatus, (Carm. vii. 18,) who lived towards the end of the + sixth century. Barbara fraxineis pingatur Runa tabellis. * Note: + The obscure subject of the Runic characters has exercised the + industry and ingenuity of the modern scholars of the north. There + are three distinct theories; one, maintained by Schlozer, + (Nordische Geschichte, p. 481, &c.,) who considers their sixteen + letters to be a corruption of the Roman alphabet, post-Christian + in their date, and Schlozer would attribute their introduction + into the north to the Alemanni. The second, that of Frederick + Schlegel, (Vorlesungen uber alte und neue Literatur,) supposes + that these characters were left on the coasts of the + Mediterranean and Northern Seas by the Phœnicians, preserved by + the priestly castes, and employed for purposes of magic. Their + common origin from the Phœnician would account for heir + similarity to the Roman letters. The last, to which we incline, + claims much higher and more venerable antiquity for the Runic, + and supposes them to have been the original characters of the + Indo-Teutonic tribes, brought from the East, and preserved among + the different races of that stock. See Ueber Deutsche Runen von + W. C. Grimm, 1821. A Memoir by Dr. Legis. Fundgruben des alten + Nordens. Foreign Quarterly Review vol. ix. p. 438.—M.] + + Of these arts, the ancient Germans were wretchedly destitute. + 1601 They passed their lives in a state of ignorance and poverty, + which it has pleased some declaimers to dignify with the + appellation of virtuous simplicity. Modern Germany is said to + contain about two thousand three hundred walled towns. 17 In a + much wider extent of country, the geographer Ptolemy could + discover no more than ninety places which he decorates with the + name of cities; 18 though, according to our ideas, they would but + ill deserve that splendid title. We can only suppose them to have + been rude fortifications, constructed in the centre of the woods, + and designed to secure the women, children, and cattle, whilst + the warriors of the tribe marched out to repel a sudden invasion. + 19 But Tacitus asserts, as a well-known fact, that the Germans, + in his time, had _no_ cities; 20 and that they affected to + despise the works of Roman industry, as places of confinement + rather than of security. 21 Their edifices were not even + contiguous, or formed into regular villas; 22 each barbarian + fixed his independent dwelling on the spot to which a plain, a + wood, or a stream of fresh water, had induced him to give the + preference. Neither stone, nor brick, nor tiles, were employed in + these slight habitations. 23 They were indeed no more than low + huts, of a circular figure, built of rough timber, thatched with + straw, and pierced at the top to leave a free passage for the + smoke. In the most inclement winter, the hardy German was + satisfied with a scanty garment made of the skin of some animal. + The nations who dwelt towards the North clothed themselves in + furs; and the women manufactured for their own use a coarse kind + of linen. 24 The game of various sorts, with which the forests of + Germany were plentifully stocked, supplied its inhabitants with + food and exercise. 25 Their monstrous herds of cattle, less + remarkable indeed for their beauty than for their utility, 26 + formed the principal object of their wealth. A small quantity of + corn was the only produce exacted from the earth; the use of + orchards or artificial meadows was unknown to the Germans; nor + can we expect any improvements in agriculture from a people, + whose prosperity every year experienced a general change by a new + division of the arable lands, and who, in that strange operation, + avoided disputes, by suffering a great part of their territory to + lie waste and without tillage. 27 + + 1601 (return) [ Luden (the author of the Geschichte des Teutschen + Volkes) has surpassed most writers in his patriotic enthusiasm + for the virtues and noble manners of his ancestors. Even the cold + of the climate, and the want of vines and fruit trees, as well as + the barbarism of the inhabitants, are calumnies of the luxurious + Italians. M. Guizot, on the other side, (in his Histoire de la + Civilisation, vol. i. p. 272, &c.,) has drawn a curious parallel + between the Germans of Tacitus and the North American + Indians.—M.] + + 17 (return) [ Recherches Philosophiques sur les Americains, tom. + iii. p. 228. The author of that very curious work is, if I am not + misinformed, a German by birth. (De Pauw.)] + + 18 (return) [ The Alexandrian Geographer is often criticized by + the accurate Cluverius.] + + 19 (return) [ See Cæsar, and the learned Mr. Whitaker in his + History of Manchester, vol. i.] + + 20 (return) [ Tacit. Germ. 15.] + + 21 (return) [ When the Germans commanded the Ubii of Cologne to + cast off the Roman yoke, and with their new freedom to resume + their ancient manners, they insisted on the immediate demolition + of the walls of the colony. “Postulamus a vobis, muros coloniæ, + munimenta servitii, detrahatis; etiam fera animalia, si clausa + teneas, virtutis obliviscuntur.” Tacit. Hist. iv. 64.] + + 22 (return) [ The straggling villages of Silesia are several + miles in length. See Cluver. l. i. c. 13.] + + 23 (return) [ One hundred and forty years after Tacitus, a few + more regular structures were erected near the Rhine and Danube. + Herodian, l. vii. p. 234.] + + 24 (return) [ Tacit. Germ. 17.] + + 25 (return) [ Tacit. Germ. 5.] + + 26 (return) [ Cæsar de Bell. Gall. vi. 21.] + + 27 (return) [ Tacit. Germ. 26. Cæsar, vi. 22.] + + Gold, silver, and iron, were extremely scarce in Germany. Its + barbarous inhabitants wanted both skill and patience to + investigate those rich veins of silver, which have so liberally + rewarded the attention of the princes of Brunswick and Saxony. + Sweden, which now supplies Europe with iron, was equally ignorant + of its own riches; and the appearance of the arms of the Germans + furnished a sufficient proof how little iron they were able to + bestow on what they must have deemed the noblest use of that + metal. The various transactions of peace and war had introduced + some Roman coins (chiefly silver) among the borderers of the + Rhine and Danube; but the more distant tribes were absolutely + unacquainted with the use of money, carried on their confined + traffic by the exchange of commodities, and prized their rude + earthen vessels as of equal value with the silver vases, the + presents of Rome to their princes and ambassadors. 28 To a mind + capable of reflection, such leading facts convey more + instruction, than a tedious detail of subordinate circumstances. + The value of money has been settled by general consent to express + our wants and our property, as letters were invented to express + our ideas; and both these institutions, by giving a more active + energy to the powers and passions of human nature, have + contributed to multiply the objects they were designed to + represent. The use of gold and silver is in a great measure + factitious; but it would be impossible to enumerate the important + and various services which agriculture, and all the arts, have + received from iron, when tempered and fashioned by the operation + of fire and the dexterous hand of man. Money, in a word, is the + most universal incitement, iron the most powerful instrument, of + human industry; and it is very difficult to conceive by what + means a people, neither actuated by the one, nor seconded by the + other, could emerge from the grossest barbarism. 29 + + 28 (return) [ Tacit. Germ. 6.] + + 29 (return) [ It is said that the Mexicans and Peruvians, without + the use of either money or iron, had made a very great progress + in the arts. Those arts, and the monuments they produced, have + been strangely magnified. See Recherches sur les Americains, tom. + ii. p. 153, &c] + + If we contemplate a savage nation in any part of the globe, a + supine indolence and a carelessness of futurity will be found to + constitute their general character. In a civilized state every + faculty of man is expanded and exercised; and the great chain of + mutual dependence connects and embraces the several members of + society. The most numerous portion of it is employed in constant + and useful labor. The select few, placed by fortune above that + necessity, can, however, fill up their time by the pursuits of + interest or glory, by the improvement of their estate or of their + understanding, by the duties, the pleasures, and even the follies + of social life. The Germans were not possessed of these varied + resources. The care of the house and family, the management of + the land and cattle, were delegated to the old and the infirm, to + women and slaves. The lazy warrior, destitute of every art that + might employ his leisure hours, consumed his days and nights in + the animal gratifications of sleep and food. And yet, by a + wonderful diversity of nature, (according to the remark of a + writer who had pierced into its darkest recesses,) the same + barbarians are by turns the most indolent and the most restless + of mankind. They delight in sloth, they detest tranquility. 30 + The languid soul, oppressed with its own weight, anxiously + required some new and powerful sensation; and war and danger were + the only amusements adequate to its fierce temper. The sound that + summoned the German to arms was grateful to his ear. It roused + him from his uncomfortable lethargy, gave him an active pursuit, + and, by strong exercise of the body, and violent emotions of the + mind, restored him to a more lively sense of his existence. In + the dull intervals of peace, these barbarians were immoderately + addicted to deep gaming and excessive drinking; both of which, by + different means, the one by inflaming their passions, the other + by extinguishing their reason, alike relieved them from the pain + of thinking. They gloried in passing whole days and nights at + table; and the blood of friends and relations often stained their + numerous and drunken assemblies. 31 Their debts of honor (for in + that light they have transmitted to us those of play) they + discharged with the most romantic fidelity. The desperate + gamester, who had staked his person and liberty on a last throw + of the dice, patiently submitted to the decision of fortune, and + suffered himself to be bound, chastised, and sold into remote + slavery, by his weaker but more lucky antagonist. 32 + + 30 (return) [ Tacit. Germ. 15.] + + 31 (return) [ Tacit. Germ. 22, 23.] + + 32 (return) [ Id. 24. The Germans might borrow the arts of play + from the Romans, but the passion is wonderfully inherent in the + human species.] + + Strong beer, a liquor extracted with very little art from wheat + or barley, and _corrupted_ (as it is strongly expressed by + Tacitus) into a certain semblance of wine, was sufficient for the + gross purposes of German debauchery. But those who had tasted the + rich wines of Italy, and afterwards of Gaul, sighed for that more + delicious species of intoxication. They attempted not, however, + (as has since been executed with so much success,) to naturalize + the vine on the banks of the Rhine and Danube; nor did they + endeavor to procure by industry the materials of an advantageous + commerce. To solicit by labor what might be ravished by arms, was + esteemed unworthy of the German spirit. 33 The intemperate thirst + of strong liquors often urged the barbarians to invade the + provinces on which art or nature had bestowed those much envied + presents. The Tuscan who betrayed his country to the Celtic + nations, attracted them into Italy by the prospect of the rich + fruits and delicious wines, the productions of a happier climate. + 34 And in the same manner the German auxiliaries, invited into + France during the civil wars of the sixteenth century, were + allured by the promise of plenteous quarters in the provinces of + Champaigne and Burgundy. 35 Drunkenness, the most illiberal, but + not the most dangerous of _our_ vices, was sometimes capable, in + a less civilized state of mankind, of occasioning a battle, a + war, or a revolution. + + 33 (return) [ Tacit. Germ. 14.] + + 34 (return) [ Plutarch. in Camillo. T. Liv. v. 33.] + + 35 (return) [ Dubos. Hist. de la Monarchie Francoise, tom. i. p. + 193.] + + The climate of ancient Germany has been modified, and the soil + fertilized, by the labor of ten centuries from the time of + Charlemagne. The same extent of ground which at present + maintains, in ease and plenty, a million of husbandmen and + artificers, was unable to supply a hundred thousand lazy warriors + with the simple necessaries of life. 36 The Germans abandoned + their immense forests to the exercise of hunting, employed in + pasturage the most considerable part of their lands, bestowed on + the small remainder a rude and careless cultivation, and then + accused the scantiness and sterility of a country that refused to + maintain the multitude of its inhabitants. When the return of + famine severely admonished them of the importance of the arts, + the national distress was sometimes alleviated by the emigration + of a third, perhaps, or a fourth part of their youth. 37 The + possession and the enjoyment of property are the pledges which + bind a civilized people to an improved country. But the Germans, + who carried with them what they most valued, their arms, their + cattle, and their women, cheerfully abandoned the vast silence of + their woods for the unbounded hopes of plunder and conquest. The + innumerable swarms that issued, or seemed to issue, from the + great storehouse of nations, were multiplied by the fears of the + vanquished, and by the credulity of succeeding ages. And from + facts thus exaggerated, an opinion was gradually established, and + has been supported by writers of distinguished reputation, that, + in the age of Cæsar and Tacitus, the inhabitants of the North + were far more numerous than they are in our days. 38 A more + serious inquiry into the causes of population seems to have + convinced modern philosophers of the falsehood, and indeed the + impossibility, of the supposition. To the names of Mariana and of + Machiavel, 39 we can oppose the equal names of Robertson and + Hume. 40 + + 36 (return) [ The Helvetian nation, which issued from a country + called Switzerland, contained, of every age and sex, 368,000 + persons, (Cæsar de Bell. Gal. i. 29.) At present, the number of + people in the Pays de Vaud (a small district on the banks of the + Leman Lake, much more distinguished for politeness than for + industry) amounts to 112,591. See an excellent tract of M. Muret, + in the Memoires de la Societe de Born.] + + 37 (return) [ Paul Diaconus, c. 1, 2, 3. Machiavel, Davila, and + the rest of Paul’s followers, represent these emigrations too + much as regular and concerted measures.] + + 38 (return) [ Sir William Temple and Montesquieu have indulged, + on this subject, the usual liveliness of their fancy.] + + 39 (return) [ Machiavel, Hist. di Firenze, l. i. Mariana, Hist. + Hispan. l. v. c. 1] + + 40 (return) [ Robertson’s Charles V. Hume’s Political Essays. + Note: It is a wise observation of Malthus, that these nations + “were not populous in proportion to the land they occupied, but + to the food they produced.” They were prolific from their pure + morals and constitutions, but their institutions were not + calculated to produce food for those whom they brought into + being.—M—1845.] + + A warlike nation like the Germans, without either cities, + letters, arts, or money, found some compensation for this savage + state in the enjoyment of liberty. Their poverty secured their + freedom, since our desires and our possessions are the strongest + fetters of despotism. “Among the Suiones (says Tacitus) riches + are held in honor. They are _therefore_ subject to an absolute + monarch, who, instead of intrusting his people with the free use + of arms, as is practised in the rest of Germany, commits them to + the safe custody, not of a citizen, or even of a freedman, but of + a slave. The neighbors of the Suiones, the Sitones, are sunk even + below servitude; they obey a woman.” 41 In the mention of these + exceptions, the great historian sufficiently acknowledges the + general theory of government. We are only at a loss to conceive + by what means riches and despotism could penetrate into a remote + corner of the North, and extinguish the generous flame that + blazed with such fierceness on the frontier of the Roman + provinces, or how the ancestors of those Danes and Norwegians, so + distinguished in latter ages by their unconquered spirit, could + thus tamely resign the great character of German liberty. 42 Some + tribes, however, on the coast of the Baltic, acknowledged the + authority of kings, though without relinquishing the rights of + men, 43 but in the far greater part of Germany, the form of + government was a democracy, tempered, indeed, and controlled, not + so much by general and positive laws, as by the occasional + ascendant of birth or valor, of eloquence or superstition. 44 + + 41 (return) [ Tacit. German. 44, 45. Freinshemius (who dedicated + his supplement to Livy to Christina of Sweden) thinks proper to + be very angry with the Roman who expressed so very little + reverence for Northern queens. Note: The Suiones and the Sitones + are the ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia, their name may be + traced in that of Sweden; they did not belong to the race of the + Suevi, but that of the non-Suevi or Cimbri, whom the Suevi, in + very remote times, drove back part to the west, part to the + north; they were afterwards mingled with Suevian tribes, among + others the Goths, who have traces of their name and power in the + isle of Gothland.—G] + + 42 (return) [May we not suspect that superstition was the parent + of despotism? The descendants of Odin, (whose race was not + extinct till the year 1060) are said to have reigned in Sweden + above a thousand years. The temple of Upsal was the ancient seat + of religion and empire. In the year 1153 I find a singular law, + prohibiting the use and profession of arms to any except the + king’s guards. Is it not probable that it was colored by the + pretence of reviving an old institution? See Dalin’s History of + Sweden in the Bibliotheque Raisonneo tom. xl. and xlv.] + + 43 (return) [ Tacit. Germ. c. 43.] + + 44 (return) [ Id. c. 11, 12, 13, & c.] + + Civil governments, in their first institution, are voluntary + associations for mutual defence. To obtain the desired end, it is + absolutely necessary that each individual should conceive himself + obliged to submit his private opinions and actions to the + judgment of the greater number of his associates. The German + tribes were contented with this rude but liberal outline of + political society. As soon as a youth, born of free parents, had + attained the age of manhood, he was introduced into the general + council of his countrymen, solemnly invested with a shield and + spear, and adopted as an equal and worthy member of the military + commonwealth. The assembly of the warriors of the tribe was + convened at stated seasons, or on sudden emergencies. The trial + of public offences, the election of magistrates, and the great + business of peace and war, were determined by its independent + voice. Sometimes indeed, these important questions were + previously considered and prepared in a more select council of + the principal chieftains. 45 The magistrates might deliberate and + persuade, the people only could resolve and execute; and the + resolutions of the Germans were for the most part hasty and + violent. Barbarians accustomed to place their freedom in + gratifying the present passion, and their courage in overlooking + all future consequences, turned away with indignant contempt from + the remonstrances of justice and policy, and it was the practice + to signify by a hollow murmur their dislike of such timid + counsels. But whenever a more popular orator proposed to + vindicate the meanest citizen from either foreign or domestic + injury, whenever he called upon his fellow-countrymen to assert + the national honor, or to pursue some enterprise full of danger + and glory, a loud clashing of shields and spears expressed the + eager applause of the assembly. For the Germans always met in + arms, and it was constantly to be dreaded, lest an irregular + multitude, inflamed with faction and strong liquors, should use + those arms to enforce, as well as to declare, their furious + resolves. We may recollect how often the diets of Poland have + been polluted with blood, and the more numerous party has been + compelled to yield to the more violent and seditious. 46 + + 45 (return) [ Grotius changes an expression of Tacitus, + pertractantur into Prætractantur. The correction is equally just + and ingenious.] + + 46 (return) [ Even in our ancient parliament, the barons often + carried a question, not so much by the number of votes, as by + that of their armed followers.] + + A general of the tribe was elected on occasions of danger; and, + if the danger was pressing and extensive, several tribes + concurred in the choice of the same general. The bravest warrior + was named to lead his countrymen into the field, by his example + rather than by his commands. But this power, however limited, was + still invidious. It expired with the war, and in time of peace + the German tribes acknowledged not any supreme chief. 47 + _Princes_ were, however, appointed, in the general assembly, to + administer justice, or rather to compose differences, 48 in their + respective districts. In the choice of these magistrates, as much + regard was shown to birth as to merit. 49 To each was assigned, + by the public, a guard, and a council of a hundred persons, and + the first of the princes appears to have enjoyed a preeminence of + rank and honor which sometimes tempted the Romans to compliment + him with the regal title. 50 + + 47 (return) [ Cæsar de Bell. Gal. vi. 23.] + + 48 (return) [ Minuunt controversias, is a very happy expression + of Cæsar’s.] + + 49 (return) [ Reges ex nobilitate, duces ex virtute sumunt. Tacit + Germ. 7] + + 50 (return) [ Cluver. Germ. Ant. l. i. c. 38.] + + The comparative view of the powers of the magistrates, in two + remarkable instances, is alone sufficient to represent the whole + system of German manners. The disposal of the landed property + within their district was absolutely vested in their hands, and + they distributed it every year according to a new division. 51 At + the same time they were not authorized to punish with death, to + imprison, or even to strike a private citizen. 52 A people thus + jealous of their persons, and careless of their possessions, must + have been totally destitute of industry and the arts, but + animated with a high sense of honor and independence. + + 51 (return) [ Cæsar, vi. 22. Tacit Germ. 26.] + + 52 (return) [ Tacit. Germ. 7.] + + + + + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part III. + + The Germans respected only those duties which they imposed on + themselves. The most obscure soldier resisted with disdain the + authority of the magistrates. “The noblest youths blushed not to + be numbered among the faithful companions of some renowned chief, + to whom they devoted their arms and service. A noble emulation + prevailed among the companions to obtain the first place in the + esteem of their chief; amongst the chiefs, to acquire the + greatest number of valiant companions. To be ever surrounded by a + band of select youths was the pride and strength of the chiefs, + their ornament in peace, their defence in war. The glory of such + distinguished heroes diffused itself beyond the narrow limits of + their own tribe. Presents and embassies solicited their + friendship, and the fame of their arms often insured victory to + the party which they espoused. In the hour of danger it was + shameful for the chief to be surpassed in valor by his + companions; shameful for the companions not to equal the valor of + their chief. To survive his fall in battle was indelible infamy. + To protect his person, and to adorn his glory with the trophies + of their own exploits, were the most sacred of their duties. The + chiefs combated for victory, the companions for the chief. The + noblest warriors, whenever their native country was sunk into the + laziness of peace, maintained their numerous bands in some + distant scene of action, to exercise their restless spirit, and + to acquire renown by voluntary dangers. Gifts worthy of + soldiers—the warlike steed, the bloody and ever victorious + lance—were the rewards which the companions claimed from the + liberality of their chief. The rude plenty of his hospitable + board was the only pay that _he_ could bestow, or _they_ would + accept. War, rapine, and the free-will offerings of his friends, + supplied the materials of this munificence.” 53 This institution, + however it might accidentally weaken the several republics, + invigorated the general character of the Germans, and even + ripened amongst them all the virtues of which barbarians are + susceptible; the faith and valor, the hospitality and the + courtesy, so conspicuous long afterwards in the ages of chivalry. + + The honorable gifts, bestowed by the chief on his brave + companions, have been supposed, by an ingenious writer, to + contain the first rudiments of the fiefs, distributed after the + conquest of the Roman provinces, by the barbarian lords among + their vassals, with a similar duty of homage and military + service. 54 These conditions are, however, very repugnant to the + maxims of the ancient Germans, who delighted in mutual presents, + but without either imposing, or accepting, the weight of + obligations. 55 + + 53 (return) [ Tacit. Germ. 13, 14.] + + 54 (return) [ Esprit des Loix, l. xxx. c. 3. The brilliant + imagination of Montesquieu is corrected, however, by the dry, + cold reason of the Abbé de Mably. Observations sur l’Histoire de + France, tom. i. p. 356.] + + 55 (return) [ Gaudent muneribus, sed nec data imputant, nec + acceptis obligautur. Tacit. Germ. c. 21.] + + “In the days of chivalry, or more properly of romance, all the + men were brave and all the women were chaste;” and + notwithstanding the latter of these virtues is acquired and + preserved with much more difficulty than the former, it is + ascribed, almost without exception, to the wives of the ancient + Germans. Polygamy was not in use, except among the princes, and + among them only for the sake of multiplying their alliances. + Divorces were prohibited by manners rather than by laws. + Adulteries were punished as rare and inexpiable crimes; nor was + seduction justified by example and fashion. 56 We may easily + discover that Tacitus indulges an honest pleasure in the contrast + of barbarian virtue with the dissolute conduct of the Roman + ladies; yet there are some striking circumstances that give an + air of truth, or at least probability, to the conjugal faith and + chastity of the Germans. + + 56 (return) [ The adulteress was whipped through the village. + Neither wealth nor beauty could inspire compassion, or procure + her a second husband. 18, 19.] + + Although the progress of civilization has undoubtedly contributed + to assuage the fiercer passions of human nature, it seems to have + been less favorable to the virtue of chastity, whose most + dangerous enemy is the softness of the mind. The refinements of + life corrupt while they polish the intercourse of the sexes. The + gross appetite of love becomes most dangerous when it is + elevated, or rather, indeed, disguised by sentimental passion. + The elegance of dress, of motion, and of manners, gives a lustre + to beauty, and inflames the senses through the imagination. + Luxurious entertainments, midnight dances, and licentious + spectacles, present at once temptation and opportunity to female + frailty. 57 From such dangers the unpolished wives of the + barbarians were secured by poverty, solitude, and the painful + cares of a domestic life. The German huts, open, on every side, + to the eye of indiscretion or jealousy, were a better safeguard + of conjugal fidelity than the walls, the bolts, and the eunuchs + of a Persian harem. To this reason another may be added of a more + honorable nature. The Germans treated their women with esteem and + confidence, consulted them on every occasion of importance, and + fondly believed, that in their breasts resided a sanctity and + wisdom more than human. Some of the interpreters of fate, such as + Velleda, in the Batavian war, governed, in the name of the deity, + the fiercest nations of Germany. 58 The rest of the sex, without + being adored as goddesses, were respected as the free and equal + companions of soldiers; associated even by the marriage ceremony + to a life of toil, of danger, and of glory. 59 In their great + invasions, the camps of the barbarians were filled with a + multitude of women, who remained firm and undaunted amidst the + sound of arms, the various forms of destruction, and the + honorable wounds of their sons and husbands. 60 Fainting armies + of Germans have, more than once, been driven back upon the enemy + by the generous despair of the women, who dreaded death much less + than servitude. If the day was irrecoverably lost, they well knew + how to deliver themselves and their children, with their own + hands, from an insulting victor. 61 Heroines of such a cast may + claim our admiration; but they were most assuredly neither lovely + nor very susceptible of love. Whilst they affected to emulate the + stern virtues of _man_, they must have resigned that attractive + softness in which principally consist the charm and weakness of + _woman_. Conscious pride taught the German females to suppress + every tender emotion that stood in competition with honor, and + the first honor of the sex has ever been that of chastity. The + sentiments and conduct of these high-spirited matrons may, at + once, be considered as a cause, as an effect, and as a proof of + the general character of the nation. Female courage, however it + may be raised by fanaticism, or confirmed by habit, can be only a + faint and imperfect imitation of the manly valor that + distinguishes the age or country in which it may be found. + + 57 (return) [ Ovid employs two hundred lines in the research of + places the most favorable to love. Above all, he considers the + theatre as the best adapted to collect the beauties of Rome, and + to melt them into tenderness and sensuality,] + + 58 (return) [ Tacit. Germ. iv. 61, 65.] + + 59 (return) [ The marriage present was a yoke of oxen, horses, + and arms. See Germ. c. 18. Tacitus is somewhat too florid on the + subject.] + + 60 (return) [ The change of exigere into exugere is a most + excellent correction.] + + 61 (return) [ Tacit. Germ. c. 7. Plutarch in Mario. Before the + wives of the Teutones destroyed themselves and their children, + they had offered to surrender, on condition that they should be + received as the slaves of the vestal virgins.] + + The religious system of the Germans (if the wild opinions of + savages can deserve that name) was dictated by their wants, their + fears, and their ignorance. 62 They adored the great visible + objects and agents of nature, the Sun and the Moon, the Fire and + the Earth; together with those imaginary deities, who were + supposed to preside over the most important occupations of human + life. They were persuaded, that, by some ridiculous arts of + divination, they could discover the will of the superior beings, + and that human sacrifices were the most precious and acceptable + offering to their altars. Some applause has been hastily bestowed + on the sublime notion, entertained by that people, of the Deity, + whom they neither confined within the walls of the temple, nor + represented by any human figure; but when we recollect, that the + Germans were unskilled in architecture, and totally unacquainted + with the art of sculpture, we shall readily assign the true + reason of a scruple, which arose not so much from a superiority + of reason, as from a want of ingenuity. The only temples in + Germany were dark and ancient groves, consecrated by the + reverence of succeeding generations. Their secret gloom, the + imagined residence of an invisible power, by presenting no + distinct object of fear or worship, impressed the mind with a + still deeper sense of religious horror; 63 and the priests, rude + and illiterate as they were, had been taught by experience the + use of every artifice that could preserve and fortify impressions + so well suited to their own interest. + + 62 (return) [ Tacitus has employed a few lines, and Cluverius one + hundred and twenty-four pages, on this obscure subject. The + former discovers in Germany the gods of Greece and Rome. The + latter is positive, that, under the emblems of the sun, the moon, + and the fire, his pious ancestors worshipped the Trinity in + unity] + + 63 (return) [ The sacred wood, described with such sublime horror + by Lucan, was in the neighborhood of Marseilles; but there were + many of the same kind in Germany. * Note: The ancient Germans had + shapeless idols, and, when they began to build more settled + habitations, they raised also temples, such as that to the + goddess Teufana, who presided over divination. See Adelung, Hist. + of Ane Germans, p 296—G] + + The same ignorance, which renders barbarians incapable of + conceiving or embracing the useful restraints of laws, exposes + them naked and unarmed to the blind terrors of superstition. The + German priests, improving this favorable temper of their + countrymen, had assumed a jurisdiction even in temporal concerns, + which the magistrate could not venture to exercise; and the + haughty warrior patiently submitted to the lash of correction, + when it was inflicted, not by any human power, but by the + immediate order of the god of war. 64 The defects of civil policy + were sometimes supplied by the interposition of ecclesiastical + authority. The latter was constantly exerted to maintain silence + and decency in the popular assemblies; and was sometimes extended + to a more enlarged concern for the national welfare. A solemn + procession was occasionally celebrated in the present countries + of Mecklenburgh and Pomerania. The unknown symbol of the _Earth_, + covered with a thick veil, was placed on a carriage drawn by + cows; and in this manner the goddess, whose common residence was + in the Isles of Rugen, visited several adjacent tribes of her + worshippers. During her progress the sound of war was hushed, + quarrels were suspended, arms laid aside, and the restless + Germans had an opportunity of tasting the blessings of peace and + harmony. 65 The _truce of God_, so often and so ineffectually + proclaimed by the clergy of the eleventh century, was an obvious + imitation of this ancient custom. 66 + + 64 (return) [ Tacit. Germania, c. 7.] + + 65 (return) [ Tacit. Germania, c. 40.] + + 66 (return) [ See Dr. Robertson’s History of Charles V. vol. i. + note 10.] + + But the influence of religion was far more powerful to inflame, + than to moderate, the fierce passions of the Germans. Interest + and fanaticism often prompted its ministers to sanctify the most + daring and the most unjust enterprises, by the approbation of + Heaven, and full assurances of success. The consecrated + standards, long revered in the groves of superstition, were + placed in the front of the battle; 67 and the hostile army was + devoted with dire execrations to the gods of war and of thunder. + 68 In the faith of soldiers (and such were the Germans) cowardice + is the most unpardonable of sins. A brave man was the worthy + favorite of their martial deities; the wretch who had lost his + shield was alike banished from the religious and civil assemblies + of his countrymen. Some tribes of the north seem to have embraced + the doctrine of transmigration, 69 others imagined a gross + paradise of immortal drunkenness. 70 All agreed that a life spent + in arms, and a glorious death in battle, were the best + preparations for a happy futurity, either in this or in another + world. + + 67 (return) [ Tacit. Germania, c. 7. These standards were only + the heads of wild beasts.] + + 68 (return) [ See an instance of this custom, Tacit. Annal. xiii. + 57.] + + 69 (return) [ Cæsar Diodorus, and Lucan, seem to ascribe this + doctrine to the Gauls, but M. Pelloutier (Histoire des Celtes, l. + iii. c. 18) labors to reduce their expressions to a more orthodox + sense.] + + 70 (return) [ Concerning this gross but alluring doctrine of the + Edda, see Fable xx. in the curious version of that book, + published by M. Mallet, in his Introduction to the History of + Denmark.] + + The immortality so vainly promised by the priests, was, in some + degree, conferred by the bards. That singular order of men has + most deservedly attracted the notice of all who have attempted to + investigate the antiquities of the Celts, the Scandinavians, and + the Germans. Their genius and character, as well as the reverence + paid to that important office, have been sufficiently + illustrated. But we cannot so easily express, or even conceive, + the enthusiasm of arms and glory which they kindled in the breast + of their audience. Among a polished people a taste for poetry is + rather an amusement of the fancy than a passion of the soul. And + yet, when in calm retirement we peruse the combats described by + Homer or Tasso, we are insensibly seduced by the fiction, and + feel a momentary glow of martial ardor. But how faint, how cold + is the sensation which a peaceful mind can receive from solitary + study! It was in the hour of battle, or in the feast of victory, + that the bards celebrated the glory of the heroes of ancient + days, the ancestors of those warlike chieftains, who listened + with transport to their artless but animated strains. The view of + arms and of danger heightened the effect of the military song; + and the passions which it tended to excite, the desire of fame, + and the contempt of death, were the habitual sentiments of a + German mind. 71 711 + + 71 (return) [ See Tacit. Germ. c. 3. Diod. Sicul. l. v. Strabo, + l. iv. p. 197. The classical reader may remember the rank of + Demodocus in the Phæacian court, and the ardor infused by Tyrtæus + into the fainting Spartans. Yet there is little probability that + the Greeks and the Germans were the same people. Much learned + trifling might be spared, if our antiquarians would condescend to + reflect, that similar manners will naturally be produced by + similar situations.] + + 711 (return) [ Besides these battle songs, the Germans sang at + their festival banquets, (Tac. Ann. i. 65,) and around the bodies + of their slain heroes. King Theodoric, of the tribe of the Goths, + killed in a battle against Attila, was honored by songs while he + was borne from the field of battle. Jornandes, c. 41. The same + honor was paid to the remains of Attila. Ibid. c. 49. According + to some historians, the Germans had songs also at their weddings; + but this appears to me inconsistent with their customs, in which + marriage was no more than the purchase of a wife. Besides, there + is but one instance of this, that of the Gothic king, Ataulph, + who sang himself the nuptial hymn when he espoused Placidia, + sister of the emperors Arcadius and Honorius, (Olympiodor. p. 8.) + But this marriage was celebrated according to the Roman rites, of + which the nuptial songs formed a part. Adelung, p. 382.—G. + Charlemagne is said to have collected the national songs of the + ancient Germans. Eginhard, Vit. Car. Mag.—M.] + + Such was the situation, and such were the manners of the ancient + Germans. Their climate, their want of learning, of arts, and of + laws, their notions of honor, of gallantry, and of religion, + their sense of freedom, impatience of peace, and thirst of + enterprise, all contributed to form a people of military heroes. + And yet we find, that during more than two hundred and fifty + years that elapsed from the defeat of Varus to the reign of + Decius, these formidable barbarians made few considerable + attempts, and not any material impression on the luxurious, and + enslaved provinces of the empire. Their progress was checked by + their want of arms and discipline, and their fury was diverted by + the intestine divisions of ancient Germany. I. It has been + observed, with ingenuity, and not without truth, that the command + of iron soon gives a nation the command of gold. But the rude + tribes of Germany, alike destitute of both those valuable metals, + were reduced slowly to acquire, by their unassisted strength, the + possession of the one as well as the other. The face of a German + army displayed their poverty of iron. Swords, and the longer kind + of lances, they could seldom use. Their _frameæ_ (as they called + them in their own language) were long spears headed with a sharp + but narrow iron point, and which, as occasion required, they + either darted from a distance, or pushed in close onset. With + this spear, and with a shield, their cavalry was contented. A + multitude of darts, scattered 72 with incredible force, were an + additional resource of the infantry. Their military dress, when + they wore any, was nothing more than a loose mantle. A variety of + colors was the only ornament of their wooden or osier shields. + Few of the chiefs were distinguished by cuirasses, scarcely any + by helmets. Though the horses of Germany were neither beautiful, + swift, nor practised in the skilful evolutions of the Roman + manege, several of the nations obtained renown by their cavalry; + but, in general, the principal strength of the Germans consisted + in their infantry, 73 which was drawn up in several deep columns, + according to the distinction of tribes and families. Impatient of + fatigue and delay, these half-armed warriors rushed to battle + with dissonant shouts and disordered ranks; and sometimes, by the + effort of native valor, prevailed over the constrained and more + artificial bravery of the Roman mercenaries. But as the + barbarians poured forth their whole souls on the first onset, + they knew not how to rally or to retire. A repulse was a sure + defeat; and a defeat was most commonly total destruction. When we + recollect the complete armor of the Roman soldiers, their + discipline, exercises, evolutions, fortified camps, and military + engines, it appears a just matter of surprise, how the naked and + unassisted valor of the barbarians could dare to encounter, in + the field, the strength of the legions, and the various troops of + the auxiliaries, which seconded their operations. The contest was + too unequal, till the introduction of luxury had enervated the + vigor, and a spirit of disobedience and sedition had relaxed the + discipline, of the Roman armies. The introduction of barbarian + auxiliaries into those armies, was a measure attended with very + obvious dangers, as it might gradually instruct the Germans in + the arts of war and of policy. Although they were admitted in + small numbers and with the strictest precaution, the example of + Civilis was proper to convince the Romans, that the danger was + not imaginary, and that their precautions were not always + sufficient. 74 During the civil wars that followed the death of + Nero, that artful and intrepid Batavian, whom his enemies + condescended to compare with Hannibal and Sertorius, 75 formed a + great design of freedom and ambition. Eight Batavian cohorts + renowned in the wars of Britain and Italy, repaired to his + standard. He introduced an army of Germans into Gaul, prevailed + on the powerful cities of Treves and Langres to embrace his + cause, defeated the legions, destroyed their fortified camps, and + employed against the Romans the military knowledge which he had + acquired in their service. When at length, after an obstinate + struggle, he yielded to the power of the empire, Civilis secured + himself and his country by an honorable treaty. The Batavians + still continued to occupy the islands of the Rhine, 76 the + allies, not the servants, of the Roman monarchy. + + 72 (return) [ Missilia spargunt, Tacit. Germ. c. 6. Either that + historian used a vague expression, or he meant that they were + thrown at random.] + + 73 (return) [ It was their principal distinction from the + Sarmatians, who generally fought on horseback.] + + 74 (return) [ The relation of this enterprise occupies a great + part of the fourth and fifth books of the History of Tacitus, and + is more remarkable for its eloquence than perspicuity. Sir Henry + Saville has observed several inaccuracies.] + + 75 (return) [ Tacit. Hist. iv. 13. Like them he had lost an eye.] + + 76 (return) [ It was contained between the two branches of the + old Rhine, as they subsisted before the face of the country was + changed by art and nature. See Cluver German. Antiq. l. iii. c. + 30, 37.] + + II. The strength of ancient Germany appears formidable, when we + consider the effects that might have been produced by its united + effort. The wide extent of country might very possibly contain a + million of warriors, as all who were of age to bear arms were of + a temper to use them. But this fierce multitude, incapable of + concerting or executing any plan of national greatness, was + agitated by various and often hostile intentions. Germany was + divided into more than forty independent states; and, even in + each state, the union of the several tribes was extremely loose + and precarious. The barbarians were easily provoked; they knew + not how to forgive an injury, much less an insult; their + resentments were bloody and implacable. The casual disputes that + so frequently happened in their tumultuous parties of hunting or + drinking were sufficient to inflame the minds of whole nations; + the private feuds of any considerable chieftains diffused itself + among their followers and allies. To chastise the insolent, or to + plunder the defenceless, were alike causes of war. The most + formidable states of Germany affected to encompass their + territories with a wide frontier of solitude and devastation. The + awful distance preserved by their neighbors attested the terror + of their arms, and in some measure defended them from the danger + of unexpected incursions. 77 + + 77 (return) [ Cæsar de Bell. Gal. l. vi. 23.] + + “The Bructeri 771 (it is Tacitus who now speaks) were totally + exterminated by the neighboring tribes, 78 provoked by their + insolence, allured by the hopes of spoil, and perhaps inspired by + the tutelar deities of the empire. Above sixty thousand + barbarians were destroyed; not by the Roman arms, but in our + sight, and for our entertainment. May the nations, enemies of + Rome, ever preserve this enmity to each other! We have now + attained the utmost verge of prosperity, 79 and have nothing left + to demand of fortune, except the discord of the barbarians.” + 80—These sentiments, less worthy of the humanity than of the + patriotism of Tacitus, express the invariable maxims of the + policy of his countrymen. They deemed it a much safer expedient + to divide than to combat the barbarians, from whose defeat they + could derive neither honor nor advantage. The money and + negotiations of Rome insinuated themselves into the heart of + Germany; and every art of seduction was used with dignity, to + conciliate those nations whom their proximity to the Rhine or + Danube might render the most useful friends as well as the most + troublesome enemies. Chiefs of renown and power were flattered by + the most trifling presents, which they received either as marks + of distinction, or as the instruments of luxury. In civil + dissensions the weaker faction endeavored to strengthen its + interest by entering into secret connections with the governors + of the frontier provinces. Every quarrel among the Germans was + fomented by the intrigues of Rome; and every plan of union and + public good was defeated by the stronger bias of private jealousy + and interest. 81 + + 771 (return) [ The Bructeri were a non-Suevian tribe, who dwelt + below the duchies of Oldenburgh, and Lauenburgh, on the borders + of the Lippe, and in the Hartz Mountains. It was among them that + the priestess Velleda obtained her renown.—G.] + + 78 (return) [ They are mentioned, however, in the ivth and vth + centuries by Nazarius, Ammianus, Claudian, &c., as a tribe of + Franks. See Cluver. Germ. Antiq. l. iii. c. 13.] + + 79 (return) [ Urgentibus is the common reading; but good sense, + Lipsius, and some Mss. declare for Vergentibus.] + + 80 (return) [ Tacit Germania, c. 33. The pious Abbé de la + Bleterie is very angry with Tacitus, talks of the devil, who was + a murderer from the beginning, &c., &c.] + + 81 (return) [ Many traces of this policy may be discovered in + Tacitus and Dion: and many more may be inferred from the + principles of human nature.] + + The general conspiracy which terrified the Romans under the reign + of Marcus Antoninus, comprehended almost all the nations of + Germany, and even Sarmatia, from the mouth of the Rhine to that + of the Danube. 82 It is impossible for us to determine whether + this hasty confederation was formed by necessity, by reason, or + by passion; but we may rest assured, that the barbarians were + neither allured by the indolence, nor provoked by the ambition, + of the Roman monarch. This dangerous invasion required all the + firmness and vigilance of Marcus. He fixed generals of ability in + the several stations of attack, and assumed in person the conduct + of the most important province on the Upper Danube. After a long + and doubtful conflict, the spirit of the barbarians was subdued. + The Quadi and the Marcomanni, 83 who had taken the lead in the + war, were the most severely punished in its catastrophe. They + were commanded to retire five miles 84 from their own banks of + the Danube, and to deliver up the flower of the youth, who were + immediately sent into Britain, a remote island, where they might + be secure as hostages, and useful as soldiers. 85 On the frequent + rebellions of the Quadi and Marcomanni, the irritated emperor + resolved to reduce their country into the form of a province. His + designs were disappointed by death. This formidable league, + however, the only one that appears in the two first centuries of + the Imperial history, was entirely dissipated, without leaving + any traces behind in Germany. + + 82 (return) [ Hist. Aug. p. 31. Ammian. Marcellin. l. xxxi. c. 5. + Aurel. Victor. The emperor Marcus was reduced to sell the rich + furniture of the palace, and to enlist slaves and robbers.] + + 83 (return) [ The Marcomanni, a colony, who, from the banks of + the Rhine occupied Bohemia and Moravia, had once erected a great + and formidable monarchy under their king Maroboduus. See Strabo, + l. vii. [p. 290.] Vell. Pat. ii. 108. Tacit. Annal. ii. 63. * + Note: The Mark-manæn, the March-men or borderers. There seems + little doubt that this was an appellation, rather than a proper + name of a part of the great Suevian or Teutonic race.—M.] + + 84 (return) [ Mr. Wotton (History of Rome, p. 166) increases the + prohibition to ten times the distance. His reasoning is specious, + but not conclusive. Five miles were sufficient for a fortified + barrier.] + + 85 (return) [ Dion, l. lxxi. and lxxii.] + + In the course of this introductory chapter, we have confined + ourselves to the general outlines of the manners of Germany, + without attempting to describe or to distinguish the various + tribes which filled that great country in the time of Cæsar, of + Tacitus, or of Ptolemy. As the ancient, or as new tribes + successively present themselves in the series of this history, we + shall concisely mention their origin, their situation, and their + particular character. Modern nations are fixed and permanent + societies, connected among themselves by laws and government, + bound to their native soil by art and agriculture. The German + tribes were voluntary and fluctuating associations of soldiers, + almost of savages. The same territory often changed its + inhabitants in the tide of conquest and emigration. The same + communities, uniting in a plan of defence or invasion, bestowed a + new title on their new confederacy. The dissolution of an ancient + confederacy restored to the independent tribes their peculiar but + long-forgotten appellation. A victorious state often communicated + its own name to a vanquished people. Sometimes crowds of + volunteers flocked from all parts to the standard of a favorite + leader; his camp became their country, and some circumstance of + the enterprise soon gave a common denomination to the mixed + multitude. The distinctions of the ferocious invaders were + perpetually varied by themselves, and confounded by the + astonished subjects of the Roman empire. 86 + + 86 (return) [ See an excellent dissertation on the origin and + migrations of nations, in the Memoires de l’Academie des + Inscriptions, tom. xviii. p. 48—71. It is seldom that the + antiquarian and the philosopher are so happily blended.] + + Wars, and the administration of public affairs, are the principal + subjects of history; but the number of persons interested in + these busy scenes is very different, according to the different + condition of mankind. In great monarchies, millions of obedient + subjects pursue their useful occupations in peace and obscurity. + The attention of the writer, as well as of the reader, is solely + confined to a court, a capital, a regular army, and the districts + which happen to be the occasional scene of military operations. + But a state of freedom and barbarism, the season of civil + commotions, or the situation of petty republics, 87 raises almost + every member of the community into action, and consequently into + notice. The irregular divisions, and the restless motions, of the + people of Germany, dazzle our imagination, and seem to multiply + their numbers. The profuse enumeration of kings, of warriors, of + armies and nations, inclines us to forget that the same objects + are continually repeated under a variety of appellations, and + that the most splendid appellations have been frequently lavished + on the most inconsiderable objects. + + 87 (return) [ Should we suspect that Athens contained only 21,000 + citizens, and Sparta no more than 39,000? See Hume and Wallace on + the number of mankind in ancient and modern times. * Note: This + number, though too positively stated, is probably not far wrong, + as an average estimate. On the subject of Athenian population, + see St. Croix, Acad. des Inscrip. xlviii. Bœckh, Public Economy + of Athens, i. 47. Eng Trans, Fynes Clinton, Fasti Hellenici, vol. + i. p. 381. The latter author estimates the citizens of Sparta at + 33,000—M.] + + + + + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus—Part I. + + The Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian, And + Gallienus.—The General Irruption Of The Barbari Ans.—The Thirty + Tyrants. + + From the great secular games celebrated by Philip, to the death + of the emperor Gallienus, there elapsed twenty years of shame and + misfortune. During that calamitous period, every instant of time + was marked, every province of the Roman world was afflicted, by + barbarous invaders, and military tyrants, and the ruined empire + seemed to approach the last and fatal moment of its dissolution. + The confusion of the times, and the scarcity of authentic + memorials, oppose equal difficulties to the historian, who + attempts to preserve a clear and unbroken thread of narration. + Surrounded with imperfect fragments, always concise, often + obscure, and sometimes contradictory, he is reduced to collect, + to compare, and to conjecture: and though he ought never to place + his conjectures in the rank of facts, yet the knowledge of human + nature, and of the sure operation of its fierce and unrestrained + passions, might, on some occasions, supply the want of historical + materials. + + There is not, for instance, any difficulty in conceiving, that + the successive murders of so many emperors had loosened all the + ties of allegiance between the prince and people; that all the + generals of Philip were disposed to imitate the example of their + master; and that the caprice of armies, long since habituated to + frequent and violent revolutions, might every day raise to the + throne the most obscure of their fellow-soldiers. History can + only add, that the rebellion against the emperor Philip broke out + in the summer of the year two hundred and forty-nine, among the + legions of Mæsia; and that a subaltern officer, 1 named Marinus, + was the object of their seditious choice. Philip was alarmed. He + dreaded lest the treason of the Mæsian army should prove the + first spark of a general conflagration. Distracted with the + consciousness of his guilt and of his danger, he communicated the + intelligence to the senate. A gloomy silence prevailed, the + effect of fear, and perhaps of disaffection; till at length + Decius, one of the assembly, assuming a spirit worthy of his + noble extraction, ventured to discover more intrepidity than the + emperor seemed to possess. He treated the whole business with + contempt, as a hasty and inconsiderate tumult, and Philip’s rival + as a phantom of royalty, who in a very few days would be + destroyed by the same inconstancy that had created him. The + speedy completion of the prophecy inspired Philip with a just + esteem for so able a counsellor; and Decius appeared to him the + only person capable of restoring peace and discipline to an army + whose tumultuous spirit did not immediately subside after the + murder of Marinus. Decius, 2 who long resisted his own + nomination, seems to have insinuated the danger of presenting a + leader of merit to the angry and apprehensive minds of the + soldiers; and his prediction was again confirmed by the event. + The legions of Mæsia forced their judge to become their + accomplice. They left him only the alternative of death or the + purple. His subsequent conduct, after that decisive measure, was + unavoidable. He conducted, or followed, his army to the confines + of Italy, whither Philip, collecting all his force to repel the + formidable competitor whom he had raised up, advanced to meet + him. The Imperial troops were superior in number; but the rebels + formed an army of veterans, commanded by an able and experienced + leader. Philip was either killed in the battle, or put to death a + few days afterwards at Verona. His son and associate in the + empire was massacred at Rome by the Prætorian guards; and the + victorious Decius, with more favorable circumstances than the + ambition of that age can usually plead, was universally + acknowledged by the senate and provinces. It is reported, that, + immediately after his reluctant acceptance of the title of + Augustus, he had assured Philip, by a private message, of his + innocence and loyalty, solemnly protesting, that, on his arrival + on Italy, he would resign the Imperial ornaments, and return to + the condition of an obedient subject. His professions might be + sincere; but in the situation where fortune had placed him, it + was scarcely possible that he could either forgive or be + forgiven. 3 + + 1 (return) [ The expression used by Zosimus and Zonaras may + signify that Marinus commanded a century, a cohort, or a legion.] + + 2 (return) [ His birth at Bubalia, a little village in Pannonia, + (Eutrop. ix. Victor. in Cæsarib. et Epitom.,) seems to + contradict, unless it was merely accidental, his supposed descent + from the Decii. Six hundred years had bestowed nobility on the + Decii: but at the commencement of that period, they were only + plebeians of merit, and among the first who shared the consulship + with the haughty patricians. Plebeine Deciorum animæ, &c. + Juvenal, Sat. viii. 254. See the spirited speech of Decius, in + Livy. x. 9, 10.] + + 3 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 20, c. 22. Zonaras, l. xii. p. + 624, edit. Louvre.] + + The emperor Decius had employed a few months in the works of + peace and the administration of justice, when he was summoned to + the banks of the Danube by the invasion of the Goths. This is the + first considerable occasion in which history mentions that great + people, who afterwards broke the Roman power, sacked the Capitol, + and reigned in Gaul, Spain, and Italy. So memorable was the part + which they acted in the subversion of the Western empire, that + the name of Goths is frequently but improperly used as a general + appellation of rude and warlike barbarism. + + In the beginning of the sixth century, and after the conquest of + Italy, the Goths, in possession of present greatness, very + naturally indulged themselves in the prospect of past and of + future glory. They wished to preserve the memory of their + ancestors, and to transmit to posterity their own achievements. + The principal minister of the court of Ravenna, the learned + Cassiodorus, gratified the inclination of the conquerors in a + Gothic history, which consisted of twelve books, now reduced to + the imperfect abridgment of Jornandes. 4 These writers passed + with the most artful conciseness over the misfortunes of the + nation, celebrated its successful valor, and adorned the triumph + with many Asiatic trophies, that more properly belonged to the + people of Scythia. On the faith of ancient songs, the uncertain, + but the only memorials of barbarians, they deduced the first + origin of the Goths from the vast island, or peninsula, of + Scandinavia. 5 501 That extreme country of the North was not + unknown to the conquerors of Italy: the ties of ancient + consanguinity had been strengthened by recent offices of + friendship; and a Scandinavian king had cheerfully abdicated his + savage greatness, that he might pass the remainder of his days in + the peaceful and polished court of Ravenna. 6 Many vestiges, + which cannot be ascribed to the arts of popular vanity, attest + the ancient residence of the Goths in the countries beyond the + Rhine. From the time of the geographer Ptolemy, the southern part + of Sweden seems to have continued in the possession of the less + enterprising remnant of the nation, and a large territory is even + at present divided into east and west Gothland. During the middle + ages, (from the ninth to the twelfth century,) whilst + Christianity was advancing with a slow progress into the North, + the Goths and the Swedes composed two distinct and sometimes + hostile members of the same monarchy. 7 The latter of these two + names has prevailed without extinguishing the former. The Swedes, + who might well be satisfied with their own fame in arms, have, in + every age, claimed the kindred glory of the Goths. In a moment of + discontent against the court of Rome, Charles the Twelfth + insinuated, that his victorious troops were not degenerated from + their brave ancestors, who had already subdued the mistress of + the world. 8 + + 4 (return) [ See the prefaces of Cassiodorus and Jornandes; it is + surprising that the latter should be omitted in the excellent + edition, published by Grotius, of the Gothic writers.] + + 5 (return) [ On the authority of Ablavius, Jornandes quotes some + old Gothic chronicles in verse. De Reb. Geticis, c. 4.] + + 501 (return) [ The Goths have inhabited Scandinavia, but it was + not their original habitation. This great nation was anciently of + the Suevian race; it occupied, in the time of Tacitus, and long + before, Mecklenburgh, Pomerania Southern Prussia and the + north-west of Poland. A little before the birth of J. C., and in + the first years of that century, they belonged to the kingdom of + Marbod, king of the Marcomanni: but Cotwalda, a young Gothic + prince, delivered them from that tyranny, and established his own + power over the kingdom of the Marcomanni, already much weakened + by the victories of Tiberius. The power of the Goths at that time + must have been great: it was probably from them that the Sinus + Codanus (the Baltic) took this name, as it was afterwards called + Mare Suevicum, and Mare Venedicum, during the superiority of the + proper Suevi and the Venedi. The epoch in which the Goths passed + into Scandinavia is unknown. See Adelung, Hist. of Anc. Germany, + p. 200. Gatterer, Hist. Univ. 458.—G. ——M. St. Martin observes, + that the Scandinavian descent of the Goths rests on the authority + of Jornandes, who professed to derive it from the traditions of + the Goths. He is supported by Procopius and Paulus Diaconus. Yet + the Goths are unquestionably the same with the Getæ of the + earlier historians. St. Martin, note on Le Beau, Hist. du bas + Empire, iii. 324. The identity of the Getæ and Goths is by no + means generally admitted. On the whole, they seem to be one vast + branch of the Indo-Teutonic race, who spread irregularly towards + the north of Europe, and at different periods, and in different + regions, came in contact with the more civilized nations of the + south. At this period, there seems to have been a reflux of these + Gothic tribes from the North. Malte Brun considers that there are + strong grounds for receiving the Islandic traditions commented by + the Danish Varro, M. Suhm. From these, and the voyage of Pytheas, + which Malte Brun considers genuine, the Goths were in possession + of Scandinavia, Ey-Gothland, 250 years before J. C., and of a + tract on the continent (Reid-Gothland) between the mouths of the + Vistula and the Oder. In their southern migration, they followed + the course of the Vistula; afterwards, of the Dnieper. Malte + Brun, Geogr. i. p. 387, edit. 1832. Geijer, the historian of + Sweden, ably maintains the Scandinavian origin of the Goths. The + Gothic language, according to Bopp, is the link between the + Sanscrit and the modern Teutonic dialects: “I think that I am + reading Sanscrit when I am reading Olphilas.” Bopp, Conjugations + System der Sanscrit Sprache, preface, p. x—M.] + + 6 (return) [ Jornandes, c. 3.] + + 7 (return) [ See in the Prolegomena of Grotius some large + extracts from Adam of Bremen, and Saxo-Grammaticus. The former + wrote in the year 1077, the latter flourished about the year + 1200.] + + 8 (return) [ Voltaire, Histoire de Charles XII. l. iii. When the + Austrians desired the aid of the court of Rome against Gustavus + Adolphus, they always represented that conqueror as the lineal + successor of Alaric. Harte’s History of Gustavus, vol. ii. p. + 123.] + + Till the end of the eleventh century, a celebrated temple + subsisted at Upsal, the most considerable town of the Swedes and + Goths. It was enriched with the gold which the Scandinavians had + acquired in their piratical adventures, and sanctified by the + uncouth representations of the three principal deities, the god + of war, the goddess of generation, and the god of thunder. In the + general festival, that was solemnized every ninth year, nine + animals of every species (without excepting the human) were + sacrificed, and their bleeding bodies suspended in the sacred + grove adjacent to the temple. 9 The only traces that now subsist + of this barbaric superstition are contained in the Edda, 901 a + system of mythology, compiled in Iceland about the thirteenth + century, and studied by the learned of Denmark and Sweden, as the + most valuable remains of their ancient traditions. + + 9 (return) [ See Adam of Bremen in Grotii Prolegomenis, p. 105. + The temple of Upsal was destroyed by Ingo, king of Sweden, who + began his reign in the year 1075, and about fourscore years + afterwards, a Christian cathedral was erected on its ruins. See + Dalin’s History of Sweden, in the Bibliotheque Raisonee.] + + 901 (return) [ The Eddas have at length been made accessible to + European scholars by the completion of the publication of the + Sæmundine Edda by the Arna Magnæan Commission, in 3 vols. 4to., + with a copious lexicon of northern mythology.—M.] + + Notwithstanding the mysterious obscurity of the Edda, we can + easily distinguish two persons confounded under the name of Odin; + the god of war, and the great legislator of Scandinavia. The + latter, the Mahomet of the North, instituted a religion adapted + to the climate and to the people. Numerous tribes on either side + of the Baltic were subdued by the invincible valor of Odin, by + his persuasive eloquence, and by the fame which he acquired of a + most skilful magician. The faith that he had propagated, during a + long and prosperous life, he confirmed by a voluntary death. + Apprehensive of the ignominious approach of disease and + infirmity, he resolved to expire as became a warrior. In a solemn + assembly of the Swedes and Goths, he wounded himself in nine + mortal places, hastening away (as he asserted with his dying + voice) to prepare the feast of heroes in the palace of the God of + war. 10 + + 10 (return) [ Mallet, Introduction a l’Histoire du Dannemarc.] + + The native and proper habitation of Odin is distinguished by the + appellation of As-gard. The happy resemblance of that name with + As-burg, or As-of, 11 words of a similar signification, has given + rise to an historical system of so pleasing a contexture, that we + could almost wish to persuade ourselves of its truth. It is + supposed that Odin was the chief of a tribe of barbarians which + dwelt on the banks of the Lake Mæotis, till the fall of + Mithridates and the arms of Pompey menaced the North with + servitude. That Odin, yielding with indignant fury to a power he + was unable to resist, conducted his tribe from the frontiers of + the Asiatic Sarmatia into Sweden, with the great design of + forming, in that inaccessible retreat of freedom, a religion and + a people which, in some remote age, might be subservient to his + immortal revenge; when his invincible Goths, armed with martial + fanaticism, should issue in numerous swarms from the neighborhood + of the Polar circle, to chastise the oppressors of mankind. 12 + + 11 (return) [ Mallet, c. iv. p. 55, has collected from Strabo, + Pliny, Ptolemy, and Stephanus Byzantinus, the vestiges of such a + city and people.] + + 12 (return) [ This wonderful expedition of Odin, which, by + deducting the enmity of the Goths and Romans from so memorable a + cause, might supply the noble groundwork of an epic poem, cannot + safely be received as authentic history. According to the obvious + sense of the Edda, and the interpretation of the most skilful + critics, As-gard, instead of denoting a real city of the Asiatic + Sarmatia, is the fictitious appellation of the mystic abode of + the gods, the Olympus of Scandinavia; from whence the prophet was + supposed to descend, when he announced his new religion to the + Gothic nations, who were already seated in the southern parts of + Sweden. * Note: A curious letter may be consulted on this subject + from the Swede, Ihre counsellor in the Chancery of Upsal, printed + at Upsal by Edman, in 1772 and translated into German by M. + Schlozer. Gottingen, printed for Dietericht, 1779.—G. ——Gibbon, + at a later period of his work, recanted his opinion of the truth + of this expedition of Odin. The Asiatic origin of the Goths is + almost certain from the affinity of their language to the + Sanscrit and Persian; but their northern writers, when all + mythology was reduced to hero worship.—M.] + + If so many successive generations of Goths were capable of + preserving a faint tradition of their Scandinavian origin, we + must not expect, from such unlettered barbarians, any distinct + account of the time and circumstances of their emigration. To + cross the Baltic was an easy and natural attempt. The inhabitants + of Sweden were masters of a sufficient number of large vessels, + with oars, 13 and the distance is little more than one hundred + miles from Carlscroon to the nearest ports of Pomerania and + Prussia. Here, at length, we land on firm and historic ground. At + least as early as the Christian æra, 14 and as late as the age of + the Antonines, 15 the Goths were established towards the mouth of + the Vistula, and in that fertile province where the commercial + cities of Thorn, Elbing, Köningsberg, and Dantzick, were long + afterwards founded. 16 Westward of the Goths, the numerous tribes + of the Vandals were spread along the banks of the Oder, and the + sea-coast of Pomerania and Mecklenburgh. A striking resemblance + of manners, complexion, religion, and language, seemed to + indicate that the Vandals and the Goths were originally one great + people. 17 The latter appear to have been subdivided into + Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Gepidæ. 18 The distinction among the + Vandals was more strongly marked by the independent names of + Heruli, Burgundians, Lombards, and a variety of other petty + states, many of which, in a future age, expanded themselves into + powerful monarchies. 181 + + 13 (return) [ Tacit. Germania, c. 44.] + + 14 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. ii. 62. If we could yield a firm + assent to the navigations of Pytheas of Marseilles, we must allow + that the Goths had passed the Baltic at least three hundred years + before Christ.] + + 15 (return) [ Ptolemy, l. ii.] + + 16 (return) [ By the German colonies who followed the arms of the + Teutonic knights. The conquest and conversion of Prussia were + completed by those adventurers in the thirteenth century.] + + 17 (return) [ Pliny (Hist. Natur. iv. 14) and Procopius (in Bell. + Vandal. l. i. c. l) agree in this opinion. They lived in distant + ages, and possessed different means of investigating the truth.] + + 18 (return) [ The Ostro and Visi, the eastern and western Goths, + obtained those denominations from their original seats in + Scandinavia. In all their future marches and settlements they + preserved, with their names, the same relative situation. When + they first departed from Sweden, the infant colony was contained + in three vessels. The third, being a heavy sailer, lagged behind, + and the crew, which afterwards swelled into a nation, received + from that circumstance the appellation of Gepidæ or Loiterers. + Jornandes, c. 17. * Note: It was not in Scandinavia that the + Goths were divided into Ostrogoths and Visigoths; that division + took place after their irruption into Dacia in the third century: + those who came from Mecklenburgh and Pomerania were called + Visigoths; those who came from the south of Prussia, and the + northwest of Poland, called themselves Ostrogoths. Adelung, Hist. + All. p. 202 Gatterer, Hist. Univ. 431.—G.] + + 181 (return) [ This opinion is by no means probable. The Vandals + and the Goths equally belonged to the great division of the + Suevi, but the two tribes were very different. Those who have + treated on this part of history, appear to me to have neglected + to remark that the ancients almost always gave the name of the + dominant and conquering people to all the weaker and conquered + races. So Pliny calls Vindeli, Vandals, all the people of the + north-east of Europe, because at that epoch the Vandals were + doubtless the conquering tribe. Cæsar, on the contrary, ranges + under the name of Suevi, many of the tribes whom Pliny reckons as + Vandals, because the Suevi, properly so called, were then the + most powerful tribe in Germany. When the Goths, become in their + turn conquerors, had subjugated the nations whom they encountered + on their way, these nations lost their name with their liberty, + and became of Gothic origin. The Vandals themselves were then + considered as Goths; the Heruli, the Gepidæ, &c., suffered the + same fate. A common origin was thus attributed to tribes who had + only been united by the conquests of some dominant nation, and + this confusion has given rise to a number of historical + errors.—G. ——M. St. Martin has a learned note (to Le Beau, v. + 261) on the origin of the Vandals. The difficulty appears to be + in rejecting the close analogy of the name with the Vend or + Wendish race, who were of Sclavonian, not of Suevian or German, + origin. M. St. Martin supposes that the different races spread + from the head of the Adriatic to the Baltic, and even the Veneti, + on the shores of the Adriatic, the Vindelici, the tribes which + gave their name to Vindobena, Vindoduna, Vindonissa, were + branches of the same stock with the Sclavonian Venedi, who at one + time gave their name to the Baltic; that they all spoke dialects + of the Wendish language, which still prevails in Carinthia, + Carniola, part of Bohemia, and Lusatia, and is hardly extinct in + Mecklenburgh and Pomerania. The Vandal race, once so fearfully + celebrated in the annals of mankind, has so utterly perished from + the face of the earth, that we are not aware that any vestiges of + their language can be traced, so as to throw light on the + disputed question of their German, their Sclavonian, or + independent origin. The weight of ancient authority seems against + M. St. Martin’s opinion. Compare, on the Vandals, Malte Brun. + 394. Also Gibbon’s note, c. xli. n. 38.—M.] + + In the age of the Antonines, the Goths were still seated in + Prussia. About the reign of Alexander Severus, the Roman province + of Dacia had already experienced their proximity by frequent and + destructive inroads. 19 In this interval, therefore, of about + seventy years we must place the second migration of the Goths + from the Baltic to the Euxine; but the cause that produced it + lies concealed among the various motives which actuate the + conduct of unsettled barbarians. Either a pestilence or a famine, + a victory or a defeat, an oracle of the gods or the eloquence of + a daring leader, were sufficient to impel the Gothic arms on the + milder climates of the south. Besides the influence of a martial + religion, the numbers and spirit of the Goths were equal to the + most dangerous adventures. The use of round bucklers and short + swords rendered them formidable in a close engagement; the manly + obedience which they yielded to hereditary kings, gave uncommon + union and stability to their councils; 20 and the renowned Amala, + the hero of that age, and the tenth ancestor of Theodoric, king + of Italy, enforced, by the ascendant of personal merit, the + prerogative of his birth, which he derived from the _Anses_, or + demigods of the Gothic nation. 21 + + 19 (return) [ See a fragment of Peter Patricius in the Excerpta + Legationum and with regard to its probable date, see Tillemont, + Hist, des Empereurs, tom. iii. p. 346.] + + 20 (return) [ Omnium harum gentium insigne, rotunda scuta, breves + gladii, et erga rages obsequium. Tacit. Germania, c. 43. The + Goths probably acquired their iron by the commerce of amber.] + + 21 (return) [ Jornandes, c. 13, 14.] + + The fame of a great enterprise excited the bravest warriors from + all the Vandalic states of Germany, many of whom are seen a few + years afterwards combating under the common standard of the + Goths. 22 The first motions of the emigrants carried them to the + banks of the Prypec, a river universally conceived by the + ancients to be the southern branch of the Borysthenes. 23 The + windings of that great stream through the plains of Poland and + Russia gave a direction to their line of march, and a constant + supply of fresh water and pasturage to their numerous herds of + cattle. They followed the unknown course of the river, confident + in their valor, and careless of whatever power might oppose their + progress. The Bastarnæ and the Venedi were the first who + presented themselves; and the flower of their youth, either from + choice or compulsion, increased the Gothic army. The Bastarnæ + dwelt on the northern side of the Carpathian Mountains: the + immense tract of land that separated the Bastarnæ from the + savages of Finland was possessed, or rather wasted, by the + Venedi; 24 we have some reason to believe that the first of these + nations, which distinguished itself in the Macedonian war, 25 and + was afterwards divided into the formidable tribes of the Peucini, + the Borani, the Carpi, &c., derived its origin from the Germans. + 251 With better authority, a Sarmatian extraction may be assigned + to the Venedi, who rendered themselves so famous in the middle + ages. 26 But the confusion of blood and manners on that doubtful + frontier often perplexed the most accurate observers. 27 As the + Goths advanced near the Euxine Sea, they encountered a purer race + of Sarmatians, the Jazyges, the Alani, 271 and the Roxolani; and + they were probably the first Germans who saw the mouths of the + Borysthenes, and of the Tanais. If we inquire into the + characteristic marks of the people of Germany and of Sarmatia, we + shall discover that those two great portions of human kind were + principally distinguished by fixed huts or movable tents, by a + close dress or flowing garments, by the marriage of one or of + several wives, by a military force, consisting, for the most + part, either of infantry or cavalry; and above all, by the use of + the Teutonic, or of the Sclavonian language; the last of which + has been diffused by conquest, from the confines of Italy to the + neighborhood of Japan. + + 22 (return) [ The Heruli, and the Uregundi or Burgundi, are + particularly mentioned. See Mascou’s History of the Germans, l. + v. A passage in the Augustan History, p. 28, seems to allude to + this great emigration. The Marcomannic war was partly occasioned + by the pressure of barbarous tribes, who fled before the arms of + more northern barbarians.] + + 23 (return) [ D’Anville, Geographie Ancienne, and the third part + of his incomparable map of Europe.] + + 24 (return) [ Tacit. Germania, c. 46.] + + 25 (return) [ Cluver. Germ. Antiqua, l. iii. c. 43.] + + 251 (return) [ The Bastarnæ cannot be considered original + inhabitants of Germany Strabo and Tacitus appear to doubt it; + Pliny alone calls them Germans: Ptolemy and Dion treat them as + Scythians, a vague appellation at this period of history; Livy, + Plutarch, and Diodorus Siculus, call them Gauls, and this is the + most probable opinion. They descended from the Gauls who entered + Germany under Signoesus. They are always found associated with + other Gaulish tribes, such as the Boll, the Taurisci, &c., and + not to the German tribes. The names of their chiefs or princes, + Chlonix, Chlondicus. Deldon, are not German names. Those who were + settled in the island of Peuce in the Danube, took the name of + Peucini. The Carpi appear in 237 as a Suevian tribe who had made + an irruption into Mæsia. Afterwards they reappear under the + Ostrogoths, with whom they were probably blended. Adelung, p. + 236, 278.—G.] + + 26 (return) [ The Venedi, the Slavi, and the Antes, were the + three great tribes of the same people. Jornandes, 24. * Note + Dagger: They formed the great Sclavonian nation.—G.] + + 27 (return) [ Tacitus most assuredly deserves that title, and + even his cautious suspense is a proof of his diligent inquiries.] + + 271 (return) [ Jac. Reineggs supposed that he had found, in the + mountains of Caucasus, some descendants of the Alani. The Tartars + call them Edeki-Alan: they speak a peculiar dialect of the + ancient language of the Tartars of Caucasus. See J. Reineggs’ + Descr. of Caucasus, p. 11, 13.—G. According to Klaproth, they are + the Ossetes of the present day in Mount Caucasus and were the + same with the Albanians of antiquity. Klaproth, Hist. de l’Asie, + p. 180.—M.] + + + + + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part II. + + The Goths were now in possession of the Ukraine, a country of + considerable extent and uncommon fertility, intersected with + navigable rivers, which, from either side, discharge themselves + into the Borysthenes; and interspersed with large and lofty + forests of oaks. The plenty of game and fish, the innumerable + bee-hives deposited in the hollow of old trees, and in the + cavities of rocks, and forming, even in that rude age, a valuable + branch of commerce, the size of the cattle, the temperature of + the air, the aptness of the soil for every species of grain, and + the luxuriancy of the vegetation, all displayed the liberality of + Nature, and tempted the industry of man. 28 But the Goths + withstood all these temptations, and still adhered to a life of + idleness, of poverty, and of rapine. + + 28 (return) [ Genealogical History of the Tartars, p. 593. Mr. + Bell (vol. ii. p 379) traversed the Ukraine, in his journey from + Petersburgh to Constantinople. The modern face of the country is + a just representation of the ancient, since, in the hands of the + Cossacks, it still remains in a state of nature.] + + The Scythian hordes, which, towards the east, bordered on the new + settlements of the Goths, presented nothing to their arms, except + the doubtful chance of an unprofitable victory. But the prospect + of the Roman territories was far more alluring; and the fields of + Dacia were covered with rich harvests, sown by the hands of an + industrious, and exposed to be gathered by those of a warlike, + people. It is probable that the conquests of Trajan, maintained + by his successors, less for any real advantage than for ideal + dignity, had contributed to weaken the empire on that side. The + new and unsettled province of Dacia was neither strong enough to + resist, nor rich enough to satiate, the rapaciousness of the + barbarians. As long as the remote banks of the Niester were + considered as the boundary of the Roman power, the fortifications + of the Lower Danube were more carelessly guarded, and the + inhabitants of Mæsia lived in supine security, fondly conceiving + themselves at an inaccessible distance from any barbarian + invaders. The irruptions of the Goths, under the reign of Philip, + fatally convinced them of their mistake. The king, or leader, of + that fierce nation, traversed with contempt the province of + Dacia, and passed both the Niester and the Danube without + encountering any opposition capable of retarding his progress. + The relaxed discipline of the Roman troops betrayed the most + important posts, where they were stationed, and the fear of + deserved punishment induced great numbers of them to enlist under + the Gothic standard. The various multitude of barbarians + appeared, at length, under the walls of Marcianopolis, a city + built by Trajan in honor of his sister, and at that time the + capital of the second Mæsia. 29 The inhabitants consented to + ransom their lives and property by the payment of a large sum of + money, and the invaders retreated back into their deserts, + animated, rather than satisfied, with the first success of their + arms against an opulent but feeble country. Intelligence was soon + transmitted to the emperor Decius, that Cniva, king of the Goths, + had passed the Danube a second time, with more considerable + forces; that his numerous detachments scattered devastation over + the province of Mæsia, whilst the main body of the army, + consisting of seventy thousand Germans and Sarmatians, a force + equal to the most daring achievements, required the presence of + the Roman monarch, and the exertion of his military power. + + 29 (return) [ In the sixteenth chapter of Jornandes, instead of + secundo Mæsiam we may venture to substitute secundam, the second + Mæsia, of which Marcianopolis was certainly the capital. (See + Hierocles de Provinciis, and Wesseling ad locum, p. 636. + Itinerar.) It is surprising how this palpable error of the scribe + should escape the judicious correction of Grotius. Note: Luden + has observed that Jornandes mentions two passages over the + Danube; this relates to the second irruption into Mæsia. + Geschichte des T V. ii. p. 448.—M.] + + Decius found the Goths engaged before Nicopolis, one of the many + monuments of Trajan’s victories. 30 On his approach they raised + the siege, but with a design only of marching away to a conquest + of greater importance, the siege of Philippopolis, a city of + Thrace, founded by the father of Alexander, near the foot of + Mount Hæmus. 31 Decius followed them through a difficult country, + and by forced marches; but when he imagined himself at a + considerable distance from the rear of the Goths, Cniva turned + with rapid fury on his pursuers. The camp of the Romans was + surprised and pillaged, and, for the first time, their emperor + fled in disorder before a troop of half-armed barbarians. After a + long resistance, Philoppopolis, destitute of succor, was taken by + storm. A hundred thousand persons are reported to have been + massacred in the sack of that great city. 32 Many prisoners of + consequence became a valuable accession to the spoil; and + Priscus, a brother of the late emperor Philip, blushed not to + assume the purple, under the protection of the barbarous enemies + of Rome. 33 The time, however, consumed in that tedious siege, + enabled Decius to revive the courage, restore the discipline, and + recruit the numbers of his troops. He intercepted several parties + of Carpi, and other Germans, who were hastening to share the + victory of their countrymen, 34 intrusted the passes of the + mountains to officers of approved valor and fidelity, 35 repaired + and strengthened the fortifications of the Danube, and exerted + his utmost vigilance to oppose either the progress or the retreat + of the Goths. Encouraged by the return of fortune, he anxiously + waited for an opportunity to retrieve, by a great and decisive + blow, his own glory, and that of the Roman arms. 36 + + 30 (return) [ The place is still called Nicop. D’Anville, + Geographie Ancienne, tom. i. p. 307. The little stream, on whose + banks it stood, falls into the Danube.] + + 31 (return) [ Stephan. Byzant. de Urbibus, p. 740. Wesseling, + Itinerar. p. 136. Zonaras, by an odd mistake, ascribes the + foundation of Philippopolis to the immediate predecessor of + Decius. * Note: Now Philippopolis or Philiba; its situation among + the hills caused it to be also called Trimontium. D’Anville, + Geog. Anc. i. 295.—G.] + + 32 (return) [ Ammian. xxxi. 5.] + + 33 (return) [ Aurel. Victor. c. 29.] + + 34 (return) [ Victoriæ Carpicæ, on some medals of Decius, + insinuate these advantages.] + + 35 (return) [ Claudius (who afterwards reigned with so much + glory) was posted in the pass of Thermopylæ with 200 Dardanians, + 100 heavy and 160 light horse, 60 Cretan archers, and 1000 + well-armed recruits. See an original letter from the emperor to + his officer, in the Augustan History, p. 200.] + + 36 (return) [ Jornandes, c. 16—18. Zosimus, l. i. p. 22. In the + general account of this war, it is easy to discover the opposite + prejudices of the Gothic and the Grecian writer. In carelessness + alone they are alike.] + + At the same time when Decius was struggling with the violence of + the tempest, his mind, calm and deliberate amidst the tumult of + war, investigated the more general causes that, since the age of + the Antonines, had so impetuously urged the decline of the Roman + greatness. He soon discovered that it was impossible to replace + that greatness on a permanent basis without restoring public + virtue, ancient principles and manners, and the oppressed majesty + of the laws. To execute this noble but arduous design, he first + resolved to revive the obsolete office of censor; an office + which, as long as it had subsisted in its pristine integrity, had + so much contributed to the perpetuity of the state, 37 till it + was usurped and gradually neglected by the Cæsars. 38 Conscious + that the favor of the sovereign may confer power, but that the + esteem of the people can alone bestow authority, he submitted the + choice of the censor to the unbiased voice of the senate. By + their unanimous votes, or rather acclamations, Valerian, who was + afterwards emperor, and who then served with distinction in the + army of Decius, was declared the most worthy of that exalted + honor. As soon as the decree of the senate was transmitted to the + emperor, he assembled a great council in his camp, and before the + investiture of the censor elect, he apprised him of the + difficulty and importance of his great office. “Happy Valerian,” + said the prince to his distinguished subject, “happy in the + general approbation of the senate and of the Roman republic! + Accept the censorship of mankind; and judge of our manners. You + will select those who deserve to continue members of the senate; + you will restore the equestrian order to its ancient splendor; + you will improve the revenue, yet moderate the public burdens. + You will distinguish into regular classes the various and + infinite multitude of citizens, and accurately view the military + strength, the wealth, the virtue, and the resources of Rome. Your + decisions shall obtain the force of laws. The army, the palace, + the ministers of justice, and the great officers of the empire, + are all subject to your tribunal. None are exempted, excepting + only the ordinary consuls, 39 the præfect of the city, the king + of the sacrifices, and (as long as she preserves her chastity + inviolate) the eldest of the vestal virgins. Even these few, who + may not dread the severity, will anxiously solicit the esteem, of + the Roman censor.” 40 + + 37 (return) [ Montesquieu, Grandeur et Decadence des Romains, c. + viii. He illustrates the nature and use of the censorship with + his usual ingenuity, and with uncommon precision.] + + 38 (return) [ Vespasian and Titus were the last censors, (Pliny, + Hist. Natur vii. 49. Censorinus de Die Natali.) The modesty of + Trajan refused an honor which he deserved, and his example became + a law to the Antonines. See Pliny’s Panegyric, c. 45 and 60.] + + 39 (return) [ Yet in spite of his exemption, Pompey appeared + before that tribunal during his consulship. The occasion, indeed, + was equally singular and honorable. Plutarch in Pomp. p. 630.] + + 40 (return) [ See the original speech in the Augustan Hist. p. + 173-174.] + + A magistrate, invested with such extensive powers, would have + appeared not so much the minister, as the colleague of his + sovereign. 41 Valerian justly dreaded an elevation so full of + envy and of suspicion. He modestly argued the alarming greatness + of the trust, his own insufficiency, and the incurable corruption + of the times. He artfully insinuated, that the office of censor + was inseparable from the Imperial dignity, and that the feeble + hands of a subject were unequal to the support of such an immense + weight of cares and of power. 42 The approaching event of war + soon put an end to the prosecution of a project so specious, but + so impracticable; and whilst it preserved Valerian from the + danger, saved the emperor Decius from the disappointment, which + would most probably have attended it. A censor may maintain, he + can never restore, the morals of a state. It is impossible for + such a magistrate to exert his authority with benefit, or even + with effect, unless he is supported by a quick sense of honor and + virtue in the minds of the people, by a decent reverence for the + public opinion, and by a train of useful prejudices combating on + the side of national manners. In a period when these principles + are annihilated, the censorial jurisdiction must either sink into + empty pageantry, or be converted into a partial instrument of + vexatious oppression. 43 It was easier to vanquish the Goths than + to eradicate the public vices; yet even in the first of these + enterprises, Decius lost his army and his life. + + 41 (return) [ This transaction might deceive Zonaras, who + supposes that Valerian was actually declared the colleague of + Decius, l. xii. p. 625.] + + 42 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 174. The emperor’s reply is + omitted.] + + 43 (return) [ Such as the attempts of Augustus towards a + reformation of manness. Tacit. Annal. iii. 24.] + + The Goths were now, on every side, surrounded and pursued by the + Roman arms. The flower of their troops had perished in the long + siege of Philippopolis, and the exhausted country could no longer + afford subsistence for the remaining multitude of licentious + barbarians. Reduced to this extremity, the Goths would gladly + have purchased, by the surrender of all their booty and + prisoners, the permission of an undisturbed retreat. But the + emperor, confident of victory, and resolving, by the chastisement + of these invaders, to strike a salutary terror into the nations + of the North, refused to listen to any terms of accommodation. + The high-spirited barbarians preferred death to slavery. An + obscure town of Mæsia, called Forum Terebronii, 44 was the scene + of the battle. The Gothic army was drawn up in three lines, and + either from choice or accident, the front of the third line was + covered by a morass. In the beginning of the action, the son of + Decius, a youth of the fairest hopes, and already associated to + the honors of the purple, was slain by an arrow, in the sight of + his afflicted father; who, summoning all his fortitude, + admonished the dismayed troops, that the loss of a single soldier + was of little importance to the republic. 45 The conflict was + terrible; it was the combat of despair against grief and rage. + The first line of the Goths at length gave way in disorder; the + second, advancing to sustain it, shared its fate; and the third + only remained entire, prepared to dispute the passage of the + morass, which was imprudently attempted by the presumption of the + enemy. “Here the fortune of the day turned, and all things became + adverse to the Romans; the place deep with ooze, sinking under + those who stood, slippery to such as advanced; their armor heavy, + the waters deep; nor could they wield, in that uneasy situation, + their weighty javelins. The barbarians, on the contrary, were + inured to encounter in the bogs, their persons tall, their spears + long, such as could wound at a distance.” 46 In this morass the + Roman army, after an ineffectual struggle, was irrecoverably + lost; nor could the body of the emperor ever be found. 47 Such + was the fate of Decius, in the fiftieth year of his age; an + accomplished prince, active in war and affable in peace; 48 who, + together with his son, has deserved to be compared, both in life + and death, with the brightest examples of ancient virtue. 49 + + 44 (return) [ Tillemont, Histoire des Empereurs, tom. iii. p. + 598. As Zosimus and some of his followers mistake the Danube for + the Tanais, they place the field of battle in the plains of + Scythia.] + + 45 (return) [ Aurelius Victor allows two distinct actions for the + deaths of the two Decii; but I have preferred the account of + Jornandes.] + + 46 (return) [ I have ventured to copy from Tacitus (Annal. i. 64) + the picture of a similar engagement between a Roman army and a + German tribe.] + + 47 (return) [ Jornandes, c. 18. Zosimus, l. i. p. 22, [c. 23.] + Zonaras, l. xii. p. 627. Aurelius Victor.] + + 48 (return) [ The Decii were killed before the end of the year + two hundred and fifty-one, since the new princes took possession + of the consulship on the ensuing calends of January.] + + 49 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 223, gives them a very honorable + place among the small number of good emperors who reigned between + Augustus and Diocletian.] + + This fatal blow humbled, for a very little time, the insolence of + the legions. They appeared to have patiently expected, and + submissively obeyed, the decree of the senate which regulated the + succession to the throne. From a just regard for the memory of + Decius, the Imperial title was conferred on Hostilianus, his only + surviving son; but an equal rank, with more effectual power, was + granted to Gallus, whose experience and ability seemed equal to + the great trust of guardian to the young prince and the + distressed empire. 50 The first care of the new emperor was to + deliver the Illyrian provinces from the intolerable weight of the + victorious Goths. He consented to leave in their hands the rich + fruits of their invasion, an immense booty, and what was still + more disgraceful, a great number of prisoners of the highest + merit and quality. He plentifully supplied their camp with every + conveniency that could assuage their angry spirits or facilitate + their so much wished-for departure; and he even promised to pay + them annually a large sum of gold, on condition they should never + afterwards infest the Roman territories by their incursions. 51 + + 50 (return) [ Hæc ubi Patres comperere.. .. decernunt. Victor in + Cæsaribus.] + + 51 (return) [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. 628.] + + In the age of the Scipios, the most opulent kings of the earth, + who courted the protection of the victorious commonwealth, were + gratified with such trifling presents as could only derive a + value from the hand that bestowed them; an ivory chair, a coarse + garment of purple, an inconsiderable piece of plate, or a + quantity of copper coin. 52 After the wealth of nations had + centred in Rome, the emperors displayed their greatness, and even + their policy, by the regular exercise of a steady and moderate + liberality towards the allies of the state. They relieved the + poverty of the barbarians, honored their merit, and recompensed + their fidelity. These voluntary marks of bounty were understood + to flow, not from the fears, but merely from the generosity or + the gratitude of the Romans; and whilst presents and subsidies + were liberally distributed among friends and suppliants, they + were sternly refused to such as claimed them as a debt. 53 But + this stipulation, of an annual payment to a victorious enemy, + appeared without disguise in the light of an ignominious tribute; + the minds of the Romans were not yet accustomed to accept such + unequal laws from a tribe of barbarians; and the prince, who by a + necessary concession had probably saved his country, became the + object of the general contempt and aversion. The death of + Hostiliamus, though it happened in the midst of a raging + pestilence, was interpreted as the personal crime of Gallus; 54 + and even the defeat of the later emperor was ascribed by the + voice of suspicion to the perfidious counsels of his hated + successor. 55 The tranquillity which the empire enjoyed during + the first year of his administration, 56 served rather to inflame + than to appease the public discontent; and as soon as the + apprehensions of war were removed, the infamy of the peace was + more deeply and more sensibly felt. + + 52 (return) [ A _Sella_, a _Toga_, and a golden _Patera_ of five + pounds weight, were accepted with joy and gratitude by the + wealthy king of Egypt. (Livy, xxvii. 4.) _Quina millia Æris_, a + weight of copper, in value about eighteen pounds sterling, was + the usual present made to foreign are ambassadors. (Livy, xxxi. + 9.)] + + 53 (return) [ See the firmness of a Roman general so late as the + time of Alexander Severus, in the Excerpta Legationum, p. 25, + edit. Louvre.] + + 54 (return) [ For the plague, see Jornandes, c. 19, and Victor in + Cæsaribus.] + + 55 (return) [ These improbable accusations are alleged by + Zosimus, l. i. p. 28, 24.] + + 56 (return) [ Jornandes, c. 19. The Gothic writer at least + observed the peace which his victorious countrymen had sworn to + Gallus.] + + But the Romans were irritated to a still higher degree, when they + discovered that they had not even secured their repose, though at + the expense of their honor. The dangerous secret of the wealth + and weakness of the empire had been revealed to the world. New + swarms of barbarians, encouraged by the success, and not + conceiving themselves bound by the obligation of their brethren, + spread devastation though the Illyrian provinces, and terror as + far as the gates of Rome. The defence of the monarchy, which + seemed abandoned by the pusillanimous emperor, was assumed by + Æmilianus, governor of Pannonia and Mæsia; who rallied the + scattered forces, and revived the fainting spirits of the troops. + The barbarians were unexpectedly attacked, routed, chased, and + pursued beyond the Danube. The victorious leader distributed as a + donative the money collected for the tribute, and the + acclamations of the soldiers proclaimed him emperor on the field + of battle. 57 Gallus, who, careless of the general welfare, + indulged himself in the pleasures of Italy, was almost in the + same instant informed of the success, of the revolt, and of the + rapid approach of his aspiring lieutenant. He advanced to meet + him as far as the plains of Spoleto. When the armies came in + sight of each other, the soldiers of Gallus compared the + ignominious conduct of their sovereign with the glory of his + rival. They admired the valor of Æmilianus; they were attracted + by his liberality, for he offered a considerable increase of pay + to all deserters. 58 The murder of Gallus, and of his son + Volusianus, put an end to the civil war; and the senate gave a + legal sanction to the rights of conquest. The letters of + Æmilianus to that assembly displayed a mixture of moderation and + vanity. He assured them, that he should resign to their wisdom + the civil administration; and, contenting himself with the + quality of their general, would in a short time assert the glory + of Rome, and deliver the empire from all the barbarians both of + the North and of the East. 59 His pride was flattered by the + applause of the senate; and medals are still extant, representing + him with the name and attributes of Hercules the Victor, and Mars + the Avenger. 60 + + 57 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 25, 26.] + + 58 (return) [ Victor in Cæsaribus.] + + 59 (return) [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. 628.] + + 60 (return) [ Banduri Numismata, p. 94.] + + If the new monarch possessed the abilities, he wanted the time, + necessary to fulfil these splendid promises. Less than four + months intervened between his victory and his fall. 61 He had + vanquished Gallus: he sunk under the weight of a competitor more + formidable than Gallus. That unfortunate prince had sent + Valerian, already distinguished by the honorable title of censor, + to bring the legions of Gaul and Germany 62 to his aid. Valerian + executed that commission with zeal and fidelity; and as he + arrived too late to save his sovereign, he resolved to revenge + him. The troops of Æmilianus, who still lay encamped in the + plains of Spoleto, were awed by the sanctity of his character, + but much more by the superior strength of his army; and as they + were now become as incapable of personal attachment as they had + always been of constitutional principle, they readily imbrued + their hands in the blood of a prince who so lately had been the + object of their partial choice. The guilt was theirs, 621 but the + advantage of it was Valerian’s; who obtained the possession of + the throne by the means indeed of a civil war, but with a degree + of innocence singular in that age of revolutions; since he owed + neither gratitude nor allegiance to his predecessor, whom he + dethroned. + + 61 (return) [ Eutropius, l. ix. c. 6, says tertio mense. Eusebio + this emperor.] + + 62 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 28. Eutropius and Victor station + Valerian’s army in Rhætia.] + + 621 (return) [ Aurelius Victor says that Æmilianus died of a + natural disorder. Tropius, in speaking of his death, does not say + that he was assassinated—G.] + + Valerian was about sixty years of age 63 when he was invested + with the purple, not by the caprice of the populace, or the + clamors of the army, but by the unanimous voice of the Roman + world. In his gradual ascent through the honors of the state, he + had deserved the favor of virtuous princes, and had declared + himself the enemy of tyrants. 64 His noble birth, his mild but + unblemished manners, his learning, prudence, and experience, were + revered by the senate and people; and if mankind (according to + the observation of an ancient writer) had been left at liberty to + choose a master, their choice would most assuredly have fallen on + Valerian. 65 Perhaps the merit of this emperor was inadequate to + his reputation; perhaps his abilities, or at least his spirit, + were affected by the languor and coldness of old age. The + consciousness of his decline engaged him to share the throne with + a younger and more active associate; 66 the emergency of the + times demanded a general no less than a prince; and the + experience of the Roman censor might have directed him where to + bestow the Imperial purple, as the reward of military merit. But + instead of making a judicious choice, which would have confirmed + his reign and endeared his memory, Valerian, consulting only the + dictates of affection or vanity, immediately invested with the + supreme honors his son Gallienus, a youth whose effeminate vices + had been hitherto concealed by the obscurity of a private + station. The joint government of the father and the son subsisted + about seven, and the sole administration of Gallienus continued + about eight, years. But the whole period was one uninterrupted + series of confusion and calamity. As the Roman empire was at the + same time, and on every side, attacked by the blind fury of + foreign invaders, and the wild ambition of domestic usurpers, we + shall consult order and perspicuity, by pursuing, not so much the + doubtful arrangement of dates, as the more natural distribution + of subjects. The most dangerous enemies of Rome, during the + reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, were, 1. The Franks; 2. The + Alemanni; 3. The Goths; and, 4. The Persians. Under these general + appellations, we may comprehend the adventures of less + considerable tribes, whose obscure and uncouth names would only + serve to oppress the memory and perplex the attention of the + reader. + + 63 (return) [ He was about seventy at the time of his accession, + or, as it is more probable, of his death. Hist. August. p. 173. + Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iii. p. 893, note 1.] + + 64 (return) [ Inimicus tyrannorum. Hist. August. p. 173. In the + glorious struggle of the senate against Maximin, Valerian acted a + very spirited part. Hist. August. p. 156.] + + 65 (return) [ According to the distinction of Victor, he seems to + have received the title of Imperator from the army, and that of + Augustus from the senate.] + + 66 (return) [ From Victor and from the medals, Tillemont (tom. + iii. p. 710) very justly infers, that Gallienus was associated to + the empire about the month of August of the year 253.] + + I. As the posterity of the Franks compose one of the greatest and + most enlightened nations of Europe, the powers of learning and + ingenuity have been exhausted in the discovery of their + unlettered ancestors. To the tales of credulity have succeeded + the systems of fancy. Every passage has been sifted, every spot + has been surveyed, that might possibly reveal some faint traces + of their origin. It has been supposed that Pannonia, 67 that + Gaul, that the northern parts of Germany, 68 gave birth to that + celebrated colony of warriors. At length the most rational + critics, rejecting the fictitious emigrations of ideal + conquerors, have acquiesced in a sentiment whose simplicity + persuades us of its truth. 69 They suppose, that about the year + two hundred and forty, 70 a new confederacy was formed under the + name of Franks, by the old inhabitants of the Lower Rhine and the + Weser. 701 The present circle of Westphalia, the Landgraviate of + Hesse, and the duchies of Brunswick and Luneburg, were the + ancient seat of the Chauci who, in their inaccessible morasses, + defied the Roman arms; 71 of the Cherusci, proud of the fame of + Arminius; of the Catti, formidable by their firm and intrepid + infantry; and of several other tribes of inferior power and + renown. 72 The love of liberty was the ruling passion of these + Germans; the enjoyment of it their best treasure; the word that + expressed that enjoyment the most pleasing to their ear. They + deserved, they assumed, they maintained the honorable epithet of + Franks, or Freemen; which concealed, though it did not + extinguish, the peculiar names of the several states of the + confederacy. 73 Tacit consent, and mutual advantage, dictated the + first laws of the union; it was gradually cemented by habit and + experience. The league of the Franks may admit of some comparison + with the Helvetic body; in which every canton, retaining its + independent sovereignty, consults with its brethren in the common + cause, without acknowledging the authority of any supreme head or + representative assembly. 74 But the principle of the two + confederacies was extremely different. A peace of two hundred + years has rewarded the wise and honest policy of the Swiss. An + inconstant spirit, the thirst of rapine, and a disregard to the + most solemn treaties, disgraced the character of the Franks. + + 67 (return) [ Various systems have been formed to explain a + difficult passage in Gregory of Tours, l. ii. c. 9.] + + 68 (return) [ The Geographer of Ravenna, i. 11, by mentioning + Mauringania, on the confines of Denmark, as the ancient seat of + the Franks, gave birth to an ingenious system of Leibritz.] + + 69 (return) [ See Cluver. Germania Antiqua, l. iii. c. 20. M. + Freret, in the Memoires de l’Academie des Inscriptions, tom. + xviii.] + + 70 (return) [ Most probably under the reign of Gordian, from an + accidental circumstance fully canvassed by Tillemont, tom. iii. + p. 710, 1181.] + + 701 (return) [ The confederation of the Franks appears to have + been formed, 1. Of the Chauci. 2. Of the Sicambri, the + inhabitants of the duchy of Berg. 3. Of the Attuarii, to the + north of the Sicambri, in the principality of Waldeck, between + the Dimel and the Eder. 4. Of the Bructeri, on the banks of the + Lippe, and in the Hartz. 5. Of the Chamavii, the Gambrivii of + Tacitua, who were established, at the time of the Frankish + confederation, in the country of the Bructeri. 6. Of the Catti, + in Hessia.—G. The Salii and Cherasci are added. Greenwood’s Hist. + of Germans, i 193.—M.] + + 71 (return) [Plin. Hist. Natur. xvi. l. The Panegyrists + frequently allude to the morasses of the Franks.] + + 72 (return) [ Tacit. Germania, c. 30, 37.] + + 73 (return) [ In a subsequent period, most of those old names are + occasionally mentioned. See some vestiges of them in Cluver. + Germ. Antiq. l. iii.] + + 74 (return) [ Simler de Republica Helvet. cum notis Fuselin.] + + + + + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part III. + + The Romans had long experienced the daring valor of the people of + Lower Germany. The union of their strength threatened Gaul with a + more formidable invasion, and required the presence of Gallienus, + the heir and colleague of Imperial power. 75 Whilst that prince, + and his infant son Salonius, displayed, in the court of Treves, + the majesty of the empire, its armies were ably conducted by + their general, Posthumus, who, though he afterwards betrayed the + family of Valerian, was ever faithful to the great interests of + the monarchy. The treacherous language of panegyrics and medals + darkly announces a long series of victories. Trophies and titles + attest (if such evidence can attest) the fame of Posthumus, who + is repeatedly styled the Conqueror of the Germans, and the Savior + of Gaul. 76 + + 75 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 27.] + + 76 (return) [ M. de Brequigny (in the Memoires de l’Academie, + tom. xxx.) has given us a very curious life of Posthumus. A + series of the Augustan History from Medals and Inscriptions has + been more than once planned, and is still much wanted. * Note: M. + Eckhel, Keeper of the Cabinet of Medals, and Professor of + Antiquities at Vienna, lately deceased, has supplied this want by + his excellent work, Doctrina veterum Nummorum, conscripta a Jos. + Eckhel, 8 vol. in 4to Vindobona, 1797.—G. Captain Smyth has + likewise printed (privately) a valuable Descriptive Catologue of + a series of Large Brass Medals of this period Bedford, 1834.—M. + 1845.] + + But a single fact, the only one indeed of which we have any + distinct knowledge, erases, in a great measure, these monuments + of vanity and adulation. The Rhine, though dignified with the + title of Safeguard of the provinces, was an imperfect barrier + against the daring spirit of enterprise with which the Franks + were actuated. Their rapid devastations stretched from the river + to the foot of the Pyrenees; nor were they stopped by those + mountains. Spain, which had never dreaded, was unable to resist, + the inroads of the Germans. During twelve years, the greatest + part of the reign of Gallienus, that opulent country was the + theatre of unequal and destructive hostilities. Tarragona, the + flourishing capital of a peaceful province, was sacked and almost + destroyed; 77 and so late as the days of Orosius, who wrote in + the fifth century, wretched cottages, scattered amidst the ruins + of magnificent cities, still recorded the rage of the barbarians. + 78 When the exhausted country no longer supplied a variety of + plunder, the Franks seized on some vessels in the ports of Spain, + 79 and transported themselves into Mauritania. The distant + province was astonished with the fury of these barbarians, who + seemed to fall from a new world, as their name, manners, and + complexion, were equally unknown on the coast of Africa. 80 + + 77 (return) [ Aurel. Victor, c. 33. Instead of Pœne direpto, + both the sense and the expression require deleto; though indeed, + for different reasons, it is alike difficult to correct the text + of the best, and of the worst, writers.] + + 78 (return) [ In the time of Ausonius (the end of the fourth + century) Ilerda or Lerida was in a very ruinous state, (Auson. + Epist. xxv. 58,) which probably was the consequence of this + invasion.] + + 79 (return) [ Valesius is therefore mistaken in supposing that + the Franks had invaded Spain by sea.] + + 80 (return) [ Aurel. Victor. Eutrop. ix. 6.] + + II. In that part of Upper Saxony, beyond the Elbe, which is at + present called the Marquisate of Lusace, there existed, in + ancient times, a sacred wood, the awful seat of the superstition + of the Suevi. None were permitted to enter the holy precincts, + without confessing, by their servile bonds and suppliant posture, + the immediate presence of the sovereign Deity. 81 Patriotism + contributed, as well as devotion, to consecrate the Sonnenwald, + or wood of the Semnones. 82 It was universally believed, that the + nation had received its first existence on that sacred spot. At + stated periods, the numerous tribes who gloried in the Suevic + blood, resorted thither by their ambassadors; and the memory of + their common extraction was perpetrated by barbaric rites and + human sacrifices. The wide-extended name of Suevi filled the + interior countries of Germany, from the banks of the Oder to + those of the Danube. They were distinguished from the other + Germans by their peculiar mode of dressing their long hair, which + they gathered into a rude knot on the crown of the head; and they + delighted in an ornament that showed their ranks more lofty and + terrible in the eyes of the enemy. 83 Jealous as the Germans were + of military renown, they all confessed the superior valor of the + Suevi; and the tribes of the Usipetes and Tencteri, who, with a + vast army, encountered the dictator Cæsar, declared that they + esteemed it not a disgrace to have fled before a people to whose + arms the immortal gods themselves were unequal. 84 + + 81 (return) [ Tacit.Germania, 38.] + + 82 (return) [ Cluver. Germ. Antiq. iii. 25.] + + 83 (return) [ Sic Suevi a ceteris Germanis, sic Suerorum ingenui + a servis separantur. A proud separation!] + + 84 (return) [ Cæsar in Bello Gallico, iv. 7.] + + In the reign of the emperor Caracalla, an innumerable swarm of + Suevi appeared on the banks of the Main, and in the neighborhood + of the Roman provinces, in quest either of food, of plunder, or + of glory. 85 The hasty army of volunteers gradually coalesced + into a great and permanent nation, and, as it was composed from + so many different tribes, assumed the name of Alemanni, 851 or + _Allmen_, to denote at once their various lineage and their + common bravery. 86 The latter was soon felt by the Romans in many + a hostile inroad. The Alemanni fought chiefly on horseback; but + their cavalry was rendered still more formidable by a mixture of + light infantry, selected from the bravest and most active of the + youth, whom frequent exercise had inured to accompany the + horsemen in the longest march, the most rapid charge, or the most + precipitate retreat. 87 + + 85 (return) [ Victor in Caracal. Dion Cassius, lxvii. p. 1350.] + + 851 (return) [ The nation of the Alemanni was not originally + formed by the Suavi properly so called; these have always + preserved their own name. Shortly afterwards they made (A. D. + 357) an irruption into Rhætia, and it was not long after that + they were reunited with the Alemanni. Still they have always been + a distinct people; at the present day, the people who inhabit the + north-west of the Black Forest call themselves Schwaben, + Suabians, Sueves, while those who inhabit near the Rhine, in + Ortenau, the Brisgaw, the Margraviate of Baden, do not consider + themselves Suabians, and are by origin Alemanni. The Teucteri and + the Usipetæ, inhabitants of the interior and of the north of + Westphalia, formed, says Gatterer, the nucleus of the Alemannic + nation; they occupied the country where the name of the Alemanni + first appears, as conquered in 213, by Caracalla. They were well + trained to fight on horseback, (according to Tacitus, Germ. c. + 32;) and Aurelius Victor gives the same praise to the Alemanni: + finally, they never made part of the Frankish league. The + Alemanni became subsequently a centre round which gathered a + multitude of German tribes, See Eumen. Panegyr. c. 2. Amm. Marc. + xviii. 2, xxix. 4.—G. ——The question whether the Suevi was a + generic name comprehending the clans which peopled central + Germany, is rather hastily decided by M. Guizot Mr. Greenwood, + who has studied the modern German writers on their own origin, + supposes the Suevi, Alemanni, and Marcomanni, one people, under + different appellations. History of Germany, vol i.—M.] + + 86 (return) [ This etymology (far different from those which + amuse the fancy of the learned) is preserved by Asinius + Quadratus, an original historian, quoted by Agathias, i. c. 5.] + + 87 (return) [ The Suevi engaged Cæsar in this manner, and the + manœuvre deserved the approbation of the conqueror, (in Bello + Gallico, i. 48.)] + + This warlike people of Germans had been astonished by the immense + preparations of Alexander Severus; they were dismayed by the arms + of his successor, a barbarian equal in valor and fierceness to + themselves. But still hovering on the frontiers of the empire, + they increased the general disorder that ensued after the death + of Decius. They inflicted severe wounds on the rich provinces of + Gaul; they were the first who removed the veil that covered the + feeble majesty of Italy. A numerous body of the Alemanni + penetrated across the Danube and through the Rhætian Alps into + the plains of Lombardy, advanced as far as Ravenna, and displayed + the victorious banners of barbarians almost in sight of Rome. 88 + + 88 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 215, 216. Dexippus in the + Excerpts. Legationam, p. 8. Hieronym. Chron. Orosius, vii. 22.] + + The insult and the danger rekindled in the senate some sparks of + their ancient virtue. Both the emperors were engaged in far + distant wars, Valerian in the East, and Gallienus on the Rhine. + All the hopes and resources of the Romans were in themselves. In + this emergency, the senators resumed the defence of the republic, + drew out the Prætorian guards, who had been left to garrison the + capital, and filled up their numbers, by enlisting into the + public service the stoutest and most willing of the Plebeians. + The Alemanni, astonished with the sudden appearance of an army + more numerous than their own, retired into Germany, laden with + spoil; and their retreat was esteemed as a victory by the + unwarlike Romans. 89 + + 89 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 34.] + + When Gallienus received the intelligence that his capital was + delivered from the barbarians, he was much less delighted than + alarmed with the courage of the senate, since it might one day + prompt them to rescue the public from domestic tyranny as well as + from foreign invasion. His timid ingratitude was published to his + subjects, in an edict which prohibited the senators from + exercising any military employment, and even from approaching the + camps of the legions. But his fears were groundless. The rich and + luxurious nobles, sinking into their natural character, accepted, + as a favor, this disgraceful exemption from military service; and + as long as they were indulged in the enjoyment of their baths, + their theatres, and their villas, they cheerfully resigned the + more dangerous cares of empire to the rough hands of peasants and + soldiers. 90 + + 90 (return) [ Aurel. Victor, in Gallieno et Probo. His complaints + breathe as uncommon spirit of freedom.] + + Another invasion of the Alemanni, of a more formidable aspect, + but more glorious event, is mentioned by a writer of the lower + empire. Three hundred thousand are said to have been vanquished, + in a battle near Milan, by Gallienus in person, at the head of + only ten thousand Romans. 91 We may, however, with great + probability, ascribe this incredible victory either to the + credulity of the historian, or to some exaggerated exploits of + one of the emperor’s lieutenants. It was by arms of a very + different nature, that Gallienus endeavored to protect Italy from + the fury of the Germans. He espoused Pipa, the daughter of a king + of the Marcomanni, a Suevic tribe, which was often confounded + with the Alemanni in their wars and conquests. 92 To the father, + as the price of his alliance, he granted an ample settlement in + Pannonia. The native charms of unpolished beauty seem to have + fixed the daughter in the affections of the inconstant emperor, + and the bands of policy were more firmly connected by those of + love. But the haughty prejudice of Rome still refused the name of + marriage to the profane mixture of a citizen and a barbarian; and + has stigmatized the German princess with the opprobrious title of + concubine of Gallienus. 93 + + 91 (return) [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. 631.] + + 92 (return) [ One of the Victors calls him king of the + Marcomanni; the other of the Germans.] + + 93 (return) [ See Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iii. p. + 398, &c.] + + III. We have already traced the emigration of the Goths from + Scandinavia, or at least from Prussia, to the mouth of the + Borysthenes, and have followed their victorious arms from the + Borysthenes to the Danube. Under the reigns of Valerian and + Gallienus, the frontier of the last-mentioned river was + perpetually infested by the inroads of Germans and Sarmatians; + but it was defended by the Romans with more than usual firmness + and success. The provinces that were the seat of war, recruited + the armies of Rome with an inexhaustible supply of hardy + soldiers; and more than one of these Illyrian peasants attained + the station, and displayed the abilities, of a general. Though + flying parties of the barbarians, who incessantly hovered on the + banks of the Danube, penetrated sometimes to the confines of + Italy and Macedonia, their progress was commonly checked, or + their return intercepted, by the Imperial lieutenants. 94 But the + great stream of the Gothic hostilities was diverted into a very + different channel. The Goths, in their new settlement of the + Ukraine, soon became masters of the northern coast of the Euxine: + to the south of that inland sea were situated the soft and + wealthy provinces of Asia Minor, which possessed all that could + attract, and nothing that could resist, a barbarian conqueror. + + 94 (return) [ See the lives of Claudius, Aurelian, and Probus, in + the Augustan History.] + + The banks of the Borysthenes are only sixty miles distant from + the narrow entrance 95 of the peninsula of Crim Tartary, known to + the ancients under the name of Chersonesus Taurica. 96 On that + inhospitable shore, Euripides, embellishing with exquisite art + the tales of antiquity, has placed the scene of one of his most + affecting tragedies. 97 The bloody sacrifices of Diana, the + arrival of Orestes and Pylades, and the triumph of virtue and + religion over savage fierceness, serve to represent an historical + truth, that the Tauri, the original inhabitants of the peninsula, + were, in some degree, reclaimed from their brutal manners by a + gradual intercourse with the Grecian colonies, which settled + along the maritime coast. The little kingdom of Bosphorus, whose + capital was situated on the Straits, through which the Mæotis + communicates itself to the Euxine, was composed of degenerate + Greeks and half-civilized barbarians. It subsisted, as an + independent state, from the time of the Peloponnesian war, 98 was + at last swallowed up by the ambition of Mithridates, 99 and, with + the rest of his dominions, sunk under the weight of the Roman + arms. From the reign of Augustus, 100 the kings of Bosphorus were + the humble, but not useless, allies of the empire. By presents, + by arms, and by a slight fortification drawn across the Isthmus, + they effectually guarded, against the roving plunderers of + Sarmatia, the access of a country which, from its peculiar + situation and convenient harbors, commanded the Euxine Sea and + Asia Minor. 101 As long as the sceptre was possessed by a lineal + succession of kings, they acquitted themselves of their important + charge with vigilance and success. Domestic factions, and the + fears, or private interest, of obscure usurpers, who seized on + the vacant throne, admitted the Goths into the heart of + Bosphorus. With the acquisition of a superfluous waste of fertile + soil, the conquerors obtained the command of a naval force, + sufficient to transport their armies to the coast of Asia. 102 + These ships used in the navigation of the Euxine were of a very + singular construction. They were slight flat-bottomed barks + framed of timber only, without the least mixture of iron, and + occasionally covered with a shelving roof, on the appearance of a + tempest. 103 In these floating houses, the Goths carelessly + trusted themselves to the mercy of an unknown sea, under the + conduct of sailors pressed into the service, and whose skill and + fidelity were equally suspicious. But the hopes of plunder had + banished every idea of danger, and a natural fearlessness of + temper supplied in their minds the more rational confidence, + which is the just result of knowledge and experience. Warriors of + such a daring spirit must have often murmured against the + cowardice of their guides, who required the strongest assurances + of a settled calm before they would venture to embark; and would + scarcely ever be tempted to lose sight of the land. Such, at + least, is the practice of the modern Turks; 104 and they are + probably not inferior, in the art of navigation, to the ancient + inhabitants of Bosphorus. + + 95 (return) [ It is about half a league in breadth. Genealogical + History of the Tartars, p 598.] + + 96 (return) [ M. de Peyssonel, who had been French Consul at + Caffa, in his Observations sur les Peuples Barbares, que ont + habite les bords du Danube] + + 97 (return) [ Eeripides in Iphigenia in Taurid.] + + 98 (return) [ Strabo, l. vii. p. 309. The first kings of + Bosphorus were the allies of Athens.] + + 99 (return) [ Appian in Mithridat.] + + 100 (return) [ It was reduced by the arms of Agrippa. Orosius, + vi. 21. Eu tropius, vii. 9. The Romans once advanced within three + days’ march of the Tanais. Tacit. Annal. xii. 17.] + + 101 (return) [ See the Toxaris of Lucian, if we credit the + sincerity and the virtues of the Scythian, who relates a great + war of his nation against the kings of Bosphorus.] + + 102 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 28.] + + 103 (return) [ Strabo, l. xi. Tacit. Hist. iii. 47. They were + called Camarœ.] + + 104 (return) [ See a very natural picture of the Euxine + navigation, in the xvith letter of Tournefort.] + + The fleet of the Goths, leaving the coast of Circassia on the + left hand, first appeared before Pityus, 105 the utmost limits of + the Roman provinces; a city provided with a convenient port, and + fortified with a strong wall. Here they met with a resistance + more obstinate than they had reason to expect from the feeble + garrison of a distant fortress. They were repulsed; and their + disappointment seemed to diminish the terror of the Gothic name. + As long as Successianus, an officer of superior rank and merit, + defended that frontier, all their efforts were ineffectual; but + as soon as he was removed by Valerian to a more honorable but + less important station, they resumed the attack of Pityus; and by + the destruction of that city, obliterated the memory of their + former disgrace. 106 + + 105 (return) [ Arrian places the frontier garrison at Dioscurias, + or Sebastopolis, forty-four miles to the east of Pityus. The + garrison of Phasis consisted in his time of only four hundred + foot. See the Periplus of the Euxine. * Note: Pityus is + Pitchinda, according to D’Anville, ii. 115.—G. Rather Boukoun.—M. + Dioscurias is Iskuriah.—G.] + + 106 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 30.] + + Circling round the eastern extremity of the Euxine Sea, the + navigation from Pityus to Trebizond is about three hundred miles. + 107 The course of the Goths carried them in sight of the country + of Colchis, so famous by the expedition of the Argonauts; and + they even attempted, though without success, to pillage a rich + temple at the mouth of the River Phasis. Trebizond, celebrated in + the retreat of the ten thousand as an ancient colony of Greeks, + 108 derived its wealth and splendor from the magnificence of the + emperor Hadrian, who had constructed an artificial port on a + coast left destitute by nature of secure harbors. 109 The city + was large and populous; a double enclosure of walls seemed to + defy the fury of the Goths, and the usual garrison had been + strengthened by a reënforcement of ten thousand men. But there + are not any advantages capable of supplying the absence of + discipline and vigilance. The numerous garrison of Trebizond, + dissolved in riot and luxury, disdained to guard their + impregnable fortifications. The Goths soon discovered the supine + negligence of the besieged, erected a lofty pile of fascines, + ascended the walls in the silence of the night, and entered the + defenceless city sword in hand. A general massacre of the people + ensued, whilst the affrighted soldiers escaped through the + opposite gates of the town. The most holy temples, and the most + splendid edifices, were involved in a common destruction. The + booty that fell into the hands of the Goths was immense: the + wealth of the adjacent countries had been deposited in Trebizond, + as in a secure place of refuge. The number of captives was + incredible, as the victorious barbarians ranged without + opposition through the extensive province of Pontus. 110 The rich + spoils of Trebizond filled a great fleet of ships that had been + found in the port. The robust youth of the sea-coast were chained + to the oar; and the Goths, satisfied with the success of their + first naval expedition, returned in triumph to their new + establishment in the kingdom of Bosphorus. 111 + + 107 (return) [ Arrian (in Periplo Maris Euxine, p. 130) calls the + distance 2610 stadia.] + + 108 (return) [ Xenophon, Anabasis, l. iv. p. 348, edit. + Hutchinson. Note: Fallmerayer (Geschichte des Kaiserthums von + Trapezunt, p. 6, &c) assigns a very ancient date to the first + (Pelasgic) foundation of Trapezun (Trebizond)—M.] + + 109 (return) [ Arrian, p. 129. The general observation is + Tournefort’s.] + + 110 (return) [ See an epistle of Gregory Thaumaturgus, bishop of + Neo-Cæoarea, quoted by Mascou, v. 37.] + + 111 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 32, 33.] + + The second expedition of the Goths was undertaken with greater + powers of men and ships; but they steered a different course, + and, disdaining the exhausted provinces of Pontus, followed the + western coast of the Euxine, passed before the wide mouths of the + Borysthenes, the Niester, and the Danube, and increasing their + fleet by the capture of a great number of fishing barks, they + approached the narrow outlet through which the Euxine Sea pours + its waters into the Mediterranean, and divides the continents of + Europe and Asia. The garrison of Chalcedon was encamped near the + temple of Jupiter Urius, on a promontory that commanded the + entrance of the Strait; and so inconsiderable were the dreaded + invasions of the barbarians that this body of troops surpassed in + number the Gothic army. But it was in numbers alone that they + surpassed it. They deserted with precipitation their advantageous + post, and abandoned the town of Chalcedon, most plentifully + stored with arms and money, to the discretion of the conquerors. + Whilst they hesitated whether they should prefer the sea or land, + Europe or Asia, for the scene of their hostilities, a perfidious + fugitive pointed out Nicomedia, 1111 once the capital of the + kings of Bithynia, as a rich and easy conquest. He guided the + march, which was only sixty miles from the camp of Chalcedon, 112 + directed the resistless attack, and partook of the booty; for the + Goths had learned sufficient policy to reward the traitor whom + they detested. Nice, Prusa, Apamæa, Cius, 1121 cities that had + sometimes rivalled, or imitated, the splendor of Nicomedia, were + involved in the same calamity, which, in a few weeks, raged + without control through the whole province of Bithynia. Three + hundred years of peace, enjoyed by the soft inhabitants of Asia, + had abolished the exercise of arms, and removed the apprehension + of danger. The ancient walls were suffered to moulder away, and + all the revenue of the most opulent cities was reserved for the + construction of baths, temples, and theatres. 113 + + 1111 (return) [ It has preserved its name, joined to the + preposition of place in that of Nikmid. D’Anv. Geog. Anc. ii. + 28.—G.] + + 112 (return) [ Itiner. Hierosolym. p. 572. Wesseling.] + + 1121 (return) [ Now Isnik, Bursa, Mondania Ghio or Kemlik D’Anv. + ii. 23.—G.] + + 113 (return) [ Zosimus, l.. p. 32, 33.] + + When the city of Cyzicus withstood the utmost effort of + Mithridates, 114 it was distinguished by wise laws, a naval power + of two hundred galleys, and three arsenals, of arms, of military + engines, and of corn. 115 It was still the seat of wealth and + luxury; but of its ancient strength, nothing remained except the + situation, in a little island of the Propontis, connected with + the continent of Asia only by two bridges. From the recent sack + of Prusa, the Goths advanced within eighteen miles 116 of the + city, which they had devoted to destruction; but the ruin of + Cyzicus was delayed by a fortunate accident. The season was + rainy, and the Lake Apolloniates, the reservoir of all the + springs of Mount Olympus, rose to an uncommon height. The little + river of Rhyndacus, which issues from the lake, swelled into a + broad and rapid stream, and stopped the progress of the Goths. + Their retreat to the maritime city of Heraclea, where the fleet + had probably been stationed, was attended by a long train of + wagons, laden with the spoils of Bithynia, and was marked by the + flames of Nico and Nicomedia, which they wantonly burnt. 117 Some + obscure hints are mentioned of a doubtful combat that secured + their retreat. 118 But even a complete victory would have been of + little moment, as the approach of the autumnal equinox summoned + them to hasten their return. To navigate the Euxine before the + month of May, or after that of September, is esteemed by the + modern Turks the most unquestionable instance of rashness and + folly. 119 + + 114 (return) [ He besieged the place with 400 galleys, 150,000 + foot, and a numerous cavalry. See Plutarch in Lucul. Appian in + Mithridat Cicero pro Lege Manilia, c. 8.] + + 115 (return) [ Strabo, l. xii. p. 573.] + + 116 (return) [ Pocock’s Description of the East, l. ii. c. 23, + 24.] + + 117 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 33.] + + 118 (return) [ Syncellus tells an unintelligible story of Prince + Odenathus, who defeated the Goths, and who was killed by Prince + Odenathus.] + + 119 (return) [Footnote 119: Voyages de Chardin, tom. i. p. 45. He + sailed with the Turks from Constantinople to Caffa.] + + When we are informed that the third fleet, equipped by the Goths + in the ports of Bosphorus, consisted of five hundred sails of + ships, 120 our ready imagination instantly computes and + multiplies the formidable armament; but, as we are assured by the + judicious Strabo, 121 that the piratical vessels used by the + barbarians of Pontus and the Lesser Scythia, were not capable of + containing more than twenty-five or thirty men we may safely + affirm, that fifteen thousand warriors, at the most, embarked in + this great expedition. Impatient of the limits of the Euxine, + they steered their destructive course from the Cimmerian to the + Thracian Bosphorus. When they had almost gained the middle of the + Straits, they were suddenly driven back to the entrance of them; + till a favorable wind, springing up the next day, carried them in + a few hours into the placid sea, or rather lake, of the + Propontis. Their landing on the little island of Cyzicus was + attended with the ruin of that ancient and noble city. From + thence issuing again through the narrow passage of the + Hellespont, they pursued their winding navigation amidst the + numerous islands scattered over the Archipelago, or the Ægean + Sea. The assistance of captives and deserters must have been very + necessary to pilot their vessels, and to direct their various + incursions, as well on the coast of Greece as on that of Asia. At + length the Gothic fleet anchored in the port of Piræus, five + miles distant from Athens, 122 which had attempted to make some + preparations for a vigorous defence. Cleodamus, one of the + engineers employed by the emperor’s orders to fortify the + maritime cities against the Goths, had already begun to repair + the ancient walls, fallen to decay since the time of Scylla. The + efforts of his skill were ineffectual, and the barbarians became + masters of the native seat of the muses and the arts. But while + the conquerors abandoned themselves to the license of plunder and + intemperance, their fleet, that lay with a slender guard in the + harbor of Piræus, was unexpectedly attacked by the brave + Dexippus, who, flying with the engineer Cleodamus from the sack + of Athens, collected a hasty band of volunteers, peasants as well + as soldiers, and in some measure avenged the calamities of his + country. 123 + + 120 (return) [ Syncellus (p. 382) speaks of this expedition, as + undertaken by the Heruli.] + + 121 (return) [ Strabo, l. xi. p. 495.] + + 122 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. iii. 7.] + + 123 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 181. Victor, c. 33. Orosius, vii. + 42. Zosimus, l. i. p. 35. Zonaras, l. xii. 635. Syncellus, p. + 382. It is not without some attention, that we can explain and + conciliate their imperfect hints. We can still discover some + traces of the partiality of Dexippus, in the relation of his own + and his countrymen’s exploits. * Note: According to a new + fragment of Dexippus, published by Mai, the 2000 men took up a + strong position in a mountainous and woods district, and kept up + a harassing warfare. He expresses a hope of being speedily joined + by the Imperial fleet. Dexippus in rov. Byzantinorum Collect a + Niebuhr, p. 26, 8—M.] + + But this exploit, whatever lustre it might shed on the declining + age of Athens, served rather to irritate than to subdue the + undaunted spirit of the northern invaders. A general + conflagration blazed out at the same time in every district of + Greece. Thebes and Argos, Corinth and Sparta, which had formerly + waged such memorable wars against each other, were now unable to + bring an army into the field, or even to defend their ruined + fortifications. The rage of war, both by land and by sea, spread + from the eastern point of Sunium to the western coast of Epirus. + The Goths had already advanced within sight of Italy, when the + approach of such imminent danger awakened the indolent Gallienus + from his dream of pleasure. The emperor appeared in arms; and his + presence seems to have checked the ardor, and to have divided the + strength, of the enemy. Naulobatus, a chief of the Heruli, + accepted an honorable capitulation, entered with a large body of + his countrymen into the service of Rome, and was invested with + the ornaments of the consular dignity, which had never before + been profaned by the hands of a barbarian. 124 Great numbers of + the Goths, disgusted with the perils and hardships of a tedious + voyage, broke into Mæsia, with a design of forcing their way over + the Danube to their settlements in the Ukraine. The wild attempt + would have proved inevitable destruction, if the discord of the + Roman generals had not opened to the barbarians the means of an + escape. 125 The small remainder of this destroying host returned + on board their vessels; and measuring back their way through the + Hellespont and the Bosphorus, ravaged in their passage the shores + of Troy, whose fame, immortalized by Homer, will probably survive + the memory of the Gothic conquests. As soon as they found + themselves in safety within the basin of the Euxine, they landed + at Anchialus in Thrace, near the foot of Mount Hæmus; and, after + all their toils, indulged themselves in the use of those pleasant + and salutary hot baths. What remained of the voyage was a short + and easy navigation. 126 Such was the various fate of this third + and greatest of their naval enterprises. It may seem difficult to + conceive how the original body of fifteen thousand warriors could + sustain the losses and divisions of so bold an adventure. But as + their numbers were gradually wasted by the sword, by shipwrecks, + and by the influence of a warm climate, they were perpetually + renewed by troops of banditti and deserters, who flocked to the + standard of plunder, and by a crowd of fugitive slaves, often of + German or Sarmatian extraction, who eagerly seized the glorious + opportunity of freedom and revenge. In these expeditions, the + Gothic nation claimed a superior share of honor and danger; but + the tribes that fought under the Gothic banners are sometimes + distinguished and sometimes confounded in the imperfect histories + of that age; and as the barbarian fleets seemed to issue from the + mouth of the Tanais, the vague but familiar appellation of + Scythians was frequently bestowed on the mixed multitude. 127 + + 124 (return) [Syncellus, p. 382. This body of Heruli was for a + long time faithful and famous.] + + 125 (return) [ Claudius, who commanded on the Danube, thought + with propriety and acted with spirit. His colleague was jealous + of his fame Hist. August. p. 181.] + + 126 (return) [ Jornandes, c. 20.] + + 127 (return) [ Zosimus and the Greeks (as the author of the + Philopatris) give the name of Scythians to those whom Jornandes, + and the Latin writers, constantly represent as Goths.] + + + + + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And + Gallienus.—Part IV. + + In the general calamities of mankind, the death of an individual, + however exalted, the ruin of an edifice, however famous, are + passed over with careless inattention. Yet we cannot forget that + the temple of Diana at Ephesus, after having risen with + increasing splendor from seven repeated misfortunes, 128 was + finally burnt by the Goths in their third naval invasion. The + arts of Greece, and the wealth of Asia, had conspired to erect + that sacred and magnificent structure. It was supported by a + hundred and twenty-seven marble columns of the Ionic order. They + were the gifts of devout monarchs, and each was sixty feet high. + The altar was adorned with the masterly sculptures of Praxiteles, + who had, perhaps, selected from the favorite legends of the place + the birth of the divine children of Latona, the concealment of + Apollo after the slaughter of the Cyclops, and the clemency of + Bacchus to the vanquished Amazons. 129 Yet the length of the + temple of Ephesus was only four hundred and twenty-five feet, + about two thirds of the measure of the church of St. Peter’s at + Rome. 130 In the other dimensions, it was still more inferior to + that sublime production of modern architecture. The spreading + arms of a Christian cross require a much greater breadth than the + oblong temples of the Pagans; and the boldest artists of + antiquity would have been startled at the proposal of raising in + the air a dome of the size and proportions of the Pantheon. The + temple of Diana was, however, admired as one of the wonders of + the world. Successive empires, the Persian, the Macedonian, and + the Roman, had revered its sanctity and enriched its splendor. + 131 But the rude savages of the Baltic were destitute of a taste + for the elegant arts, and they despised the ideal terrors of a + foreign superstition. 132 + + 128 (return) [ Hist. Aug. p. 178. Jornandes, c. 20.] + + 129 (return) [ Strabo, l. xiv. p. 640. Vitruvius, l. i. c. i. + præfat l vii. Tacit Annal. iii. 61. Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 14.] + + 130 (return) [ The length of St. Peter’s is 840 Roman palms; each + palm is very little short of nine English inches. See Greaves’s + Miscellanies vol. i. p. 233; on the Roman Foot. * Note: St. + Paul’s Cathedral is 500 feet. Dallaway on Architecture—M.] + + 131 (return) [ The policy, however, of the Romans induced them to + abridge the extent of the sanctuary or asylum, which by + successive privileges had spread itself two stadia round the + temple. Strabo, l. xiv. p. 641. Tacit. Annal. iii. 60, &c.] + + 132 (return) [ They offered no sacrifices to the Grecian gods. + See Epistol Gregor. Thaumat.] + + Another circumstance is related of these invasions, which might + deserve our notice, were it not justly to be suspected as the + fanciful conceit of a recent sophist. We are told that in the + sack of Athens the Goths had collected all the libraries, and + were on the point of setting fire to this funeral pile of Grecian + learning, had not one of their chiefs, of more refined policy + than his brethren, dissuaded them from the design; by the + profound observation, that as long as the Greeks were addicted to + the study of books, they would never apply themselves to the + exercise of arms. 133 The sagacious counsellor (should the truth + of the fact be admitted) reasoned like an ignorant barbarian. In + the most polite and powerful nations, genius of every kind has + displayed itself about the same period; and the age of science + has generally been the age of military virtue and success. + + 133 (return) [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. 635. Such an anecdote was + perfectly suited to the taste of Montaigne. He makes use of it in + his agreeable Essay on Pedantry, l. i. c. 24.] + + IV. The new sovereign of Persia, Artaxerxes and his son Sapor, + had triumphed (as we have already seen) over the house of + Arsaces. Of the many princes of that ancient race. Chosroes, king + of Armenia, had alone preserved both his life and his + independence. He defended himself by the natural strength of his + country; by the perpetual resort of fugitives and malecontents; + by the alliance of the Romans, and above all, by his own courage. + + Invincible in arms, during a thirty years’ war, he was at length + assassinated by the emissaries of Sapor, king of Persia. The + patriotic satraps of Armenia, who asserted the freedom and + dignity of the crown, implored the protection of Rome in favor of + Tiridates, the lawful heir. But the son of Chosroes was an + infant, the allies were at a distance, and the Persian monarch + advanced towards the frontier at the head of an irresistible + force. Young Tiridates, the future hope of his country, was saved + by the fidelity of a servant, and Armenia continued above + twenty-seven years a reluctant province of the great monarchy of + Persia. 134 Elated with this easy conquest, and presuming on the + distresses or the degeneracy of the Romans, Sapor obliged the + strong garrisons of Carrhæ and Nisibis 1341 to surrender, and + spread devastation and terror on either side of the Euphrates. + + 134 (return) [ Moses Chorenensis, l. ii. c. 71, 73, 74. Zonaras, + l. xii. p. 628. The anthentic relation of the Armenian historian + serves to rectify the confused account of the Greek. The latter + talks of the children of Tiridates, who at that time was himself + an infant. (Compare St Martin Memoires sur l’Armenie, i. p. + 301.—M.)] + + 1341 (return) [ Nisibis, according to Persian authors, was taken + by a miracle, the wall fell, in compliance with the prayers of + the army. Malcolm’s Persia, l. 76.—M] + + The loss of an important frontier, the ruin of a faithful and + natural ally, and the rapid success of Sapor’s ambition, affected + Rome with a deep sense of the insult as well as of the danger. + Valerian flattered himself, that the vigilance of his lieutenants + would sufficiently provide for the safety of the Rhine and of the + Danube; but he resolved, notwithstanding his advanced age, to + march in person to the defence of the Euphrates. + + During his progress through Asia Minor, the naval enterprises of + the Goths were suspended, and the afflicted province enjoyed a + transient and fallacious calm. He passed the Euphrates, + encountered the Persian monarch near the walls of Edessa, was + vanquished, and taken prisoner by Sapor. The particulars of this + great event are darkly and imperfectly represented; yet, by the + glimmering light which is afforded us, we may discover a long + series of imprudence, of error, and of deserved misfortunes on + the side of the Roman emperor. He reposed an implicit confidence + in Macrianus, his Prætorian præfect. 135 That worthless minister + rendered his master formidable only to the oppressed subjects, + and contemptible to the enemies of Rome. 136 By his weak or + wicked counsels, the Imperial army was betrayed into a situation + where valor and military skill were equally unavailing. 137 The + vigorous attempt of the Romans to cut their way through the + Persian host was repulsed with great slaughter; 138 and Sapor, + who encompassed the camp with superior numbers, patiently waited + till the increasing rage of famine and pestilence had insured his + victory. The licentious murmurs of the legions soon accused + Valerian as the cause of their calamities; their seditious + clamors demanded an instant capitulation. An immense sum of gold + was offered to purchase the permission of a disgraceful retreat. + But the Persian, conscious of his superiority, refused the money + with disdain; and detaining the deputies, advanced in order of + battle to the foot of the Roman rampart, and insisted on a + personal conference with the emperor. Valerian was reduced to the + necessity of intrusting his life and dignity to the faith of an + enemy. The interview ended as it was natural to expect. The + emperor was made a prisoner, and his astonished troops laid down + their arms. 139 In such a moment of triumph, the pride and policy + of Sapor prompted him to fill the vacant throne with a successor + entirely dependent on his pleasure. Cyriades, an obscure fugitive + of Antioch, stained with every vice, was chosen to dishonor the + Roman purple; and the will of the Persian victor could not fail + of being ratified by the acclamations, however reluctant, of the + captive army. 140 + + 135 (return) [ Hist. Aug. p. 191. As Macrianus was an enemy to + the Christians, they charged him with being a magician.] + + 136 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 33.] + + 137 (return) [ Hist. Aug. p. 174.] + + 138 (return) [ Victor in Cæsar. Eutropius, ix. 7.] + + 139 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 33. Zonaras, l. xii. p. 630. + Peter Patricius, in the Excerpta Legat. p. 29.] + + 140 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 185. The reign of Cyriades + appears in that collection prior to the death of Valerian; but I + have preferred a probable series of events to the doubtful + chronology of a most inaccurate writer] + + The Imperial slave was eager to secure the favor of his master by + an act of treason to his native country. He conducted Sapor over + the Euphrates, and, by the way of Chalcis, to the metropolis of + the East. So rapid were the motions of the Persian cavalry, that, + if we may credit a very judicious historian, 141 the city of + Antioch was surprised when the idle multitude was fondly gazing + on the amusements of the theatre. The splendid buildings of + Antioch, private as well as public, were either pillaged or + destroyed; and the numerous inhabitants were put to the sword, or + led away into captivity. 142 The tide of devastation was stopped + for a moment by the resolution of the high priest of Emesa. + Arrayed in his sacerdotal robes, he appeared at the head of a + great body of fanatic peasants, armed only with slings, and + defended his god and his property from the sacrilegious hands of + the followers of Zoroaster. 143 But the ruin of Tarsus, and of + many other cities, furnishes a melancholy proof that, except in + this singular instance, the conquest of Syria and Cilicia + scarcely interrupted the progress of the Persian arms. The + advantages of the narrow passes of Mount Taurus were abandoned, + in which an invader, whose principal force consisted in his + cavalry, would have been engaged in a very unequal combat: and + Sapor was permitted to form the siege of Cæsarea, the capital of + Cappadocia; a city, though of the second rank, which was supposed + to contain four hundred thousand inhabitants. Demosthenes + commanded in the place, not so much by the commission of the + emperor, as in the voluntary defence of his country. For a long + time he deferred its fate; and when at last Cæsarea was betrayed + by the perfidy of a physician, he cut his way through the + Persians, who had been ordered to exert their utmost diligence to + take him alive. This heroic chief escaped the power of a foe who + might either have honored or punished his obstinate valor; but + many thousands of his fellow-citizens were involved in a general + massacre, and Sapor is accused of treating his prisoners with + wanton and unrelenting cruelty. 144 Much should undoubtedly be + allowed for national animosity, much for humbled pride and + impotent revenge; yet, upon the whole, it is certain, that the + same prince, who, in Armenia, had displayed the mild aspect of a + legislator, showed himself to the Romans under the stern features + of a conqueror. He despaired of making any permanent + establishment in the empire, and sought only to leave behind him + a wasted desert, whilst he transported into Persia the people and + the treasures of the provinces. 145 + + 141 (return) [ The sack of Antioch, anticipated by some + historians, is assigned, by the decisive testimony of Ammianus + Marcellinus, to the reign of Gallienus, xxiii. 5. * Note: Heyne, + in his note on Zosimus, contests this opinion of Gibbon and + observes, that the testimony of Ammianus is in fact by no means + clear, decisive. Gallienus and Valerian reigned together. + Zosimus, in a passage, l. iiii. 32, 8, distinctly places this + event before the capture of Valerian.—M.] + + 142 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 35.] + + 143 (return) [ John Malala, tom. i. p. 391. He corrupts this + probable event by some fabulous circumstances.] + + 144 (return) [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. 630. Deep valleys were filled + up with the slain. Crowds of prisoners were driven to water like + beasts, and many perished for want of food.] + + 145 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 25 asserts, that Sapor, had he + not preferred spoil to conquest, might have remained master of + Asia.] + + At the time when the East trembled at the name of Sapor, he + received a present not unworthy of the greatest kings; a long + train of camels, laden with the most rare and valuable + merchandises. The rich offering was accompanied with an epistle, + respectful, but not servile, from Odenathus, one of the noblest + and most opulent senators of Palmyra. “Who is this Odenathus,” + (said the haughty victor, and he commanded that the present + should be cast into the Euphrates,) “that he thus insolently + presumes to write to his lord? If he entertains a hope of + mitigating his punishment, let him fall prostrate before the foot + of our throne, with his hands bound behind his back. Should he + hesitate, swift destruction shall be poured on his head, on his + whole race, and on his country.” 146 The desperate extremity to + which the Palmyrenian was reduced, called into action all the + latent powers of his soul. He met Sapor; but he met him in arms. + + Infusing his own spirit into a little army collected from the + villages of Syria 147 and the tents of the desert, 148 he hovered + round the Persian host, harassed their retreat, carried off part + of the treasure, and, what was dearer than any treasure, several + of the women of the great king; who was at last obliged to repass + the Euphrates with some marks of haste and confusion. 149 By this + exploit, Odenathus laid the foundations of his future fame and + fortunes. The majesty of Rome, oppressed by a Persian, was + protected by a Syrian or Arab of Palmyra. + + 146 (return) [ Peter Patricius in Excerpt. Leg. p. 29.] + + 147 (return) [ Syrorum agrestium manu. Sextus Rufus, c. 23. Rufus + Victor the Augustan History, (p. 192,) and several inscriptions, + agree in making Odenathus a citizen of Palmyra.] + + 148 (return) [ He possessed so powerful an interest among the + wandering tribes, that Procopius (Bell. Persic. l. ii. c. 5) and + John Malala, (tom. i. p. 391) style him Prince of the Saracens.] + + 149 (return) [ Peter Patricius, p. 25.] + + The voice of history, which is often little more than the organ + of hatred or flattery, reproaches Sapor with a proud abuse of the + rights of conquest. We are told that Valerian, in chains, but + invested with the Imperial purple, was exposed to the multitude, + a constant spectacle of fallen greatness; and that whenever the + Persian monarch mounted on horseback, he placed his foot on the + neck of a Roman emperor. Notwithstanding all the remonstrances of + his allies, who repeatedly advised him to remember the + vicissitudes of fortune, to dread the returning power of Rome, + and to make his illustrious captive the pledge of peace, not the + object of insult, Sapor still remained inflexible. When Valerian + sunk under the weight of shame and grief, his skin, stuffed with + straw, and formed into the likeness of a human figure, was + preserved for ages in the most celebrated temple of Persia; a + more real monument of triumph, than the fancied trophies of brass + and marble so often erected by Roman vanity. 150 The tale is + moral and pathetic, but the truth 1501 of it may very fairly be + called in question. The letters still extant from the princes of + the East to Sapor are manifest forgeries; 151 nor is it natural + to suppose that a jealous monarch should, even in the person of a + rival, thus publicly degrade the majesty of kings. Whatever + treatment the unfortunate Valerian might experience in Persia, it + is at least certain that the only emperor of Rome who had ever + fallen into the hands of the enemy, languished away his life in + hopeless captivity. + + 150 (return) [ The Pagan writers lament, the Christian insult, + the misfortunes of Valerian. Their various testimonies are + accurately collected by Tillemont, tom. iii. p. 739, &c. So + little has been preserved of eastern history before Mahomet, that + the modern Persians are totally ignorant of the victory Sapor, an + event so glorious to their nation. See Bibliotheque Orientale. * + Note: Malcolm appears to write from Persian authorities, i. + 76.—M.] + + 1501 (return) [ Yet Gibbon himself records a speech of the + emperor Galerius, which alludes to the cruelties exercised + against the living, and the indignities to which they exposed the + dead Valerian, vol. ii. ch. 13. Respect for the kingly character + would by no means prevent an eastern monarch from ratifying his + pride and his vengeance on a fallen foe.—M.] + + 151 (return) [ One of these epistles is from Artavasdes, king of + Armenia; since Armenia was then a province of Persia, the king, + the kingdom, and the epistle must be fictitious.] + + The emperor Gallienus, who had long supported with impatience the + censorial severity of his father and colleague, received the + intelligence of his misfortunes with secret pleasure and avowed + indifference. “I knew that my father was a mortal,” said he; “and + since he has acted as it becomes a brave man, I am satisfied.” + Whilst Rome lamented the fate of her sovereign, the savage + coldness of his son was extolled by the servile courtiers as the + perfect firmness of a hero and a stoic. 152 It is difficult to + paint the light, the various, the inconstant character of + Gallienus, which he displayed without constraint, as soon as he + became sole possessor of the empire. In every art that he + attempted, his lively genius enabled him to succeed; and as his + genius was destitute of judgment, he attempted every art, except + the important ones of war and government. He was a master of + several curious, but useless sciences, a ready orator, an elegant + poet, 153 a skilful gardener, an excellent cook, and most + contemptible prince. When the great emergencies of the state + required his presence and attention, he was engaged in + conversation with the philosopher Plotinus, 154 wasting his time + in trifling or licentious pleasures, preparing his initiation to + the Grecian mysteries, or soliciting a place in the Areopagus of + Athens. His profuse magnificence insulted the general poverty; + the solemn ridicule of his triumphs impressed a deeper sense of + the public disgrace. 155 The repeated intelligence of invasions, + defeats, and rebellions, he received with a careless smile; and + singling out, with affected contempt, some particular production + of the lost province, he carelessly asked, whether Rome must be + ruined, unless it was supplied with linen from Egypt, and arras + cloth from Gaul. There were, however, a few short moments in the + life of Gallienus, when, exasperated by some recent injury, he + suddenly appeared the intrepid soldier and the cruel tyrant; + till, satiated with blood, or fatigued by resistance, he + insensibly sunk into the natural mildness and indolence of his + character. 156 + + 152 (return) [ See his life in the Augustan History.] + + 153 (return) [ There is still extant a very pretty Epithalamium, + composed by Gallienus for the nuptials of his nephews:—“Ite ait, + O juvenes, pariter sudate medullis Omnibus, inter vos: non + murmura vestra columbæ, Brachia non hederæ, non vincant oscula + conchæ.”] + + 154 (return) [ He was on the point of giving Plotinus a ruined + city of Campania to try the experiment of realizing Plato’s + Republic. See the Life of Plotinus, by Porphyry, in Fabricius’s + Biblioth. Græc. l. iv.] + + 155 (return) [A medal which bears the head of Gallienus has + perplexed the antiquarians by its legend and reverse; the former + Gallienæ Augustæ, the latter Ubique Pax. M. Spanheim supposes + that the coin was struck by some of the enemies of Gallienus, and + was designed as a severe satire on that effeminate prince. But as + the use of irony may seem unworthy of the gravity of the Roman + mint, M. de Vallemont has deduced from a passage of Trebellius + Pollio (Hist. Aug. p. 198) an ingenious and natural solution. + Galliena was first cousin to the emperor. By delivering Africa + from the usurper Celsus, she deserved the title of Augusta. On a + medal in the French king’s collection, we read a similar + inscription of Faustina Augusta round the head of Marcus + Aurelius. With regard to the Ubique Pax, it is easily explained + by the vanity of Gallienus, who seized, perhaps, the occasion of + some momentary calm. See Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres, + Janvier, 1700, p. 21—34.] + + 156 (return) [ This singular character has, I believe, been + fairly transmitted to us. The reign of his immediate successor + was short and busy; and the historians who wrote before the + elevation of the family of Constantine could not have the most + remote interest to misrepresent the character of Gallienus.] + + At the time when the reins of government were held with so loose + a hand, it is not surprising that a crowd of usurpers should + start up in every province of the empire against the son of + Valerian. It was probably some ingenious fancy, of comparing the + thirty tyrants of Rome with the thirty tyrants of Athens, that + induced the writers of the Augustan History to select that + celebrated number, which has been gradually received into a + popular appellation. 157 But in every light the parallel is idle + and defective. What resemblance can we discover between a council + of thirty persons, the united oppressors of a single city, and an + uncertain list of independent rivals, who rose and fell in + irregular succession through the extent of a vast empire? Nor can + the number of thirty be completed, unless we include in the + account the women and children who were honored with the Imperial + title. The reign of Gallienus, distracted as it was, produced + only nineteen pretenders to the throne: Cyriades, Macrianus, + Balista, Odenathus, and Zenobia, in the East; in Gaul, and the + western provinces, Posthumus, Lollianus, Victorinus, and his + mother Victoria, Marius, and Tetricus; in Illyricum and the + confines of the Danube, Ingenuus, Regillianus, and Aureolus; in + Pontus, 158 Saturninus; in Isauria, Trebellianus; Piso in + Thessaly; Valens in Achaia; Æmilianus in Egypt; and Celsus in + Africa. 1581 To illustrate the obscure monuments of the life and + death of each individual, would prove a laborious task, alike + barren of instruction and of amusement. We may content ourselves + with investigating some general characters, that most strongly + mark the condition of the times, and the manners of the men, + their pretensions, their motives, their fate, and the destructive + consequences of their usurpation. 159 + + 157 (return) [ Pollio expresses the most minute anxiety to + complete the number. * Note: Compare a dissertation of Manso on + the thirty tyrants at the end of his Leben Constantius des + Grossen. Breslau, 1817.—M.] + + 158 (return) [ The place of his reign is somewhat doubtful; but + there was a tyrant in Pontus, and we are acquainted with the seat + of all the others.] + + 1581 (return) [ Captain Smyth, in his “Catalogue of Medals,” p. + 307, substitutes two new names to make up the number of nineteen, + for those of Odenathus and Zenobia. He subjoins this list:—1. 2. + 3. Of those whose coins Those whose coins Those of whom no are + undoubtedly true. are suspected. coins are known. Posthumus. + Cyriades. Valens. Lælianus, (Lollianus, G.) Ingenuus. Balista + Victorinus Celsus. Saturninus. Marius. Piso Frugi. Trebellianus. + Tetricus. —M. 1815 Macrianus. Quietus. Regalianus (Regillianus, + G.) Alex. Æmilianus. Aureolus. Sulpicius Antoninus] + + 159 (return) [ Tillemont, tom. iii. p. 1163, reckons them + somewhat differently.] + + It is sufficiently known, that the odious appellation of _Tyrant_ + was often employed by the ancients to express the illegal seizure + of supreme power, without any reference to the abuse of it. + Several of the pretenders, who raised the standard of rebellion + against the emperor Gallienus, were shining models of virtue, and + almost all possessed a considerable share of vigor and ability. + Their merit had recommended them to the favor of Valerian, and + gradually promoted them to the most important commands of the + empire. The generals, who assumed the title of Augustus, were + either respected by their troops for their able conduct and + severe discipline, or admired for valor and success in war, or + beloved for frankness and generosity. The field of victory was + often the scene of their election; and even the armorer Marius, + the most contemptible of all the candidates for the purple, was + distinguished, however, by intrepid courage, matchless strength, + and blunt honesty. 160 His mean and recent trade cast, indeed, an + air of ridicule on his elevation; 1601 but his birth could not be + more obscure than was that of the greater part of his rivals, who + were born of peasants, and enlisted in the army as private + soldiers. In times of confusion every active genius finds the + place assigned him by nature: in a general state of war military + merit is the road to glory and to greatness. Of the nineteen + tyrants Tetricus only was a senator; Piso alone was a noble. The + blood of Numa, through twenty-eight successive generations, ran + in the veins of Calphurnius Piso, 161 who, by female alliances, + claimed a right of exhibiting, in his house, the images of + Crassus and of the great Pompey. 162 His ancestors had been + repeatedly dignified with all the honors which the commonwealth + could bestow; and of all the ancient families of Rome, the + Calphurnian alone had survived the tyranny of the Cæsars. The + personal qualities of Piso added new lustre to his race. The + usurper Valens, by whose order he was killed, confessed, with + deep remorse, that even an enemy ought to have respected the + sanctity of Piso; and although he died in arms against Gallienus, + the senate, with the emperor’s generous permission, decreed the + triumphal ornaments to the memory of so virtuous a rebel. 163 + + 160 (return) [ See the speech of Marius in the Augustan History, + p. 197. The accidental identity of names was the only + circumstance that could tempt Pollio to imitate Sallust.] + + 1601 (return) [ Marius was killed by a soldier, who had formerly + served as a workman in his shop, and who exclaimed, as he struck, + “Behold the sword which thyself hast forged.” Trob vita.—G.] + + 161 (return) [ “Vos, O Pompilius sanguis!” is Horace’s address to + the Pisos See Art. Poet. v. 292, with Dacier’s and Sanadon’s + notes.] + + 162 (return) [ Tacit. Annal. xv. 48. Hist. i. 15. In the former + of these passages we may venture to change paterna into materna. + In every generation from Augustus to Alexander Severus, one or + more Pisos appear as consuls. A Piso was deemed worthy of the + throne by Augustus, (Tacit. Annal. i. 13;) a second headed a + formidable conspiracy against Nero; and a third was adopted, and + declared Cæsar, by Galba.] + + 163 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 195. The senate, in a moment of + enthusiasm, seems to have presumed on the approbation of + Gallienus.] + + The lieutenants of Valerian were grateful to the father, whom + they esteemed. They disdained to serve the luxurious indolence of + his unworthy son. The throne of the Roman world was unsupported + by any principle of loyalty; and treason against such a prince + might easily be considered as patriotism to the state. Yet if we + examine with candor the conduct of these usurpers, it will + appear, that they were much oftener driven into rebellion by + their fears, than urged to it by their ambition. They dreaded the + cruel suspicions of Gallienus; they equally dreaded the + capricious violence of their troops. If the dangerous favor of + the army had imprudently declared them deserving of the purple, + they were marked for sure destruction; and even prudence would + counsel them to secure a short enjoyment of empire, and rather to + try the fortune of war than to expect the hand of an executioner. + + When the clamor of the soldiers invested the reluctant victims + with the ensigns of sovereign authority, they sometimes mourned + in secret their approaching fate. “You have lost,” said + Saturninus, on the day of his elevation, “you have lost a useful + commander, and you have made a very wretched emperor.” 164 + + 164 (return) [ Hist. August p. 196.] + + The apprehensions of Saturninus were justified by the repeated + experience of revolutions. Of the nineteen tyrants who started up + under the reign of Gallienus, there was not one who enjoyed a + life of peace, or a natural death. As soon as they were invested + with the bloody purple, they inspired their adherents with the + same fears and ambition which had occasioned their own revolt. + Encompassed with domestic conspiracy, military sedition, and + civil war, they trembled on the edge of precipices, in which, + after a longer or shorter term of anxiety, they were inevitably + lost. These precarious monarchs received, however, such honors as + the flattery of their respective armies and provinces could + bestow; but their claim, founded on rebellion, could never obtain + the sanction of law or history. Italy, Rome, and the senate, + constantly adhered to the cause of Gallienus, and he alone was + considered as the sovereign of the empire. That prince + condescended, indeed, to acknowledge the victorious arms of + Odenathus, who deserved the honorable distinction, by the + respectful conduct which he always maintained towards the son of + Valerian. With the general applause of the Romans, and the + consent of Gallienus, the senate conferred the title of Augustus + on the brave Palmyrenian; and seemed to intrust him with the + government of the East, which he already possessed, in so + independent a manner, that, like a private succession, he + bequeathed it to his illustrious widow, Zenobia. 165 + + 165 (return) [ The association of the brave Palmyrenian was the + most popular act of the whole reign of Gallienus. Hist. August. + p. 180.] + + The rapid and perpetual transitions from the cottage to the + throne, and from the throne to the grave, might have amused an + indifferent philosopher; were it possible for a philosopher to + remain indifferent amidst the general calamities of human kind. + The election of these precarious emperors, their power and their + death, were equally destructive to their subjects and adherents. + The price of their fatal elevation was instantly discharged to + the troops by an immense donative, drawn from the bowels of the + exhausted people. However virtuous was their character, however + pure their intentions, they found themselves reduced to the hard + necessity of supporting their usurpation by frequent acts of + rapine and cruelty. When they fell, they involved armies and + provinces in their fall. There is still extant a most savage + mandate from Gallienus to one of his ministers, after the + suppression of Ingenuus, who had assumed the purple in Illyricum. + + “It is not enough,” says that soft but inhuman prince, “that you + exterminate such as have appeared in arms; the chance of battle + might have served me as effectually. The male sex of every age + must be extirpated; provided that, in the execution of the + children and old men, you can contrive means to save our + reputation. Let every one die who has dropped an expression, who + has entertained a thought against me, against _me_, the son of + Valerian, the father and brother of so many princes. 166 Remember + that Ingenuus was made emperor: tear, kill, hew in pieces. I + write to you with my own hand, and would inspire you with my own + feelings.” 167 Whilst the public forces of the state were + dissipated in private quarrels, the defenceless provinces lay + exposed to every invader. The bravest usurpers were compelled, by + the perplexity of their situation, to conclude ignominious + treaties with the common enemy, to purchase with oppressive + tributes the neutrality or services of the Barbarians, and to + introduce hostile and independent nations into the heart of the + Roman monarchy. 168 + + 166 (return) [ Gallienus had given the titles of Cæsar and + Augustus to his son Saloninus, slain at Cologne by the usurper + Posthumus. A second son of Gallienus succeeded to the name and + rank of his elder brother Valerian, the brother of Gallienus, was + also associated to the empire: several other brothers, sisters, + nephews, and nieces of the emperor formed a very numerous royal + family. See Tillemont, tom iii, and M. de Brequigny in the + Memoires de l’Academie, tom xxxii p. 262.] + + 167 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 188.] + + 168 (return) [ Regillianus had some bands of Roxolani in his + service; Posthumus a body of Franks. It was, perhaps, in the + character of auxiliaries that the latter introduced themselves + into Spain.] + + Such were the barbarians, and such the tyrants, who, under the + reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, dismembered the provinces, and + reduced the empire to the lowest pitch of disgrace and ruin, from + whence it seemed impossible that it should ever emerge. As far as + the barrenness of materials would permit, we have attempted to + trace, with order and perspicuity, the general events of that + calamitous period. There still remain some particular facts; I. + The disorders of Sicily; II. The tumults of Alexandria; and, III. + The rebellion of the Isaurians, which may serve to reflect a + strong light on the horrid picture. + + I. Whenever numerous troops of banditti, multiplied by success + and impunity, publicly defy, instead of eluding, the justice of + their country, we may safely infer that the excessive weakness of + the country is felt and abused by the lowest ranks of the + community. The situation of Sicily preserved it from the + Barbarians; nor could the disarmed province have supported a + usurper. The sufferings of that once flourishing and still + fertile island were inflicted by baser hands. A licentious crowd + of slaves and peasants reigned for a while over the plundered + country, and renewed the memory of the servile wars of more + ancient times. 169 Devastations, of which the husbandman was + either the victim or the accomplice, must have ruined the + agriculture of Sicily; and as the principal estates were the + property of the opulent senators of Rome, who often enclosed + within a farm the territory of an old republic, it is not + improbable, that this private injury might affect the capital + more deeply, than all the conquests of the Goths or the Persians. + + 169 (return) [ The Augustan History, p. 177. See Diodor. Sicul. + l. xxxiv.] + + II. The foundation of Alexandria was a noble design, at once + conceived and executed by the son of Philip. The beautiful and + regular form of that great city, second only to Rome itself, + comprehended a circumference of fifteen miles; 170 it was peopled + by three hundred thousand free inhabitants, besides at least an + equal number of slaves. 171 The lucrative trade of Arabia and + India flowed through the port of Alexandria, to the capital and + provinces of the empire. 1711 Idleness was unknown. Some were + employed in blowing of glass, others in weaving of linen, others + again manufacturing the papyrus. Either sex, and every age, was + engaged in the pursuits of industry, nor did even the blind or + the lame want occupations suited to their condition. 172 But the + people of Alexandria, a various mixture of nations, united the + vanity and inconstancy of the Greeks with the superstition and + obstinacy of the Egyptians. The most trifling occasion, a + transient scarcity of flesh or lentils, the neglect of an + accustomed salutation, a mistake of precedency in the public + baths, or even a religious dispute, 173 were at any time + sufficient to kindle a sedition among that vast multitude, whose + resentments were furious and implacable. 174 After the captivity + of Valerian and the insolence of his son had relaxed the + authority of the laws, the Alexandrians abandoned themselves to + the ungoverned rage of their passions, and their unhappy country + was the theatre of a civil war, which continued (with a few short + and suspicious truces) above twelve years. 175 All intercourse + was cut off between the several quarters of the afflicted city, + every street was polluted with blood, every building of strength + converted into a citadel; nor did the tumults subside till a + considerable part of Alexandria was irretrievably ruined. The + spacious and magnificent district of Bruchion, 1751 with its + palaces and musæum, the residence of the kings and philosophers + of Egypt, is described above a century afterwards, as already + reduced to its present state of dreary solitude. 176 + + 170 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. v. 10.] + + 171 (return) [ Diodor. Sicul. l. xvii. p. 590, edit. Wesseling.] + + 1711 (return) [ Berenice, or Myos-Hormos, on the Red Sea, + received the eastern commodities. From thence they were + transported to the Nile, and down the Nile to Alexandria.—M.] + + 172 (return) [ See a very curious letter of Hadrian, in the + Augustan History, p. 245.] + + 173 (return) [ Such as the sacrilegious murder of a divine cat. + See Diodor. Sicul. l. i. * Note: The hostility between the Jewish + and Grecian part of the population afterwards between the two + former and the Christian, were unfailing causes of tumult, + sedition, and massacre. In no place were the religious disputes, + after the establishment of Christianity, more frequent or more + sanguinary. See Philo. de Legat. Hist. of Jews, ii. 171, iii. + 111, 198. Gibbon, iii c. xxi. viii. c. xlvii.—M.] + + 174 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 195. This long and terrible + sedition was first occasioned by a dispute between a soldier and + a townsman about a pair of shoes.] + + 175 (return) [ Dionysius apud. Euses. Hist. Eccles. vii. p. 21. + Ammian xxii. 16.] + + 1751 (return) [ The Bruchion was a quarter of Alexandria which + extended along the largest of the two ports, and contained many + palaces, inhabited by the Ptolemies. D’Anv. Geogr. Anc. iii. + 10.—G.] + + 176 (return) [ Scaliger. Animadver. ad Euseb. Chron. p. 258. + Three dissertations of M. Bonamy, in the Mem. de l’Academie, tom. + ix.] + +III. The obscure rebellion of Trebellianus, who assumed the purple in +Isauria, a petty province of Asia Minor, was attended with strange and +memorable consequences. The pageant of royalty was soon destroyed by an +officer of Gallienus; but his followers, despairing of mercy, resolved +to shake off their allegiance, not only to the emperor, but to the +empire, and suddenly returned to the savage manners from which they had +never perfectly been reclaimed. Their craggy rocks, a branch of the +wide-extended Taurus, protected their inaccessible retreat. The tillage +of some fertile valleys 177 supplied them with necessaries, and a habit +of rapine with the luxuries of life. In the heart of the Roman +monarchy, the Isaurians long continued a nation of wild barbarians. +Succeeding princes, unable to reduce them to obedience, either by arms +or policy, were compelled to acknowledge their weakness, by surrounding +the hostile and independent spot with a strong chain of fortifications, +178 which often proved insufficient to restrain the incursions of these +domestic foes. The Isaurians, gradually extending their territory to +the sea-coast, subdued the western and mountainous part of Cilicia, +formerly the nest of those daring pirates, against whom the republic +had once been obliged to exert its utmost force, under the conduct of +the great Pompey. 179 + + 177 (return) [ Strabo, l. xiii. p. 569.] + + 178 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 197.] + + 179 (return) [ See Cellarius, Geogr Antiq. tom. ii. p. 137, upon + the limits of Isauria.] + + Our habits of thinking so fondly connect the order of the + universe with the fate of man, that this gloomy period of history + has been decorated with inundations, earthquakes, uncommon + meteors, preternatural darkness, and a crowd of prodigies + fictitious or exaggerated. 180 But a long and general famine was + a calamity of a more serious kind. It was the inevitable + consequence of rapine and oppression, which extirpated the + produce of the present and the hope of future harvests. Famine is + almost always followed by epidemical diseases, the effect of + scanty and unwholesome food. Other causes must, however, have + contributed to the furious plague, which, from the year two + hundred and fifty to the year two hundred and sixty-five, raged + without interruption in every province, every city, and almost + every family, of the Roman empire. During some time five thousand + persons died daily in Rome; and many towns, that had escaped the + hands of the Barbarians, were entirely depopulated. 181b + + 180 (return) [ Hist August p 177.] + + 181b (return) [ Hist. August. p. 177. Zosimus, l. i. p. 24. + Zonaras, l. xii. p. 623. Euseb. Chronicon. Victor in Epitom. + Victor in Cæsar. Eutropius, ix. 5. Orosius, vii. 21.] + + We have the knowledge of a very curious circumstance, of some use + perhaps in the melancholy calculation of human calamities. An + exact register was kept at Alexandria of all the citizens + entitled to receive the distribution of corn. It was found, that + the ancient number of those comprised between the ages of forty + and seventy, had been equal to the whole sum of claimants, from + fourteen to fourscore years of age, who remained alive after the + reign of Gallienus. 182 Applying this authentic fact to the most + correct tables of mortality, it evidently proves, that above half + the people of Alexandria had perished; and could we venture to + extend the analogy to the other provinces, we might suspect, that + war, pestilence, and famine, had consumed, in a few years, the + moiety of the human species. 183 + + 182 (return) [ Euseb. Hist. Eccles. vii. 21. The fact is taken + from the Letters of Dionysius, who, in the time of those + troubles, was bishop of Alexandria.] + + 183 (return) [ In a great number of parishes, 11,000 persons were + found between fourteen and eighty; 5365 between forty and + seventy. See Buffon, Histoire Naturelle, tom. ii. p. 590.] + + + + + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part I. + + Reign Of Claudius.—Defeat Of The Goths.—Victories, Triumph, And + Death Of Aurelian. + + Under the deplorable reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, the empire + was oppressed and almost destroyed by the soldiers, the tyrants, + and the barbarians. It was saved by a series of great princes, + who derived their obscure origin from the martial provinces of + Illyricum. Within a period of about thirty years, Claudius, + Aurelian, Probus, Diocletian and his colleagues, triumphed over + the foreign and domestic enemies of the state, reëstablished, + with the military discipline, the strength of the frontiers, and + deserved the glorious title of Restorers of the Roman world. + + The removal of an effeminate tyrant made way for a succession of + heroes. The indignation of the people imputed all their + calamities to Gallienus, and the far greater part were, indeed, + the consequence of his dissolute manners and careless + administration. He was even destitute of a sense of honor, which + so frequently supplies the absence of public virtue; and as long + as he was permitted to enjoy the possession of Italy, a victory + of the barbarians, the loss of a province, or the rebellion of a + general, seldom disturbed the tranquil course of his pleasures. + At length, a considerable army, stationed on the Upper Danube, + invested with the Imperial purple their leader Aureolus; who, + disdaining a confined and barren reign over the mountains of + Rhætia, passed the Alps, occupied Milan, threatened Rome, and + challenged Gallienus to dispute in the field the sovereignty of + Italy. The emperor, provoked by the insult, and alarmed by the + instant danger, suddenly exerted that latent vigor which + sometimes broke through the indolence of his temper. Forcing + himself from the luxury of the palace, he appeared in arms at the + head of his legions, and advanced beyond the Po to encounter his + competitor. The corrupted name of Pontirolo 1 still preserves the + memory of a bridge over the Adda, which, during the action, must + have proved an object of the utmost importance to both armies. + The Rhætian usurper, after receiving a total defeat and a + dangerous wound, retired into Milan. The siege of that great city + was immediately formed; the walls were battered with every engine + in use among the ancients; and Aureolus, doubtful of his internal + strength, and hopeless of foreign succors already anticipated the + fatal consequences of unsuccessful rebellion. + + 1 (return) [ Pons Aureoli, thirteen miles from Bergamo, and + thirty-two from Milan. See Cluver. Italia, Antiq. tom. i. p. 245. + Near this place, in the year 1703, the obstinate battle of + Cassano was fought between the French and Austrians. The + excellent relation of the Chevalier de Folard, who was present, + gives a very distinct idea of the ground. See Polybe de Folard, + tom. iii. p. 233-248.] + + His last resource was an attempt to seduce the loyalty of the + besiegers. He scattered libels through the camp, inviting the + troops to desert an unworthy master, who sacrificed the public + happiness to his luxury, and the lives of his most valuable + subjects to the slightest suspicions. The arts of Aureolus + diffused fears and discontent among the principal officers of his + rival. A conspiracy was formed by Heraclianus, the Prætorian + præfect, by Marcian, a general of rank and reputation, and by + Cecrops, who commanded a numerous body of Dalmatian guards. The + death of Gallienus was resolved; and notwithstanding their desire + of first terminating the siege of Milan, the extreme danger which + accompanied every moment’s delay obliged them to hasten the + execution of their daring purpose. At a late hour of the night, + but while the emperor still protracted the pleasures of the + table, an alarm was suddenly given, that Aureolus, at the head of + all his forces, had made a desperate sally from the town; + Gallienus, who was never deficient in personal bravery, started + from his silken couch, and without allowing himself time either + to put on his armor, or to assemble his guards, he mounted on + horseback, and rode full speed towards the supposed place of the + attack. Encompassed by his declared or concealed enemies, he + soon, amidst the nocturnal tumult, received a mortal dart from an + uncertain hand. Before he expired, a patriotic sentiment rising + in the mind of Gallienus, induced him to name a deserving + successor; and it was his last request, that the Imperial + ornaments should be delivered to Claudius, who then commanded a + detached army in the neighborhood of Pavia. The report at least + was diligently propagated, and the order cheerfully obeyed by the + conspirators, who had already agreed to place Claudius on the + throne. On the first news of the emperor’s death, the troops + expressed some suspicion and resentment, till the one was + removed, and the other assuaged, by a donative of twenty pieces + of gold to each soldier. They then ratified the election, and + acknowledged the merit of their new sovereign. 2 + + 2 (return) [ On the death of Gallienus, see Trebellius Pollio in + Hist. August. p. 181. Zosimus, l. i. p. 37. Zonaras, l. xii. p. + 634. Eutrop. ix. ll. Aurelius Victor in Epitom. Victor in Cæsar. + I have compared and blended them all, but have chiefly followed + Aurelius Victor, who seems to have had the best memoirs.] + + The obscurity which covered the origin of Claudius, though it was + afterwards embellished by some flattering fictions, 3 + sufficiently betrays the meanness of his birth. We can only + discover that he was a native of one of the provinces bordering + on the Danube; that his youth was spent in arms, and that his + modest valor attracted the favor and confidence of Decius. The + senate and people already considered him as an excellent officer, + equal to the most important trusts; and censured the inattention + of Valerian, who suffered him to remain in the subordinate + station of a tribune. But it was not long before that emperor + distinguished the merit of Claudius, by declaring him general and + chief of the Illyrian frontier, with the command of all the + troops in Thrace, Mæsia, Dacia, Pannonia, and Dalmatia, the + appointments of the præfect of Egypt, the establishment of the + proconsul of Africa, and the sure prospect of the consulship. By + his victories over the Goths, he deserved from the senate the + honor of a statue, and excited the jealous apprehensions of + Gallienus. It was impossible that a soldier could esteem so + dissolute a sovereign, nor is it easy to conceal a just contempt. + Some unguarded expressions which dropped from Claudius were + officiously transmitted to the royal ear. The emperor’s answer to + an officer of confidence describes in very lively colors his own + character, and that of the times. “There is not any thing capable + of giving me more serious concern, than the intelligence + contained in your last despatch; 4 that some malicious + suggestions have indisposed towards us the mind of our friend and + _parent_ Claudius. As you regard your allegiance, use every means + to appease his resentment, but conduct your negotiation with + secrecy; let it not reach the knowledge of the Dacian troops; + they are already provoked, and it might inflame their fury. I + myself have sent him some presents: be it your care that he + accept them with pleasure. Above all, let him not suspect that I + am made acquainted with his imprudence. The fear of my anger + might urge him to desperate counsels.” 5 The presents which + accompanied this humble epistle, in which the monarch solicited a + reconciliation with his discontented subject, consisted of a + considerable sum of money, a splendid wardrobe, and a valuable + service of silver and gold plate. By such arts Gallienus softened + the indignation and dispelled the fears of his Illyrian general; + and during the remainder of that reign, the formidable sword of + Claudius was always drawn in the cause of a master whom he + despised. At last, indeed, he received from the conspirators the + bloody purple of Gallienus: but he had been absent from their + camp and counsels; and however he might applaud the deed, we may + candidly presume that he was innocent of the knowledge of it. 6 + When Claudius ascended the throne, he was about fifty-four years + of age. + + 3 (return) [ Some supposed him, oddly enough, to be a bastard of + the younger Gordian. Others took advantage of the province of + Dardania, to deduce his origin from Dardanus, and the ancient + kings of Troy.] + + 4 (return) [ Notoria, a periodical and official despatch which + the emperor received from the frumentarii, or agents dispersed + through the provinces. Of these we may speak hereafter.] + + 5 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 208. Gallienus describes the plate, + vestments, etc., like a man who loved and understood those + splendid trifles.] + + 6 (return) [ Julian (Orat. i. p. 6) affirms that Claudius + acquired the empire in a just and even holy manner. But we may + distrust the partiality of a kinsman.] + + The siege of Milan was still continued, and Aureolus soon + discovered that the success of his artifices had only raised up a + more determined adversary. He attempted to negotiate with + Claudius a treaty of alliance and partition. “Tell him,” replied + the intrepid emperor, “that such proposals should have been made + to Gallienus; _he_, perhaps, might have listened to them with + patience, and accepted a colleague as despicable as himself.” 7 + This stern refusal, and a last unsuccessful effort, obliged + Aureolus to yield the city and himself to the discretion of the + conqueror. The judgment of the army pronounced him worthy of + death; and Claudius, after a feeble resistance, consented to the + execution of the sentence. Nor was the zeal of the senate less + ardent in the cause of their new sovereign. They ratified, + perhaps with a sincere transport of zeal, the election of + Claudius; and, as his predecessor had shown himself the personal + enemy of their order, they exercised, under the name of justice, + a severe revenge against his friends and family. The senate was + permitted to discharge the ungrateful office of punishment, and + the emperor reserved for himself the pleasure and merit of + obtaining by his intercession a general act of indemnity. 8 + + 7 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 203. There are some trifling + differences concerning the circumstances of the last defeat and + death of Aureolus] + + 8 (return) [ Aurelius Victor in Gallien. The people loudly prayed + for the damnation of Gallienus. The senate decreed that his + relations and servants should be thrown down headlong from the + Gemonian stairs. An obnoxious officer of the revenue had his eyes + torn out whilst under examination. Note: The expression is + curious, “terram matrem deosque inferos impias uti Gallieno + darent.”—M.] + + Such ostentatious clemency discovers less of the real character + of Claudius, than a trifling circumstance in which he seems to + have consulted only the dictates of his heart. The frequent + rebellions of the provinces had involved almost every person in + the guilt of treason, almost every estate in the case of + confiscation; and Gallienus often displayed his liberality by + distributing among his officers the property of his subjects. On + the accession of Claudius, an old woman threw herself at his + feet, and complained that a general of the late emperor had + obtained an arbitrary grant of her patrimony. This general was + Claudius himself, who had not entirely escaped the contagion of + the times. The emperor blushed at the reproach, but deserved the + confidence which she had reposed in his equity. The confession of + his fault was accompanied with immediate and ample restitution. 9 + + 9 (return) [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. 137.] + + In the arduous task which Claudius had undertaken, of restoring + the empire to its ancient splendor, it was first necessary to + revive among his troops a sense of order and obedience. With the + authority of a veteran commander, he represented to them that the + relaxation of discipline had introduced a long train of + disorders, the effects of which were at length experienced by the + soldiers themselves; that a people ruined by oppression, and + indolent from despair, could no longer supply a numerous army + with the means of luxury, or even of subsistence; that the danger + of each individual had increased with the despotism of the + military order, since princes who tremble on the throne will + guard their safety by the instant sacrifice of every obnoxious + subject. The emperor expiated on the mischiefs of a lawless + caprice, which the soldiers could only gratify at the expense of + their own blood; as their seditious elections had so frequently + been followed by civil wars, which consumed the flower of the + legions either in the field of battle, or in the cruel abuse of + victory. He painted in the most lively colors the exhausted state + of the treasury, the desolation of the provinces, the disgrace of + the Roman name, and the insolent triumph of rapacious barbarians. + It was against those barbarians, he declared, that he intended to + point the first effort of their arms. Tetricus might reign for a + while over the West, and even Zenobia might preserve the dominion + of the East. 10 These usurpers were his personal adversaries; nor + could he think of indulging any private resentment till he had + saved an empire, whose impending ruin would, unless it was timely + prevented, crush both the army and the people. + + 10 (return) [ Zonaras on this occasion mentions Posthumus but the + registers of the senate (Hist. August. p. 203) prove that + Tetricus was already emperor of the western provinces.] + + The various nations of Germany and Sarmatia, who fought under the + Gothic standard, had already collected an armament more + formidable than any which had yet issued from the Euxine. On the + banks of the Niester, one of the great rivers that discharge + themselves into that sea, they constructed a fleet of two + thousand, or even of six thousand vessels; 11 numbers which, + however incredible they may seem, would have been insufficient to + transport their pretended army of three hundred and twenty + thousand barbarians. Whatever might be the real strength of the + Goths, the vigor and success of the expedition were not adequate + to the greatness of the preparations. In their passage through + the Bosphorus, the unskilful pilots were overpowered by the + violence of the current; and while the multitude of their ships + were crowded in a narrow channel, many were dashed against each + other, or against the shore. The barbarians made several descents + on the coasts both of Europe and Asia; but the open country was + already plundered, and they were repulsed with shame and loss + from the fortified cities which they assaulted. A spirit of + discouragement and division arose in the fleet, and some of their + chiefs sailed away towards the islands of Crete and Cyprus; but + the main body, pursuing a more steady course, anchored at length + near the foot of Mount Athos, and assaulted the city of + Thessalonica, the wealthy capital of all the Macedonian + provinces. Their attacks, in which they displayed a fierce but + artless bravery, were soon interrupted by the rapid approach of + Claudius, hastening to a scene of action that deserved the + presence of a warlike prince at the head of the remaining powers + of the empire. Impatient for battle, the Goths immediately broke + up their camp, relinquished the siege of Thessalonica, left their + navy at the foot of Mount Athos, traversed the hills of + Macedonia, and pressed forwards to engage the last defence of + Italy. + + 11 (return) [ The Augustan History mentions the smaller, Zonaras + the larger number; the lively fancy of Montesquieu induced him to + prefer the latter.] + + We still posses an original letter addressed by Claudius to the + senate and people on this memorable occasion. “Conscript + fathers,” says the emperor, “know that three hundred and twenty + thousand Goths have invaded the Roman territory. If I vanquish + them, your gratitude will reward my services. Should I fall, + remember that I am the successor of Gallienus. The whole republic + is fatigued and exhausted. We shall fight after Valerian, after + Ingenuus, Regillianus, Lollianus, Posthumus, Celsus, and a + thousand others, whom a just contempt for Gallienus provoked into + rebellion. We are in want of darts, of spears, and of shields. + The strength of the empire, Gaul, and Spain, are usurped by + Tetricus, and we blush to acknowledge that the archers of the + East serve under the banners of Zenobia. Whatever we shall + perform will be sufficiently great.” 12 The melancholy firmness + of this epistle announces a hero careless of his fate, conscious + of his danger, but still deriving a well-grounded hope from the + resources of his own mind. + + 12 (return) [ Trebell. Pollio in Hist. August. p. 204.] + + The event surpassed his own expectations and those of the world. + By the most signal victories he delivered the empire from this + host of barbarians, and was distinguished by posterity under the + glorious appellation of the Gothic Claudius. The imperfect + historians of an irregular war 13 do not enable us to describe + the order and circumstances of his exploits; but, if we could be + indulged in the allusion, we might distribute into three acts + this memorable tragedy. I. The decisive battle was fought near + Naissus, a city of Dardania. The legions at first gave way, + oppressed by numbers, and dismayed by misfortunes. Their ruin was + inevitable, had not the abilities of their emperor prepared a + seasonable relief. A large detachment, rising out of the secret + and difficult passes of the mountains, which, by his order, they + had occupied, suddenly assailed the rear of the victorious Goths. + + The favorable instant was improved by the activity of Claudius. + He revived the courage of his troops, restored their ranks, and + pressed the barbarians on every side. Fifty thousand men are + reported to have been slain in the battle of Naissus. Several + large bodies of barbarians, covering their retreat with a movable + fortification of wagons, retired, or rather escaped, from the + field of slaughter. + + II. We may presume that some insurmountable difficulty, the + fatigue, perhaps, or the disobedience, of the conquerors, + prevented Claudius from completing in one day the destruction of + the Goths. The war was diffused over the province of Mæsia, + Thrace, and Macedonia, and its operations drawn out into a + variety of marches, surprises, and tumultuary engagements, as + well by sea as by land. When the Romans suffered any loss, it was + commonly occasioned by their own cowardice or rashness; but the + superior talents of the emperor, his perfect knowledge of the + country, and his judicious choice of measures as well as + officers, assured on most occasions the success of his arms. The + immense booty, the fruit of so many victories, consisted for the + greater part of cattle and slaves. A select body of the Gothic + youth was received among the Imperial troops; the remainder was + sold into servitude; and so considerable was the number of female + captives that every soldier obtained to his share two or three + women. A circumstance from which we may conclude, that the + invaders entertained some designs of settlement as well as of + plunder; since even in a naval expedition, they were accompanied + by their families. + + III. The loss of their fleet, which was either taken or sunk, had + intercepted the retreat of the Goths. A vast circle of Roman + posts, distributed with skill, supported with firmness, and + gradually closing towards a common centre, forced the barbarians + into the most inaccessible parts of Mount Hæmus, where they found + a safe refuge, but a very scanty subsistence. During the course + of a rigorous winter in which they were besieged by the emperor’s + troops, famine and pestilence, desertion and the sword, + continually diminished the imprisoned multitude. On the return of + spring, nothing appeared in arms except a hardy and desperate + band, the remnant of that mighty host which had embarked at the + mouth of the Niester. + + 13 (return) [ Hist. August. in Claud. Aurelian. et Prob. Zosimus, + l. i. p. 38-42. Zonaras, l. xii. p. 638. Aurel. Victor in Epitom. + Victor Junior in Cæsar. Eutrop. ix ll. Euseb. in Chron.] + + The pestilence which swept away such numbers of the barbarians, + at length proved fatal to their conqueror. After a short but + glorious reign of two years, Claudius expired at Sirmium, amidst + the tears and acclamations of his subjects. In his last illness, + he convened the principal officers of the state and army, and in + their presence recommended Aurelian, 14 one of his generals, as + the most deserving of the throne, and the best qualified to + execute the great design which he himself had been permitted only + to undertake. The virtues of Claudius, his valor, affability, + justice, and temperance, his love of fame and of his country, + place him in that short list of emperors who added lustre to the + Roman purple. Those virtues, however, were celebrated with + peculiar zeal and complacency by the courtly writers of the age + of Constantine, who was the great-grandson of Crispus, the elder + brother of Claudius. The voice of flattery was soon taught to + repeat, that gods, who so hastily had snatched Claudius from the + earth, rewarded his merit and piety by the perpetual + establishment of the empire in his family. 15 + + 14 (return) [ According to Zonaras, (l. xii. p. 638,) Claudius, + before his death, invested him with the purple; but this singular + fact is rather contradicted than confirmed by other writers.] + + 15 (return) [ See the Life of Claudius by Pollio, and the + Orations of Mamertinus, Eumenius, and Julian. See likewise the + Cæsars of Julian p. 318. In Julian it was not adulation, but + superstition and vanity.] + + Notwithstanding these oracles, the greatness of the Flavian + family (a name which it had pleased them to assume) was deferred + above twenty years, and the elevation of Claudius occasioned the + immediate ruin of his brother Quintilius, who possessed not + sufficient moderation or courage to descend into the private + station to which the patriotism of the late emperor had condemned + him. Without delay or reflection, he assumed the purple at + Aquileia, where he commanded a considerable force; and though his + reign lasted only seventeen days, 151 he had time to obtain the + sanction of the senate, and to experience a mutiny of the troops. + + As soon as he was informed that the great army of the Danube had + invested the well-known valor of Aurelian with Imperial power, he + sunk under the fame and merit of his rival; and ordering his + veins to be opened, prudently withdrew himself from the unequal + contest. 16 + + 151 (return) [ Such is the narrative of the greater part of the + older historians; but the number and the variety of his medals + seem to require more time, and give probability to the report of + Zosimus, who makes him reign some months.—G.] + + 16 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 42. Pollio (Hist. August. p. 107) + allows him virtues, and says, that, like Pertinax, he was killed + by the licentious soldiers. According to Dexippus, he died of a + disease.] + + The general design of this work will not permit us minutely to + relate the actions of every emperor after he ascended the throne, + much less to deduce the various fortunes of his private life. We + shall only observe, that the father of Aurelian was a peasant of + the territory of Sirmium, who occupied a small farm, the property + of Aurelius, a rich senator. His warlike son enlisted in the + troops as a common soldier, successively rose to the rank of a + centurion, a tribune, the præfect of a legion, the inspector of + the camp, the general, or, as it was then called, the duke, of a + frontier; and at length, during the Gothic war, exercised the + important office of commander-in-chief of the cavalry. In every + station he distinguished himself by matchless valor, 17 rigid + discipline, and successful conduct. He was invested with the + consulship by the emperor Valerian, who styles him, in the + pompous language of that age, the deliverer of Illyricum, the + restorer of Gaul, and the rival of the Scipios. At the + recommendation of Valerian, a senator of the highest rank and + merit, Ulpius Crinitus, whose blood was derived from the same + source as that of Trajan, adopted the Pannonian peasant, gave him + his daughter in marriage, and relieved with his ample fortune the + honorable poverty which Aurelian had preserved inviolate. 18 + + 17 (return) [ Theoclius (as quoted in the Augustan History, p. + 211) affirms that in one day he killed with his own hand + forty-eight Sarmatians, and in several subsequent engagements + nine hundred and fifty. This heroic valor was admired by the + soldiers, and celebrated in their rude songs, the burden of which + was, mille, mile, mille, occidit.] + + 18 (return) [ Acholius (ap. Hist. August. p. 213) describes the + ceremony of the adoption, as it was performed at Byzantium, in + the presence of the emperor and his great officers.] + + The reign of Aurelian lasted only four years and about nine + months; but every instant of that short period was filled by some + memorable achievement. He put an end to the Gothic war, chastised + the Germans who invaded Italy, recovered Gaul, Spain, and Britain + out of the hands of Tetricus, and destroyed the proud monarchy + which Zenobia had erected in the East on the ruins of the + afflicted empire. + + It was the rigid attention of Aurelian, even to the minutest + articles of discipline, which bestowed such uninterrupted success + on his arms. His military regulations are contained in a very + concise epistle to one of his inferior officers, who is commanded + to enforce them, as he wishes to become a tribune, or as he is + desirous to live. Gaming, drinking, and the arts of divination, + were severely prohibited. Aurelian expected that his soldiers + should be modest, frugal, and laborious; that their armor should + be constantly kept bright, their weapons sharp, their clothing + and horses ready for immediate service; that they should live in + their quarters with chastity and sobriety, without damaging the + cornfields, without stealing even a sheep, a fowl, or a bunch of + grapes, without exacting from their landlords either salt, or + oil, or wood. “The public allowance,” continues the emperor, “is + sufficient for their support; their wealth should be collected + from the spoils of the enemy, not from the tears of the + provincials.” 19 A single instance will serve to display the + rigor, and even cruelty, of Aurelian. One of the soldiers had + seduced the wife of his host. The guilty wretch was fastened to + two trees forcibly drawn towards each other, and his limbs were + torn asunder by their sudden separation. A few such examples + impressed a salutary consternation. The punishments of Aurelian + were terrible; but he had seldom occasion to punish more than + once the same offence. His own conduct gave a sanction to his + laws, and the seditious legions dreaded a chief who had learned + to obey, and who was worthy to command. + + 19 (return) [ Hist. August, p. 211 This laconic epistle is truly + the work of a soldier; it abounds with military phrases and + words, some of which cannot be understood without difficulty. + Ferramenta samiata is well explained by Salmasius. The former of + the words means all weapons of offence, and is contrasted with + Arma, defensive armor The latter signifies keen and well + sharpened.] + + + + + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part II. + + The death of Claudius had revived the fainting spirit of the + Goths. The troops which guarded the passes of Mount Hæmus, and + the banks of the Danube, had been drawn away by the apprehension + of a civil war; and it seems probable that the remaining body of + the Gothic and Vandalic tribes embraced the favorable + opportunity, abandoned their settlements of the Ukraine, + traversed the rivers, and swelled with new multitudes the + destroying host of their countrymen. Their united numbers were at + length encountered by Aurelian, and the bloody and doubtful + conflict ended only with the approach of night. 20 Exhausted by + so many calamities, which they had mutually endured and inflicted + during a twenty years’ war, the Goths and the Romans consented to + a lasting and beneficial treaty. It was earnestly solicited by + the barbarians, and cheerfully ratified by the legions, to whose + suffrage the prudence of Aurelian referred the decision of that + important question. The Gothic nation engaged to supply the + armies of Rome with a body of two thousand auxiliaries, + consisting entirely of cavalry, and stipulated in return an + undisturbed retreat, with a regular market as far as the Danube, + provided by the emperor’s care, but at their own expense. The + treaty was observed with such religious fidelity, that when a + party of five hundred men straggled from the camp in quest of + plunder, the king or general of the barbarians commanded that the + guilty leader should be apprehended and shot to death with darts, + as a victim devoted to the sanctity of their engagements. 201 It + is, however, not unlikely, that the precaution of Aurelian, who + had exacted as hostages the sons and daughters of the Gothic + chiefs, contributed something to this pacific temper. The youths + he trained in the exercise of arms, and near his own person: to + the damsels he gave a liberal and Roman education, and by + bestowing them in marriage on some of his principal officers, + gradually introduced between the two nations the closest and most + endearing connections. 21 + + 20 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 45.] + + 201 (return) [ The five hundred stragglers were all slain.—M.] + + 21 (return) [ Dexipphus (ap. Excerpta Legat. p. 12) relates the + whole transaction under the name of Vandals. Aurelian married one + of the Gothic ladies to his general Bonosus, who was able to + drink with the Goths and discover their secrets. Hist. August. p. + 247.] + + But the most important condition of peace was understood rather + than expressed in the treaty. Aurelian withdrew the Roman forces + from Dacia, and tacitly relinquished that great province to the + Goths and Vandals. 22 His manly judgment convinced him of the + solid advantages, and taught him to despise the seeming disgrace, + of thus contracting the frontiers of the monarchy. The Dacian + subjects, removed from those distant possessions which they were + unable to cultivate or defend, added strength and populousness to + the southern side of the Danube. A fertile territory, which the + repetition of barbarous inroads had changed into a desert, was + yielded to their industry, and a new province of Dacia still + preserved the memory of Trajan’s conquests. The old country of + that name detained, however, a considerable number of its + inhabitants, who dreaded exile more than a Gothic master. 23 + These degenerate Romans continued to serve the empire, whose + allegiance they had renounced, by introducing among their + conquerors the first notions of agriculture, the useful arts, and + the conveniences of civilized life. An intercourse of commerce + and language was gradually established between the opposite banks + of the Danube; and after Dacia became an independent state, it + often proved the firmest barrier of the empire against the + invasions of the savages of the North. A sense of interest + attached these more settled barbarians to the alliance of Rome, + and a permanent interest very frequently ripens into sincere and + useful friendship. This various colony, which filled the ancient + province, and was insensibly blended into one great people, still + acknowledged the superior renown and authority of the Gothic + tribe, and claimed the fancied honor of a Scandinavian origin. At + the same time, the lucky though accidental resemblance of the + name of Getæ, 231 infused among the credulous Goths a vain + persuasion, that in a remote age, their own ancestors, already + seated in the Dacian provinces, had received the instructions of + Zamolxis, and checked the victorious arms of Sesostris and + Darius. 24 + + 22 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 222. Eutrop. ix. 15. Sextus Rufus, + c. 9. de Mortibus Persecutorum, c. 9.] + + 23 (return) [ The Walachians still preserve many traces of the + Latin language and have boasted, in every age, of their Roman + descent. They are surrounded by, but not mixed with, the + barbarians. See a Memoir of M. d’Anville on ancient Dacia, in the + Academy of Inscriptions, tom. xxx.] + + 231 (return) [ The connection between the Getæ and the Goths is + still in my opinion incorrectly maintained by some learned + writers—M.] + + 24 (return) [See the first chapter of Jornandes. The Vandals, + however, (c. 22,) maintained a short independence between the + Rivers Marisia and Crissia, (Maros and Keres,) which fell into + the Teiss.] + + While the vigorous and moderate conduct of Aurelian restored the + Illyrian frontier, the nation of the Alemanni 25 violated the + conditions of peace, which either Gallienus had purchased, or + Claudius had imposed, and, inflamed by their impatient youth, + suddenly flew to arms. Forty thousand horse appeared in the + field, 26 and the numbers of the infantry doubled those of the + cavalry. 27 The first objects of their avarice were a few cities + of the Rhætian frontier; but their hopes soon rising with + success, the rapid march of the Alemanni traced a line of + devastation from the Danube to the Po. 28 + + 25 (return) [ Dexippus, p. 7—12. Zosimus, l. i. p. 43. Vopiscus + in Aurelian in Hist. August. However these historians differ in + names, (Alemanni Juthungi, and Marcomanni,) it is evident that + they mean the same people, and the same war; but it requires some + care to conciliate and explain them.] + + 26 (return) [ Cantoclarus, with his usual accuracy, chooses to + translate three hundred thousand: his version is equally + repugnant to sense and to grammar.] + + 27 (return) [ We may remark, as an instance of bad taste, that + Dexippus applies to the light infantry of the Alemanni the + technical terms proper only to the Grecian phalanx.] + + 28 (return) [ In Dexippus, we at present read Rhodanus: M. de + Valois very judiciously alters the word to Eridanus.] + + The emperor was almost at the same time informed of the + irruption, and of the retreat, of the barbarians. Collecting an + active body of troops, he marched with silence and celerity along + the skirts of the Hercynian forest; and the Alemanni, laden with + the spoils of Italy, arrived at the Danube, without suspecting, + that on the opposite bank, and in an advantageous post, a Roman + army lay concealed and prepared to intercept their return. + Aurelian indulged the fatal security of the barbarians, and + permitted about half their forces to pass the river without + disturbance and without precaution. Their situation and + astonishment gave him an easy victory; his skilful conduct + improved the advantage. Disposing the legions in a semicircular + form, he advanced the two horns of the crescent across the + Danube, and wheeling them on a sudden towards the centre, + enclosed the rear of the German host. The dismayed barbarians, on + whatsoever side they cast their eyes, beheld, with despair, a + wasted country, a deep and rapid stream, a victorious and + implacable enemy. + + Reduced to this distressed condition, the Alemanni no longer + disdained to sue for peace. Aurelian received their ambassadors + at the head of his camp, and with every circumstance of martial + pomp that could display the greatness and discipline of Rome. The + legions stood to their arms in well-ordered ranks and awful + silence. The principal commanders, distinguished by the ensigns + of their rank, appeared on horseback on either side of the + Imperial throne. Behind the throne the consecrated images of the + emperor, and his predecessors, 29 the golden eagles, and the + various titles of the legions, engraved in letters of gold, were + exalted in the air on lofty pikes covered with silver. When + Aurelian assumed his seat, his manly grace and majestic figure 30 + taught the barbarians to revere the person as well as the purple + of their conqueror. The ambassadors fell prostrate on the ground + in silence. They were commanded to rise, and permitted to speak. + By the assistance of interpreters they extenuated their perfidy, + magnified their exploits, expatiated on the vicissitudes of + fortune and the advantages of peace, and, with an ill-timed + confidence, demanded a large subsidy, as the price of the + alliance which they offered to the Romans. The answer of the + emperor was stern and imperious. He treated their offer with + contempt, and their demand with indignation, reproached the + barbarians, that they were as ignorant of the arts of war as of + the laws of peace, and finally dismissed them with the choice + only of submitting to this unconditional mercy, or awaiting the + utmost severity of his resentment. 31 Aurelian had resigned a + distant province to the Goths; but it was dangerous to trust or + to pardon these perfidious barbarians, whose formidable power + kept Italy itself in perpetual alarms. + + 29 (return) [ The emperor Claudius was certainly of the number; + but we are ignorant how far this mark of respect was extended; if + to Cæsar and Augustus, it must have produced a very awful + spectacle; a long line of the masters of the world.] + + 30 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 210.] + + 31 (return) [ Dexippus gives them a subtle and prolix oration, + worthy of a Grecian sophist.] + + Immediately after this conference, it should seem that some + unexpected emergency required the emperor’s presence in Pannonia. + + He devolved on his lieutenants the care of finishing the + destruction of the Alemanni, either by the sword, or by the surer + operation of famine. But an active despair has often triumphed + over the indolent assurance of success. The barbarians, finding + it impossible to traverse the Danube and the Roman camp, broke + through the posts in their rear, which were more feebly or less + carefully guarded; and with incredible diligence, but by a + different road, returned towards the mountains of Italy. 32 + Aurelian, who considered the war as totally extinguished, + received the mortifying intelligence of the escape of the + Alemanni, and of the ravage which they already committed in the + territory of Milan. The legions were commanded to follow, with as + much expedition as those heavy bodies were capable of exerting, + the rapid flight of an enemy whose infantry and cavalry moved + with almost equal swiftness. A few days afterwards, the emperor + himself marched to the relief of Italy, at the head of a chosen + body of auxiliaries, (among whom were the hostages and cavalry of + the Vandals,) and of all the Prætorian guards who had served in + the wars on the Danube. 33 + + 32 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 215.] + + 33 (return) [ Dexippus, p. 12.] + + As the light troops of the Alemanni had spread themselves from + the Alps to the Apennine, the incessant vigilance of Aurelian and + his officers was exercised in the discovery, the attack, and the + pursuit of the numerous detachments. Notwithstanding this + desultory war, three considerable battles are mentioned, in which + the principal force of both armies was obstinately engaged. 34 + The success was various. In the first, fought near Placentia, the + Romans received so severe a blow, that, according to the + expression of a writer extremely partial to Aurelian, the + immediate dissolution of the empire was apprehended. 35 The + crafty barbarians, who had lined the woods, suddenly attacked the + legions in the dusk of the evening, and, it is most probable, + after the fatigue and disorder of a long march. + + The fury of their charge was irresistible; but, at length, after + a dreadful slaughter, the patient firmness of the emperor rallied + his troops, and restored, in some degree, the honor of his arms. + The second battle was fought near Fano in Umbria; on the spot + which, five hundred years before, had been fatal to the brother + of Hannibal. 36 Thus far the successful Germans had advanced + along the Æmilian and Flaminian way, with a design of sacking the + defenceless mistress of the world. But Aurelian, who, watchful + for the safety of Rome, still hung on their rear, found in this + place the decisive moment of giving them a total and + irretrievable defeat. 37 The flying remnant of their host was + exterminated in a third and last battle near Pavia; and Italy was + delivered from the inroads of the Alemanni. + + 34 (return) [ Victor Junior in Aurelian.] + + 35 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 216.] + + 36 (return) [ The little river, or rather torrent, of, Metaurus, + near Fano, has been immortalized, by finding such an historian as + Livy, and such a poet as Horace.] + + 37 (return) [ It is recorded by an inscription found at Pesaro. + See Gruter cclxxvi. 3.] + + Fear has been the original parent of superstition, and every new + calamity urges trembling mortals to deprecate the wrath of their + invisible enemies. Though the best hope of the republic was in + the valor and conduct of Aurelian, yet such was the public + consternation, when the barbarians were hourly expected at the + gates of Rome, that, by a decree of the senate the Sibylline + books were consulted. Even the emperor himself, from a motive + either of religion or of policy, recommended this salutary + measure, chided the tardiness of the senate, 38 and offered to + supply whatever expense, whatever animals, whatever captives of + any nation, the gods should require. Notwithstanding this liberal + offer, it does not appear, that any human victims expiated with + their blood the sins of the Roman people. The Sibylline books + enjoined ceremonies of a more harmless nature, processions of + priests in white robes, attended by a chorus of youths and + virgins; lustrations of the city and adjacent country; and + sacrifices, whose powerful influence disabled the barbarians from + passing the mystic ground on which they had been celebrated. + However puerile in themselves, these superstitious arts were + subservient to the success of the war; and if, in the decisive + battle of Fano, the Alemanni fancied they saw an army of spectres + combating on the side of Aurelian, he received a real and + effectual aid from this imaginary reënforcement. 39 + + 38 (return) [ One should imagine, he said, that you were + assembled in a Christian church, not in the temple of all the + gods.] + + 39 (return) [ Vopiscus, in Hist. August. p. 215, 216, gives a + long account of these ceremonies from the Registers of the + senate.] + + But whatever confidence might be placed in ideal ramparts, the + experience of the past, and the dread of the future, induced the + Romans to construct fortifications of a grosser and more + substantial kind. The seven hills of Rome had been surrounded by + the successors of Romulus with an ancient wall of more than + thirteen miles. 40 The vast enclosure may seem disproportioned to + the strength and numbers of the infant-state. But it was + necessary to secure an ample extent of pasture and arable land + against the frequent and sudden incursions of the tribes of + Latium, the perpetual enemies of the republic. With the progress + of Roman greatness, the city and its inhabitants gradually + increased, filled up the vacant space, pierced through the + useless walls, covered the field of Mars, and, on every side, + followed the public highways in long and beautiful suburbs. 41 + The extent of the new walls, erected by Aurelian, and finished in + the reign of Probus, was magnified by popular estimation to near + fifty, 42 but is reduced by accurate measurement to about + twenty-one miles. 43 It was a great but a melancholy labor, since + the defence of the capital betrayed the decline of monarchy. The + Romans of a more prosperous age, who trusted to the arms of the + legions the safety of the frontier camps, 44 were very far from + entertaining a suspicion that it would ever become necessary to + fortify the seat of empire against the inroads of the barbarians. + 45 + + 40 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. iii. 5. To confirm our idea, we + may observe, that for a long time Mount Cælius was a grove of + oaks, and Mount Viminal was overrun with osiers; that, in the + fourth century, the Aventine was a vacant and solitary + retirement; that, till the time of Augustus, the Esquiline was an + unwholesome burying-ground; and that the numerous inequalities, + remarked by the ancients in the Quirinal, sufficiently prove that + it was not covered with buildings. Of the seven hills, the + Capitoline and Palatine only, with the adjacent valleys, were the + primitive habitations of the Roman people. But this subject would + require a dissertation.] + + 41 (return) [ Exspatiantia tecta multas addidere urbes, is the + expression of Pliny.] + + 42 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 222. Both Lipsius and Isaac + Vossius have eagerly embraced this measure.] + + 43 (return) [ See Nardini, Roman Antica, l. i. c. 8. * Note: But + compare Gibbon, ch. xli. note 77.—M.] + + 44 (return) [ Tacit. Hist. iv. 23.] + + 45 (return) [ For Aurelian’s walls, see Vopiscus in Hist. August. + p. 216, 222. Zosimus, l. i. p. 43. Eutropius, ix. 15. Aurel. + Victor in Aurelian Victor Junior in Aurelian. Euseb. Hieronym. et + Idatius in Chronic] + + The victory of Claudius over the Goths, and the success of + Aurelian against the Alemanni, had already restored to the arms + of Rome their ancient superiority over the barbarous nations of + the North. To chastise domestic tyrants, and to reunite the + dismembered parts of the empire, was a task reserved for the + second of those warlike emperors. Though he was acknowledged by + the senate and people, the frontiers of Italy, Africa, Illyricum, + and Thrace, confined the limits of his reign. Gaul, Spain, and + Britain, Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor, were still possessed by + two rebels, who alone, out of so numerous a list, had hitherto + escaped the dangers of their situation; and to complete the + ignominy of Rome, these rival thrones had been usurped by women. + + A rapid succession of monarchs had arisen and fallen in the + provinces of Gaul. The rigid virtues of Posthumus served only to + hasten his destruction. After suppressing a competitor, who had + assumed the purple at Mentz, he refused to gratify his troops + with the plunder of the rebellious city; and in the seventh year + of his reign, became the victim of their disappointed avarice. 46 + The death of Victorinus, his friend and associate, was occasioned + by a less worthy cause. The shining accomplishments 47 of that + prince were stained by a licentious passion, which he indulged in + acts of violence, with too little regard to the laws of society, + or even to those of love. 48 He was slain at Cologne, by a + conspiracy of jealous husbands, whose revenge would have appeared + more justifiable, had they spared the innocence of his son. After + the murder of so many valiant princes, it is somewhat remarkable, + that a female for a long time controlled the fierce legions of + Gaul, and still more singular, that she was the mother of the + unfortunate Victorinus. The arts and treasures of Victoria + enabled her successively to place Marius and Tetricus on the + throne, and to reign with a manly vigor under the name of those + dependent emperors. Money of copper, of silver, and of gold, was + coined in her name; she assumed the titles of Augusta and Mother + of the Camps: her power ended only with her life; but her life + was perhaps shortened by the ingratitude of Tetricus. 49 + + 46 (return) [ His competitor was Lollianus, or Ælianus, if, + indeed, these names mean the same person. See Tillemont, tom. + iii. p. 1177. Note: The medals which bear the name of Lollianus + are considered forgeries except one in the museum of the Prince + of Waldeck there are many extent bearing the name of Lælianus, + which appears to have been that of the competitor of Posthumus. + Eckhel. Doct. Num. t. vi. 149—G.] + + 47 (return) [ The character of this prince by Julius Aterianus + (ap. Hist. August. p. 187) is worth transcribing, as it seems + fair and impartial Victorino qui Post Junium Posthumium Gallias + rexit neminem existemo præferendum; non in virtute Trajanum; non + Antoninum in clementia; non in gravitate Nervam; non in + gubernando ærario Vespasianum; non in Censura totius vitæ ac + severitate militari Pertinacem vel Severum. Sed omnia hæc libido + et cupiditas voluptatis mulierriæ sic perdidit, ut nemo audeat + virtutes ejus in literas mittere quem constat omnium judicio + meruisse puniri.] + + 48 (return) [ He ravished the wife of Attitianus, an actuary, or + army agent, Hist. August. p. 186. Aurel. Victor in Aurelian.] + + 49 (return) [ Pollio assigns her an article among the thirty + tyrants. Hist. August. p. 200.] + + When, at the instigation of his ambitious patroness, Tetricus + assumed the ensigns of royalty, he was governor of the peaceful + province of Aquitaine, an employment suited to his character and + education. He reigned four or five years over Gaul, Spain, and + Britain, the slave and sovereign of a licentious army, whom he + dreaded, and by whom he was despised. The valor and fortune of + Aurelian at length opened the prospect of a deliverance. He + ventured to disclose his melancholy situation, and conjured the + emperor to hasten to the relief of his unhappy rival. Had this + secret correspondence reached the ears of the soldiers, it would + most probably have cost Tetricus his life; nor could he resign + the sceptre of the West without committing an act of treason + against himself. He affected the appearances of a civil war, led + his forces into the field, against Aurelian, posted them in the + most disadvantageous manner, betrayed his own counsels to his + enemy, and with a few chosen friends deserted in the beginning of + the action. The rebel legions, though disordered and dismayed by + the unexpected treachery of their chief, defended themselves with + desperate valor, till they were cut in pieces almost to a man, in + this bloody and memorable battle, which was fought near Chalons + in Champagne. 50 The retreat of the irregular auxiliaries, Franks + and Batavians, 51 whom the conqueror soon compelled or persuaded + to repass the Rhine, restored the general tranquillity, and the + power of Aurelian was acknowledged from the wall of Antoninus to + the columns of Hercules. + + 50 (return) [ Pollio in Hist. August. p. 196. Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 220. The two Victors, in the lives of Gallienus and + Aurelian. Eutrop. ix. 13. Euseb. in Chron. Of all these writers, + only the two last (but with strong probability) place the fall of + Tetricus before that of Zenobia. M. de Boze (in the Academy of + Inscriptions, tom. xxx.) does not wish, and Tillemont (tom. iii. + p. 1189) does not dare to follow them. I have been fairer than + the one, and bolder than the other.] + + 51 (return) [ Victor Junior in Aurelian. Eumenius mentions + Batavicœ; some critics, without any reason, would fain alter the + word to Bagandicœ.] As early as the reign of Claudius, the city + of Autun, alone and unassisted, had ventured to declare against + the legions of Gaul. After a siege of seven months, they stormed + and plundered that unfortunate city, already wasted by famine. 52 + Lyons, on the contrary, had resisted with obstinate disaffection + the arms of Aurelian. We read of the punishment of Lyons, 53 but + there is not any mention of the rewards of Autun. Such, indeed, + is the policy of civil war: severely to remember injuries, and to + forget the most important services. Revenge is profitable, + gratitude is expensive. + + 52 (return) [ Eumen. in Vet. Panegyr. iv. 8.] + + 53 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 246. Autun was not + restored till the reign of Diocletian. See Eumenius de + restaurandis scholis.] + + Aurelian had no sooner secured the person and provinces of + Tetricus, than he turned his arms against Zenobia, the celebrated + queen of Palmyra and the East. Modern Europe has produced several + illustrious women who have sustained with glory the weight of + empire; nor is our own age destitute of such distinguished + characters. But if we except the doubtful achievements of + Semiramis, Zenobia is perhaps the only female whose superior + genius broke through the servile indolence imposed on her sex by + the climate and manners of Asia. 54 She claimed her descent from + the Macedonian kings of Egypt, 541 equalled in beauty her + ancestor Cleopatra, and far surpassed that princess in chastity + 55 and valor. Zenobia was esteemed the most lovely as well as the + most heroic of her sex. She was of a dark complexion (for in + speaking of a lady these trifles become important). Her teeth + were of a pearly whiteness, and her large black eyes sparkled + with uncommon fire, tempered by the most attractive sweetness. + Her voice was strong and harmonious. Her manly understanding was + strengthened and adorned by study. She was not ignorant of the + Latin tongue, but possessed in equal perfection the Greek, the + Syriac, and the Egyptian languages. She had drawn up for her own + use an epitome of oriental history, and familiarly compared the + beauties of Homer and Plato under the tuition of the sublime + Longinus. + + 54 (return) [ Almost everything that is said of the manners of + Odenathus and Zenobia is taken from their lives in the Augustan + History, by Trebeljus Pollio; see p. 192, 198.] + + 541 (return) [ According to some Christian writers, Zenobia was a + Jewess. (Jost Geschichte der Israel. iv. 16. Hist. of Jews, iii. + 175.)—M.] + + 55 (return) [ She never admitted her husband’s embraces but for + the sake of posterity. If her hopes were baffled, in the ensuing + month she reiterated the experiment.] + + This accomplished woman gave her hand to Odenathus, 551 who, from + a private station, raised himself to the dominion of the East. + She soon became the friend and companion of a hero. In the + intervals of war, Odenathus passionately delighted in the + exercise of hunting; he pursued with ardor the wild beasts of the + desert, lions, panthers, and bears; and the ardor of Zenobia in + that dangerous amusement was not inferior to his own. She had + inured her constitution to fatigue, disdained the use of a + covered carriage, generally appeared on horseback in a military + habit, and sometimes marched several miles on foot at the head of + the troops. The success of Odenathus was in a great measure + ascribed to her incomparable prudence and fortitude. Their + splendid victories over the Great King, whom they twice pursued + as far as the gates of Ctesiphon, laid the foundations of their + united fame and power. The armies which they commanded, and the + provinces which they had saved, acknowledged not any other + sovereigns than their invincible chiefs. The senate and people of + Rome revered a stranger who had avenged their captive emperor, + and even the insensible son of Valerian accepted Odenathus for + his legitimate colleague. + + 551 (return) [ According to Zosimus, Odenathus was of a noble + family in Palmyra and according to Procopius, he was prince of + the Saracens, who inhabit the ranks of the Euphrates. Echhel. + Doct. Num. vii. 489.—G.] + + + + + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part III. + + After a successful expedition against the Gothic plunderers of + Asia, the Palmyrenian prince returned to the city of Emesa in + Syria. Invincible in war, he was there cut off by domestic + treason, and his favorite amusement of hunting was the cause, or + at least the occasion, of his death. 56 His nephew Mæonius + presumed to dart his javelin before that of his uncle; and though + admonished of his error, repeated the same insolence. As a + monarch, and as a sportsman, Odenathus was provoked, took away + his horse, a mark of ignominy among the barbarians, and chastised + the rash youth by a short confinement. The offence was soon + forgot, but the punishment was remembered; and Mæonius, with a + few daring associates, assassinated his uncle in the midst of a + great entertainment. Herod, the son of Odenathus, though not of + Zenobia, a young man of a soft and effeminate temper, 57 was + killed with his father. But Mæonius obtained only the pleasure of + revenge by this bloody deed. He had scarcely time to assume the + title of Augustus, before he was sacrificed by Zenobia to the + memory of her husband. 58 + + 56 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 192, 193. Zosimus, l. i. p. 36. + Zonaras, l. xii p. 633. The last is clear and probable, the + others confused and inconsistent. The text of Syncellus, if not + corrupt, is absolute nonsense.] + + 57 (return) [ Odenathus and Zenobia often sent him, from the + spoils of the enemy, presents of gems and toys, which he received + with infinite delight.] + + 58 (return) [ Some very unjust suspicions have been cast on + Zenobia, as if she was accessory to her husband’s death.] + + With the assistance of his most faithful friends, she immediately + filled the vacant throne, and governed with manly counsels + Palmyra, Syria, and the East, above five years. By the death of + Odenathus, that authority was at an end which the senate had + granted him only as a personal distinction; but his martial + widow, disdaining both the senate and Gallienus, obliged one of + the Roman generals, who was sent against her, to retreat into + Europe, with the loss of his army and his reputation. 59 Instead + of the little passions which so frequently perplex a female + reign, the steady administration of Zenobia was guided by the + most judicious maxims of policy. If it was expedient to pardon, + she could calm her resentment; if it was necessary to punish, she + could impose silence on the voice of pity. Her strict economy was + accused of avarice; yet on every proper occasion she appeared + magnificent and liberal. The neighboring states of Arabia, + Armenia, and Persia, dreaded her enmity, and solicited her + alliance. To the dominions of Odenathus, which extended from the + Euphrates to the frontiers of Bithynia, his widow added the + inheritance of her ancestors, the populous and fertile kingdom of + Egypt. 60 The emperor Claudius acknowledged her merit, and was + content, that, while _he_ pursued the Gothic war, _she_ should + assert the dignity of the empire in the East. The conduct, + however, of Zenobia was attended with some ambiguity; not is it + unlikely that she had conceived the design of erecting an + independent and hostile monarchy. She blended with the popular + manners of Roman princes the stately pomp of the courts of Asia, + and exacted from her subjects the same adoration that was paid to + the successor of Cyrus. She bestowed on her three sons 61 a Latin + education, and often showed them to the troops adorned with the + Imperial purple. For herself she reserved the diadem, with the + splendid but doubtful title of Queen of the East. + + 59 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 180, 181.] + + 60 (return) [ See, in Hist. August. p. 198, Aurelian’s testimony + to her merit; and for the conquest of Egypt, Zosimus, l. i. p. + 39, 40.] This seems very doubtful. Claudius, during all his + reign, is represented as emperor on the medals of Alexandria, + which are very numerous. If Zenobia possessed any power in Egypt, + it could only have been at the beginning of the reign of + Aurelian. The same circumstance throws great improbability on her + conquests in Galatia. Perhaps Zenobia administered Egypt in the + name of Claudius, and emboldened by the death of that prince, + subjected it to her own power.—G.] + + 61 (return) [ Timolaus, Herennianus, and Vaballathus. It is + supposed that the two former were already dead before the war. On + the last, Aurelian bestowed a small province of Armenia, with the + title of King; several of his medals are still extant. See + Tillemont, tom. 3, p. 1190.] + + When Aurelian passed over into Asia, against an adversary whose + sex alone could render her an object of contempt, his presence + restored obedience to the province of Bithynia, already shaken by + the arms and intrigues of Zenobia. 62 Advancing at the head of + his legions, he accepted the submission of Ancyra, and was + admitted into Tyana, after an obstinate siege, by the help of a + perfidious citizen. The generous though fierce temper of Aurelian + abandoned the traitor to the rage of the soldiers; a + superstitious reverence induced him to treat with lenity the + countrymen of Apollonius the philosopher. 63 Antioch was deserted + on his approach, till the emperor, by his salutary edicts, + recalled the fugitives, and granted a general pardon to all who, + from necessity rather than choice, had been engaged in the + service of the Palmyrenian Queen. The unexpected mildness of such + a conduct reconciled the minds of the Syrians, and as far as the + gates of Emesa, the wishes of the people seconded the terror of + his arms. 64 + + 62 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 44.] + + 63 (return) [ Vopiscus (in Hist. August. p. 217) gives us an + authentic letter and a doubtful vision, of Aurelian. Apollonius + of Tyana was born about the same time as Jesus Christ. His life + (that of the former) is related in so fabulous a manner by his + disciples, that we are at a loss to discover whether he was a + sage, an impostor, or a fanatic.] + + 64 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 46.] + + Zenobia would have ill deserved her reputation, had she + indolently permitted the emperor of the West to approach within a + hundred miles of her capital. The fate of the East was decided in + two great battles; so similar in almost every circumstance, that + we can scarcely distinguish them from each other, except by + observing that the first was fought near Antioch, 65 and the + second near Emesa. 66 In both the queen of Palmyra animated the + armies by her presence, and devolved the execution of her orders + on Zabdas, who had already signalized his military talents by the + conquest of Egypt. The numerous forces of Zenobia consisted for + the most part of light archers, and of heavy cavalry clothed in + complete steel. The Moorish and Illyrian horse of Aurelian were + unable to sustain the ponderous charge of their antagonists. They + fled in real or affected disorder, engaged the Palmyrenians in a + laborious pursuit, harassed them by a desultory combat, and at + length discomfited this impenetrable but unwieldy body of + cavalry. The light infantry, in the mean time, when they had + exhausted their quivers, remaining without protection against a + closer onset, exposed their naked sides to the swords of the + legions. Aurelian had chosen these veteran troops, who were + usually stationed on the Upper Danube, and whose valor had been + severely tried in the Alemannic war. 67 After the defeat of + Emesa, Zenobia found it impossible to collect a third army. As + far as the frontier of Egypt, the nations subject to her empire + had joined the standard of the conqueror, who detached Probus, + the bravest of his generals, to possess himself of the Egyptian + provinces. Palmyra was the last resource of the widow of + Odenathus. She retired within the walls of her capital, made + every preparation for a vigorous resistance, and declared, with + the intrepidity of a heroine, that the last moment of her reign + and of her life should be the same. + + 65 (return) [ At a place called Immæ. Eutropius, Sextus Rufus, + and Jerome, mention only this first battle.] + + 66 (return) [ Vopiscus (in Hist. August. p. 217) mentions only + the second.] + + 67 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 44—48. His account of the two + battles is clear and circumstantial.] + + Amid the barren deserts of Arabia, a few cultivated spots rise + like islands out of the sandy ocean. Even the name of Tadmor, or + Palmyra, by its signification in the Syriac as well as in the + Latin language, denoted the multitude of palm-trees which + afforded shade and verdure to that temperate region. The air was + pure, and the soil, watered by some invaluable springs, was + capable of producing fruits as well as corn. A place possessed of + such singular advantages, and situated at a convenient distance + 68 between the Gulf of Persia and the Mediterranean, was soon + frequented by the caravans which conveyed to the nations of + Europe a considerable part of the rich commodities of India. + Palmyra insensibly increased into an opulent and independent + city, and connecting the Roman and the Parthian monarchies by the + mutual benefits of commerce, was suffered to observe an humble + neutrality, till at length, after the victories of Trajan, the + little republic sunk into the bosom of Rome, and flourished more + than one hundred and fifty years in the subordinate though + honorable rank of a colony. It was during that peaceful period, + if we may judge from a few remaining inscriptions, that the + wealthy Palmyrenians constructed those temples, palaces, and + porticos of Grecian architecture, whose ruins, scattered over an + extent of several miles, have deserved the curiosity of our + travellers. The elevation of Odenathus and Zenobia appeared to + reflect new splendor on their country, and Palmyra, for a while, + stood forth the rival of Rome: but the competition was fatal, and + ages of prosperity were sacrificed to a moment of glory. 69 + + 68 (return) [ It was five hundred and thirty-seven miles from + Seleucia, and two hundred and three from the nearest coast of + Syria, according to the reckoning of Pliny, who, in a few words, + (Hist. Natur. v. 21,) gives an excellent description of Palmyra. + * Note: Talmor, or Palmyra, was probably at a very early period + the connecting link between the commerce of Tyre and Babylon. + Heeren, Ideen, v. i. p. ii. p. 125. Tadmor was probably built by + Solomon as a commercial station. Hist. of Jews, v. p. 271—M.] + + 69 (return) [ Some English travellers from Aleppo discovered the + ruins of Palmyra about the end of the last century. Our curiosity + has since been gratified in a more splendid manner by Messieurs + Wood and Dawkins. For the history of Palmyra, we may consult the + masterly dissertation of Dr. Halley in the Philosophical + Transactions: Lowthorp’s Abridgment, vol. iii. p. 518.] + + In his march over the sandy desert between Emesa and Palmyra, the + emperor Aurelian was perpetually harassed by the Arabs; nor could + he always defend his army, and especially his baggage, from those + flying troops of active and daring robbers, who watched the + moment of surprise, and eluded the slow pursuit of the legions. + The siege of Palmyra was an object far more difficult and + important, and the emperor, who, with incessant vigor, pressed + the attacks in person, was himself wounded with a dart. “The + Roman people,” says Aurelian, in an original letter, “speak with + contempt of the war which I am waging against a woman. They are + ignorant both of the character and of the power of Zenobia. It is + impossible to enumerate her warlike preparations, of stones, of + arrows, and of every species of missile weapons. Every part of + the walls is provided with two or three _balistæ_ and artificial + fires are thrown from her military engines. The fear of + punishment has armed her with a desperate courage. Yet still I + trust in the protecting deities of Rome, who have hitherto been + favorable to all my undertakings.” 70 Doubtful, however, of the + protection of the gods, and of the event of the siege, Aurelian + judged it more prudent to offer terms of an advantageous + capitulation; to the queen, a splendid retreat; to the citizens, + their ancient privileges. His proposals were obstinately + rejected, and the refusal was accompanied with insult. + + 70 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 218.] + + The firmness of Zenobia was supported by the hope, that in a very + short time famine would compel the Roman army to repass the + desert; and by the reasonable expectation that the kings of the + East, and particularly the Persian monarch, would arm in the + defence of their most natural ally. But fortune, and the + perseverance of Aurelian, overcame every obstacle. The death of + Sapor, which happened about this time, 71 distracted the councils + of Persia, and the inconsiderable succors that attempted to + relieve Palmyra were easily intercepted either by the arms or the + liberality of the emperor. From every part of Syria, a regular + succession of convoys safely arrived in the camp, which was + increased by the return of Probus with his victorious troops from + the conquest of Egypt. It was then that Zenobia resolved to fly. + She mounted the fleetest of her dromedaries, 72 and had already + reached the banks of the Euphrates, about sixty miles from + Palmyra, when she was overtaken by the pursuit of Aurelian’s + light horse, seized, and brought back a captive to the feet of + the emperor. Her capital soon afterwards surrendered, and was + treated with unexpected lenity. The arms, horses, and camels, + with an immense treasure of gold, silver, silk, and precious + stones, were all delivered to the conqueror, who, leaving only a + garrison of six hundred archers, returned to Emesa, and employed + some time in the distribution of rewards and punishments at the + end of so memorable a war, which restored to the obedience of + Rome those provinces that had renounced their allegiance since + the captivity of Valerian. + + 71 (return) [ From a very doubtful chronology I have endeavored + to extract the most probable date.] + + 72 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 218. Zosimus, l. i. p. 50. Though + the camel is a heavy beast of burden, the dromedary, which is + either of the same or of a kindred species, is used by the + natives of Asia and Africa on all occasions which require + celerity. The Arabs affirm, that he will run over as much ground + in one day as their fleetest horses can perform in eight or ten. + See Buffon, Hist. Naturelle, tom. xi. p. 222, and Shaw’s Travels + p. 167] + + When the Syrian queen was brought into the presence of Aurelian, + he sternly asked her, How she had presumed to rise in arms + against the emperors of Rome! The answer of Zenobia was a prudent + mixture of respect and firmness. “Because I disdained to consider + as Roman emperors an Aureolus or a Gallienus. You alone I + acknowledge as my conqueror and my sovereign.” 73 But as female + fortitude is commonly artificial, so it is seldom steady or + consistent. The courage of Zenobia deserted her in the hour of + trial; she trembled at the angry clamors of the soldiers, who + called aloud for her immediate execution, forgot the generous + despair of Cleopatra, which she had proposed as her model, and + ignominiously purchased life by the sacrifice of her fame and her + friends. It was to their counsels, which governed the weakness of + her sex, that she imputed the guilt of her obstinate resistance; + it was on their heads that she directed the vengeance of the + cruel Aurelian. The fame of Longinus, who was included among the + numerous and perhaps innocent victims of her fear, will survive + that of the queen who betrayed, or the tyrant who condemned him. + Genius and learning were incapable of moving a fierce unlettered + soldier, but they had served to elevate and harmonize the soul of + Longinus. Without uttering a complaint, he calmly followed the + executioner, pitying his unhappy mistress, and bestowing comfort + on his afflicted friends. 74 + + 73 (return) [ Pollio in Hist. August. p. 199.] + + 74 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 219. Zosimus, l. i. p. + 51.] + + Returning from the conquest of the East, Aurelian had already + crossed the Straits which divided Europe from Asia, when he was + provoked by the intelligence that the Palmyrenians had massacred + the governor and garrison which he had left among them, and again + erected the standard of revolt. Without a moment’s deliberation, + he once more turned his face towards Syria. Antioch was alarmed + by his rapid approach, and the helpless city of Palmyra felt the + irresistible weight of his resentment. We have a letter of + Aurelian himself, in which he acknowledges, 75 that old men, + women, children, and peasants, had been involved in that dreadful + execution, which should have been confined to armed rebellion; + and although his principal concern seems directed to the + reëstablishment of a temple of the Sun, he discovers some pity + for the remnant of the Palmyrenians, to whom he grants the + permission of rebuilding and inhabiting their city. But it is + easier to destroy than to restore. The seat of commerce, of arts, + and of Zenobia, gradually sunk into an obscure town, a trifling + fortress, and at length a miserable village. The present citizens + of Palmyra, consisting of thirty or forty families, have erected + their mud cottages within the spacious court of a magnificent + temple. + + 75 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 219.] + + Another and a last labor still awaited the indefatigable + Aurelian; to suppress a dangerous though obscure rebel, who, + during the revolt of Palmyra, had arisen on the banks of the + Nile. Firmus, the friend and ally, as he proudly styled himself, + of Odenathus and Zenobia, was no more than a wealthy merchant of + Egypt. In the course of his trade to India, he had formed very + intimate connections with the Saracens and the Blemmyes, whose + situation on either coast of the Red Sea gave them an easy + introduction into the Upper Egypt. The Egyptians he inflamed with + the hope of freedom, and, at the head of their furious multitude, + broke into the city of Alexandria, where he assumed the Imperial + purple, coined money, published edicts, and raised an army, + which, as he vainly boasted, he was capable of maintaining from + the sole profits of his paper trade. Such troops were a feeble + defence against the approach of Aurelian; and it seems almost + unnecessary to relate, that Firmus was routed, taken, tortured, + and put to death. 76 Aurelian might now congratulate the senate, + the people, and himself, that in little more than three years, he + had restored universal peace and order to the Roman world. + + 76 (return) [ See Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 220, 242. As an + instance of luxury, it is observed, that he had glass windows. He + was remarkable for his strength and appetite, his courage and + dexterity. From the letter of Aurelian, we may justly infer, that + Firmus was the last of the rebels, and consequently that Tetricus + was already suppressed.] + + Since the foundation of Rome, no general had more nobly deserved + a triumph than Aurelian; nor was a triumph ever celebrated with + superior pride and magnificence. 77 The pomp was opened by twenty + elephants, four royal tigers, and above two hundred of the most + curious animals from every climate of the North, the East, and + the South. They were followed by sixteen hundred gladiators, + devoted to the cruel amusement of the amphitheatre. The wealth of + Asia, the arms and ensigns of so many conquered nations, and the + magnificent plate and wardrobe of the Syrian queen, were disposed + in exact symmetry or artful disorder. The ambassadors of the most + remote parts of the earth, of Æthiopia, Arabia, Persia, + Bactriana, India, and China, all remarkable by their rich or + singular dresses, displayed the fame and power of the Roman + emperor, who exposed likewise to the public view the presents + that he had received, and particularly a great number of crowns + of gold, the offerings of grateful cities. + + The victories of Aurelian were attested by the long train of + captives who reluctantly attended his triumph, Goths, Vandals, + Sarmatians, Alemanni, Franks, Gauls, Syrians, and Egyptians. Each + people was distinguished by its peculiar inscription, and the + title of Amazons was bestowed on ten martial heroines of the + Gothic nation who had been taken in arms. 78 But every eye, + disregarding the crowd of captives, was fixed on the emperor + Tetricus and the queen of the East. The former, as well as his + son, whom he had created Augustus, was dressed in Gallic + trousers, 79 a saffron tunic, and a robe of purple. The beauteous + figure of Zenobia was confined by fetters of gold; a slave + supported the gold chain which encircled her neck, and she almost + fainted under the intolerable weight of jewels. She preceded on + foot the magnificent chariot, in which she once hoped to enter + the gates of Rome. It was followed by two other chariots, still + more sumptuous, of Odenathus and of the Persian monarch. The + triumphal car of Aurelian (it had formerly been used by a Gothic + king) was drawn, on this memorable occasion, either by four stags + or by four elephants. 80 The most illustrious of the senate, the + people, and the army, closed the solemn procession. Unfeigned + joy, wonder, and gratitude, swelled the acclamations of the + multitude; but the satisfaction of the senate was clouded by the + appearance of Tetricus; nor could they suppress a rising murmur, + that the haughty emperor should thus expose to public ignominy + the person of a Roman and a magistrate. 81 + + 77 (return) [ See the triumph of Aurelian, described by Vopiscus. + He relates the particulars with his usual minuteness; and, on + this occasion, they happen to be interesting. Hist. August. p. + 220.] + + 78 (return) [ Among barbarous nations, women have often combated + by the side of their husbands. But it is almost impossible that a + society of Amazons should ever have existed either in the old or + new world. * Note: Klaproth’s theory on the origin of such + traditions is at least recommended by its ingenuity. The males of + a tribe having gone out on a marauding expedition, and having + been cut off to a man, the females may have endeavored, for a + time, to maintain their independence in their camp village, till + their children grew up. Travels, ch. xxx. Eng. Trans—M.] + + 79 (return) [ The use of braccœ, breeches, or trousers, was + still considered in Italy as a Gallic and barbarian fashion. The + Romans, however, had made great advances towards it. To encircle + the legs and thighs with fasciœ, or bands, was understood, in + the time of Pompey and Horace, to be a proof of ill health or + effeminacy. In the age of Trajan, the custom was confined to the + rich and luxurious. It gradually was adopted by the meanest of + the people. See a very curious note of Casaubon, ad Sueton. in + August. c. 82.] + + 80 (return) [ Most probably the former; the latter seen on the + medals of Aurelian, only denote (according to the learned + Cardinal Norris) an oriental victory.] + + 81 (return) [ The expression of Calphurnius, (Eclog. i. 50) + Nullos decet captiva triumphos, as applied to Rome, contains a + very manifest allusion and censure.] + + But however, in the treatment of his unfortunate rivals, Aurelian + might indulge his pride, he behaved towards them with a generous + clemency, which was seldom exercised by the ancient conquerors. + Princes who, without success, had defended their throne or + freedom, were frequently strangled in prison, as soon as the + triumphal pomp ascended the Capitol. These usurpers, whom their + defeat had convicted of the crime of treason, were permitted to + spend their lives in affluence and honorable repose. + + The emperor presented Zenobia with an elegant villa at Tibur, or + Tivoli, about twenty miles from the capital; the Syrian queen + insensibly sunk into a Roman matron, her daughters married into + noble families, and her race was not yet extinct in the fifth + century. 82 Tetricus and his son were reinstated in their rank + and fortunes. They erected on the Cælian hill a magnificent + palace, and as soon as it was finished, invited Aurelian to + supper. On his entrance, he was agreeably surprised with a + picture which represented their singular history. They were + delineated offering to the emperor a civic crown and the sceptre + of Gaul, and again receiving at his hands the ornaments of the + senatorial dignity. The father was afterwards invested with the + government of Lucania, 83 and Aurelian, who soon admitted the + abdicated monarch to his friendship and conversation, familiarly + asked him, Whether it were not more desirable to administer a + province of Italy, than to reign beyond the Alps. The son long + continued a respectable member of the senate; nor was there any + one of the Roman nobility more esteemed by Aurelian, as well as + by his successors. 84 + + 82 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 199. Hieronym. in + Chron. Prosper in Chron. Baronius supposes that Zenobius, bishop + of Florence in the time of St. Ambrose, was of her family.] + + 83 (return) [ Vopisc. in Hist. August. p. 222. Eutropius, ix. 13. + Victor Junior. But Pollio, in Hist. August. p. 196, says, that + Tetricus was made corrector of all Italy.] + + 84 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 197.] + + So long and so various was the pomp of Aurelian’s triumph, that + although it opened with the dawn of day, the slow majesty of the + procession ascended not the Capitol before the ninth hour; and it + was already dark when the emperor returned to the palace. The + festival was protracted by theatrical representations, the games + of the circus, the hunting of wild beasts, combats of gladiators, + and naval engagements. Liberal donatives were distributed to the + army and people, and several institutions, agreeable or + beneficial to the city, contributed to perpetuate the glory of + Aurelian. A considerable portion of his oriental spoils was + consecrated to the gods of Rome; the Capitol, and every other + temple, glittered with the offerings of his ostentatious piety; + and the temple of the Sun alone received above fifteen thousand + pounds of gold. 85 This last was a magnificent structure, erected + by the emperor on the side of the Quirinal hill, and dedicated, + soon after the triumph, to that deity whom Aurelian adored as the + parent of his life and fortunes. His mother had been an inferior + priestess in a chapel of the Sun; a peculiar devotion to the god + of Light was a sentiment which the fortunate peasant imbibed in + his infancy; and every step of his elevation, every victory of + his reign, fortified superstition by gratitude. 86 + + 85 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. 222. Zosimus, l. i. p. + 56. He placed in it the images of Belus and of the Sun, which he + had brought from Palmyra. It was dedicated in the fourth year of + his reign, (Euseb in Chron.,) but was most assuredly begun + immediately on his accession.] + + 86 (return) [ See, in the Augustan History, p. 210, the omens of + his fortune. His devotion to the Sun appears in his letters, on + his medals, and is mentioned in the Cæsars of Julian. Commentaire + de Spanheim, p. 109.] + + The arms of Aurelian had vanquished the foreign and domestic foes + of the republic. We are assured, that, by his salutary rigor, + crimes and factions, mischievous arts and pernicious connivance, + the luxurious growth of a feeble and oppressive government, were + eradicated throughout the Roman world. 87 But if we attentively + reflect how much swifter is the progress of corruption than its + cure, and if we remember that the years abandoned to public + disorders exceeded the months allotted to the martial reign of + Aurelian, we must confess that a few short intervals of peace + were insufficient for the arduous work of reformation. Even his + attempt to restore the integrity of the coin was opposed by a + formidable insurrection. The emperor’s vexation breaks out in one + of his private letters. “Surely,” says he, “the gods have decreed + that my life should be a perpetual warfare. A sedition within the + walls has just now given birth to a very serious civil war. The + workmen of the mint, at the instigation of Felicissimus, a slave + to whom I had intrusted an employment in the finances, have risen + in rebellion. They are at length suppressed; but seven thousand + of my soldiers have been slain in the contest, of those troops + whose ordinary station is in Dacia, and the camps along the + Danube.” 88 Other writers, who confirm the same fact, add + likewise, that it happened soon after Aurelian’s triumph; that + the decisive engagement was fought on the Cælian hill; that the + workmen of the mint had adulterated the coin; and that the + emperor restored the public credit, by delivering out good money + in exchange for the bad, which the people was commanded to bring + into the treasury. 89 + + 87 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 221.] + + 88 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 222. Aurelian calls these soldiers + Hiberi Riporiences Castriani, and Dacisci.] + + 89 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 56. Eutropius, ix. 14. Aurel + Victor.] + + We might content ourselves with relating this extraordinary + transaction, but we cannot dissemble how much in its present form + it appears to us inconsistent and incredible. The debasement of + the coin is indeed well suited to the administration of + Gallienus; nor is it unlikely that the instruments of the + corruption might dread the inflexible justice of Aurelian. But + the guilt, as well as the profit, must have been confined to a + very few; nor is it easy to conceive by what arts they could arm + a people whom they had injured, against a monarch whom they had + betrayed. We might naturally expect that such miscreants should + have shared the public detestation with the informers and the + other ministers of oppression; and that the reformation of the + coin should have been an action equally popular with the + destruction of those obsolete accounts, which by the emperor’s + order were burnt in the forum of Trajan. 90 In an age when the + principles of commerce were so imperfectly understood, the most + desirable end might perhaps be effected by harsh and injudicious + means; but a temporary grievance of such a nature can scarcely + excite and support a serious civil war. The repetition of + intolerable taxes, imposed either on the land or on the + necessaries of life, may at last provoke those who will not, or + who cannot, relinquish their country. But the case is far + otherwise in every operation which, by whatsoever expedients, + restores the just value of money. The transient evil is soon + obliterated by the permanent benefit, the loss is divided among + multitudes; and if a few wealthy individuals experience a + sensible diminution of treasure, with their riches, they at the + same time lose the degree of weight and importance which they + derived from the possession of them. However Aurelian might + choose to disguise the real cause of the insurrection, his + reformation of the coin could furnish only a faint pretence to a + party already powerful and discontented. Rome, though deprived of + freedom, was distracted by faction. The people, towards whom the + emperor, himself a plebeian, always expressed a peculiar + fondness, lived in perpetual dissension with the senate, the + equestrian order, and the Prætorian guards. 91 Nothing less than + the firm though secret conspiracy of those orders, of the + authority of the first, the wealth of the second, and the arms of + the third, could have displayed a strength capable of contending + in battle with the veteran legions of the Danube, which, under + the conduct of a martial sovereign, had achieved the conquest of + the West and of the East. + + 90 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 222. Aurel Victor.] + + 91 (return) [ It already raged before Aurelian’s return from + Egypt. See Vipiscus, who quotes an original letter. Hist. August. + p. 244.] + + Whatever was the cause or the object of this rebellion, imputed + with so little probability to the workmen of the mint, Aurelian + used his victory with unrelenting rigor. 92 He was naturally of a + severe disposition. A peasant and a soldier, his nerves yielded + not easily to the impressions of sympathy, and he could sustain + without emotion the sight of tortures and death. Trained from his + earliest youth in the exercise of arms, he set too small a value + on the life of a citizen, chastised by military execution the + slightest offences, and transferred the stern discipline of the + camp into the civil administration of the laws. His love of + justice often became a blind and furious passion; and whenever he + deemed his own or the public safety endangered, he disregarded + the rules of evidence, and the proportion of punishments. The + unprovoked rebellion with which the Romans rewarded his services, + exasperated his haughty spirit. The noblest families of the + capital were involved in the guilt or suspicion of this dark + conspiracy. A nasty spirit of revenge urged the bloody + prosecution, and it proved fatal to one of the nephews of the + emperor. The executioners (if we may use the expression of a + contemporary poet) were fatigued, the prisons were crowded, and + the unhappy senate lamented the death or absence of its most + illustrious members. 93 Nor was the pride of Aurelian less + offensive to that assembly than his cruelty. Ignorant or + impatient of the restraints of civil institutions, he disdained + to hold his power by any other title than that of the sword, and + governed by right of conquest an empire which he had saved and + subdued. 94 + + 92 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August p. 222. The two Victors. + Eutropius ix. 14. Zosimus (l. i. p. 43) mentions only three + senators, and placed their death before the eastern war.] + + 93 (return) [ Nulla catenati feralis pompa senatus Carnificum + lassabit opus; nec carcere pleno Infelix raros numerabit curia + Patres. Calphurn. Eclog. i. 60.] + + 94 (return) [ According to the younger Victor, he sometimes wore + the diadem, Deus and Dominus appear on his medals.] + + It was observed by one of the most sagacious of the Roman + princes, that the talents of his predecessor Aurelian were better + suited to the command of an army, than to the government of an + empire. 95 Conscious of the character in which nature and + experience had enabled him to excel, he again took the field a + few months after his triumph. It was expedient to exercise the + restless temper of the legions in some foreign war, and the + Persian monarch, exulting in the shame of Valerian, still braved + with impunity the offended majesty of Rome. At the head of an + army, less formidable by its numbers than by its discipline and + valor, the emperor advanced as far as the Straits which divide + Europe from Asia. He there experienced that the most absolute + power is a weak defence against the effects of despair. He had + threatened one of his secretaries who was accused of extortion; + and it was known that he seldom threatened in vain. The last hope + which remained for the criminal was to involve some of the + principal officers of the army in his danger, or at least in his + fears. Artfully counterfeiting his master’s hand, he showed them, + in a long and bloody list, their own names devoted to death. + Without suspecting or examining the fraud, they resolved to + secure their lives by the murder of the emperor. On his march, + between Byzantium and Heraclea, Aurelian was suddenly attacked by + the conspirators, whose stations gave them a right to surround + his person, and after a short resistance, fell by the hand of + Mucapor, a general whom he had always loved and trusted. He died + regretted by the army, detested by the senate, but universally + acknowledged as a warlike and fortunate prince, the useful, + though severe reformer of a degenerate state. 96 + + 95 (return) [ It was the observation of Dioclatian. See Vopiscus + in Hist. August. p. 224.] + + 96 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 221. Zosimus, l. i. p. + 57. Eutrop ix. 15. The two Victors.] + + + + + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part + I. + + Conduct Of The Army And Senate After The Death Of Aurelian. + —Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus, And His Sons. + + Such was the unhappy condition of the Roman emperors, that, + whatever might be their conduct, their fate was commonly the + same. A life of pleasure or virtue, of severity or mildness, of + indolence or glory, alike led to an untimely grave; and almost + every reign is closed by the same disgusting repetition of + treason and murder. The death of Aurelian, however, is remarkable + by its extraordinary consequences. The legions admired, lamented, + and revenged their victorious chief. The artifice of his + perfidious secretary was discovered and punished. + + The deluded conspirators attended the funeral of their injured + sovereign, with sincere or well-feigned contrition, and submitted + to the unanimous resolution of the military order, which was + signified by the following epistle: “The brave and fortunate + armies to the senate and people of Rome.—The crime of one man, + and the error of many, have deprived us of the late emperor + Aurelian. May it please you, venerable lords and fathers! to + place him in the number of the gods, and to appoint a successor + whom your judgment shall declare worthy of the Imperial purple! + None of those whose guilt or misfortune have contributed to our + loss, shall ever reign over us.” 1 The Roman senators heard, + without surprise, that another emperor had been assassinated in + his camp; they secretly rejoiced in the fall of Aurelian; but the + modest and dutiful address of the legions, when it was + communicated in full assembly by the consul, diffused the most + pleasing astonishment. Such honors as fear and perhaps esteem + could extort, they liberally poured forth on the memory of their + deceased sovereign. Such acknowledgments as gratitude could + inspire, they returned to the faithful armies of the republic, + who entertained so just a sense of the legal authority of the + senate in the choice of an emperor. Yet, notwithstanding this + flattering appeal, the most prudent of the assembly declined + exposing their safety and dignity to the caprice of an armed + multitude. The strength of the legions was, indeed, a pledge of + their sincerity, since those who may command are seldom reduced + to the necessity of dissembling; but could it naturally be + expected, that a hasty repentance would correct the inveterate + habits of fourscore years? Should the soldiers relapse into their + accustomed seditions, their insolence might disgrace the majesty + of the senate, and prove fatal to the object of its choice. + Motives like these dictated a decree, by which the election of a + new emperor was referred to the suffrage of the military order. + + 1 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 222. Aurelius Victor + mentions a formal deputation from the troops to the senate.] + + The contention that ensued is one of the best attested, but most + improbable events in the history of mankind. 2 The troops, as if + satiated with the exercise of power, again conjured the senate to + invest one of its own body with the Imperial purple. The senate + still persisted in its refusal; the army in its request. The + reciprocal offer was pressed and rejected at least three times, + and, whilst the obstinate modesty of either party was resolved to + receive a master from the hands of the other, eight months + insensibly elapsed; an amazing period of tranquil anarchy, during + which the Roman world remained without a sovereign, without a + usurper, and without a sedition. 201 The generals and magistrates + appointed by Aurelian continued to execute their ordinary + functions; and it is observed, that a proconsul of Asia was the + only considerable person removed from his office in the whole + course of the interregnum. + + 2 (return) [ Vopiscus, our principal authority, wrote at Rome, + sixteen years only after the death of Aurelian; and, besides the + recent notoriety of the facts, constantly draws his materials + from the Journals of the Senate, and the original papers of the + Ulpian library. Zosimus and Zonaras appear as ignorant of this + transaction as they were in general of the Roman constitution.] + + 201 (return) [ The interregnum could not be more than seven + months; Aurelian was assassinated in the middle of March, the + year of Rome 1028. Tacitus was elected the 25th September in the + same year.—G.] + + An event somewhat similar, but much less authentic, is supposed + to have happened after the death of Romulus, who, in his life and + character, bore some affinity with Aurelian. The throne was + vacant during twelve months, till the election of a Sabine + philosopher, and the public peace was guarded in the same manner, + by the union of the several orders of the state. But, in the time + of Numa and Romulus, the arms of the people were controlled by + the authority of the Patricians; and the balance of freedom was + easily preserved in a small and virtuous community. 3 The decline + of the Roman state, far different from its infancy, was attended + with every circumstance that could banish from an interregnum the + prospect of obedience and harmony: an immense and tumultuous + capital, a wide extent of empire, the servile equality of + despotism, an army of four hundred thousand mercenaries, and the + experience of frequent revolutions. Yet, notwithstanding all + these temptations, the discipline and memory of Aurelian still + restrained the seditious temper of the troops, as well as the + fatal ambition of their leaders. The flower of the legions + maintained their stations on the banks of the Bosphorus, and the + Imperial standard awed the less powerful camps of Rome and of the + provinces. A generous though transient enthusiasm seemed to + animate the military order; and we may hope that a few real + patriots cultivated the returning friendship of the army and the + senate as the only expedient capable of restoring the republic to + its ancient beauty and vigor. + + 3 (return) [ Liv. i. 17 Dionys. Halicarn. l. ii. p. 115. Plutarch + in Numa, p. 60. The first of these writers relates the story like + an orator, the second like a lawyer, and the third like a + moralist, and none of them probably without some intermixture of + fable.] + + On the twenty-fifth of September, near eight months after the + murder of Aurelian, the consul convoked an assembly of the + senate, and reported the doubtful and dangerous situation of the + empire. He slightly insinuated, that the precarious loyalty of + the soldiers depended on the chance of every hour, and of every + accident; but he represented, with the most convincing eloquence, + the various dangers that might attend any further delay in the + choice of an emperor. Intelligence, he said, was already + received, that the Germans had passed the Rhine, and occupied + some of the strongest and most opulent cities of Gaul. The + ambition of the Persian king kept the East in perpetual alarms; + Egypt, Africa, and Illyricum, were exposed to foreign and + domestic arms, and the levity of Syria would prefer even a female + sceptre to the sanctity of the Roman laws. The consul, then + addressing himself to Tacitus, the first of the senators, 4 + required his opinion on the important subject of a proper + candidate for the vacant throne. + + 4 (return) [ Vopiscus (in Hist. August p. 227) calls him “primæ + sententia consularis;” and soon afterwards Princeps senatus. It + is natural to suppose, that the monarchs of Rome, disdaining that + humble title, resigned it to the most ancient of the senators.] + + If we can prefer personal merit to accidental greatness, we shall + esteem the birth of Tacitus more truly noble than that of kings. + He claimed his descent from the philosophic historian whose + writings will instruct the last generations of mankind. 5 The + senator Tacitus was then seventy-five years of age. 6 The long + period of his innocent life was adorned with wealth and honors. + He had twice been invested with the consular dignity, 7 and + enjoyed with elegance and sobriety his ample patrimony of between + two and three millions sterling. 8 The experience of so many + princes, whom he had esteemed or endured, from the vain follies + of Elagabalus to the useful rigor of Aurelian, taught him to form + a just estimate of the duties, the dangers, and the temptations + of their sublime station. From the assiduous study of his + immortal ancestor, he derived the knowledge of the Roman + constitution, and of human nature. 9 The voice of the people had + already named Tacitus as the citizen the most worthy of empire. + The ungrateful rumor reached his ears, and induced him to seek + the retirement of one of his villas in Campania. He had passed + two months in the delightful privacy of Baiæ, when he reluctantly + obeyed the summons of the consul to resume his honorable place in + the senate, and to assist the republic with his counsels on this + important occasion. + + 5 (return) [ The only objection to this genealogy is, that the + historian was named Cornelius, the emperor, Claudius. But under + the lower empire, surnames were extremely various and uncertain.] + + 6 (return) [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. 637. The Alexandrian Chronicle, + by an obvious mistake, transfers that age to Aurelian.] + + 7 (return) [ In the year 273, he was ordinary consul. But he must + have been Suffectus many years before, and most probably under + Valerian.] + + 8 (return) [ Bis millies octingenties. Vopiscus in Hist. August + p. 229. This sum, according to the old standard, was equivalent + to eight hundred and forty thousand Roman pounds of silver, each + of the value of three pounds sterling. But in the age of Tacitus, + the coin had lost much of its weight and purity.] + + 9 (return) [ After his accession, he gave orders that ten copies + of the historian should be annually transcribed and placed in the + public libraries. The Roman libraries have long since perished, + and the most valuable part of Tacitus was preserved in a single + Ms., and discovered in a monastery of Westphalia. See Bayle, + Dictionnaire, Art. Tacite, and Lipsius ad Annal. ii. 9.] + + He arose to speak, when from every quarter of the house, he was + saluted with the names of Augustus and emperor. “Tacitus + Augustus, the gods preserve thee! we choose thee for our + sovereign; to thy care we intrust the republic and the world. + Accept the empire from the authority of the senate. It is due to + thy rank, to thy conduct, to thy manners.” As soon as the tumult + of acclamations subsided, Tacitus attempted to decline the + dangerous honor, and to express his wonder, that they should + elect his age and infirmities to succeed the martial vigor of + Aurelian. “Are these limbs, conscript fathers! fitted to sustain + the weight of armor, or to practise the exercises of the camp? + The variety of climates, and the hardships of a military life, + would soon oppress a feeble constitution, which subsists only by + the most tender management. My exhausted strength scarcely + enables me to discharge the duty of a senator; how insufficient + would it prove to the arduous labors of war and government! Can + you hope, that the legions will respect a weak old man, whose + days have been spent in the shade of peace and retirement? Can + you desire that I should ever find reason to regret the favorable + opinion of the senate?” 10 + + 10 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 227.] + + The reluctance of Tacitus (and it might possibly be sincere) was + encountered by the affectionate obstinacy of the senate. Five + hundred voices repeated at once, in eloquent confusion, that the + greatest of the Roman princes, Numa, Trajan, Hadrian, and the + Antonines, had ascended the throne in a very advanced season of + life; that the mind, not the body, a sovereign, not a soldier, + was the object of their choice; and that they expected from him + no more than to guide by his wisdom the valor of the legions. + These pressing though tumultuary instances were seconded by a + more regular oration of Metius Falconius, the next on the + consular bench to Tacitus himself. He reminded the assembly of + the evils which Rome had endured from the vices of headstrong and + capricious youths, congratulated them on the election of a + virtuous and experienced senator, and, with a manly, though + perhaps a selfish, freedom, exhorted Tacitus to remember the + reasons of his elevation, and to seek a successor, not in his own + family, but in the republic. The speech of Falconius was enforced + by a general acclamation. The emperor elect submitted to the + authority of his country, and received the voluntary homage of + his equals. The judgment of the senate was confirmed by the + consent of the Roman people and of the Prætorian guards. 11 + + 11 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 228. Tacitus addressed the + Prætorians by the appellation of sanctissimi milites, and the + people by that of sacratissim. Quirites.] + + The administration of Tacitus was not unworthy of his life and + principles. A grateful servant of the senate, he considered that + national council as the author, and himself as the subject, of + the laws. 12 He studied to heal the wounds which Imperial pride, + civil discord, and military violence, had inflicted on the + constitution, and to restore, at least, the image of the ancient + republic, as it had been preserved by the policy of Augustus, and + the virtues of Trajan and the Antonines. It may not be useless to + recapitulate some of the most important prerogatives which the + senate appeared to have regained by the election of Tacitus. 13 + 1. To invest one of their body, under the title of emperor, with + the general command of the armies, and the government of the + frontier provinces. 2. To determine the list, or, as it was then + styled, the College of Consuls. They were twelve in number, who, + in successive pairs, each, during the space of two months, filled + the year, and represented the dignity of that ancient office. The + authority of the senate, in the nomination of the consuls, was + exercised with such independent freedom, that no regard was paid + to an irregular request of the emperor in favor of his brother + Florianus. “The senate,” exclaimed Tacitus, with the honest + transport of a patriot, “understand the character of a prince + whom they have chosen.” 3. To appoint the proconsuls and + presidents of the provinces, and to confer on all the magistrates + their civil jurisdiction. 4. To receive appeals through the + intermediate office of the præfect of the city from all the + tribunals of the empire. 5. To give force and validity, by their + decrees, to such as they should approve of the emperor’s edicts. + 6. To these several branches of authority we may add some + inspection over the finances, since, even in the stern reign of + Aurelian, it was in their power to divert a part of the revenue + from the public service. 14 + + 12 (return) [ In his manumissions he never exceeded the number of + a hundred, as limited by the Caninian law, which was enacted + under Augustus, and at length repealed by Justinian. See Casaubon + ad locum Vopisci.] + + 13 (return) [ See the lives of Tacitus, Florianus, and Probus, in + the Augustan History; we may be well assured, that whatever the + soldier gave the senator had already given.] + + 14 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 216. The passage is + perfectly clear, both Casaubon and Salmasius wish to correct it.] + + Circular epistles were sent, without delay, to all the principal + cities of the empire, Treves, Milan, Aquileia, Thessalonica, + Corinth, Athens, Antioch, Alexandria, and Carthage, to claim + their obedience, and to inform them of the happy revolution, + which had restored the Roman senate to its ancient dignity. Two + of these epistles are still extant. We likewise possess two very + singular fragments of the private correspondence of the senators + on this occasion. They discover the most excessive joy, and the + most unbounded hopes. “Cast away your indolence,” it is thus that + one of the senators addresses his friend, “emerge from your + retirements of Baiæ and Puteoli. Give yourself to the city, to + the senate. Rome flourishes, the whole republic flourishes. + Thanks to the Roman army, to an army truly Roman; at length we + have recovered our just authority, the end of all our desires. We + hear appeals, we appoint proconsuls, we create emperors; perhaps + too we may restrain them—to the wise a word is sufficient.” 15 + These lofty expectations were, however, soon disappointed; nor, + indeed, was it possible that the armies and the provinces should + long obey the luxurious and unwarlike nobles of Rome. On the + slightest touch, the unsupported fabric of their pride and power + fell to the ground. The expiring senate displayed a sudden + lustre, blazed for a moment, and was extinguished forever. + + 15 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 230, 232, 233. The + senators celebrated the happy restoration with hecatombs and + public rejoicings.] + + All that had yet passed at Rome was no more than a theatrical + representation, unless it was ratified by the more substantial + power of the legions. Leaving the senators to enjoy their dream + of freedom and ambition, Tacitus proceeded to the Thracian camp, + and was there, by the Prætorian præfect, presented to the + assembled troops, as the prince whom they themselves had + demanded, and whom the senate had bestowed. As soon as the + præfect was silent, the emperor addressed himself to the soldiers + with eloquence and propriety. He gratified their avarice by a + liberal distribution of treasure, under the names of pay and + donative. He engaged their esteem by a spirited declaration, that + although his age might disable him from the performance of + military exploits, his counsels should never be unworthy of a + Roman general, the successor of the brave Aurelian. 16 + + 16 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 228.] + + Whilst the deceased emperor was making preparations for a second + expedition into the East, he had negotiated with the Alani, 161 a + Scythian people, who pitched their tents in the neighborhood of + the Lake Mæotis. Those barbarians, allured by presents and + subsidies, had promised to invade Persia with a numerous body of + light cavalry. They were faithful to their engagements; but when + they arrived on the Roman frontier, Aurelian was already dead, + the design of the Persian war was at least suspended, and the + generals, who, during the interregnum, exercised a doubtful + authority, were unprepared either to receive or to oppose them. + Provoked by such treatment, which they considered as trifling and + perfidious, the Alani had recourse to their own valor for their + payment and revenge; and as they moved with the usual swiftness + of Tartars, they had soon spread themselves over the provinces of + Pontus, Cappadocia, Cilicia, and Galatia. The legions, who from + the opposite shores of the Bosphorus could almost distinguish the + flames of the cities and villages, impatiently urged their + general to lead them against the invaders. The conduct of Tacitus + was suitable to his age and station. He convinced the barbarians + of the faith, as well as the power, of the empire. Great numbers + of the Alani, appeased by the punctual discharge of the + engagements which Aurelian had contracted with them, relinquished + their booty and captives, and quietly retreated to their own + deserts, beyond the Phasis. Against the remainder, who refused + peace, the Roman emperor waged, in person, a successful war. + Seconded by an army of brave and experienced veterans, in a few + weeks he delivered the provinces of Asia from the terror of the + Scythian invasion. 17 + + 161 (return) [ On the Alani, see ch. xxvi. note 55.—M.] + + 17 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 230. Zosimus, l. i. p. + 57. Zonaras, l. xii. p. 637. Two passages in the life of Probus + (p. 236, 238) convince me, that these Scythian invaders of Pontus + were Alani. If we may believe Zosimus, (l. i. p. 58,) Florianus + pursued them as far as the Cimmerian Bosphorus. But he had + scarcely time for so long and difficult an expedition.] + + But the glory and life of Tacitus were of short duration. + Transported, in the depth of winter, from the soft retirement of + Campania to the foot of Mount Caucasus, he sunk under the + unaccustomed hardships of a military life. The fatigues of the + body were aggravated by the cares of the mind. For a while, the + angry and selfish passions of the soldiers had been suspended by + the enthusiasm of public virtue. They soon broke out with + redoubled violence, and raged in the camp, and even in the tent + of the aged emperor. His mild and amiable character served only + to inspire contempt, and he was incessantly tormented with + factions which he could not assuage, and by demands which it was + impossible to satisfy. Whatever flattering expectations he had + conceived of reconciling the public disorders, Tacitus soon was + convinced that the licentiousness of the army disdained the + feeble restraint of laws, and his last hour was hastened by + anguish and disappointment. It may be doubtful whether the + soldiers imbrued their hands in the blood of this innocent + prince. 18 It is certain that their insolence was the cause of + his death. He expired at Tyana in Cappadocia, after a reign of + only six months and about twenty days. 19 + + 18 (return) [ Eutropius and Aurelius Victor only say that he + died; Victor Junior adds, that it was of a fever. Zosimus and + Zonaras affirm, that he was killed by the soldiers. Vopiscus + mentions both accounts, and seems to hesitate. Yet surely these + jarring opinions are easily reconciled.] + + 19 (return) [ According to the two Victors, he reigned exactly + two hundred days.] + + The eyes of Tacitus were scarcely closed, before his brother + Florianus showed himself unworthy to reign, by the hasty + usurpation of the purple, without expecting the approbation of + the senate. The reverence for the Roman constitution, which yet + influenced the camp and the provinces, was sufficiently strong to + dispose them to censure, but not to provoke them to oppose, the + precipitate ambition of Florianus. The discontent would have + evaporated in idle murmurs, had not the general of the East, the + heroic Probus, boldly declared himself the avenger of the senate. + + The contest, however, was still unequal; nor could the most able + leader, at the head of the effeminate troops of Egypt and Syria, + encounter, with any hopes of victory, the legions of Europe, + whose irresistible strength appeared to support the brother of + Tacitus. But the fortune and activity of Probus triumphed over + every obstacle. The hardy veterans of his rival, accustomed to + cold climates, sickened and consumed away in the sultry heats of + Cilicia, where the summer proved remarkably unwholesome. Their + numbers were diminished by frequent desertion; the passes of the + mountains were feebly defended; Tarsus opened its gates; and the + soldiers of Florianus, when they had permitted him to enjoy the + Imperial title about three months, delivered the empire from + civil war by the easy sacrifice of a prince whom they despised. + 20 + + 20 (return) [ Hist. August, p. 231. Zosimus, l. i. p. 58, 59. + Zonaras, l. xii. p. 637. Aurelius Victor says, that Probus + assumed the empire in Illyricum; an opinion which (though adopted + by a very learned man) would throw that period of history into + inextricable confusion.] + + The perpetual revolutions of the throne had so perfectly erased + every notion of hereditary title, that the family of an + unfortunate emperor was incapable of exciting the jealousy of his + successors. The children of Tacitus and Florianus were permitted + to descend into a private station, and to mingle with the general + mass of the people. Their poverty indeed became an additional + safeguard to their innocence. When Tacitus was elected by the + senate, he resigned his ample patrimony to the public service; 21 + an act of generosity specious in appearance, but which evidently + disclosed his intention of transmitting the empire to his + descendants. The only consolation of their fallen state was the + remembrance of transient greatness, and a distant hope, the child + of a flattering prophecy, that at the end of a thousand years, a + monarch of the race of Tacitus should arise, the protector of the + senate, the restorer of Rome, and the conqueror of the whole + earth. 22 + + 21 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 229] + + 22 (return) [ He was to send judges to the Parthians, Persians, + and Sarmatians, a president to Taprobani, and a proconsul to the + Roman island, (supposed by Casaubon and Salmasius to mean + Britain.) Such a history as mine (says Vopiscus with proper + modesty) will not subsist a thousand years, to expose or justify + the prediction.] + + The peasants of Illyricum, who had already given Claudius and + Aurelian to the sinking empire, had an equal right to glory in + the elevation of Probus. 23 Above twenty years before, the + emperor Valerian, with his usual penetration, had discovered the + rising merit of the young soldier, on whom he conferred the rank + of tribune, long before the age prescribed by the military + regulations. The tribune soon justified his choice, by a victory + over a great body of Sarmatians, in which he saved the life of a + near relation of Valerian; and deserved to receive from the + emperor’s hand the collars, bracelets, spears, and banners, the + mural and the civic crown, and all the honorable rewards reserved + by ancient Rome for successful valor. The third, and afterwards + the tenth, legion were intrusted to the command of Probus, who, + in every step of his promotion, showed himself superior to the + station which he filled. Africa and Pontus, the Rhine, the + Danube, the Euphrates, and the Nile, by turns afforded him the + most splendid occasions of displaying his personal prowess and + his conduct in war. Aurelian was indebted for the honest courage + with which he often checked the cruelty of his master. Tacitus, + who desired by the abilities of his generals to supply his own + deficiency of military talents, named him commander-in-chief of + all the eastern provinces, with five times the usual salary, the + promise of the consulship, and the hope of a triumph. When Probus + ascended the Imperial throne, he was about forty-four years of + age; 24 in the full possession of his fame, of the love of the + army, and of a mature vigor of mind and body. + + 23 (return) [ For the private life of Probus, see Vopiscus in + Hist. August p. 234—237] + + 24 (return) [ According to the Alexandrian chronicle, he was + fifty at the time of his death.] + + His acknowledged merit, and the success of his arms against + Florianus, left him without an enemy or a competitor. Yet, if we + may credit his own professions, very far from being desirous of + the empire, he had accepted it with the most sincere reluctance. + “But it is no longer in my power,” says Probus, in a private + letter, “to lay down a title so full of envy and of danger. I + must continue to personate the character which the soldiers have + imposed upon me.” 25 His dutiful address to the senate displayed + the sentiments, or at least the language, of a Roman patriot: + “When you elected one of your order, conscript fathers! to + succeed the emperor Aurelian, you acted in a manner suitable to + your justice and wisdom. For you are the legal sovereigns of the + world, and the power which you derive from your ancestors will + descend to your posterity. Happy would it have been, if + Florianus, instead of usurping the purple of his brother, like a + private inheritance, had expected what your majesty might + determine, either in his favor, or in that of any other person. + The prudent soldiers have punished his rashness. To me they have + offered the title of Augustus. But I submit to your clemency my + pretensions and my merits.” 26 When this respectful epistle was + read by the consul, the senators were unable to disguise their + satisfaction, that Probus should condescend thus numbly to + solicit a sceptre which he already possessed. They celebrated + with the warmest gratitude his virtues, his exploits, and above + all his moderation. A decree immediately passed, without a + dissenting voice, to ratify the election of the eastern armies, + and to confer on their chief all the several branches of the + Imperial dignity: the names of Cæsar and Augustus, the title of + Father of his country, the right of making in the same day three + motions in the senate, 27 the office of Pontifex Maximus, the + tribunitian power, and the proconsular command; a mode of + investiture, which, though it seemed to multiply the authority of + the emperor, expressed the constitution of the ancient republic. + The reign of Probus corresponded with this fair beginning. The + senate was permitted to direct the civil administration of the + empire. Their faithful general asserted the honor of the Roman + arms, and often laid at their feet crowns of gold and barbaric + trophies, the fruits of his numerous victories. 28 Yet, whilst he + gratified their vanity, he must secretly have despised their + indolence and weakness. Though it was every moment in their power + to repeal the disgraceful edict of Gallienus, the proud + successors of the Scipios patiently acquiesced in their exclusion + from all military employments. They soon experienced, that those + who refuse the sword must renounce the sceptre. + + 25 (return) [ This letter was addressed to the Prætorian præfect, + whom (on condition of his good behavior) he promised to continue + in his great office. See Hist. August. p. 237.] + + 26 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 237. The date of the + letter is assuredly faulty. Instead of Nen. Februar. we may read + Non August.] + + 27 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 238. It is odd that the senate + should treat Probus less favorably than Marcus Antoninus. That + prince had received, even before the death of Pius, Jus quintoe + relationis. See Capitolin. in Hist. August. p. 24.] + + 28 (return) [ See the dutiful letter of Probus to the senate, + after his German victories. Hist. August. p. 239.] + + + + + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part + II. + + The strength of Aurelian had crushed on every side the enemies of + Rome. After his death they seemed to revive with an increase of + fury and of numbers. They were again vanquished by the active + vigor of Probus, who, in a short reign of about six years, 29 + equalled the fame of ancient heroes, and restored peace and order + to every province of the Roman world. The dangerous frontier of + Rhætia he so firmly secured, that he left it without the + suspicion of an enemy. He broke the wandering power of the + Sarmatian tribes, and by the terror of his arms compelled those + barbarians to relinquish their spoil. The Gothic nation courted + the alliance of so warlike an emperor. 30 He attacked the + Isaurians in their mountains, besieged and took several of their + strongest castles, 31 and flattered himself that he had forever + suppressed a domestic foe, whose independence so deeply wounded + the majesty of the empire. The troubles excited by the usurper + Firmus in the Upper Egypt had never been perfectly appeased, and + the cities of Ptolemais and Coptos, fortified by the alliance of + the Blemmyes, still maintained an obscure rebellion. The + chastisement of those cities, and of their auxiliaries the + savages of the South, is said to have alarmed the court of + Persia, 32 and the Great King sued in vain for the friendship of + Probus. Most of the exploits which distinguished his reign were + achieved by the personal valor and conduct of the emperor, + insomuch that the writer of his life expresses some amazement + how, in so short a time, a single man could be present in so many + distant wars. The remaining actions he intrusted to the care of + his lieutenants, the judicious choice of whom forms no + inconsiderable part of his glory. Carus, Diocletian, Maximian, + Constantius, Galerius, Asclepiodatus, Annibalianus, and a crowd + of other chiefs, who afterwards ascended or supported the throne, + were trained to arms in the severe school of Aurelian and Probus. + 33 + + 29 (return) [ The date and duration of the reign of Probus are + very correctly ascertained by Cardinal Noris in his learned work, + De Epochis Syro-Macedonum, p. 96—105. A passage of Eusebius + connects the second year of Probus with the æras of several of + the Syrian cities.] + + 30 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 239.] + + 31 (return) [ Zosimus (l. i. p. 62—65) tells us a very long and + trifling story of Lycius, the Isaurian robber.] + + 32 (return) [ Zosim. l. i. p. 65. Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. + 239, 240. But it seems incredible that the defeat of the savages + of Æthiopia could affect the Persian monarch.] + + 33 (return) [ Besides these well-known chiefs, several others are + named by Vopiscus, (Hist. August. p. 241,) whose actions have not + reached knowledge.] + + But the most important service which Probus rendered to the + republic was the deliverance of Gaul, and the recovery of seventy + flourishing cities oppressed by the barbarians of Germany, who, + since the death of Aurelian, had ravaged that great province with + impunity. 34 Among the various multitude of those fierce invaders + we may distinguish, with some degree of clearness, three great + armies, or rather nations, successively vanquished by the valor + of Probus. He drove back the Franks into their morasses; a + descriptive circumstance from whence we may infer, that the + confederacy known by the manly appellation of _Free_, already + occupied the flat maritime country, intersected and almost + overflown by the stagnating waters of the Rhine, and that several + tribes of the Frisians and Batavians had acceded to their + alliance. He vanquished the Burgundians, a considerable people of + the Vandalic race. 341 They had wandered in quest of booty from + the banks of the Oder to those of the Seine. They esteemed + themselves sufficiently fortunate to purchase, by the restitution + of all their booty, the permission of an undisturbed retreat. + They attempted to elude that article of the treaty. Their + punishment was immediate and terrible. 35 But of all the invaders + of Gaul, the most formidable were the Lygians, a distant people, + who reigned over a wide domain on the frontiers of Poland and + Silesia. 36 In the Lygian nation, the Arii held the first rank by + their numbers and fierceness. “The Arii” (it is thus that they + are described by the energy of Tacitus) “study to improve by art + and circumstances the innate terrors of their barbarism. Their + shields are black, their bodies are painted black. They choose + for the combat the darkest hour of the night. Their host + advances, covered as it were with a funeral shade; 37 nor do they + often find an enemy capable of sustaining so strange and infernal + an aspect. Of all our senses, the eyes are the first vanquished + in battle.” 38 Yet the arms and discipline of the Romans easily + discomfited these horrid phantoms. The Lygii were defeated in a + general engagement, and Semno, the most renowned of their chiefs, + fell alive into the hands of Probus. That prudent emperor, + unwilling to reduce a brave people to despair, granted them an + honorable capitulation, and permitted them to return in safety to + their native country. But the losses which they suffered in the + march, the battle, and the retreat, broke the power of the + nation: nor is the Lygian name ever repeated in the history + either of Germany or of the empire. The deliverance of Gaul is + reported to have cost the lives of four hundred thousand of the + invaders; a work of labor to the Romans, and of expense to the + emperor, who gave a piece of gold for the head of every + barbarian. 39 But as the fame of warriors is built on the + destruction of human kind, we may naturally suspect that the + sanguinary account was multiplied by the avarice of the soldiers, + and accepted without any very severe examination by the liberal + vanity of Probus. + + 34 (return) [ See the Cæsars of Julian, and Hist. August. p. 238, + 240, 241.] + + 341 (return) [ It was only under the emperors Diocletian and + Maximian, that the Burgundians, in concert with the Alemanni, + invaded the interior of Gaul; under the reign of Probus, they did + no more than pass the river which separated them from the Roman + Empire: they were repelled. Gatterer presumes that this river was + the Danube; a passage in Zosimus appears to me rather to indicate + the Rhine. Zos. l. i. p. 37, edit H. Etienne, 1581.—G. On the + origin of the Burgundians may be consulted Malte Brun, Geogr vi. + p. 396, (edit. 1831,) who observes that all the remains of the + Burgundian language indicate that they spoke a Gothic + dialect.—M.] + + 35 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 62. Hist. August. p. 240. But the + latter supposes the punishment inflicted with the consent of + their kings: if so, it was partial, like the offence.] + + 36 (return) [ See Cluver. Germania Antiqua, l. iii. Ptolemy + places in their country the city of Calisia, probably Calish in + Silesia. * Note: Luden (vol ii. 501) supposes that these have + been erroneously identified with the Lygii of Tacitus. Perhaps + one fertile source of mistakes has been, that the Romans have + turned appellations into national names. Malte Brun observes of + the Lygii, “that their name appears Sclavonian, and signifies + ‘inhabitants of plains;’ they are probably the Lieches of the + middle ages, and the ancestors of the Poles. We find among the + Arii the worship of the two twin gods known in the Sclavian + mythology.” Malte Brun, vol. i. p. 278, (edit. 1831.)—M. But + compare Schafarik, Slawische Alterthumer, 1, p. 406. They were of + German or Keltish descent, occupying the Wendish (or Slavian) + district, Luhy.—M. 1845.] + + 37 (return) [ Feralis umbra, is the expression of Tacitus: it is + surely a very bold one.] + + 38 (return) [ Tacit. Germania, (c. 43.)] + + 39 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 238] + + Since the expedition of Maximin, the Roman generals had confined + their ambition to a defensive war against the nations of Germany, + who perpetually pressed on the frontiers of the empire. The more + daring Probus pursued his Gallic victories, passed the Rhine, and + displayed his invincible eagles on the banks of the Elbe and the + Neckar. He was fully convinced that nothing could reconcile the + minds of the barbarians to peace, unless they experienced, in + their own country, the calamities of war. Germany, exhausted by + the ill success of the last emigration, was astonished by his + presence. Nine of the most considerable princes repaired to his + camp, and fell prostrate at his feet. Such a treaty was humbly + received by the Germans, as it pleased the conqueror to dictate. + He exacted a strict restitution of the effects and captives which + they had carried away from the provinces; and obliged their own + magistrates to punish the more obstinate robbers who presumed to + detain any part of the spoil. A considerable tribute of corn, + cattle, and horses, the only wealth of barbarians, was reserved + for the use of the garrisons which Probus established on the + limits of their territory. He even entertained some thoughts of + compelling the Germans to relinquish the exercise of arms, and to + trust their differences to the justice, their safety to the + power, of Rome. To accomplish these salutary ends, the constant + residence of an Imperial governor, supported by a numerous army, + was indispensably requisite. Probus therefore judged it more + expedient to defer the execution of so great a design; which was + indeed rather of specious than solid utility. 40 Had Germany been + reduced into the state of a province, the Romans, with immense + labor and expense, would have acquired only a more extensive + boundary to defend against the fiercer and more active barbarians + of Scythia. + + 40 (return) [ Hist. August. 238, 239. Vopiscus quotes a letter + from the emperor to the senate, in which he mentions his design + of reducing Germany into a province.] + + Instead of reducing the warlike natives of Germany to the + condition of subjects, Probus contented himself with the humble + expedient of raising a bulwark against their inroads. The country + which now forms the circle of Swabia had been left desert in the + age of Augustus by the emigration of its ancient inhabitants. 41 + The fertility of the soil soon attracted a new colony from the + adjacent provinces of Gaul. Crowds of adventurers, of a roving + temper and of desperate fortunes, occupied the doubtful + possession, and acknowledged, by the payment of tithes, the + majesty of the empire. 42 To protect these new subjects, a line + of frontier garrisons was gradually extended from the Rhine to + the Danube. About the reign of Hadrian, when that mode of defence + began to be practised, these garrisons were connected and covered + by a strong intrenchment of trees and palisades. In the place of + so rude a bulwark, the emperor Probus constructed a stone wall of + a considerable height, and strengthened it by towers at + convenient distances. From the neighborhood of Neustadt and + Ratisbon on the Danube, it stretched across hills, valleys, + rivers, and morasses, as far as Wimpfen on the Neckar, and at + length terminated on the banks of the Rhine, after a winding + course of near two hundred miles. 43 This important barrier, + uniting the two mighty streams that protected the provinces of + Europe, seemed to fill up the vacant space through which the + barbarians, and particularly the Alemanni, could penetrate with + the greatest facility into the heart of the empire. But the + experience of the world, from China to Britain, has exposed the + vain attempt of fortifying any extensive tract of country. 44 An + active enemy, who can select and vary his points of attack, must, + in the end, discover some feeble spot, or some unguarded moment. + The strength, as well as the attention, of the defenders is + divided; and such are the blind effects of terror on the firmest + troops, that a line broken in a single place is almost instantly + deserted. The fate of the wall which Probus erected may confirm + the general observation. Within a few years after his death, it + was overthrown by the Alemanni. Its scattered ruins, universally + ascribed to the power of the Dæmon, now serve only to excite the + wonder of the Swabian peasant. + + 41 (return) [ Strabo, l. vii. According to Valleius Paterculus, + (ii. 108,) Maroboduus led his Marcomanni into Bohemia; Cluverius + (German. Antiq. iii. 8) proves that it was from Swabia.] + + 42 (return) [ These settlers, from the payment of tithes, were + denominated Decunates. Tacit. Germania, c. 29] + + 43 (return) [ See notes de l’Abbé de la Bleterie a la Germanie de + Tacite, p. 183. His account of the wall is chiefly borrowed (as + he says himself) from the Alsatia Illustrata of Schoepflin.] + + 44 (return) [ See Recherches sur les Chinois et les Egyptiens, + tom. ii. p. 81—102. The anonymous author is well acquainted with + the globe in general, and with Germany in particular: with regard + to the latter, he quotes a work of M. Hanselman; but he seems to + confound the wall of Probus, designed against the Alemanni, with + the fortification of the Mattiaci, constructed in the + neighborhood of Frankfort against the Catti. * Note: De Pauw is + well known to have been the author of this work, as of the + Recherches sur les Americains before quoted. The judgment of M. + Remusat on this writer is in a very different, I fear a juster + tone. Quand au lieu de rechercher, d’examiner, d’etudier, on se + borne, comme cet ecrivain, a juger a prononcer, a decider, sans + connoitre ni l’histoire. ni les langues, sans recourir aux + sources, sans meme se douter de leur existence, on peut en + imposer pendant quelque temps a des lecteurs prevenus ou peu + instruits; mais le mepris qui ne manque guere de succeder a cet + engouement fait bientot justice de ces assertions hazardees, et + elles retombent dans l’oubli d’autant plus promptement, qu’elles + ont ete posees avec plus de confiance. Sur les l angues Tartares, + p. 231.—M.] + + Among the useful conditions of peace imposed by Probus on the + vanquished nations of Germany, was the obligation of supplying + the Roman army with sixteen thousand recruits, the bravest and + most robust of their youth. The emperor dispersed them through + all the provinces, and distributed this dangerous reënforcement, + in small bands of fifty or sixty each, among the national troops; + judiciously observing, that the aid which the republic derived + from the barbarians should be felt but not seen. 45 Their aid was + now become necessary. The feeble elegance of Italy and the + internal provinces could no longer support the weight of arms. + The hardy frontiers of the Rhine and Danube still produced minds + and bodies equal to the labors of the camp; but a perpetual + series of wars had gradually diminished their numbers. The + infrequency of marriage, and the ruin of agriculture, affected + the principles of population, and not only destroyed the strength + of the present, but intercepted the hope of future, generations. + The wisdom of Probus embraced a great and beneficial plan of + replenishing the exhausted frontiers, by new colonies of captive + or fugitive barbarians, on whom he bestowed lands, cattle, + instruments of husbandry, and every encouragement that might + engage them to educate a race of soldiers for the service of the + republic. Into Britain, and most probably into Cambridgeshire, 46 + he transported a considerable body of Vandals. The impossibility + of an escape reconciled them to their situation, and in the + subsequent troubles of that island, they approved themselves the + most faithful servants of the state. 47 Great numbers of Franks + and Gepidæ were settled on the banks of the Danube and the Rhine. + A hundred thousand Bastarnæ, expelled from their own country, + cheerfully accepted an establishment in Thrace, and soon imbibed + the manners and sentiments of Roman subjects. 48 But the + expectations of Probus were too often disappointed. The + impatience and idleness of the barbarians could ill brook the + slow labors of agriculture. Their unconquerable love of freedom, + rising against despotism, provoked them into hasty rebellions, + alike fatal to themselves and to the provinces; 49 nor could + these artificial supplies, however repeated by succeeding + emperors, restore the important limit of Gaul and Illyricum to + its ancient and native vigor. + + 45 (return) [ He distributed about fifty or sixty barbarians to a + Numerus, as it was then called, a corps with whose established + number we are not exactly acquainted.] + + 46 (return) [ Camden’s Britannia, Introduction, p. 136; but he + speaks from a very doubtful conjecture.] + + 47 (return) [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 62. According to Vopiscus, + another body of Vandals was less faithful.] + + 48 (return) [Footnote 48: Hist. August. p. 240. They were + probably expelled by the Goths. Zosim. l. i. p. 66.] + + 49 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 240.] + + Of all the barbarians who abandoned their new settlements, and + disturbed the public tranquillity, a very small number returned + to their own country. For a short season they might wander in + arms through the empire; but in the end they were surely + destroyed by the power of a warlike emperor. The successful + rashness of a party of Franks was attended, however, with such + memorable consequences, that it ought not to be passed unnoticed. + They had been established by Probus, on the sea-coast of Pontus, + with a view of strengthening the frontier against the inroads of + the Alani. A fleet stationed in one of the harbors of the Euxine + fell into the hands of the Franks; and they resolved, through + unknown seas, to explore their way from the mouth of the Phasis + to that of the Rhine. They easily escaped through the Bosphorus + and the Hellespont, and cruising along the Mediterranean, + indulged their appetite for revenge and plunder by frequent + descents on the unsuspecting shores of Asia, Greece, and Africa. + The opulent city of Syracuse, in whose port the navies of Athens + and Carthage had formerly been sunk, was sacked by a handful of + barbarians, who massacred the greatest part of the trembling + inhabitants. From the island of Sicily the Franks proceeded to + the columns of Hercules, trusted themselves to the ocean, coasted + round Spain and Gaul, and steering their triumphant course + through the British Channel, at length finished their surprising + voyage, by landing in safety on the Batavian or Frisian shores. + 50 The example of their success, instructing their countrymen to + conceive the advantages and to despise the dangers of the sea, + pointed out to their enterprising spirit a new road to wealth and + glory. + + 50 (return) [ Panegyr. Vet. v. 18. Zosimus, l. i. p. 66.] + + Notwithstanding the vigilance and activity of Probus, it was + almost impossible that he could at once contain in obedience + every part of his wide-extended dominions. The barbarians, who + broke their chains, had seized the favorable opportunity of a + domestic war. When the emperor marched to the relief of Gaul, he + devolved the command of the East on Saturninus. That general, a + man of merit and experience, was driven into rebellion by the + absence of his sovereign, the levity of the Alexandrian people, + the pressing instances of his friends, and his own fears; but + from the moment of his elevation, he never entertained a hope of + empire, or even of life. “Alas!” he said, “the republic has lost + a useful servant, and the rashness of an hour has destroyed the + services of many years. You know not,” continued he, “the misery + of sovereign power; a sword is perpetually suspended over our + head. We dread our very guards, we distrust our companions. The + choice of action or of repose is no longer in our disposition, + nor is there any age, or character, or conduct, that can protect + us from the censure of envy. In thus exalting me to the throne, + you have doomed me to a life of cares, and to an untimely fate. + The only consolation which remains is the assurance that I shall + not fall alone.” 51 But as the former part of his prediction was + verified by the victory, so the latter was disappointed by the + clemency, of Probus. That amiable prince attempted even to save + the unhappy Saturninus from the fury of the soldiers. He had more + than once solicited the usurper himself to place some confidence + in the mercy of a sovereign who so highly esteemed his character, + that he had punished, as a malicious informer, the first who + related the improbable news of his disaffection. 52 Saturninus + might, perhaps, have embraced the generous offer, had he not been + restrained by the obstinate distrust of his adherents. Their + guilt was deeper, and their hopes more sanguine, than those of + their experienced leader. + + 51 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 245, 246. The + unfortunate orator had studied rhetoric at Carthage; and was + therefore more probably a Moor (Zosim. l. i. p. 60) than a Gaul, + as Vopiscus calls him.] + + 52 (return) [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. 638.] + + The revolt of Saturninus was scarcely extinguished in the East, + before new troubles were excited in the West, by the rebellion of + Bonosus and Proculus, in Gaul. The most distinguished merit of + those two officers was their respective prowess, of the one in + the combats of Bacchus, of the other in those of Venus, 53 yet + neither of them was destitute of courage and capacity, and both + sustained, with honor, the august character which the fear of + punishment had engaged them to assume, till they sunk at length + beneath the superior genius of Probus. He used the victory with + his accustomed moderation, and spared the fortune, as well as the + lives of their innocent families. 54 + + 53 (return) [ A very surprising instance is recorded of the + prowess of Proculus. He had taken one hundred Sarmatian virgins. + The rest of the story he must relate in his own language: “Ex his + una necte decem inivi; omnes tamen, quod in me erat, mulieres + intra dies quindecim reddidi.” Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 246.] + + 54 (return) [ Proculus, who was a native of Albengue, on the + Genoese coast armed two thousand of his own slaves. His riches + were great, but they were acquired by robbery. It was afterwards + a saying of his family, sibi non placere esse vel principes vel + latrones. Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 247.] + + The arms of Probus had now suppressed all the foreign and + domestic enemies of the state. His mild but steady administration + confirmed the re-ëstablishment of the public tranquillity; nor + was there left in the provinces a hostile barbarian, a tyrant, or + even a robber, to revive the memory of past disorders. It was + time that the emperor should revisit Rome, and celebrate his own + glory and the general happiness. The triumph due to the valor of + Probus was conducted with a magnificence suitable to his fortune, + and the people, who had so lately admired the trophies of + Aurelian, gazed with equal pleasure on those of his heroic + successor. 55 We cannot, on this occasion, forget the desperate + courage of about fourscore gladiators, reserved, with near six + hundred others, for the inhuman sports of the amphitheatre. + Disdaining to shed their blood for the amusement of the populace, + they killed their keepers, broke from the place of their + confinement, and filled the streets of Rome with blood and + confusion. After an obstinate resistance, they were overpowered + and cut in pieces by the regular forces; but they obtained at + least an honorable death, and the satisfaction of a just revenge. + 56 + + 55 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 240.] + + 56 (return) [ Zosim. l. i. p. 66.] + + The military discipline which reigned in the camps of Probus was + less cruel than that of Aurelian, but it was equally rigid and + exact. The latter had punished the irregularities of the soldiers + with unrelenting severity, the former prevented them by employing + the legions in constant and useful labors. When Probus commanded + in Egypt, he executed many considerable works for the splendor + and benefit of that rich country. The navigation of the Nile, so + important to Rome itself, was improved; and temples, buildings, + porticos, and palaces, were constructed by the hands of the + soldiers, who acted by turns as architects, as engineers, and as + husbandmen. 57 It was reported of Hannibal, that, in order to + preserve his troops from the dangerous temptations of idleness, + he had obliged them to form large plantations of olive-trees + along the coast of Africa. 58 From a similar principle, Probus + exercised his legions in covering with rich vineyards the hills + of Gaul and Pannonia, and two considerable spots are described, + which were entirely dug and planted by military labor. 59 One of + these, known under the name of Mount Almo, was situated near + Sirmium, the country where Probus was born, for which he ever + retained a partial affection, and whose gratitude he endeavored + to secure, by converting into tillage a large and unhealthy tract + of marshy ground. An army thus employed constituted perhaps the + most useful, as well as the bravest, portion of Roman subjects. + + 57 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 236.] + + 58 (return) [ Aurel. Victor. in Prob. But the policy of Hannibal, + unnoticed by any more ancient writer, is irreconcilable with the + history of his life. He left Africa when he was nine years old, + returned to it when he was forty-five, and immediately lost his + army in the decisive battle of Zama. Livilus, xxx. 37.] + + 59 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 240. Eutrop. ix. 17. Aurel. + Victor. in Prob. Victor Junior. He revoked the prohibition of + Domitian, and granted a general permission of planting vines to + the Gauls, the Britons, and the Pannonians.] + + But in the prosecution of a favorite scheme, the best of men, + satisfied with the rectitude of their intentions, are subject to + forget the bounds of moderation; nor did Probus himself + sufficiently consult the patience and disposition of his fierce + legionaries. 60 The dangers of the military profession seem only + to be compensated by a life of pleasure and idleness; but if the + duties of the soldier are incessantly aggravated by the labors of + the peasant, he will at last sink under the intolerable burden, + or shake it off with indignation. The imprudence of Probus is + said to have inflamed the discontent of his troops. More + attentive to the interests of mankind than to those of the army, + he expressed the vain hope, that, by the establishment of + universal peace, he should soon abolish the necessity of a + standing and mercenary force. 61 The unguarded expression proved + fatal to him. In one of the hottest days of summer, as he + severely urged the unwholesome labor of draining the marshes of + Sirmium, the soldiers, impatient of fatigue, on a sudden threw + down their tools, grasped their arms, and broke out into a + furious mutiny. The emperor, conscious of his danger, took refuge + in a lofty tower, constructed for the purpose of surveying the + progress of the work. 62 The tower was instantly forced, and a + thousand swords were plunged at once into the bosom of the + unfortunate Probus. The rage of the troops subsided as soon as it + had been gratified. They then lamented their fatal rashness, + forgot the severity of the emperor whom they had massacred, and + hastened to perpetuate, by an honorable monument, the memory of + his virtues and victories. 63 + + 60 (return) [ Julian bestows a severe, and indeed excessive, + censure on the rigor of Probus, who, as he thinks, almost + deserved his fate.] + + 61 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 241. He lavishes on + this idle hope a large stock of very foolish eloquence.] + + 62 (return) [ Turris ferrata. It seems to have been a movable + tower, and cased with iron.] + + 63 (return) [ Probus, et vere probus situs est; Victor omnium + gentium Barbararum; victor etiam tyrannorum.] + + When the legions had indulged their grief and repentance for the + death of Probus, their unanimous consent declared Carus, his + Prætorian præfect, the most deserving of the Imperial throne. + Every circumstance that relates to this prince appears of a mixed + and doubtful nature. He gloried in the title of Roman Citizen; + and affected to compare the purity of _his_ blood with the + foreign and even barbarous origin of the preceding emperors; yet + the most inquisitive of his contemporaries, very far from + admitting his claim, have variously deduced his own birth, or + that of his parents, from Illyricum, from Gaul, or from Africa. + 64 Though a soldier, he had received a learned education; though + a senator, he was invested with the first dignity of the army; + and in an age when the civil and military professions began to be + irrecoverably separated from each other, they were united in the + person of Carus. Notwithstanding the severe justice which he + exercised against the assassins of Probus, to whose favor and + esteem he was highly indebted, he could not escape the suspicion + of being accessory to a deed from whence he derived the principal + advantage. He enjoyed, at least before his elevation, an + acknowledged character of virtue and abilities; 65 but his + austere temper insensibly degenerated into moroseness and + cruelty; and the imperfect writers of his life almost hesitate + whether they shall not rank him in the number of Roman tyrants. + 66 When Carus assumed the purple, he was about sixty years of + age, and his two sons, Carinus and Numerian had already attained + the season of manhood. 67 + + 64 (return) [ Yet all this may be conciliated. He was born at + Narbonne in Illyricum, confounded by Eutropius with the more + famous city of that name in Gaul. His father might be an African, + and his mother a noble Roman. Carus himself was educated in the + capital. See Scaliger Animadversion. ad Euseb. Chron. p. 241.] + + 65 (return) [ Probus had requested of the senate an equestrian + statue and a marble palace, at the public expense, as a just + recompense of the singular merit of Carus. Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 249.] + + 66 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 242, 249. Julian + excludes the emperor Carus and both his sons from the banquet of + the Cæsars.] + + 67 (return) [ John Malala, tom. i. p. 401. But the authority of + that ignorant Greek is very slight. He ridiculously derives from + Carus the city of Carrhæ, and the province of Caria, the latter + of which is mentioned by Homer.] + + The authority of the senate expired with Probus; nor was the + repentance of the soldiers displayed by the same dutiful regard + for the civil power, which they had testified after the + unfortunate death of Aurelian. The election of Carus was decided + without expecting the approbation of the senate, and the new + emperor contented himself with announcing, in a cold and stately + epistle, that he had ascended the vacant throne. 68 A behavior so + very opposite to that of his amiable predecessor afforded no + favorable presage of the new reign: and the Romans, deprived of + power and freedom, asserted their privilege of licentious + murmurs. 69 The voice of congratulation and flattery was not, + however, silent; and we may still peruse, with pleasure and + contempt, an eclogue, which was composed on the accession of the + emperor Carus. Two shepherds, avoiding the noontide heat, retire + into the cave of Faunus. On a spreading beech they discover some + recent characters. The rural deity had described, in prophetic + verses, the felicity promised to the empire under the reign of so + great a prince. Faunus hails the approach of that hero, who, + receiving on his shoulders the sinking weight of the Roman world, + shall extinguish war and faction, and once again restore the + innocence and security of the golden age. 70 + + 68 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 249. Carus congratulated the + senate, that one of their own order was made emperor.] + + 69 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 242.] + + 70 (return) [ See the first eclogue of Calphurnius. The design of + it is preferes by Fontenelle to that of Virgil’s Pollio. See tom. + iii. p. 148.] + + It is more than probable, that these elegant trifles never + reached the ears of a veteran general, who, with the consent of + the legions, was preparing to execute the long-suspended design + of the Persian war. Before his departure for this distant + expedition, Carus conferred on his two sons, Carinus and + Numerian, the title of Cæsar, and investing the former with + almost an equal share of the Imperial power, directed the young + prince first to suppress some troubles which had arisen in Gaul, + and afterwards to fix the seat of his residence at Rome, and to + assume the government of the Western provinces. 71 The safety of + Illyricum was confirmed by a memorable defeat of the Sarmatians; + sixteen thousand of those barbarians remained on the field of + battle, and the number of captives amounted to twenty thousand. + The old emperor, animated with the fame and prospect of victory, + pursued his march, in the midst of winter, through the countries + of Thrace and Asia Minor, and at length, with his younger son, + Numerian, arrived on the confines of the Persian monarchy. There, + encamping on the summit of a lofty mountain, he pointed out to + his troops the opulence and luxury of the enemy whom they were + about to invade. + + 71 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 353. Eutropius, ix. 18. Pagi. + Annal.] + + The successor of Artaxerxes, 711 Varanes, or Bahram, though he + had subdued the Segestans, one of the most warlike nations of + Upper Asia, 72 was alarmed at the approach of the Romans, and + endeavored to retard their progress by a negotiation of peace. + 721 + + His ambassadors entered the camp about sunset, at the time when + the troops were satisfying their hunger with a frugal repast. The + Persians expressed their desire of being introduced to the + presence of the Roman emperor. They were at length conducted to a + soldier, who was seated on the grass. A piece of stale bacon and + a few hard peas composed his supper. A coarse woollen garment of + purple was the only circumstance that announced his dignity. The + conference was conducted with the same disregard of courtly + elegance. Carus, taking off a cap which he wore to conceal his + baldness, assured the ambassadors, that, unless their master + acknowledged the superiority of Rome, he would speedily render + Persia as naked of trees as his own head was destitute of hair. + 73 Notwithstanding some traces of art and preparation, we may + discover in this scene the manners of Carus, and the severe + simplicity which the martial princes, who succeeded Gallienus, + had already restored in the Roman camps. The ministers of the + Great King trembled and retired. + + 711 (return) [ Three monarchs had intervened, Sapor, (Shahpour,) + Hormisdas, (Hormooz,) Varanes; Baharam the First.—M.] + + 72 (return) [ Agathias, l. iv. p. 135. We find one of his sayings + in the Bibliotheque Orientale of M. d’Herbelot. “The definition + of humanity includes all other virtues.”] + + 721 (return) [ The manner in which his life was saved by the + Chief Pontiff from a conspiracy of his nobles, is as remarkable + as his saying. “By the advice (of the Pontiff) all the nobles + absented themselves from court. The king wandered through his + palace alone. He saw no one; all was silence around. He became + alarmed and distressed. At last the Chief Pontiff appeared, and + bowed his head in apparent misery, but spoke not a word. The king + entreated him to declare what had happened. The virtuous man + boldly related all that had passed, and conjured Bahram, in the + name of his glorious ancestors, to change his conduct and save + himself from destruction. The king was much moved, professed + himself most penitent, and said he was resolved his future life + should prove his sincerity. The overjoyed High Priest, delighted + at this success, made a signal, at which all the nobles and + attendants were in an instant, as if by magic, in their usual + places. The monarch now perceived that only one opinion prevailed + on his past conduct. He repeated therefore to his nobles all he + had said to the Chief Pontiff, and his future reign was unstained + by cruelty or oppression.” Malcolm’s Persia,—M.] + + 73 (return) [ Synesius tells this story of Carinus; and it is + much more natural to understand it of Carus, than (as Petavius + and Tillemont choose to do) of Probus.] + + The threats of Carus were not without effect. He ravaged + Mesopotamia, cut in pieces whatever opposed his passage, made + himself master of the great cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, + (which seemed to have surrendered without resistance,) and + carried his victorious arms beyond the Tigris. 74 He had seized + the favorable moment for an invasion. The Persian councils were + distracted by domestic factions, and the greater part of their + forces were detained on the frontiers of India. Rome and the East + received with transport the news of such important advantages. + Flattery and hope painted, in the most lively colors, the fall of + Persia, the conquest of Arabia, the submission of Egypt, and a + lasting deliverance from the inroads of the Scythian nations. 75 + But the reign of Carus was destined to expose the vanity of + predictions. They were scarcely uttered before they were + contradicted by his death; an event attended with such ambiguous + circumstances, that it may be related in a letter from his own + secretary to the præfect of the city. “Carus,” says he, “our + dearest emperor, was confined by sickness to his bed, when a + furious tempest arose in the camp. The darkness which overspread + the sky was so thick, that we could no longer distinguish each + other; and the incessant flashes of lightning took from us the + knowledge of all that passed in the general confusion. + Immediately after the most violent clap of thunder, we heard a + sudden cry that the emperor was dead; and it soon appeared, that + his chamberlains, in a rage of grief, had set fire to the royal + pavilion; a circumstance which gave rise to the report that Carus + was killed by lightning. But, as far as we have been able to + investigate the truth, his death was the natural effect of his + disorder.” 76 + + 74 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 250. Eutropius, ix. + 18. The two Victors.] + + 75 (return) [ To the Persian victory of Carus I refer the + dialogue of the Philopatris, which has so long been an object of + dispute among the learned. But to explain and justify my opinion, + would require a dissertation. Note: Niebuhr, in the new edition + of the Byzantine Historians, (vol. x.) has boldly assigned the + Philopatris to the tenth century, and to the reign of Nicephorus + Phocas. An opinion so decisively pronounced by Niebuhr and + favorably received by Hase, the learned editor of Leo Diaconus, + commands respectful consideration. But the whole tone of the work + appears to me altogether inconsistent with any period in which + philosophy did not stand, as it were, on some ground of equality + with Christianity. The doctrine of the Trinity is sarcastically + introduced rather as the strange doctrine of a new religion, than + the established tenet of a faith universally prevalent. The + argument, adopted from Solanus, concerning the formula of the + procession of the Holy Ghost, is utterly worthless, as it is a + mere quotation in the words of the Gospel of St. John, xv. 26. + The only argument of any value is the historic one, from the + allusion to the recent violation of many virgins in the Island of + Crete. But neither is the language of Niebuhr quite accurate, nor + his reference to the Acroases of Theodosius satisfactory. When, + then, could this occurrence take place? Why not in the + devastation of the island by the Gothic pirates, during the reign + of Claudius. Hist. Aug. in Claud. p. 814. edit. Var. Lugd. Bat + 1661.—M.] + + 76 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 250. Yet Eutropius, Festus, Rufus, + the two Victors, Jerome, Sidonius Apollinaris, Syncellus, and + Zonaras, all ascribe the death of Carus to lightning.] + + + + + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part + III. + + The vacancy of the throne was not productive of any disturbance. + The ambition of the aspiring generals was checked by their + natural fears, and young Numerian, with his absent brother + Carinus, were unanimously acknowledged as Roman emperors. + + The public expected that the successor of Carus would pursue his + father’s footsteps, and, without allowing the Persians to recover + from their consternation, would advance sword in hand to the + palaces of Susa and Ecbatana. 77 But the legions, however strong + in numbers and discipline, were dismayed by the most abject + superstition. Notwithstanding all the arts that were practised to + disguise the manner of the late emperor’s death, it was found + impossible to remove the opinion of the multitude, and the power + of opinion is irresistible. Places or persons struck with + lightning were considered by the ancients with pious horror, as + singularly devoted to the wrath of Heaven. 78 An oracle was + remembered, which marked the River Tigris as the fatal boundary + of the Roman arms. The troops, terrified with the fate of Carus + and with their own danger, called aloud on young Numerian to obey + the will of the gods, and to lead them away from this + inauspicious scene of war. The feeble emperor was unable to + subdue their obstinate prejudice, and the Persians wondered at + the unexpected retreat of a victorious enemy. 79 + + 77 (return) [ See Nemesian. Cynegeticon, v. 71, &c.] + + 78 (return) [ See Festus and his commentators on the word + Scribonianum. Places struck by lightning were surrounded with a + wall; things were buried with mysterious ceremony.] + + 79 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 250. Aurelius Victor + seems to believe the prediction, and to approve the retreat.] + + The intelligence of the mysterious fate of the late emperor was + soon carried from the frontiers of Persia to Rome; and the + senate, as well as the provinces, congratulated the accession of + the sons of Carus. These fortunate youths were strangers, + however, to that conscious superiority, either of birth or of + merit, which can alone render the possession of a throne easy, + and, as it were, natural. Born and educated in a private station, + the election of their father raised them at once to the rank of + princes; and his death, which happened about sixteen months + afterwards, left them the unexpected legacy of a vast empire. To + sustain with temper this rapid elevation, an uncommon share of + virtue and prudence was requisite; and Carinus, the elder of the + brothers, was more than commonly deficient in those qualities. In + the Gallic war he discovered some degree of personal courage; 80 + but from the moment of his arrival at Rome, he abandoned himself + to the luxury of the capital, and to the abuse of his fortune. He + was soft, yet cruel; devoted to pleasure, but destitute of taste; + and though exquisitely susceptible of vanity, indifferent to the + public esteem. In the course of a few months, he successively + married and divorced nine wives, most of whom he left pregnant; + and notwithstanding this legal inconstancy, found time to indulge + such a variety of irregular appetites, as brought dishonor on + himself and on the noblest houses of Rome. He beheld with + inveterate hatred all those who might remember his former + obscurity, or censure his present conduct. He banished, or put to + death, the friends and counsellors whom his father had placed + about him, to guide his inexperienced youth; and he persecuted + with the meanest revenge his school-fellows and companions who + had not sufficiently respected the latent majesty of the emperor. + + With the senators, Carinus affected a lofty and regal demeanor, + frequently declaring, that he designed to distribute their + estates among the populace of Rome. From the dregs of that + populace he selected his favorites, and even his ministers. The + palace, and even the Imperial table, were filled with singers, + dancers, prostitutes, and all the various retinue of vice and + folly. One of his doorkeepers 81 he intrusted with the government + of the city. In the room of the Prætorian præfect, whom he put to + death, Carinus substituted one of the ministers of his looser + pleasures. Another, who possessed the same, or even a more + infamous, title to favor, was invested with the consulship. A + confidential secretary, who had acquired uncommon skill in the + art of forgery, delivered the indolent emperor, with his own + consent from the irksome duty of signing his name. + + 80 (return) [ Nemesian. Cynegeticon, v 69. He was a contemporary, + but a poet.] + + 81 (return) [ Cancellarius. This word, so humble in its origin, + has, by a singular fortune, risen into the title of the first + great office of state in the monarchies of Europe. See Casaubon + and Salmasius, ad Hist. August, p. 253.] + + When the emperor Carus undertook the Persian war, he was induced, + by motives of affection as well as policy, to secure the fortunes + of his family, by leaving in the hands of his eldest son the + armies and provinces of the West. The intelligence which he soon + received of the conduct of Carinus filled him with shame and + regret; nor had he concealed his resolution of satisfying the + republic by a severe act of justice, and of adopting, in the + place of an unworthy son, the brave and virtuous Constantius, who + at that time was governor of Dalmatia. But the elevation of + Constantius was for a while deferred; and as soon as the father’s + death had released Carinus from the control of fear or decency, + he displayed to the Romans the extravagancies of Elagabalus, + aggravated by the cruelty of Domitian. 82 + + 82 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 253, 254. Eutropius, + x. 19. Vic to Junior. The reign of Diocletian indeed was so long + and prosperous, that it must have been very unfavorable to the + reputation of Carinus.] + + The only merit of the administration of Carinus that history + could record, or poetry celebrate, was the uncommon splendor with + which, in his own and his brother’s name, he exhibited the Roman + games of the theatre, the circus, and the amphitheatre. More than + twenty years afterwards, when the courtiers of Diocletian + represented to their frugal sovereign the fame and popularity of + his munificent predecessor, he acknowledged that the reign of + Carinus had indeed been a reign of pleasure. 83 But this vain + prodigality, which the prudence of Diocletian might justly + despise, was enjoyed with surprise and transport by the Roman + people. The oldest of the citizens, recollecting the spectacles + of former days, the triumphal pomp of Probus or Aurelian, and the + secular games of the emperor Philip, acknowledged that they were + all surpassed by the superior magnificence of Carinus. 84 + + 83 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 254. He calls him + Carus, but the sense is sufficiently obvious, and the words were + often confounded.] + + 84 (return) [ See Calphurnius, Eclog. vii. 43. We may observe, + that the spectacles of Probus were still recent, and that the + poet is seconded by the historian.] + + The spectacles of Carinus may therefore be best illustrated by + the observation of some particulars, which history has + condescended to relate concerning those of his predecessors. If + we confine ourselves solely to the hunting of wild beasts, + however we may censure the vanity of the design or the cruelty of + the execution, we are obliged to confess that neither before nor + since the time of the Romans so much art and expense have ever + been lavished for the amusement of the people. 85 By the order of + Probus, a great quantity of large trees, torn up by the roots, + were transplanted into the midst of the circus. The spacious and + shady forest was immediately filled with a thousand ostriches, a + thousand stags, a thousand fallow deer, and a thousand wild + boars; and all this variety of game was abandoned to the riotous + impetuosity of the multitude. The tragedy of the succeeding day + consisted in the massacre of a hundred lions, an equal number of + lionesses, two hundred leopards, and three hundred bears. 86 The + collection prepared by the younger Gordian for his triumph, and + which his successor exhibited in the secular games, was less + remarkable by the number than by the singularity of the animals. + Twenty zebras displayed their elegant forms and variegated beauty + to the eyes of the Roman people. 87 Ten elks, and as many + camelopards, the loftiest and most harmless creatures that wander + over the plains of Sarmatia and Æthiopia, were contrasted with + thirty African hyænas and ten Indian tigers, the most implacable + savages of the torrid zone. The unoffending strength with which + Nature has endowed the greater quadrupeds was admired in the + rhinoceros, the hippopotamus of the Nile, 88 and a majestic troop + of thirty-two elephants. 89 While the populace gazed with stupid + wonder on the splendid show, the naturalist might indeed observe + the figure and properties of so many different species, + transported from every part of the ancient world into the + amphitheatre of Rome. But this accidental benefit, which science + might derive from folly, is surely insufficient to justify such a + wanton abuse of the public riches. There occurs, however, a + single instance in the first Punic war, in which the senate + wisely connected this amusement of the multitude with the + interest of the state. A considerable number of elephants, taken + in the defeat of the Carthaginian army, were driven through the + circus by a few slaves, armed only with blunt javelins. 90 The + useful spectacle served to impress the Roman soldier with a just + contempt for those unwieldy animals; and he no longer dreaded to + encounter them in the ranks of war. + + 85 (return) [ The philosopher Montaigne (Essais, l. iii. 6) gives + a very just and lively view of Roman magnificence in these + spectacles.] + + 86 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 240.] + + 87 (return) [ They are called Onagri; but the number is too + inconsiderable for mere wild asses. Cuper (de Elephantis + Exercitat. ii. 7) has proved from Oppian, Dion, and an anonymous + Greek, that zebras had been seen at Rome. They were brought from + some island of the ocean, perhaps Madagascar.] + + 88 (return) [Carinus gave a hippopotamus, (see Calphurn. Eclog. + vi. 66.) In the latter spectacles, I do not recollect any + crocodiles, of which Augustus once exhibited thirty-six. Dion + Cassius, l. lv. p. 781.] + + 89 (return) [ Capitolin. in Hist. August. p. 164, 165. We are not + acquainted with the animals which he calls archeleontes; some + read argoleontes others agrioleontes: both corrections are very + nugatory] + + 90 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. viii. 6, from the annals of + Piso.] + + The hunting or exhibition of wild beasts was conducted with a + magnificence suitable to a people who styled themselves the + masters of the world; nor was the edifice appropriated to that + entertainment less expressive of Roman greatness. Posterity + admires, and will long admire, the awful remains of the + amphitheatre of Titus, which so well deserved the epithet of + Colossal. 91 It was a building of an elliptic figure, five + hundred and sixty-four feet in length, and four hundred and + sixty-seven in breadth, founded on fourscore arches, and rising, + with four successive orders of architecture, to the height of one + hundred and forty feet. 92 The outside of the edifice was + encrusted with marble, and decorated with statues. The slopes of + the vast concave, which formed the inside, were filled and + surrounded with sixty or eighty rows of seats of marble likewise, + covered with cushions, and capable of receiving with ease about + fourscore thousand spectators. 93 Sixty-four _vomitories_ (for by + that name the doors were very aptly distinguished) poured forth + the immense multitude; and the entrances, passages, and + staircases were contrived with such exquisite skill, that each + person, whether of the senatorial, the equestrian, or the + plebeian order, arrived at his destined place without trouble or + confusion. 94 Nothing was omitted, which, in any respect, could + be subservient to the convenience and pleasure of the spectators. + + They were protected from the sun and rain by an ample canopy, + occasionally drawn over their heads. The air was continally + refreshed by the playing of fountains, and profusely impregnated + by the grateful scent of aromatics. In the centre of the edifice, + the _arena_, or stage, was strewed with the finest sand, and + successively assumed the most different forms. At one moment it + seemed to rise out of the earth, like the garden of the + Hesperides, and was afterwards broken into the rocks and caverns + of Thrace. The subterraneous pipes conveyed an inexhaustible + supply of water; and what had just before appeared a level plain, + might be suddenly converted into a wide lake, covered with armed + vessels, and replenished with the monsters of the deep. 95 In the + decoration of these scenes, the Roman emperors displayed their + wealth and liberality; and we read on various occasions that the + whole furniture of the amphitheatre consisted either of silver, + or of gold, or of amber. 96 The poet who describes the games of + Carinus, in the character of a shepherd, attracted to the capital + by the fame of their magnificence, affirms that the nets designed + as a defence against the wild beasts were of gold wire; that the + porticos were gilded; and that the _belt_ or circle which divided + the several ranks of spectators from each other was studded with + a precious mosaic of beautiful stones. 97 + + 91 (return) [ See Maffei, Verona Illustrata, p. iv. l. i. c. 2.] + + 92 (return) [ Maffei, l. ii. c. 2. The height was very much + exaggerated by the ancients. It reached almost to the heavens, + according to Calphurnius, (Eclog. vii. 23,) and surpassed the ken + of human sight, according to Ammianus Marcellinus (xvi. 10.) Yet + how trifling to the great pyramid of Egypt, which rises 500 feet + perpendicular] + + 93 (return) [ According to different copies of Victor, we read + 77,000, or 87,000 spectators; but Maffei (l. ii. c. 12) finds + room on the open seats for no more than 34,000. The remainder + were contained in the upper covered galleries.] + + 94 (return) [ See Maffei, l. ii. c. 5—12. He treats the very + difficult subject with all possible clearness, and like an + architect, as well as an antiquarian.] + + 95 (return) [ Calphurn. Eclog vii. 64, 73. These lines are + curious, and the whole eclogue has been of infinite use to + Maffei. Calphurnius, as well as Martial, (see his first book,) + was a poet; but when they described the amphitheatre, they both + wrote from their own senses, and to those of the Romans.] + + 96 (return) [ Consult Plin. Hist. Natur. xxxiii. 16, xxxvii. 11.] + + 97 (return) [ Balteus en gemmis, en inlita porticus auro Certatim + radiant, &c. Calphurn. vii.] + + In the midst of this glittering pageantry, the emperor Carinus, + secure of his fortune, enjoyed the acclamations of the people, + the flattery of his courtiers, and the songs of the poets, who, + for want of a more essential merit, were reduced to celebrate the + divine graces of his person. 98 In the same hour, but at the + distance of nine hundred miles from Rome, his brother expired; + and a sudden revolution transferred into the hands of a stranger + the sceptre of the house of Carus. 99 + + 98 (return) [ Et Martis vultus et Apollinis esse putavi, says + Calphurnius; but John Malala, who had perhaps seen pictures of + Carinus, describes him as thick, short, and white, tom. i. p. + 403.] + + 99 (return) [ With regard to the time when these Roman games were + celebrated, Scaliger, Salmasius, and Cuper have given themselves + a great deal of trouble to perplex a very clear subject.] + + The sons of Carus never saw each other after their father’s + death. The arrangements which their new situation required were + probably deferred till the return of the younger brother to Rome, + where a triumph was decreed to the young emperors for the + glorious success of the Persian war. 100 It is uncertain whether + they intended to divide between them the administration, or the + provinces, of the empire; but it is very unlikely that their + union would have proved of any long duration. The jealousy of + power must have been inflamed by the opposition of characters. In + the most corrupt of times, Carinus was unworthy to live: Numerian + deserved to reign in a happier period. His affable manners and + gentle virtues secured him, as soon as they became known, the + regard and affections of the public. He possessed the elegant + accomplishments of a poet and orator, which dignify as well as + adorn the humblest and the most exalted station. His eloquence, + however it was applauded by the senate, was formed not so much on + the model of Cicero, as on that of the modern declaimers; but in + an age very far from being destitute of poetical merit, he + contended for the prize with the most celebrated of his + contemporaries, and still remained the friend of his rivals; a + circumstance which evinces either the goodness of his heart, or + the superiority of his genius. 101 But the talents of Numerian + were rather of the contemplative than of the active kind. When + his father’s elevation reluctantly forced him from the shade of + retirement, neither his temper nor his pursuits had qualified him + for the command of armies. His constitution was destroyed by the + hardships of the Persian war; and he had contracted, from the + heat of the climate, 102 such a weakness in his eyes, as obliged + him, in the course of a long retreat, to confine himself to the + solitude and darkness of a tent or litter. + + The administration of all affairs, civil as well as military, was + devolved on Arrius Aper, the Prætorian præfect, who to the power + of his important office added the honor of being father-in-law to + Numerian. The Imperial pavilion was strictly guarded by his most + trusty adherents; and during many days, Aper delivered to the + army the supposed mandates of their invisible sovereign. 103 + + 100 (return) [ Nemesianus (in the Cynegeticon) seems to + anticipate in his fancy that auspicious day.] + + 101 (return) [ He won all the crowns from Nemesianus, with whom + he vied in didactic poetry. The senate erected a statue to the + son of Carus, with a very ambiguous inscription, “To the most + powerful of orators.” See Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 251.] + + 102 (return) [ A more natural cause, at least, than that assigned + by Vopiscus, (Hist. August. p. 251,) incessantly weeping for his + father’s death.] + + 103 (return) [ In the Persian war, Aper was suspected of a design + to betray Carus. Hist. August. p. 250.] + + It was not till eight months after the death of Carus, that the + Roman army, returning by slow marches from the banks of the + Tigris, arrived on those of the Thracian Bosphorus. The legions + halted at Chalcedon in Asia, while the court passed over to + Heraclea, on the European side of the Propontis. 104 But a report + soon circulated through the camp, at first in secret whispers, + and at length in loud clamors, of the emperor’s death, and of the + presumption of his ambitious minister, who still exercised the + sovereign power in the name of a prince who was no more. The + impatience of the soldiers could not long support a state of + suspense. With rude curiosity they broke into the Imperial tent, + and discovered only the corpse of Numerian. 105 The gradual + decline of his health might have induced them to believe that his + death was natural; but the concealment was interpreted as an + evidence of guilt, and the measures which Aper had taken to + secure his election became the immediate occasion of his ruin. + Yet, even in the transport of their rage and grief, the troops + observed a regular proceeding, which proves how firmly discipline + had been reëstablished by the martial successors of Gallienus. A + general assembly of the army was appointed to be held at + Chalcedon, whither Aper was transported in chains, as a prisoner + and a criminal. A vacant tribunal was erected in the midst of the + camp, and the generals and tribunes formed a great military + council. They soon announced to the multitude that their choice + had fallen on Diocletian, commander of the domestics or + body-guards, as the person the most capable of revenging and + succeeding their beloved emperor. The future fortunes of the + candidate depended on the chance or conduct of the present hour. + Conscious that the station which he had filled exposed him to + some suspicions, Diocletian ascended the tribunal, and raising + his eyes towards the Sun, made a solemn profession of his own + innocence, in the presence of that all-seeing Deity. 106 Then, + assuming the tone of a sovereign and a judge, he commanded that + Aper should be brought in chains to the foot of the tribunal. + “This man,” said he, “is the murderer of Numerian;” and without + giving him time to enter on a dangerous justification, drew his + sword, and buried it in the breast of the unfortunate præfect. A + charge supported by such decisive proof was admitted without + contradiction, and the legions, with repeated acclamations, + acknowledged the justice and authority of the emperor Diocletian. + 107 + + 104 (return) [ We are obliged to the Alexandrian Chronicle, p. + 274, for the knowledge of the time and place where Diocletian was + elected emperor.] + + 105 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 251. Eutrop. ix. 88. Hieronym. in + Chron. According to these judicious writers, the death of + Numerian was discovered by the stench of his dead body. Could no + aromatics be found in the Imperial household?] + + 106 (return) [ Aurel. Victor. Eutropius, ix. 20. Hieronym. in + Chron.] + + 107 (return) [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 252. The reason why + Diocletian killed Aper, (a wild boar,) was founded on a prophecy + and a pun, as foolish as they are well known.] + + Before we enter upon the memorable reign of that prince, it will + be proper to punish and dismiss the unworthy brother of Numerian. + Carinus possessed arms and treasures sufficient to support his + legal title to the empire. But his personal vices overbalanced + every advantage of birth and situation. The most faithful + servants of the father despised the incapacity, and dreaded the + cruel arrogance, of the son. The hearts of the people were + engaged in favor of his rival, and even the senate was inclined + to prefer a usurper to a tyrant. The arts of Diocletian inflamed + the general discontent; and the winter was employed in secret + intrigues, and open preparations for a civil war. In the spring, + the forces of the East and of the West encountered each other in + the plains of Margus, a small city of Mæsia, in the neighborhood + of the Danube. 108 The troops, so lately returned from the + Persian war, had acquired their glory at the expense of health + and numbers; nor were they in a condition to contend with the + unexhausted strength of the legions of Europe. Their ranks were + broken, and, for a moment, Diocletian despaired of the purple and + of life. But the advantage which Carinus had obtained by the + valor of his soldiers, he quickly lost by the infidelity of his + officers. A tribune, whose wife he had seduced, seized the + opportunity of revenge, and, by a single blow, extinguished civil + discord in the blood of the adulterer. 109 + + 108 (return) [ Eutropius marks its situation very accurately; it + was between the Mons Aureus and Viminiacum. M. d’Anville + (Geographic Ancienne, tom. i. p. 304) places Margus at Kastolatz + in Servia, a little below Belgrade and Semendria. * Note: + Kullieza—Eton Atlas—M.] + + 109 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 254. Eutropius, ix. 20. Aurelius + Victor et Epitome] + + + + + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part + I. + + The Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates, Maximian, + Galerius, And Constantius.—General Reestablishment Of Order And + Tranquillity.—The Persian War, Victory, And Triumph.—The New Form + Of Administration.—Abdication And Retirement Of Diocletian And + Maximian. + + As the reign of Diocletian was more illustrious than that of any + of his predecessors, so was his birth more abject and obscure. + The strong claims of merit and of violence had frequently + superseded the ideal prerogatives of nobility; but a distinct + line of separation was hitherto preserved between the free and + the servile part of mankind. The parents of Diocletian had been + slaves in the house of Anulinus, a Roman senator; nor was he + himself distinguished by any other name than that which he + derived from a small town in Dalmatia, from whence his mother + deduced her origin. 1 It is, however, probable that his father + obtained the freedom of the family, and that he soon acquired an + office of scribe, which was commonly exercised by persons of his + condition. 2 Favorable oracles, or rather the consciousness of + superior merit, prompted his aspiring son to pursue the + profession of arms and the hopes of fortune; and it would be + extremely curious to observe the gradation of arts and accidents + which enabled him in the end to fulfil those oracles, and to + display that merit to the world. Diocletian was successively + promoted to the government of Mæsia, the honors of the + consulship, and the important command of the guards of the + palace. He distinguished his abilities in the Persian war; and + after the death of Numerian, the slave, by the confession and + judgment of his rivals, was declared the most worthy of the + Imperial throne. The malice of religious zeal, whilst it arraigns + the savage fierceness of his colleague Maximian, has affected to + cast suspicions on the personal courage of the emperor + Diocletian. 3 It would not be easy to persuade us of the + cowardice of a soldier of fortune, who acquired and preserved the + esteem of the legions as well as the favor of so many warlike + princes. Yet even calumny is sagacious enough to discover and to + attack the most vulnerable part. The valor of Diocletian was + never found inadequate to his duty, or to the occasion; but he + appears not to have possessed the daring and generous spirit of a + hero, who courts danger and fame, disdains artifice, and boldly + challenges the allegiance of his equals. His abilities were + useful rather than splendid; a vigorous mind, improved by the + experience and study of mankind; dexterity and application in + business; a judicious mixture of liberality and economy, of + mildness and rigor; profound dissimulation, under the disguise of + military frankness; steadiness to pursue his ends; flexibility to + vary his means; and, above all, the great art of submitting his + own passions, as well as those of others, to the interest of his + ambition, and of coloring his ambition with the most specious + pretences of justice and public utility. Like Augustus, + Diocletian may be considered as the founder of a new empire. Like + the adopted son of Cæsar, he was distinguished as a statesman + rather than as a warrior; nor did either of those princes employ + force, whenever their purpose could be effected by policy. + + 1 (return) [ Eutrop. ix. 19. Victor in Epitome. The town seems to + have been properly called Doclia, from a small tribe of + Illyrians, (see Cellarius, Geograph. Antiqua, tom. i. p. 393;) + and the original name of the fortunate slave was probably Docles; + he first lengthened it to the Grecian harmony of Diocles, and at + length to the Roman majesty of Diocletianus. He likewise assumed + the Patrician name of Valerius and it is usually given him by + Aurelius Victor.] + + 2 (return) [ See Dacier on the sixth satire of the second book of + Horace Cornel. Nepos, ’n Vit. Eumen. c. l.] + + 3 (return) [ Lactantius (or whoever was the author of the little + treatise De Mortibus Persecutorum) accuses Diocletian of timidity + in two places, c. 7. 8. In chap. 9 he says of him, “erat in omni + tumultu meticulosu et animi disjectus.”] + + The victory of Diocletian was remarkable for its singular + mildness. A people accustomed to applaud the clemency of the + conqueror, if the usual punishments of death, exile, and + confiscation, were inflicted with any degree of temper and + equity, beheld, with the most pleasing astonishment, a civil war, + the flames of which were extinguished in the field of battle. + Diocletian received into his confidence Aristobulus, the + principal minister of the house of Carus, respected the lives, + the fortunes, and the dignity, of his adversaries, and even + continued in their respective stations the greater number of the + servants of Carinus. 4 It is not improbable that motives of + prudence might assist the humanity of the artful Dalmatian; of + these servants, many had purchased his favor by secret treachery; + in others, he esteemed their grateful fidelity to an unfortunate + master. The discerning judgment of Aurelian, of Probus, and of + Carus, had filled the several departments of the state and army + with officers of approved merit, whose removal would have injured + the public service, without promoting the interest of his + successor. Such a conduct, however, displayed to the Roman world + the fairest prospect of the new reign, and the emperor affected + to confirm this favorable prepossession, by declaring, that, + among all the virtues of his predecessors, he was the most + ambitious of imitating the humane philosophy of Marcus Antoninus. + 5 + + 4 (return) [ In this encomium, Aurelius Victor seems to convey a + just, though indirect, censure of the cruelty of Constantius. It + appears from the Fasti, that Aristobulus remained præfect of the + city, and that he ended with Diocletian the consulship which he + had commenced with Carinus.] + + 5 (return) [ Aurelius Victor styles Diocletian, “Parentum potius + quam Dominum.” See Hist. August. p. 30.] + + The first considerable action of his reign seemed to evince his + sincerity as well as his moderation. After the example of Marcus, + he gave himself a colleague in the person of Maximian, on whom he + bestowed at first the title of Cæsar, and afterwards that of + Augustus. 6 But the motives of his conduct, as well as the object + of his choice, were of a very different nature from those of his + admired predecessor. By investing a luxurious youth with the + honors of the purple, Marcus had discharged a debt of private + gratitude, at the expense, indeed, of the happiness of the state. + By associating a friend and a fellow-soldier to the labors of + government, Diocletian, in a time of public danger, provided for + the defence both of the East and of the West. Maximian was born a + peasant, and, like Aurelian, in the territory of Sirmium. + Ignorant of letters, 7 careless of laws, the rusticity of his + appearance and manners still betrayed in the most elevated + fortune the meanness of his extraction. War was the only art + which he professed. In a long course of service he had + distinguished himself on every frontier of the empire; and though + his military talents were formed to obey rather than to command, + though, perhaps, he never attained the skill of a consummate + general, he was capable, by his valor, constancy, and experience, + of executing the most arduous undertakings. Nor were the vices of + Maximian less useful to his benefactor. Insensible to pity, and + fearless of consequences, he was the ready instrument of every + act of cruelty which the policy of that artful prince might at + once suggest and disclaim. As soon as a bloody sacrifice had been + offered to prudence or to revenge, Diocletian, by his seasonable + intercession, saved the remaining few whom he had never designed + to punish, gently censured the severity of his stern colleague, + and enjoyed the comparison of a golden and an iron age, which was + universally applied to their opposite maxims of government. + Notwithstanding the difference of their characters, the two + emperors maintained, on the throne, that friendship which they + had contracted in a private station. The haughty, turbulent + spirit of Maximian, so fatal, afterwards, to himself and to the + public peace, was accustomed to respect the genius of Diocletian, + and confessed the ascendant of reason over brutal violence. 8 + From a motive either of pride or superstition, the two emperors + assumed the titles, the one of Jovius, the other of Herculius. + Whilst the motion of the world (such was the language of their + venal orators) was maintained by the all-seeing wisdom of + Jupiter, the invincible arm of Hercules purged the earth from + monsters and tyrants. 9 + + 6 (return) [ The question of the time when Maximian received the + honors of Cæsar and Augustus has divided modern critics, and + given occasion to a great deal of learned wrangling. I have + followed M. de Tillemont, (Histoire des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. + 500-505,) who has weighed the several reasons and difficulties + with his scrupulous accuracy. * Note: Eckbel concurs in this + view, viii p. 15.—M.] + + 7 (return) [ In an oration delivered before him, (Panegyr. Vet. + ii. 8,) Mamertinus expresses a doubt, whether his hero, in + imitating the conduct of Hannibal and Scipio, had ever heard of + their names. From thence we may fairly infer, that Maximian was + more desirous of being considered as a soldier than as a man of + letters; and it is in this manner that we can often translate the + language of flattery into that of truth.] + + 8 (return) [ Lactantius de M. P. c. 8. Aurelius Victor. As among + the Panegyrics, we find orations pronounced in praise of + Maximian, and others which flatter his adversaries at his + expense, we derive some knowledge from the contrast.] + + 9 (return) [ See the second and third Panegyrics, particularly + iii. 3, 10, 14 but it would be tedious to copy the diffuse and + affected expressions of their false eloquence. With regard to the + titles, consult Aurel. Victor Lactantius de M. P. c. 52. Spanheim + de Usu Numismatum, &c. xii 8.] + + But even the omnipotence of Jovius and Herculius was insufficient + to sustain the weight of the public administration. The prudence + of Diocletian discovered that the empire, assailed on every side + by the barbarians, required on every side the presence of a great + army, and of an emperor. With this view, he resolved once more to + divide his unwieldy power, and with the inferior title of + _Cæsars_, 901 to confer on two generals of approved merit an + unequal share of the sovereign authority. 10 Galerius, surnamed + Armentarius, from his original profession of a herdsman, and + Constantius, who from his pale complexion had acquired the + denomination of Chlorus, 11 were the two persons invested with + the second honors of the Imperial purple. In describing the + country, extraction, and manners of Herculius, we have already + delineated those of Galerius, who was often, and not improperly, + styled the younger Maximian, though, in many instances both of + virtue and ability, he appears to have possessed a manifest + superiority over the elder. The birth of Constantius was less + obscure than that of his colleagues. Eutropius, his father, was + one of the most considerable nobles of Dardania, and his mother + was the niece of the emperor Claudius. 12 Although the youth of + Constantius had been spent in arms, he was endowed with a mild + and amiable disposition, and the popular voice had long since + acknowledged him worthy of the rank which he at last attained. To + strengthen the bonds of political, by those of domestic, union, + each of the emperors assumed the character of a father to one of + the Cæsars, Diocletian to Galerius, and Maximian to Constantius; + and each, obliging them to repudiate their former wives, bestowed + his daughter in marriage or his adopted son. 13 These four + princes distributed among themselves the wide extent of the Roman + empire. The defence of Gaul, Spain, 14 and Britain, was intrusted + to Constantius: Galerius was stationed on the banks of the + Danube, as the safeguard of the Illyrian provinces. Italy and + Africa were considered as the department of Maximian; and for his + peculiar portion, Diocletian reserved Thrace, Egypt, and the rich + countries of Asia. Every one was sovereign with his own + jurisdiction; but their united authority extended over the whole + monarchy, and each of them was prepared to assist his colleagues + with his counsels or presence. The Cæsars, in their exalted rank, + revered the majesty of the emperors, and the three younger + princes invariably acknowledged, by their gratitude and + obedience, the common parent of their fortunes. The suspicious + jealousy of power found not any place among them; and the + singular happiness of their union has been compared to a chorus + of music, whose harmony was regulated and maintained by the + skilful hand of the first artist. 15 + + 901 (return) [ On the relative power of the Augusti and the + Cæsars, consult a dissertation at the end of Manso’s Leben + Constantius des Grossen—M.] + + 10 (return) [ Aurelius Victor. Victor in Epitome. Eutrop. ix. 22. + Lactant de M. P. c. 8. Hieronym. in Chron.] + + 11 (return) [ It is only among the modern Greeks that Tillemont + can discover his appellation of Chlorus. Any remarkable degree of + paleness seems inconsistent with the rubor mentioned in + Panegyric, v. 19.] + + 12 (return) [ Julian, the grandson of Constantius, boasts that + his family was derived from the warlike Mæsians. Misopogon, p. + 348. The Dardanians dwelt on the edge of Mæsia.] + + 13 (return) [ Galerius married Valeria, the daughter of + Diocletian; if we speak with strictness, Theodora, the wife of + Constantius, was daughter only to the wife of Maximian. Spanheim, + Dissertat, xi. 2.] + + 14 (return) [ This division agrees with that of the four + præfectures; yet there is some reason to doubt whether Spain was + not a province of Maximian. See Tillemont, tom. iv. p. 517. * + Note: According to Aurelius Victor and other authorities, Thrace + belonged to the division of Galerius. See Tillemont, iv. 36. But + the laws of Diocletian are in general dated in Illyria or + Thrace.—M.] + + 15 (return) [ Julian in Cæsarib. p. 315. Spanheim’s notes to the + French translation, p. 122.] + + This important measure was not carried into execution till about + six years after the association of Maximian, and that interval of + time had not been destitute of memorable incidents. But we have + preferred, for the sake of perspicuity, first to describe the + more perfect form of Diocletian’s government, and afterwards to + relate the actions of his reign, following rather the natural + order of the events, than the dates of a very doubtful + chronology. + + The first exploit of Maximian, though it is mentioned in a few + words by our imperfect writers, deserves, from its singularity, + to be recorded in a history of human manners. He suppressed the + peasants of Gaul, who, under the appellation of Bagaudæ, 16 had + risen in a general insurrection; very similar to those which in + the fourteenth century successively afflicted both France and + England. 17 It should seem that very many of those institutions, + referred by an easy solution to the feudal system, are derived + from the Celtic barbarians. When Cæsar subdued the Gauls, that + great nation was already divided into three orders of men; the + clergy, the nobility, and the common people. The first governed + by superstition, the second by arms, but the third and last was + not of any weight or account in their public councils. It was + very natural for the plebeians, oppressed by debt, or + apprehensive of injuries, to implore the protection of some + powerful chief, who acquired over their persons and property the + same absolute right as, among the Greeks and Romans, a master + exercised over his slaves. 18 The greatest part of the nation was + gradually reduced into a state of servitude; compelled to + perpetual labor on the estates of the Gallic nobles, and confined + to the soil, either by the real weight of fetters, or by the no + less cruel and forcible restraints of the laws. During the long + series of troubles which agitated Gaul, from the reign of + Gallienus to that of Diocletian, the condition of these servile + peasants was peculiarly miserable; and they experienced at once + the complicated tyranny of their masters, of the barbarians, of + the soldiers, and of the officers of the revenue. 19 + + 16 (return) [ The general name of Bagaudæ (in the signification + of rebels) continued till the fifth century in Gaul. Some critics + derive it from a Celtic word Bagad, a tumultuous assembly. + Scaliger ad Euseb. Du Cange Glossar. (Compare S. Turner, + Anglo-Sax. History, i. 214.—M.)] + + 17 (return) [ Chronique de Froissart, vol. i. c. 182, ii. 73, 79. + The naivete of his story is lost in our best modern writers.] + + 18 (return) [ Cæsar de Bell. Gallic. vi. 13. Orgetorix, the + Helvetian, could arm for his defence a body of ten thousand + slaves.] + + 19 (return) [ Their oppression and misery are acknowledged by + Eumenius (Panegyr. vi. 8,) Gallias efferatas injuriis.] + + Their patience was at last provoked into despair. On every side + they rose in multitudes, armed with rustic weapons, and with + irresistible fury. The ploughman became a foot soldier, the + shepherd mounted on horseback, the deserted villages and open + towns were abandoned to the flames, and the ravages of the + peasants equalled those of the fiercest barbarians. 20 They + asserted the natural rights of men, but they asserted those + rights with the most savage cruelty. The Gallic nobles, justly + dreading their revenge, either took refuge in the fortified + cities, or fled from the wild scene of anarchy. The peasants + reigned without control; and two of their most daring leaders had + the folly and rashness to assume the Imperial ornaments. 21 Their + power soon expired at the approach of the legions. The strength + of union and discipline obtained an easy victory over a + licentious and divided multitude. 22 A severe retaliation was + inflicted on the peasants who were found in arms; the affrighted + remnant returned to their respective habitations, and their + unsuccessful effort for freedom served only to confirm their + slavery. So strong and uniform is the current of popular + passions, that we might almost venture, from very scanty + materials, to relate the particulars of this war; but we are not + disposed to believe that the principal leaders, Ælianus and + Amandus, were Christians, 23 or to insinuate, that the rebellion, + as it happened in the time of Luther, was occasioned by the abuse + of those benevolent principles of Christianity, which inculcate + the natural freedom of mankind. + + 20 (return) [ Panegyr. Vet. ii. 4. Aurelius Victor.] + + 21 (return) [ Ælianus and Amandus. We have medals coined by them + Goltzius in Thes. R. A. p. 117, 121.] + + 22 (return) [ Levibus proeliis domuit. Eutrop. ix. 20.] + + 23 (return) [ The fact rests indeed on very slight authority, a + life of St. Babolinus, which is probably of the seventh century. + See Duchesne Scriptores Rer. Francicar. tom. i. p. 662.] + + Maximian had no sooner recovered Gaul from the hands of the + peasants, than he lost Britain by the usurpation of Carausius. + Ever since the rash but successful enterprise of the Franks under + the reign of Probus, their daring countrymen had constructed + squadrons of light brigantines, in which they incessantly ravaged + the provinces adjacent to the ocean. 24 To repel their desultory + incursions, it was found necessary to create a naval power; and + the judicious measure was prosecuted with prudence and vigor. + Gessoriacum, or Boulogne, in the straits of the British Channel, + was chosen by the emperor for the station of the Roman fleet; and + the command of it was intrusted to Carausius, a Menapian of the + meanest origin, 25 but who had long signalized his skill as a + pilot, and his valor as a soldier. The integrity of the new + admiral corresponded not with his abilities. When the German + pirates sailed from their own harbors, he connived at their + passage, but he diligently intercepted their return, and + appropriated to his own use an ample share of the spoil which + they had acquired. The wealth of Carausius was, on this occasion, + very justly considered as an evidence of his guilt; and Maximian + had already given orders for his death. But the crafty Menapian + foresaw and prevented the severity of the emperor. By his + liberality he had attached to his fortunes the fleet which he + commanded, and secured the barbarians in his interest. From the + port of Boulogne he sailed over to Britain, persuaded the legion, + and the auxiliaries which guarded that island, to embrace his + party, and boldly assuming, with the Imperial purple, the title + of Augustus, defied the justice and the arms of his injured + sovereign. 26 + + 24 (return) [ Aurelius Victor calls them Germans. Eutropius (ix. + 21) gives them the name of Saxons. But Eutropius lived in the + ensuing century, and seems to use the language of his own times.] + + 25 (return) [ The three expressions of Eutropius, Aurelius + Victor, and Eumenius, “vilissime natus,” “Bataviæ alumnus,” and + “Menapiæ civis,” give us a very doubtful account of the birth of + Carausius. Dr. Stukely, however, (Hist. of Carausius, p. 62,) + chooses to make him a native of St. David’s and a prince of the + blood royal of Britain. The former idea he had found in Richard + of Cirencester, p. 44. * Note: The Menapians were settled between + the Scheldt and the Meuse, is the northern part of Brabant. + D’Anville, Geogr. Anc. i. 93.—G.] + + 26 (return) [ Panegyr. v. 12. Britain at this time was secure, + and slightly guarded.] + + When Britain was thus dismembered from the empire, its importance + was sensibly felt, and its loss sincerely lamented. The Romans + celebrated, and perhaps magnified, the extent of that noble + island, provided on every side with convenient harbors; the + temperature of the climate, and the fertility of the soil, alike + adapted for the production of corn or of vines; the valuable + minerals with which it abounded; its rich pastures covered with + innumerable flocks, and its woods free from wild beasts or + venomous serpents. Above all, they regretted the large amount of + the revenue of Britain, whilst they confessed, that such a + province well deserved to become the seat of an independent + monarchy. 27 During the space of seven years it was possessed by + Carausius; and fortune continued propitious to a rebellion + supported with courage and ability. The British emperor defended + the frontiers of his dominions against the Caledonians of the + North, invited, from the continent, a great number of skilful + artists, and displayed, on a variety of coins that are still + extant, his taste and opulence. Born on the confines of the + Franks, he courted the friendship of that formidable people, by + the flattering imitation of their dress and manners. The bravest + of their youth he enlisted among his land or sea forces; and, in + return for their useful alliance, he communicated to the + barbarians the dangerous knowledge of military and naval arts. + Carausius still preserved the possession of Boulogne and the + adjacent country. His fleets rode triumphant in the channel, + commanded the mouths of the Seine and of the Rhine, ravaged the + coasts of the ocean, and diffused beyond the columns of Hercules + the terror of his name. Under his command, Britain, destined in a + future age to obtain the empire of the sea, already assumed its + natural and respectable station of a maritime power. 28 + + 27 (return) [ Panegyr. Vet v 11, vii. 9. The orator Eumenius + wished to exalt the glory of the hero (Constantius) with the + importance of the conquest. Notwithstanding our laudable + partiality for our native country, it is difficult to conceive, + that, in the beginning of the fourth century England deserved all + these commendations. A century and a half before, it hardly paid + its own establishment.] + + 28 (return) [ As a great number of medals of Carausius are still + preserved, he is become a very favorite object of antiquarian + curiosity, and every circumstance of his life and actions has + been investigated with sagacious accuracy. Dr. Stukely, in + particular, has devoted a large volume to the British emperor. I + have used his materials, and rejected most of his fanciful + conjectures.] + + By seizing the fleet of Boulogne, Carausius had deprived his + master of the means of pursuit and revenge. And when, after a + vast expense of time and labor, a new armament was launched into + the water, 29 the Imperial troops, unaccustomed to that element, + were easily baffled and defeated by the veteran sailors of the + usurper. This disappointed effort was soon productive of a treaty + of peace. Diocletian and his colleague, who justly dreaded the + enterprising spirit of Carausius, resigned to him the sovereignty + of Britain, and reluctantly admitted their perfidious servant to + a participation of the Imperial honors. 30 But the adoption of + the two Cæsars restored new vigor to the Romans arms; and while + the Rhine was guarded by the presence of Maximian, his brave + associate Constantius assumed the conduct of the British war. His + first enterprise was against the important place of Boulogne. A + stupendous mole, raised across the entrance of the harbor, + intercepted all hopes of relief. The town surrendered after an + obstinate defence; and a considerable part of the naval strength + of Carausius fell into the hands of the besiegers. During the + three years which Constantius employed in preparing a fleet + adequate to the conquest of Britain, he secured the coast of + Gaul, invaded the country of the Franks, and deprived the usurper + of the assistance of those powerful allies. + + 29 (return) [ When Mamertinus pronounced his first panegyric, the + naval preparations of Maximian were completed; and the orator + presaged an assured victory. His silence in the second panegyric + might alone inform us that the expedition had not succeeded.] + + 30 (return) [ Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, and the medals, (Pax + Augg.) inform us of this temporary reconciliation; though I will + not presume (as Dr. Stukely has done, Medallic History of + Carausius, p. 86, &c) to insert the identical articles of the + treaty.] + + Before the preparations were finished, Constantius received the + intelligence of the tyrant’s death, and it was considered as a + sure presage of the approaching victory. The servants of + Carausius imitated the example of treason which he had given. He + was murdered by his first minister, Allectus, and the assassin + succeeded to his power and to his danger. But he possessed not + equal abilities either to exercise the one or to repel the other. + + He beheld, with anxious terror, the opposite shores of the + continent already filled with arms, with troops, and with + vessels; for Constantius had very prudently divided his forces, + that he might likewise divide the attention and resistance of the + enemy. The attack was at length made by the principal squadron, + which, under the command of the præfect Asclepiodatus, an officer + of distinguished merit, had been assembled in the north of the + Seine. So imperfect in those times was the art of navigation, + that orators have celebrated the daring courage of the Romans, + who ventured to set sail with a side-wind, and on a stormy day. + The weather proved favorable to their enterprise. Under the cover + of a thick fog, they escaped the fleet of Allectus, which had + been stationed off the Isle of Wight to receive them, landed in + safety on some part of the western coast, and convinced the + Britons, that a superiority of naval strength will not always + protect their country from a foreign invasion. Asclepiodatus had + no sooner disembarked the imperial troops, then he set fire to + his ships; and, as the expedition proved fortunate, his heroic + conduct was universally admired. The usurper had posted himself + near London, to expect the formidable attack of Constantius, who + commanded in person the fleet of Boulogne; but the descent of a + new enemy required his immediate presence in the West. He + performed this long march in so precipitate a manner, that he + encountered the whole force of the præfect with a small body of + harassed and disheartened troops. The engagement was soon + terminated by the total defeat and death of Allectus; a single + battle, as it has often happened, decided the fate of this great + island; and when Constantius landed on the shores of Kent, he + found them covered with obedient subjects. Their acclamations + were loud and unanimous; and the virtues of the conqueror may + induce us to believe, that they sincerely rejoiced in a + revolution, which, after a separation of ten years, restored + Britain to the body of the Roman empire. 31 + + 31 (return) [ With regard to the recovery of Britain, we obtain a + few hints from Aurelius Victor and Eutropius.] + + + + + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part + II. + + Britain had none but domestic enemies to dread; and as long as + the governors preserved their fidelity, and the troops their + discipline, the incursions of the naked savages of Scotland or + Ireland could never materially affect the safety of the province. + + The peace of the continent, and the defence of the principal + rivers which bounded the empire, were objects of far greater + difficulty and importance. The policy of Diocletian, which + inspired the councils of his associates, provided for the public + tranquility, by encouraging a spirit of dissension among the + barbarians, and by strengthening the fortifications of the Roman + limit. In the East he fixed a line of camps from Egypt to the + Persian dominions, and for every camp, he instituted an adequate + number of stationary troops, commanded by their respective + officers, and supplied with every kind of arms, from the new + arsenals which he had formed at Antioch, Emesa, and Damascus. 32 + Nor was the precaution of the emperor less watchful against the + well-known valor of the barbarians of Europe. From the mouth of + the Rhine to that of the Danube, the ancient camps, towns, and + citidels, were diligently reëstablished, and, in the most exposed + places, new ones were skilfully constructed: the strictest + vigilance was introduced among the garrisons of the frontier, and + every expedient was practised that could render the long chain of + fortifications firm and impenetrable. 33 A barrier so respectable + was seldom violated, and the barbarians often turned against each + other their disappointed rage. The Goths, the Vandals, the + Gepidæ, the Burgundians, the Alemanni, wasted each other’s + strength by destructive hostilities: and whosoever vanquished, + they vanquished the enemies of Rome. The subjects of Diocletian + enjoyed the bloody spectacle, and congratulated each other, that + the mischiefs of civil war were now experienced only by the + barbarians. 34 + + 32 (return) [ John Malala, in Chron, Antiochen. tom. i. p. 408, + 409.] + + 33 (return) [ Zosim. l. i. p. 3. That partial historian seems to + celebrate the vigilance of Diocletian with a design of exposing + the negligence of Constantine; we may, however, listen to an + orator: “Nam quid ego alarum et cohortium castra percenseam, toto + Rheni et Istri et Euphraus limite restituta.” Panegyr. Vet. iv. + 18.] + + 34 (return) [ Ruunt omnes in sanguinem suum populi, quibus ron + contigilesse Romanis, obstinatæque feritatis poenas nunc sponte + persolvunt. Panegyr. Vet. iii. 16. Mamertinus illustrates the + fact by the example of almost all the nations in the world.] + + Notwithstanding the policy of Diocletian, it was impossible to + maintain an equal and undisturbed tranquillity during a reign of + twenty years, and along a frontier of many hundred miles. + Sometimes the barbarians suspended their domestic animosities, + and the relaxed vigilance of the garrisons sometimes gave a + passage to their strength or dexterity. Whenever the provinces + were invaded, Diocletian conducted himself with that calm dignity + which he always affected or possessed; reserved his presence for + such occasions as were worthy of his interposition, never exposed + his person or reputation to any unnecessary danger, insured his + success by every means that prudence could suggest, and + displayed, with ostentation, the consequences of his victory. In + wars of a more difficult nature, and more doubtful event, he + employed the rough valor of Maximian; and that faithful soldier + was content to ascribe his own victories to the wise counsels and + auspicious influence of his benefactor. But after the adoption of + the two Cæsars, the emperors themselves, retiring to a less + laborious scene of action, devolved on their adopted sons the + defence of the Danube and of the Rhine. The vigilant Galerius was + never reduced to the necessity of vanquishing an army of + barbarians on the Roman territory. 35 The brave and active + Constantius delivered Gaul from a very furious inroad of the + Alemanni; and his victories of Langres and Vindonissa appear to + have been actions of considerable danger and merit. As he + traversed the open country with a feeble guard, he was + encompassed on a sudden by the superior multitude of the enemy. + He retreated with difficulty towards Langres; but, in the general + consternation, the citizens refused to open their gates, and the + wounded prince was drawn up the wall by the means of a rope. But, + on the news of his distress, the Roman troops hastened from all + sides to his relief, and before the evening he had satisfied his + honor and revenge by the slaughter of six thousand Alemanni. 36 + From the monuments of those times, the obscure traces of several + other victories over the barbarians of Sarmatia and Germany might + possibly be collected; but the tedious search would not be + rewarded either with amusement or with instruction. + + 35 (return) [ He complained, though not with the strictest truth, + “Jam fluxisse annos quindecim in quibus, in Illyrico, ad ripam + Danubii relegatus cum gentibus barbaris luctaret.” Lactant. de M. + P. c. 18.] + + 36 (return) [ In the Greek text of Eusebius, we read six + thousand, a number which I have preferred to the sixty thousand + of Jerome, Orosius Eutropius, and his Greek translator Pæanius.] + + The conduct which the emperor Probus had adopted in the disposal + of the vanquished was imitated by Diocletian and his associates. + The captive barbarians, exchanging death for slavery, were + distributed among the provincials, and assigned to those + districts (in Gaul, the territories of Amiens, Beauvais, Cambray, + Treves, Langres, and Troyes, are particularly specified) 37 which + had been depopulated by the calamities of war. They were usefully + employed as shepherds and husbandmen, but were denied the + exercise of arms, except when it was found expedient to enroll + them in the military service. Nor did the emperors refuse the + property of lands, with a less servile tenure, to such of the + barbarians as solicited the protection of Rome. They granted a + settlement to several colonies of the Carpi, the Bastarnæ, and + the Sarmatians; and, by a dangerous indulgence, permitted them in + some measure to retain their national manners and independence. + 38 Among the provincials, it was a subject of flattering + exultation, that the barbarian, so lately an object of terror, + now cultivated their lands, drove their cattle to the neighboring + fair, and contributed by his labor to the public plenty. They + congratulated their masters on the powerful accession of subjects + and soldiers; but they forgot to observe, that multitudes of + secret enemies, insolent from favor, or desperate from + oppression, were introduced into the heart of the empire. 39 + + 37 (return) [ Panegyr. Vet. vii. 21.] + + 38 (return) [ There was a settlement of the Sarmatians in the + neighborhood of Treves, which seems to have been deserted by + those lazy barbarians. Ausonius speaks of them in his Mosella:—— + “Unde iter ingrediens nemorosa per avia solum, Et nulla humani + spectans vestigia cultus; ........ Arvaque Sauromatum nuper + metata colonis.”] + + 39 (return) [ There was a town of the Carpi in the Lower Mæsia. + See the rhetorical exultation of Eumenius.] + + While the Cæsars exercised their valor on the banks of the Rhine + and Danube, the presence of the emperors was required on the + southern confines of the Roman world. From the Nile to Mount + Atlas, Africa was in arms. A confederacy of five Moorish nations + issued from their deserts to invade the peaceful provinces. 40 + Julian had assumed the purple at Carthage. 41 Achilleus at + Alexandria, and even the Blemmyes, renewed, or rather continued, + their incursions into the Upper Egypt. Scarcely any circumstances + have been preserved of the exploits of Maximian in the western + parts of Africa; but it appears, by the event, that the progress + of his arms was rapid and decisive, that he vanquished the + fiercest barbarians of Mauritania, and that he removed them from + the mountains, whose inaccessible strength had inspired their + inhabitants with a lawless confidence, and habituated them to a + life of rapine and violence. 42 Diocletian, on his side, opened + the campaign in Egypt by the siege of Alexandria, cut off the + aqueducts which conveyed the waters of the Nile into every + quarter of that immense city, 43 and rendering his camp + impregnable to the sallies of the besieged multitude, he pushed + his reiterated attacks with caution and vigor. After a siege of + eight months, Alexandria, wasted by the sword and by fire, + implored the clemency of the conqueror, but it experienced the + full extent of his severity. Many thousands of the citizens + perished in a promiscuous slaughter, and there were few obnoxious + persons in Egypt who escaped a sentence either of death or at + least of exile. 44 The fate of Busiris and of Coptos was still + more melancholy than that of Alexandria: those proud cities, the + former distinguished by its antiquity, the latter enriched by the + passage of the Indian trade, were utterly destroyed by the arms + and by the severe order of Diocletian. 45 The character of the + Egyptian nation, insensible to kindness, but extremely + susceptible of fear, could alone justify this excessive rigor. + The seditions of Alexandria had often affected the tranquillity + and subsistence of Rome itself. Since the usurpation of Firmus, + the province of Upper Egypt, incessantly relapsing into + rebellion, had embraced the alliance of the savages of Æthiopia. + The number of the Blemmyes, scattered between the Island of Meroe + and the Red Sea, was very inconsiderable, their disposition was + unwarlike, their weapons rude and inoffensive. 46 Yet in the + public disorders, these barbarians, whom antiquity, shocked with + the deformity of their figure, had almost excluded from the human + species, presumed to rank themselves among the enemies of Rome. + 47 Such had been the unworthy allies of the Egyptians; and while + the attention of the state was engaged in more serious wars, + their vexations inroads might again harass the repose of the + province. With a view of opposing to the Blemmyes a suitable + adversary, Diocletian persuaded the Nobatæ, or people of Nubia, + to remove from their ancient habitations in the deserts of Libya, + and resigned to them an extensive but unprofitable territory + above Syene and the cataracts of the Nile, with the stipulation, + that they should ever respect and guard the frontier of the + empire. The treaty long subsisted; and till the establishment of + Christianity introduced stricter notions of religious worship, it + was annually ratified by a solemn sacrifice in the isle of + Elephantine, in which the Romans, as well as the barbarians, + adored the same visible or invisible powers of the universe. 48 + + 40 (return) [ Scaliger (Animadvers. ad Euseb. p. 243) decides, in + his usual manner, that the Quinque gentiani, or five African + nations, were the five great cities, the Pentapolis of the + inoffensive province of Cyrene.] + + 41 (return) [ After his defeat, Julian stabbed himself with a + dagger, and immediately leaped into the flames. Victor in + Epitome.] + + 42 (return) [ Tu ferocissimos Mauritaniæ populos inaccessis + montium jugis et naturali munitione fidentes, expugnasti, + recepisti, transtulisti. Panegyr Vet. vi. 8.] + + 43 (return) [ See the description of Alexandria, in Hirtius de + Bel. Alexandrin c. 5.] + + 44 (return) [ Eutrop. ix. 24. Orosius, vii. 25. John Malala in + Chron. Antioch. p. 409, 410. Yet Eumenius assures us, that Egypt + was pacified by the clemency of Diocletian.] + + 45 (return) [ Eusebius (in Chron.) places their destruction + several years sooner and at a time when Egypt itself was in a + state of rebellion against the Romans.] + + 46 (return) [ Strabo, l. xvii. p. 172. Pomponius Mela, l. i. c. + 4. His words are curious: “Intra, si credere libet vix, homines + magisque semiferi Ægipanes, et Blemmyes, et Satyri.”] + + 47 (return) [ Ausus sese inserere fortunæ et provocare arma + Romana.] + + 48 (return) [ See Procopius de Bell. Persic. l. i. c. 19. Note: + Compare, on the epoch of the final extirpation of the rites of + Paganism from the Isle of Philæ, (Elephantine,) which subsisted + till the edict of Theodosius, in the sixth century, a + dissertation of M. Letronne, on certain Greek inscriptions. The + dissertation contains some very interesting observations on the + conduct and policy of Diocletian in Egypt. Mater pour l’Hist. du + Christianisme en Egypte, Nubie et Abyssinie, Paris 1817—M.] + + At the same time that Diocletian chastised the past crimes of the + Egyptians, he provided for their future safety and happiness by + many wise regulations, which were confirmed and enforced under + the succeeding reigns. 49 One very remarkable edict which he + published, instead of being condemned as the effect of jealous + tyranny, deserves to be applauded as an act of prudence and + humanity. He caused a diligent inquiry to be made “for all the + ancient books which treated of the admirable art of making gold + and silver, and without pity, committed them to the flames; + apprehensive, as we are assumed, lest the opulence of the + Egyptians should inspire them with confidence to rebel against + the empire.” 50 But if Diocletian had been convinced of the + reality of that valuable art, far from extinguishing the memory, + he would have converted the operation of it to the benefit of the + public revenue. It is much more likely, that his good sense + discovered to him the folly of such magnificent pretensions, and + that he was desirous of preserving the reason and fortunes of his + subjects from the mischievous pursuit. It may be remarked, that + these ancient books, so liberally ascribed to Pythagoras, to + Solomon, or to Hermes, were the pious frauds of more recent + adepts. The Greeks were inattentive either to the use or to the + abuse of chemistry. In that immense register, where Pliny has + deposited the discoveries, the arts, and the errors of mankind, + there is not the least mention of the transmutation of metals; + and the persecution of Diocletian is the first authentic event in + the history of alchemy. The conquest of Egypt by the Arabs + diffused that vain science over the globe. Congenial to the + avarice of the human heart, it was studied in China as in Europe, + with equal eagerness, and with equal success. The darkness of the + middle ages insured a favorable reception to every tale of + wonder, and the revival of learning gave new vigor to hope, and + suggested more specious arts of deception. Philosophy, with the + aid of experience, has at length banished the study of alchemy; + and the present age, however desirous of riches, is content to + seek them by the humbler means of commerce and industry. 51 + + 49 (return) [ He fixed the public allowance of corn, for the + people of Alexandria, at two millions of medimni; about four + hundred thousand quarters. Chron. Paschal. p. 276 Procop. Hist. + Arcan. c. 26.] + + 50 (return) [ John Antioch, in Excerp. Valesian. p. 834. Suidas + in Diocletian.] + + 51 (return) [ See a short history and confutation of Alchemy, in + the works of that philosophical compiler, La Mothe le Vayer, tom. + i. p. 32—353.] + + The reduction of Egypt was immediately followed by the Persian + war. It was reserved for the reign of Diocletian to vanquish that + powerful nation, and to extort a confession from the successors + of Artaxerxes, of the superior majesty of the Roman empire. + + We have observed, under the reign of Valerian, that Armenia was + subdued by the perfidy and the arms of the Persians, and that, + after the assassination of Chosroes, his son Tiridates, the + infant heir of the monarchy, was saved by the fidelity of his + friends, and educated under the protection of the emperors. + Tiridates derived from his exile such advantages as he could + never have obtained on the throne of Armenia; the early knowledge + of adversity, of mankind, and of the Roman discipline. He + signalized his youth by deeds of valor, and displayed a matchless + dexterity, as well as strength, in every martial exercise, and + even in the less honorable contests of the Olympian games. 52 + Those qualities were more nobly exerted in the defence of his + benefactor Licinius. 53 That officer, in the sedition which + occasioned the death of Probus, was exposed to the most imminent + danger, and the enraged soldiers were forcing their way into his + tent, when they were checked by the single arm of the Armenian + prince. The gratitude of Tiridates contributed soon afterwards to + his restoration. Licinius was in every station the friend and + companion of Galerius, and the merit of Galerius, long before he + was raised to the dignity of Cæsar, had been known and esteemed + by Diocletian. In the third year of that emperor’s reign + Tiridates was invested with the kingdom of Armenia. The justice + of the measure was not less evident than its expediency. It was + time to rescue from the usurpation of the Persian monarch an + important territory, which, since the reign of Nero, had been + always granted under the protection of the empire to a younger + branch of the house of Arsaces. 54 + + 52 (return) [ See the education and strength of Tiridates in the + Armenian history of Moses of Chorene, l. ii. c. 76. He could + seize two wild bulls by the horns, and break them off with his + hands.] + + 53 (return) [ If we give credit to the younger Victor, who + supposes that in the year 323 Licinius was only sixty years of + age, he could scarcely be the same person as the patron of + Tiridates; but we know from much better authority, (Euseb. Hist. + Ecclesiast. l. x. c. 8,) that Licinius was at that time in the + last period of old age: sixteen years before, he is represented + with gray hairs, and as the contemporary of Galerius. See + Lactant. c. 32. Licinius was probably born about the year 250.] + + 54 (return) [ See the sixty-second and sixty-third books of Dion + Cassius.] + + When Tiridates appeared on the frontiers of Armenia, he was + received with an unfeigned transport of joy and loyalty. During + twenty-six years, the country had experienced the real and + imaginary hardships of a foreign yoke. The Persian monarchs + adorned their new conquest with magnificent buildings; but those + monuments had been erected at the expense of the people, and were + abhorred as badges of slavery. The apprehension of a revolt had + inspired the most rigorous precautions: oppression had been + aggravated by insult, and the consciousness of the public hatred + had been productive of every measure that could render it still + more implacable. We have already remarked the intolerant spirit + of the Magian religion. The statues of the deified kings of + Armenia, and the sacred images of the sun and moon, were broke in + pieces by the zeal of the conqueror; and the perpetual fire of + Ormuzd was kindled and preserved upon an altar erected on the + summit of Mount Bagavan. 55 It was natural, that a people + exasperated by so many injuries, should arm with zeal in the + cause of their independence, their religion, and their hereditary + sovereign. The torrent bore down every obstacle, and the Persian + garrisons retreated before its fury. The nobles of Armenia flew + to the standard of Tiridates, all alleging their past merit, + offering their future service, and soliciting from the new king + those honors and rewards from which they had been excluded with + disdain under the foreign government. 56 The command of the army + was bestowed on Artavasdes, whose father had saved the infancy of + Tiridates, and whose family had been massacred for that generous + action. The brother of Artavasdes obtained the government of a + province. One of the first military dignities was conferred on + the satrap Otas, a man of singular temperance and fortitude, who + presented to the king his sister 57 and a considerable treasure, + both of which, in a sequestered fortress, Otas had preserved from + violation. Among the Armenian nobles appeared an ally, whose + fortunes are too remarkable to pass unnoticed. His name was + Mamgo, 571 his origin was Scythian, and the horde which + acknowledge his authority had encamped a very few years before on + the skirts of the Chinese empire, 58 which at that time extended + as far as the neighborhood of Sogdiana. 59 Having incurred the + displeasure of his master, Mamgo, with his followers, retired to + the banks of the Oxus, and implored the protection of Sapor. The + emperor of China claimed the fugitive, and alleged the rights of + sovereignty. The Persian monarch pleaded the laws of hospitality, + and with some difficulty avoided a war, by the promise that he + would banish Mamgo to the uttermost parts of the West, a + punishment, as he described it, not less dreadful than death + itself. Armenia was chosen for the place of exile, and a large + district was assigned to the Scythian horde, on which they might + feed their flocks and herds, and remove their encampment from one + place to another, according to the different seasons of the year. + + They were employed to repel the invasion of Tiridates; but their + leader, after weighing the obligations and injuries which he had + received from the Persian monarch, resolved to abandon his party. + + The Armenian prince, who was well acquainted with the merit as + well as power of Mamgo, treated him with distinguished respect; + and, by admitting him into his confidence, acquired a brave and + faithful servant, who contributed very effectually to his + restoration. 60 + + 55 (return) [ Moses of Chorene. Hist. Armen. l. ii. c. 74. The + statues had been erected by Valarsaces, who reigned in Armenia + about 130 years before Christ, and was the first king of the + family of Arsaces, (see Moses, Hist. Armen. l. ii. 2, 3.) The + deification of the Arsacides is mentioned by Justin, (xli. 5,) + and by Ammianus Marcellinus, (xxiii. 6.)] + + 56 (return) [ The Armenian nobility was numerous and powerful. + Moses mentions many families which were distinguished under the + reign of Valarsaces, (l. ii. 7,) and which still subsisted in his + own time, about the middle of the fifth century. See the preface + of his Editors.] + + 57 (return) [ She was named Chosroiduchta, and had not the os + patulum like other women. (Hist. Armen. l. ii. c. 79.) I do not + understand the expression. * Note: Os patulum signifies merely a + large and widely opening mouth. Ovid (Metam. xv. 513) says, + speaking of the monster who attacked Hippolytus, patulo partem + maris evomit ore. Probably a wide mouth was a common defect among + the Armenian women.—G.] + + 571 (return) [ Mamgo (according to M. St. Martin, note to Le + Beau. ii. 213) belonged to the imperial race of Hon, who had + filled the throne of China for four hundred years. Dethroned by + the usurping race of Wei, Mamgo found a hospitable reception in + Persia in the reign of Ardeschir. The emperor of china having + demanded the surrender of the fugitive and his partisans, Sapor, + then king, threatened with war both by Rome and China, counselled + Mamgo to retire into Armenia. “I have expelled him from my + dominions, (he answered the Chinese ambassador;) I have banished + him to the extremity of the earth, where the sun sets; I have + dismissed him to certain death.” Compare Mem. sur l’Armenie, ii. + 25.—M.] + + 58 (return) [ In the Armenian history, (l. ii. 78,) as well as in + the Geography, (p. 367,) China is called Zenia, or Zenastan. It + is characterized by the production of silk, by the opulence of + the natives, and by their love of peace, above all the other + nations of the earth. * Note: See St. Martin, Mem. sur l’Armenie, + i. 304.] + + 59 (return) [ Vou-ti, the first emperor of the seventh dynasty, + who then reigned in China, had political transactions with + Fergana, a province of Sogdiana, and is said to have received a + Roman embassy, (Histoire des Huns, tom. i. p. 38.) In those ages + the Chinese kept a garrison at Kashgar, and one of their + generals, about the time of Trajan, marched as far as the Caspian + Sea. With regard to the intercourse between China and the Western + countries, a curious memoir of M. de Guignes may be consulted, in + the Academie des Inscriptions, tom. xxii. p. 355. * Note: The + Chinese Annals mention, under the ninth year of Yan-hi, which + corresponds with the year 166 J. C., an embassy which arrived + from Tathsin, and was sent by a prince called An-thun, who can be + no other than Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, who then ruled over the + Romans. St. Martin, Mem. sur l’Armænic. ii. 30. See also + Klaproth, Tableaux Historiques de l’Asie, p. 69. The embassy came + by Jy-nan, Tonquin.—M.] + + 60 (return) [ See Hist. Armen. l. ii. c. 81.] + + For a while, fortune appeared to favor the enterprising valor of + Tiridates. He not only expelled the enemies of his family and + country from the whole extent of Armenia, but in the prosecution + of his revenge he carried his arms, or at least his incursions, + into the heart of Assyria. The historian, who has preserved the + name of Tiridates from oblivion, celebrates, with a degree of + national enthusiasm, his personal prowess: and, in the true + spirit of eastern romance, describes the giants and the elephants + that fell beneath his invincible arm. It is from other + information that we discover the distracted state of the Persian + monarchy, to which the king of Armenia was indebted for some part + of his advantages. The throne was disputed by the ambition of + contending brothers; and Hormuz, after exerting without success + the strength of his own party, had recourse to the dangerous + assistance of the barbarians who inhabited the banks of the + Caspian Sea. 61 The civil war was, however, soon terminated, + either by a victor or by a reconciliation; and Narses, who was + universally acknowledged as king of Persia, directed his whole + force against the foreign enemy. The contest then became too + unequal; nor was the valor of the hero able to withstand the + power of the monarch. Tiridates, a second time expelled from the + throne of Armenia, once more took refuge in the court of the + emperors. 611 Narses soon reëstablished his authority over the + revolted province; and loudly complaining of the protection + afforded by the Romans to rebels and fugitives, aspired to the + conquest of the East. 62 + + 61 (return) [ Ipsos Persas ipsumque Regem ascitis Saccis, et + Russis, et Gellis, petit frater Ormies. Panegyric. Vet. iii. 1. + The Saccæ were a nation of wandering Scythians, who encamped + towards the sources of the Oxus and the Jaxartes. The Gelli where + the inhabitants of Ghilan, along the Caspian Sea, and who so + long, under the name of Dilemines, infested the Persian monarchy. + See d’Herbelot, Bibliotheque] + + 611 (return) [ M St. Martin represents this differently. Le roi + de Perse * * * profits d’un voyage que Tiridate avoit fait a Rome + pour attaquer ce royaume. This reads like the evasion of the + national historians to disguise the fact discreditable to their + hero. See Mem. sur l’Armenie, i. 304.—M.] + + 62 (return) [ Moses of Chorene takes no notice of this second + revolution, which I have been obliged to collect from a passage + of Ammianus Marcellinus, (l. xxiii. c. 5.) Lactantius speaks of + the ambition of Narses: “Concitatus domesticis exemplis avi sui + Saporis ad occupandum orientem magnis copiis inhiabat.” De Mort. + Persecut. c. 9.] + + Neither prudence nor honor could permit the emperors to forsake + the cause of the Armenian king, and it was resolved to exert the + force of the empire in the Persian war. Diocletian, with the calm + dignity which he constantly assumed, fixed his own station in the + city of Antioch, from whence he prepared and directed the + military operations. 63 The conduct of the legions was intrusted + to the intrepid valor of Galerius, who, for that important + purpose, was removed from the banks of the Danube to those of the + Euphrates. The armies soon encountered each other in the plains + of Mesopotamia, and two battles were fought with various and + doubtful success; but the third engagement was of a more decisive + nature; and the Roman army received a total overthrow, which is + attributed to the rashness of Galerius, who, with an + inconsiderable body of troops, attacked the innumerable host of + the Persians. 64 But the consideration of the country that was + the scene of action, may suggest another reason for his defeat. + The same ground on which Galerius was vanquished, had been + rendered memorable by the death of Crassus, and the slaughter of + ten legions. It was a plain of more than sixty miles, which + extended from the hills of Carrhæ to the Euphrates; a smooth and + barren surface of sandy desert, without a hillock, without a + tree, and without a spring of fresh water. 65 The steady infantry + of the Romans, fainting with heat and thirst, could neither hope + for victory if they preserved their ranks, nor break their ranks + without exposing themselves to the most imminent danger. In this + situation they were gradually encompassed by the superior + numbers, harassed by the rapid evolutions, and destroyed by the + arrows of the barbarian cavalry. + + The king of Armenia had signalized his valor in the battle, and + acquired personal glory by the public misfortune. He was pursued + as far as the Euphrates; his horse was wounded, and it appeared + impossible for him to escape the victorious enemy. In this + extremity Tiridates embraced the only refuge which appeared + before him: he dismounted and plunged into the stream. His armor + was heavy, the river very deep, and at those parts at least half + a mile in breadth; 66 yet such was his strength and dexterity, + that he reached in safety the opposite bank. 67 With regard to + the Roman general, we are ignorant of the circumstances of his + escape; but when he returned to Antioch, Diocletian received him, + not with the tenderness of a friend and colleague, but with the + indignation of an offended sovereign. The haughtiest of men, + clothed in his purple, but humbled by the sense of his fault and + misfortune, was obliged to follow the emperor’s chariot above a + mile on foot, and to exhibit, before the whole court, the + spectacle of his disgrace. 68 + + 63 (return) [ We may readily believe, that Lactantius ascribes to + cowardice the conduct of Diocletian. Julian, in his oration, + says, that he remained with all the forces of the empire; a very + hyperbolical expression.] + + 64 (return) [ Our five abbreviators, Eutropius, Festus, the two + Victors, and Orosius, all relate the last and great battle; but + Orosius is the only one who speaks of the two former.] + + 65 (return) [ The nature of the country is finely described by + Plutarch, in the life of Crassus; and by Xenophon, in the first + book of the Anabasis] + + 66 (return) [ See Foster’s Dissertation in the second volume of + the translation of the Anabasis by Spelman; which I will venture + to recommend as one of the best versions extant.] + + 67 (return) [ Hist. Armen. l. ii. c. 76. I have transferred this + exploit of Tiridates from an imaginary defeat to the real one of + Galerius.] + + 68 (return) [ Ammian. Marcellin. l. xiv. The mile, in the hands + of Eutropoius, (ix. 24,) of Festus (c. 25,) and of Orosius, (vii + 25), easily increased to several miles] + + As soon as Diocletian had indulged his private resentment, and + asserted the majesty of supreme power, he yielded to the + submissive entreaties of the Cæsar, and permitted him to retrieve + his own honor, as well as that of the Roman arms. In the room of + the unwarlike troops of Asia, which had most probably served in + the first expedition, a second army was drawn from the veterans + and new levies of the Illyrian frontier, and a considerable body + of Gothic auxiliaries were taken into the Imperial pay. 69 At the + head of a chosen army of twenty-five thousand men, Galerius again + passed the Euphrates; but, instead of exposing his legions in the + open plains of Mesopotamia he advanced through the mountains of + Armenia, where he found the inhabitants devoted to his cause, and + the country as favorable to the operations of infantry as it was + inconvenient for the motions of cavalry. 70 Adversity had + confirmed the Roman discipline, while the barbarians, elated by + success, were become so negligent and remiss, that in the moment + when they least expected it, they were surprised by the active + conduct of Galerius, who, attended only by two horsemen, had with + his own eyes secretly examined the state and position of their + camp. A surprise, especially in the night time, was for the most + part fatal to a Persian army. “Their horses were tied, and + generally shackled, to prevent their running away; and if an + alarm happened, a Persian had his housing to fix, his horse to + bridle, and his corselet to put on, before he could mount.” 71 On + this occasion, the impetuous attack of Galerius spread disorder + and dismay over the camp of the barbarians. A slight resistance + was followed by a dreadful carnage, and, in the general + confusion, the wounded monarch (for Narses commanded his armies + in person) fled towards the deserts of Media. His sumptuous + tents, and those of his satraps, afforded an immense booty to the + conqueror; and an incident is mentioned, which proves the rustic + but martial ignorance of the legions in the elegant superfluities + of life. A bag of shining leather, filled with pearls, fell into + the hands of a private soldier; he carefully preserved the bag, + but he threw away its contents, judging that whatever was of no + use could not possibly be of any value. 72 The principal loss of + Narses was of a much more affecting nature. Several of his wives, + his sisters, and children, who had attended the army, were made + captives in the defeat. But though the character of Galerius had + in general very little affinity with that of Alexander, he + imitated, after his victory, the amiable behavior of the + Macedonian towards the family of Darius. The wives and children + of Narses were protected from violence and rapine, conveyed to a + place of safety, and treated with every mark of respect and + tenderness, that was due from a generous enemy to their age, + their sex, and their royal dignity. 73 + + 69 (return) [ Aurelius Victor. Jornandes de Rebus Geticis, c. + 21.] + + 70 (return) [ Aurelius Victor says, “Per Armeniam in hostes + contendit, quæ fermo sola, seu facilior vincendi via est.” He + followed the conduct of Trajan, and the idea of Julius Cæsar.] + + 71 (return) [ Xenophon’s Anabasis, l. iii. For that reason the + Persian cavalry encamped sixty stadia from the enemy.] + + 72 (return) [ The story is told by Ammianus, l. xxii. Instead of + saccum, some read scutum.] + + 73 (return) [ The Persians confessed the Roman superiority in + morals as well as in arms. Eutrop. ix. 24. But this respect and + gratitude of enemies is very seldom to be found in their own + accounts.] + + + + + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part + III. + + While the East anxiously expected the decision of this great + contest, the emperor Diocletian, having assembled in Syria a + strong army of observation, displayed from a distance the + resources of the Roman power, and reserved himself for any future + emergency of the war. On the intelligence of the victory he + condescended to advance towards the frontier, with a view of + moderating, by his presence and counsels, the pride of Galerius. + The interview of the Roman princes at Nisibis was accompanied + with every expression of respect on one side, and of esteem on + the other. It was in that city that they soon afterwards gave + audience to the ambassador of the Great King. 74 The power, or at + least the spirit, of Narses, had been broken by his last defeat; + and he considered an immediate peace as the only means that could + stop the progress of the Roman arms. He despatched Apharban, a + servant who possessed his favor and confidence, with a commission + to negotiate a treaty, or rather to receive whatever conditions + the conqueror should impose. Apharban opened the conference by + expressing his master’s gratitude for the generous treatment of + his family, and by soliciting the liberty of those illustrious + captives. He celebrated the valor of Galerius, without degrading + the reputation of Narses, and thought it no dishonor to confess + the superiority of the victorious Cæsar, over a monarch who had + surpassed in glory all the princes of his race. Notwithstanding + the justice of the Persian cause, he was empowered to submit the + present differences to the decision of the emperors themselves; + convinced as he was, that, in the midst of prosperity, they would + not be unmindful of the vicissitudes of fortune. Apharban + concluded his discourse in the style of eastern allegory, by + observing that the Roman and Persian monarchies were the two eyes + of the world, which would remain imperfect and mutilated if + either of them should be put out. + + 74 (return) [ The account of the negotiation is taken from the + fragments of Peter the Patrician, in the Excerpta Legationum, + published in the Byzantine Collection. Peter lived under + Justinian; but it is very evident, by the nature of his + materials, that they are drawn from the most authentic and + respectable writers.] + + “It well becomes the Persians,” replied Galerius, with a + transport of fury, which seemed to convulse his whole frame, “it + well becomes the Persians to expatiate on the vicissitudes of + fortune, and calmly to read us lectures on the virtues of + moderation. Let them remember their own _moderation_ towards the + unhappy Valerian. They vanquished him by fraud, they treated him + with indignity. They detained him till the last moment of his + life in shameful captivity, and after his death they exposed his + body to perpetual ignominy.” Softening, however, his tone, + Galerius insinuated to the ambassador, that it had never been the + practice of the Romans to trample on a prostrate enemy; and that, + on this occasion, they should consult their own dignity rather + than the Persian merit. He dismissed Apharban with a hope that + Narses would soon be informed on what conditions he might obtain, + from the clemency of the emperors, a lasting peace, and the + restoration of his wives and children. In this conference we may + discover the fierce passions of Galerius, as well as his + deference to the superior wisdom and authority of Diocletian. The + ambition of the former grasped at the conquest of the East, and + had proposed to reduce Persia into the state of a province. The + prudence of the latter, who adhered to the moderate policy of + Augustus and the Antonines, embraced the favorable opportunity of + terminating a successful war by an honorable and advantageous + peace. 75 + + 75 (return) [ Adeo victor (says Aurelius) ut ni Valerius, cujus + nutu omnis gerebantur, abnuisset, Romani fasces in provinciam + novam ferrentur Verum pars terrarum tamen nobis utilior quæsita.] + + In pursuance of their promise, the emperors soon afterwards + appointed Sicorius Probus, one of their secretaries, to acquaint + the Persian court with their final resolution. As the minister of + peace, he was received with every mark of politeness and + friendship; but, under the pretence of allowing him the necessary + repose after so long a journey, the audience of Probus was + deferred from day to day; and he attended the slow motions of the + king, till at length he was admitted to his presence, near the + River Asprudus in Media. The secret motive of Narses, in this + delay, had been to collect such a military force as might enable + him, though sincerely desirous of peace, to negotiate with the + greater weight and dignity. Three persons only assisted at this + important conference, the minister Apharban, the præfect of the + guards, and an officer who had commanded on the Armenian + frontier. 76 The first condition proposed by the ambassador is + not at present of a very intelligible nature; that the city of + Nisibis might be established for the place of mutual exchange, + or, as we should formerly have termed it, for the staple of + trade, between the two empires. There is no difficulty in + conceiving the intention of the Roman princes to improve their + revenue by some restraints upon commerce; but as Nisibis was + situated within their own dominions, and as they were masters + both of the imports and exports, it should seem that such + restraints were the objects of an internal law, rather than of a + foreign treaty. To render them more effectual, some stipulations + were probably required on the side of the king of Persia, which + appeared so very repugnant either to his interest or to his + dignity, that Narses could not be persuaded to subscribe them. As + this was the only article to which he refused his consent, it was + no longer insisted on; and the emperors either suffered the trade + to flow in its natural channels, or contented themselves with + such restrictions, as it depended on their own authority to + establish. + + 76 (return) [ He had been governor of Sumium, (Pot. Patricius in + Excerpt. Legat. p. 30.) This province seems to be mentioned by + Moses of Chorene, (Geograph. p. 360,) and lay to the east of + Mount Ararat. * Note: The Siounikh of the Armenian writers St. + Martin i. 142.—M.] + + As soon as this difficulty was removed, a solemn peace was + concluded and ratified between the two nations. The conditions of + a treaty so glorious to the empire, and so necessary to Persia, + may deserve a more peculiar attention, as the history of Rome + presents very few transactions of a similar nature; most of her + wars having either been terminated by absolute conquest, or waged + against barbarians ignorant of the use of letters. I. The Aboras, + or, as it is called by Xenophon, the Araxes, was fixed as the + boundary between the two monarchies. 77 That river, which rose + near the Tigris, was increased, a few miles below Nisibis, by the + little stream of the Mygdonius, passed under the walls of + Singara, and fell into the Euphrates at Circesium, a frontier + town, which, by the care of Diocletian, was very strongly + fortified. 78 Mesopotomia, the object of so many wars, was ceded + to the empire; and the Persians, by this treaty, renounced all + pretensions to that great province. II. They relinquished to the + Romans five provinces beyond the Tigris. 79 Their situation + formed a very useful barrier, and their natural strength was soon + improved by art and military skill. Four of these, to the north + of the river, were districts of obscure fame and inconsiderable + extent; Intiline, Zabdicene, Arzanene, and Moxoene; 791 but on + the east of the Tigris, the empire acquired the large and + mountainous territory of Carduene, the ancient seat of the + Carduchians, who preserved for many ages their manly freedom in + the heart of the despotic monarchies of Asia. The ten thousand + Greeks traversed their country, after a painful march, or rather + engagement, of seven days; and it is confessed by their leader, + in his incomparable relation of the retreat, that they suffered + more from the arrows of the Carduchians, than from the power of + the Great King. 80 Their posterity, the Curds, with very little + alteration either of name or manners, 801 acknowledged the + nominal sovereignty of the Turkish sultan. III. It is almost + needless to observe, that Tiridates, the faithful ally of Rome, + was restored to the throne of his fathers, and that the rights of + the Imperial supremacy were fully asserted and secured. The + limits of Armenia were extended as far as the fortress of Sintha + in Media, and this increase of dominion was not so much an act of + liberality as of justice. Of the provinces already mentioned + beyond the Tigris, the four first had been dismembered by the + Parthians from the crown of Armenia; 81 and when the Romans + acquired the possession of them, they stipulated, at the expense + of the usurpers, an ample compensation, which invested their ally + with the extensive and fertile country of Atropatene. Its + principal city, in the same situation perhaps as the modern + Tauris, was frequently honored by the residence of Tiridates; and + as it sometimes bore the name of Ecbatana, he imitated, in the + buildings and fortifications, the splendid capital of the Medes. + 82 IV. The country of Iberia was barren, its inhabitants rude and + savage. But they were accustomed to the use of arms, and they + separated from the empire barbarians much fiercer and more + formidable than themselves. The narrow defiles of Mount Caucasus + were in their hands, and it was in their choice, either to admit + or to exclude the wandering tribes of Sarmatia, whenever a + rapacious spirit urged them to penetrate into the richer climes + of the South. 83 The nomination of the kings of Iberia, which was + resigned by the Persian monarch to the emperors, contributed to + the strength and security of the Roman power in Asia. 84 The East + enjoyed a profound tranquillity during forty years; and the + treaty between the rival monarchies was strictly observed till + the death of Tiridates; when a new generation, animated with + different views and different passions, succeeded to the + government of the world; and the grandson of Narses undertook a + long and memorable war against the princes of the house of + Constantine. + + 77 (return) [ By an error of the geographer Ptolemy, the position + of Singara is removed from the Aboras to the Tigris, which may + have produced the mistake of Peter, in assigning the latter river + for the boundary, instead of the former. The line of the Roman + frontier traversed, but never followed, the course of the Tigris. + * Note: There are here several errors. Gibbon has confounded the + streams, and the towns which they pass. The Aboras, or rather the + Chaboras, the Araxes of Xenophon, has its source above Ras-Ain or + Re-Saina, (Theodosiopolis,) about twenty-seven leagues from the + Tigris; it receives the waters of the Mygdonius, or Saocoras, + about thirty-three leagues below Nisibis. at a town now called Al + Nahraim; it does not pass under the walls of Singara; it is the + Saocoras that washes the walls of that town: the latter river has + its source near Nisibis. at five leagues from the Tigris. See + D’Anv. l’Euphrate et le Tigre, 46, 49, 50, and the map.—— To the + east of the Tigris is another less considerable river, named also + the Chaboras, which D’Anville calls the Centrites, Khabour, + Nicephorius, without quoting the authorities on which he gives + those names. Gibbon did not mean to speak of this river, which + does not pass by Singara, and does not fall into the Euphrates. + See Michaelis, Supp. ad Lex. Hebraica. 3d part, p. 664, 665.—G.] + + 78 (return) [ Procopius de Edificiis, l. ii. c. 6.] + + 79 (return) [ Three of the provinces, Zabdicene, Arzanene, and + Carduene, are allowed on all sides. But instead of the other two, + Peter (in Excerpt. Leg. p. 30) inserts Rehimene and Sophene. I + have preferred Ammianus, (l. xxv. 7,) because it might be proved + that Sophene was never in the hands of the Persians, either + before the reign of Diocletian, or after that of Jovian. For want + of correct maps, like those of M. d’Anville, almost all the + moderns, with Tillemont and Valesius at their head, have + imagined, that it was in respect to Persia, and not to Rome, that + the five provinces were situate beyond the Tigris.] + + 791 (return) [ See St. Martin, note on Le Beau, i. 380. He would + read, for Intiline, Ingeleme, the name of a small province of + Armenia, near the sources of the Tigris, mentioned by St. + Epiphanius, (Hæres, 60;) for the unknown name Arzacene, with + Gibbon, Arzanene. These provinces do not appear to have made an + integral part of the Roman empire; Roman garrisons replaced those + of Persia, but the sovereignty remained in the hands of the + feudatory princes of Armenia. A prince of Carduene, ally or + dependent on the empire, with the Roman name of Jovianus, occurs + in the reign of Julian.—M.] + + 80 (return) [ Xenophon’s Anabasis, l. iv. Their bows were three + cubits in length, their arrows two; they rolled down stones that + were each a wagon load. The Greeks found a great many villages in + that rude country.] + + 801 (return) [ I travelled through this country in 1810, and + should judge, from what I have read and seen of its inhabitants, + that they have remained unchanged in their appearance and + character for more than twenty centuries Malcolm, note to Hist. + of Persia, vol. i. p. 82.—M.] + + 81 (return) [ According to Eutropius, (vi. 9, as the text is + represented by the best Mss.,) the city of Tigranocerta was in + Arzanene. The names and situation of the other three may be + faintly traced.] + + 82 (return) [ Compare Herodotus, l. i. c. 97, with Moses + Choronens. Hist Armen. l. ii. c. 84, and the map of Armenia given + by his editors.] + + 83 (return) [ Hiberi, locorum potentes, Caspia via Sarmatam in + Armenios raptim effundunt. Tacit. Annal. vi. 34. See Strabon. + Geograph. l. xi. p. 764, edit. Casaub.] + + 84 (return) [ Peter Patricius (in Excerpt. Leg. p. 30) is the + only writer who mentions the Iberian article of the treaty.] + + The arduous work of rescuing the distressed empire from tyrants + and barbarians had now been completely achieved by a succession + of Illyrian peasants. As soon as Diocletian entered into the + twentieth year of his reign, he celebrated that memorable æra, as + well as the success of his arms, by the pomp of a Roman triumph. + 85 Maximian, the equal partner of his power, was his only + companion in the glory of that day. The two Cæsars had fought and + conquered, but the merit of their exploits was ascribed, + according to the rigor of ancient maxims, to the auspicious + influence of their fathers and emperors. 86 The triumph of + Diocletian and Maximian was less magnificent, perhaps, than those + of Aurelian and Probus, but it was dignified by several + circumstances of superior fame and good fortune. Africa and + Britain, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Nile, furnished their + respective trophies; but the most distinguished ornament was of a + more singular nature, a Persian victory followed by an important + conquest. The representations of rivers, mountains, and + provinces, were carried before the Imperial car. The images of + the captive wives, the sisters, and the children of the Great + King, afforded a new and grateful spectacle to the vanity of the + people. 87 In the eyes of posterity, this triumph is remarkable, + by a distinction of a less honorable kind. It was the last that + Rome ever beheld. Soon after this period, the emperors ceased to + vanquish, and Rome ceased to be the capital of the empire. + + 85 (return) [ Euseb. in Chron. Pagi ad annum. Till the discovery + of the treatise De Mortibus Persecutorum, it was not certain that + the triumph and the Vicennalia was celebrated at the same time.] + + 86 (return) [ At the time of the Vicennalia, Galerius seems to + have kept station on the Danube. See Lactant. de M. P. c. 38.] + + 87 (return) [ Eutropius (ix. 27) mentions them as a part of the + triumph. As the persons had been restored to Narses, nothing more + than their images could be exhibited.] + + The spot on which Rome was founded had been consecrated by + ancient ceremonies and imaginary miracles. The presence of some + god, or the memory of some hero, seemed to animate every part of + the city, and the empire of the world had been promised to the + Capitol. 88 The native Romans felt and confessed the power of + this agreeable illusion. It was derived from their ancestors, had + grown up with their earliest habits of life, and was protected, + in some measure, by the opinion of political utility. The form + and the seat of government were intimately blended together, nor + was it esteemed possible to transport the one without destroying + the other. 89 But the sovereignty of the capital was gradually + annihilated in the extent of conquest; the provinces rose to the + same level, and the vanquished nations acquired the name and + privileges, without imbibing the partial affections, of Romans. + During a long period, however, the remains of the ancient + constitution, and the influence of custom, preserved the dignity + of Rome. The emperors, though perhaps of African or Illyrian + extraction, respected their adopted country, as the seat of their + power, and the centre of their extensive dominions. The + emergencies of war very frequently required their presence on the + frontiers; but Diocletian and Maximian were the first Roman + princes who fixed, in time of peace, their ordinary residence in + the provinces; and their conduct, however it might be suggested + by private motives, was justified by very specious considerations + of policy. The court of the emperor of the West was, for the most + part, established at Milan, whose situation, at the foot of the + Alps, appeared far more convenient than that of Rome, for the + important purpose of watching the motions of the barbarians of + Germany. Milan soon assumed the splendor of an Imperial city. The + houses are described as numerous and well built; the manners of + the people as polished and liberal. A circus, a theatre, a mint, + a palace, baths, which bore the name of their founder Maximian; + porticos adorned with statues, and a double circumference of + walls, contributed to the beauty of the new capital; nor did it + seem oppressed even by the proximity of Rome. 90 To rival the + majesty of Rome was the ambition likewise of Diocletian, who + employed his leisure, and the wealth of the East, in the + embellishment of Nicomedia, a city placed on the verge of Europe + and Asia, almost at an equal distance between the Danube and the + Euphrates. By the taste of the monarch, and at the expense of the + people, Nicomedia acquired, in the space of a few years, a degree + of magnificence which might appear to have required the labor of + ages, and became inferior only to Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch, + in extent of populousness. 91 The life of Diocletian and Maximian + was a life of action, and a considerable portion of it was spent + in camps, or in the long and frequent marches; but whenever the + public business allowed them any relaxation, they seemed to have + retired with pleasure to their favorite residences of Nicomedia + and Milan. Till Diocletian, in the twentieth year of his reign, + celebrated his Roman triumph, it is extremely doubtful whether he + ever visited the ancient capital of the empire. Even on that + memorable occasion his stay did not exceed two months. Disgusted + with the licentious familiarity of the people, he quitted Rome + with precipitation thirteen days before it was expected that he + should have appeared in the senate, invested with the ensigns of + the consular dignity. 92 + + 88 (return) [ Livy gives us a speech of Camillus on that subject, + (v. 51—55,) full of eloquence and sensibility, in opposition to a + design of removing the seat of government from Rome to the + neighboring city of Veii.] + + 89 (return) [ Julius Cæsar was reproached with the intention of + removing the empire to Ilium or Alexandria. See Sueton. in Cæsar. + c. 79. According to the ingenious conjecture of Le Fevre and + Dacier, the ode of the third book of Horace was intended to + divert from the execution of a similar design.] + + 90 (return) [ See Aurelius Victor, who likewise mentions the + buildings erected by Maximian at Carthage, probably during the + Moorish war. We shall insert some verses of Ausonius de Clar. + Urb. v.—— Et Mediolani miræomnia: copia rerum; Innumeræ cultæque + domus; facunda virorum Ingenia, et mores læti: tum duplice muro + Amplificata loci species; populique voluptas Circus; et inclusi + moles cuneata Theatri; Templa, Palatinæque arces, opulensque + Moneta, Et regio Herculei celebris sub honore lavacri. Cunctaque + marmoreis ornata Peristyla signis; Moeniaque in valli formam + circumdata labro, Omnia quæ magnis operum velut æmula formis + Excellunt: nec juncta premit vicinia Romæ.] + + 91 (return) [ Lactant. de M. P. c. 17. Libanius, Orat. viii. p. + 203.] + + 92 (return) [ Lactant. de M. P. c. 17. On a similar occasion, + Ammianus mentions the dicacitas plebis, as not very agreeable to + an Imperial ear. (See l. xvi. c. 10.)] + + The dislike expressed by Diocletian towards Rome and Roman + freedom was not the effect of momentary caprice, but the result + of the most artful policy. That crafty prince had framed a new + system of Imperial government, which was afterwards completed by + the family of Constantine; and as the image of the old + constitution was religiously preserved in the senate, he resolved + to deprive that order of its small remains of power and + consideration. We may recollect, about eight years before the + elevation of Diocletian, the transient greatness, and the + ambitious hopes, of the Roman senate. As long as that enthusiasm + prevailed, many of the nobles imprudently displayed their zeal in + the cause of freedom; and after the successes of Probus had + withdrawn their countenance from the republican party, the + senators were unable to disguise their impotent resentment. + + As the sovereign of Italy, Maximian was intrusted with the care + of extinguishing this troublesome, rather than dangerous spirit, + and the task was perfectly suited to his cruel temper. The most + illustrious members of the senate, whom Diocletian always + affected to esteem, were involved, by his colleague, in the + accusation of imaginary plots; and the possession of an elegant + villa, or a well-cultivated estate, was interpreted as a + convincing evidence of guilt. 93 The camp of the Prætorians, + which had so long oppressed, began to protect, the majesty of + Rome; and as those haughty troops were conscious of the decline + of their power, they were naturally disposed to unite their + strength with the authority of the senate. By the prudent + measures of Diocletian, the numbers of the Prætorians were + insensibly reduced, their privileges abolished, 94 and their + place supplied by two faithful legions of Illyricum, who, under + the new titles of Jovians and Herculians, were appointed to + perform the service of the Imperial guards. 95 But the most fatal + though secret wound, which the senate received from the hands of + Diocletian and Maximian, was inflicted by the inevitable + operation of their absence. As long as the emperors resided at + Rome, that assembly might be oppressed, but it could scarcely be + neglected. The successors of Augustus exercised the power of + dictating whatever laws their wisdom or caprice might suggest; + but those laws were ratified by the sanction of the senate. The + model of ancient freedom was preserved in its deliberations and + decrees; and wise princes, who respected the prejudices of the + Roman people, were in some measure obliged to assume the language + and behavior suitable to the general and first magistrate of the + republic. In the armies and in the provinces, they displayed the + dignity of monarchs; and when they fixed their residence at a + distance from the capital, they forever laid aside the + dissimulation which Augustus had recommended to his successors. + In the exercise of the legislative as well as the executive + power, the sovereign advised with his ministers, instead of + consulting the great council of the nation. The name of the + senate was mentioned with honor till the last period of the + empire; the vanity of its members was still flattered with + honorary distinctions; 96 but the assembly which had so long been + the source, and so long the instrument of power, was respectfully + suffered to sink into oblivion. The senate of Rome, losing all + connection with the Imperial court and the actual constitution, + was left a venerable but useless monument of antiquity on the + Capitoline hill. + + 93 (return) [ Lactantius accuses Maximian of destroying fictis + criminationibus lumina senatus, (De M. P. c. 8.) Aurelius Victor + speaks very doubtfully of the faith of Diocletian towards his + friends.] + + 94 (return) [ Truncatæ vires urbis, imminuto prætoriarum + cohortium atque in armis vulgi numero. Aurelius Victor. + Lactantius attributes to Galerius the prosecution of the same + plan, (c. 26.)] + + 95 (return) [ They were old corps stationed in Illyricum; and + according to the ancient establishment, they each consisted of + six thousand men. They had acquired much reputation by the use of + the plumbatæ, or darts loaded with lead. Each soldier carried + five of these, which he darted from a considerable distance, with + great strength and dexterity. See Vegetius, i. 17.] + + 96 (return) [ See the Theodosian Code, l. vi. tit. ii. with + Godefroy’s commentary.] + + + + + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part + IV. + + When the Roman princes had lost sight of the senate and of their + ancient capital, they easily forgot the origin and nature of + their legal power. The civil offices of consul, of proconsul, of + censor, and of tribune, by the union of which it had been formed, + betrayed to the people its republican extraction. Those modest + titles were laid aside; 97 and if they still distinguished their + high station by the appellation of Emperor, or Imperator, that + word was understood in a new and more dignified sense, and no + longer denoted the general of the Roman armies, but the sovereign + of the Roman world. The name of Emperor, which was at first of a + military nature, was associated with another of a more servile + kind. The epithet of Dominus, or Lord, in its primitive + signification, was expressive not of the authority of a prince + over his subjects, or of a commander over his soldiers, but of + the despotic power of a master over his domestic slaves. 98 + Viewing it in that odious light, it had been rejected with + abhorrence by the first Cæsars. Their resistance insensibly + became more feeble, and the name less odious; till at length the + style of _our Lord and Emperor_ was not only bestowed by + flattery, but was regularly admitted into the laws and public + monuments. Such lofty epithets were sufficient to elate and + satisfy the most excessive vanity; and if the successors of + Diocletian still declined the title of King, it seems to have + been the effect not so much of their moderation as of their + delicacy. Wherever the Latin tongue was in use, (and it was the + language of government throughout the empire,) the Imperial + title, as it was peculiar to themselves, conveyed a more + respectable idea than the name of king, which they must have + shared with a hundred barbarian chieftains; or which, at the + best, they could derive only from Romulus, or from Tarquin. But + the sentiments of the East were very different from those of the + West. From the earliest period of history, the sovereigns of Asia + had been celebrated in the Greek language by the title of + Basileus, or King; and since it was considered as the first + distinction among men, it was soon employed by the servile + provincials of the East, in their humble addresses to the Roman + throne. 99 Even the attributes, or at least the titles, of the + DIVINITY, were usurped by Diocletian and Maximian, who + transmitted them to a succession of Christian emperors. 100 Such + extravagant compliments, however, soon lose their impiety by + losing their meaning; and when the ear is once accustomed to the + sound, they are heard with indifference, as vague though + excessive professions of respect. + + 97 (return) [ See the 12th dissertation in Spanheim’s excellent + work de Usu Numismatum. From medals, inscriptions, and + historians, he examines every title separately, and traces it + from Augustus to the moment of its disappearing.] + + 98 (return) [ Pliny (in Panegyr. c. 3, 55, &c.) speaks of Dominus + with execration, as synonymous to Tyrant, and opposite to Prince. + And the same Pliny regularly gives that title (in the tenth book + of the epistles) to his friend rather than master, the virtuous + Trajan. This strange contradiction puzzles the commentators, who + think, and the translators, who can write.] + + 99 (return) [ Synesius de Regno, edit. Petav. p. 15. I am + indebted for this quotation to the Abbé de la Bleterie.] + + 100 (return) [ Soe Vandale de Consecratione, p. 354, &c. It was + customary for the emperors to mention (in the preamble of laws) + their numen, sacreo majesty, divine oracles, &c. According to + Tillemont, Gregory Nazianzen complains most bitterly of the + profanation, especially when it was practised by an Arian + emperor. * Note: In the time of the republic, says Hegewisch, + when the consuls, the prætors, and the other magistrates appeared + in public, to perform the functions of their office, their + dignity was announced both by the symbols which use had + consecrated, and the brilliant cortege by which they were + accompanied. But this dignity belonged to the office, not to the + individual; this pomp belonged to the magistrate, not to the man. + * * The consul, followed, in the comitia, by all the senate, the + prætors, the quæstors, the ædiles, the lictors, the apparitors, + and the heralds, on reentering his house, was served only by + freedmen and by his slaves. The first emperors went no further. + Tiberius had, for his personal attendance, only a moderate number + of slaves, and a few freedmen. (Tacit. Ann. iv. 7.) But in + proportion as the republican forms disappeared, one after + another, the inclination of the emperors to environ themselves + with personal pomp, displayed itself more and more. ** The + magnificence and the ceremonial of the East were entirely + introduced by Diocletian, and were consecrated by Constantine to + the Imperial use. Thenceforth the palace, the court, the table, + all the personal attendance, distinguished the emperor from his + subjects, still more than his superior dignity. The organization + which Diocletian gave to his new court, attached less honor and + distinction to rank than to services performed towards the + members of the Imperial family. Hegewisch, Essai, Hist. sur les + Finances Romains. Few historians have characterized, in a more + philosophic manner, the influence of a new institution.—G.——It is + singular that the son of a slave reduced the haughty aristocracy + of Home to the offices of servitude.—M.] + + From the time of Augustus to that of Diocletian, the Roman + princes, conversing in a familiar manner among their + fellow-citizens, were saluted only with the same respect that was + usually paid to senators and magistrates. Their principal + distinction was the Imperial or military robe of purple; whilst + the senatorial garment was marked by a broad, and the equestrian + by a narrow, band or stripe of the same honorable color. The + pride, or rather the policy, of Diocletian engaged that artful + prince to introduce the stately magnificence of the court of + Persia. 101 He ventured to assume the diadem, an ornament + detested by the Romans as the odious ensign of royalty, and the + use of which had been considered as the most desperate act of the + madness of Caligula. It was no more than a broad white fillet set + with pearls, which encircled the emperor’s head. The sumptuous + robes of Diocletian and his successors were of silk and gold; and + it is remarked with indignation that even their shoes were + studded with the most precious gems. The access to their sacred + person was every day rendered more difficult by the institution + of new forms and ceremonies. The avenues of the palace were + strictly guarded by the various schools, as they began to be + called, of domestic officers. The interior apartments were + intrusted to the jealous vigilance of the eunuchs, the increase + of whose numbers and influence was the most infallible symptom of + the progress of despotism. When a subject was at length admitted + to the Imperial presence, he was obliged, whatever might be his + rank, to fall prostrate on the ground, and to adore, according to + the eastern fashion, the divinity of his lord and master. 102 + Diocletian was a man of sense, who, in the course of private as + well as public life, had formed a just estimate both of himself + and of mankind; nor is it easy to conceive that in substituting + the manners of Persia to those of Rome he was seriously actuated + by so mean a principle as that of vanity. He flattered himself + that an ostentation of splendor and luxury would subdue the + imagination of the multitude; that the monarch would be less + exposed to the rude license of the people and the soldiers, as + his person was secluded from the public view; and that habits of + submission would insensibly be productive of sentiments of + veneration. Like the modesty affected by Augustus, the state + maintained by Diocletian was a theatrical representation; but it + must be confessed, that of the two comedies, the former was of a + much more liberal and manly character than the latter. It was the + aim of the one to disguise, and the object of the other to + display, the unbounded power which the emperors possessed over + the Roman world. + + 101 (return) [ See Spanheim de Usu Numismat. Dissert. xii.] + + 102 (return) [ Aurelius Victor. Eutropius, ix. 26. It appears by + the Panegyrists, that the Romans were soon reconciled to the name + and ceremony of adoration.] + + Ostentation was the first principle of the new system instituted + by Diocletian. The second was division. He divided the empire, + the provinces, and every branch of the civil as well as military + administration. He multiplied the wheels of the machine of + government, and rendered its operations less rapid, but more + secure. Whatever advantages and whatever defects might attend + these innovations, they must be ascribed in a very great degree + to the first inventor; but as the new frame of policy was + gradually improved and completed by succeeding princes, it will + be more satisfactory to delay the consideration of it till the + season of its full maturity and perfection. 103 Reserving, + therefore, for the reign of Constantine a more exact picture of + the new empire, we shall content ourselves with describing the + principal and decisive outline, as it was traced by the hand of + Diocletian. He had associated three colleagues in the exercise of + the supreme power; and as he was convinced that the abilities of + a single man were inadequate to the public defence, he considered + the joint administration of four princes not as a temporary + expedient, but as a fundamental law of the constitution. It was + his intention that the two elder princes should be distinguished + by the use of the diadem, and the title of _Augusti;_ that, as + affection or esteem might direct their choice, they should + regularly call to their assistance two subordinate colleagues; + and that the _Cæsars_, rising in their turn to the first rank, + should supply an uninterrupted succession of emperors. The empire + was divided into four parts. The East and Italy were the most + honorable, the Danube and the Rhine the most laborious stations. + The former claimed the presence of the _Augusti_, the latter were + intrusted to the administration of the _Cæsars_. The strength of + the legions was in the hands of the four partners of sovereignty, + and the despair of successively vanquishing four formidable + rivals might intimidate the ambition of an aspiring general. In + their civil government the emperors were supposed to exercise the + undivided power of the monarch, and their edicts, inscribed with + their joint names, were received in all the provinces, as + promulgated by their mutual councils and authority. + Notwithstanding these precautions, the political union of the + Roman world was gradually dissolved, and a principle of division + was introduced, which, in the course of a few years, occasioned + the perpetual separation of the Eastern and Western Empires. + + 103 (return) [ The innovations introduced by Diocletian are + chiefly deduced, 1st, from some very strong passages in + Lactantius; and, 2dly, from the new and various offices which, in + the Theodosian code, appear already established in the beginning + of the reign of Constantine.] + + The system of Diocletian was accompanied with another very + material disadvantage, which cannot even at present be totally + overlooked; a more expensive establishment, and consequently an + increase of taxes, and the oppression of the people. Instead of a + modest family of slaves and freedmen, such as had contented the + simple greatness of Augustus and Trajan, three or four + magnificent courts were established in the various parts of the + empire, and as many Roman _kings_ contended with each other and + with the Persian monarch for the vain superiority of pomp and + luxury. The number of ministers, of magistrates, of officers, and + of servants, who filled the different departments of the state, + was multiplied beyond the example of former times; and (if we may + borrow the warm expression of a contemporary) “when the + proportion of those who received exceeded the proportion of those + who contributed, the provinces were oppressed by the weight of + tributes.” 104 From this period to the extinction of the empire, + it would be easy to deduce an uninterrupted series of clamors and + complaints. According to his religion and situation, each writer + chooses either Diocletian, or Constantine, or Valens, or + Theodosius, for the object of his invectives; but they + unanimously agree in representing the burden of the public + impositions, and particularly the land tax and capitation, as the + intolerable and increasing grievance of their own times. From + such a concurrence, an impartial historian, who is obliged to + extract truth from satire, as well as from panegyric, will be + inclined to divide the blame among the princes whom they accuse, + and to ascribe their exactions much less to their personal vices, + than to the uniform system of their administration. 1041 The + emperor Diocletian was indeed the author of that system; but + during his reign, the growing evil was confined within the bounds + of modesty and discretion, and he deserves the reproach of + establishing pernicious precedents, rather than of exercising + actual oppression. 105 It may be added, that his revenues were + managed with prudent economy; and that after all the current + expenses were discharged, there still remained in the Imperial + treasury an ample provision either for judicious liberality or + for any emergency of the state. + + 104 (return) [ Lactant. de M. P. c. 7.] + + 1041 (return) [ The most curious document which has come to light + since the publication of Gibbon’s History, is the edict of + Diocletian, published from an inscription found at Eskihissar, + (Stratoniccia,) by Col. Leake. This inscription was first copied + by Sherard, afterwards much more completely by Mr. Bankes. It is + confirmed and illustrated by a more imperfect copy of the same + edict, found in the Levant by a gentleman of Aix, and brought to + this country by M. Vescovali. This edict was issued in the name + of the four Cæsars, Diocletian, Maximian, Constantius, and + Galerius. It fixed a maximum of prices throughout the empire, for + all the necessaries and commodities of life. The preamble + insists, with great vehemence on the extortion and inhumanity of + the venders and merchants. Quis enim adeo obtunisi (obtusi) + pectores (is) et a sensu inhumanitatis extorris est qui ignorare + potest immo non senserit in venalibus rebus quævel in mercimoniis + aguntur vel diurna urbium conversatione tractantur, in tantum se + licen liam defusisse, ut effrænata libido rapien—rum copia nec + annorum ubertatibus mitigaretur. The edict, as Col. Leake clearly + shows, was issued A. C. 303. Among the articles of which the + maximum value is assessed, are oil, salt, honey, butchers’ meat, + poultry, game, fish, vegetables, fruit the wages of laborers and + artisans, schoolmasters and skins, boots and shoes, harness, + timber, corn, wine, and beer, (zythus.) The depreciation in the + value of money, or the rise in the price of commodities, had been + so great during the past century, that butchers’ meat, which, in + the second century of the empire, was in Rome about two denaril + the pound, was now fixed at a maximum of eight. Col. Leake + supposes the average price could not be less than four: at the + same time the maximum of the wages of the agricultural laborers + was twenty-five. The whole edict is, perhaps, the most gigantic + effort of a blind though well-intentioned despotism, to control + that which is, and ought to be, beyond the regulation of the + government. See an Edict of Diocletian, by Col. Leake, London, + 1826. Col. Leake has not observed that this Edict is expressly + named in the treatise de Mort. Persecut. ch. vii. Idem cum variis + iniquitatibus immensam faceret caritatem, legem pretiis rerum + venalium statuere conatus.—M] + + 105 (return) [ Indicta lex nova quæ sane illorum temporum + modestia tolerabilis, in perniciem processit. Aurel. Victor., who + has treated the character of Diocletian with good sense, though + in bad Latin.] + + It was in the twenty first year of his reign that Diocletian + executed his memorable resolution of abdicating the empire; an + action more naturally to have been expected from the elder or the + younger Antoninus, than from a prince who had never practised the + lessons of philosophy either in the attainment or in the use of + supreme power. Diocletian acquired the glory of giving to the + world the first example of a resignation, 106 which has not been + very frequently imitated by succeeding monarchs. The parallel of + Charles the Fifth, however, will naturally offer itself to our + mind, not only since the eloquence of a modern historian has + rendered that name so familiar to an English reader, but from the + very striking resemblance between the characters of the two + emperors, whose political abilities were superior to their + military genius, and whose specious virtues were much less the + effect of nature than of art. The abdication of Charles appears + to have been hastened by the vicissitudes of fortune; and the + disappointment of his favorite schemes urged him to relinquish a + power which he found inadequate to his ambition. But the reign of + Diocletian had flowed with a tide of uninterrupted success; nor + was it till after he had vanquished all his enemies, and + accomplished all his designs, that he seems to have entertained + any serious thoughts of resigning the empire. Neither Charles nor + Diocletian were arrived at a very advanced period of life; since + the one was only fifty-five, and the other was no more than + fifty-nine years of age; but the active life of those princes, + their wars and journeys, the cares of royalty, and their + application to business, had already impaired their constitution, + and brought on the infirmities of a premature old age. 107 + + 106 (return) [ Solus omnium post conditum Romanum Imperium, qui + extanto fastigio sponte ad privatæ vitæ statum civilitatemque + remearet, Eutrop. ix. 28.] + + 107 (return) [ The particulars of the journey and illness are + taken from Laclantius, c. 17, who may sometimes be admitted as an + evidence of public facts, though very seldom of private + anecdotes.] + + Notwithstanding the severity of a very cold and rainy winter, + Diocletian left Italy soon after the ceremony of his triumph, and + began his progress towards the East round the circuit of the + Illyrian provinces. From the inclemency of the weather, and the + fatigue of the journey, he soon contracted a slow illness; and + though he made easy marches, and was generally carried in a close + litter, his disorder, before he arrived at Nicomedia, about the + end of the summer, was become very serious and alarming. During + the whole winter he was confined to his palace: his danger + inspired a general and unaffected concern; but the people could + only judge of the various alterations of his health, from the joy + or consternation which they discovered in the countenances and + behavior of his attendants. The rumor of his death was for some + time universally believed, and it was supposed to be concealed + with a view to prevent the troubles that might have happened + during the absence of the Cæsar Galerius. At length, however, on + the first of March, Diocletian once more appeared in public, but + so pale and emaciated, that he could scarcely have been + recognized by those to whom his person was the most familiar. It + was time to put an end to the painful struggle, which he had + sustained during more than a year, between the care of his health + and that of his dignity. The former required indulgence and + relaxation, the latter compelled him to direct, from the bed of + sickness, the administration of a great empire. He resolved to + pass the remainder of his days in honorable repose, to place his + glory beyond the reach of fortune, and to relinquish the theatre + of the world to his younger and more active associates. 108 + + 108 (return) [ Aurelius Victor ascribes the abdication, which had + been so variously accounted for, to two causes: 1st, Diocletian’s + contempt of ambition; and 2dly, His apprehension of impending + troubles. One of the panegyrists (vi. 9) mentions the age and + infirmities of Diocletian as a very natural reason for his + retirement. * Note: Constantine (Orat. ad Sanct. c. 401) more + than insinuated that derangement of mind, connected with the + conflagration of the palace at Nicomedia by lightning, was the + cause of his abdication. But Heinichen. in a very sensible note + on this passage in Eusebius, while he admits that his long + illness might produce a temporary depression of spirits, + triumphantly appeals to the philosophical conduct of Diocletian + in his retreat, and the influence which he still retained on + public affairs.—M.] + + The ceremony of his abdication was performed in a spacious plain, + about three miles from Nicomedia. The emperor ascended a lofty + throne, and in a speech, full of reason and dignity, declared his + intention, both to the people and to the soldiers who were + assembled on this extraordinary occasion. As soon as he had + divested himself of his purple, he withdrew from the gazing + multitude; and traversing the city in a covered chariot, + proceeded, without delay, to the favorite retirement which he had + chosen in his native country of Dalmatia. On the same day, which + was the first of May, 109 Maximian, as it had been previously + concerted, made his resignation of the Imperial dignity at Milan. + + Even in the splendor of the Roman triumph, Diocletian had + meditated his design of abdicating the government. As he wished + to secure the obedience of Maximian, he exacted from him either a + general assurance that he would submit his actions to the + authority of his benefactor, or a particular promise that he + would descend from the throne, whenever he should receive the + advice and the example. This engagement, though it was confirmed + by the solemnity of an oath before the altar of the Capitoline + Jupiter, 110 would have proved a feeble restraint on the fierce + temper of Maximian, whose passion was the love of power, and who + neither desired present tranquility nor future reputation. But he + yielded, however reluctantly, to the ascendant which his wiser + colleague had acquired over him, and retired, immediately after + his abdication, to a villa in Lucania, where it was almost + impossible that such an impatient spirit could find any lasting + tranquility. + + 109 (return) [ The difficulties as well as mistakes attending the + dates both of the year and of the day of Diocletian’s abdication + are perfectly cleared up by Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. + iv. p 525, note 19, and by Pagi ad annum.] + + 110 (return) [ See Panegyr. Veter. vi. 9. The oration was + pronounced after Maximian had resumed the purple.] + + Diocletian, who, from a servile origin, had raised himself to the + throne, passed the nine last years of his life in a private + condition. Reason had dictated, and content seems to have + accompanied, his retreat, in which he enjoyed, for a long time, + the respect of those princes to whom he had resigned the + possession of the world. 111 It is seldom that minds long + exercised in business have formed any habits of conversing with + themselves, and in the loss of power they principally regret the + want of occupation. The amusements of letters and of devotion, + which afford so many resources in solitude, were incapable of + fixing the attention of Diocletian; but he had preserved, or at + least he soon recovered, a taste for the most innocent as well as + natural pleasures, and his leisure hours were sufficiently + employed in building, planting, and gardening. His answer to + Maximian is deservedly celebrated. He was solicited by that + restless old man to reassume the reins of government, and the + Imperial purple. He rejected the temptation with a smile of pity, + calmly observing, that if he could show Maximian the cabbages + which he had planted with his own hands at Salona, he should no + longer be urged to relinquish the enjoyment of happiness for the + pursuit of power. 112 In his conversations with his friends, he + frequently acknowledged, that of all arts, the most difficult was + the art of reigning; and he expressed himself on that favorite + topic with a degree of warmth which could be the result only of + experience. “How often,” was he accustomed to say, “is it the + interest of four or five ministers to combine together to deceive + their sovereign! Secluded from mankind by his exalted dignity, + the truth is concealed from his knowledge; he can see only with + their eyes, he hears nothing but their misrepresentations. He + confers the most important offices upon vice and weakness, and + disgraces the most virtuous and deserving among his subjects. By + such infamous arts,” added Diocletian, “the best and wisest + princes are sold to the venal corruption of their courtiers.” 113 + A just estimate of greatness, and the assurance of immortal fame, + improve our relish for the pleasures of retirement; but the Roman + emperor had filled too important a character in the world, to + enjoy without alloy the comforts and security of a private + condition. It was impossible that he could remain ignorant of the + troubles which afflicted the empire after his abdication. It was + impossible that he could be indifferent to their consequences. + Fear, sorrow, and discontent, sometimes pursued him into the + solitude of Salona. His tenderness, or at least his pride, was + deeply wounded by the misfortunes of his wife and daughter; and + the last moments of Diocletian were imbittered by some affronts, + which Licinius and Constantine might have spared the father of so + many emperors, and the first author of their own fortune. A + report, though of a very doubtful nature, has reached our times, + that he prudently withdrew himself from their power by a + voluntary death. 114 + + 111 (return) [ Eumenius pays him a very fine compliment: “At enim + divinum illum virum, qui primus imperium et participavit et + posuit, consilii et fact isui non poenitet; nec amisisse se putat + quod sponte transcripsit. Felix beatusque vere quem vestra, + tantorum principum, colunt privatum.” Panegyr. Vet. vii. 15.] + + 112 (return) [ We are obliged to the younger Victor for this + celebrated item. Eutropius mentions the thing in a more general + manner.] + + 113 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 223, 224. Vopiscus had learned + this conversation from his father.] + + 114 (return) [ The younger Victor slightly mentions the report. + But as Diocletian had disobliged a powerful and successful party, + his memory has been loaded with every crime and misfortune. It + has been affirmed that he died raving mad, that he was condemned + as a criminal by the Roman senate, &c.] + + Before we dismiss the consideration of the life and character of + Diocletian, we may, for a moment, direct our view to the place of + his retirement. Salona, a principal city of his native province + of Dalmatia, was near two hundred Roman miles (according to the + measurement of the public highways) from Aquileia and the + confines of Italy, and about two hundred and seventy from + Sirmium, the usual residence of the emperors whenever they + visited the Illyrian frontier. 115 A miserable village still + preserves the name of Salona; but so late as the sixteenth + century, the remains of a theatre, and a confused prospect of + broken arches and marble columns, continued to attest its ancient + splendor. 116 About six or seven miles from the city Diocletian + constructed a magnificent palace, and we may infer, from the + greatness of the work, how long he had meditated his design of + abdicating the empire. The choice of a spot which united all that + could contribute either to health or to luxury did not require + the partiality of a native. “The soil was dry and fertile, the + air is pure and wholesome, and, though extremely hot during the + summer months, this country seldom feels those sultry and noxious + winds to which the coasts of Istria and some parts of Italy are + exposed. The views from the palace are no less beautiful than the + soil and climate were inviting. Towards the west lies the fertile + shore that stretches along the Adriatic, in which a number of + small islands are scattered in such a manner as to give this part + of the sea the appearance of a great lake. On the north side lies + the bay, which led to the ancient city of Salona; and the country + beyond it, appearing in sight, forms a proper contrast to that + more extensive prospect of water, which the Adriatic presents + both to the south and to the east. Towards the north, the view is + terminated by high and irregular mountains, situated at a proper + distance, and in many places covered with villages, woods, and + vineyards.” 117 + + 115 (return) [ See the Itiner. p. 269, 272, edit. Wessel.] + + 116 (return) [ The Abate Fortis, in his Viaggio in Dalmazia, p. + 43, (printed at Venice in the year 1774, in two small volumes in + quarto,) quotes a Ms account of the antiquities of Salona, + composed by Giambattista Giustiniani about the middle of the + xvith century.] + + 117 (return) [ Adam’s Antiquities of Diocletian’s Palace at + Spalatro, p. 6. We may add a circumstance or two from the Abate + Fortis: the little stream of the Hyader, mentioned by Lucan, + produces most exquisite trout, which a sagacious writer, perhaps + a monk, supposes to have been one of the principal reasons that + determined Diocletian in the choice of his retirement. Fortis, p. + 45. The same author (p. 38) observes, that a taste for + agriculture is reviving at Spalatro; and that an experimental + farm has lately been established near the city, by a society of + gentlemen.] + + Though Constantine, from a very obvious prejudice, affects to + mention the palace of Diocletian with contempt, 118 yet one of + their successors, who could only see it in a neglected and + mutilated state, celebrates its magnificence in terms of the + highest admiration. 119 It covered an extent of ground consisting + of between nine and ten English acres. The form was quadrangular, + flanked with sixteen towers. Two of the sides were near six + hundred, and the other two near seven hundred feet in length. The + whole was constructed of a beautiful freestone, extracted from + the neighboring quarries of Trau, or Tragutium, and very little + inferior to marble itself. Four streets, intersecting each other + at right angles, divided the several parts of this great edifice, + and the approach to the principal apartment was from a very + stately entrance, which is still denominated the Golden Gate. The + approach was terminated by a _peristylium_ of granite columns, on + one side of which we discover the square temple of Æsculapius, on + the other the octagon temple of Jupiter. The latter of those + deities Diocletian revered as the patron of his fortunes, the + former as the protector of his health. By comparing the present + remains with the precepts of Vitruvius, the several parts of the + building, the baths, bedchamber, the _atrium_, the _basilica_, + and the Cyzicene, Corinthian, and Egyptian halls have been + described with some degree of precision, or at least of + probability. Their forms were various, their proportions just; + but they all were attended with two imperfections, very repugnant + to our modern notions of taste and conveniency. These stately + rooms had neither windows nor chimneys. They were lighted from + the top, (for the building seems to have consisted of no more + than one story,) and they received their heat by the help of + pipes that were conveyed along the walls. The range of principal + apartments was protected towards the south-west by a portico five + hundred and seventeen feet long, which must have formed a very + noble and delightful walk, when the beauties of painting and + sculpture were added to those of the prospect. + + 118 (return) [ Constantin. Orat. ad Coetum Sanct. c. 25. In this + sermon, the emperor, or the bishop who composed it for him, + affects to relate the miserable end of all the persecutors of the + church.] + + 119 (return) [ Constantin. Porphyr. de Statu Imper. p. 86.] + + Had this magnificent edifice remained in a solitary country, it + would have been exposed to the ravages of time; but it might, + perhaps, have escaped the rapacious industry of man. The village + of Aspalathus, 120 and, long afterwards, the provincial town of + Spalatro, have grown out of its ruins. The Golden Gate now opens + into the market-place. St. John the Baptist has usurped the + honors of Æsculapius; and the temple of Jupiter, under the + protection of the Virgin, is converted into the cathedral church. + + For this account of Diocletian’s palace we are principally + indebted to an ingenious artist of our own time and country, whom + a very liberal curiosity carried into the heart of Dalmatia. 121 + But there is room to suspect that the elegance of his designs and + engraving has somewhat flattered the objects which it was their + purpose to represent. We are informed by a more recent and very + judicious traveller, that the awful ruins of Spalatro are not + less expressive of the decline of the art than of the greatness + of the Roman empire in the time of Diocletian. 122 If such was + indeed the state of architecture, we must naturally believe that + painting and sculpture had experienced a still more sensible + decay. The practice of architecture is directed by a few general + and even mechanical rules. But sculpture, and, above all, + painting, propose to themselves the imitation not only of the + forms of nature, but of the characters and passions of the human + soul. In those sublime arts the dexterity of the hand is of + little avail, unless it is animated by fancy, and guided by the + most correct taste and observation. + + 120 (return) [ D’Anville, Geographie Ancienne, tom. i. p. 162.] + + 121 (return) [ Messieurs Adam and Clerisseau, attended by two + draughtsmen visited Spalatro in the month of July, 1757. The + magnificent work which their journey produced was published in + London seven years afterwards.] + + 122 (return) [ I shall quote the words of the Abate Fortis. + “E’bastevolmente agli amatori dell’ Architettura, e dell’ + Antichita, l’opera del Signor Adams, che a donato molto a que’ + superbi vestigi coll’abituale eleganza del suo toccalapis e del + bulino. In generale la rozzezza del scalpello, e’l cattivo gusto + del secolo vi gareggiano colla magnificenz del fabricato.” See + Viaggio in Dalmazia, p. 40.] + + It is almost unnecessary to remark, that the civil distractions + of the empire, the license of the soldiers, the inroads of the + barbarians, and the progress of despotism, had proved very + unfavorable to genius, and even to learning. The succession of + Illyrian princes restored the empire without restoring the + sciences. Their military education was not calculated to inspire + them with the love of letters; and even the mind of Diocletian, + however active and capacious in business, was totally uninformed + by study or speculation. The professions of law and physic are of + such common use and certain profit that they will always secure a + sufficient number of practitioners endowed with a reasonable + degree of abilities and knowledge; but it does not appear that + the students in those two faculties appeal to any celebrated + masters who have flourished within that period. The voice of + poetry was silent. History was reduced to dry and confused + abridgments, alike destitute of amusement and instruction. A + languid and affected eloquence was still retained in the pay and + service of the emperors, who encouraged not any arts except those + which contributed to the gratification of their pride, or the + defence of their power. 123 + + 123 (return) [ The orator Eumenius was secretary to the emperors + Maximian and Constantius, and Professor of Rhetoric in the + college of Autun. His salary was six hundred thousand sesterces, + which, according to the lowest computation of that age, must have + exceeded three thousand pounds a year. He generously requested + the permission of employing it in rebuilding the college. See his + Oration De Restaurandis Scholis; which, though not exempt from + vanity, may atone for his panegyrics.] + + The declining age of learning and of mankind is marked, however, + by the rise and rapid progress of the new Platonists. The school + of Alexandria silenced those of Athens; and the ancient sects + enrolled themselves under the banners of the more fashionable + teachers, who recommended their system by the novelty of their + method, and the austerity of their manners. Several of these + masters, Ammonius, Plotinus, Amelius, and Porphyry, 124 were men + of profound thought and intense application; but by mistaking the + true object of philosophy, their labors contributed much less to + improve than to corrupt the human understanding. The knowledge + that is suited to our situation and powers, the whole compass of + moral, natural, and mathematical science, was neglected by the + new Platonists; whilst they exhausted their strength in the + verbal disputes of metaphysics, attempted to explore the secrets + of the invisible world, and studied to reconcile Aristotle with + Plato, on subjects of which both these philosophers were as + ignorant as the rest of mankind. Consuming their reason in these + deep but unsubstantial meditations, their minds were exposed to + illusions of fancy. They flattered themselves that they possessed + the secret of disengaging the soul from its corporal prison; + claimed a familiar intercourse with demons and spirits; and, by a + very singular revolution, converted the study of philosophy into + that of magic. The ancient sages had derided the popular + superstition; after disguising its extravagance by the thin + pretence of allegory, the disciples of Plotinus and Porphyry + became its most zealous defenders. As they agreed with the + Christians in a few mysterious points of faith, they attacked the + remainder of their theological system with all the fury of civil + war. The new Platonists would scarcely deserve a place in the + history of science, but in that of the church the mention of them + will very frequently occur. + + 124 (return) [Porphyry died about the time of Diocletian’s + abdication. The life of his master Plotinus, which he composed, + will give us the most complete idea of the genius of the sect, + and the manners of its professors. This very curious piece is + inserted in Fabricius Bibliotheca Græca tom. iv. p. 88—148.] + + + + + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The + Empire.—Part I. + + Troubles After The Abdication Of Diocletian.—Death Of + Constantius.—Elevation Of Constantine And Maxen Tius.— Six + Emperors At The Same Time.—Death Of Maximian And + Galerius.—Victories Of Constantine Over Maxentius And + Licinus.—Reunion Of The Empire Under The Authority Of Constantine. + + The balance of power established by Diocletian subsisted no + longer than while it was sustained by the firm and dexterous hand + of the founder. It required such a fortunate mixture of different + tempers and abilities as could scarcely be found or even expected + a second time; two emperors without jealousy, two Cæsars without + ambition, and the same general interest invariably pursued by + four independent princes. The abdication of Diocletian and + Maximian was succeeded by eighteen years of discord and + confusion. The empire was afflicted by five civil wars; and the + remainder of the time was not so much a state of tranquillity as + a suspension of arms between several hostile monarchs, who, + viewing each other with an eye of fear and hatred, strove to + increase their respective forces at the expense of their + subjects. + + As soon as Diocletian and Maximian had resigned the purple, their + station, according to the rules of the new constitution, was + filled by the two Cæsars, Constantius and Galerius, who + immediately assumed the title of Augustus. 1 + + 1 (return) [ M. de Montesquieu (Considerations sur la Grandeur et + La Decadence des Romains, c. 17) supposes, on the authority of + Orosius and Eusebius, that, on this occasion, the empire, for the + first time, was really divided into two parts. It is difficult, + however, to discover in what respect the plan of Galerius + differed from that of Diocletian.] + + The honors of seniority and precedence were allowed to the former + of those princes, and he continued under a new appellation to + administer his ancient department of Gaul, Spain, and Britain. + + The government of those ample provinces was sufficient to + exercise his talents and to satisfy his ambition. Clemency, + temperance, and moderation, distinguished the amiable character + of Constantius, and his fortunate subjects had frequently + occasion to compare the virtues of their sovereign with the + passions of Maximian, and even with the arts of Diocletian. 2 + Instead of imitating their eastern pride and magnificence, + Constantius preserved the modesty of a Roman prince. He declared, + with unaffected sincerity, that his most valued treasure was in + the hearts of his people, and that, whenever the dignity of the + throne, or the danger of the state, required any extraordinary + supply, he could depend with confidence on their gratitude and + liberality. 3 The provincials of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, + sensible of his worth, and of their own happiness, reflected with + anxiety on the declining health of the emperor Constantius, and + the tender age of his numerous family, the issue of his second + marriage with the daughter of Maximian. + + 2 (return) [ Hic non modo amabilis, sed etiam venerabilis Gallis + fuit; præcipuc quod Diocletiani suspectam prudentiam, et + Maximiani sanguinariam violentiam imperio ejus evaserant. Eutrop. + Breviar. x. i.] + + 3 (return) [ Divitiis Provincialium (mel. provinciarum) ac + privatorum studens, fisci commoda non admodum affectans; + ducensque melius publicas opes a privatis haberi, quam intra unum + claustrum reservari. Id. ibid. He carried this maxim so far, that + whenever he gave an entertainment, he was obliged to borrow a + service of plate.] + + The stern temper of Galerius was cast in a very different mould; + and while he commanded the esteem of his subjects, he seldom + condescended to solicit their affections. His fame in arms, and, + above all, the success of the Persian war, had elated his haughty + mind, which was naturally impatient of a superior, or even of an + equal. If it were possible to rely on the partial testimony of an + injudicious writer, we might ascribe the abdication of Diocletian + to the menaces of Galerius, and relate the particulars of a + _private_ conversation between the two princes, in which the + former discovered as much pusillanimity as the latter displayed + ingratitude and arrogance. 4 But these obscure anecdotes are + sufficiently refuted by an impartial view of the character and + conduct of Diocletian. Whatever might otherwise have been his + intentions, if he had apprehended any danger from the violence of + Galerius, his good sense would have instructed him to prevent the + ignominious contest; and as he had held the sceptre with glory, + he would have resigned it without disgrace. + + 4 (return) [ Lactantius de Mort. Persecutor. c. 18. Were the + particulars of this conference more consistent with truth and + decency, we might still ask how they came to the knowledge of an + obscure rhetorician. But there are many historians who put us in + mind of the admirable saying of the great Conde to Cardinal de + Retz: “Ces coquins nous font parlor et agir, comme ils auroient + fait eux-memes a notre place.” * Note: This attack upon + Lactantius is unfounded. Lactantius was so far from having been + an obscure rhetorician, that he had taught rhetoric publicly, and + with the greatest success, first in Africa, and afterwards in + Nicomedia. His reputation obtained him the esteem of Constantine, + who invited him to his court, and intrusted to him the education + of his son Crispus. The facts which he relates took place during + his own time; he cannot be accused of dishonesty or imposture. + Satis me vixisse arbitrabor et officium hominis implesse si labor + meus aliquos homines, ab erroribus iberatos, ad iter coeleste + direxerit. De Opif. Dei, cap. 20. The eloquence of Lactantius has + caused him to be called the Christian Cicero. Annon Gent.—G. + ——Yet no unprejudiced person can read this coarse and particular + private conversation of the two emperors, without assenting to + the justice of Gibbon’s severe sentence. But the authorship of + the treatise is by no means certain. The fame of Lactantius for + eloquence as well as for truth, would suffer no loss if it should + be adjudged to some more “obscure rhetorician.” Manso, in his + Leben Constantins des Grossen, concurs on this point with Gibbon + Beylage, iv. —M.] + + After the elevation of Constantius and Galerius to the rank of + _Augusti_, two new _Cæsars_ were required to supply their place, + and to complete the system of the Imperial government. Diocletian + was sincerely desirous of withdrawing himself from the world; he + considered Galerius, who had married his daughter, as the firmest + support of his family and of the empire; and he consented, + without reluctance, that his successor should assume the merit as + well as the envy of the important nomination. It was fixed + without consulting the interest or inclination of the princes of + the West. Each of them had a son who was arrived at the age of + manhood, and who might have been deemed the most natural + candidates for the vacant honor. But the impotent resentment of + Maximian was no longer to be dreaded; and the moderate + Constantius, though he might despise the dangers, was humanely + apprehensive of the calamities, of civil war. The two persons + whom Galerius promoted to the rank of Cæsar were much better + suited to serve the views of his ambition; and their principal + recommendation seems to have consisted in the want of merit or + personal consequence. The first of these was Daza, or, as he was + afterwards called, Maximin, whose mother was the sister of + Galerius. The unexperienced youth still betrayed, by his manners + and language, his rustic education, when, to his own + astonishment, as well as that of the world, he was invested by + Diocletian with the purple, exalted to the dignity of Cæsar, and + intrusted with the sovereign command of Egypt and Syria. 5 At the + same time, Severus, a faithful servant, addicted to pleasure, but + not incapable of business, was sent to Milan, to receive, from + the reluctant hands of Maximian, the Cæsarian ornaments, and the + possession of Italy and Africa. According to the forms of the + constitution, Severus acknowledged the supremacy of the western + emperor; but he was absolutely devoted to the commands of his + benefactor Galerius, who, reserving to himself the intermediate + countries from the confines of Italy to those of Syria, firmly + established his power over three fourths of the monarchy. In the + full confidence that the approaching death of Constantius would + leave him sole master of the Roman world, we are assured that he + had arranged in his mind a long succession of future princes, and + that he meditated his own retreat from public life, after he + should have accomplished a glorious reign of about twenty years. + 6 7 + + 5 (return) [ Sublatus nuper a pecoribus et silvis (says + Lactantius de M. P. c. 19) statim Scutarius, continuo Protector, + mox Tribunus, postridie Cæsar, accepit Orientem. Aurelius Victor + is too liberal in giving him the whole portion of Diocletian.] + + 6 (return) [ His diligence and fidelity are acknowledged even by + Lactantius, de M. P. c. 18.] + + 7 (return) [ These schemes, however, rest only on the very + doubtful authority of Lactantius de M. P. c. 20.] + + But within less than eighteen months, two unexpected revolutions + overturned the ambitious schemes of Galerius. The hopes of + uniting the western provinces to his empire were disappointed by + the elevation of Constantine, whilst Italy and Africa were lost + by the successful revolt of Maxentius. + + I. The fame of Constantine has rendered posterity attentive to + the most minute circumstances of his life and actions. The place + of his birth, as well as the condition of his mother Helena, have + been the subject, not only of literary, but of national disputes. + Notwithstanding the recent tradition, which assigns for her + father a British king, 8 we are obliged to confess, that Helena + was the daughter of an innkeeper; but at the same time, we may + defend the legality of her marriage, against those who have + represented her as the concubine of Constantius. 9 The great + Constantine was most probably born at Naissus, in Dacia; 10 and + it is not surprising that, in a family and province distinguished + only by the profession of arms, the youth should discover very + little inclination to improve his mind by the acquisition of + knowledge. 11 He was about eighteen years of age when his father + was promoted to the rank of Cæsar; but that fortunate event was + attended with his mother’s divorce; and the splendor of an + Imperial alliance reduced the son of Helena to a state of + disgrace and humiliation. Instead of following Constantius in the + West, he remained in the service of Diocletian, signalized his + valor in the wars of Egypt and Persia, and gradually rose to the + honorable station of a tribune of the first order. The figure of + Constantine was tall and majestic; he was dexterous in all his + exercises, intrepid in war, affable in peace; in his whole + conduct, the active spirit of youth was tempered by habitual + prudence; and while his mind was engrossed by ambition, he + appeared cold and insensible to the allurements of pleasure. The + favor of the people and soldiers, who had named him as a worthy + candidate for the rank of Cæsar, served only to exasperate the + jealousy of Galerius; and though prudence might restrain him from + exercising any open violence, an absolute monarch is seldom at a + loss how to execute a sure and secret revenge. 12 Every hour + increased the danger of Constantine, and the anxiety of his + father, who, by repeated letters, expressed the warmest desire of + embracing his son. For some time the policy of Galerius supplied + him with delays and excuses; but it was impossible long to refuse + so natural a request of his associate, without maintaining his + refusal by arms. The permission of the journey was reluctantly + granted, and whatever precautions the emperor might have taken to + intercept a return, the consequences of which he, with so much + reason, apprehended, they were effectually disappointed by the + incredible diligence of Constantine. 13 Leaving the palace of + Nicomedia in the night, he travelled post through Bithynia, + Thrace, Dacia, Pannonia, Italy, and Gaul, and, amidst the joyful + acclamations of the people, reached the port of Boulogne in the + very moment when his father was preparing to embark for Britain. + 14 + + 8 (return) [ This tradition, unknown to the contemporaries of + Constantine was invented in the darkness of monestaries, was + embellished by Jeffrey of Monmouth, and the writers of the xiith + century, has been defended by our antiquarians of the last age, + and is seriously related in the ponderous History of England, + compiled by Mr. Carte, (vol. i. p. 147.) He transports, however, + the kingdom of Coil, the imaginary father of Helena, from Essex + to the wall of Antoninus.] + + 9 (return) [ Eutropius (x. 2) expresses, in a few words, the real + truth, and the occasion of the error “ex obscuriori matrimonio + ejus filius.” Zosimus (l. ii. p. 78) eagerly seized the most + unfavorable report, and is followed by Orosius, (vii. 25,) whose + authority is oddly enough overlooked by the indefatigable, but + partial Tillemont. By insisting on the divorce of Helena, + Diocletian acknowledged her marriage.] + + 10 (return) [ There are three opinions with regard to the place + of Constantine’s birth. 1. Our English antiquarians were used to + dwell with rapture on the words of his panegyrist, “Britannias + illic oriendo nobiles fecisti.” But this celebrated passage may + be referred with as much propriety to the accession, as to the + nativity of Constantine. 2. Some of the modern Greeks have + ascribed the honor of his birth to Drepanum, a town on the Gulf + of Nicomedia, (Cellarius, tom. ii. p. 174,) which Constantine + dignified with the name of Helenopolis, and Justinian adorned + with many splendid buildings, (Procop. de Edificiis, v. 2.) It is + indeed probable enough, that Helena’s father kept an inn at + Drepanum, and that Constantius might lodge there when he returned + from a Persian embassy, in the reign of Aurelian. But in the + wandering life of a soldier, the place of his marriage, and the + places where his children are born, have very little connection + with each other. 3. The claim of Naissus is supported by the + anonymous writer, published at the end of Ammianus, p. 710, and + who in general copied very good materials; and it is confirmed by + Julius Firmicus, (de Astrologia, l. i. c. 4,) who flourished + under the reign of Constantine himself. Some objections have been + raised against the integrity of the text, and the application of + the passage of Firmicus but the former is established by the best + Mss., and the latter is very ably defended by Lipsius de + Magnitudine Romana, l. iv. c. 11, et Supplement.] + + 11 (return) [ Literis minus instructus. Anonym. ad Ammian. p. + 710.] + + 12 (return) [ Galerius, or perhaps his own courage, exposed him + to single combat with a Sarmatian, (Anonym. p. 710,) and with a + monstrous lion. See Praxagoras apud Photium, p. 63. Praxagoras, + an Athenian philosopher, had written a life of Constantine in two + books, which are now lost. He was a contemporary.] + + 13 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 78, 79. Lactantius de M. P. c. + 24. The former tells a very foolish story, that Constantine + caused all the post-horses which he had used to be hamstrung. + Such a bloody execution, without preventing a pursuit, would have + scattered suspicions, and might have stopped his journey. * Note: + Zosimus is not the only writer who tells this story. The younger + Victor confirms it. Ad frustrandos insequentes, publica jumenta, + quaqua iter ageret, interficiens. Aurelius Victor de Cæsar says + the same thing, G. as also the Anonymus Valesii.— M. ——Manso, + (Leben Constantins,) p. 18, observes that the story has been + exaggerated; he took this precaution during the first stage of + his journey.—M.] + + 14 (return) [ Anonym. p. 710. Panegyr. Veter. vii. 4. But + Zosimus, l. ii. p. 79, Eusebius de Vit. Constant. l. i. c. 21, + and Lactantius de M. P. c. 24. suppose, with less accuracy, that + he found his father on his death-bed.] + + The British expedition, and an easy victory over the barbarians + of Caledonia, were the last exploits of the reign of Constantius. + He ended his life in the Imperial palace of York, fifteen months + after he had received the title of Augustus, and almost fourteen + years and a half after he had been promoted to the rank of Cæsar. + His death was immediately succeeded by the elevation of + Constantine. The ideas of inheritance and succession are so very + familiar, that the generality of mankind consider them as founded + not only in reason but in nature itself. Our imagination readily + transfers the same principles from private property to public + dominion: and whenever a virtuous father leaves behind him a son + whose merit seems to justify the esteem, or even the hopes, of + the people, the joint influence of prejudice and of affection + operates with irresistible weight. The flower of the western + armies had followed Constantius into Britain, and the national + troops were reënforced by a numerous body of Alemanni, who obeyed + the orders of Crocus, one of their hereditary chieftains. 15 The + opinion of their own importance, and the assurance that Britain, + Gaul, and Spain would acquiesce in their nomination, were + diligently inculcated to the legions by the adherents of + Constantine. The soldiers were asked, whether they could hesitate + a moment between the honor of placing at their head the worthy + son of their beloved emperor, and the ignominy of tamely + expecting the arrival of some obscure stranger, on whom it might + please the sovereign of Asia to bestow the armies and provinces + of the West. It was insinuated to them, that gratitude and + liberality held a distinguished place among the virtues of + Constantine; nor did that artful prince show himself to the + troops, till they were prepared to salute him with the names of + Augustus and Emperor. The throne was the object of his desires; + and had he been less actuated by ambition, it was his only means + of safety. He was well acquainted with the character and + sentiments of Galerius, and sufficiently apprised, that if he + wished to live he must determine to reign. The decent and even + obstinate resistance which he chose to affect, 16 was contrived + to justify his usurpation; nor did he yield to the acclamations + of the army, till he had provided the proper materials for a + letter, which he immediately despatched to the emperor of the + East. Constantine informed him of the melancholy event of his + father’s death, modestly asserted his natural claim to the + succession, and respectfully lamented, that the affectionate + violence of his troops had not permitted him to solicit the + Imperial purple in the regular and constitutional manner. The + first emotions of Galerius were those of surprise, + disappointment, and rage; and as he could seldom restrain his + passions, he loudly threatened, that he would commit to the + flames both the letter and the messenger. But his resentment + insensibly subsided; and when he recollected the doubtful chance + of war, when he had weighed the character and strength of his + adversary, he consented to embrace the honorable accommodation + which the prudence of Constantine had left open to him. Without + either condemning or ratifying the choice of the British army, + Galerius accepted the son of his deceased colleague as the + sovereign of the provinces beyond the Alps; but he gave him only + the title of Cæsar, and the fourth rank among the Roman princes, + whilst he conferred the vacant place of Augustus on his favorite + Severus. The apparent harmony of the empire was still preserved, + and Constantine, who already possessed the substance, expected, + without impatience, an opportunity of obtaining the honors, of + supreme power. 17 + + 15 (return) [ Cunctis qui aderant, annitentibus, sed præcipue + Croco (alii Eroco) [Erich?] Alamannorum Rege, auxilii gratia + Constantium comitato, imperium capit. Victor Junior, c. 41. This + is perhaps the first instance of a barbarian king, who assisted + the Roman arms with an independent body of his own subjects. The + practice grew familiar and at last became fatal.] + + 16 (return) [ His panegyrist Eumenius (vii. 8) ventures to affirm + in the presence of Constantine, that he put spurs to his horse, + and tried, but in vain, to escape from the hands of his + soldiers.] + + 17 (return) [ Lactantius de M. P. c. 25. Eumenius (vii. 8.) gives + a rhetorical turn to the whole transaction.] + + The children of Constantius by his second marriage were six in + number, three of either sex, and whose Imperial descent might + have solicited a preference over the meaner extraction of the son + of Helena. But Constantine was in the thirty-second year of his + age, in the full vigor both of mind and body, at the time when + the eldest of his brothers could not possibly be more than + thirteen years old. His claim of superior merit had been allowed + and ratified by the dying emperor. 18 In his last moments + Constantius bequeathed to his eldest son the care of the safety + as well as greatness of the family; conjuring him to assume both + the authority and the sentiments of a father with regard to the + children of Theodora. Their liberal education, advantageous + marriages, the secure dignity of their lives, and the first + honors of the state with which they were invested, attest the + fraternal affection of Constantine; and as those princes + possessed a mild and grateful disposition, they submitted without + reluctance to the superiority of his genius and fortune. 19 + + 18 (return) [ The choice of Constantine, by his dying father, + which is warranted by reason, and insinuated by Eumenius, seems + to be confirmed by the most unexceptionable authority, the + concurring evidence of Lactantius (de M. P. c. 24) and of + Libanius, (Oratio i.,) of Eusebius (in Vit. Constantin. l. i. c. + 18, 21) and of Julian, (Oratio i)] + + 19 (return) [ Of the three sisters of Constantine, Constantia + married the emperor Licinius, Anastasia the Cæsar Bassianus, and + Eutropia the consul Nepotianus. The three brothers were, + Dalmatius, Julius Constantius, and Annibalianus, of whom we shall + have occasion to speak hereafter.] + + II. The ambitious spirit of Galerius was scarcely reconciled to + the disappointment of his views upon the Gallic provinces, before + the unexpected loss of Italy wounded his pride as well as power + in a still more sensible part. The long absence of the emperors + had filled Rome with discontent and indignation; and the people + gradually discovered, that the preference given to Nicomedia and + Milan was not to be ascribed to the particular inclination of + Diocletian, but to the permanent form of government which he had + instituted. It was in vain that, a few months after his + abdication, his successors dedicated, under his name, those + magnificent baths, whose ruins still supply the ground as well as + the materials for so many churches and convents. 20 The + tranquility of those elegant recesses of ease and luxury was + disturbed by the impatient murmurs of the Romans, and a report + was insensibly circulated, that the sums expended in erecting + those buildings would soon be required at their hands. About that + time the avarice of Galerius, or perhaps the exigencies of the + state, had induced him to make a very strict and rigorous + inquisition into the property of his subjects, for the purpose of + a general taxation, both on their lands and on their persons. A + very minute survey appears to have been taken of their real + estates; and wherever there was the slightest suspicion of + concealment, torture was very freely employed to obtain a sincere + declaration of their personal wealth. 21 The privileges which had + exalted Italy above the rank of the provinces were no longer + regarded: 211 and the officers of the revenue already began to + number the Roman people, and to settle the proportion of the new + taxes. Even when the spirit of freedom had been utterly + extinguished, the tamest subjects have sometimes ventured to + resist an unprecedented invasion of their property; but on this + occasion the injury was aggravated by the insult, and the sense + of private interest was quickened by that of national honor. The + conquest of Macedonia, as we have already observed, had delivered + the Roman people from the weight of personal taxes. + + Though they had experienced every form of despotism, they had now + enjoyed that exemption near five hundred years; nor could they + patiently brook the insolence of an Illyrian peasant, who, from + his distant residence in Asia, presumed to number Rome among the + tributary cities of his empire. The rising fury of the people was + encouraged by the authority, or at least the connivance, of the + senate; and the feeble remains of the Prætorian guards, who had + reason to apprehend their own dissolution, embraced so honorable + a pretence, and declared their readiness to draw their swords in + the service of their oppressed country. It was the wish, and it + soon became the hope, of every citizen, that after expelling from + Italy their foreign tyrants, they should elect a prince who, by + the place of his residence, and by his maxims of government, + might once more deserve the title of Roman emperor. The name, as + well as the situation, of Maxentius determined in his favor the + popular enthusiasm. + + 20 (return) [ See Gruter. Inscrip. p. 178. The six princes are + all mentioned, Diocletian and Maximian as the senior Augusti, and + fathers of the emperors. They jointly dedicate, for the use of + their own Romans, this magnificent edifice. The architects have + delineated the ruins of these Thermoe, and the antiquarians, + particularly Donatus and Nardini, have ascertained the ground + which they covered. One of the great rooms is now the Carthusian + church; and even one of the porter’s lodges is sufficient to form + another church, which belongs to the Feuillans.] + + 21 (return) [ See Lactantius de M. P. c. 26, 31. ] + + 211 (return) [ Saviguy, in his memoir on Roman taxation, (Mem. + Berl. Academ. 1822, 1823, p. 5,) dates from this period the + abolition of the Jus Italicum. He quotes a remarkable passage of + Aurelius Victor. Hinc denique parti Italiæ invec tum tributorum + ingens malum. Aur. Vict. c. 39. It was a necessary consequence of + the division of the empire: it became impossible to maintain a + second court and executive, and leave so large and fruitful a + part of the territory exempt from contribution.—M.] + + Maxentius was the son of the emperor Maximian, and he had married + the daughter of Galerius. His birth and alliance seemed to offer + him the fairest promise of succeeding to the empire; but his + vices and incapacity procured him the same exclusion from the + dignity of Cæsar, which Constantine had deserved by a dangerous + superiority of merit. The policy of Galerius preferred such + associates as would never disgrace the choice, nor dispute the + commands, of their benefactor. An obscure stranger was therefore + raised to the throne of Italy, and the son of the late emperor of + the West was left to enjoy the luxury of a private fortune in a + villa a few miles distant from the capital. The gloomy passions + of his soul, shame, vexation, and rage, were inflamed by envy on + the news of Constantine’s success; but the hopes of Maxentius + revived with the public discontent, and he was easily persuaded + to unite his personal injury and pretensions with the cause of + the Roman people. Two Prætorian tribunes and a commissary of + provisions undertook the management of the conspiracy; and as + every order of men was actuated by the same spirit, the immediate + event was neither doubtful nor difficult. The præfect of the + city, and a few magistrates, who maintained their fidelity to + Severus, were massacred by the guards; and Maxentius, invested + with the Imperial ornaments, was acknowledged by the applauding + senate and people as the protector of the Roman freedom and + dignity. It is uncertain whether Maximian was previously + acquainted with the conspiracy; but as soon as the standard of + rebellion was erected at Rome, the old emperor broke from the + retirement where the authority of Diocletian had condemned him to + pass a life of melancholy and solitude, and concealed his + returning ambition under the disguise of paternal tenderness. At + the request of his son and of the senate, he condescended to + reassume the purple. His ancient dignity, his experience, and his + fame in arms, added strength as well as reputation to the party + of Maxentius. 22 + + 22 (return) [ The sixth Panegyric represents the conduct of + Maximian in the most favorable light, and the ambiguous + expression of Aurelius Victor, “retractante diu,” may signify + either that he contrived, or that he opposed, the conspiracy. See + Zosimus, l. ii. p. 79, and Lactantius de M. P. c. 26.] + + According to the advice, or rather the orders, of his colleague, + the emperor Severus immediately hastened to Rome, in the full + confidence, that, by his unexpected celerity, he should easily + suppress the tumult of an unwarlike populace, commanded by a + licentious youth. But he found on his arrival the gates of the + city shut against him, the walls filled with men and arms, an + experienced general at the head of the rebels, and his own troops + without spirit or affection. A large body of Moors deserted to + the enemy, allured by the promise of a large donative; and, if it + be true that they had been levied by Maximian in his African war, + preferring the natural feelings of gratitude to the artificial + ties of allegiance. Anulinus, the Prætorian præfect, declared + himself in favor of Maxentius, and drew after him the most + considerable part of the troops, accustomed to obey his commands. + + Rome, according to the expression of an orator, recalled her + armies; and the unfortunate Severus, destitute of force and of + counsel, retired, or rather fled, with precipitation, to Ravenna. + + Here he might for some time have been safe. The fortifications of + Ravenna were able to resist the attempts, and the morasses that + surrounded the town were sufficient to prevent the approach, of + the Italian army. The sea, which Severus commanded with a + powerful fleet, secured him an inexhaustible supply of + provisions, and gave a free entrance to the legions, which, on + the return of spring, would advance to his assistance from + Illyricum and the East. Maximian, who conducted the siege in + person, was soon convinced that he might waste his time and his + army in the fruitless enterprise, and that he had nothing to hope + either from force or famine. With an art more suitable to the + character of Diocletian than to his own, he directed his attack, + not so much against the walls of Ravenna, as against the mind of + Severus. The treachery which he had experienced disposed that + unhappy prince to distrust the most sincere of his friends and + adherents. The emissaries of Maximian easily persuaded his + credulity, that a conspiracy was formed to betray the town, and + prevailed upon his fears not to expose himself to the discretion + of an irritated conqueror, but to accept the faith of an + honorable capitulation. He was at first received with humanity + and treated with respect. Maximian conducted the captive emperor + to Rome, and gave him the most solemn assurances that he had + secured his life by the resignation of the purple. But Severus + could obtain only an easy death and an Imperial funeral. When the + sentence was signified to him, the manner of executing it was + left to his own choice; he preferred the favorite mode of the + ancients, that of opening his veins; and as soon as he expired, + his body was carried to the sepulchre which had been constructed + for the family of Gallienus. 23 + + 23 (return) [ The circumstances of this war, and the death of + Severus, are very doubtfully and variously told in our ancient + fragments, (see Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. part i. + p. 555.) I have endeavored to extract from them a consistent and + probable narration. * Note: Manso justly observes that two + totally different narratives might be formed, almost upon equal + authority. Beylage, iv.—M.] + + + + + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The + Empire.—Part II. + + Though the characters of Constantine and Maxentius had very + little affinity with each other, their situation and interest + were the same; and prudence seemed to require that they should + unite their forces against the common enemy. Notwithstanding the + superiority of his age and dignity, the indefatigable Maximian + passed the Alps, and, courting a personal interview with the + sovereign of Gaul, carried with him his daughter Fausta as the + pledge of the new alliance. The marriage was celebrated at Arles + with every circumstance of magnificence; and the ancient + colleague of Diocletian, who again asserted his claim to the + Western empire, conferred on his son-in-law and ally the title of + Augustus. By consenting to receive that honor from Maximian, + Constantine seemed to embrace the cause of Rome and of the + senate; but his professions were ambiguous, and his assistance + slow and ineffectual. He considered with attention the + approaching contest between the masters of Italy and the emperor + of the East, and was prepared to consult his own safety or + ambition in the event of the war. 24 + + 24 (return) [ The sixth Panegyric was pronounced to celebrate the + elevation of Constantine; but the prudent orator avoids the + mention either of Galerius or of Maxentius. He introduces only + one slight allusion to the actual troubles, and to the majesty of + Rome. * Note: Compare Manso, Beylage, iv. p. 302. Gibbon’s + account is at least as probable as that of his critic.—M.] + + The importance of the occasion called for the presence and + abilities of Galerius. At the head of a powerful army, collected + from Illyricum and the East, he entered Italy, resolved to + revenge the death of Severus, and to chastise the rebellious + Romans; or, as he expressed his intentions, in the furious + language of a barbarian, to extirpate the senate, and to destroy + the people by the sword. But the skill of Maximian had concerted + a prudent system of defence. The invader found every place + hostile, fortified, and inaccessible; and though he forced his + way as far as Narni, within sixty miles of Rome, his dominion in + Italy was confined to the narrow limits of his camp. Sensible of + the increasing difficulties of his enterprise, the haughty + Galerius made the first advances towards a reconciliation, and + despatched two of his most considerable officers to tempt the + Roman princes by the offer of a conference, and the declaration + of his paternal regard for Maxentius, who might obtain much more + from his liberality than he could hope from the doubtful chance + of war. 25 The offers of Galerius were rejected with firmness, + his perfidious friendship refused with contempt, and it was not + long before he discovered, that, unless he provided for his + safety by a timely retreat, he had some reason to apprehend the + fate of Severus. The wealth which the Romans defended against his + rapacious tyranny, they freely contributed for his destruction. + The name of Maximian, the popular arts of his son, the secret + distribution of large sums, and the promise of still more liberal + rewards, checked the ardor and corrupted the fidelity of the + Illyrian legions; and when Galerius at length gave the signal of + the retreat, it was with some difficulty that he could prevail on + his veterans not to desert a banner which had so often conducted + them to victory and honor. A contemporary writer assigns two + other causes for the failure of the expedition; but they are both + of such a nature, that a cautious historian will scarcely venture + to adopt them. We are told that Galerius, who had formed a very + imperfect notion of the greatness of Rome by the cities of the + East with which he was acquainted, found his forces inadequate to + the siege of that immense capital. + + But the extent of a city serves only to render it more accessible + to the enemy: Rome had long since been accustomed to submit on + the approach of a conqueror; nor could the temporary enthusiasm + of the people have long contended against the discipline and + valor of the legions. We are likewise informed that the legions + themselves were struck with horror and remorse, and that those + pious sons of the republic refused to violate the sanctity of + their venerable parent. 26 But when we recollect with how much + ease, in the more ancient civil wars, the zeal of party and the + habits of military obedience had converted the native citizens of + Rome into her most implacable enemies, we shall be inclined to + distrust this extreme delicacy of strangers and barbarians, who + had never beheld Italy till they entered it in a hostile manner. + Had they not been restrained by motives of a more interested + nature, they would probably have answered Galerius in the words + of Cæsar’s veterans: “If our general wishes to lead us to the + banks of the Tyber, we are prepared to trace out his camp. + Whatsoever walls he has determined to level with the ground, our + hands are ready to work the engines: nor shall we hesitate, + should the name of the devoted city be Rome itself.” These are + indeed the expressions of a poet; but of a poet who has been + distinguished, and even censured, for his strict adherence to the + truth of history. 27 + + 25 (return) [ With regard to this negotiation, see the fragments + of an anonymous historian, published by Valesius at the end of + his edition of Ammianus Marcellinus, p. 711. These fragments have + furnished with several curious, and, as it should seem, authentic + anecdotes.] + + 26 (return) [ Lactantius de M. P. c. 28. The former of these + reasons is probably taken from Virgil’s Shepherd: “Illam * * * + ego huic notra similem, Meliboee, putavi,” &c. Lactantius + delights in these poetical illusions.] + + 27 (return) + [ Castra super Tusci si ponere Tybridis undas; (_jubeas_) + Hesperios audax veniam metator in agros. + Tu quoscunque voles in planum effundere muros, + His aries actus disperget saxa lacertis; + Illa licet penitus tolli quam jusseris urbem + Roma sit. + Lucan. Pharsal. i. 381.] + + The legions of Galerius exhibited a very melancholy proof of + their disposition, by the ravages which they committed in their + retreat. They murdered, they ravished, they plundered, they drove + away the flocks and herds of the Italians; they burnt the + villages through which they passed, and they endeavored to + destroy the country which it had not been in their power to + subdue. During the whole march, Maxentius hung on their rear, but + he very prudently declined a general engagement with those brave + and desperate veterans. His father had undertaken a second + journey into Gaul, with the hope of persuading Constantine, who + had assembled an army on the frontier, to join in the pursuit, + and to complete the victory. But the actions of Constantine were + guided by reason, and not by resentment. He persisted in the wise + resolution of maintaining a balance of power in the divided + empire, and he no longer hated Galerius, when that aspiring + prince had ceased to be an object of terror. 28 + + 28 (return) [ Lactantius de M. P. c. 27. Zosim. l. ii. p. 82. The + latter, that Constantine, in his interview with Maximian, had + promised to declare war against Galerius.] + + The mind of Galerius was the most susceptible of the sterner + passions, but it was not, however, incapable of a sincere and + lasting friendship. Licinius, whose manners as well as character + were not unlike his own, seems to have engaged both his affection + and esteem. Their intimacy had commenced in the happier period + perhaps of their youth and obscurity. It had been cemented by the + freedom and dangers of a military life; they had advanced almost + by equal steps through the successive honors of the service; and + as soon as Galerius was invested with the Imperial dignity, he + seems to have conceived the design of raising his companion to + the same rank with himself. During the short period of his + prosperity, he considered the rank of Cæsar as unworthy of the + age and merit of Licinius, and rather chose to reserve for him + the place of Constantius, and the empire of the West. While the + emperor was employed in the Italian war, he intrusted his friend + with the defence of the Danube; and immediately after his return + from that unfortunate expedition, he invested Licinius with the + vacant purple of Severus, resigning to his immediate command the + provinces of Illyricum. 29 The news of his promotion was no + sooner carried into the East, than Maximin, who governed, or + rather oppressed, the countries of Egypt and Syria, betrayed his + envy and discontent, disdained the inferior name of Cæsar, and, + notwithstanding the prayers as well as arguments of Galerius, + exacted, almost by violence, the equal title of Augustus. 30 For + the first, and indeed for the last time, the Roman world was + administered by six emperors. In the West, Constantine and + Maxentius affected to reverence their father Maximian. In the + East, Licinius and Maximin honored with more real consideration + their benefactor Galerius. The opposition of interest, and the + memory of a recent war, divided the empire into two great hostile + powers; but their mutual fears produced an apparent tranquillity, + and even a feigned reconciliation, till the death of the elder + princes, of Maximian, and more particularly of Galerius, gave a + new direction to the views and passions of their surviving + associates. + + 29 (return) [ M. de Tillemont (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. part + i. p. 559) has proved that Licinius, without passing through the + intermediate rank of Cæsar, was declared Augustus, the 11th of + November, A. D. 307, after the return of Galerius from Italy.] + + 30 (return) [ Lactantius de M. P. c. 32. When Galerius declared + Licinius Augustus with himself, he tried to satisfy his younger + associates, by inventing for Constantine and Maximin (not + Maxentius; see Baluze, p. 81) the new title of sons of the + Augusti. But when Maximin acquainted him that he had been saluted + Augustus by the army, Galerius was obliged to acknowledge him as + well as Constantine, as equal associates in the Imperial + dignity.] + + When Maximian had reluctantly abdicated the empire, the venal + orators of the times applauded his philosophic moderation. When + his ambition excited, or at least encouraged, a civil war, they + returned thanks to his generous patriotism, and gently censured + that love of ease and retirement which had withdrawn him from the + public service. 31 But it was impossible that minds like those of + Maximian and his son could long possess in harmony an undivided + power. Maxentius considered himself as the legal sovereign of + Italy, elected by the Roman senate and people; nor would he + endure the control of his father, who arrogantly declared that by + _his_ name and abilities the rash youth had been established on + the throne. The cause was solemnly pleaded before the Prætorian + guards; and those troops, who dreaded the severity of the old + emperor, espoused the party of Maxentius. 32 The life and freedom + of Maximian were, however, respected, and he retired from Italy + into Illyricum, affecting to lament his past conduct, and + secretly contriving new mischiefs. But Galerius, who was well + acquainted with his character, soon obliged him to leave his + dominions, and the last refuge of the disappointed Maximian was + the court of his son-in-law Constantine. 33 He was received with + respect by that artful prince, and with the appearance of filial + tenderness by the empress Fausta. That he might remove every + suspicion, he resigned the Imperial purple a second time, 34 + professing himself at length convinced of the vanity of greatness + and ambition. Had he persevered in this resolution, he might have + ended his life with less dignity, indeed, than in his first + retirement, yet, however, with comfort and reputation. But the + near prospect of a throne brought back to his remembrance the + state from whence he was fallen, and he resolved, by a desperate + effort, either to reign or to perish. An incursion of the Franks + had summoned Constantine, with a part of his army, to the banks + of the Rhine; the remainder of the troops were stationed in the + southern provinces of Gaul, which lay exposed to the enterprises + of the Italian emperor, and a considerable treasure was deposited + in the city of Arles. Maximian either craftily invented, or + easily credited, a vain report of the death of Constantine. + Without hesitation he ascended the throne, seized the treasure, + and scattering it with his accustomed profusion among the + soldiers, endeavored to awake in their minds the memory of his + ancient dignity and exploits. Before he could establish his + authority, or finish the negotiation which he appears to have + entered into with his son Maxentius, the celerity of Constantine + defeated all his hopes. On the first news of his perfidy and + ingratitude, that prince returned by rapid marches from the Rhine + to the Saone, embarked on the last-mentioned river at Chalons, + and, at Lyons trusting himself to the rapidity of the Rhone, + arrived at the gates of Arles with a military force which it was + impossible for Maximian to resist, and which scarcely permitted + him to take refuge in the neighboring city of Marseilles. The + narrow neck of land which joined that place to the continent was + fortified against the besiegers, whilst the sea was open, either + for the escape of Maximian, or for the succor of Maxentius, if + the latter should choose to disguise his invasion of Gaul under + the honorable pretence of defending a distressed, or, as he might + allege, an injured father. Apprehensive of the fatal consequences + of delay, Constantine gave orders for an immediate assault; but + the scaling-ladders were found too short for the height of the + walls, and Marseilles might have sustained as long a siege as it + formerly did against the arms of Cæsar, if the garrison, + conscious either of their fault or of their danger, had not + purchased their pardon by delivering up the city and the person + of Maximian. A secret but irrevocable sentence of death was + pronounced against the usurper; he obtained only the same favor + which he had indulged to Severus, and it was published to the + world, that, oppressed by the remorse of his repeated crimes, he + strangled himself with his own hands. After he had lost the + assistance, and disdained the moderate counsels, of Diocletian, + the second period of his active life was a series of public + calamities and personal mortifications, which were terminated, in + about three years, by an ignominious death. He deserved his fate; + but we should find more reason to applaud the humanity of + Constantine, if he had spared an old man, the benefactor of his + father, and the father of his wife. During the whole of this + melancholy transaction, it appears that Fausta sacrificed the + sentiments of nature to her conjugal duties. 35 + + 31 (return) [ See Panegyr. Vet. vi. 9. Audi doloris nostri + liberam vocem, &c. The whole passage is imagined with artful + flattery, and expressed with an easy flow of eloquence.] + + 32 (return) [ Lactantius de M. P. c. 28. Zosim. l. ii. p. 82. A + report was spread, that Maxentius was the son of some obscure + Syrian, and had been substituted by the wife of Maximian as her + own child. See Aurelius Victor, Anonym. Valesian, and Panegyr. + Vet. ix. 3, 4.] + + 33 (return) [ Ab urbe pulsum, ab Italia fugatum, ab Illyrico + repudiatum, provinciis, tuis copiis, tuo palatio recepisti. + Eumen. in Panegyr Vet. vii. 14.] + + 34 (return) [ Lactantius de M. P. c. 29. Yet, after the + resignation of the purple, Constantine still continued to + Maximian the pomp and honors of the Imperial dignity; and on all + public occasions gave the right hand place to his father-in-law. + Panegyr. Vet. viii. 15.] + + 35 (return) [ Zosim. l. ii. p. 82. Eumenius in Panegyr. Vet. vii. + 16—21. The latter of these has undoubtedly represented the whole + affair in the most favorable light for his sovereign. Yet even + from this partial narrative we may conclude, that the repeated + clemency of Constantine, and the reiterated treasons of Maximian, + as they are described by Lactantius, (de M. P. c. 29, 30,) and + copied by the moderns, are destitute of any historical + foundation. Note: Yet some pagan authors relate and confirm them. + Aurelius Victor speaking of Maximin, says, cumque specie officii, + dolis compositis, Constantinum generum tentaret acerbe, jure + tamen interierat. Aur. Vict. de Cæsar l. p. 623. Eutropius also + says, inde ad Gallias profectus est (Maximianus) composito + tamquam a filio esset expulsus, ut Constantino genero jun + geretur: moliens tamen Constantinum, reperta occasione, + interficere, dedit justissimo exitu. Eutrop. x. p. 661. (Anon. + Gent.)—G. —— These writers hardly confirm more than Gibbon + admits; he denies the repeated clemency of Constantine, and the + reiterated treasons of Maximian Compare Manso, p. 302.—M.] + + The last years of Galerius were less shameful and unfortunate; + and though he had filled with more glory the subordinate station + of Cæsar than the superior rank of Augustus, he preserved, till + the moment of his death, the first place among the princes of the + Roman world. He survived his retreat from Italy about four years; + and wisely relinquishing his views of universal empire, he + devoted the remainder of his life to the enjoyment of pleasure, + and to the execution of some works of public utility, among which + we may distinguish the discharging into the Danube the + superfluous waters of the Lake Pelso, and the cutting down the + immense forests that encompassed it; an operation worthy of a + monarch, since it gave an extensive country to the agriculture of + his Pannonian subjects. 36 His death was occasioned by a very + painful and lingering disorder. His body, swelled by an + intemperate course of life to an unwieldy corpulence, was covered + with ulcers, and devoured by innumerable swarms of those insects + which have given their name to a most loathsome disease; 37 but + as Galerius had offended a very zealous and powerful party among + his subjects, his sufferings, instead of exciting their + compassion, have been celebrated as the visible effects of divine + justice. 38 He had no sooner expired in his palace of Nicomedia, + than the two emperors who were indebted for their purple to his + favors, began to collect their forces, with the intention either + of disputing, or of dividing, the dominions which he had left + without a master. They were persuaded, however, to desist from + the former design, and to agree in the latter. The provinces of + Asia fell to the share of Maximin, and those of Europe augmented + the portion of Licinius. The Hellespont and the Thracian + Bosphorus formed their mutual boundary, and the banks of those + narrow seas, which flowed in the midst of the Roman world, were + covered with soldiers, with arms, and with fortifications. The + deaths of Maximian and of Galerius reduced the number of emperors + to four. The sense of their true interest soon connected Licinius + and Constantine; a secret alliance was concluded between Maximin + and Maxentius, and their unhappy subjects expected with terror + the bloody consequences of their inevitable dissensions, which + were no longer restrained by the fear or the respect which they + had entertained for Galerius. 39 + + 36 (return) [ Aurelius Victor, c. 40. But that lake was situated + on the upper Pannonia, near the borders of Noricum; and the + province of Valeria (a name which the wife of Galerius gave to + the drained country) undoubtedly lay between the Drave and the + Danube, (Sextus Rufus, c. 9.) I should therefore suspect that + Victor has confounded the Lake Pelso with the Volocean marshes, + or, as they are now called, the Lake Sabaton. It is placed in the + heart of Valeria, and its present extent is not less than twelve + Hungarian miles (about seventy English) in length, and two in + breadth. See Severini Pannonia, l. i. c. 9.] + + 37 (return) [ Lactantius (de M. P. c. 33) and Eusebius (l. viii. + c. 16) describe the symptoms and progress of his disorder with + singular accuracy and apparent pleasure.] + + 38 (return) [ If any (like the late Dr. Jortin, Remarks on + Ecclesiastical History, vol. ii. p. 307—356) still delight in + recording the wonderful deaths of the persecutors, I would + recommend to their perusal an admirable passage of Grotius (Hist. + l. vii. p. 332) concerning the last illness of Philip II. of + Spain.] + + 39 (return) [ See Eusebius, l. ix. 6, 10. Lactantius de M. P. c. + 36. Zosimus is less exact, and evidently confounds Maximian with + Maximin.] + + Among so many crimes and misfortunes, occasioned by the passions + of the Roman princes, there is some pleasure in discovering a + single action which may be ascribed to their virtue. In the sixth + year of his reign, Constantine visited the city of Autun, and + generously remitted the arrears of tribute, reducing at the same + time the proportion of their assessment from twenty-five to + eighteen thousand heads, subject to the real and personal + capitation. 40 Yet even this indulgence affords the most + unquestionable proof of the public misery. This tax was so + extremely oppressive, either in itself or in the mode of + collecting it, that whilst the revenue was increased by + extortion, it was diminished by despair: a considerable part of + the territory of Autun was left uncultivated; and great numbers + of the provincials rather chose to live as exiles and outlaws, + than to support the weight of civil society. It is but too + probable, that the bountiful emperor relieved, by a partial act + of liberality, one among the many evils which he had caused by + his general maxims of administration. But even those maxims were + less the effect of choice than of necessity. And if we except the + death of Maximian, the reign of Constantine in Gaul seems to have + been the most innocent and even virtuous period of his life. + + The provinces were protected by his presence from the inroads of + the barbarians, who either dreaded or experienced his active + valor. After a signal victory over the Franks and Alemanni, + several of their princes were exposed by his order to the wild + beasts in the amphitheatre of Treves, and the people seem to have + enjoyed the spectacle, without discovering, in such a treatment + of royal captives, any thing that was repugnant to the laws of + nations or of humanity. 41 + + 40 (return) [ See the viiith Panegyr., in which Eumenius + displays, in the presence of Constantine, the misery and the + gratitude of the city of Autun.] + + 41 (return) [Eutropius, x. 3. Panegyr. Veter. vii. 10, 11, 12. A + great number of the French youth were likewise exposed to the + same cruel and ignominious death Yet the panegyric assumes + something of an apologetic tone. Te vero Constantine, + quantumlibet oderint hoses, dum perhorrescant. Hæc est enim vera + virtus, ut non ament et quiescant. The orator appeals to the + ancient ideal of the republic.—M.] + + The virtues of Constantine were rendered more illustrious by the + vices of Maxentius. Whilst the Gallic provinces enjoyed as much + happiness as the condition of the times was capable of receiving, + Italy and Africa groaned under the dominion of a tyrant, as + contemptible as he was odious. The zeal of flattery and faction + has indeed too frequently sacrificed the reputation of the + vanquished to the glory of their successful rivals; but even + those writers who have revealed, with the most freedom and + pleasure, the faults of Constantine, unanimously confess that + Maxentius was cruel, rapacious, and profligate. 42 He had the + good fortune to suppress a slight rebellion in Africa. The + governor and a few adherents had been guilty; the province + suffered for their crime. The flourishing cities of Cirtha and + Carthage, and the whole extent of that fertile country, were + wasted by fire and sword. The abuse of victory was followed by + the abuse of law and justice. A formidable army of sycophants and + delators invaded Africa; the rich and the noble were easily + convicted of a connection with the rebels; and those among them + who experienced the emperor’s clemency, were only punished by the + confiscation of their estates. 43 So signal a victory was + celebrated by a magnificent triumph, and Maxentius exposed to the + eyes of the people the spoils and captives of a Roman province. + The state of the capital was no less deserving of compassion than + that of Africa. The wealth of Rome supplied an inexhaustible fund + for his vain and prodigal expenses, and the ministers of his + revenue were skilled in the arts of rapine. It was under his + reign that the method of exacting a _free gift_ from the senators + was first invented; and as the sum was insensibly increased, the + pretences of levying it, a victory, a birth, a marriage, or an + imperial consulship, were proportionably multiplied. 44 Maxentius + had imbibed the same implacable aversion to the senate, which had + characterized most of the former tyrants of Rome; nor was it + possible for his ungrateful temper to forgive the generous + fidelity which had raised him to the throne, and supported him + against all his enemies. The lives of the senators were exposed + to his jealous suspicions, the dishonor of their wives and + daughters heightened the gratification of his sensual passions. + 45 It may be presumed that an Imperial lover was seldom reduced + to sigh in vain; but whenever persuasion proved ineffectual, he + had recourse to violence; and there remains _one_ memorable + example of a noble matron, who preserved her chastity by a + voluntary death. The soldiers were the only order of men whom he + appeared to respect, or studied to please. He filled Rome and + Italy with armed troops, connived at their tumults, suffered them + with impunity to plunder, and even to massacre, the defenceless + people; 46 and indulging them in the same licentiousness which + their emperor enjoyed, Maxentius often bestowed on his military + favorites the splendid villa, or the beautiful wife, of a + senator. A prince of such a character, alike incapable of + governing, either in peace or in war, might purchase the support, + but he could never obtain the esteem, of the army. Yet his pride + was equal to his other vices. Whilst he passed his indolent life + either within the walls of his palace, or in the neighboring + gardens of Sallust, he was repeatedly heard to declare, that _he + alone_ was emperor, and that the other princes were no more than + his lieutenants, on whom he had devolved the defence of the + frontier provinces, that he might enjoy without interruption the + elegant luxury of the capital. Rome, which had so long regretted + the absence, lamented, during the six years of his reign, the + presence of her sovereign. 47 + + 42 (return) [ Julian excludes Maxentius from the banquet of the + Cæsars with abhorrence and contempt; and Zosimus (l. ii. p. 85) + accuses him of every kind of cruelty and profligacy.] + + 43 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 83—85. Aurelius Victor.] + + 44 (return) [ The passage of Aurelius Victor should be read in + the following manner: Primus instituto pessimo, munerum specie, + Patres Oratores que pecuniam conferre prodigenti sibi cogeret.] + + 45 (return) [ Panegyr. Vet. ix. 3. Euseb. Hist Eccles. viii. 14, + et in Vit. Constant i. 33, 34. Rufinus, c. 17. The virtuous + matron who stabbed herself to escape the violence of Maxentius, + was a Christian, wife to the præfect of the city, and her name + was Sophronia. It still remains a question among the casuists, + whether, on such occasions, suicide is justifiable.] + + 46 (return) [ Prætorianis cædem vulgi quondam annueret, is the + vague expression of Aurelius Victor. See more particular, though + somewhat different, accounts of a tumult and massacre which + happened at Rome, in Eusebius, (l. viii. c. 14,) and in Zosimus, + (l. ii. p. 84.)] + + 47 (return) [ See, in the Panegyrics, (ix. 14,) a lively + description of the indolence and vain pride of Maxentius. In + another place the orator observes that the riches which Rome had + accumulated in a period of 1060 years, were lavished by the + tyrant on his mercenary bands; redemptis ad civile latrocinium + manibus in gesserat.] + + Though Constantine might view the conduct of Maxentius with + abhorrence, and the situation of the Romans with compassion, we + have no reason to presume that he would have taken up arms to + punish the one or to relieve the other. But the tyrant of Italy + rashly ventured to provoke a formidable enemy, whose ambition had + been hitherto restrained by considerations of prudence, rather + than by principles of justice. 48 After the death of Maximian, + his titles, according to the established custom, had been erased, + and his statues thrown down with ignominy. His son, who had + persecuted and deserted him when alive, effected to display the + most pious regard for his memory, and gave orders that a similar + treatment should be immediately inflicted on all the statues that + had been erected in Italy and Africa to the honor of Constantine. + + That wise prince, who sincerely wished to decline a war, with the + difficulty and importance of which he was sufficiently + acquainted, at first dissembled the insult, and sought for + redress by the milder expedient of negotiation, till he was + convinced that the hostile and ambitious designs of the Italian + emperor made it necessary for him to arm in his own defence. + Maxentius, who openly avowed his pretensions to the whole + monarchy of the West, had already prepared a very considerable + force to invade the Gallic provinces on the side of Rhætia; and + though he could not expect any assistance from Licinius, he was + flattered with the hope that the legions of Illyricum, allured by + his presents and promises, would desert the standard of that + prince, and unanimously declare themselves his soldiers and + subjects. 49 Constantine no longer hesitated. He had deliberated + with caution, he acted with vigor. He gave a private audience to + the ambassadors, who, in the name of the senate and people, + conjured him to deliver Rome from a detested tyrant; and without + regarding the timid remonstrances of his council, he resolved to + prevent the enemy, and to carry the war into the heart of Italy. + 50 + + 48 (return) [ After the victory of Constantine, it was + universally allowed, that the motive of delivering the republic + from a detested tyrant, would, at any time, have justified his + expedition into Italy. Euseb in Vi’. Constantin. l. i. c. 26. + Panegyr. Vet. ix. 2.] + + 49 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 84, 85. Nazarius in Panegyr. x. + 7—13.] + + 50 (return) [ See Panegyr. Vet. ix. 2. Omnibus fere tuis + Comitibus et Ducibus non solum tacite mussantibus, sed etiam + aperte timentibus; contra consilia hominum, contra Haruspicum + monita, ipse per temet liberandæ arbis tempus venisse sentires. + The embassy of the Romans is mentioned only by Zonaras, (l. + xiii.,) and by Cedrenus, (in Compend. Hist. p. 370;) but those + modern Greeks had the opportunity of consulting many writers + which have since been lost, among which we may reckon the life of + Constantine by Praxagoras. Photius (p. 63) has made a short + extract from that historical work.] + + The enterprise was as full of danger as of glory; and the + unsuccessful event of two former invasions was sufficient to + inspire the most serious apprehensions. The veteran troops, who + revered the name of Maximian, had embraced in both those wars the + party of his son, and were now restrained by a sense of honor, as + well as of interest, from entertaining an idea of a second + desertion. Maxentius, who considered the Prætorian guards as the + firmest defence of his throne, had increased them to their + ancient establishment; and they composed, including the rest of + the Italians who were enlisted into his service, a formidable + body of fourscore thousand men. Forty thousand Moors and + Carthaginians had been raised since the reduction of Africa. Even + Sicily furnished its proportion of troops; and the armies of + Maxentius amounted to one hundred and seventy thousand foot and + eighteen thousand horse. The wealth of Italy supplied the + expenses of the war; and the adjacent provinces were exhausted, + to form immense magazines of corn and every other kind of + provisions. + + The whole force of Constantine consisted of ninety thousand foot + and eight thousand horse; 51 and as the defence of the Rhine + required an extraordinary attention during the absence of the + emperor, it was not in his power to employ above half his troops + in the Italian expedition, unless he sacrificed the public safety + to his private quarrel. 52 At the head of about forty thousand + soldiers he marched to encounter an enemy whose numbers were at + least four times superior to his own. But the armies of Rome, + placed at a secure distance from danger, were enervated by + indulgence and luxury. Habituated to the baths and theatres of + Rome, they took the field with reluctance, and were chiefly + composed of veterans who had almost forgotten, or of new levies + who had never acquired, the use of arms and the practice of war. + The hardy legions of Gaul had long defended the frontiers of the + empire against the barbarians of the North; and in the + performance of that laborious service, their valor was exercised + and their discipline confirmed. There appeared the same + difference between the leaders as between the armies. Caprice or + flattery had tempted Maxentius with the hopes of conquest; but + these aspiring hopes soon gave way to the habits of pleasure and + the consciousness of his inexperience. The intrepid mind of + Constantine had been trained from his earliest youth to war, to + action, and to military command. + + 51 (return) [ Zosimus (l. ii. p. 86) has given us this curious + account of the forces on both sides. He makes no mention of any + naval armaments, though we are assured (Panegyr. Vet. ix. 25) + that the war was carried on by sea as well as by land; and that + the fleet of Constantine took possession of Sardinia, Corsica, + and the ports of Italy.] + + 52 (return) [ Panegyr. Vet. ix. 3. It is not surprising that the + orator should diminish the numbers with which his sovereign + achieved the conquest of Italy; but it appears somewhat singular + that he should esteem the tyrant’s army at no more than 100,000 + men.] + + + + + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The + Empire.—Part III. + + When Hannibal marched from Gaul into Italy, he was obliged, first + to discover, and then to open, a way over mountains, and through + savage nations, that had never yielded a passage to a regular + army. 53 The Alps were then guarded by nature, they are now + fortified by art. Citadels, constructed with no less skill than + labor and expense, command every avenue into the plain, and on + that side render Italy almost inaccessible to the enemies of the + king of Sardinia. 54 But in the course of the intermediate + period, the generals, who have attempted the passage, have seldom + experienced any difficulty or resistance. In the age of + Constantine, the peasants of the mountains were civilized and + obedient subjects; the country was plentifully stocked with + provisions, and the stupendous highways, which the Romans had + carried over the Alps, opened several communications between Gaul + and Italy. 55 Constantine preferred the road of the Cottian Alps, + or, as it is now called, of Mount Cenis, and led his troops with + such active diligence, that he descended into the plain of + Piedmont before the court of Maxentius had received any certain + intelligence of his departure from the banks of the Rhine. The + city of Susa, however, which is situated at the foot of Mount + Cenis, was surrounded with walls, and provided with a garrison + sufficiently numerous to check the progress of an invader; but + the impatience of Constantine’s troops disdained the tedious + forms of a siege. The same day that they appeared before Susa, + they applied fire to the gates, and ladders to the walls; and + mounting to the assault amidst a shower of stones and arrows, + they entered the place sword in hand, and cut in pieces the + greatest part of the garrison. The flames were extinguished by + the care of Constantine, and the remains of Susa preserved from + total destruction. About forty miles from thence, a more severe + contest awaited him. A numerous army of Italians was assembled + under the lieutenants of Maxentius, in the plains of Turin. Its + principal strength consisted in a species of heavy cavalry, which + the Romans, since the decline of their discipline, had borrowed + from the nations of the East. The horses, as well as the men, + were clothed in complete armor, the joints of which were artfully + adapted to the motions of their bodies. The aspect of this + cavalry was formidable, their weight almost irresistible; and as, + on this occasion, their generals had drawn them up in a compact + column or wedge, with a sharp point, and with spreading flanks, + they flattered themselves that they could easily break and + trample down the army of Constantine. They might, perhaps, have + succeeded in their design, had not their experienced adversary + embraced the same method of defence, which in similar + circumstances had been practised by Aurelian. The skilful + evolutions of Constantine divided and baffled this massy column + of cavalry. The troops of Maxentius fled in confusion towards + Turin; and as the gates of the city were shut against them, very + few escaped the sword of the victorious pursuers. By this + important service, Turin deserved to experience the clemency and + even favor of the conqueror. He made his entry into the Imperial + palace of Milan, and almost all the cities of Italy between the + Alps and the Po not only acknowledged the power, but embraced + with zeal the party, of Constantine. 56 + + 53 (return) [ The three principal passages of the Alps between + Gaul and Italy, are those of Mount St. Bernard, Mount Cenis, and + Mount Genevre. Tradition, and a resemblance of names, (Alpes + Penninoe,) had assigned the first of these for the march of + Hannibal, (see Simler de Alpibus.) The Chevalier de Folard + (Polyp. tom. iv.) and M. d’Anville have led him over Mount + Genevre. But notwithstanding the authority of an experienced + officer and a learned geographer, the pretensions of Mount Cenis + are supported in a specious, not to say a convincing, manner, by + M. Grosley. Observations sur l’Italie, tom. i. p. 40, &c. ——The + dissertation of Messrs. Cramer and Wickham has clearly shown that + the Little St. Bernard must claim the honor of Hannibal’s + passage. Mr. Long (London, 1831) has added some sensible + corrections re Hannibal’s march to the Alps.—M] + + 54 (return) [ La Brunette near Suse, Demont, Exiles, + Fenestrelles, Coni, &c.] + + 55 (return) [ See Ammian. Marcellin. xv. 10. His description of + the roads over the Alps is clear, lively, and accurate.] + + 56 (return) [ Zosimus as well as Eusebius hasten from the passage + of the Alps to the decisive action near Rome. We must apply to + the two Panegyrics for the intermediate actions of Constantine.] + + From Milan to Rome, the Æmilian and Flaminian highways offered an + easy march of about four hundred miles; but though Constantine + was impatient to encounter the tyrant, he prudently directed his + operations against another army of Italians, who, by their + strength and position, might either oppose his progress, or, in + case of a misfortune, might intercept his retreat. Ruricius + Pompeianus, a general distinguished by his valor and ability, had + under his command the city of Verona, and all the troops that + were stationed in the province of Venetia. As soon as he was + informed that Constantine was advancing towards him, he detached + a large body of cavalry, which was defeated in an engagement near + Brescia, and pursued by the Gallic legions as far as the gates of + Verona. The necessity, the importance, and the difficulties of + the siege of Verona, immediately presented themselves to the + sagacious mind of Constantine. 57 The city was accessible only by + a narrow peninsula towards the west, as the other three sides + were surrounded by the Adige, a rapid river, which covered the + province of Venetia, from whence the besieged derived an + inexhaustible supply of men and provisions. It was not without + great difficulty, and after several fruitless attempts, that + Constantine found means to pass the river at some distance above + the city, and in a place where the torrent was less violent. He + then encompassed Verona with strong lines, pushed his attacks + with prudent vigor, and repelled a desperate sally of Pompeianus. + That intrepid general, when he had used every means of defence + that the strength of the place or that of the garrison could + afford, secretly escaped from Verona, anxious not for his own, + but for the public safety. With indefatigable diligence he soon + collected an army sufficient either to meet Constantine in the + field, or to attack him if he obstinately remained within his + lines. The emperor, attentive to the motions, and informed of the + approach of so formidable an enemy, left a part of his legions to + continue the operations of the siege, whilst, at the head of + those troops on whose valor and fidelity he more particularly + depended, he advanced in person to engage the general of + Maxentius. The army of Gaul was drawn up in two lines, according + to the usual practice of war; but their experienced leader, + perceiving that the numbers of the Italians far exceeded his own, + suddenly changed his disposition, and, reducing the second, + extended the front of his first line to a just proportion with + that of the enemy. Such evolutions, which only veteran troops can + execute without confusion in a moment of danger, commonly prove + decisive; but as this engagement began towards the close of the + day, and was contested with great obstinacy during the whole + night, there was less room for the conduct of the generals than + for the courage of the soldiers. The return of light displayed + the victory of Constantine, and a field of carnage covered with + many thousands of the vanquished Italians. Their general, + Pompeianus, was found among the slain; Verona immediately + surrendered at discretion, and the garrison was made prisoners of + war. 58 When the officers of the victorious army congratulated + their master on this important success, they ventured to add some + respectful complaints, of such a nature, however, as the most + jealous monarchs will listen to without displeasure. They + represented to Constantine, that, not contented with all the + duties of a commander, he had exposed his own person with an + excess of valor which almost degenerated into rashness; and they + conjured him for the future to pay more regard to the + preservation of a life in which the safety of Rome and of the + empire was involved. 59 + + 57 (return) [ The Marquis Maffei has examined the siege and + battle of Verona with that degree of attention and accuracy which + was due to a memorable action that happened in his native + country. The fortifications of that city, constructed by + Gallienus, were less extensive than the modern walls, and the + amphitheatre was not included within their circumference. See + Verona Illustrata, part i. p. 142 150.] + + 58 (return) [ They wanted chains for so great a multitude of + captives; and the whole council was at a loss; but the sagacious + conqueror imagined the happy expedient of converting into fetters + the swords of the vanquished. Panegyr. Vet. ix. 11.] + + 59 (return) [ Panegyr. Vet. ix. 11.] + + While Constantine signalized his conduct and valor in the field, + the sovereign of Italy appeared insensible of the calamities and + danger of a civil war which reigned in the heart of his + dominions. Pleasure was still the only business of Maxentius. + Concealing, or at least attempting to conceal, from the public + knowledge the misfortunes of his arms, 60 he indulged himself in + a vain confidence which deferred the remedies of the approaching + evil, without deferring the evil itself. 61 The rapid progress of + Constantine 62 was scarcely sufficient to awaken him from his + fatal security; he flattered himself, that his well-known + liberality, and the majesty of the Roman name, which had already + delivered him from two invasions, would dissipate with the same + facility the rebellious army of Gaul. The officers of experience + and ability, who had served under the banners of Maximian, were + at length compelled to inform his effeminate son of the imminent + danger to which he was reduced; and, with a freedom that at once + surprised and convinced him, to urge the necessity of preventing + his ruin by a vigorous exertion of his remaining power. The + resources of Maxentius, both of men and money, were still + considerable. The Prætorian guards felt how strongly their own + interest and safety were connected with his cause; and a third + army was soon collected, more numerous than those which had been + lost in the battles of Turin and Verona. It was far from the + intention of the emperor to lead his troops in person. A stranger + to the exercises of war, he trembled at the apprehension of so + dangerous a contest; and as fear is commonly superstitious, he + listened with melancholy attention to the rumors of omens and + presages which seemed to menace his life and empire. Shame at + length supplied the place of courage, and forced him to take the + field. He was unable to sustain the contempt of the Roman people. + The circus resounded with their indignant clamors, and they + tumultuously besieged the gates of the palace, reproaching the + pusillanimity of their indolent sovereign, and celebrating the + heroic spirit of Constantine. 63 Before Maxentius left Rome, he + consulted the Sibylline books. The guardians of these ancient + oracles were as well versed in the arts of this world as they + were ignorant of the secrets of fate; and they returned him a + very prudent answer, which might adapt itself to the event, and + secure their reputation, whatever should be the chance of arms. + 64 + + 60 (return) [ Literas calamitatum suarum indices supprimebat. + Panegyr Vet. ix. 15.] + + 61 (return) [ Remedia malorum potius quam mala differebat, is the + fine censure which Tacitus passes on the supine indolence of + Vitellius.] + + 62 (return) [ The Marquis Maffei has made it extremely probable + that Constantine was still at Verona, the 1st of September, A.D. + 312, and that the memorable æra of the indications was dated from + his conquest of the Cisalpine Gaul.] + + 63 (return) [ See Panegyr. Vet. xi. 16. Lactantius de M. P. c. + 44.] + + 64 (return) [ Illo die hostem Romanorum esse periturum. The + vanquished became of course the enemy of Rome.] + + The celerity of Constantine’s march has been compared to the + rapid conquest of Italy by the first of the Cæsars; nor is the + flattering parallel repugnant to the truth of history, since no + more than fifty-eight days elapsed between the surrender of + Verona and the final decision of the war. Constantine had always + apprehended that the tyrant would consult the dictates of fear, + and perhaps of prudence; and that, instead of risking his last + hopes in a general engagement, he would shut himself up within + the walls of Rome. His ample magazines secured him against the + danger of famine; and as the situation of Constantine admitted + not of delay, he might have been reduced to the sad necessity of + destroying with fire and sword the Imperial city, the noblest + reward of his victory, and the deliverance of which had been the + motive, or rather indeed the pretence, of the civil war. 65 It + was with equal surprise and pleasure, that on his arrival at a + place called Saxa Rubra, about nine miles from Rome, 66 he + discovered the army of Maxentius prepared to give him battle. 67 + Their long front filled a very spacious plain, and their deep + array reached to the banks of the Tyber, which covered their + rear, and forbade their retreat. We are informed, and we may + believe, that Constantine disposed his troops with consummate + skill, and that he chose for himself the post of honor and + danger. Distinguished by the splendor of his arms, he charged in + person the cavalry of his rival; and his irresistible attack + determined the fortune of the day. The cavalry of Maxentius was + principally composed either of unwieldy cuirassiers, or of light + Moors and Numidians. They yielded to the vigor of the Gallic + horse, which possessed more activity than the one, more firmness + than the other. The defeat of the two wings left the infantry + without any protection on its flanks, and the undisciplined + Italians fled without reluctance from the standard of a tyrant + whom they had always hated, and whom they no longer feared. The + Prætorians, conscious that their offences were beyond the reach + of mercy, were animated by revenge and despair. Notwithstanding + their repeated efforts, those brave veterans were unable to + recover the victory: they obtained, however, an honorable death; + and it was observed that their bodies covered the same ground + which had been occupied by their ranks. 68 The confusion then + became general, and the dismayed troops of Maxentius, pursued by + an implacable enemy, rushed by thousands into the deep and rapid + stream of the Tyber. The emperor himself attempted to escape back + into the city over the Milvian bridge; but the crowds which + pressed together through that narrow passage forced him into the + river, where he was immediately drowned by the weight of his + armor. 69 His body, which had sunk very deep into the mud, was + found with some difficulty the next day. The sight of his head, + when it was exposed to the eyes of the people, convinced them of + their deliverance, and admonished them to receive with + acclamations of loyalty and gratitude the fortunate Constantine, + who thus achieved by his valor and ability the most splendid + enterprise of his life. 70 + + 65 (return) [ See Panegyr. Vet. ix. 16, x. 27. The former of + these orators magnifies the hoards of corn, which Maxentius had + collected from Africa and the Islands. And yet, if there is any + truth in the scarcity mentioned by Eusebius, (in Vit. Constantin. + l. i. c. 36,) the Imperial granaries must have been open only to + the soldiers.] + + 66 (return) [ Maxentius... tandem urbe in Saxa Rubra, millia + ferme novem ægerrime progressus. Aurelius Victor. See Cellarius + Geograph. Antiq. tom. i. p. 463. Saxa Rubra was in the + neighborhood of the Cremera, a trifling rivulet, illustrated by + the valor and glorious death of the three hundred Fabii.] + + 67 (return) [ The post which Maxentius had taken, with the Tyber + in his rear is very clearly described by the two Panegyrists, ix. + 16, x. 28.] + + 68 (return) [ Exceptis latrocinii illius primis auctoribus, qui + desperata venia ocum quem pugnæ sumpserant texere corporibus. + Panegyr. Vet 17.] + + 69 (return) [ A very idle rumor soon prevailed, that Maxentius, + who had not taken any precaution for his own retreat, had + contrived a very artful snare to destroy the army of the + pursuers; but that the wooden bridge, which was to have been + loosened on the approach of Constantine, unluckily broke down + under the weight of the flying Italians. M. de Tillemont (Hist. + des Empereurs, tom. iv. part i. p. 576) very seriously examines + whether, in contradiction to common sense, the testimony of + Eusebius and Zosimus ought to prevail over the silence of + Lactantius, Nazarius, and the anonymous, but contemporary orator, + who composed the ninth Panegyric. * Note: Manso (Beylage, vi.) + examines the question, and adduces two manifest allusions to the + bridge, from the Life of Constantine by Praxagoras, and from + Libanius. Is it not very probable that such a bridge was thrown + over the river to facilitate the advance, and to secure the + retreat, of the army of Maxentius? In case of defeat, orders were + given for destroying it, in order to check the pursuit: it broke + down accidentally, or in the confusion was destroyed, as has not + unfrequently been the case, before the proper time.—M.] + + 70 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 86-88, and the two Panegyrics, + the former of which was pronounced a few months afterwards, + afford the clearest notion of this great battle. Lactantius, + Eusebius, and even the Epitomes, supply several useful hints.] + + In the use of victory, Constantine neither deserved the praise of + clemency, nor incurred the censure of immoderate rigor. 71 He + inflicted the same treatment to which a defeat would have exposed + his own person and family, put to death the two sons of the + tyrant, and carefully extirpated his whole race. The most + distinguished adherents of Maxentius must have expected to share + his fate, as they had shared his prosperity and his crimes; but + when the Roman people loudly demanded a greater number of + victims, the conqueror resisted, with firmness and humanity, + those servile clamors, which were dictated by flattery as well as + by resentment. Informers were punished and discouraged; the + innocent, who had suffered under the late tyranny, were recalled + from exile, and restored to their estates. A general act of + oblivion quieted the minds and settled the property of the + people, both in Italy and in Africa. 72 The first time that + Constantine honored the senate with his presence, he + recapitulated his own services and exploits in a modest oration, + assured that illustrious order of his sincere regard, and + promised to reëstablish its ancient dignity and privileges. The + grateful senate repaid these unmeaning professions by the empty + titles of honor, which it was yet in their power to bestow; and + without presuming to ratify the authority of Constantine, they + passed a decree to assign him the first rank among the three + _Augusti_ who governed the Roman world. 73 Games and festivals + were instituted to preserve the fame of his victory, and several + edifices, raised at the expense of Maxentius, were dedicated to + the honor of his successful rival. The triumphal arch of + Constantine still remains a melancholy proof of the decline of + the arts, and a singular testimony of the meanest vanity. As it + was not possible to find in the capital of the empire a sculptor + who was capable of adorning that public monument, the arch of + Trajan, without any respect either for his memory or for the + rules of propriety, was stripped of its most elegant figures. The + difference of times and persons, of actions and characters, was + totally disregarded. The Parthian captives appear prostrate at + the feet of a prince who never carried his arms beyond the + Euphrates; and curious antiquarians can still discover the head + of Trajan on the trophies of Constantine. The new ornaments which + it was necessary to introduce between the vacancies of ancient + sculpture are executed in the rudest and most unskilful manner. + 74 + + 71 (return) [ Zosimus, the enemy of Constantine, allows (l. ii. + p. 88) that only a few of the friends of Maxentius were put to + death; but we may remark the expressive passage of Nazarius, + (Panegyr. Vet. x. 6.) Omnibus qui labefactari statum ejus + poterant cum stirpe deletis. The other orator (Panegyr. Vet. ix. + 20, 21) contents himself with observing, that Constantine, when + he entered Rome, did not imitate the cruel massacres of Cinna, of + Marius, or of Sylla. * Note: This may refer to the son or sons of + Maxentius.—M.] + + 72 (return) [ See the two Panegyrics, and the laws of this and + the ensuing year, in the Theodosian Code.] + + 73 (return) [ Panegyr. Vet. ix. 20. Lactantius de M. P. c. 44. + Maximin, who was confessedly the eldest Cæsar, claimed, with some + show of reason, the first rank among the Augusti.] + + 74 (return) [ Adhuc cuncta opera quæ magnifice construxerat, + urbis fanum atque basilicam, Flavii meritis patres sacravere. + Aurelius Victor. With regard to the theft of Trajan’s trophies, + consult Flaminius Vacca, apud Montfaucon, Diarium Italicum, p. + 250, and l’Antiquite Expliquee of the latter, tom. iv. p. 171.] + + The final abolition of the Prætorian guards was a measure of + prudence as well as of revenge. Those haughty troops, whose + numbers and privileges had been restored, and even augmented, by + Maxentius, were forever suppressed by Constantine. Their + fortified camp was destroyed, and the few Prætorians who had + escaped the fury of the sword were dispersed among the legions, + and banished to the frontiers of the empire, where they might be + serviceable without again becoming dangerous. 75 By suppressing + the troops which were usually stationed in Rome, Constantine gave + the fatal blow to the dignity of the senate and people, and the + disarmed capital was exposed without protection to the insults or + neglect of its distant master. We may observe, that in this last + effort to preserve their expiring freedom, the Romans, from the + apprehension of a tribute, had raised Maxentius to the throne. He + exacted that tribute from the senate under the name of a free + gift. They implored the assistance of Constantine. He vanquished + the tyrant, and converted the free gift into a perpetual tax. The + senators, according to the declaration which was required of + their property, were divided into several classes. The most + opulent paid annually eight pounds of gold, the next class paid + four, the last two, and those whose poverty might have claimed an + exemption, were assessed, however, at seven pieces of gold. + Besides the regular members of the senate, their sons, their + descendants, and even their relations, enjoyed the vain + privileges, and supported the heavy burdens, of the senatorial + order; nor will it any longer excite our surprise, that + Constantine should be attentive to increase the number of persons + who were included under so useful a description. 76 After the + defeat of Maxentius, the victorious emperor passed no more than + two or three months in Rome, which he visited twice during the + remainder of his life, to celebrate the solemn festivals of the + tenth and of the twentieth years of his reign. Constantine was + almost perpetually in motion, to exercise the legions, or to + inspect the state of the provinces. Treves, Milan, Aquileia, + Sirmium, Naissus, and Thessalonica, were the occasional places of + his residence, till he founded a new Rome on the confines of + Europe and Asia. 77 + + 75 (return) [ Prætoriæ legiones ac subsidia factionibus aptiora + quam urbi Romæ, sublata penitus; simul arma atque usus indumenti + militaris Aurelius Victor. Zosimus (l. ii. p. 89) mentions this + fact as an historian, and it is very pompously celebrated in the + ninth Panegyric.] + + 76 (return) [ Ex omnibus provinciis optimates viros Curiæ tuæ + pigneraveris ut Senatus dignitas.... ex totius Orbis flore + consisteret. Nazarius in Panegyr. Vet x. 35. The word + pigneraveris might almost seem maliciously chosen. Concerning the + senatorial tax, see Zosimus, l. ii. p. 115, the second title of + the sixth book of the Theodosian Code, with Godefroy’s + Commentary, and Memoires de l’Academic des Inscriptions, tom. + xxviii. p. 726.] + + 77 (return) [ From the Theodosian Code, we may now begin to trace + the motions of the emperors; but the dates both of time and place + have frequently been altered by the carelessness of + transcribers.] + + Before Constantine marched into Italy, he had secured the + friendship, or at least the neutrality, of Licinius, the Illyrian + emperor. He had promised his sister Constantia in marriage to + that prince; but the celebration of the nuptials was deferred + till after the conclusion of the war, and the interview of the + two emperors at Milan, which was appointed for that purpose, + appeared to cement the union of their families and interests. 78 + In the midst of the public festivity they were suddenly obliged + to take leave of each other. An inroad of the Franks summoned + Constantine to the Rhine, and the hostile approach of the + sovereign of Asia demanded the immediate presence of Licinius. + Maximin had been the secret ally of Maxentius, and without being + discouraged by his fate, he resolved to try the fortune of a + civil war. He moved out of Syria, towards the frontiers of + Bithynia, in the depth of winter. The season was severe and + tempestuous; great numbers of men as well as horses perished in + the snow; and as the roads were broken up by incessant rains, he + was obliged to leave behind him a considerable part of the heavy + baggage, which was unable to follow the rapidity of his forced + marches. By this extraordinary effort of diligence, he arrived + with a harassed but formidable army, on the banks of the Thracian + Bosphorus before the lieutenants of Licinius were apprised of his + hostile intentions. Byzantium surrendered to the power of + Maximin, after a siege of eleven days. He was detained some days + under the walls of Heraclea; and he had no sooner taken + possession of that city than he was alarmed by the intelligence + that Licinius had pitched his camp at the distance of only + eighteen miles. After a fruitless negotiation, in which the two + princes attempted to seduce the fidelity of each other’s + adherents, they had recourse to arms. The emperor of the East + commanded a disciplined and veteran army of above seventy + thousand men; and Licinius, who had collected about thirty + thousand Illyrians, was at first oppressed by the superiority of + numbers. His military skill, and the firmness of his troops, + restored the day, and obtained a decisive victory. The incredible + speed which Maximin exerted in his flight is much more celebrated + than his prowess in the battle. Twenty-four hours afterwards he + was seen, pale, trembling, and without his Imperial ornaments, at + Nicomedia, one hundred and sixty miles from the place of his + defeat. The wealth of Asia was yet unexhausted; and though the + flower of his veterans had fallen in the late action, he had + still power, if he could obtain time, to draw very numerous + levies from Syria and Egypt. But he survived his misfortune only + three or four months. His death, which happened at Tarsus, was + variously ascribed to despair, to poison, and to the divine + justice. As Maximin was alike destitute of abilities and of + virtue, he was lamented neither by the people nor by the + soldiers. The provinces of the East, delivered from the terrors + of civil war, cheerfully acknowledged the authority of Licinius. + 79 + + 78 (return) [ Zosimus (l. ii. p. 89) observes, that before the + war the sister of Constantine had been betrothed to Licinius. + According to the younger Victor, Diocletian was invited to the + nuptials; but having ventured to plead his age and infirmities, + he received a second letter, filled with reproaches for his + supposed partiality to the cause of Maxentius and Maximin.] + + 79 (return) [ Zosimus mentions the defeat and death of Maximin as + ordinary events; but Lactantius expatiates on them, (de M. P. c. + 45-50,) ascribing them to the miraculous interposition of Heaven. + Licinius at that time was one of the protectors of the church.] + + The vanquished emperor left behind him two children, a boy of + about eight, and a girl of about seven, years old. Their + inoffensive age might have excited compassion; but the compassion + of Licinius was a very feeble resource, nor did it restrain him + from _extinguishing_ the name and memory of his adversary. The + death of Severianus will admit of less excuse, as it was dictated + neither by revenge nor by policy. The conqueror had never + received any injury from the father of that unhappy youth, and + the short and obscure reign of Severus, in a distant part of the + empire, was already forgotten. But the execution of Candidianus + was an act of the blackest cruelty and ingratitude. He was the + natural son of Galerius, the friend and benefactor of Licinius. + The prudent father had judged him too young to sustain the weight + of a diadem; but he hoped that, under the protection of princes + who were indebted to his favor for the Imperial purple, + Candidianus might pass a secure and honorable life. He was now + advancing towards the twentieth year of his age, and the royalty + of his birth, though unsupported either by merit or ambition, was + sufficient to exasperate the jealous mind of Licinius. 80 To + these innocent and illustrious victims of his tyranny, we must + add the wife and daughter of the emperor Diocletian. When that + prince conferred on Galerius the title of Cæsar, he had given him + in marriage his daughter Valeria, whose melancholy adventures + might furnish a very singular subject for tragedy. She had + fulfilled and even surpassed the duties of a wife. As she had not + any children herself, she condescended to adopt the illegitimate + son of her husband, and invariably displayed towards the unhappy + Candidianus the tenderness and anxiety of a real mother. After + the death of Galerius, her ample possessions provoked the + avarice, and her personal attractions excited the desires, of his + successor, Maximin. 81 He had a wife still alive; but divorce was + permitted by the Roman law, and the fierce passions of the tyrant + demanded an immediate gratification. The answer of Valeria was + such as became the daughter and widow of emperors; but it was + tempered by the prudence which her defenceless condition + compelled her to observe. She represented to the persons whom + Maximin had employed on this occasion, “that even if honor could + permit a woman of her character and dignity to entertain a + thought of second nuptials, decency at least must forbid her to + listen to his addresses at a time when the ashes of her husband + and his benefactor were still warm, and while the sorrows of her + mind were still expressed by her mourning garments. She ventured + to declare, that she could place very little confidence in the + professions of a man whose cruel inconstancy was capable of + repudiating a faithful and affectionate wife.” 82 On this + repulse, the love of Maximin was converted into fury; and as + witnesses and judges were always at his disposal, it was easy for + him to cover his fury with an appearance of legal proceedings, + and to assault the reputation as well as the happiness of + Valeria. Her estates were confiscated, her eunuchs and domestics + devoted to the most inhuman tortures; and several innocent and + respectable matrons, who were honored with her friendship, + suffered death, on a false accusation of adultery. The empress + herself, together with her mother Prisca, was condemned to exile; + and as they were ignominiously hurried from place to place before + they were confined to a sequestered village in the deserts of + Syria, they exposed their shame and distress to the provinces of + the East, which, during thirty years, had respected their august + dignity. Diocletian made several ineffectual efforts to alleviate + the misfortunes of his daughter; and, as the last return that he + expected for the Imperial purple, which he had conferred upon + Maximin, he entreated that Valeria might be permitted to share + his retirement of Salona, and to close the eyes of her afflicted + father. 83 He entreated; but as he could no longer threaten, his + prayers were received with coldness and disdain; and the pride of + Maximin was gratified, in treating Diocletian as a suppliant, and + his daughter as a criminal. The death of Maximin seemed to assure + the empresses of a favorable alteration in their fortune. The + public disorders relaxed the vigilance of their guard, and they + easily found means to escape from the place of their exile, and + to repair, though with some precaution, and in disguise, to the + court of Licinius. His behavior, in the first days of his reign, + and the honorable reception which he gave to young Candidianus, + inspired Valeria with a secret satisfaction, both on her own + account and on that of her adopted son. But these grateful + prospects were soon succeeded by horror and astonishment; and the + bloody executions which stained the palace of Nicomedia + sufficiently convinced her that the throne of Maximin was filled + by a tyrant more inhuman than himself. Valeria consulted her + safety by a hasty flight, and, still accompanied by her mother + Prisca, they wandered above fifteen months 84 through the + provinces, concealed in the disguise of plebeian habits. They + were at length discovered at Thessalonica; and as the sentence of + their death was already pronounced, they were immediately + beheaded, and their bodies thrown into the sea. The people gazed + on the melancholy spectacle; but their grief and indignation were + suppressed by the terrors of a military guard. Such was the + unworthy fate of the wife and daughter of Diocletian. We lament + their misfortunes, we cannot discover their crimes; and whatever + idea we may justly entertain of the cruelty of Licinius, it + remains a matter of surprise that he was not contented with some + more secret and decent method of revenge. 85 + + 80 (return) [ Lactantius de M. P. c. 50. Aurelius Victor touches + on the different conduct of Licinius, and of Constantine, in the + use of victory.] + + 81 (return) [ The sensual appetites of Maximin were gratified at + the expense of his subjects. His eunuchs, who forced away wives + and virgins, examined their naked charms with anxious curiosity, + lest any part of their body should be found unworthy of the royal + embraces. Coyness and disdain were considered as treason, and the + obstinate fair one was condemned to be drowned. A custom was + gradually introduced, that no person should marry a wife without + the permission of the emperor, “ut ipse in omnibus nuptiis + prægustator esset.” Lactantius de M. P. c. 38.] + + 82 (return) [ Lactantius de M. P. c. 39.] + + 83 (return) [ Diocletian at last sent cognatum suum, quendam + militarem æ potentem virum, to intercede in favor of his + daughter, (Lactantius de M. P. c. 41.) We are not sufficiently + acquainted with the history of these times to point out the + person who was employed.] + + 84 (return) [ Valeria quoque per varias provincias quindecim + mensibus plebeio cultu pervagata. Lactantius de M. P. c. 51. + There is some doubt whether we should compute the fifteen months + from the moment of her exile, or from that of her escape. The + expression of parvagata seems to denote the latter; but in that + case we must suppose that the treatise of Lactantius was written + after the first civil war between Licinius and Constantine. See + Cuper, p. 254.] + + 85 (return) [ Ita illis pudicitia et conditio exitio fuit. + Lactantius de M. P. c. 51. He relates the misfortunes of the + innocent wife and daughter of Discletian with a very natural + mixture of pity and exultation.] + + The Roman world was now divided between Constantine and Licinius, + the former of whom was master of the West, and the latter of the + East. It might perhaps have been expected that the conquerors, + fatigued with civil war, and connected by a private as well as + public alliance, would have renounced, or at least would have + suspended, any further designs of ambition. And yet a year had + scarcely elapsed after the death of Maximin, before the + victorious emperors turned their arms against each other. The + genius, the success, and the aspiring temper of Constantine, may + seem to mark him out as the aggressor; but the perfidious + character of Licinius justifies the most unfavorable suspicions, + and by the faint light which history reflects on this + transaction, 86 we may discover a conspiracy fomented by his arts + against the authority of his colleague. Constantine had lately + given his sister Anastasia in marriage to Bassianus, a man of a + considerable family and fortune, and had elevated his new kinsman + to the rank of Cæsar. According to the system of government + instituted by Diocletian, Italy, and perhaps Africa, were + designed for his department in the empire. But the performance of + the promised favor was either attended with so much delay, or + accompanied with so many unequal conditions, that the fidelity of + Bassianus was alienated rather than secured by the honorable + distinction which he had obtained. His nomination had been + ratified by the consent of Licinius; and that artful prince, by + the means of his emissaries, soon contrived to enter into a + secret and dangerous correspondence with the new Cæsar, to + irritate his discontents, and to urge him to the rash enterprise + of extorting by violence what he might in vain solicit from the + justice of Constantine. But the vigilant emperor discovered the + conspiracy before it was ripe for execution; and after solemnly + renouncing the alliance of Bassianus, despoiled him of the + purple, and inflicted the deserved punishment on his treason and + ingratitude. The haughty refusal of Licinius, when he was + required to deliver up the criminals who had taken refuge in his + dominions, confirmed the suspicions already entertained of his + perfidy; and the indignities offered at Æmona, on the frontiers + of Italy, to the statues of Constantine, became the signal of + discord between the two princes. 87 + + 86 (return) [ The curious reader, who consults the Valesian + fragment, p. 713, will probably accuse me of giving a bold and + licentious paraphrase; but if he considers it with attention, he + will acknowledge that my interpretation is probable and + consistent.] + + 87 (return) [ The situation of Æmona, or, as it is now called, + Laybach, in Carniola, (D’Anville, Geographie Ancienne, tom. i. p. + 187,) may suggest a conjecture. As it lay to the north-east of + the Julian Alps, that important territory became a natural object + of dispute between the sovereigns of Italy and of Illyricum.] + + The first battle was fought near Cibalis, a city of Pannonia, + situated on the River Save, about fifty miles above Sirmium. 88 + From the inconsiderable forces which in this important contest + two such powerful monarchs brought into the field, it may be + inferred that the one was suddenly provoked, and that the other + was unexpectedly surprised. The emperor of the West had only + twenty thousand, and the sovereign of the East no more than five + and thirty thousand, men. The inferiority of number was, however, + compensated by the advantage of the ground. Constantine had taken + post in a defile about half a mile in breadth, between a steep + hill and a deep morass, and in that situation he steadily + expected and repulsed the first attack of the enemy. He pursued + his success, and advanced into the plain. But the veteran legions + of Illyricum rallied under the standard of a leader who had been + trained to arms in the school of Probus and Diocletian. The + missile weapons on both sides were soon exhausted; the two + armies, with equal valor, rushed to a closer engagement of swords + and spears, and the doubtful contest had already lasted from the + dawn of the day to a late hour of the evening, when the right + wing, which Constantine led in person, made a vigorous and + decisive charge. The judicious retreat of Licinius saved the + remainder of his troops from a total defeat; but when he computed + his loss, which amounted to more than twenty thousand men, he + thought it unsafe to pass the night in the presence of an active + and victorious enemy. Abandoning his camp and magazines, he + marched away with secrecy and diligence at the head of the + greatest part of his cavalry, and was soon removed beyond the + danger of a pursuit. His diligence preserved his wife, his son, + and his treasures, which he had deposited at Sirmium. Licinius + passed through that city, and breaking down the bridge on the + Save, hastened to collect a new army in Dacia and Thrace. In his + flight he bestowed the precarious title of Cæsar on Valens, his + general of the Illyrian frontier. 89 + + 88 (return) [ Cibalis or Cibalæ (whose name is still preserved in + the obscure ruins of Swilei) was situated about fifty miles from + Sirmium, the capital of Illyricum, and about one hundred from + Taurunum, or Belgrade, and the conflux of the Danube and the + Save. The Roman garrisons and cities on those rivers are finely + illustrated by M. d’Anville in a memoir inserted in l’Academie + des Inscriptions, tom. xxviii.] + + 89 (return) [ Zosimus (l. ii. p. 90, 91) gives a very particular + account of this battle; but the descriptions of Zosimus are + rhetorical rather than military] + + + + + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The + Empire.—Part IV. + + The plain of Mardia in Thrace was the theatre of a second battle + no less obstinate and bloody than the former. The troops on both + sides displayed the same valor and discipline; and the victory + was once more decided by the superior abilities of Constantine, + who directed a body of five thousand men to gain an advantageous + height, from whence, during the heat of the action, they attacked + the rear of the enemy, and made a very considerable slaughter. + The troops of Licinius, however, presenting a double front, still + maintained their ground, till the approach of night put an end to + the combat, and secured their retreat towards the mountains of + Macedonia. 90 The loss of two battles, and of his bravest + veterans, reduced the fierce spirit of Licinius to sue for peace. + His ambassador Mistrianus was admitted to the audience of + Constantine: he expatiated on the common topics of moderation and + humanity, which are so familiar to the eloquence of the + vanquished; represented in the most insinuating language, that + the event of the war was still doubtful, whilst its inevitable + calamities were alike pernicious to both the contending parties; + and declared that he was authorized to propose a lasting and + honorable peace in the name of the _two_ emperors his masters. + Constantine received the mention of Valens with indignation and + contempt. “It was not for such a purpose,” he sternly replied, + “that we have advanced from the shores of the western ocean in an + uninterrupted course of combats and victories, that, after + rejecting an ungrateful kinsman, we should accept for our + colleague a contemptible slave. The abdication of Valens is the + first article of the treaty.” 91 It was necessary to accept this + humiliating condition; and the unhappy Valens, after a reign of a + few days, was deprived of the purple and of his life. As soon as + this obstacle was removed, the tranquillity of the Roman world + was easily restored. The successive defeats of Licinius had + ruined his forces, but they had displayed his courage and + abilities. His situation was almost desperate, but the efforts of + despair are sometimes formidable, and the good sense of + Constantine preferred a great and certain advantage to a third + trial of the chance of arms. He consented to leave his rival, or, + as he again styled Licinius, his friend and brother, in the + possession of Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt; but the + provinces of Pannonia, Dalmatia, Dacia, Macedonia, and Greece, + were yielded to the Western empire, and the dominions of + Constantine now extended from the confines of Caledonia to the + extremity of Peloponnesus. It was stipulated by the same treaty, + that three royal youths, the sons of emperors, should be called + to the hopes of the succession. Crispus and the young Constantine + were soon afterwards declared Cæsars in the West, while the + younger Licinius was invested with the same dignity in the East. + In this double proportion of honors, the conqueror asserted the + superiority of his arms and power. 92 + + 90 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 92, 93. Anonym. Valesian. p. + 713. The Epitomes furnish some circumstances; but they frequently + confound the two wars between Licinius and Constantine.] + + 91 (return) [ Petrus Patricius in Excerpt. Legat. p. 27. If it + should be thought that signifies more properly a son-in-law, we + might conjecture that Constantine, assuming the name as well as + the duties of a father, had adopted his younger brothers and + sisters, the children of Theodora. But in the best authors + sometimes signifies a husband, sometimes a father-in-law, and + sometimes a kinsman in general. See Spanheim, Observat. ad + Julian. Orat. i. p. 72.] + + 92 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 93. Anonym. Valesian. p. 713. + Eutropius, x. v. Aurelius Victor, Euseb. in Chron. Sozomen, l. i. + c. 2. Four of these writers affirm that the promotion of the + Cæsars was an article of the treaty. It is, however, certain, + that the younger Constantine and Licinius were not yet born; and + it is highly probable that the promotion was made the 1st of + March, A. D. 317. The treaty had probably stipulated that the two + Cæsars might be created by the western, and one only by the + eastern emperor; but each of them reserved to himself the choice + of the persons.] + + The reconciliation of Constantine and Licinius, though it was + imbittered by resentment and jealousy, by the remembrance of + recent injuries, and by the apprehension of future dangers, + maintained, however, above eight years, the tranquility of the + Roman world. As a very regular series of the Imperial laws + commences about this period, it would not be difficult to + transcribe the civil regulations which employed the leisure of + Constantine. But the most important of his institutions are + intimately connected with the new system of policy and religion, + which was not perfectly established till the last and peaceful + years of his reign. There are many of his laws, which, as far as + they concern the rights and property of individuals, and the + practice of the bar, are more properly referred to the private + than to the public jurisprudence of the empire; and he published + many edicts of so local and temporary a nature, that they would + ill deserve the notice of a general history. Two laws, however, + may be selected from the crowd; the one for its importance, the + other for its singularity; the former for its remarkable + benevolence, the latter for its excessive severity. 1. The horrid + practice, so familiar to the ancients, of exposing or murdering + their new-born infants, was become every day more frequent in the + provinces, and especially in Italy. It was the effect of + distress; and the distress was principally occasioned by the + intolerant burden of taxes, and by the vexatious as well as cruel + prosecutions of the officers of the revenue against their + insolvent debtors. The less opulent or less industrious part of + mankind, instead of rejoicing in an increase of family, deemed it + an act of paternal tenderness to release their children from the + impending miseries of a life which they themselves were unable to + support. The humanity of Constantine, moved, perhaps, by some + recent and extraordinary instances of despair, engaged him to + address an edict to all the cities of Italy, and afterwards of + Africa, directing immediate and sufficient relief to be given to + those parents who should produce before the magistrates the + children whom their own poverty would not allow them to educate. + But the promise was too liberal, and the provision too vague, to + effect any general or permanent benefit. 93 The law, though it + may merit some praise, served rather to display than to alleviate + the public distress. It still remains an authentic monument to + contradict and confound those venal orators, who were too well + satisfied with their own situation to discover either vice or + misery under the government of a generous sovereign. 94 2. The + laws of Constantine against rapes were dictated with very little + indulgence for the most amiable weaknesses of human nature; since + the description of that crime was applied not only to the brutal + violence which compelled, but even to the gentle seduction which + might persuade, an unmarried woman, under the age of twenty-five, + to leave the house of her parents. “The successful ravisher was + punished with death;” and as if simple death was inadequate to + the enormity of his guilt, he was either burnt alive, or torn in + pieces by wild beasts in the amphitheatre. The virgin’s + declaration, that she had been carried away with her own consent, + instead of saving her lover, exposed her to share his fate. The + duty of a public prosecution was intrusted to the parents of the + guilty or unfortunate maid; and if the sentiments of nature + prevailed on them to dissemble the injury, and to repair by a + subsequent marriage the honor of their family, they were + themselves punished by exile and confiscation. The slaves, + whether male or female, who were convicted of having been + accessory to rape or seduction, were burnt alive, or put to death + by the ingenious torture of pouring down their throats a quantity + of melted lead. As the crime was of a public kind, the accusation + was permitted even to strangers.9401 + + 9401 (return) [ This explanation appears to me little probable. + Godefroy has made a much more happy conjecture, supported by all + the historical circumstances which relate to this edict. It was + published the 12th of May, A. D. 315. at Naissus in Pannonia, the + birthplace of Constantine. The 8th of October, in that year, + Constantine gained the victory of Cibalis over Licinius. He was + yet uncertain as to the fate of the war: the Christians, no + doubt, whom he favored, had prophesied his victory. Lactantius, + then preceptor of Crispus, had just written his work upon + Christianity, (his Divine Institutes;) he had dedicated it to + Constantine. In this book he had inveighed with great force + against infanticide, and the exposure of infants, (l. vi. c. 20.) + Is it not probable that Constantine had read this work, that he + had conversed on the subject with Lactantius, that he was moved, + among other things, by the passage to which I have referred, and + in the first transport of his enthusiasm, he published the edict + in question? The whole of the edict bears the character of + precipitation, of excitement, (entrainement,) rather than of + deliberate reflection—the extent of the promises, the + indefiniteness of the means, of the conditions, and of the time + during which the parents might have a right to the succor of the + state. Is there not reason to believe that the humanity of + Constantine was excited by the influence of Lactantius, by that + of the principles of Christianity, and of the Christians + themselves, already in high esteem with the emperor, rather than + by some “extraordinary instances of despair”? * * * See + Hegewisch, Essai Hist. sur les Finances Romaines. The edict for + Africa was not published till 322: of that we may say in truth + that its origin was in the misery of the times. Africa had + suffered much from the cruelty of Maxentius. Constantine says + expressly, that he had learned that parents, under the pressure + of distress, were there selling their children. This decree is + more distinct, more maturely deliberated than the former; the + succor which was to be given to the parents, and the source from + which it was to be derived, are determined. (Code Theod. l. xi. + tit. 27, c 2.) If the direct utility of these laws may not have + been very extensive, they had at least the great and happy effect + of establishing a decisive opposition between the principles of + the government and those which, at this time, had prevailed among + the subjects of the empire.—G.] + + The commencement of the action was not limited to any term of + years, and the consequences of the sentence were extended to the + innocent offspring of such an irregular union. 95 But whenever + the offence inspires less horror than the punishment, the rigor + of penal law is obliged to give way to the common feelings of + mankind. The most odious parts of this edict were softened or + repealed in the subsequent reigns; 96 and even Constantine + himself very frequently alleviated, by partial acts of mercy, the + stern temper of his general institutions. Such, indeed, was the + singular humor of that emperor, who showed himself as indulgent, + and even remiss, in the execution of his laws, as he was severe, + and even cruel, in the enacting of them. It is scarcely possible + to observe a more decisive symptom of weakness, either in the + character of the prince, or in the constitution of the + government. 97 + + 93 (return) [ Codex Theodosian. l. xi. tit. 27, tom. iv. p. 188, + with Godefroy’s observations. See likewise l. v. tit. 7, 8.] + + 94 (return) [ Omnia foris placita, domi prospera, annonæ + ubertate, fructuum copia, &c. Panegyr. Vet. x. 38. This oration + of Nazarius was pronounced on the day of the Quinquennalia of the + Cæsars, the 1st of March, A. D. 321.] + + 95 (return) [ See the edict of Constantine, addressed to the + Roman people, in the Theodosian Code, l. ix. tit. 24, tom. iii. + p. 189.] + + 96 (return) [ His son very fairly assigns the true reason of the + repeal: “Na sub specie atrocioris judicii aliqua in ulciscendo + crimine dilatio næ ceretur.” Cod. Theod. tom. iii. p. 193] + + 97 (return) [ Eusebius (in Vita Constant. l. iii. c. 1) chooses + to affirm, that in the reign of this hero, the sword of justice + hung idle in the hands of the magistrates. Eusebius himself, (l. + iv. c. 29, 54,) and the Theodosian Code, will inform us that this + excessive lenity was not owing to the want either of atrocious + criminals or of penal laws.] + + The civil administration was sometimes interrupted by the + military defence of the empire. Crispus, a youth of the most + amiable character, who had received with the title of Cæsar the + command of the Rhine, distinguished his conduct, as well as + valor, in several victories over the Franks and Alemanni, and + taught the barbarians of that frontier to dread the eldest son of + Constantine, and the grandson of Constantius. 98 The emperor + himself had assumed the more difficult and important province of + the Danube. The Goths, who in the time of Claudius and Aurelian + had felt the weight of the Roman arms, respected the power of the + empire, even in the midst of its intestine divisions. But the + strength of that warlike nation was now restored by a peace of + near fifty years; a new generation had arisen, who no longer + remembered the misfortunes of ancient days; the Sarmatians of the + Lake Mæotis followed the Gothic standard either as subjects or as + allies, and their united force was poured upon the countries of + Illyricum. Campona, Margus, and Benonia, 982 appear to have been + the scenes of several memorable sieges and battles; 99 and though + Constantine encountered a very obstinate resistance, he prevailed + at length in the contest, and the Goths were compelled to + purchased an ignominious retreat, by restoring the booty and + prisoners which they had taken. Nor was this advantage sufficient + to satisfy the indignation of the emperor. He resolved to + chastise as well as to repulse the insolent barbarians who had + dared to invade the territories of Rome. At the head of his + legions he passed the Danube, after repairing the bridge which + had been constructed by Trajan, penetrated into the strongest + recesses of Dacia, 100 and when he had inflicted a severe + revenge, condescended to give peace to the suppliant Goths, on + condition that, as often as they were required, they should + supply his armies with a body of forty thousand soldiers. 101 + Exploits like these were no doubt honorable to Constantine, and + beneficial to the state; but it may surely be questioned, whether + they can justify the exaggerated assertion of Eusebius, that ALL + SCYTHIA, as far as the extremity of the North, divided as it was + into so many names and nations of the most various and savage + manners, had been added by his victorious arms to the Roman + empire. 102 + + 98 (return) [ Nazarius in Panegyr. Vet. x. The victory of Crispus + over the Alemanni is expressed on some medals. * Note: Other + medals are extant, the legends of which commemorate the success + of Constantine over the Sarmatians and other barbarous nations, + Sarmatia Devicta. Victoria Gothica. Debellatori Gentium + Barbarorum. Exuperator Omnium Gentium. St. Martin, note on Le + Beau, i. 148.—M.] + + 982 (return) [ Campona, Old Buda in Hungary; Margus, Benonia, + Widdin, in Mæsia—G and M.] + + 99 (return) [ See Zosimus, l. ii. p. 93, 94; though the narrative + of that historian is neither clear nor consistent. The Panegyric + of Optatianus (c. 23) mentions the alliance of the Sarmatians + with the Carpi and Getæ, and points out the several fields of + battle. It is supposed that the Sarmatian games, celebrated in + the month of November, derived their origin from the success of + this war.] + + 100 (return) [ In the Cæsars of Julian, (p. 329. Commentaire de + Spanheim, p. 252.) Constantine boasts, that he had recovered the + province (Dacia) which Trajan had subdued. But it is insinuated + by Silenus, that the conquests of Constantine were like the + gardens of Adonis, which fade and wither almost the moment they + appear.] + + 101 (return) [ Jornandes de Rebus Geticis, c. 21. I know not + whether we may entirely depend on his authority. Such an alliance + has a very recent air, and scarcely is suited to the maxims of + the beginning of the fourth century.] + + 102 (return) [ Eusebius in Vit. Constantin. l. i. c. 8. This + passage, however, is taken from a general declamation on the + greatness of Constantine, and not from any particular account of + the Gothic war.] + + In this exalted state of glory, it was impossible that + Constantine should any longer endure a partner in the empire. + Confiding in the superiority of his genius and military power, he + determined, without any previous injury, to exert them for the + destruction of Licinius, whose advanced age and unpopular vices + seemed to offer a very easy conquest. 103 But the old emperor, + awakened by the approaching danger, deceived the expectations of + his friends, as well as of his enemies. Calling forth that spirit + and those abilities by which he had deserved the friendship of + Galerius and the Imperial purple, he prepared himself for the + contest, collected the forces of the East, and soon filled the + plains of Hadrianople with his troops, and the straits of the + Hellespont with his fleet. The army consisted of one hundred and + fifty thousand foot, and fifteen thousand horse; and as the + cavalry was drawn, for the most part, from Phrygia and + Cappadocia, we may conceive a more favorable opinion of the + beauty of the horses, than of the courage and dexterity of their + riders. The fleet was composed of three hundred and fifty galleys + of three ranks of oars. A hundred and thirty of these were + furnished by Egypt and the adjacent coast of Africa. A hundred + and ten sailed from the ports of Phœnicia and the isle of Cyprus; + and the maritime countries of Bithynia, Ionia, and Caria were + likewise obliged to provide a hundred and ten galleys. The troops + of Constantine were ordered to a rendezvous at Thessalonica; they + amounted to above a hundred and twenty thousand horse and foot. + 104 Their emperor was satisfied with their martial appearance, + and his army contained more soldiers, though fewer men, than that + of his eastern competitor. The legions of Constantine were levied + in the warlike provinces of Europe; action had confirmed their + discipline, victory had elevated their hopes, and there were + among them a great number of veterans, who, after seventeen + glorious campaigns under the same leader, prepared themselves to + deserve an honorable dismission by a last effort of their valor. + 105 But the naval preparations of Constantine were in every + respect much inferior to those of Licinius. The maritime cities + of Greece sent their respective quotas of men and ships to the + celebrated harbor of Piræus, and their united forces consisted of + no more than two hundred small vessels—a very feeble armament, if + it is compared with those formidable fleets which were equipped + and maintained by the republic of Athens during the Peloponnesian + war. 106 Since Italy was no longer the seat of government, the + naval establishments of Misenum and Ravenna had been gradually + neglected; and as the shipping and mariners of the empire were + supported by commerce rather than by war, it was natural that + they should the most abound in the industrious provinces of Egypt + and Asia. It is only surprising that the eastern emperor, who + possessed so great a superiority at sea, should have neglected + the opportunity of carrying an offensive war into the centre of + his rival’s dominions. + + 103 (return) [ Constantinus tamen, vir ingens, et omnia efficere + nitens quæ animo præparasset, simul principatum totius urbis + affectans, Licinio bellum intulit. Eutropius, x. 5. Zosimus, l. + ii. p 89. The reasons which they have assigned for the first + civil war, may, with more propriety, be applied to the second.] + + 104 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 94, 95.] + + 105 (return) [ Constantine was very attentive to the privileges + and comforts of his fellow-veterans, (Conveterani,) as he now + began to style them. See the Theodosian Code, l. vii. tit. 10, + tom. ii. p. 419, 429.] + + 106 (return) [ Whilst the Athenians maintained the empire of the + sea, their fleet consisted of three, and afterwards of four, + hundred galleys of three ranks of oars, all completely equipped + and ready for immediate service. The arsenal in the port of + Piræus had cost the republic a thousand talents, about two + hundred and sixteen thousand pounds. See Thucydides de Bel. + Pelopon. l. ii. c. 13, and Meursius de Fortuna Attica, c. 19.] + + Instead of embracing such an active resolution, which might have + changed the whole face of the war, the prudent Licinius expected + the approach of his rival in a camp near Hadrianople, which he + had fortified with an anxious care that betrayed his apprehension + of the event. Constantine directed his march from Thessalonica + towards that part of Thrace, till he found himself stopped by the + broad and rapid stream of the Hebrus, and discovered the numerous + army of Licinius, which filled the steep ascent of the hill, from + the river to the city of Hadrianople. Many days were spent in + doubtful and distant skirmishes; but at length the obstacles of + the passage and of the attack were removed by the intrepid + conduct of Constantine. In this place we might relate a wonderful + exploit of Constantine, which, though it can scarcely be + paralleled either in poetry or romance, is celebrated, not by a + venal orator devoted to his fortune, but by an historian, the + partial enemy of his fame. We are assured that the valiant + emperor threw himself into the River Hebrus, accompanied only by + _twelve_ horsemen, and that by the effort or terror of his + invincible arm, he broke, slaughtered, and put to flight a host + of a hundred and fifty thousand men. The credulity of Zosimus + prevailed so strongly over his passion, that among the events of + the memorable battle of Hadrianople, he seems to have selected + and embellished, not the most important, but the most marvellous. + The valor and danger of Constantine are attested by a slight + wound which he received in the thigh; but it may be discovered + even from an imperfect narration, and perhaps a corrupted text, + that the victory was obtained no less by the conduct of the + general than by the courage of the hero; that a body of five + thousand archers marched round to occupy a thick wood in the rear + of the enemy, whose attention was diverted by the construction of + a bridge, and that Licinius, perplexed by so many artful + evolutions, was reluctantly drawn from his advantageous post to + combat on equal ground on the plain. The contest was no longer + equal. His confused multitude of new levies was easily vanquished + by the experienced veterans of the West. Thirty-four thousand men + are reported to have been slain. The fortified camp of Licinius + was taken by assault the evening of the battle; the greater part + of the fugitives, who had retired to the mountains, surrendered + themselves the next day to the discretion of the conqueror; and + his rival, who could no longer keep the field, confined himself + within the walls of Byzantium. 107 + + 107 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 95, 96. This great battle is + described in the Valesian fragment, (p. 714,) in a clear though + concise manner. “Licinius vero circum Hadrianopolin maximo + exercitu latera ardui montis impleverat; illuc toto agmine + Constantinus inflexit. Cum bellum terra marique traheretur, + quamvis per arduum suis nitentibus, attamen disciplina militari + et felicitate, Constantinus Licinu confusum et sine ordine + agentem vicit exercitum; leviter femore sau ciatus.”] + + The siege of Byzantium, which was immediately undertaken by + Constantine, was attended with great labor and uncertainty. In + the late civil wars, the fortifications of that place, so justly + considered as the key of Europe and Asia, had been repaired and + strengthened; and as long as Licinius remained master of the sea, + the garrison was much less exposed to the danger of famine than + the army of the besiegers. The naval commanders of Constantine + were summoned to his camp, and received his positive orders to + force the passage of the Hellespont, as the fleet of Licinius, + instead of seeking and destroying their feeble enemy, continued + inactive in those narrow straits, where its superiority of + numbers was of little use or advantage. Crispus, the emperor’s + eldest son, was intrusted with the execution of this daring + enterprise, which he performed with so much courage and success, + that he deserved the esteem, and most probably excited the + jealousy, of his father. The engagement lasted two days; and in + the evening of the first, the contending fleets, after a + considerable and mutual loss, retired into their respective + harbors of Europe and Asia. The second day, about noon, a strong + south wind 108 sprang up, which carried the vessels of Crispus + against the enemy; and as the casual advantage was improved by + his skilful intrepidity, he soon obtained a complete victory. A + hundred and thirty vessels were destroyed, five thousand men were + slain, and Amandus, the admiral of the Asiatic fleet, escaped + with the utmost difficulty to the shores of Chalcedon. As soon as + the Hellespont was open, a plentiful convoy of provisions flowed + into the camp of Constantine, who had already advanced the + operations of the siege. He constructed artificial mounds of + earth of an equal height with the ramparts of Byzantium. The + lofty towers which were erected on that foundation galled the + besieged with large stones and darts from the military engines, + and the battering rams had shaken the walls in several places. If + Licinius persisted much longer in the defence, he exposed himself + to be involved in the ruin of the place. Before he was + surrounded, he prudently removed his person and treasures to + Chalcedon in Asia; and as he was always desirous of associating + companions to the hopes and dangers of his fortune, he now + bestowed the title of Cæsar on Martinianus, who exercised one of + the most important offices of the empire. 109 + + 108 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 97, 98. The current always sets + out of the Hellespont; and when it is assisted by a north wind, + no vessel can attempt the passage. A south wind renders the force + of the current almost imperceptible. See Tournefort’s Voyage au + Levant, Let. xi.] + + 109 (return) [ Aurelius Victor. Zosimus, l. ii. p. 93. According + to the latter, Martinianus was Magister Officiorum, (he uses the + Latin appellation in Greek.) Some medals seem to intimate, that + during his short reign he received the title of Augustus.] + + Such were still the resources, and such the abilities, of + Licinius, that, after so many successive defeats, he collected in + Bithynia a new army of fifty or sixty thousand men, while the + activity of Constantine was employed in the siege of Byzantium. + The vigilant emperor did not, however, neglect the last struggles + of his antagonist. A considerable part of his victorious army was + transported over the Bosphorus in small vessels, and the decisive + engagement was fought soon after their landing on the heights of + Chrysopolis, or, as it is now called, of Scutari. The troops of + Licinius, though they were lately raised, ill armed, and worse + disciplined, made head against their conquerors with fruitless + but desperate valor, till a total defeat, and a slaughter of five + and twenty thousand men, irretrievably determined the fate of + their leader. 110 He retired to Nicomedia, rather with the view + of gaining some time for negotiation, than with the hope of any + effectual defence. Constantia, his wife, and the sister of + Constantine, interceded with her brother in favor of her husband, + and obtained from his policy, rather than from his compassion, a + solemn promise, confirmed by an oath, that after the sacrifice of + Martinianus, and the resignation of the purple, Licinius himself + should be permitted to pass the remainder of this life in peace + and affluence. The behavior of Constantia, and her relation to + the contending parties, naturally recalls the remembrance of that + virtuous matron who was the sister of Augustus, and the wife of + Antony. But the temper of mankind was altered, and it was no + longer esteemed infamous for a Roman to survive his honor and + independence. Licinius solicited and accepted the pardon of his + offences, laid himself and his purple at the feet of his _lord_ + and _master_, was raised from the ground with insulting pity, was + admitted the same day to the Imperial banquet, and soon + afterwards was sent away to Thessalonica, which had been chosen + for the place of his confinement. 111 His confinement was soon + terminated by death, and it is doubtful whether a tumult of the + soldiers, or a decree of the senate, was suggested as the motive + for his execution. According to the rules of tyranny, he was + accused of forming a conspiracy, and of holding a treasonable + correspondence with the barbarians; but as he was never + convicted, either by his own conduct or by any legal evidence, we + may perhaps be allowed, from his weakness, to presume his + innocence. 112 The memory of Licinius was branded with infamy, + his statues were thrown down, and by a hasty edict, of such + mischievous tendency that it was almost immediately corrected, + all his laws, and all the judicial proceedings of his reign, were + at once abolished. 113 By this victory of Constantine, the Roman + world was again united under the authority of one emperor, + thirty-seven years after Diocletian had divided his power and + provinces with his associate Maximian. + + 110 (return) [ Eusebius (in Vita Constantin. I. ii. c. 16, 17) + ascribes this decisive victory to the pious prayers of the + emperor. The Valesian fragment (p. 714) mentions a body of Gothic + auxiliaries, under their chief Aliquaca, who adhered to the party + of Licinius.] + + 111 (return) [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 102. Victor Junior in Epitome. + Anonym. Valesian. p. 714.] + + 112 (return) [ Contra religionem sacramenti Thessalonicæ privatus + occisus est. Eutropius, x. 6; and his evidence is confirmed by + Jerome (in Chronic.) as well as by Zosimus, l. ii. p. 102. The + Valesian writer is the only one who mentions the soldiers, and it + is Zonaras alone who calls in the assistance of the senate. + Eusebius prudently slides over this delicate transaction. But + Sozomen, a century afterwards, ventures to assert the treasonable + practices of Licinius.] + + 113 (return) [ See the Theodosian Code, l. xv. tit. 15, tom. v. p + 404, 405. These edicts of Constantine betray a degree of passion + and precipitation very unbecoming the character of a lawgiver.] + + The successive steps of the elevation of Constantine, from his + first assuming the purple at York, to the resignation of + Licinius, at Nicomedia, have been related with some minuteness + and precision, not only as the events are in themselves both + interesting and important, but still more, as they contributed to + the decline of the empire by the expense of blood and treasure, + and by the perpetual increase, as well of the taxes, as of the + military establishment. The foundation of Constantinople, and the + establishment of the Christian religion, were the immediate and + memorable consequences of this revolution. + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part I. + + The Progress Of The Christian Religion, And The Sentiments, + Manners, Numbers, And Condition Of The Primitive Christians. 101 + + 101 (return) [ In spite of my resolution, Lardner led me to look + through the famous fifteenth and sixteenth chapters of Gibbon. I + could not lay them down without finishing them. The causes + assigned, in the fifteenth chapter, for the diffusion of + Christianity, must, no doubt, have contributed to it materially; + but I doubt whether he saw them all. Perhaps those which he + enumerates are among the most obvious. They might all be safely + adopted by a Christian writer, with some change in the language + and manner. Mackintosh see Life, i. p. 244.—M.] + + A candid but rational inquiry into the progress and establishment + of Christianity may be considered as a very essential part of the + history of the Roman empire. While that great body was invaded by + open violence, or undermined by slow decay, a pure and humble + religion gently insinuated itself into the minds of men, grew up + in silence and obscurity, derived new vigor from opposition, and + finally erected the triumphant banner of the Cross on the ruins + of the Capitol. Nor was the influence of Christianity confined to + the period or to the limits of the Roman empire. After a + revolution of thirteen or fourteen centuries, that religion is + still professed by the nations of Europe, the most distinguished + portion of human kind in arts and learning as well as in arms. By + the industry and zeal of the Europeans, it has been widely + diffused to the most distant shores of Asia and Africa; and by + the means of their colonies has been firmly established from + Canada to Chili, in a world unknown to the ancients. + + But this inquiry, however useful or entertaining, is attended + with two peculiar difficulties. The scanty and suspicious + materials of ecclesiastical history seldom enable us to dispel + the dark cloud that hangs over the first age of the church. The + great law of impartiality too often obliges us to reveal the + imperfections of the uninspired teachers and believers of the + gospel; and, to a careless observer, _their_ faults may seem to + cast a shade on the faith which they professed. But the scandal + of the pious Christian, and the fallacious triumph of the + Infidel, should cease as soon as they recollect not only _by + whom_, but likewise _to whom_, the Divine Revelation was given. + The theologian may indulge the pleasing task of describing + Religion as she descended from Heaven, arrayed in her native + purity. A more melancholy duty is imposed on the historian. He + must discover the inevitable mixture of error and corruption, + which she contracted in a long residence upon earth, among a weak + and degenerate race of beings. 102 + + 102 (return) [ The art of Gibbon, or at least the unfair + impression produced by these two memorable chapters, consists in + confounding together, in one undistinguishable mass, the origin + and apostolic propagation of the Christian religion with its + later progress. The main question, the divine origin of the + religion, is dexterously eluded or speciously conceded; his plan + enables him to commence his account, in most parts, below the + apostolic times; and it is only by the strength of the dark + coloring with which he has brought out the failings and the + follies of succeeding ages, that a shadow of doubt and suspicion + is thrown back on the primitive period of Christianity. Divest + this whole passage of the latent sarcasm betrayed by the + subsequent one of the whole disquisition, and it might commence a + Christian history, written in the most Christian spirit of + candor.—M.] + + Our curiosity is naturally prompted to inquire by what means the + Christian faith obtained so remarkable a victory over the + established religions of the earth. To this inquiry, an obvious + but satisfactory answer may be returned; that it was owing to the + convincing evidence of the doctrine itself, and to the ruling + providence of its great Author. But as truth and reason seldom + find so favorable a reception in the world, and as the wisdom of + Providence frequently condescends to use the passions of the + human heart, and the general circumstances of mankind, as + instruments to execute its purpose, we may still be permitted, + though with becoming submission, to ask, not indeed what were the + first, but what were the secondary causes of the rapid growth of + the Christian church. It will, perhaps, appear, that it was most + effectually favored and assisted by the five following causes: + + I. The inflexible, and if we may use the expression, the + intolerant zeal of the Christians, derived, it is true, from the + Jewish religion, but purified from the narrow and unsocial + spirit, which, instead of inviting, had deterred the Gentiles + from embracing the law of Moses.1023 + + II. The doctrine of a future life, improved by every additional + circumstance which could give weight and efficacy to that + important truth. III. The miraculous powers ascribed to the + primitive church. IV. The pure and austere morals of the + Christians. + + V. The union and discipline of the Christian republic, which + gradually formed an independent and increasing state in the heart + of the Roman empire. + + 1023 (return) [Though we are thus far agreed with respect to the + inflexibility and intolerance of Christian zeal, yet as to the + principle from which it was derived, we are, toto cœlo, divided + in opinion. You deduce it from the Jewish religion; I would refer + it to a more adequate and a more obvious source, a full + persuasion of the truth of Christianity. Watson. Letters Gibbon, + i. 9.—M.] + + I. We have already described the religious harmony of the ancient + world, and the facility with which the most different and even + hostile nations embraced, or at least respected, each other’s + superstitions. A single people refused to join in the common + intercourse of mankind. The Jews, who, under the Assyrian and + Persian monarchies, had languished for many ages the most + despised portion of their slaves, 1 emerged from obscurity under + the successors of Alexander; and as they multiplied to a + surprising degree in the East, and afterwards in the West, they + soon excited the curiosity and wonder of other nations. 2 The + sullen obstinacy with which they maintained their peculiar rites + and unsocial manners seemed to mark them out as a distinct + species of men, who boldly professed, or who faintly disguised, + their implacable habits to the rest of human kind. 3 Neither the + violence of Antiochus, nor the arts of Herod, nor the example of + the circumjacent nations, could ever persuade the Jews to + associate with the institutions of Moses the elegant mythology of + the Greeks. 4 According to the maxims of universal toleration, + the Romans protected a superstition which they despised. 5 The + polite Augustus condescended to give orders, that sacrifices + should be offered for his prosperity in the temple of Jerusalem; + 6 whilst the meanest of the posterity of Abraham, who should have + paid the same homage to the Jupiter of the Capitol, would have + been an object of abhorrence to himself and to his brethren. + + But the moderation of the conquerors was insufficient to appease + the jealous prejudices of their subjects, who were alarmed and + scandalized at the ensigns of paganism, which necessarily + introduced themselves into a Roman province. 7 The mad attempt of + Caligula to place his own statue in the temple of Jerusalem was + defeated by the unanimous resolution of a people who dreaded + death much less than such an idolatrous profanation. 8 Their + attachment to the law of Moses was equal to their detestation of + foreign religions. The current of zeal and devotion, as it was + contracted into a narrow channel, ran with the strength, and + sometimes with the fury, of a torrent. This facility has not + always prevented intolerance, which seems inherent in the + religious spirit, when armed with authority. The separation of + the ecclesiastical and civil power, appears to be the only means + of at once maintaining religion and tolerance: but this is a very + modern notion. The passions, which mingle themselves with + opinions, made the Pagans very often intolerant and persecutors; + witness the Persians, the Egyptians even the Greeks and Romans. + + 1st. The Persians.—Cambyses, conqueror of the Egyptians, + condemned to death the magistrates of Memphis, because they had + offered divine honors to their god. Apis: he caused the god to be + brought before him, struck him with his dagger, commanded the + priests to be scourged, and ordered a general massacre of all the + Egyptians who should be found celebrating the festival of the + statues of the gods to be burnt. Not content with this + intolerance, he sent an army to reduce the Ammonians to slavery, + and to set on fire the temple in which Jupiter delivered his + oracles. See Herod. iii. 25—29, 37. Xerxes, during his invasion + of Greece, acted on the same principles: l c destroyed all the + temples of Greece and Ionia, except that of Ephesus. See Paus. l. + vii. p. 533, and x. p. 887. + + Strabo, l. xiv. b. 941. 2d. The Egyptians.—They thought + themselves defiled when they had drunk from the same cup or eaten + at the same table with a man of a different belief from their + own. “He who has voluntarily killed any sacred animal is punished + with death; but if any one, even involuntarily, has killed a cat + or an ibis, he cannot escape the extreme penalty: the people drag + him away, treat him in the most cruel manner, sometimes without + waiting for a judicial sentence. * * * Even at the time when King + Ptolemy was not yet the acknowledged friend of the Roman people, + while the multitude were paying court with all possible attention + to the strangers who came from Italy * * a Roman having killed a + cat, the people rushed to his house, and neither the entreaties + of the nobles, whom the king sent to them, nor the terror of the + Roman name, were sufficiently powerful to rescue the man from + punishment, though he had committed the crime involuntarily.” + Diod. Sic. i 83. Juvenal, in his 13th Satire, describes the + sanguinary conflict between the inhabitants of Ombos and of + Tentyra, from religious animosity. The fury was carried so far, + that the conquerors tore and devoured the quivering limbs of the + conquered. + + Ardet adhuc Ombos et Tentyra, summus utrinque Inde furor vulgo, + quod numina vicinorum Odit uterque locus; quum solos credat + habendos Esse Deos quos ipse colit. Sat. xv. v. 85. + + 3d. The Greeks.—“Let us not here,” says the Abbé Guénée, “refer + to the cities of Peloponnesus and their severity against atheism; + the Ephesians prosecuting Heraclitus for impiety; the Greeks + armed one against the other by religious zeal, in the + Amphictyonic war. Let us say nothing either of the frightful + cruelties inflicted by three successors of Alexander upon the + Jews, to force them to abandon their religion, nor of Antiochus + expelling the philosophers from his states. Let us not seek our + proofs of intolerance so far off. Athens, the polite and learned + Athens, will supply us with sufficient examples. Every citizen + made a public and solemn vow to conform to the religion of his + country, to defend it, and to cause it to be respected. An + express law severely punished all discourses against the gods, + and a rigid decree ordered the denunciation of all who should + deny their existence. * * * The practice was in unison with the + severity of the law. The proceedings commenced against + Protagoras; a price set upon the head of Diagoras; the danger of + Alcibiades; Aristotle obliged to fly; Stilpo banished; Anaxagoras + hardly escaping death; Pericles himself, after all his services + to his country, and all the glory he had acquired, compelled to + appear before the tribunals and make his defence; * * a priestess + executed for having introduced strange gods; Socrates condemned + and drinking the hemlock, because he was accused of not + recognizing those of his country, &c.; these facts attest too + loudly, to be called in question, the religious intolerance of + the most humane and enlightened people in Greece.” Lettres de + quelques Juifs a Mons. Voltaire, i. p. 221. (Compare Bentley on + Freethinking, from which much of this is derived.)—M. + + 4th. The Romans.—The laws of Rome were not less express and + severe. The intolerance of foreign religions reaches, with the + Romans, as high as the laws of the twelve tables; the + prohibitions were afterwards renewed at different times. + Intolerance did not discontinue under the emperors; witness the + counsel of Mæcenas to Augustus. This counsel is so remarkable, + that I think it right to insert it entire. “Honor the gods + yourself,” says Mæcenas to Augustus, “in every way according to + the usage of your ancestors, and compel others to worship them. + Hate and punish those who introduce strange gods, not only for + the sake of the gods, (he who despises them will respect no one,) + but because those who introduce new gods engage a multitude of + persons in foreign laws and customs. From hence arise unions + bound by oaths and confederacies, and associations, things + dangerous to a monarchy.” Dion Cass. l. ii. c. 36. (But, though + some may differ from it, see Gibbon’s just observation on this + passage in Dion Cassius, ch. xvi. note 117; impugned, indeed, by + M. Guizot, note in loc.)—M. + + Even the laws which the philosophers of Athens and of Rome wrote + for their imaginary republics are intolerant. Plato does not + leave to his citizens freedom of religious worship; and Cicero + expressly prohibits them from having other gods than those of the + state. Lettres de quelques Juifs a Mons. Voltaire, i. p. 226.—G. + + According to M. Guizot’s just remarks, religious intolerance will + always ally itself with the passions of man, however different + those passions may be. In the instances quoted above, with the + Persians it was the pride of despotism; to conquer the gods of a + country was the last mark of subjugation. With the Egyptians, it + was the gross Fetichism of the superstitious populace, and the + local jealousy of neighboring towns. In Greece, persecution was + in general connected with political party; in Rome, with the + stern supremacy of the law and the interests of the state. Gibbon + has been mistaken in attributing to the tolerant spirit of + Paganism that which arose out of the peculiar circumstances of + the times. 1st. The decay of the old Polytheism, through the + progress of reason and intelligence, and the prevalence of + philosophical opinions among the higher orders. + + 2d. The Roman character, in which the political always + predominated over the religious party. The Romans were contented + with having bowed the world to a uniformity of subjection to + their power, and cared not for establishing the (to them) less + important uniformity of religion.—M. + + 1 (return) [ Dum Assyrios penes, Medosque, et Persas Oriens fuit, + despectissima pars servientium. Tacit. Hist. v. 8. Herodotus, who + visited Asia whilst it obeyed the last of those empires, slightly + mentions the Syrians of Palestine, who, according to their own + confession, had received from Egypt the rite of circumcision. See + l. ii. c. 104.] + + 2 (return) [ Diodorus Siculus, l. xl. Dion Cassius, l. xxxvii. p. + 121. Tacit Hist. v. 1—9. Justin xxxvi. 2, 3.] + + 3 (return) [ Tradidit arcano quæcunque volumine Moses, Non + monstrare vias cadem nisi sacra colenti, Quæsitum ad fontem solos + deducere verpas. The letter of this law is not to be found in the + present volume of Moses. But the wise, the humane Maimonides + openly teaches that if an idolater fall into the water, a Jew + ought not to save him from instant death. See Basnage, Histoire + des Juifs, l. vi. c. 28. * Note: It is diametrically opposed to + its spirit and to its letter, see, among other passages, Deut. v. + 18. 19, (God) “loveth the stranger in giving him food and + raiment. Love ye, therefore, the stranger: for ye were strangers + in the land of Egypt.” Comp. Lev. xxiii. 25. Juvenal is a + satirist, whose strong expressions can hardly be received as + historic evidence; and he wrote after the horrible cruelties of + the Romans, which, during and after the war, might give some + cause for the complete isolation of the Jew from the rest of the + world. The Jew was a bigot, but his religion was not the only + source of his bigotry. After how many centuries of mutual wrong + and hatred, which had still further estranged the Jew from + mankind, did Maimonides write?—M.] + + 4 (return) [ A Jewish sect, which indulged themselves in a sort + of occasional conformity, derived from Herod, by whose example + and authority they had been seduced, the name of Herodians. But + their numbers were so inconsiderable, and their duration so + short, that Josephus has not thought them worthy of his notice. + See Prideaux’s Connection, vol. ii. p. 285. * Note: The Herodians + were probably more of a political party than a religious sect, + though Gibbon is most likely right as to their occasional + conformity. See Hist. of the Jews, ii. 108.—M.] + + 5 (return) [ Cicero pro Flacco, c. 28. * Note: The edicts of + Julius Cæsar, and of some of the cities in Asia Minor (Krebs. + Decret. pro Judæis,) in favor of the nation in general, or of the + Asiatic Jews, speak a different language.—M.] + + 6 (return) [ Philo de Legatione. Augustus left a foundation for a + perpetual sacrifice. Yet he approved of the neglect which his + grandson Caius expressed towards the temple of Jerusalem. See + Sueton. in August. c. 93, and Casaubon’s notes on that passage.] + + 7 (return) [ See, in particular, Joseph. Antiquitat. xvii. 6, + xviii. 3; and de Bell. Judiac. i. 33, and ii. 9, edit. Havercamp. + * Note: This was during the government of Pontius Pilate. (Hist. + of Jews, ii. 156.) Probably in part to avoid this collision, the + Roman governor, in general, resided at Cæsarea.—M.] + + 8 (return) [ Jussi a Caio Cæsare, effigiem ejus in templo locare, + arma potius sumpsere. Tacit. Hist. v. 9. Philo and Josephus gave + a very circumstantial, but a very rhetorical, account of this + transaction, which exceedingly perplexed the governor of Syria. + At the first mention of this idolatrous proposal, King Agrippa + fainted away; and did not recover his senses until the third day. + (Hist. of Jews, ii. 181, &c.)] + + This inflexible perseverance, which appeared so odious or so + ridiculous to the ancient world, assumes a more awful character, + since Providence has deigned to reveal to us the mysterious + history of the chosen people. But the devout and even scrupulous + attachment to the Mosaic religion, so conspicuous among the Jews + who lived under the second temple, becomes still more surprising, + if it is compared with the stubborn incredulity of their + forefathers. When the law was given in thunder from Mount Sinai, + when the tides of the ocean and the course of the planets were + suspended for the convenience of the Israelites, and when + temporal rewards and punishments were the immediate consequences + of their piety or disobedience, they perpetually relapsed into + rebellion against the visible majesty of their Divine King, + placed the idols of the nations in the sanctuary of Jehovah, and + imitated every fantastic ceremony that was practised in the tents + of the Arabs, or in the cities of Phœnicia. 9 As the protection + of Heaven was deservedly withdrawn from the ungrateful race, + their faith acquired a proportionable degree of vigor and purity. + + The contemporaries of Moses and Joshua had beheld with careless + indifference the most amazing miracles. Under the pressure of + every calamity, the belief of those miracles has preserved the + Jews of a later period from the universal contagion of idolatry; + and in contradiction to every known principle of the human mind, + that singular people seems to have yielded a stronger and more + ready assent to the traditions of their remote ancestors, than to + the evidence of their own senses. 10 + + 9 (return) [ For the enumeration of the Syrian and Arabian + deities, it may be observed, that Milton has comprised in one + hundred and thirty very beautiful lines the two large and learned + syntagmas which Selden had composed on that abstruse subject.] + + 10 (return) [ “How long will this people provoke me? and how long + will it be ere they believe me, for all the signs which I have + shown among them?” (Numbers xiv. 11.) It would be easy, but it + would be unbecoming, to justify the complaint of the Deity from + the whole tenor of the Mosaic history. Note: Among a rude and + barbarous people, religious impressions are easily made, and are + as soon effaced. The ignorance which multiplies imaginary + wonders, would weaken and destroy the effect of real miracle. At + the period of the Jewish history, referred to in the passage from + Numbers, their fears predominated over their faith,—the fears of + an unwarlike people, just rescued from debasing slavery, and + commanded to attack a fierce, a well-armed, a gigantic, and a far + more numerous race, the inhabitants of Canaan. As to the frequent + apostasy of the Jews, their religion was beyond their state of + civilization. Nor is it uncommon for a people to cling with + passionate attachment to that of which, at first, they could not + appreciate the value. Patriotism and national pride will contend, + even to death, for political rights which have been forced upon a + reluctant people. The Christian may at least retort, with + justice, that the great sign of his religion, the resurrection of + Jesus, was most ardently believed, and most resolutely asserted, + by the eye witnesses of the fact.—M.] + + The Jewish religion was admirably fitted for defence, but it was + never designed for conquest; and it seems probable that the + number of proselytes was never much superior to that of + apostates. The divine promises were originally made, and the + distinguishing rite of circumcision was enjoined, to a single + family. When the posterity of Abraham had multiplied like the + sands of the sea, the Deity, from whose mouth they received a + system of laws and ceremonies, declared himself the proper and as + it were the national God of Israel; and with the most jealous + care separated his favorite people from the rest of mankind. The + conquest of the land of Canaan was accompanied with so many + wonderful and with so many bloody circumstances, that the + victorious Jews were left in a state of irreconcilable hostility + with all their neighbors. They had been commanded to extirpate + some of the most idolatrous tribes, and the execution of the + divine will had seldom been retarded by the weakness of humanity. + + With the other nations they were forbidden to contract any + marriages or alliances; and the prohibition of receiving them + into the congregation, which in some cases was perpetual, almost + always extended to the third, to the seventh, or even to the + tenth generation. The obligation of preaching to the Gentiles the + faith of Moses had never been inculcated as a precept of the law, + nor were the Jews inclined to impose it on themselves as a + voluntary duty. + + In the admission of new citizens that unsocial people was + actuated by the selfish vanity of the Greeks, rather than by the + generous policy of Rome. The descendants of Abraham were + flattered by the opinion that they alone were the heirs of the + covenant, and they were apprehensive of diminishing the value of + their inheritance by sharing it too easily with the strangers of + the earth. A larger acquaintance with mankind extended their + knowledge without correcting their prejudices; and whenever the + God of Israel acquired any new votaries, he was much more + indebted to the inconstant humor of polytheism than to the active + zeal of his own missionaries. 11 The religion of Moses seems to + be instituted for a particular country as well as for a single + nation; and if a strict obedience had been paid to the order, + that every male, three times in the year, should present himself + before the Lord Jehovah, it would have been impossible that the + Jews could ever have spread themselves beyond the narrow limits + of the promised land. 12 That obstacle was indeed removed by the + destruction of the temple of Jerusalem; but the most considerable + part of the Jewish religion was involved in its destruction; and + the Pagans, who had long wondered at the strange report of an + empty sanctuary, 13 were at a loss to discover what could be the + object, or what could be the instruments, of a worship which was + destitute of temples and of altars, of priests and of sacrifices. + + Yet even in their fallen state, the Jews, still asserting their + lofty and exclusive privileges, shunned, instead of courting, the + society of strangers. They still insisted with inflexible rigor + on those parts of the law which it was in their power to + practise. Their peculiar distinctions of days, of meats, and a + variety of trivial though burdensome observances, were so many + objects of disgust and aversion for the other nations, to whose + habits and prejudices they were diametrically opposite. The + painful and even dangerous rite of circumcision was alone capable + of repelling a willing proselyte from the door of the synagogue. + 14 + + 11 (return) [ All that relates to the Jewish proselytes has been + very ably by Basnage, Hist. des Juifs, l. vi. c. 6, 7.] + + 12 (return) [ See Exod. xxiv. 23, Deut. xvi. 16, the + commentators, and a very sensible note in the Universal History, + vol. i. p. 603, edit. fol.] + + 13 (return) [ When Pompey, using or abusing the right of + conquest, entered into the Holy of Holies, it was observed with + amazement, “Nulli intus Deum effigie, vacuam sedem et inania + arcana.” Tacit. Hist. v. 9. It was a popular saying, with regard + to the Jews, “Nil præter nubes et coeli numen adorant.”] + + 14 (return) [ A second kind of circumcision was inflicted on a + Samaritan or Egyptian proselyte. The sullen indifference of the + Talmudists, with respect to the conversion of strangers, may be + seen in Basnage Histoire des Juifs, l. xi. c. 6.] + + Under these circumstances, Christianity offered itself to the + world, armed with the strength of the Mosaic law, and delivered + from the weight of its fetters. An exclusive zeal for the truth + of religion, and the unity of God, was as carefully inculcated in + the new as in the ancient system; and whatever was now revealed + to mankind concerning the nature and designs of the Supreme Being + was fitted to increase their reverence for that mysterious + doctrine. The divine authority of Moses and the prophets was + admitted, and even established, as the firmest basis of + Christianity. From the beginning of the world, an uninterrupted + series of predictions had announced and prepared the + long-expected coming of the Messiah, who, in compliance with the + gross apprehensions of the Jews, had been more frequently + represented under the character of a King and Conqueror, than + under that of a Prophet, a Martyr, and the Son of God. By his + expiatory sacrifice, the imperfect sacrifices of the temple were + at once consummated and abolished. The ceremonial law, which + consisted only of types and figures, was succeeded by a pure and + spiritual worship equally adapted to all climates, as well as to + every condition of mankind; and to the initiation of blood was + substituted a more harmless initiation of water. The promise of + divine favor, instead of being partially confined to the + posterity of Abraham, was universally proposed to the freeman and + the slave, to the Greek and to the barbarian, to the Jew and to + the Gentile. Every privilege that could raise the proselyte from + earth to heaven, that could exalt his devotion, secure his + happiness, or even gratify that secret pride which, under the + semblance of devotion, insinuates itself into the human heart, + was still reserved for the members of the Christian church; but + at the same time all mankind was permitted, and even solicited, + to accept the glorious distinction, which was not only proffered + as a favor, but imposed as an obligation. It became the most + sacred duty of a new convert to diffuse among his friends and + relations the inestimable blessing which he had received, and to + warn them against a refusal that would be severely punished as a + criminal disobedience to the will of a benevolent but + all-powerful Deity. + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part II. + + The enfranchisement of the church from the bonds of the synagogue + was a work, however, of some time and of some difficulty. The + Jewish converts, who acknowledged Jesus in the character of the + Messiah foretold by their ancient oracles, respected him as a + prophetic teacher of virtue and religion; but they obstinately + adhered to the ceremonies of their ancestors, and were desirous + of imposing them on the Gentiles, who continually augmented the + number of believers. These Judaizing Christians seem to have + argued with some degree of plausibility from the divine origin of + the Mosaic law, and from the immutable perfections of its great + Author. They affirmed, that if the Being, who is the same through + all eternity, had designed to abolish those sacred rites which + had served to distinguish his chosen people, the repeal of them + would have been no less clear and solemn than their first + promulgation: _that_, instead of those frequent declarations, + which either suppose or assert the perpetuity of the Mosaic + religion, it would have been represented as a provisionary scheme + intended to last only to the coming of the Messiah, who should + instruct mankind in a more perfect mode of faith and of worship: + 15 _that_ the Messiah himself, and his disciples who conversed + with him on earth, instead of authorizing by their example the + most minute observances of the Mosaic law, 16 would have + published to the world the abolition of those useless and + obsolete ceremonies, without suffering Christianity to remain + during so many years obscurely confounded among the sects of the + Jewish church. Arguments like these appear to have been used in + the defence of the expiring cause of the Mosaic law; but the + industry of our learned divines has abundantly explained the + ambiguous language of the Old Testament, and the ambiguous + conduct of the apostolic teachers. It was proper gradually to + unfold the system of the gospel, and to pronounce, with the + utmost caution and tenderness, a sentence of condemnation so + repugnant to the inclination and prejudices of the believing + Jews. + + 15 (return) [ These arguments were urged with great ingenuity by + the Jew Orobio, and refuted with equal ingenuity and candor by + the Christian Limborch. See the Amica Collatio, (it well deserves + that name,) or account of the dispute between them.] + + 16 (return) [ Jesus... circumcisus erat; cibis utebatur Judaicis; + vestitu simili; purgatos scabie mittebat ad sacerdotes; Paschata + et alios dies festos religiose observabat: Si quos sanavit + sabbatho, ostendit non tantum ex lege, sed et exceptis + sententiis, talia opera sabbatho non interdicta. Grotius de + Veritate Religionis Christianæ, l. v. c. 7. A little afterwards, + (c. 12,) he expatiates on the condescension of the apostles.] + + The history of the church of Jerusalem affords a lively proof of + the necessity of those precautions, and of the deep impression + which the Jewish religion had made on the minds of its sectaries. + The first fifteen bishops of Jerusalem were all circumcised Jews; + and the congregation over which they presided united the law of + Moses with the doctrine of Christ. 17 It was natural that the + primitive tradition of a church which was founded only forty days + after the death of Christ, and was governed almost as many years + under the immediate inspection of his apostle, should be received + as the standard of orthodoxy. The distant churches very + frequently appealed to the authority of their venerable Parent, + and relieved her distresses by a liberal contribution of alms. + But when numerous and opulent societies were established in the + great cities of the empire, in Antioch, Alexandria, Ephesus, + Corinth, and Rome, the reverence which Jerusalem had inspired to + all the Christian colonies insensibly diminished. 18b The Jewish + converts, or, as they were afterwards called, the Nazarenes, who + had laid the foundations of the church, soon found themselves + overwhelmed by the increasing multitudes, that from all the + various religions of polytheism enlisted under the banner of + Christ: and the Gentiles, who, with the approbation of their + peculiar apostle, had rejected the intolerable weight of the + Mosaic ceremonies, at length refused to their more scrupulous + brethren the same toleration which at first they had humbly + solicited for their own practice. The ruin of the temple of the + city, and of the public religion of the Jews, was severely felt + by the Nazarenes; as in their manners, though not in their faith, + they maintained so intimate a connection with their impious + countrymen, whose misfortunes were attributed by the Pagans to + the contempt, and more justly ascribed by the Christians to the + wrath, of the Supreme Deity. The Nazarenes retired from the ruins + of Jerusalem 18 to the little town of Pella beyond the Jordan, + where that ancient church languished above sixty years in + solitude and obscurity. 19 They still enjoyed the comfort of + making frequent and devout visits to the _Holy City_, and the + hope of being one day restored to those seats which both nature + and religion taught them to love as well as to revere. But at + length, under the reign of Hadrian, the desperate fanaticism of + the Jews filled up the measure of their calamities; and the + Romans, exasperated by their repeated rebellions, exercised the + rights of victory with unusual rigor. The emperor founded, under + the name of Ælia Capitolina, a new city on Mount Sion, 20 to + which he gave the privileges of a colony; and denouncing the + severest penalties against any of the Jewish people who should + dare to approach its precincts, he fixed a vigilant garrison of a + Roman cohort to enforce the execution of his orders. The + Nazarenes had only one way left to escape the common + proscription, and the force of truth was on this occasion + assisted by the influence of temporal advantages. They elected + Marcus for their bishop, a prelate of the race of the Gentiles, + and most probably a native either of Italy or of some of the + Latin provinces. At his persuasion, the most considerable part of + the congregation renounced the Mosaic law, in the practice of + which they had persevered above a century. By this sacrifice of + their habits and prejudices, they purchased a free admission into + the colony of Hadrian, and more firmly cemented their union with + the Catholic church. 21 + + 17 (return) [ Pæne omnes Christum Deum sub legis observatione + credebant Sulpicius Severus, ii. 31. See Eusebius, Hist. + Ecclesiast. l. iv. c. 5.] + + 18b (return) [Footnote 18b: Mosheim de Rebus Christianis ante + Constantinum Magnum, page 153. In this masterly performance, + which I shall often have occasion to quote he enters much more + fully into the state of the primitive church than he has an + opportunity of doing in his General History.] + + 18 (return) [ This is incorrect: all the traditions concur in + placing the abandonment of the city by the Christians, not only + before it was in ruins, but before the seige had commenced. + Euseb. loc. cit., and Le Clerc.—M.] + + 19 (return) [ Eusebius, l. iii. c. 5. Le Clerc, Hist. Ecclesiast. + p. 605. During this occasional absence, the bishop and church of + Pella still retained the title of Jerusalem. In the same manner, + the Roman pontiffs resided seventy years at Avignon; and the + patriarchs of Alexandria have long since transferred their + episcopal seat to Cairo.] + + 20 (return) [ Dion Cassius, l. lxix. The exile of the Jewish + nation from Jerusalem is attested by Aristo of Pella, (apud + Euseb. l. iv. c. 6,) and is mentioned by several ecclesiastical + writers; though some of them too hastily extend this interdiction + to the whole country of Palestine.] + + 21 (return) [ Eusebius, l. iv. c. 6. Sulpicius Severus, ii. 31. + By comparing their unsatisfactory accounts, Mosheim (p. 327, &c.) + has drawn out a very distinct representation of the circumstances + and motives of this revolution.] + + When the name and honors of the church of Jerusalem had been + restored to Mount Sion, the crimes of heresy and schism were + imputed to the obscure remnant of the Nazarenes, which refused to + accompany their Latin bishop. They still preserved their former + habitation of Pella, spread themselves into the villages adjacent + to Damascus, and formed an inconsiderable church in the city of + Berœa, or, as it is now called, of Aleppo, in Syria. 22 The name + of Nazarenes was deemed too honorable for those Christian Jews, + and they soon received, from the supposed poverty of their + understanding, as well as of their condition, the contemptuous + epithet of Ebionites. 23 In a few years after the return of the + church of Jerusalem, it became a matter of doubt and controversy, + whether a man who sincerely acknowledged Jesus as the Messiah, + but who still continued to observe the law of Moses, could + possibly hope for salvation. The humane temper of Justin Martyr + inclined him to answer this question in the affirmative; and + though he expressed himself with the most guarded diffidence, he + ventured to determine in favor of such an imperfect Christian, if + he were content to practise the Mosaic ceremonies, without + pretending to assert their general use or necessity. But when + Justin was pressed to declare the sentiment of the church, he + confessed that there were very many among the orthodox + Christians, who not only excluded their Judaizing brethren from + the hope of salvation, but who declined any intercourse with them + in the common offices of friendship, hospitality, and social + life. 24 The more rigorous opinion prevailed, as it was natural + to expect, over the milder; and an eternal bar of separation was + fixed between the disciples of Moses and those of Christ. The + unfortunate Ebionites, rejected from one religion as apostates, + and from the other as heretics, found themselves compelled to + assume a more decided character; and although some traces of that + obsolete sect may be discovered as late as the fourth century, + they insensibly melted away, either into the church or the + synagogue. 25 + + 22 (return) [ Le Clerc (Hist. Ecclesiast. p. 477, 535) seems to + have collected from Eusebius, Jerome, Epiphanius, and other + writers, all the principal circumstances that relate to the + Nazarenes or Ebionites. The nature of their opinions soon divided + them into a stricter and a milder sect; and there is some reason + to conjecture, that the family of Jesus Christ remained members, + at least, of the latter and more moderate party.] + + 23 (return) [ Some writers have been pleased to create an Ebion, + the imaginary author of their sect and name. But we can more + safely rely on the learned Eusebius than on the vehement + Tertullian, or the credulous Epiphanius. According to Le Clerc, + the Hebrew word Ebjonim may be translated into Latin by that of + Pauperes. See Hist. Ecclesiast. p. 477. * Note: The opinion of Le + Clerc is generally admitted; but Neander has suggested some good + reasons for supposing that this term only applied to poverty of + condition. The obscure history of their tenets and divisions, is + clearly and rationally traced in his History of the Church, vol. + i. part ii. p. 612, &c., Germ. edit.—M.] + + 24 (return) [ See the very curious Dialogue of Justin Martyr with + the Jew Tryphon. The conference between them was held at Ephesus, + in the reign of Antoninus Pius, and about twenty years after the + return of the church of Pella to Jerusalem. For this date consult + the accurate note of Tillemont, Memoires Ecclesiastiques, tom. + ii. p. 511. * Note: Justin Martyr makes an important distinction, + which Gibbon has neglected to notice. * * * There were some who + were not content with observing the Mosaic law themselves, but + enforced the same observance, as necessary to salvation, upon the + heathen converts, and refused all social intercourse with them if + they did not conform to the law. Justin Martyr himself freely + admits those who kept the law themselves to Christian communion, + though he acknowledges that some, not the Church, thought + otherwise; of the other party, he himself thought less favorably. + The former by some are considered the Nazarenes the atter the + Ebionites—G and M.] + + 25 (return) [ Of all the systems of Christianity, that of + Abyssinia is the only one which still adheres to the Mosaic + rites. (Geddes’s Church History of Æthiopia, and Dissertations de + La Grand sur la Relation du P. Lobo.) The eunuch of the queen + Candace might suggest some suspicious; but as we are assured + (Socrates, i. 19. Sozomen, ii. 24. Ludolphus, p. 281) that the + Æthiopians were not converted till the fourth century, it is more + reasonable to believe that they respected the sabbath, and + distinguished the forbidden meats, in imitation of the Jews, who, + in a very early period, were seated on both sides of the Red Sea. + Circumcision had been practised by the most ancient Æthiopians, + from motives of health and cleanliness, which seem to be + explained in the Recherches Philosophiques sur les Americains, + tom. ii. p. 117.] + + While the orthodox church preserved a just medium between + excessive veneration and improper contempt for the law of Moses, + the various heretics deviated into equal but opposite extremes of + error and extravagance. From the acknowledged truth of the Jewish + religion, the Ebionites had concluded that it could never be + abolished. From its supposed imperfections, the Gnostics as + hastily inferred that it never was instituted by the wisdom of + the Deity. There are some objections against the authority of + Moses and the prophets, which too readily present themselves to + the sceptical mind; though they can only be derived from our + ignorance of remote antiquity, and from our incapacity to form an + adequate judgment of the divine economy. These objections were + eagerly embraced and as petulantly urged by the vain science of + the Gnostics. 26 As those heretics were, for the most part, + averse to the pleasures of sense, they morosely arraigned the + polygamy of the patriarchs, the gallantries of David, and the + seraglio of Solomon. The conquest of the land of Canaan, and the + extirpation of the unsuspecting natives, they were at a loss how + to reconcile with the common notions of humanity and justice. 261 + But when they recollected the sanguinary list of murders, of + executions, and of massacres, which stain almost every page of + the Jewish annals, they acknowledged that the barbarians of + Palestine had exercised as much compassion towards their + idolatrous enemies, as they had ever shown to their friends or + countrymen. 27 Passing from the sectaries of the law to the law + itself, they asserted that it was impossible that a religion + which consisted only of bloody sacrifices and trifling + ceremonies, and whose rewards as well as punishments were all of + a carnal and temporal nature, could inspire the love of virtue, + or restrain the impetuosity of passion. The Mosaic account of the + creation and fall of man was treated with profane derision by the + Gnostics, who would not listen with patience to the repose of the + Deity after six days’ labor, to the rib of Adam, the garden of + Eden, the trees of life and of knowledge, the speaking serpent, + the forbidden fruit, and the condemnation pronounced against + human kind for the venial offence of their first progenitors. 28 + The God of Israel was impiously represented by the Gnostics as a + being liable to passion and to error, capricious in his favor, + implacable in his resentment, meanly jealous of his superstitious + worship, and confining his partial providence to a single people, + and to this transitory life. In such a character they could + discover none of the features of the wise and omnipotent Father + of the universe. 29 They allowed that the religion of the Jews + was somewhat less criminal than the idolatry of the Gentiles; but + it was their fundamental doctrine that the Christ whom they + adored as the first and brightest emanation of the Deity appeared + upon earth to rescue mankind from their various errors, and to + reveal a new system of truth and perfection. The most learned of + the fathers, by a very singular condescension, have imprudently + admitted the sophistry of the Gnostics. 291 Acknowledging that + the literal sense is repugnant to every principle of faith as + well as reason, they deem themselves secure and invulnerable + behind the ample veil of allegory, which they carefully spread + over every tender part of the Mosaic dispensation. 30 + + 26 (return) [ Beausobre, Histoire du Manicheisme, l. i. c. 3, has + stated their objections, particularly those of Faustus, the + adversary of Augustin, with the most learned impartiality.] + + 261 (return) [ On the “war law” of the Jews, see Hist. of Jews, + i. 137.—M.] + + 27 (return) [ Apud ipsos fides obstinata, misericordia in + promptu: adversus amnes alios hostile odium. Tacit. Hist. v. 4. + Surely Tacitus had seen the Jews with too favorable an eye. The + perusal of Josephus must have destroyed the antithesis. * Note: + Few writers have suspected Tacitus of partiality towards the + Jews. The whole later history of the Jews illustrates as well + their strong feelings of humanity to their brethren, as their + hostility to the rest of mankind. The character and the position + of Josephus with the Roman authorities, must be kept in mind + during the perusal of his History. Perhaps he has not exaggerated + the ferocity and fanaticism of the Jews at that time; but + insurrectionary warfare is not the best school for the humaner + virtues, and much must be allowed for the grinding tyranny of the + later Roman governors. See Hist. of Jews, ii. 254.—M.] + + 28 (return) [ Dr. Burnet (Archæologia, l. ii. c. 7) has discussed + the first chapters of Genesis with too much wit and freedom. * + Note: Dr. Burnet apologized for the levity with which he had + conducted some of his arguments, by the excuse that he wrote in a + learned language for scholars alone, not for the vulgar. Whatever + may be thought of his success in tracing an Eastern allegory in + the first chapters of Genesis, his other works prove him to have + been a man of great genius, and of sincere piety.—M] + + 29 (return) [ The milder Gnostics considered Jehovah, the + Creator, as a Being of a mixed nature between God and the Dæmon. + Others confounded him with an evil principle. Consult the second + century of the general history of Mosheim, which gives a very + distinct, though concise, account of their strange opinions on + this subject.] + + 291 (return) [ The Gnostics, and the historian who has stated + these plausible objections with so much force as almost to make + them his own, would have shown a more considerate and not less + reasonable philosophy, if they had considered the religion of + Moses with reference to the age in which it was promulgated; if + they had done justice to its sublime as well as its more + imperfect views of the divine nature; the humane and civilizing + provisions of the Hebrew law, as well as those adapted for an + infant and barbarous people. See Hist of Jews, i. 36, 37, &c.—M.] + + 30 (return) [ See Beausobre, Hist. du Manicheisme, l. i. c. 4. + Origen and St. Augustin were among the allegorists.] + + It has been remarked with more ingenuity than truth, that the + virgin purity of the church was never violated by schism or + heresy before the reign of Trajan or Hadrian, about one hundred + years after the death of Christ. 31 We may observe with much more + propriety, that, during that period, the disciples of the Messiah + were indulged in a freer latitude, both of faith and practice, + than has ever been allowed in succeeding ages. As the terms of + communion were insensibly narrowed, and the spiritual authority + of the prevailing party was exercised with increasing severity, + many of its most respectable adherents, who were called upon to + renounce, were provoked to assert their private opinions, to + pursue the consequences of their mistaken principles, and openly + to erect the standard of rebellion against the unity of the + church. The Gnostics were distinguished as the most polite, the + most learned, and the most wealthy of the Christian name; and + that general appellation, which expressed a superiority of + knowledge, was either assumed by their own pride, or ironically + bestowed by the envy of their adversaries. They were almost + without exception of the race of the Gentiles, and their + principal founders seem to have been natives of Syria or Egypt, + where the warmth of the climate disposes both the mind and the + body to indolent and contemplative devotion. The Gnostics blended + with the faith of Christ many sublime but obscure tenets, which + they derived from oriental philosophy, and even from the religion + of Zoroaster, concerning the eternity of matter, the existence of + two principles, and the mysterious hierarchy of the invisible + world. 32 As soon as they launched out into that vast abyss, they + delivered themselves to the guidance of a disordered imagination; + and as the paths of error are various and infinite, the Gnostics + were imperceptibly divided into more than fifty particular sects, + 33 of whom the most celebrated appear to have been the + Basilidians, the Valentinians, the Marcionites, and, in a still + later period, the Manichæans. Each of these sects could boast of + its bishops and congregations, of its doctors and martyrs; 34 + and, instead of the Four Gospels adopted by the church, 341 the + heretics produced a multitude of histories, in which the actions + and discourses of Christ and of his apostles were adapted to + their respective tenets. 35 The success of the Gnostics was rapid + and extensive. 36 They covered Asia and Egypt, established + themselves in Rome, and sometimes penetrated into the provinces + of the West. For the most part they arose in the second century, + flourished during the third, and were suppressed in the fourth or + fifth, by the prevalence of more fashionable controversies, and + by the superior ascendant of the reigning power. Though they + constantly disturbed the peace, and frequently disgraced the + name, of religion, they contributed to assist rather than to + retard the progress of Christianity. The Gentile converts, whose + strongest objections and prejudices were directed against the law + of Moses, could find admission into many Christian societies, + which required not from their untutored mind any belief of an + antecedent revelation. Their faith was insensibly fortified and + enlarged, and the church was ultimately benefited by the + conquests of its most inveterate enemies. 37 + + 31 (return) [ Hegesippus, ap. Euseb. l. iii. 32, iv. 22. Clemens + Alexandrin Stromat. vii. 17. * Note: The assertion of Hegesippus + is not so positive: it is sufficient to read the whole passage in + Eusebius, to see that the former part is modified by the matter. + Hegesippus adds, that up to this period the church had remained + pure and immaculate as a virgin. Those who labored to corrupt the + doctrines of the gospel worked as yet in obscurity—G] + + 32 (return) [ In the account of the Gnostics of the second and + third centuries, Mosheim is ingenious and candid; Le Clerc dull, + but exact; Beausobre almost always an apologist; and it is much + to be feared that the primitive fathers are very frequently + calumniators. * Note The Histoire du Gnosticisme of M. Matter is + at once the fairest and most complete account of these sects.—M.] + + 33 (return) [ See the catalogues of Irenæus and Epiphanius. It + must indeed be allowed, that those writers were inclined to + multiply the number of sects which opposed the unity of the + church.] + + 34 (return) [ Eusebius, l. iv. c. 15. Sozomen, l. ii. c. 32. See + in Bayle, in the article of Marcion, a curious detail of a + dispute on that subject. It should seem that some of the Gnostics + (the Basilidians) declined, and even refused the honor of + Martyrdom. Their reasons were singular and abstruse. See Mosheim, + p. 539.] + + 341 (return) [ M. Hahn has restored the Marcionite Gospel with + great ingenuity. His work is reprinted in Thilo. Codex. Apoc. + Nov. Test. vol. i.—M.] + + 35 (return) [ See a very remarkable passage of Origen, (Proem. ad + Lucam.) That indefatigable writer, who had consumed his life in + the study of the Scriptures, relies for their authenticity on the + inspired authority of the church. It was impossible that the + Gnostics could receive our present Gospels, many parts of which + (particularly in the resurrection of Christ) are directly, and as + it might seem designedly, pointed against their favorite tenets. + It is therefore somewhat singular that Ignatius (Epist. ad Smyrn. + Patr. Apostol. tom. ii. p. 34) should choose to employ a vague + and doubtful tradition, instead of quoting the certain testimony + of the evangelists. Note: Bishop Pearson has attempted very + happily to explain this singularity.’ The first Christians were + acquainted with a number of sayings of Jesus Christ, which are + not related in our Gospels, and indeed have never been written. + Why might not St. Ignatius, who had lived with the apostles or + their disciples, repeat in other words that which St. Luke has + related, particularly at a time when, being in prison, he could + have the Gospels at hand? Pearson, Vind Ign. pp. 2, 9 p. 396 in + tom. ii. Patres Apost. ed. Coteler—G.] + + 36 (return) [ Faciunt favos et vespæ; faciunt ecclesias et + Marcionitæ, is the strong expression of Tertullian, which I am + obliged to quote from memory. In the time of Epiphanius (advers. + Hæreses, p. 302) the Marcionites were very numerous in Italy, + Syria, Egypt, Arabia, and Persia.] + + 37 (return) [ Augustin is a memorable instance of this gradual + progress from reason to faith. He was, during several years, + engaged in the Manichæar sect.] + + But whatever difference of opinion might subsist between the + Orthodox, the Ebionites, and the Gnostics, concerning the + divinity or the obligation of the Mosaic law, they were all + equally animated by the same exclusive zeal, and by the same + abhorrence for idolatry, which had distinguished the Jews from + the other nations of the ancient world. The philosopher, who + considered the system of polytheism as a composition of human + fraud and error, could disguise a smile of contempt under the + mask of devotion, without apprehending that either the mockery, + or the compliance, would expose him to the resentment of any + invisible, or, as he conceived them, imaginary powers. But the + established religions of Paganism were seen by the primitive + Christians in a much more odious and formidable light. It was the + universal sentiment both of the church and of heretics, that the + dæmons were the authors, the patrons, and the objects of + idolatry. 38 Those rebellious spirits who had been degraded from + the rank of angels, and cast down into the infernal pit, were + still permitted to roam upon earth, to torment the bodies, and to + seduce the minds, of sinful men. The dæmons soon discovered and + abused the natural propensity of the human heart towards + devotion, and artfully withdrawing the adoration of mankind from + their Creator, they usurped the place and honors of the Supreme + Deity. By the success of their malicious contrivances, they at + once gratified their own vanity and revenge, and obtained the + only comfort of which they were yet susceptible, the hope of + involving the human species in the participation of their guilt + and misery. It was confessed, or at least it was imagined, that + they had distributed among themselves the most important + characters of polytheism, one dæmon assuming the name and + attributes of Jupiter, another of Æsculapius, a third of Venus, + and a fourth perhaps of Apollo; 39 and that, by the advantage of + their long experience and ærial nature, they were enabled to + execute, with sufficient skill and dignity, the parts which they + had undertaken. They lurked in the temples, instituted festivals + and sacrifices, invented fables, pronounced oracles, and were + frequently allowed to perform miracles. The Christians, who, by + the interposition of evil spirits, could so readily explain every + præternatural appearance, were disposed and even desirous to + admit the most extravagant fictions of the Pagan mythology. But + the belief of the Christian was accompanied with horror. The most + trifling mark of respect to the national worship he considered as + a direct homage yielded to the dæmon, and as an act of rebellion + against the majesty of God. + + 38 (return) [ The unanimous sentiment of the primitive church is + very clearly explained by Justin Martyr, Apolog. Major, by + Athenagoras, Legat. c. 22. &c., and by Lactantius, Institut. + Divin. ii. 14—19.] + + 39 (return) [ Tertullian (Apolog. c. 23) alleges the confession + of the dæmons themselves as often as they were tormented by the + Christian exorcists] + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part III. + + In consequence of this opinion, it was the first but arduous duty + of a Christian to preserve himself pure and undefiled by the + practice of idolatry. The religion of the nations was not merely + a speculative doctrine professed in the schools or preached in + the temples. The innumerable deities and rites of polytheism were + closely interwoven with every circumstance of business or + pleasure, of public or of private life, and it seemed impossible + to escape the observance of them, without, at the same time, + renouncing the commerce of mankind, and all the offices and + amusements of society. 40 The important transactions of peace and + war were prepared or concluded by solemn sacrifices, in which the + magistrate, the senator, and the soldier, were obliged to preside + or to participate. 41 The public spectacles were an essential + part of the cheerful devotion of the Pagans, and the gods were + supposed to accept, as the most grateful offering, the games that + the prince and people celebrated in honor of their peculiar + festivals. 42 The Christians, who with pious horror avoided the + abomination of the circus or the theatre, found himself + encompassed with infernal snares in every convivial + entertainment, as often as his friends, invoking the hospitable + deities, poured out libations to each other’s happiness. 43 When + the bride, struggling with well-affected reluctance, was forced + in hymenæal pomp over the threshold of her new habitation, 44 or + when the sad procession of the dead slowly moved towards the + funeral pile, 45 the Christian, on these interesting occasions, + was compelled to desert the persons who were the dearest to him, + rather than contract the guilt inherent to those impious + ceremonies. Every art and every trade that was in the least + concerned in the framing or adorning of idols was polluted by the + stain of idolatry; 46 a severe sentence, since it devoted to + eternal misery the far greater part of the community, which is + employed in the exercise of liberal or mechanic professions. If + we cast our eyes over the numerous remains of antiquity, we shall + perceive, that besides the immediate representations of the gods, + and the holy instruments of their worship, the elegant forms and + agreeable fictions consecrated by the imagination of the Greeks, + were introduced as the richest ornaments of the houses, the + dress, and the furniture of the Pagans. 47 Even the arts of music + and painting, of eloquence and poetry, flowed from the same + impure origin. In the style of the fathers, Apollo and the Muses + were the organs of the infernal spirit; Homer and Virgil were the + most eminent of his servants; and the beautiful mythology which + pervades and animates the compositions of their genius, is + destined to celebrate the glory of the dæmons. Even the common + language of Greece and Rome abounded with familiar but impious + expressions, which the imprudent Christian might too carelessly + utter, or too patiently hear. 48 + + 40 (return) [ Tertullian has written a most severe treatise + against idolatry, to caution his brethren against the hourly + danger of incurring that guilt. Recogita sylvam, et quantæ + latitant spinæ. De Corona Militis, c. 10.] + + 41 (return) [ The Roman senate was always held in a temple or + consecrated place. (Aulus Gellius, xiv. 7.) Before they entered + on business, every senator dropped some wine and frankincense on + the altar. Sueton. in August. c. 35.] + + 42 (return) [ See Tertullian, De Spectaculis. This severe + reformer shows no more indulgence to a tragedy of Euripides, than + to a combat of gladiators. The dress of the actors particularly + offends him. By the use of the lofty buskin, they impiously + strive to add a cubit to their stature. c. 23.] + + 43 (return) [ The ancient practice of concluding the + entertainment with libations, may be found in every classic. + Socrates and Seneca, in their last moments, made a noble + application of this custom. Postquam stagnum, calidæ aquæ + introiit, respergens proximos servorum, addita voce, libare se + liquorem illum Jovi Liberatori. Tacit. Annal. xv. 64.] + + 44 (return) [ See the elegant but idolatrous hymn of Catullus, on + the nuptials of Manlius and Julia. O Hymen, Hymenæe Io! Quis huic + Deo compararier ausit?] + + 45 (return) [ The ancient funerals (in those of Misenus and + Pallas) are no less accurately described by Virgil, than they are + illustrated by his commentator Servius. The pile itself was an + altar, the flames were fed with the blood of victims, and all the + assistants were sprinkled with lustral water.] + + 46 (return) [ Tertullian de Idololatria, c. 11. * Note: The + exaggerated and declamatory opinions of Tertullian ought not to + be taken as the general sentiment of the early Christians. Gibbon + has too often allowed himself to consider the peculiar notions of + certain Fathers of the Church as inherent in Christianity. This + is not accurate.—G.] + + 47 (return) [ See every part of Montfaucon’s Antiquities. Even + the reverses of the Greek and Roman coins were frequently of an + idolatrous nature. Here indeed the scruples of the Christian were + suspended by a stronger passion. Note: All this scrupulous nicety + is at variance with the decision of St. Paul about meat offered + to idols, 1, Cor. x. 21— 32.—M.] + + 48 (return) [ Tertullian de Idololatria, c. 20, 21, 22. If a + Pagan friend (on the occasion perhaps of sneezing) used the + familiar expression of “Jupiter bless you,” the Christian was + obliged to protest against the divinity of Jupiter.] + + The dangerous temptations which on every side lurked in ambush to + surprise the unguarded believer, assailed him with redoubled + violence on the days of solemn festivals. So artfully were they + framed and disposed throughout the year, that superstition always + wore the appearance of pleasure, and often of virtue. Some of the + most sacred festivals in the Roman ritual were destined to salute + the new calends of January with vows of public and private + felicity; to indulge the pious remembrance of the dead and + living; to ascertain the inviolable bounds of property; to hail, + on the return of spring, the genial powers of fecundity; to + perpetuate the two memorable æras of Rome, the foundation of the + city and that of the republic; and to restore, during the humane + license of the Saturnalia, the primitive equality of mankind. + Some idea may be conceived of the abhorrence of the Christians + for such impious ceremonies, by the scrupulous delicacy which + they displayed on a much less alarming occasion. On days of + general festivity it was the custom of the ancients to adorn + their doors with lamps and with branches of laurel, and to crown + their heads with a garland of flowers. This innocent and elegant + practice might perhaps have been tolerated as a mere civil + institution. But it most unluckily happened that the doors were + under the protection of the household gods, that the laurel was + sacred to the lover of Daphne, and that garlands of flowers, + though frequently worn as a symbol either of joy or mourning, had + been dedicated in their first origin to the service of + superstition. The trembling Christians, who were persuaded in + this instance to comply with the fashion of their country, and + the commands of the magistrate, labored under the most gloomy + apprehensions, from the reproaches of his own conscience, the + censures of the church, and the denunciations of divine + vengeance. 49 50 + + 49 (return) [ Consult the most labored work of Ovid, his + imperfect Fasti. He finished no more than the first six months of + the year. The compilation of Macrobius is called the Saturnalia, + but it is only a small part of the first book that bears any + relation to the title.] + + 50 (return) [ Tertullian has composed a defence, or rather + panegyric, of the rash action of a Christian soldier, who, by + throwing away his crown of laurel, had exposed himself and his + brethren to the most imminent danger. By the mention of the + emperors, (Severus and Caracalla,) it is evident, notwithstanding + the wishes of M. de Tillemont, that Tertullian composed his + treatise De Corona long before he was engaged in the errors of + the Montanists. See Memoires Ecclesiastiques, tom. iii. p. 384. + Note: The soldier did not tear off his crown to throw it down + with contempt; he did not even throw it away; he held it in his + hand, while others were it on their heads. Solus libero capite, + ornamento in manu otioso.—G Note: Tertullian does not expressly + name the two emperors, Severus and Caracalla: he speaks only of + two emperors, and of a long peace which the church had enjoyed. + It is generally agreed that Tertullian became a Montanist about + the year 200: his work, de Corona Militis, appears to have been + written, at the earliest about the year 202 before the + persecution of Severus: it may be maintained, then, that it is + subsequent to the Montanism of the author. See Mosheim, Diss. de + Apol. Tertull. p. 53. Biblioth. Amsterd. tom. x. part ii. p. 292. + Cave’s Hist. Lit. p. 92, 93.—G. ——The state of Tertullian’s + opinions at the particular period is almost an idle question. + “The fiery African” is not at any time to be considered a fair + representative of Christianity.—M.] + + Such was the anxious diligence which was required to guard the + chastity of the gospel from the infectious breath of idolatry. + The superstitious observances of public or private rites were + carelessly practised, from education and habit, by the followers + of the established religion. But as often as they occurred, they + afforded the Christians an opportunity of declaring and + confirming their zealous opposition. By these frequent + protestations their attachment to the faith was continually + fortified; and in proportion to the increase of zeal, they + combated with the more ardor and success in the holy war, which + they had undertaken against the empire of the demons. + + II. The writings of Cicero 51 represent in the most lively colors + the ignorance, the errors, and the uncertainty of the ancient + philosophers with regard to the immortality of the soul. When + they are desirous of arming their disciples against the fear of + death, they inculcate, as an obvious though melancholy position, + that the fatal stroke of our dissolution releases us from the + calamities of life; and that those can no longer suffer, who no + longer exist. Yet there were a few sages of Greece and Rome who + had conceived a more exalted, and, in some respects, a juster + idea of human nature, though it must be confessed, that in the + sublime inquiry, their reason had been often guided by their + imagination, and that their imagination had been prompted by + their vanity. When they viewed with complacency the extent of + their own mental powers, when they exercised the various + faculties of memory, of fancy, and of judgment, in the most + profound speculations, or the most important labors, and when + they reflected on the desire of fame, which transported them into + future ages, far beyond the bounds of death and of the grave, + they were unwilling to confound themselves with the beasts of the + field, or to suppose that a being, for whose dignity they + entertained the most sincere admiration, could be limited to a + spot of earth, and to a few years of duration. With this + favorable prepossession they summoned to their aid the science, + or rather the language, of Metaphysics. They soon discovered, + that as none of the properties of matter will apply to the + operations of the mind, the human soul must consequently be a + substance distinct from the body, pure, simple, and spiritual, + incapable of dissolution, and susceptible of a much higher degree + of virtue and happiness after the release from its corporeal + prison. From these specious and noble principles, the + philosophers who trod in the footsteps of Plato deduced a very + unjustifiable conclusion, since they asserted, not only the + future immortality, but the past eternity, of the human soul, + which they were too apt to consider as a portion of the infinite + and self-existing spirit, which pervades and sustains the + universe. 52 A doctrine thus removed beyond the senses and the + experience of mankind might serve to amuse the leisure of a + philosophic mind; or, in the silence of solitude, it might + sometimes impart a ray of comfort to desponding virtue; but the + faint impression which had been received in the schools was soon + obliterated by the commerce and business of active life. We are + sufficiently acquainted with the eminent persons who flourished + in the age of Cicero and of the first Cæsars, with their actions, + their characters, and their motives, to be assured that their + conduct in this life was never regulated by any serious + conviction of the rewards or punishments of a future state. At + the bar and in the senate of Rome the ablest orators were not + apprehensive of giving offence to their hearers by exposing that + doctrine as an idle and extravagant opinion, which was rejected + with contempt by every man of a liberal education and + understanding. 53 + + 51 (return) [ In particular, the first book of the Tusculan + Questions, and the treatise De Senectute, and the Somnium + Scipionis, contain, in the most beautiful language, every thing + that Grecian philosophy, on Roman good sense, could possibly + suggest on this dark but important object.] + + 52 (return) [ The preexistence of human souls, so far at least as + that doctrine is compatible with religion, was adopted by many of + the Greek and Latin fathers. See Beausobre, Hist. du Manicheisme, + l. vi. c. 4.] + + 53 (return) [ See Cicero pro Cluent. c. 61. Cæsar ap. Sallust. de + Bell. Catilis n 50. Juvenal. Satir. ii. 149. ——Esse aliquid + manes, et subterranea regna, —————Nec pueri credunt, nisi qui + nondum æree lavantæ.] + + Since therefore the most sublime efforts of philosophy can extend + no further than feebly to point out the desire, the hope, or, at + most, the probability, of a future state, there is nothing, + except a divine revelation, that can ascertain the existence and + describe the condition, of the invisible country which is + destined to receive the souls of men after their separation from + the body. But we may perceive several defects inherent to the + popular religions of Greece and Rome, which rendered them very + unequal to so arduous a task. 1. The general system of their + mythology was unsupported by any solid proofs; and the wisest + among the Pagans had already disclaimed its usurped authority. 2. + The description of the infernal regions had been abandoned to the + fancy of painters and of poets, who peopled them with so many + phantoms and monsters, who dispensed their rewards and + punishments with so little equity, that a solemn truth, the most + congenial to the human heart, was oppressed and disgraced by the + absurd mixture of the wildest fictions. 54 3. The doctrine of a + future state was scarcely considered among the devout polytheists + of Greece and Rome as a fundamental article of faith. The + providence of the gods, as it related to public communities + rather than to private individuals, was principally displayed on + the visible theatre of the present world. The petitions which + were offered on the altars of Jupiter or Apollo expressed the + anxiety of their worshippers for temporal happiness, and their + ignorance or indifference concerning a future life. 55 The + important truth of the immortality of the soul was inculcated + with more diligence, as well as success, in India, in Assyria, in + Egypt, and in Gaul; and since we cannot attribute such a + difference to the superior knowledge of the barbarians, we must + ascribe it to the influence of an established priesthood, which + employed the motives of virtue as the instrument of ambition. 56 + + 54 (return) [ The xith book of the Odyssey gives a very dreary + and incoherent account of the infernal shades. Pindar and Virgil + have embellished the picture; but even those poets, though more + correct than their great model, are guilty of very strange + inconsistencies. See Bayle, Responses aux Questions d’un + Provincial, part iii. c. 22.] + + 55 (return) [ See xvith epistle of the first book of Horace, the + xiiith Satire of Juvenal, and the iid Satire of Persius: these + popular discourses express the sentiment and language of the + multitude.] + + 56 (return) [ If we confine ourselves to the Gauls, we may + observe, that they intrusted, not only their lives, but even + their money, to the security of another world. Vetus ille mos + Gallorum occurrit (says Valerius Maximus, l. ii. c. 6, p. 10) + quos, memoria proditum est pecunias montuas, quæ his apud inferos + redderentur, dare solitos. The same custom is more darkly + insinuated by Mela, l. iii. c. 2. It is almost needless to add, + that the profits of trade hold a just proportion to the credit of + the merchant, and that the Druids derived from their holy + profession a character of responsibility, which could scarcely be + claimed by any other order of men.] + + We might naturally expect that a principle so essential to + religion, would have been revealed in the clearest terms to the + chosen people of Palestine, and that it might safely have been + intrusted to the hereditary priesthood of Aaron. It is incumbent + on us to adore the mysterious dispensations of Providence, 57 + when we discover that the doctrine of the immortality of the soul + is omitted in the law of Moses; it is darkly insinuated by the + prophets; and during the long period which elapsed between the + Egyptian and the Babylonian servitudes, the hopes as well as + fears of the Jews appear to have been confined within the narrow + compass of the present life. 58 After Cyrus had permitted the + exiled nation to return into the promised land, and after Ezra + had restored the ancient records of their religion, two + celebrated sects, the Sadducees and the Pharisees, insensibly + arose at Jerusalem. 59 The former, selected from the more opulent + and distinguished ranks of society, were strictly attached to the + literal sense of the Mosaic law, and they piously rejected the + immortality of the soul, as an opinion that received no + countenance from the divine book, which they revered as the only + rule of their faith. To the authority of Scripture the Pharisees + added that of tradition, and they accepted, under the name of + traditions, several speculative tenets from the philosophy or + religion of the eastern nations. The doctrines of fate or + predestination, of angels and spirits, and of a future state of + rewards and punishments, were in the number of these new articles + of belief; and as the Pharisees, by the austerity of their + manners, had drawn into their party the body of the Jewish + people, the immortality of the soul became the prevailing + sentiment of the synagogue, under the reign of the Asmonæan + princes and pontiffs. The temper of the Jews was incapable of + contenting itself with such a cold and languid assent as might + satisfy the mind of a Polytheist; and as soon as they admitted + the idea of a future state, they embraced it with the zeal which + has always formed the characteristic of the nation. Their zeal, + however, added nothing to its evidence, or even probability: and + it was still necessary that the doctrine of life and immortality, + which had been dictated by nature, approved by reason, and + received by superstition, should obtain the sanction of divine + truth from the authority and example of Christ. + + 57 (return) [ The right reverend author of the Divine Legation of + Moses as signs a very curious reason for the omission, and most + ingeniously retorts it on the unbelievers. * Note: The hypothesis + of Warburton concerning this remarkable fact, which, as far as + the Law of Moses, is unquestionable, made few disciples; and it + is difficult to suppose that it could be intended by the author + himself for more than a display of intellectual strength. Modern + writers have accounted in various ways for the silence of the + Hebrew legislator on the immortality of the soul. According to + Michaelis, “Moses wrote as an historian and as a lawgiver; he + regulated the ecclesiastical discipline, rather than the + religious belief of his people; and the sanctions of the law + being temporal, he had no occasion, and as a civil legislator + could not with propriety, threaten punishments in another world.” + See Michaelis, Laws of Moses, art. 272, vol. iv. p. 209, Eng. + Trans.; and Syntagma Commentationum, p. 80, quoted by Guizot. M. + Guizot adds, the “ingenious conjecture of a philosophic + theologian,” which approximates to an opinion long entertained by + the Editor. That writer believes, that in the state of + civilization at the time of the legislator, this doctrine, become + popular among the Jews, would necessarily have given birth to a + multitude of idolatrous superstitions which he wished to prevent. + His primary object was to establish a firm theocracy, to make his + people the conservators of the doctrine of the Divine Unity, the + basis upon which Christianity was hereafter to rest. He carefully + excluded everything which could obscure or weaken that doctrine. + Other nations had strangely abused their notions on the + immortality of the soul; Moses wished to prevent this abuse: + hence he forbade the Jews from consulting necromancers, (those + who evoke the spirits of the dead.) Deut. xviii. 11. Those who + reflect on the state of the Pagans and the Jews, and on the + facility with which idolatry crept in on every side, will not be + astonished that Moses has not developed a doctrine of which the + influence might be more pernicious than useful to his people. + Orat. Fest. de Vitæ Immort. Spe., &c., auct. Ph. Alb. Stapfer, p. + 12 13, 20. Berne, 1787. ——Moses, as well from the intimations + scattered in his writings, the passage relating to the + translation of Enoch, (Gen. v. 24,) the prohibition of + necromancy, (Michaelis believes him to be the author of the Book + of Job though this opinion is in general rejected; other learned + writers consider this Book to be coeval with and known to Moses,) + as from his long residence in Egypt, and his acquaintance with + Egyptian wisdom, could not be ignorant of the doctrine of the + immortality of the soul. But this doctrine if popularly known + among the Jews, must have been purely Egyptian, and as so, + intimately connected with the whole religious system of that + country. It was no doubt moulded up with the tenet of the + transmigration of the soul, perhaps with notions analogous to the + emanation system of India in which the human soul was an efflux + from or indeed a part of, the Deity. The Mosaic religion drew a + wide and impassable interval between the Creator and created + human beings: in this it differed from the Egyptian and all the + Eastern religions. As then the immortality of the soul was thus + inseparably blended with those foreign religions which were + altogether to be effaced from the minds of the people, and by no + means necessary for the establishment of the theocracy, Moses + maintained silence on this point and a purer notion of it was + left to be developed at a more favorable period in the history of + man.—M.] + + 58 (return) [ See Le Clerc (Prolegomena ad Hist. Ecclesiast. + sect. 1, c. 8) His authority seems to carry the greater weight, + as he has written a learned and judicious commentary on the books + of the Old Testament.] + + 59 (return) [ Joseph. Antiquitat. l. xiii. c. 10. De Bell. Jud. + ii. 8. According to the most natural interpretation of his words, + the Sadducees admitted only the Pentateuch; but it has pleased + some modern critics to add the Prophets to their creed, and to + suppose that they contented themselves with rejecting the + traditions of the Pharisees. Dr. Jortin has argued that point in + his Remarks on Ecclesiastical History, vol. ii. p. 103.] + + When the promise of eternal happiness was proposed to mankind on + condition of adopting the faith, and of observing the precepts, + of the gospel, it is no wonder that so advantageous an offer + should have been accepted by great numbers of every religion, of + every rank, and of every province in the Roman empire. The + ancient Christians were animated by a contempt for their present + existence, and by a just confidence of immortality, of which the + doubtful and imperfect faith of modern ages cannot give us any + adequate notion. In the primitive church, the influence of truth + was very powerfully strengthened by an opinion, which, however it + may deserve respect for its usefulness and antiquity, has not + been found agreeable to experience. It was universally believed, + that the end of the world, and the kingdom of heaven, were at + hand. 591 The near approach of this wonderful event had been + predicted by the apostles; the tradition of it was preserved by + their earliest disciples, and those who understood in their + literal senses the discourse of Christ himself, were obliged to + expect the second and glorious coming of the Son of Man in the + clouds, before that generation was totally extinguished, which + had beheld his humble condition upon earth, and which might still + be witness of the calamities of the Jews under Vespasian or + Hadrian. The revolution of seventeen centuries has instructed us + not to press too closely the mysterious language of prophecy and + revelation; but as long as, for wise purposes, this error was + permitted to subsist in the church, it was productive of the most + salutary effects on the faith and practice of Christians, who + lived in the awful expectation of that moment, when the globe + itself, and all the various race of mankind, should tremble at + the appearance of their divine Judge. 60 + + 591 (return) [ This was, in fact, an integral part of the Jewish + notion of the Messiah, from which the minds of the apostles + themselves were but gradually detached. See Bertholdt, + Christologia Judæorum, concluding chapters—M.] + + 60 (return) [ This expectation was countenanced by the + twenty-fourth chapter of St. Matthew, and by the first epistle of + St. Paul to the Thessalonians. Erasmus removes the difficulty by + the help of allegory and metaphor; and the learned Grotius + ventures to insinuate, that, for wise purposes, the pious + deception was permitted to take place. * Note: Some modern + theologians explain it without discovering either allegory or + deception. They say, that Jesus Christ, after having proclaimed + the ruin of Jerusalem and of the Temple, speaks of his second + coming and the sings which were to precede it; but those who + believed that the moment was near deceived themselves as to the + sense of two words, an error which still subsists in our versions + of the Gospel according to St. Matthew, xxiv. 29, 34. In verse + 29, we read, “Immediately after the tribulation of those days + shall the sun be darkened,” &c. The Greek word signifies all at + once, suddenly, not immediately; so that it signifies only the + sudden appearance of the signs which Jesus Christ announces not + the shortness of the interval which was to separate them from the + “days of tribulation,” of which he was speaking. The verse 34 is + this “Verily I say unto you, This generation shall not pass till + all these things shall be fulfilled.” Jesus, speaking to his + disciples, uses these words, which the translators have rendered + by this generation, but which means the race, the filiation of my + disciples; that is, he speaks of a class of men, not of a + generation. The true sense then, according to these learned men, + is, In truth I tell you that this race of men, of which you are + the commencement, shall not pass away till this shall take place; + that is to say, the succession of Christians shall not cease till + his coming. See Commentary of M. Paulus on the New Test., edit. + 1802, tom. iii. p. 445,—446.—G. ——Others, as Rosenmuller and + Kuinoel, in loc., confine this passage to a highly figurative + description of the ruins of the Jewish city and polity.—M.] + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part IV. + + The ancient and popular doctrine of the Millennium was intimately + connected with the second coming of Christ. As the works of the + creation had been finished in six days, their duration in their + present state, according to a tradition which was attributed to + the prophet Elijah, was fixed to six thousand years. 61 By the + same analogy it was inferred, that this long period of labor and + contention, which was now almost elapsed, 62 would be succeeded + by a joyful Sabbath of a thousand years; and that Christ, with + the triumphant band of the saints and the elect who had escaped + death, or who had been miraculously revived, would reign upon + earth till the time appointed for the last and general + resurrection. So pleasing was this hope to the mind of believers, + that the _New Jerusalem_, the seat of this blissful kingdom, was + quickly adorned with all the gayest colors of the imagination. A + felicity consisting only of pure and spiritual pleasure would + have appeared too refined for its inhabitants, who were still + supposed to possess their human nature and senses. A garden of + Eden, with the amusements of the pastoral life, was no longer + suited to the advanced state of society which prevailed under the + Roman empire. A city was therefore erected of gold and precious + stones, and a supernatural plenty of corn and wine was bestowed + on the adjacent territory; in the free enjoyment of whose + spontaneous productions the happy and benevolent people was never + to be restrained by any jealous laws of exclusive property. 63 + The assurance of such a Millennium was carefully inculcated by a + succession of fathers from Justin Martyr, 64 and Irenæus, who + conversed with the immediate disciples of the apostles, down to + Lactantius, who was preceptor to the son of Constantine. 65 + Though it might not be universally received, it appears to have + been the reigning sentiment of the orthodox believers; and it + seems so well adapted to the desires and apprehensions of + mankind, that it must have contributed in a very considerable + degree to the progress of the Christian faith. But when the + edifice of the church was almost completed, the temporary support + was laid aside. The doctrine of Christ’s reign upon earth was at + first treated as a profound allegory, was considered by degrees + as a doubtful and useless opinion, and was at length rejected as + the absurd invention of heresy and fanaticism. 66 A mysterious + prophecy, which still forms a part of the sacred canon, but which + was thought to favor the exploded sentiment, has very narrowly + escaped the proscription of the church. 67 + + 61 (return) [ See Burnet’s Sacred Theory, part iii. c. 5. This + tradition may be traced as high as the the author of Epistle of + Barnabas, who wrote in the first century, and who seems to have + been half a Jew. * Note: In fact it is purely Jewish. See + Mosheim, De Reb. Christ. ii. 8. Lightfoot’s Works, 8vo. edit. + vol. iii. p. 37. Bertholdt, Christologia Judæorum ch. 38.—M.] + + 62 (return) [ The primitive church of Antioch computed almost + 6000 years from the creation of the world to the birth of Christ. + Africanus, Lactantius, and the Greek church, have reduced that + number to 5500, and Eusebius has contented himself with 5200 + years. These calculations were formed on the Septuagint, which + was universally received during the six first centuries. The + authority of the vulgate and of the Hebrew text has determined + the moderns, Protestants as well as Catholics, to prefer a period + of about 4000 years; though, in the study of profane antiquity, + they often find themselves straitened by those narrow limits. * + Note: Most of the more learned modern English Protestants, Dr. + Hales, Mr. Faber, Dr. Russel, as well as the Continental writers, + adopt the larger chronology. There is little doubt that the + narrower system was framed by the Jews of Tiberias; it was + clearly neither that of St. Paul, nor of Josephus, nor of the + Samaritan Text. It is greatly to be regretted that the chronology + of the earlier Scriptures should ever have been made a religious + question—M.] + + 63 (return) [ Most of these pictures were borrowed from a + misrepresentation of Isaiah, Daniel, and the Apocalypse. One of + the grossest images may be found in Irenæus, (l. v. p. 455,) the + disciple of Papias, who had seen the apostle St. John.] + + 64 (return) [ See the second dialogue of Justin with Triphon, and + the seventh book of Lactantius. It is unnecessary to allege all + the intermediate fathers, as the fact is not disputed. Yet the + curious reader may consult Daille de Uus Patrum, l. ii. c. 4.] + + 65 (return) [ The testimony of Justin of his own faith and that + of his orthodox brethren, in the doctrine of a Millennium, is + delivered in the clearest and most solemn manner, (Dialog. cum + Tryphonte Jud. p. 177, 178, edit. Benedictin.) If in the + beginning of this important passage there is any thing like an + inconsistency, we may impute it, as we think proper, either to + the author or to his transcribers. * Note: The Millenium is + described in what once stood as the XLIst Article of the English + Church (see Collier, Eccles. Hist., for Articles of Edw. VI.) as + “a fable of Jewish dotage.” The whole of these gross and earthly + images may be traced in the works which treat on the Jewish + traditions, in Lightfoot, Schoetgen, and Eisenmenger; “Das + enthdeckte Judenthum” t. ii 809; and briefly in Bertholdt, i. c. + 38, 39.—M.] + + 66 (return) [ Dupin, Bibliotheque Ecclesiastique, tom. i. p. 223, + tom. ii. p. 366, and Mosheim, p. 720; though the latter of these + learned divines is not altogether candid on this occasion.] + + 67 (return) [ In the council of Laodicea, (about the year 360,) + the Apocalypse was tacitly excluded from the sacred canon, by the + same churches of Asia to which it is addressed; and we may learn + from the complaint of Sulpicius Severus, that their sentence had + been ratified by the greater number of Christians of his time. + From what causes then is the Apocalypse at present so generally + received by the Greek, the Roman, and the Protestant churches? + The following ones may be assigned. 1. The Greeks were subdued by + the authority of an impostor, who, in the sixth century, assumed + the character of Dionysius the Areopagite. 2. A just apprehension + that the grammarians might become more important than the + theologians, engaged the council of Trent to fix the seal of + their infallibility on all the books of Scripture contained in + the Latin Vulgate, in the number of which the Apocalypse was + fortunately included. (Fr. Paolo, Istoria del Concilio + Tridentino, l. ii.) 3. The advantage of turning those mysterious + prophecies against the See of Rome, inspired the Protestants with + uncommon veneration for so useful an ally. See the ingenious and + elegant discourses of the present bishop of Litchfield on that + unpromising subject. * Note: The exclusion of the Apocalypse is + not improbably assigned to its obvious unfitness to be read in + churches. It is to be feared that a history of the interpretation + of the Apocalypse would not give a very favorable view either of + the wisdom or the charity of the successive ages of Christianity. + Wetstein’s interpretation, differently modified, is adopted by + most Continental scholars.—M.] + + Whilst the happiness and glory of a temporal reign were promised + to the disciples of Christ, the most dreadful calamities were + denounced against an unbelieving world. The edification of a new + Jerusalem was to advance by equal steps with the destruction of + the mystic Babylon; and as long as the emperors who reigned + before Constantine persisted in the profession of idolatry, the + epithet of Babylon was applied to the city and to the empire of + Rome. A regular series was prepared of all the moral and physical + evils which can afflict a flourishing nation; intestine discord, + and the invasion of the fiercest barbarians from the unknown + regions of the North; pestilence and famine, comets and eclipses, + earthquakes and inundations. 68 All these were only so many + preparatory and alarming signs of the great catastrophe of Rome, + when the country of the Scipios and Cæsars should be consumed by + a flame from Heaven, and the city of the seven hills, with her + palaces, her temples, and her triumphal arches, should be buried + in a vast lake of fire and brimstone. It might, however, afford + some consolation to Roman vanity, that the period of their empire + would be that of the world itself; which, as it had once perished + by the element of water, was destined to experience a second and + a speedy destruction from the element of fire. In the opinion of + a general conflagration, the faith of the Christian very happily + coincided with the tradition of the East, the philosophy of the + Stoics, and the analogy of Nature; and even the country, which, + from religious motives, had been chosen for the origin and + principal scene of the conflagration, was the best adapted for + that purpose by natural and physical causes; by its deep caverns, + beds of sulphur, and numerous volcanoes, of which those of Ætna, + of Vesuvius, and of Lipari, exhibit a very imperfect + representation. The calmest and most intrepid sceptic could not + refuse to acknowledge that the destruction of the present system + of the world by fire was in itself extremely probable. The + Christian, who founded his belief much less on the fallacious + arguments of reason than on the authority of tradition and the + interpretation of Scripture, expected it with terror and + confidence as a certain and approaching event; and as his mind + was perpetually filled with the solemn idea, he considered every + disaster that happened to the empire as an infallible symptom of + an expiring world. 69 + + 68 (return) [ Lactantius (Institut. Divin. vii. 15, &c.) relates + the dismal talk of futurity with great spirit and eloquence. * + Note: Lactantius had a notion of a great Asiatic empire, which + was previously to rise on the ruins of the Roman: quod Romanum + nomen animus dicere, sed dicam. quia futurum est tolletur de + terra, et impere. Asiam revertetur.—M.] + + 69 (return) [ On this subject every reader of taste will be + entertained with the third part of Burnet’s Sacred Theory. He + blends philosophy, Scripture, and tradition, into one magnificent + system; in the description of which he displays a strength of + fancy not inferior to that of Milton himself.] + + The condemnation of the wisest and most virtuous of the Pagans, + on account of their ignorance or disbelief of the divine truth, + seems to offend the reason and the humanity of the present age. + 70 But the primitive church, whose faith was of a much firmer + consistence, delivered over, without hesitation, to eternal + torture, the far greater part of the human species. A charitable + hope might perhaps be indulged in favor of Socrates, or some + other sages of antiquity, who had consulted the light of reason + before that of the gospel had arisen. 71 But it was unanimously + affirmed, that those who, since the birth or the death of Christ, + had obstinately persisted in the worship of the dæmons, neither + deserved nor could expect a pardon from the irritated justice of + the Deity. These rigid sentiments, which had been unknown to the + ancient world, appear to have infused a spirit of bitterness into + a system of love and harmony. The ties of blood and friendship + were frequently torn asunder by the difference of religious + faith; and the Christians, who, in this world, found themselves + oppressed by the power of the Pagans, were sometimes seduced by + resentment and spiritual pride to delight in the prospect of + their future triumph. “You are fond of spectacles,” exclaims the + stern Tertullian; “expect the greatest of all spectacles, the + last and eternal judgment of the universe. 71b How shall I + admire, how laugh, how rejoice, how exult, when I behold so many + proud monarchs, so many fancied gods, groaning in the lowest + abyss of darkness; so many magistrates, who persecuted the name + of the Lord, liquefying in fiercer fires than they ever kindled + against the Christians; so many sage philosophers blushing in + red-hot flames with their deluded scholars; so many celebrated + poets trembling before the tribunal, not of Minos, but of Christ; + so many tragedians, more tuneful in the expression of their own + sufferings; so many dancers.” + + 711 But the humanity of the reader will permit me to draw a veil + over the rest of this infernal description, which the zealous + African pursues in a long variety of affected and unfeeling + witticisms. 72 + + 70 (return) [ And yet whatever may be the language of + individuals, it is still the public doctrine of all the Christian + churches; nor can even our own refuse to admit the conclusions + which must be drawn from the viiith and the xviiith of her + Articles. The Jansenists, who have so diligently studied the + works of the fathers, maintain this sentiment with distinguished + zeal; and the learned M. de Tillemont never dismisses a virtuous + emperor without pronouncing his damnation. Zuinglius is perhaps + the only leader of a party who has ever adopted the milder + sentiment, and he gave no less offence to the Lutherans than to + the Catholics. See Bossuet, Histoire des Variations des Eglises + Protestantes, l. ii. c. 19—22.] + + 71 (return) [ Justin and Clemens of Alexandria allow that some of + the philosophers were instructed by the Logos; confounding its + double signification of the human reason, and of the Divine + Word.] + + 711 (return) [ This translation is not exact: the first sentence + is imperfect. Tertullian says, Ille dies nationibus insperatus, + ille derisus, cum tanta sacculi vetustas et tot ejus nativitates + uno igne haurientur. The text does not authorize the exaggerated + expressions, so many magistrates, so many sago philosophers, so + many poets, &c.; but simply magistrates, philosophers, poets.—G. + —It is not clear that Gibbon’s version or paraphrase is + incorrect: Tertullian writes, tot tantosque reges item præsides, + &c.—M.] + + 71b (return) [Tertullian, de Spectaculis, c. 30. In order to + ascertain the degree of authority which the zealous African had + acquired it may be sufficient to allege the testimony of Cyprian, + the doctor and guide of all the western churches. (See Prudent. + Hym. xiii. 100.) As often as he applied himself to his daily + study of the writings of Tertullian, he was accustomed to say, + “Da mihi magistrum, Give me my master.” (Hieronym. de Viris + Illustribus, tom. i. p. 284.)] + + 72 (return) [ The object of Tertullian’s vehemence in his + Treatise, was to keep the Christians away from the secular games + celebrated by the Emperor Severus: It has not prevented him from + showing himself in other places full of benevolence and charity + towards unbelievers: the spirit of the gospel has sometimes + prevailed over the violence of human passions: Qui ergo putaveris + nihil nos de salute Cæsaris curare (he says in his Apology) + inspice Dei voces, literas nostras. Scitote ex illis præceptum + esse nobis ad redudantionem, benignitates etiam pro inimicis Deum + orare, et pro persecutoribus cona precari. Sed etiam nominatim + atque manifeste orate inquit (Christus) pro regibus et pro + principibus et potestatibus ut omnia sint tranquilla vobis Tert. + Apol. c. 31.—G. ——It would be wiser for Christianity, retreating + upon its genuine records in the New Testament, to disclaim this + fierce African, than to identify itself with his furious + invectives by unsatisfactory apologies for their unchristian + fanaticism.—M.] + + Doubtless there were many among the primitive Christians of a + temper more suitable to the meekness and charity of their + profession. There were many who felt a sincere compassion for the + danger of their friends and countrymen, and who exerted the most + benevolent zeal to save them from the impending destruction. + + The careless Polytheist, assailed by new and unexpected terrors, + against which neither his priests nor his philosophers could + afford him any certain protection, was very frequently terrified + and subdued by the menace of eternal tortures. His fears might + assist the progress of his faith and reason; and if he could once + persuade himself to suspect that the Christian religion might + possibly be true, it became an easy task to convince him that it + was the safest and most prudent party that he could possibly + embrace. + + III. The supernatural gifts, which even in this life were + ascribed to the Christians above the rest of mankind, must have + conduced to their own comfort, and very frequently to the + conviction of infidels. Besides the occasional prodigies, which + might sometimes be effected by the immediate interposition of the + Deity when he suspended the laws of Nature for the service of + religion, the Christian church, from the time of the apostles and + their first disciples, 73 has claimed an uninterrupted succession + of miraculous powers, the gift of tongues, of vision, and of + prophecy, the power of expelling dæmons, of healing the sick, and + of raising the dead. The knowledge of foreign languages was + frequently communicated to the contemporaries of Irenæus, though + Irenæus himself was left to struggle with the difficulties of a + barbarous dialect, whilst he preached the gospel to the natives + of Gaul. 74 The divine inspiration, whether it was conveyed in + the form of a waking or of a sleeping vision, is described as a + favor very liberally bestowed on all ranks of the faithful, on + women as on elders, on boys as well as upon bishops. When their + devout minds were sufficiently prepared by a course of prayer, of + fasting, and of vigils, to receive the extraordinary impulse, + they were transported out of their senses, and delivered in + ecstasy what was inspired, being mere organs of the Holy Spirit, + just as a pipe or flute is of him who blows into it. 75 We may + add, that the design of these visions was, for the most part, + either to disclose the future history, or to guide the present + administration, of the church. The expulsion of the dæmons from + the bodies of those unhappy persons whom they had been permitted + to torment, was considered as a signal though ordinary triumph of + religion, and is repeatedly alleged by the ancient apoligists, as + the most convincing evidence of the truth of Christianity. The + awful ceremony was usually performed in a public manner, and in + the presence of a great number of spectators; the patient was + relieved by the power or skill of the exorcist, and the + vanquished dæmon was heard to confess that he was one of the + fabled gods of antiquity, who had impiously usurped the adoration + of mankind. 76 But the miraculous cure of diseases of the most + inveterate or even preternatural kind can no longer occasion any + surprise, when we recollect, that in the days of Irenæus, about + the end of the second century, the resurrection of the dead was + very far from being esteemed an uncommon event; that the miracle + was frequently performed on necessary occasions, by great fasting + and the joint supplication of the church of the place, and that + the persons thus restored to their prayers had lived afterwards + among them many years. 77 At such a period, when faith could + boast of so many wonderful victories over death, it seems + difficult to account for the scepticism of those philosophers, + who still rejected and derided the doctrine of the resurrection. + A noble Grecian had rested on this important ground the whole + controversy, and promised Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, that if + he could be gratified with the sight of a single person who had + been actually raised from the dead, he would immediately embrace + the Christian religion. It is somewhat remarkable, that the + prelate of the first eastern church, however anxious for the + conversion of his friend, thought proper to decline this fair and + reasonable challenge. 78 + + 73 (return) [ Notwithstanding the evasions of Dr. Middleton, it + is impossible to overlook the clear traces of visions and + inspiration, which may be found in the apostolic fathers. * Note: + Gibbon should have noticed the distinct and remarkable passage + from Chrysostom, quoted by Middleton, (Works, vol. i. p. 105,) in + which he affirms the long discontinuance of miracles as a + notorious fact.—M.] + + 74 (return) [ Irenæus adv. Hæres. Proem. p.3 Dr. Middleton (Free + Inquiry, p. 96, &c.) observes, that as this pretension of all + others was the most difficult to support by art, it was the + soonest given up. The observation suits his hypothesis. * Note: + This passage of Irenæus contains no allusion to the gift of + tongues; it is merely an apology for a rude and unpolished Greek + style, which could not be expected from one who passed his life + in a remote and barbarous province, and was continually obliged + to speak the Celtic language.—M. Note: Except in the life of + Pachomius, an Egyptian monk of the fourth century. (see Jortin, + Ecc. Hist. i. p. 368, edit. 1805,) and the latter (not earlier) + lives of Xavier, there is no claim laid to the gift of tongues + since the time of Irenæus; and of this claim, Xavier’s own + letters are profoundly silent. See Douglas’s Criterion, p. 76 + edit. 1807.—M.] + + 75 (return) [ Athenagoras in Legatione. Justin Martyr, Cohort. ad + Gentes Tertullian advers. Marcionit. l. iv. These descriptions + are not very unlike the prophetic fury, for which Cicero (de + Divinat.ii. 54) expresses so little reverence.] + + 76 (return) [ Tertullian (Apolog. c. 23) throws out a bold + defiance to the Pagan magistrates. Of the primitive miracles, the + power of exorcising is the only one which has been assumed by + Protestants. * Note: But by Protestants neither of the most + enlightened ages nor most reasoning minds.—M.] + + 77 (return) [ Irenæus adv. Hæreses, l. ii. 56, 57, l. v. c. 6. + Mr. Dodwell (Dissertat. ad Irenæum, ii. 42) concludes, that the + second century was still more fertile in miracles than the first. + * Note: It is difficult to answer Middleton’s objection to this + statement of Irenæus: “It is very strange, that from the time of + the apostles there is not a single instance of this miracle to be + found in the three first centuries; except a single case, + slightly intimated in Eusebius, from the Works of Papias; which + he seems to rank among the other fabulous stories delivered by + that weak man.” Middleton, Works, vol. i. p. 59. Bp. Douglas + (Criterion, p 389) would consider Irenæus to speak of what had + “been performed formerly.” not in his own time.—M.] + + 78 (return) [ Theophilus ad Autolycum, l. i. p. 345. Edit. + Benedictin. Paris, 1742. * Note: A candid sceptic might discern + some impropriety in the Bishop being called upon to perform a + miracle on demand.—M.] + + The miracles of the primitive church, after obtaining the + sanction of ages, have been lately attacked in a very free and + ingenious inquiry, 79 which, though it has met with the most + favorable reception from the public, appears to have excited a + general scandal among the divines of our own as well as of the + other Protestant churches of Europe. 80 Our different sentiments + on this subject will be much less influenced by any particular + arguments, than by our habits of study and reflection; and, above + all, by the degree of evidence which we have accustomed ourselves + to require for the proof of a miraculous event. The duty of an + historian does not call upon him to interpose his private + judgment in this nice and important controversy; but he ought not + to dissemble the difficulty of adopting such a theory as may + reconcile the interest of religion with that of reason, of making + a proper application of that theory, and of defining with + precision the limits of that happy period, exempt from error and + from deceit, to which we might be disposed to extend the gift of + supernatural powers. From the first of the fathers to the last of + the popes, a succession of bishops, of saints, of martyrs, and of + miracles, is continued without interruption; and the progress of + superstition was so gradual, and almost imperceptible, that we + know not in what particular link we should break the chain of + tradition. Every age bears testimony to the wonderful events by + which it was distinguished, and its testimony appears no less + weighty and respectable than that of the preceding generation, + till we are insensibly led on to accuse our own inconsistency, if + in the eighth or in the twelfth century we deny to the venerable + Bede, or to the holy Bernard, the same degree of confidence + which, in the second century, we had so liberally granted to + Justin or to Irenæus. 81 If the truth of any of those miracles is + appreciated by their apparent use and propriety, every age had + unbelievers to convince, heretics to confute, and idolatrous + nations to convert; and sufficient motives might always be + produced to justify the interposition of Heaven. And yet, since + every friend to revelation is persuaded of the reality, and every + reasonable man is convinced of the cessation, of miraculous + powers, it is evident that there must have been _some period_ in + which they were either suddenly or gradually withdrawn from the + Christian church. Whatever æra is chosen for that purpose, the + death of the apostles, the conversion of the Roman empire, or the + extinction of the Arian heresy, 82 the insensibility of the + Christians who lived at that time will equally afford a just + matter of surprise. They still supported their pretensions after + they had lost their power. Credulity performed the office of + faith; fanaticism was permitted to assume the language of + inspiration, and the effects of accident or contrivance were + ascribed to supernatural causes. The recent experience of genuine + miracles should have instructed the Christian world in the ways + of Providence, and habituated their eye (if we may use a very + inadequate expression) to the style of the divine artist. Should + the most skilful painter of modern Italy presume to decorate his + feeble imitations with the name of Raphæl or of Correggio, the + insolent fraud would be soon discovered, and indignantly + rejected. + + 79 (return) [ Dr. Middleton sent out his Introduction in the year + 1747, published his Free Inquiry in 1749, and before his death, + which happened in 1750, he had prepared a vindication of it + against his numerous adversaries.] + + 80 (return) [ The university of Oxford conferred degrees on his + opponents. From the indignation of Mosheim, (p. 221,) we may + discover the sentiments of the Lutheran divines. * Note: Yet many + Protestant divines will now without reluctance confine miracles + to the time of the apostles, or at least to the first century.—M] + + 81 (return) [It may seem somewhat remarkable, that Bernard of + Clairvaux, who records so many miracles of his friend St. + Malachi, never takes any notice of his own, which, in their turn, + however, are carefully related by his companions and disciples. + In the long series of ecclesiastical history, does there exist a + single instance of a saint asserting that he himself possessed + the gift of miracles?] + + 82 (return) [ The conversion of Constantine is the æra which is + most usually fixed by Protestants. The more rational divines are + unwilling to admit the miracles of the ivth, whilst the more + credulous are unwilling to reject those of the vth century. * + Note: All this appears to proceed on the principle that any + distinct line can be drawn in an unphilosophic age between + wonders and miracles, or between what piety, from their + unexpected and extraordinary nature, the marvellous concurrence + of secondary causes to some remarkable end, may consider + providential interpositions, and miracles strictly so called, in + which the laws of nature are suspended or violated. It is + impossible to assign, on one side, limits to human credulity, on + the other, to the influence of the imagination on the bodily + frame; but some of the miracles recorded in the Gospels are such + palpable impossibilities, according to the known laws and + operations of nature, that if recorded on sufficient evidence, + and the evidence we believe to be that of eye-witnesses, we + cannot reject them, without either asserting, with Hume, that no + evidence can prove a miracle, or that the Author of Nature has no + power of suspending its ordinary laws. But which of the + post-apostolic miracles will bear this test?—M.] + + Whatever opinion may be entertained of the miracles of the + primitive church since the time of the apostles, this unresisting + softness of temper, so conspicuous among the believers of the + second and third centuries, proved of some accidental benefit to + the cause of truth and religion. In modern times, a latent and + even involuntary scepticism adheres to the most pious + dispositions. Their admission of supernatural truths is much less + an active consent than a cold and passive acquiescence. + Accustomed long since to observe and to respect the invariable + order of Nature, our reason, or at least our imagination, is not + sufficiently prepared to sustain the visible action of the Deity. + + But, in the first ages of Christianity, the situation of mankind + was extremely different. The most curious, or the most credulous, + among the Pagans, were often persuaded to enter into a society + which asserted an actual claim of miraculous powers. The + primitive Christians perpetually trod on mystic ground, and their + minds were exercised by the habits of believing the most + extraordinary events. They felt, or they fancied, that on every + side they were incessantly assaulted by dæmons, comforted by + visions, instructed by prophecy, and surprisingly delivered from + danger, sickness, and from death itself, by the supplications of + the church. The real or imaginary prodigies, of which they so + frequently conceived themselves to be the objects, the + instruments, or the spectators, very happily disposed them to + adopt with the same ease, but with far greater justice, the + authentic wonders of the evangelic history; and thus miracles + that exceeded not the measure of their own experience, inspired + them with the most lively assurance of mysteries which were + acknowledged to surpass the limits of their understanding. It is + this deep impression of supernatural truths which has been so + much celebrated under the name of faith; a state of mind + described as the surest pledge of the divine favor and of future + felicity, and recommended as the first, or perhaps the only merit + of a Christian. According to the more rigid doctors, the moral + virtues, which may be equally practised by infidels, are + destitute of any value or efficacy in the work of our + justification. + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part V. + + IV. But the primitive Christian demonstrated his faith by his + virtues; and it was very justly supposed that the divine + persuasion, which enlightened or subdued the understanding, must, + at the same time, purify the heart, and direct the actions, of + the believer. The first apologists of Christianity who justify + the innocence of their brethren, and the writers of a later + period who celebrate the sanctity of their ancestors, display, in + the most lively colors, the reformation of manners which was + introduced into the world by the preaching of the gospel. As it + is my intention to remark only such human causes as were + permitted to second the influence of revelation, I shall slightly + mention two motives which might naturally render the lives of the + primitive Christians much purer and more austere than those of + their Pagan contemporaries, or their degenerate successors; + repentance for their past sins, and the laudable desire of + supporting the reputation of the society in which they were + engaged. 83 + + 83 (return) [ These, in the opinion of the editor, are the most + uncandid paragraphs in Gibbon’s History. He ought either, with + manly courage, to have denied the moral reformation introduced by + Christianity, or fairly to have investigated all its motives; not + to have confined himself to an insidious and sarcastic + description of the less pure and generous elements of the + Christian character as it appeared even at that early time.—M.] + + It is a very ancient reproach, suggested by the ignorance or the + malice of infidelity, that the Christians allured into their + party the most atrocious criminals, who, as soon as they were + touched by a sense of remorse, were easily persuaded to wash + away, in the water of baptism, the guilt of their past conduct, + for which the temples of the gods refused to grant them any + expiation. But this reproach, when it is cleared from + misrepresentation, contributes as much to the honor as it did to + the increase of the church. The friends of Christianity may + acknowledge without a blush that many of the most eminent saints + had been before their baptism the most abandoned sinners. Those + persons, who in the world had followed, though in an imperfect + manner, the dictates of benevolence and propriety, derived such a + calm satisfaction from the opinion of their own rectitude, as + rendered them much less susceptible of the sudden emotions of + shame, of grief, and of terror, which have given birth to so many + wonderful conversions. After the example of their divine Master, + the missionaries of the gospel disdained not the society of men, + and especially of women, oppressed by the consciousness, and very + often by the effects, of their vices. As they emerged from sin + and superstition to the glorious hope of immortality, they + resolved to devote themselves to a life, not only of virtue, but + of penitence. The desire of perfection became the ruling passion + of their soul; and it is well known that, while reason embraces a + cold mediocrity, our passions hurry us, with rapid violence, over + the space which lies between the most opposite extremes. 83b + + 83b (return) [The imputations of Celsus and Julian, with the + defence of the fathers, are very fairly stated by Spanheim, + Commentaire sur les Cesars de Julian, p. 468.] + + When the new converts had been enrolled in the number of the + faithful, and were admitted to the sacraments of the church, they + found themselves restrained from relapsing into their past + disorders by another consideration of a less spiritual, but of a + very innocent and respectable nature. Any particular society that + has departed from the great body of the nation, or the religion + to which it belonged, immediately becomes the object of universal + as well as invidious observation. In proportion to the smallness + of its numbers, the character of the society may be affected by + the virtues and vices of the persons who compose it; and every + member is engaged to watch with the most vigilant attention over + his own behavior, and over that of his brethren, since, as he + must expect to incur a part of the common disgrace, he may hope + to enjoy a share of the common reputation. When the Christians of + Bithynia were brought before the tribunal of the younger Pliny, + they assured the proconsul, that, far from being engaged in any + unlawful conspiracy, they were bound by a solemn obligation to + abstain from the commission of those crimes which disturb the + private or public peace of society, from theft, robbery, + adultery, perjury, and fraud. 84 841 Near a century afterwards, + Tertullian, with an honest pride, could boast, that very few + Christians had suffered by the hand of the executioner, except on + account of their religion. 85 Their serious and sequestered life, + averse to the gay luxury of the age, inured them to chastity, + temperance, economy, and all the sober and domestic virtues. As + the greater number were of some trade or profession, it was + incumbent on them, by the strictest integrity and the fairest + dealing, to remove the suspicions which the profane are too apt + to conceive against the appearances of sanctity. The contempt of + the world exercised them in the habits of humility, meekness, and + patience. The more they were persecuted, the more closely they + adhered to each other. Their mutual charity and unsuspecting + confidence has been remarked by infidels, and was too often + abused by perfidious friends. 86 + + 84 (return) [ Plin. Epist. x. 97. * Note: Is not the sense of + Tertullian rather, if guilty of any other offence, he had thereby + ceased to be a Christian?—M.] + + 841 (return) [ And this blamelessness was fully admitted by the + candid and enlightened Roman.—M.] + + 85 (return) [ Tertullian, Apolog. c. 44. He adds, however, with + some degree of hesitation, “Aut si aliud, jam non Christianus.” * + Note: Tertullian says positively no Christian, nemo illic + Christianus; for the rest, the limitation which he himself + subjoins, and which Gibbon quotes in the foregoing note, + diminishes the force of this assertion, and appears to prove that + at least he knew none such.—G.] + + 86 (return) [ The philosopher Peregrinus (of whose life and death + Lucian has left us so entertaining an account) imposed, for a + long time, on the credulous simplicity of the Christians of + Asia.] + + It is a very honorable circumstance for the morals of the + primitive Christians, that even their faults, or rather errors, + were derived from an excess of virtue. The bishops and doctors of + the church, whose evidence attests, and whose authority might + influence, the professions, the principles, and even the practice + of their contemporaries, had studied the Scriptures with less + skill than devotion; and they often received, in the most literal + sense, those rigid precepts of Christ and the apostles, to which + the prudence of succeeding commentators has applied a looser and + more figurative mode of interpretation. Ambitious to exalt the + perfection of the gospel above the wisdom of philosophy, the + zealous fathers have carried the duties of self-mortification, of + purity, and of patience, to a height which it is scarcely + possible to attain, and much less to preserve, in our present + state of weakness and corruption. A doctrine so extraordinary and + so sublime must inevitably command the veneration of the people; + but it was ill calculated to obtain the suffrage of those worldly + philosophers who, in the conduct of this transitory life, consult + only the feelings of nature and the interest of society. 87 + + 87 (return) [ See a very judicious treatise of Barbeyrac sur la + Morale des Peres.] + + There are two very natural propensities which we may distinguish + in the most virtuous and liberal dispositions, the love of + pleasure and the love of action. If the former is refined by art + and learning, improved by the charms of social intercourse, and + corrected by a just regard to economy, to health, and to + reputation, it is productive of the greatest part of the + happiness of private life. The love of action is a principle of a + much stronger and more doubtful nature. It often leads to anger, + to ambition, and to revenge; but when it is guided by the sense + of propriety and benevolence, it becomes the parent of every + virtue, and if those virtues are accompanied with equal + abilities, a family, a state, or an empire may be indebted for + their safety and prosperity to the undaunted courage of a single + man. To the love of pleasure we may therefore ascribe most of the + agreeable, to the love of action we may attribute most of the + useful and respectable, qualifications. The character in which + both the one and the other should be united and harmonized would + seem to constitute the most perfect idea of human nature. The + insensible and inactive disposition, which should be supposed + alike destitute of both, would be rejected, by the common consent + of mankind, as utterly incapable of procuring any happiness to + the individual, or any public benefit to the world. But it was + not in _this_ world that the primitive Christians were desirous + of making themselves either agreeable or useful. 871 + + 871 (return) [ El que me fait cette homelie semi-stoicienne, + semi-epicurienne? t’on jamais regarde l’amour du plaisir comme + l’un des principes de la perfection morale? Et de quel droit + faites vous de l’amour de l’action, et de l’amour du plaisir, les + seuls elemens de l’etre humain? Est ce que vous faites + abstraction de la verite en elle-meme, de la conscience et du + sentiment du devoir? Est ce que vous ne sentez point, par + exemple, que le sacrifice du moi a la justice et a la verite, est + aussi dans le coeur de l’homme: que tout n’est pas pour lui + action ou plaisir, et que dans le bien ce n’est pas le mouvement, + mais la verite, qu’il cherche? Et puis * * Thucy dide et Tacite. + ces maitres de l’histoire, ont ils jamais introduits dans leur + recits un fragment de dissertation sur le plaisir et sur + l’action. Villemain Cours de Lit. Franc part ii. Lecon v.—M.] + + The acquisition of knowledge, the exercise of our reason or + fancy, and the cheerful flow of unguarded conversation, may + employ the leisure of a liberal mind. Such amusements, however, + were rejected with abhorrence, or admitted with the utmost + caution, by the severity of the fathers, who despised all + knowledge that was not useful to salvation, and who considered + all levity of discours as a criminal abuse of the gift of speech. + In our present state of existence the body is so inseparably + connected with the soul, that it seems to be our interest to + taste, with innocence and moderation, the enjoyments of which + that faithful companion is susceptible. Very different was the + reasoning of our devout predecessors; vainly aspiring to imitate + the perfection of angels, they disdained, or they affected to + disdain, every earthly and corporeal delight. 88 Some of our + senses indeed are necessary for our preservation, others for our + subsistence, and others again for our information; and thus far + it was impossible to reject the use of them. The first sensation + of pleasure was marked as the first moment of their abuse. The + unfeeling candidate for heaven was instructed, not only to resist + the grosser allurements of the taste or smell, but even to shut + his ears against the profane harmony of sounds, and to view with + indifference the most finished productions of human art. Gay + apparel, magnificent houses, and elegant furniture, were supposed + to unite the double guilt of pride and of sensuality; a simple + and mortified appearance was more suitable to the Christian who + was certain of his sins and doubtful of his salvation. In their + censures of luxury the fathers are extremely minute and + circumstantial; 89 and among the various articles which excite + their pious indignation we may enumerate false hair, garments of + any color except white, instruments of music, vases of gold or + silver, downy pillows, (as Jacob reposed his head on a stone,) + white bread, foreign wines, public salutations, the use of warm + baths, and the practice of shaving the beard, which, according to + the expression of Tertullian, is a lie against our own faces, and + an impious attempt to improve the works of the Creator. 90 When + Christianity was introduced among the rich and the polite, the + observation of these singular laws was left, as it would be at + present, to the few who were ambitious of superior sanctity. But + it is always easy, as well as agreeable, for the inferior ranks + of mankind to claim a merit from the contempt of that pomp and + pleasure which fortune has placed beyond their reach. The virtue + of the primitive Christians, like that of the first Romans, was + very frequently guarded by poverty and ignorance. + + 88 (return) [ Lactant. Institut. Divin. l. vi. c. 20, 21, 22.] + + 89 (return) [ Consult a work of Clemens of Alexandria, entitled + The Pædagogue, which contains the rudiments of ethics, as they + were taught in the most celebrated of the Christian schools.] + + 90 (return) [ Tertullian, de Spectaculis, c. 23. Clemens + Alexandrin. Pædagog. l. iii. c. 8.] + + The chaste severity of the fathers, in whatever related to the + commerce of the two sexes, flowed from the same principle; their + abhorrence of every enjoyment which might gratify the sensual, + and degrade the spiritual nature of man. It was their favorite + opinion, that if Adam had preserved his obedience to the Creator, + he would have lived forever in a state of virgin purity, and that + some harmless mode of vegetation might have peopled paradise with + a race of innocent and immortal beings. 91 The use of marriage + was permitted only to his fallen posterity, as a necessary + expedient to continue the human species, and as a restraint, + however imperfect, on the natural licentiousness of desire. The + hesitation of the orthodox casuists on this interesting subject, + betrays the perplexity of men, unwilling to approve an + institution which they were compelled to tolerate. 92 The + enumeration of the very whimsical laws, which they most + circumstantially imposed on the marriage-bed, would force a smile + from the young and a blush from the fair. It was their unanimous + sentiment that a first marriage was adequate to all the purposes + of nature and of society. The sensual connection was refined into + a resemblance of the mystic union of Christ with his church, and + was pronounced to be indissoluble either by divorce or by death. + The practice of second nuptials was branded with the name of a + legal adultery; and the persons who were guilty of so scandalous + an offence against Christian purity, were soon excluded from the + honors, and even from the alms, of the church. 93 Since desire + was imputed as a crime, and marriage was tolerated as a defect, + it was consistent with the same principles to consider a state of + celibacy as the nearest approach to the divine perfection. It was + with the utmost difficulty that ancient Rome could support the + institution of six vestals; 94 but the primitive church was + filled with a number of persons of either sex, who had devoted + themselves to the profession of perpetual chastity. 95 A few of + these, among whom we may reckon the learned Origen, judged it the + most prudent to disarm the tempter. 96 Some were insensible and + some were invincible against the assaults of the flesh. + Disdaining an ignominious flight, the virgins of the warm climate + of Africa encountered the enemy in the closest engagement; they + permitted priests and deacons to share their bed, and gloried + amidst the flames in their unsullied purity. But insulted Nature + sometimes vindicated her rights, and this new species of + martyrdom served only to introduce a new scandal into the church. + 97 Among the Christian ascetics, however, (a name which they soon + acquired from their painful exercise,) many, as they were less + presumptuous, were probably more successful. The loss of sensual + pleasure was supplied and compensated by spiritual pride. Even + the multitude of Pagans were inclined to estimate the merit of + the sacrifice by its apparent difficulty; and it was in the + praise of these chaste spouses of Christ that the fathers have + poured forth the troubled stream of their eloquence. 98 Such are + the early traces of monastic principles and institutions, which, + in a subsequent age, have counterbalanced all the temporal + advantages of Christianity. 99 + + 91 (return) [ Beausobro, Hist. Critique du Manicheisme, l. vii. + c. 3. Justin, Gregory of Nyssa, Augustin, &c., strongly incline + to this opinion. Note: But these were Gnostic or Manichean + opinions. Beausobre distinctly describes Autustine’s bias to his + recent escape from Manicheism; and adds that he afterwards + changed his views.—M.] + + 92 (return) [ Some of the Gnostic heretics were more consistent; + they rejected the use of marriage.] + + 93 (return) [ See a chain of tradition, from Justin Martyr to + Jerome, in the Morale des Peres, c. iv. 6—26.] + + 94 (return) [ See a very curious Dissertation on the Vestals, in + the Memoires de l’Academie des Inscriptions, tom. iv. p. 161—227. + Notwithstanding the honors and rewards which were bestowed on + those virgins, it was difficult to procure a sufficient number; + nor could the dread of the most horrible death always restrain + their incontinence.] + + 95 (return) [ Cupiditatem procreandi aut unam scimus aut nullam. + Minutius Fælix, c. 31. Justin. Apolog. Major. Athenagoras in + Legat. c 28. Tertullian de Cultu Foemin. l. ii.] + + 96 (return) [ Eusebius, l. vi. 8. Before the fame of Origen had + excited envy and persecution, this extraordinary action was + rather admired than censured. As it was his general practice to + allegorize Scripture, it seems unfortunate that in this instance + only, he should have adopted the literal sense.] + + 97 (return) [ Cyprian. Epist. 4, and Dodwell, Dissertat. + Cyprianic. iii. Something like this rash attempt was long + afterwards imputed to the founder of the order of Fontevrault. + Bayle has amused himself and his readers on that very delicate + subject.] + + 98 (return) [ Dupin (Bibliotheque Ecclesiastique, tom. i. p. 195) + gives a particular account of the dialogue of the ten virgins, as + it was composed by Methodius, Bishop of Tyre. The praises of + virginity are excessive.] + + 99 (return) [ The Ascetics (as early as the second century) made + a public profession of mortifying their bodies, and of abstaining + from the use of flesh and wine. Mosheim, p. 310.] + + The Christians were not less averse to the business than to the + pleasures of this world. The defence of our persons and property + they knew not how to reconcile with the patient doctrine which + enjoined an unlimited forgiveness of past injuries, and commanded + them to invite the repetition of fresh insults. Their simplicity + was offended by the use of oaths, by the pomp of magistracy, and + by the active contention of public life; nor could their humane + ignorance be convinced that it was lawful on any occasion to shed + the blood of our fellow-creatures, either by the sword of + justice, or by that of war; even though their criminal or hostile + attempts should threaten the peace and safety of the whole + community. 100 It was acknowledged that, under a less perfect + law, the powers of the Jewish constitution had been exercised, + with the approbation of heaven, by inspired prophets and by + anointed kings. The Christians felt and confessed that such + institutions might be necessary for the present system of the + world, and they cheerfully submitted to the authority of their + Pagan governors. But while they inculcated the maxims of passive + obedience, they refused to take any active part in the civil + administration or the military defence of the empire. Some + indulgence might, perhaps, be allowed to those persons who, + before their conversion, were already engaged in such violent and + sanguinary occupations; 101a but it was impossible that the + Christians, without renouncing a more sacred duty, could assume + the character of soldiers, of magistrates, or of princes. 102b + This indolent, or even criminal disregard to the public welfare, + exposed them to the contempt and reproaches of the Pagans, who + very frequently asked, what must be the fate of the empire, + attacked on every side by the barbarians, if all mankind should + adopt the pusillanimous sentiments of the new sect. 103 To this + insulting question the Christian apologists returned obscure and + ambiguous answers, as they were unwilling to reveal the secret + cause of their security; the expectation that, before the + conversion of mankind was accomplished, war, government, the + Roman empire, and the world itself, would be no more. It may be + observed, that, in this instance likewise, the situation of the + first Christians coincided very happily with their religious + scruples, and that their aversion to an active life contributed + rather to excuse them from the service, than to exclude them from + the honors, of the state and army. + + 100 (return) [ See the Morale des Peres. The same patient + principles have been revived since the Reformation by the + Socinians, the modern Anabaptists, and the Quakers. Barclay, the + Apologist of the Quakers, has protected his brethren by the + authority of the primitive Christian; p. 542-549] + + 101a (return) [ Tertullian, Apolog. c. 21. De Idololatria, c. 17, + 18. Origen contra Celsum, l. v. p. 253, l. vii. p. 348, l. viii. + p. 423-428.] + + 102b (return) [ Tertullian (de Corona Militis, c. 11) suggested + to them the expedient of deserting; a counsel which, if it had + been generally known, was not very proper to conciliate the favor + of the emperors towards the Christian sect. * Note: There is + nothing which ought to astonish us in the refusal of the + primitive Christians to take part in public affairs; it was the + natural consequence of the contrariety of their principles to the + customs, laws, and active life of the Pagan world. As Christians, + they could not enter into the senate, which, according to Gibbon + himself, always assembled in a temple or consecrated place, and + where each senator, before he took his seat, made a libation of a + few drops of wine, and burnt incense on the altar; as Christians, + they could not assist at festivals and banquets, which always + terminated with libations, &c.; finally, as “the innumerable + deities and rites of polytheism were closely interwoven with + every circumstance of public and private life,” the Christians + could not participate in them without incurring, according to + their principles, the guilt of impiety. It was then much less by + an effect of their doctrine, than by the consequence of their + situation, that they stood aloof from public business. Whenever + this situation offered no impediment, they showed as much + activity as the Pagans. Proinde, says Justin Martyr, (Apol. c. + 17,) nos solum Deum adoramus, et vobis in rebus aliis læti + inservimus.—G. ——-This latter passage, M. Guizot quotes in Latin; + if he had consulted the original, he would have found it to be + altogether irrelevant: it merely relates to the payment of + taxes.—M. — —Tertullian does not suggest to the soldiers the + expedient of deserting; he says that they ought to be constantly + on their guard to do nothing during their service contrary to the + law of God, and to resolve to suffer martyrdom rather than submit + to a base compliance, or openly to renounce the service. (De Cor. + Mil. ii. p. 127.) He does not positively decide that the military + service is not permitted to Christians; he ends, indeed, by + saying, Puta denique licere militiam usque ad causam coronæ.—G. + ——M. Guizot is. I think, again unfortunate in his defence of + Tertullian. That father says, that many Christian soldiers had + deserted, aut deserendum statim sit, ut a multis actum. The + latter sentence, Puta, &c, &c., is a concession for the sake of + argument: wha follows is more to the purpose.—M. Many other + passages of Tertullian prove that the army was full of + Christians, Hesterni sumus et vestra omnia implevimus, urbes, + insulas, castella, municipia, conciliabula, castra ipsa. (Apol. + c. 37.) Navigamus et not vobiscum et militamus. (c. 42.) Origen, + in truth, appears to have maintained a more rigid opinion, (Cont. + Cels. l. viii.;) but he has often renounced this exaggerated + severity, perhaps necessary to produce great results, and he + speaks of the profession of arms as an honorable one. (l. iv. c. + 218.)— G. ——On these points Christian opinion, it should seem, + was much divided Tertullian, when he wrote the De Cor. Mil., was + evidently inclining to more ascetic opinions, and Origen was of + the same class. See Neander, vol. l part ii. p. 305, edit. + 1828.—M.] + + 103 (return) [ As well as we can judge from the mutilated + representation of Origen, (1. viii. p. 423,) his adversary, + Celsus, had urged his objection with great force and candor.] + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VI. + + V. But the human character, however it may be exalted or + depressed by a temporary enthusiasm, will return by degrees to + its proper and natural level, and will resume those passions that + seem the most adapted to its present condition. The primitive + Christians were dead to the business and pleasures of the world; + but their love of action, which could never be entirely + extinguished, soon revived, and found a new occupation in the + government of the church. A separate society, which attacked the + established religion of the empire, was obliged to adopt some + form of internal policy, and to appoint a sufficient number of + ministers, intrusted not only with the spiritual functions, but + even with the temporal direction of the Christian commonwealth. + The safety of that society, its honor, its aggrandizement, were + productive, even in the most pious minds, of a spirit of + patriotism, such as the first of the Romans had felt for the + republic, and sometimes of a similar indifference, in the use of + whatever means might probably conduce to so desirable an end. The + ambition of raising themselves or their friends to the honors and + offices of the church, was disguised by the laudable intention of + devoting to the public benefit the power and consideration, + which, for that purpose only, it became their duty to solicit. In + the exercise of their functions, they were frequently called upon + to detect the errors of heresy or the arts of faction, to oppose + the designs of perfidious brethren, to stigmatize their + characters with deserved infamy, and to expel them from the bosom + of a society whose peace and happiness they had attempted to + disturb. The ecclesiastical governors of the Christians were + taught to unite the wisdom of the serpent with the innocence of + the dove; but as the former was refined, so the latter was + insensibly corrupted, by the habits of government. In the church + as well as in the world, the persons who were placed in any + public station rendered themselves considerable by their + eloquence and firmness, by their knowledge of mankind, and by + their dexterity in business; and while they concealed from + others, and perhaps from themselves, the secret motives of their + conduct, they too frequently relapsed into all the turbulent + passions of active life, which were tinctured with an additional + degree of bitterness and obstinacy from the infusion of spiritual + zeal. + + The government of the church has often been the subject, as well + as the prize, of religious contention. The hostile disputants of + Rome, of Paris, of Oxford, and of Geneva, have alike struggled to + reduce the primitive and apostolic model 1041 to the respective + standards of their own policy. The few who have pursued this + inquiry with more candor and impartiality, are of opinion, 105 + that the apostles declined the office of legislation, and rather + chose to endure some partial scandals and divisions, than to + exclude the Christians of a future age from the liberty of + varying their forms of ecclesiastical government according to the + changes of times and circumstances. The scheme of policy, which, + under their approbation, was adopted for the use of the first + century, may be discovered from the practice of Jerusalem, of + Ephesus, or of Corinth. The societies which were instituted in + the cities of the Roman empire were united only by the ties of + faith and charity. Independence and equality formed the basis of + their internal constitution. The want of discipline and human + learning was supplied by the occasional assistance of the + _prophets_, 106 who were called to that function without + distinction of age, of sex, 1061 or of natural abilities, and + who, as often as they felt the divine impulse, poured forth the + effusions of the Spirit in the assembly of the faithful. But + these extraordinary gifts were frequently abused or misapplied by + the prophetic teachers. They displayed them at an improper + season, presumptuously disturbed the service of the assembly, + and, by their pride or mistaken zeal, they introduced, + particularly into the apostolic church of Corinth, a long and + melancholy train of disorders. 107 As the institution of prophets + became useless, and even pernicious, their powers were withdrawn, + and their office abolished. The public functions of religion were + solely intrusted to the established ministers of the church, the + _bishops_ and the _presbyters;_ two appellations which, in their + first origin, appear to have distinguished the same office and + the same order of persons. The name of Presbyter was expressive + of their age, or rather of their gravity and wisdom. The title of + Bishop denoted their inspection over the faith and manners of the + Christians who were committed to their pastoral care. In + proportion to the respective numbers of the faithful, a larger or + smaller number of these _episcopal presbyters_ guided each infant + congregation with equal authority and with united counsels. 108 + + 1041 (return) [ The aristocratical party in France, as well as in + England, has strenuously maintained the divine origin of bishops. + But the Calvinistical presbyters were impatient of a superior; + and the Roman Pontiff refused to acknowledge an equal. See Fra + Paolo.] + + 105 (return) [ In the history of the Christian hierarchy, I have, + for the most part, followed the learned and candid Mosheim.] + + 106 (return) [ For the prophets of the primitive church, see + Mosheim, Dissertationes ad Hist. Eccles. pertinentes, tom. ii. p. + 132—208.] + + 1061 (return) [ St. Paul distinctly reproves the intrusion of + females into the prophets office. 1 Cor. xiv. 34, 35. 1 Tim. ii. + 11.—M.] + + 107 (return) [ See the epistles of St. Paul, and of Clemens, to + the Corinthians. * Note: The first ministers established in the + church were the deacons, appointed at Jerusalem, seven in number; + they were charged with the distribution of the alms; even females + had a share in this employment. After the deacons came the elders + or priests, charged with the maintenance of order and decorum in + the community, and to act every where in its name. The bishops + were afterwards charged to watch over the faith and the + instruction of the disciples: the apostles themselves appointed + several bishops. Tertullian, (adv. Marium, c. v.,) Clement of + Alexandria, and many fathers of the second and third century, do + not permit us to doubt this fact. The equality of rank between + these different functionaries did not prevent their functions + being, even in their origin, distinct; they became subsequently + still more so. See Plank, Geschichte der Christ. Kirch. + Verfassung., vol. i. p. 24.—G. On this extremely obscure subject, + which has been so much perplexed by passion and interest, it is + impossible to justify any opinion without entering into long and + controversial details.——It must be admitted, in opposition to + Plank, that in the New Testament, several words are sometimes + indiscriminately used. (Acts xx. v. 17, comp. with 28 Tit. i. 5 + and 7. Philip. i. 1.) But it is as clear, that as soon as we can + discern the form of church government, at a period closely + bordering upon, if not within, the apostolic age, it appears with + a bishop at the head of each community, holding some superiority + over the presbyters. Whether he was, as Gibbon from Mosheim + supposes, merely an elective head of the College of Presbyters, + (for this we have, in fact, no valid authority,) or whether his + distinct functions were established on apostolic authority, is + still contested. The universal submission to this episcopacy, in + every part of the Christian world appears to me strongly to favor + the latter view.—M.] + + 108 (return) [ Hooker’s Ecclesiastical Polity, l. vii.] + + But the most perfect equality of freedom requires the directing + hand of a superior magistrate: and the order of public + deliberations soon introduces the office of a president, invested + at least with the authority of collecting the sentiments, and of + executing the resolutions, of the assembly. A regard for the + public tranquillity, which would so frequently have been + interrupted by annual or by occasional elections, induced the + primitive Christians to constitute an honorable and perpetual + magistracy, and to choose one of the wisest and most holy among + their presbyters to execute, during his life, the duties of their + ecclesiastical governor. It was under these circumstances that + the lofty title of Bishop began to raise itself above the humble + appellation of Presbyter; and while the latter remained the most + natural distinction for the members of every Christian senate, + the former was appropriated to the dignity of its new president. + 109 The advantages of this episcopal form of government, which + appears to have been introduced before the end of the first + century, 110 were so obvious, and so important for the future + greatness, as well as the present peace, of Christianity, that it + was adopted without delay by all the societies which were already + scattered over the empire, had acquired in a very early period + the sanction of antiquity, 111 and is still revered by the most + powerful churches, both of the East and of the West, as a + primitive and even as a divine establishment. 112 It is needless + to observe, that the pious and humble presbyters, who were first + dignified with the episcopal title, could not possess, and would + probably have rejected, the power and pomp which now encircles + the tiara of the Roman pontiff, or the mitre of a German prelate. + But we may define, in a few words, the narrow limits of their + original jurisdiction, which was chiefly of a spiritual, though + in some instances of a temporal nature. 113 It consisted in the + administration of the sacraments and discipline of the church, + the superintendency of religious ceremonies, which imperceptibly + increased in number and variety, the consecration of + ecclesiastical ministers, to whom the bishop assigned their + respective functions, the management of the public fund, and the + determination of all such differences as the faithful were + unwilling to expose before the tribunal of an idolatrous judge. + These powers, during a short period, were exercised according to + the advice of the presbyteral college, and with the consent and + approbation of the assembly of Christians. The primitive bishops + were considered only as the first of their equals, and the + honorable servants of a free people. Whenever the episcopal chair + became vacant by death, a new president was chosen among the + presbyters by the suffrage of the whole congregation, every + member of which supposed himself invested with a sacred and + sacerdotal character. 114 + + 109 (return) [ See Jerome and Titum, c. i. and Epistol. 85, (in + the Benedictine edition, 101,) and the elaborate apology of + Blondel, pro sententia Hieronymi. The ancient state, as it is + described by Jerome, of the bishop and presbyters of Alexandria, + receives a remarkable confirmation from the patriarch Eutychius, + (Annal. tom. i. p. 330, Vers Pocock;) whose testimony I know not + how to reject, in spite of all the objections of the learned + Pearson in his Vindiciæ Ignatianæ, part i. c. 11.] + + 110 (return) [ See the introduction to the Apocalypse. Bishops, + under the name of angels, were already instituted in the seven + cities of Asia. And yet the epistle of Clemens (which is probably + of as ancient a date) does not lead us to discover any traces of + episcopacy either at Corinth or Rome.] + + 111 (return) [ Nulla Ecclesia sine Episcopo, has been a fact as + well as a maxim since the time of Tertullian and Irenæus.] + + 112 (return) [ After we have passed the difficulties of the first + century, we find the episcopal government universally + established, till it was interrupted by the republican genius of + the Swiss and German reformers.] + + 113 (return) [ See Mosheim in the first and second centuries. + Ignatius (ad Smyrnæos, c. 3, &c.) is fond of exalting the + episcopal dignity. Le Clerc (Hist. Eccles. p. 569) very bluntly + censures his conduct, Mosheim, with a more critical judgment, (p. + 161,) suspects the purity even of the smaller epistles.] + + 114 (return) [ Nonne et Laici sacerdotes sumus? Tertullian, + Exhort. ad Castitat. c. 7. As the human heart is still the same, + several of the observations which Mr. Hume has made on + Enthusiasm, (Essays, vol. i. p. 76, quarto edit.) may be applied + even to real inspiration. * Note: This expression was employed by + the earlier Christian writers in the sense used by St. Peter, 1 + Ep ii. 9. It was the sanctity and virtue not the power of + priesthood, in which all Christians were to be equally + distinguished.—M.] + + Such was the mild and equal constitution by which the Christians + were governed more than a hundred years after the death of the + apostles. Every society formed within itself a separate and + independent republic; and although the most distant of these + little states maintained a mutual as well as friendly intercourse + of letters and deputations, the Christian world was not yet + connected by any supreme authority or legislative assembly. As + the numbers of the faithful were gradually multiplied, they + discovered the advantages that might result from a closer union + of their interest and designs. Towards the end of the second + century, the churches of Greece and Asia adopted the useful + institutions of provincial synods, 1141 and they may justly be + supposed to have borrowed the model of a representative council + from the celebrated examples of their own country, the + Amphictyons, the Achæan league, or the assemblies of the Ionian + cities. It was soon established as a custom and as a law, that + the bishops of the independent churches should meet in the + capital of the province at the stated periods of spring and + autumn. Their deliberations were assisted by the advice of a few + distinguished presbyters, and moderated by the presence of a + listening multitude. 115 Their decrees, which were styled Canons, + regulated every important controversy of faith and discipline; + and it was natural to believe that a liberal effusion of the Holy + Spirit would be poured on the united assembly of the delegates of + the Christian people. The institution of synods was so well + suited to private ambition, and to public interest, that in the + space of a few years it was received throughout the whole empire. + A regular correspondence was established between the provincial + councils, which mutually communicated and approved their + respective proceedings; and the catholic church soon assumed the + form, and acquired the strength, of a great fœderative republic. + 116 + + 1141 (return) [ The synods were not the first means taken by the + insulated churches to enter into communion and to assume a + corporate character. The dioceses were first formed by the union + of several country churches with a church in a city: many + churches in one city uniting among themselves, or joining a more + considerable church, became metropolitan. The dioceses were not + formed before the beginning of the second century: before that + time the Christians had not established sufficient churches in + the country to stand in need of that union. It is towards the + middle of the same century that we discover the first traces of + the metropolitan constitution. (Probably the country churches + were founded in general by missionaries from those in the city, + and would preserve a natural connection with the parent + church.)—M. ——The provincial synods did not commence till towards + the middle of the third century, and were not the first synods. + History gives us distinct notions of the synods, held towards the + end of the second century, at Ephesus at Jerusalem, at Pontus, + and at Rome, to put an end to the disputes which had arisen + between the Latin and Asiatic churches about the celebration of + Easter. But these synods were not subject to any regular form or + periodical return; this regularity was first established with the + provincial synods, which were formed by a union of the bishops of + a district, subject to a metropolitan. Plank, p. 90. Geschichte + der Christ. Kirch. Verfassung—G] + + 115 (return) [ Acta Concil. Carthag. apud Cyprian. edit. Fell, p. + 158. This council was composed of eighty-seven bishops from the + provinces of Mauritania, Numidia, and Africa; some presbyters and + deacons assisted at the assembly; præsente plebis maxima parte.] + + 116 (return) [ Aguntur præterea per Græcias illas, certis in + locis concilia, &c Tertullian de Jejuniis, c. 13. The African + mentions it as a recent and foreign institution. The coalition of + the Christian churches is very ably explained by Mosheim, p. 164 + 170.] + + As the legislative authority of the particular churches was + insensibly superseded by the use of councils, the bishops + obtained by their alliance a much larger share of executive and + arbitrary power; and as soon as they were connected by a sense of + their common interest, they were enabled to attack, with united + vigor, the original rights of their clergy and people. The + prelates of the third century imperceptibly changed the language + of exhortation into that of command, scattered the seeds of + future usurpations, and supplied, by scripture allegories and + declamatory rhetoric, their deficiency of force and of reason. + They exalted the unity and power of the church, as it was + represented in the episcopal office, of which every bishop + enjoyed an equal and undivided portion. 117 Princes and + magistrates, it was often repeated, might boast an earthly claim + to a transitory dominion; it was the episcopal authority alone + which was derived from the Deity, and extended itself over this + and over another world. The bishops were the vicegerents of + Christ, the successors of the apostles, and the mystic + substitutes of the high priest of the Mosaic law. Their exclusive + privilege of conferring the sacerdotal character invaded the + freedom both of clerical and of popular elections; and if, in the + administration of the church, they still consulted the judgment + of the presbyters, or the inclination of the people, they most + carefully inculcated the merit of such a voluntary condescension. + The bishops acknowledged the supreme authority which resided in + the assembly of their brethren; but in the government of his + peculiar diocese, each of them exacted from his _flock_ the same + implicit obedience as if that favorite metaphor had been + literally just, and as if the shepherd had been of a more exalted + nature than that of his sheep. 118 This obedience, however, was + not imposed without some efforts on one side, and some resistance + on the other. The democratical part of the constitution was, in + many places, very warmly supported by the zealous or interested + opposition of the inferior clergy. But their patriotism received + the ignominious epithets of faction and schism; and the episcopal + cause was indebted for its rapid progress to the labors of many + active prelates, who, like Cyprian of Carthage, could reconcile + the arts of the most ambitious statesman with the Christian + virtues which seem adapted to the character of a saint and + martyr. 119 + + 117 (return) [ Cyprian, in his admired treatise De Unitate + Ecclesiæ. p. 75—86] + + 118 (return) [ We may appeal to the whole tenor of Cyprian’s + conduct, of his doctrine, and of his epistles. Le Clerc, in a + short life of Cyprian, (Bibliotheque Universelle, tom. xii. p. + 207—378,) has laid him open with great freedom and accuracy.] + + 119 (return) [ If Novatus, Felicissimus, &c., whom the Bishop of + Carthage expelled from his church, and from Africa, were not the + most detestable monsters of wickedness, the zeal of Cyprian must + occasionally have prevailed over his veracity. For a very just + account of these obscure quarrels, see Mosheim, p. 497—512.] + + The same causes which at first had destroyed the equality of the + presbyters introduced among the bishops a preeminence of rank, + and from thence a superiority of jurisdiction. As often as in the + spring and autumn they met in provincial synod, the difference of + personal merit and reputation was very sensibly felt among the + members of the assembly, and the multitude was governed by the + wisdom and eloquence of the few. But the order of public + proceedings required a more regular and less invidious + distinction; the office of perpetual presidents in the councils + of each province was conferred on the bishops of the principal + city; and these aspiring prelates, who soon acquired the lofty + titles of Metropolitans and Primates, secretly prepared + themselves to usurp over their episcopal brethren the same + authority which the bishops had so lately assumed above the + college of presbyters. 120 Nor was it long before an emulation of + preeminence and power prevailed among the Metropolitans + themselves, each of them affecting to display, in the most + pompous terms, the temporal honors and advantages of the city + over which he presided; the numbers and opulence of the + Christians who were subject to their pastoral care; the saints + and martyrs who had arisen among them; and the purity with which + they preserved the tradition of the faith, as it had been + transmitted through a series of orthodox bishops from the apostle + or the apostolic disciple, to whom the foundation of their church + was ascribed. 121 From every cause, either of a civil or of an + ecclesiastical nature, it was easy to foresee that Rome must + enjoy the respect, and would soon claim the obedience, of the + provinces. The society of the faithful bore a just proportion to + the capital of the empire; and the Roman church was the greatest, + the most numerous, and, in regard to the West, the most ancient + of all the Christian establishments, many of which had received + their religion from the pious labors of her missionaries. Instead + of one apostolic founder, the utmost boast of Antioch, of + Ephesus, or of Corinth, the banks of the Tyber were supposed to + have been honored with the preaching and martyrdom of the two + most eminent among the apostles; 122 and the bishops of Rome very + prudently claimed the inheritance of whatsoever prerogatives were + attributed either to the person or to the office of St. Peter. + 123 The bishops of Italy and of the provinces were disposed to + allow them a primacy of order and association (such was their + very accurate expression) in the Christian aristocracy. 124 But + the power of a monarch was rejected with abhorrence, and the + aspiring genius of Rome experienced from the nations of Asia and + Africa a more vigorous resistance to her spiritual, than she had + formerly done to her temporal, dominion. The patriotic Cyprian, + who ruled with the most absolute sway the church of Carthage and + the provincial synods, opposed with resolution and success the + ambition of the Roman pontiff, artfully connected his own cause + with that of the eastern bishops, and, like Hannibal, sought out + new allies in the heart of Asia. 125 If this Punic war was + carried on without any effusion of blood, it was owing much less + to the moderation than to the weakness of the contending + prelates. Invectives and excommunications were _their_ only + weapons; and these, during the progress of the whole controversy, + they hurled against each other with equal fury and devotion. The + hard necessity of censuring either a pope, or a saint and martyr, + distresses the modern Catholics whenever they are obliged to + relate the particulars of a dispute in which the champions of + religion indulged such passions as seem much more adapted to the + senate or to the camp. 126 + + 120 (return) [ Mosheim, p. 269, 574. Dupin, Antiquæ Eccles. + Disciplin. p. 19, 20.] + + 121 (return) [ Tertullian, in a distinct treatise, has pleaded + against the heretics the right of prescription, as it was held by + the apostolic churches.] + + 122 (return) [ The journey of St. Peter to Rome is mentioned by + most of the ancients, (see Eusebius, ii. 25,) maintained by all + the Catholics, allowed by some Protestants, (see Pearson and + Dodwell de Success. Episcop. Roman,) but has been vigorously + attacked by Spanheim, (Miscellanes Sacra, iii. 3.) According to + Father Hardouin, the monks of the thirteenth century, who + composed the Æneid, represented St. Peter under the allegorical + character of the Trojan hero. * Note: It is quite clear that, + strictly speaking, the church of Rome was not founded by either + of these apostles. St. Paul’s Epistle to the Romans proves + undeniably the flourishing state of the church before his visit + to the city; and many Roman Catholic writers have given up the + impracticable task of reconciling with chronology any visit of + St. Peter to Rome before the end of the reign of Claudius, or the + beginning of that of Nero.—M.] + + 123 (return) [ It is in French only that the famous allusion to + St. Peter’s name is exact. Tu es Pierre, et sur cette pierre.—The + same is imperfect in Greek, Latin, Italian, &c., and totally + unintelligible in our Tentonic languages. * Note: It is exact in + Syro-Chaldaic, the language in which it was spoken by Jesus + Christ. (St. Matt. xvi. 17.) Peter was called Cephas; and cepha + signifies base, foundation, rock—G.] + + 124 (return) [ Irenæus adv. Hæreses, iii. 3. Tertullian de + Præscription. c. 36, and Cyprian, Epistol. 27, 55, 71, 75. Le + Clere (Hist. Eccles. p. 764) and Mosheim (p. 258, 578) labor in + the interpretation of these passages. But the loose and + rhetorical style of the fathers often appears favorable to the + pretensions of Rome.] + + 125 (return) [ See the sharp epistle from Firmilianus, bishop of + Cæsarea, to Stephen, bishop of Rome, ap. Cyprian, Epistol. 75.] + + 126 (return) [ Concerning this dispute of the rebaptism of + heretics, see the epistles of Cyprian, and the seventh book of + Eusebius.] + + The progress of the ecclesiastical authority gave birth to the + memorable distinction of the laity and of the clergy, which had + been unknown to the Greeks and Romans. 127 The former of these + appellations comprehended the body of the Christian people; the + latter, according to the signification of the word, was + appropriated to the chosen portion that had been set apart for + the service of religion; a celebrated order of men, which has + furnished the most important, though not always the most + edifying, subjects for modern history. Their mutual hostilities + sometimes disturbed the peace of the infant church, but their + zeal and activity were united in the common cause, and the love + of power, which (under the most artful disguises) could insinuate + itself into the breasts of bishops and martyrs, animated them to + increase the number of their subjects, and to enlarge the limits + of the Christian empire. They were destitute of any temporal + force, and they were for a long time discouraged and oppressed, + rather than assisted, by the civil magistrate; but they had + acquired, and they employed within their own society, the two + most efficacious instruments of government, rewards and + punishments; the former derived from the pious liberality, the + latter from the devout apprehensions, of the faithful. + + 127 (return) [ For the origin of these words, see Mosheim, p. + 141. Spanheim, Hist. Ecclesiast. p. 633. The distinction of + Clerus and Iaicus was established before the time of Tertullian.] + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VII + + I. The community of goods, which had so agreeably amused the + imagination of Plato, 128 and which subsisted in some degree + among the austere sect of the Essenians, 129 was adopted for a + short time in the primitive church. The fervor of the first + proselytes prompted them to sell those worldly possessions, which + they despised, to lay the price of them at the feet of the + apostles, and to content themselves with receiving an equal share + out of the general distribution. 130 The progress of the + Christian religion relaxed, and gradually abolished, this + generous institution, which, in hands less pure than those of the + apostles, would too soon have been corrupted and abused by the + returning selfishness of human nature; and the converts who + embraced the new religion were permitted to retain the possession + of their patrimony, to receive legacies and inheritances, and to + increase their separate property by all the lawful means of trade + and industry. Instead of an absolute sacrifice, a moderate + proportion was accepted by the ministers of the gospel; and in + their weekly or monthly assemblies, every believer, according to + the exigency of the occasion, and the measure of his wealth and + piety, presented his voluntary offering for the use of the common + fund. 131 Nothing, however inconsiderable, was refused; but it + was diligently inculcated that, in the article of Tithes, the + Mosaic law was still of divine obligation; and that since the + Jews, under a less perfect discipline, had been commanded to pay + a tenth part of all that they possessed, it would become the + disciples of Christ to distinguish themselves by a superior + degree of liberality, 132 and to acquire some merit by resigning + a superfluous treasure, which must so soon be annihilated with + the world itself. 133 It is almost unnecessary to observe, that + the revenue of each particular church, which was of so uncertain + and fluctuating a nature, must have varied with the poverty or + the opulence of the faithful, as they were dispersed in obscure + villages, or collected in the great cities of the empire. In the + time of the emperor Decius, it was the opinion of the + magistrates, that the Christians of Rome were possessed of very + considerable wealth; that vessels of gold and silver were used in + their religious worship, and that many among their proselytes had + sold their lands and houses to increase the public riches of the + sect, at the expense, indeed, of their unfortunate children, who + found themselves beggars, because their parents had been saints. + 134 We should listen with distrust to the suspicions of strangers + and enemies: on this occasion, however, they receive a very + specious and probable color from the two following circumstances, + the only ones that have reached our knowledge, which define any + precise sums, or convey any distinct idea. Almost at the same + period, the bishop of Carthage, from a society less opulent than + that of Rome, collected a hundred thousand sesterces, (above + eight hundred and fifty pounds sterling,) on a sudden call of + charity to redeem the brethren of Numidia, who had been carried + away captives by the barbarians of the desert. 135 About a + hundred years before the reign of Decius, the Roman church had + received, in a single donation, the sum of two hundred thousand + sesterces from a stranger of Pontus, who proposed to fix his + residence in the capital. 136 These oblations, for the most part, + were made in money; nor was the society of Christians either + desirous or capable of acquiring, to any considerable degree, the + encumbrance of landed property. It had been provided by several + laws, which were enacted with the same design as our statutes of + mortmain, that no real estates should be given or bequeathed to + any corporate body, without either a special privilege or a + particular dispensation from the emperor or from the senate; 137 + who were seldom disposed to grant them in favor of a sect, at + first the object of their contempt, and at last of their fears + and jealousy. A transaction, however, is related under the reign + of Alexander Severus, which discovers that the restraint was + sometimes eluded or suspended, and that the Christians were + permitted to claim and to possess lands within the limits of Rome + itself. 138 The progress of Christianity, and the civil confusion + of the empire, contributed to relax the severity of the laws; and + before the close of the third century many considerable estates + were bestowed on the opulent churches of Rome, Milan, Carthage, + Antioch, Alexandria, and the other great cities of Italy and the + provinces. + + 128 (return) [ The community instituted by Plato is more perfect + than that which Sir Thomas More had imagined for his Utopia. The + community of women, and that of temporal goods, may be considered + as inseparable parts of the same system.] + + 129 (return) [ Joseph. Antiquitat. xviii. 2. Philo, de Vit. + Contemplativ.] + + 130 (return) [ See the Acts of the Apostles, c. 2, 4, 5, with + Grotius’s Commentary. Mosheim, in a particular dissertation, + attacks the common opinion with very inconclusive arguments. * + Note: This is not the general judgment on Mosheim’s learned + dissertation. There is no trace in the latter part of the New + Testament of this community of goods, and many distinct proofs of + the contrary. All exhortations to almsgiving would have been + unmeaning if property had been in common—M.] + + 131 (return) [ Justin Martyr, Apolog. Major, c. 89. Tertullian, + Apolog. c. 39.] + + 132 (return) [ Irenæus ad Hæres. l. iv. c. 27, 34. Origen in Num. + Hom. ii Cyprian de Unitat. Eccles. Constitut. Apostol. l. ii. c. + 34, 35, with the notes of Cotelerius. The Constitutions introduce + this divine precept, by declaring that priests are as much above + kings as the soul is above the body. Among the tithable articles, + they enumerate corn, wine, oil, and wool. On this interesting + subject, consult Prideaux’s History of Tithes, and Fra Paolo + delle Materie Beneficiarie; two writers of a very different + character.] + + 133 (return) [ The same opinion which prevailed about the year + one thousand, was productive of the same effects. Most of the + Donations express their motive, “appropinquante mundi fine.” See + Mosheim’s General History of the Church, vol. i. p. 457.] + + 134 (return) [ Tum summa cura est fratribus (Ut sermo testatur + loquax.) Offerre, fundis venditis Sestertiorum millia. Addicta + avorum prædia Foedis sub auctionibus, Successor exheres gemit + Sanctis egens Parentibus. Hæc occuluntur abditis Ecclesiarum in + angulis. Et summa pietas creditur Nudare dulces + liberos.——Prudent. Hymn 2. The subsequent conduct of the deacon + Laurence only proves how proper a use was made of the wealth of + the Roman church; it was undoubtedly very considerable; but Fra + Paolo (c. 3) appears to exaggerate, when he supposes that the + successors of Commodus were urged to persecute the Christians by + their own avarice, or that of their Prætorian præfects.] + + 135 (return) [ Cyprian, Epistol. 62.] + + 136 (return) [ Tertullian de Præscriptione, c. 30.] + + 137 (return) [ Diocletian gave a rescript, which is only a + declaration of the old law; “Collegium, si nullo speciali + privilegio subnixum sit, hæreditatem capere non posse, dubium non + est.” Fra Paolo (c. 4) thinks that these regulations had been + much neglected since the reign of Valerian.] + + 138 (return) [ Hist. August. p. 131. The ground had been public; + and was row disputed between the society of Christians and that + of butchers. Note *: Carponarii, rather victuallers.—M.] + + The bishop was the natural steward of the church; the public + stock was intrusted to his care without account or control; the + presbyters were confined to their spiritual functions, and the + more dependent order of the deacons was solely employed in the + management and distribution of the ecclesiastical revenue. 139 If + we may give credit to the vehement declamations of Cyprian, there + were too many among his African brethren, who, in the execution + of their charge, violated every precept, not only of evangelical + perfection, but even of moral virtue. By some of these unfaithful + stewards the riches of the church were lavished in sensual + pleasures; by others they were perverted to the purposes of + private gain, of fraudulent purchases, and of rapacious usury. + 140 But as long as the contributions of the Christian people were + free and unconstrained, the abuse of their confidence could not + be very frequent, and the general uses to which their liberality + was applied reflected honor on the religious society. A decent + portion was reserved for the maintenance of the bishop and his + clergy; a sufficient sum was allotted for the expenses of the + public worship, of which the feasts of love, the _agapæ_, as they + were called, constituted a very pleasing part. The whole + remainder was the sacred patrimony of the poor. According to the + discretion of the bishop, it was distributed to support widows + and orphans, the lame, the sick, and the aged of the community; + to comfort strangers and pilgrims, and to alleviate the + misfortunes of prisoners and captives, more especially when their + sufferings had been occasioned by their firm attachment to the + cause of religion. 141 A generous intercourse of charity united + the most distant provinces, and the smaller congregations were + cheerfully assisted by the alms of their more opulent brethren. + 142 Such an institution, which paid less regard to the merit than + to the distress of the object, very materially conduced to the + progress of Christianity. The Pagans, who were actuated by a + sense of humanity, while they derided the doctrines, acknowledged + the benevolence, of the new sect. 143 The prospect of immediate + relief and of future protection allured into its hospitable bosom + many of those unhappy persons whom the neglect of the world would + have abandoned to the miseries of want, of sickness, and of old + age. There is some reason likewise to believe that great numbers + of infants, who, according to the inhuman practice of the times, + had been exposed by their parents, were frequently rescued from + death, baptized, educated, and maintained by the piety of the + Christians, and at the expense of the public treasure. 144 + + 139 (return) [ Constitut. Apostol. ii. 35.] + + 140 (return) [ Cyprian de Lapsis, p. 89. Epistol. 65. The charge + is confirmed by the 19th and 20th canon of the council of + Illiberis.] + + 141 (return) [ See the apologies of Justin, Tertullian, &c.] + + 142 (return) [ The wealth and liberality of the Romans to their + most distant brethren is gratefully celebrated by Dionysius of + Corinth, ap. Euseb. l. iv. c. 23.] + + 143 (return) [ See Lucian iu Peregrin. Julian (Epist. 49) seems + mortified that the Christian charity maintains not only their + own, but likewise the heathen poor.] + + 144 (return) [ Such, at least, has been the laudable conduct of + more modern missionaries, under the same circumstances. Above + three thousand new-born infants are annually exposed in the + streets of Pekin. See Le Comte, Memoires sur la Chine, and the + Recherches sur les Chinois et les Egyptians, tom. i. p. 61.] + + II. It is the undoubted right of every society to exclude from + its communion and benefits such among its members as reject or + violate those regulations which have been established by general + consent. In the exercise of this power, the censures of the + Christian church were chiefly directed against scandalous + sinners, and particularly those who were guilty of murder, of + fraud, or of incontinence; against the authors or the followers + of any heretical opinions which had been condemned by the + judgment of the episcopal order; and against those unhappy + persons, who, whether from choice or compulsion, had polluted + themselves after their baptism by any act of idolatrous worship. + The consequences of excommunication were of a temporal as well as + a spiritual nature. The Christian against whom it was pronounced + was deprived of any part in the oblations of the faithful. The + ties both of religious and of private friendship were dissolved: + he found himself a profane object of abhorrence to the persons + whom he the most esteemed, or by whom he had been the most + tenderly beloved; and as far as an expulsion from a respectable + society could imprint on his character a mark of disgrace, he was + shunned or suspected by the generality of mankind. The situation + of these unfortunate exiles was in itself very painful and + melancholy; but, as it usually happens, their apprehensions far + exceeded their sufferings. The benefits of the Christian + communion were those of eternal life; nor could they erase from + their minds the awful opinion, that to those ecclesiastical + governors by whom they were condemned, the Deity had committed + the keys of Hell and of Paradise. The heretics, indeed, who might + be supported by the consciousness of their intentions, and by the + flattering hope that they alone had discovered the true path of + salvation, endeavored to regain, in their separate assemblies, + those comforts, temporal as well as spiritual, which they no + longer derived from the great society of Christians. But almost + all those who had reluctantly yielded to the power of vice or + idolatry were sensible of their fallen condition, and anxiously + desirous of being restored to the benefits of the Christian + communion. + + With regard to the treatment of these penitents, two opposite + opinions, the one of justice, the other of mercy, divided the + primitive church. The more rigid and inflexible casuists refused + them forever, and without exception, the meanest place in the + holy community, which they had disgraced or deserted; and leaving + them to the remorse of a guilty conscience, indulged them only + with a faint ray of hope that the contrition of their life and + death might possibly be accepted by the Supreme Being. 145 A + milder sentiment was embraced, in practice as well as in theory, + by the purest and most respectable of the Christian churches. 146 + The gates of reconciliation and of heaven were seldom shut + against the returning penitent; but a severe and solemn form of + discipline was instituted, which, while it served to expiate his + crime, might powerfully deter the spectators from the imitation + of his example. Humbled by a public confession, emaciated by + fasting and clothed in sackcloth, the penitent lay prostrate at + the door of the assembly, imploring with tears the pardon of his + offences, and soliciting the prayers of the faithful. 147 If the + fault was of a very heinous nature, whole years of penance were + esteemed an inadequate satisfaction to the divine justice; and it + was always by slow and painful gradations that the sinner, the + heretic, or the apostate, was readmitted into the bosom of the + church. A sentence of perpetual excommunication was, however, + reserved for some crimes of an extraordinary magnitude, and + particularly for the inexcusable relapses of those penitents who + had already experienced and abused the clemency of their + ecclesiastical superiors. According to the circumstances or the + number of the guilty, the exercise of the Christian discipline + was varied by the discretion of the bishops. The councils of + Ancyra and Illiberis were held about the same time, the one in + Galatia, the other in Spain; but their respective canons, which + are still extant, seem to breathe a very different spirit. The + Galatian, who after his baptism had repeatedly sacrificed to + idols, might obtain his pardon by a penance of seven years; and + if he had seduced others to imitate his example, only three years + more were added to the term of his exile. But the unhappy + Spaniard, who had committed the same offence, was deprived of the + hope of reconciliation, even in the article of death; and his + idolatry was placed at the head of a list of seventeen other + crimes, against which a sentence no less terrible was pronounced. + Among these we may distinguish the inexpiable guilt of + calumniating a bishop, a presbyter, or even a deacon. 148 + + 145 (return) [ The Montanists and the Novatians, who adhered to + this opinion with the greatest rigor and obstinacy, found + themselves at last in the number of excommunicated heretics. See + the learned and copious Mosheim, Secul. ii. and iii.] + + 146 (return) [ Dionysius ap. Euseb. iv. 23. Cyprian, de Lapsis.] + + 147 (return) [ Cave’s Primitive Christianity, part iii. c. 5. The + admirers of antiquity regret the loss of this public penance.] + + 148 (return) [ See in Dupin, Bibliotheque Ecclesiastique, tom. + ii. p. 304—313, a short but rational exposition of the canons of + those councils, which were assembled in the first moments of + tranquillity, after the persecution of Diocletian. This + persecution had been much less severely felt in Spain than in + Galatia; a difference which may, in some measure account for the + contrast of their regulations.] + + The well-tempered mixture of liberality and rigor, the judicious + dispensation of rewards and punishments, according to the maxims + of policy as well as justice, constituted the _human_ strength of + the church. The Bishops, whose paternal care extended itself to + the government of both worlds, were sensible of the importance of + these prerogatives; and covering their ambition with the fair + pretence of the love of order, they were jealous of any rival in + the exercise of a discipline so necessary to prevent the + desertion of those troops which had enlisted themselves under the + banner of the cross, and whose numbers every day became more + considerable. From the imperious declamations of Cyprian, we + should naturally conclude that the doctrines of excommunication + and penance formed the most essential part of religion; and that + it was much less dangerous for the disciples of Christ to neglect + the observance of the moral duties, than to despise the censures + and authority of their bishops. Sometimes we might imagine that + we were listening to the voice of Moses, when he commanded the + earth to open, and to swallow up, in consuming flames, the + rebellious race which refused obedience to the priesthood of + Aaron; and we should sometimes suppose that we heard a Roman + consul asserting the majesty of the republic, and declaring his + inflexible resolution to enforce the rigor of the laws. “If such + irregularities are suffered with impunity,” (it is thus that the + bishop of Carthage chides the lenity of his colleague,) “if such + irregularities are suffered, there is an end of EPISCOPAL VIGOR; + 149 an end of the sublime and divine power of governing the + Church, an end of Christianity itself.” Cyprian had renounced + those temporal honors which it is probable he would never have + obtained; but the acquisition of such absolute command over the + consciences and understanding of a congregation, however obscure + or despised by the world, is more truly grateful to the pride of + the human heart than the possession of the most despotic power, + imposed by arms and conquest on a reluctant people. + + 1491] (return) [ Gibbon has been accused of injustice to the + character of Cyprian, as exalting the “censures and authority of + the church above the observance of the moral duties.” + Felicissimus had been condemned by a synod of bishops, (non + tantum mea, sed plurimorum coepiscorum, sententia condemnatum,) + on the charge not only of schism, but of embezzlement of public + money, the debauching of virgins, and frequent acts of adultery. + His violent menaces had extorted his readmission into the church, + against which Cyprian protests with much vehemence: ne pecuniæ + commissæ sibi fraudator, ne stuprator virginum, ne matrimoniorum + multorum depopulator et corruptor, ultra adhuc sponsam Christi + incorruptam præsentiæ suæ dedecore, et impudica atque incesta + contagione, violaret. See Chelsum’s Remarks, p. 134. If these + charges against Felicissimus were true, they were something more + than “irregularities,” A Roman censor would have been a fairer + subject of comparison than a consul. On the other hand, it must + be admitted that the charge of adultery deepens very rapidly as + the controversy becomes more violent. It is first represented as + a single act, recently detected, and which men of character were + prepared to substantiate: adulterii etiam crimen accedit. quod + patres nostri graves viri deprehendisse se nuntiaverunt, et + probaturos se asseverarunt. Epist. xxxviii. The heretic has now + darkened into a man of notorious and general profligacy. Nor can + it be denied that of the whole long epistle, very far the larger + and the more passionate part dwells on the breach of + ecclesiastical unity rather than on the violation of Christian + holiness.—M.] + + 149 (return) [ Cyprian Epist. 69.] + + 1492 (return) [ This supposition appears unfounded: the birth and + the talents of Cyprian might make us presume the contrary. + Thascius Cæcilius Cyprianus, Carthaginensis, artis oratoriæ + professione clarus, magnam sibi gloriam, opes, honores + acquisivit, epularibus cænis et largis dapibus assuetus, pretiosa + veste conspicuus, auro atque purpura fulgens, fascibus oblectatus + et honoribus, stipatus clientium cuneis, frequentiore comitatu + officii agminis honestatus, ut ipse de se loquitur in Epistola ad + Donatum. See De Cave, Hist. Liter. b. i. p. 87.—G. Cave has + rather embellished Cyprian’s language.—M.] + + In the course of this important, though perhaps tedious inquiry, + I have attempted to display the secondary causes which so + efficaciously assisted the truth of the Christian religion. If + among these causes we have discovered any artificial ornaments, + any accidental circumstances, or any mixture of error and + passion, it cannot appear surprising that mankind should be the + most sensibly affected by such motives as were suited to their + imperfect nature. It was by the aid of these causes, exclusive + zeal, the immediate expectation of another world, the claim of + miracles, the practice of rigid virtue, and the constitution of + the primitive church, that Christianity spread itself with so + much success in the Roman empire. To the first of these the + Christians were indebted for their invincible valor, which + disdained to capitulate with the enemy whom they were resolved to + vanquish. The three succeeding causes supplied their valor with + the most formidable arms. The last of these causes united their + courage, directed their arms, and gave their efforts that + irresistible weight, which even a small band of well-trained and + intrepid volunteers has so often possessed over an undisciplined + multitude, ignorant of the subject and careless of the event of + the war. In the various religions of Polytheism, some wandering + fanatics of Egypt and Syria, who addressed themselves to the + credulous superstition of the populace, were perhaps the only + order of priests 150 that derived their whole support and credit + from their sacerdotal profession, and were very deeply affected + by a personal concern for the safety or prosperity of their + tutelar deities. The ministers of Polytheism, both in Rome and in + the provinces, were, for the most part, men of a noble birth, and + of an affluent fortune, who received, as an honorable + distinction, the care of a celebrated temple, or of a public + sacrifice, exhibited, very frequently at their own expense, the + sacred games, 151 and with cold indifference performed the + ancient rites, according to the laws and fashion of their + country. As they were engaged in the ordinary occupations of + life, their zeal and devotion were seldom animated by a sense of + interest, or by the habits of an ecclesiastical character. + Confined to their respective temples and cities, they remained + without any connection of discipline or government; and whilst + they acknowledged the supreme jurisdiction of the senate, of the + college of pontiffs, and of the emperor, those civil magistrates + contented themselves with the easy task of maintaining in peace + and dignity the general worship of mankind. We have already seen + how various, how loose, and how uncertain were the religious + sentiments of Polytheists. They were abandoned, almost without + control, to the natural workings of a superstitious fancy. The + accidental circumstances of their life and situation determined + the object as well as the degree of their devotion; and as long + as their adoration was successively prostituted to a thousand + deities, it was scarcely possible that their hearts could be + susceptible of a very sincere or lively passion for any of them. + + 150 (return) [ The arts, the manners, and the vices of the + priests of the Syrian goddess are very humorously described by + Apuleius, in the eighth book of his Metamorphosis.] + + 151 (return) [ The office of Asiarch was of this nature, and it + is frequently mentioned in Aristides, the Inscriptions, &c. It + was annual and elective. None but the vainest citizens could + desire the honor; none but the most wealthy could support the + expense. See, in the Patres Apostol. tom. ii. p. 200, with how + much indifference Philip the Asiarch conducted himself in the + martyrdom of Polycarp. There were likewise Bithyniarchs, + Lyciarchs, &c.] + + When Christianity appeared in the world, even these faint and + imperfect impressions had lost much of their original power. + Human reason, which by its unassisted strength is incapable of + perceiving the mysteries of faith, had already obtained an easy + triumph over the folly of Paganism; and when Tertullian or + Lactantius employ their labors in exposing its falsehood and + extravagance, they are obliged to transcribe the eloquence of + Cicero or the wit of Lucian. The contagion of these sceptical + writings had been diffused far beyond the number of their + readers. The fashion of incredulity was communicated from the + philosopher to the man of pleasure or business, from the noble to + the plebeian, and from the master to the menial slave who waited + at his table, and who eagerly listened to the freedom of his + conversation. On public occasions the philosophic part of mankind + affected to treat with respect and decency the religious + institutions of their country; but their secret contempt + penetrated through the thin and awkward disguise; and even the + people, when they discovered that their deities were rejected and + derided by those whose rank or understanding they were accustomed + to reverence, were filled with doubts and apprehensions + concerning the truth of those doctrines, to which they had + yielded the most implicit belief. The decline of ancient + prejudice exposed a very numerous portion of human kind to the + danger of a painful and comfortless situation. A state of + scepticism and suspense may amuse a few inquisitive minds. But + the practice of superstition is so congenial to the multitude, + that if they are forcibly awakened, they still regret the loss of + their pleasing vision. Their love of the marvellous and + supernatural, their curiosity with regard to future events, and + their strong propensity to extend their hopes and fears beyond + the limits of the visible world, were the principal causes which + favored the establishment of Polytheism. So urgent on the vulgar + is the necessity of believing, that the fall of any system of + mythology will most probably be succeeded by the introduction of + some other mode of superstition. Some deities of a more recent + and fashionable cast might soon have occupied the deserted + temples of Jupiter and Apollo, if, in the decisive moment, the + wisdom of Providence had not interposed a genuine revelation, + fitted to inspire the most rational esteem and conviction, + whilst, at the same time, it was adorned with all that could + attract the curiosity, the wonder, and the veneration of the + people. In their actual disposition, as many were almost + disengaged from their artificial prejudices, but equally + susceptible and desirous of a devout attachment; an object much + less deserving would have been sufficient to fill the vacant + place in their hearts, and to gratify the uncertain eagerness of + their passions. Those who are inclined to pursue this reflection, + instead of viewing with astonishment the rapid progress of + Christianity, will perhaps be surprised that its success was not + still more rapid and still more universal. It has been observed, + with truth as well as propriety, that the conquests of Rome + prepared and facilitated those of Christianity. In the second + chapter of this work we have attempted to explain in what manner + the most civilized provinces of Europe, Asia, and Africa were + united under the dominion of one sovereign, and gradually + connected by the most intimate ties of laws, of manners, and of + language. The Jews of Palestine, who had fondly expected a + temporal deliverer, gave so cold a reception to the miracles of + the divine prophet, that it was found unnecessary to publish, or + at least to preserve, any Hebrew gospel. 152 The authentic + histories of the actions of Christ were composed in the Greek + language, at a considerable distance from Jerusalem, and after + the Gentile converts were grown extremely numerous. 153 As soon + as those histories were translated into the Latin tongue, they + were perfectly intelligible to all the subjects of Rome, + excepting only to the peasants of Syria and Egypt, for whose + benefit particular versions were afterwards made. The public + highways, which had been constructed for the use of the legions, + opened an easy passage for the Christian missionaries from + Damascus to Corinth, and from Italy to the extremity of Spain or + Britain; nor did those spiritual conquerors encounter any of the + obstacles which usually retard or prevent the introduction of a + foreign religion into a distant country. There is the strongest + reason to believe, that before the reigns of Diocletian and + Constantine, the faith of Christ had been preached in every + province, and in all the great cities of the empire; but the + foundation of the several congregations, the numbers of the + faithful who composed them, and their proportion to the + unbelieving multitude, are now buried in obscurity, or disguised + by fiction and declamation. Such imperfect circumstances, + however, as have reached our knowledge concerning the increase of + the Christian name in Asia and Greece, in Egypt, in Italy, and in + the West, we shall now proceed to relate, without neglecting the + real or imaginary acquisitions which lay beyond the frontiers of + the Roman empire. + + 152 (return) [ The modern critics are not disposed to believe + what the fathers almost unanimously assert, that St. Matthew + composed a Hebrew gospel, of which only the Greek translation is + extant. It seems, however, dangerous to reject their testimony. * + Note: Strong reasons appear to confirm this testimony. Papias, + contemporary of the Apostle St. John, says positively that + Matthew had written the discourses of Jesus Christ in Hebrew, and + that each interpreted them as he could. This Hebrew was the + Syro-Chaldaic dialect, then in use at Jerusalem: Origen, Irenæus, + Eusebius, Jerome, Epiphanius, confirm this statement. Jesus + Christ preached himself in Syro-Chaldaic, as is proved by many + words which he used, and which the Evangelists have taken the + pains to translate. St. Paul, addressing the Jews, used the same + language: Acts xxi. 40, xxii. 2, xxvi. 14. The opinions of some + critics prove nothing against such undeniable testimonies. + Moreover, their principal objection is, that St. Matthew quotes + the Old Testament according to the Greek version of the LXX., + which is inaccurate; for of ten quotations, found in his Gospel, + seven are evidently taken from the Hebrew text; the threo others + offer little that differ: moreover, the latter are not literal + quotations. St. Jerome says positively, that, according to a copy + which he had seen in the library of Cæsarea, the quotations were + made in Hebrew (in Catal.) More modern critics, among others + Michaelis, do not entertain a doubt on the subject. The Greek + version appears to have been made in the time of the apostles, as + St. Jerome and St. Augustus affirm, perhaps by one of them.—G. + ——Among modern critics, Dr. Hug has asserted the Greek original + of St. Matthew, but the general opinion of the most learned + biblical writer, supports the view of M. Guizot.—M.] + + 153 (return) [ Under the reigns of Nero and Domitian, and in the + cities of Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, and Ephesus. See Mill. + Prolegomena ad Nov. Testament, and Dr. Lardner’s fair and + extensive collection, vol. xv. Note: This question has, it is + well known, been most elaborately discussed since the time of + Gibbon. The Preface to the Translation of Schleier Macher’s + Version of St. Luke contains a very able summary of the various + theories.—M.] + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VIII. + + The rich provinces that extend from the Euphrates to the Ionian + Sea were the principal theatre on which the apostle of the + Gentiles displayed his zeal and piety. The seeds of the gospel, + which he had scattered in a fertile soil, were diligently + cultivated by his disciples; and it should seem that, during the + two first centuries, the most considerable body of Christians was + contained within those limits. Among the societies which were + instituted in Syria, none were more ancient or more illustrious + than those of Damascus, of Berea or Aleppo, and of Antioch. The + prophetic introduction of the Apocalypse has described and + immortalized the seven churches of Asia; Ephesus, Smyrna, + Pergamus, Thyatira, 154 Sardes, Laodicea, and Philadelphia; and + their colonies were soon diffused over that populous country. In + a very early period, the islands of Cyprus and Crete, the + provinces of Thrace and Macedonia, gave a favorable reception to + the new religion; and Christian republics were soon founded in + the cities of Corinth, of Sparta, and of Athens. 155 The + antiquity of the Greek and Asiatic churches allowed a sufficient + space of time for their increase and multiplication; and even the + swarms of Gnostics and other heretics serve to display the + flourishing condition of the orthodox church, since the + appellation of heretics has always been applied to the less + numerous party. To these domestic testimonies we may add the + confession, the complaints, and the apprehensions of the Gentiles + themselves. From the writings of Lucian, a philosopher who had + studied mankind, and who describes their manners in the most + lively colors, we may learn that, under the reign of Commodus, + his native country of Pontus was filled with Epicureans and + _Christians_. 156 Within fourscore years after the death of + Christ, 157 the humane Pliny laments the magnitude of the evil + which he vainly attempted to eradicate. In his very curious + epistle to the emperor Trajan, he affirms that the temples were + almost deserted, that the sacred victims scarcely found any + purchasers, and that the superstition had not only infected the + cities, but had even spread itself into the villages and the open + country of Pontus and Bithynia. 158 + + 154 (return) [ The Alogians (Epiphanius de Hæres. 51) disputed + the genuineness of the Apocalypse, because the church of Thyatira + was not yet founded. Epiphanius, who allows the fact, extricates + himself from the difficulty by ingeniously supposing that St. + John wrote in the spirit of prophecy. See Abauzit, Discours sur + l’Apocalypse.] + + 155 (return) [ The epistles of Ignatius and Dionysius (ap. Euseb. + iv. 23) point out many churches in Asia and Greece. That of + Athens seems to have been one of the least flourishing.] + + 156 (return) [ Lucian in Alexandro, c. 25. Christianity however, + must have been very unequally diffused over Pontus; since, in the + middle of the third century, there was no more than seventeen + believers in the extensive diocese of Neo-Cæsarea. See M. de + Tillemont, Memoires Ecclesiast. tom. iv. p. 675, from Basil and + Gregory of Nyssa, who were themselves natives of Cappadocia. + Note: Gibbon forgot the conclusion of this story, that Gregory + left only seventeen heathens in his diocese. The antithesis is + suspicious, and both numbers may have been chosen to magnify the + spiritual fame of the wonder-worker.—M.] + + 157 (return) [ According to the ancients, Jesus Christ suffered + under the consulship of the two Gemini, in the year 29 of our + present æra. Pliny was sent into Bithynia (according to Pagi) in + the year 110.] + + 158 (return) [ Plin. Epist. x. 97.] + + Without descending into a minute scrutiny of the expressions or + of the motives of those writers who either celebrate or lament + the progress of Christianity in the East, it may in general be + observed that none of them have left us any grounds from whence a + just estimate might be formed of the real numbers of the faithful + in those provinces. One circumstance, however, has been + fortunately preserved, which seems to cast a more distinct light + on this obscure but interesting subject. Under the reign of + Theodosius, after Christianity had enjoyed, during more than + sixty years, the sunshine of Imperial favor, the ancient and + illustrious church of Antioch consisted of one hundred thousand + persons, three thousand of whom were supported out of the public + oblations. 159 The splendor and dignity of the queen of the East, + the acknowledged populousness of Cæsarea, Seleucia, and + Alexandria, and the destruction of two hundred and fifty thousand + souls in the earthquake which afflicted Antioch under the elder + Justin, 160 are so many convincing proofs that the whole number + of its inhabitants was not less than half a million, and that the + Christians, however multiplied by zeal and power, did not exceed + a fifth part of that great city. How different a proportion must + we adopt when we compare the persecuted with the triumphant + church, the West with the East, remote villages with populous + towns, and countries recently converted to the faith with the + place where the believers first received the appellation of + Christians! It must not, however, be dissembled, that, in another + passage, Chrysostom, to whom we are indebted for this useful + information, computes the multitude of the faithful as even + superior to that of the Jews and Pagans. 161 But the solution of + this apparent difficulty is easy and obvious. The eloquent + preacher draws a parallel between the civil and the + ecclesiastical constitution of Antioch; between the list of + Christians who had acquired heaven by baptism, and the list of + citizens who had a right to share the public liberality. Slaves, + strangers, and infants were comprised in the former; they were + excluded from the latter. + + 159 (return) [ Chrysostom. Opera, tom. vii. p. 658, 810, (edit. + Savil. ii. 422, 329.)] + + 160 (return) [ John Malala, tom. ii. p. 144. He draws the same + conclusion with regard to the populousness of antioch.] + + 161 (return) [ Chrysostom. tom. i. p. 592. I am indebted for + these passages, though not for my inference, to the learned Dr. + Lardner. Credibility of the Gospel of History, vol. xii. p. 370. + * Note: The statements of Chrysostom with regard to the + population of Antioch, whatever may be their accuracy, are + perfectly consistent. In one passage he reckons the population at + 200,000. In a second the Christians at 100,000. In a third he + states that the Christians formed more than half the population. + Gibbon has neglected to notice the first passage, and has drawn + by estimate of the population of Antioch from other sources. The + 8000 maintained by alms were widows and virgins alone—M.] + + The extensive commerce of Alexandria, and its proximity to + Palestine, gave an easy entrance to the new religion. It was at + first embraced by great numbers of the Theraputæ, or Essenians, + of the Lake Mareotis, a Jewish sect which had abated much of its + reverence for the Mosaic ceremonies. The austere life of the + Essenians, their fasts and excommunications, the community of + goods, the love of celibacy, their zeal for martyrdom, and the + warmth though not the purity of their faith, already offered a + very lively image of the primitive discipline. 162 It was in the + school of Alexandria that the Christian theology appears to have + assumed a regular and scientific form; and when Hadrian visited + Egypt, he found a church composed of Jews and of Greeks, + sufficiently important to attract the notice of that inquisitive + prince. 163 But the progress of Christianity was for a long time + confined within the limits of a single city, which was itself a + foreign colony, and till the close of the second century the + predecessors of Demetrius were the only prelates of the Egyptian + church. Three bishops were consecrated by the hands of Demetrius, + and the number was increased to twenty by his successor Heraclas. + 164 The body of the natives, a people distinguished by a sullen + inflexibility of temper, 165 entertained the new doctrine with + coldness and reluctance; and even in the time of Origen, it was + rare to meet with an Egyptian who had surmounted his early + prejudices in favor of the sacred animals of his country. 166 As + soon, indeed, as Christianity ascended the throne, the zeal of + those barbarians obeyed the prevailing impulsion; the cities of + Egypt were filled with bishops, and the deserts of Thebais + swarmed with hermits. + + 162 (return) [ Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, l. 2, c. 20, 21, 22, + 23, has examined with the most critical accuracy the curious + treatise of Philo, which describes the Therapeutæ. By proving + that it was composed as early as the time of Augustus, Basnage + has demonstrated, in spite of Eusebius (l. ii. c. 17) and a crowd + of modern Catholics, that the Therapeutæ were neither Christians + nor monks. It still remains probable that they changed their + name, preserved their manners, adopted some new articles of + faith, and gradually became the fathers of the Egyptian + Ascetics.] + + 163 (return) [ See a letter of Hadrian in the Augustan History, + p. 245.] + + 164 (return) [ For the succession of Alexandrian bishops, consult + Renaudot’s History, p. 24, &c. This curious fact is preserved by + the patriarch Eutychius, (Annal. tom. i. p. 334, Vers. Pocock,) + and its internal evidence would alone be a sufficient answer to + all the objections which Bishop Pearson has urged in the Vindiciæ + Ignatianæ.] + + 165 (return) [ Ammian. Marcellin. xxii. 16.] + + 166 (return) [ Origen contra Celsum, l. i. p. 40.] + + A perpetual stream of strangers and provincials flowed into the + capacious bosom of Rome. Whatever was strange or odious, whoever + was guilty or suspected, might hope, in the obscurity of that + immense capital, to elude the vigilance of the law. In such a + various conflux of nations, every teacher, either of truth or + falsehood, every founder, whether of a virtuous or a criminal + association, might easily multiply his disciples or accomplices. + The Christians of Rome, at the time of the accidental persecution + of Nero, are represented by Tacitus as already amounting to a + very great multitude, 167 and the language of that great + historian is almost similar to the style employed by Livy, when + he relates the introduction and the suppression of the rites of + Bacchus. After the Bacchanals had awakened the severity of the + senate, it was likewise apprehended that a very great multitude, + as it were _another people_, had been initiated into those + abhorred mysteries. A more careful inquiry soon demonstrated that + the offenders did not exceed seven thousand; a number indeed + sufficiently alarming, when considered as the object of public + justice. 168 It is with the same candid allowance that we should + interpret the vague expressions of Tacitus, and in a former + instance of Pliny, when they exaggerate the crowds of deluded + fanatics who had forsaken the established worship of the gods. + The church of Rome was undoubtedly the first and most populous of + the empire; and we are possessed of an authentic record which + attests the state of religion in that city about the middle of + the third century, and after a peace of thirty-eight years. The + clergy, at that time, consisted of a bishop, forty-six + presbyters, seven deacons, as many sub-deacons, forty-two + acolytes, and fifty readers, exorcists, and porters. The number + of widows, of the infirm, and of the poor, who were maintained by + the oblations of the faithful, amounted to fifteen hundred. 169 + From reason, as well as from the analogy of Antioch, we may + venture to estimate the Christians of Rome at about fifty + thousand. The populousness of that great capital cannot perhaps + be exactly ascertained; but the most modest calculation will not + surely reduce it lower than a million of inhabitants, of whom the + Christians might constitute at the most a twentieth part. 170 + + 167 (return) [ Ingens multitudo is the expression of Tacitus, xv. + 44.] + + 168 (return) [ T. Liv. xxxix. 13, 15, 16, 17. Nothing could + exceed the horror and consternation of the senate on the + discovery of the Bacchanalians, whose depravity is described, and + perhaps exaggerated, by Livy.] + + 169 (return) [ Eusebius, l. vi. c. 43. The Latin translator (M. + de Valois) has thought proper to reduce the number of presbyters + to forty-four.] + + 170 (return) [ This proportion of the presbyters and of the poor, + to the rest of the people, was originally fixed by Burnet, + (Travels into Italy, p. 168,) and is approved by Moyle, (vol. ii. + p. 151.) They were both unacquainted with the passage of + Chrysostom, which converts their conjecture almost into a fact.] + + The western provincials appeared to have derived the knowledge of + Christianity from the same source which had diffused among them + the language, the sentiments, and the manners of Rome. + + In this more important circumstance, Africa, as well as Gaul was + gradually fashioned to the imitation of the capital. Yet + notwithstanding the many favorable occasions which might invite + the Roman missionaries to visit their Latin provinces, it was + late before they passed either the sea or the Alps; 171 nor can + we discover in those great countries any assured traces either of + faith or of persecution that ascend higher than the reign of the + Antonines. 172 The slow progress of the gospel in the cold + climate of Gaul, was extremely different from the eagerness with + which it seems to have been received on the burning sands of + Africa. The African Christians soon formed one of the principal + members of the primitive church. The practice introduced into + that province of appointing bishops to the most inconsiderable + towns, and very frequently to the most obscure villages, + contributed to multiply the splendor and importance of their + religious societies, which during the course of the third century + were animated by the zeal of Tertullian, directed by the + abilities of Cyprian, and adorned by the eloquence of Lactantius. + + But if, on the contrary, we turn our eyes towards Gaul, we must + content ourselves with discovering, in the time of Marcus + Antoninus, the feeble and united congregations of Lyons and + Vienna; and even as late as the reign of Decius we are assured, + that in a few cities only, Arles, Narbonne, Thoulouse, Limoges, + Clermont, Tours, and Paris, some scattered churches were + supported by the devotion of a small number of Christians. 173 + Silence is indeed very consistent with devotion; but as it is + seldom compatible with zeal, we may perceive and lament the + languid state of Christianity in those provinces which had + exchanged the Celtic for the Latin tongue, since they did not, + during the three first centuries, give birth to a single + ecclesiastical writer. From Gaul, which claimed a just + preeminence of learning and authority over all the countries on + this side of the Alps, the light of the gospel was more faintly + reflected on the remote provinces of Spain and Britain; and if we + may credit the vehement assertions of Tertullian, they had + already received the first rays of the faith, when he addressed + his apology to the magistrates of the emperor Severus. 174 But + the obscure and imperfect origin of the western churches of + Europe has been so negligently recorded, that if we would relate + the time and manner of their foundation, we must supply the + silence of antiquity by those legends which avarice or + superstition long afterwards dictated to the monks in the lazy + gloom of their convents. 175 Of these holy romances, that of the + apostle St. James can alone, by its singular extravagance, + deserve to be mentioned. From a peaceful fisherman of the Lake of + Gennesareth, he was transformed into a valorous knight, who + charged at the head of the Spanish chivalry in their battles + against the Moors. The gravest historians have celebrated his + exploits; the miraculous shrine of Compostella displayed his + power; and the sword of a military order, assisted by the terrors + of the Inquisition, was sufficient to remove every objection of + profane criticism. 176 + + 171 (return) [ Serius trans Alpes, religione Dei suscepta. + Sulpicius Severus, l. ii. With regard to Africa, see Tertullian + ad Scapulam, c. 3. It is imagined that the Scyllitan martyrs were + the first, (Acta Sincera Rumart. p. 34.) One of the adversaries + of Apuleius seems to have been a Christian. Apolog. p. 496, 497, + edit. Delphin.] + + 172 (return) [ Tum primum intra Gallias martyria visa. Sulp. + Severus, l. ii. These were the celebrated martyrs of Lyons. See + Eusebius, v. i. Tillemont, Mem. Ecclesiast. tom. ii. p. 316. + According to the Donatists, whose assertion is confirmed by the + tacit acknowledgment of Augustin, Africa was the last of the + provinces which received the gospel. Tillemont, Mem. Ecclesiast. + tom. i. p. 754.] + + 173 (return) [ Raræ in aliquibus civitatibus ecclesiæ, paucorum + Christianorum devotione, resurgerent. Acta Sincera, p. 130. + Gregory of Tours, l i. c. 28. Mosheim, p. 207, 449. There is some + reason to believe that in the beginning of the fourth century, + the extensive dioceses of Liege, of Treves, and of Cologne, + composed a single bishopric, which had been very recently + founded. See Memoires de Tillemont, tom vi. part i. p. 43, 411.] + + 174 (return) [ The date of Tertullian’s Apology is fixed, in a + dissertation of Mosheim, to the year 198.] + + 175 (return) [ In the fifteenth century, there were few who had + either inclination or courage to question, whether Joseph of + Arimathea founded the monastery of Glastonbury, and whether + Dionysius the Areopagite preferred the residence of Paris to that + of Athens.] + + 176 (return) [ The stupendous metamorphosis was performed in the + ninth century. See Mariana, (Hist. Hispan. l. vii. c. 13, tom. i. + p. 285, edit. Hag. Com. 1733,) who, in every sense, imitates + Livy, and the honest detection of the legend of St. James by Dr. + Geddes, Miscellanies, vol. ii. p. 221.] + + The progress of Christianity was not confined to the Roman + empire; and according to the primitive fathers, who interpret + facts by prophecy, the new religion, within a century after the + death of its divine Author, had already visited every part of the + globe. “There exists not,” says Justin Martyr, “a people, whether + Greek or Barbarian, or any other race of men, by whatsoever + appellation or manners they may be distinguished, however + ignorant of arts or agriculture, whether they dwell under tents, + or wander about in covered wagons, among whom prayers are not + offered up in the name of a crucified Jesus to the Father and + Creator of all things.” 177 But this splendid exaggeration, which + even at present it would be extremely difficult to reconcile with + the real state of mankind, can be considered only as the rash + sally of a devout but careless writer, the measure of whose + belief was regulated by that of his wishes. But neither the + belief nor the wishes of the fathers can alter the truth of + history. It will still remain an undoubted fact, that the + barbarians of Scythia and Germany, who afterwards subverted the + Roman monarchy, were involved in the darkness of paganism; and + that even the conversion of Iberia, of Armenia, or of Æthiopia, + was not attempted with any degree of success till the sceptre was + in the hands of an orthodox emperor. 178 Before that time, the + various accidents of war and commerce might indeed diffuse an + imperfect knowledge of the gospel among the tribes of Caledonia, + 179 and among the borderers of the Rhine, the Danube, and the + Euphrates. 180 Beyond the last-mentioned river, Edessa was + distinguished by a firm and early adherence to the faith. 181 + From Edessa the principles of Christianity were easily introduced + into the Greek and Syrian cities which obeyed the successors of + Artaxerxes; but they do not appear to have made any deep + impression on the minds of the Persians, whose religious system, + by the labors of a well-disciplined order of priests, had been + constructed with much more art and solidity than the uncertain + mythology of Greece and Rome. 182 + + 177 (return) [ Justin Martyr, Dialog. cum Tryphon. p. 341. + Irenæus adv. Hæres. l. i. c. 10. Tertullian adv. Jud. c. 7. See + Mosheim, p. 203.] + + 178 (return) [ See the fourth century of Mosheim’s History of the + Church. Many, though very confused circumstances, that relate to + the conversion of Iberia and Armenia, may be found in Moses of + Chorene, l. ii. c. 78—89. Note: Mons. St. Martin has shown that + Armenia was the first nation that embraced Christianity. Memoires + sur l’Armenie, vol. i. p. 306, and notes to Le Beæ. Gibbon, + indeed had expressed his intention of withdrawing the words “of + Armenia” from the text of future editions. (Vindication, Works, + iv. 577.) He was bitterly taunted by Person for neglecting or + declining to fulfil his promise. Preface to Letters to + Travis.—M.] + + 179 (return) [ According to Tertullian, the Christian faith had + penetrated into parts of Britain inaccessible to the Roman arms. + About a century afterwards, Ossian, the son of Fingal, is said to + have disputed, in his extreme old age, with one of the foreign + missionaries, and the dispute is still extant, in verse, and in + the Erse language. See Mr. Macpher son’s Dissertation on the + Antiquity of Ossian’s Poems, p. 10.] + + 180 (return) [ The Goths, who ravaged Asia in the reign of + Gallienus, carried away great numbers of captives; some of whom + were Christians, and became missionaries. See Tillemont, Memoires + Ecclesiast. tom. iv. p. 44.] + + 181 (return) [ The legends of Abgarus, fabulous as it is, affords + a decisive proof, that many years before Eusebius wrote his + history, the greatest part of the inhabitants of Edessa had + embraced Christianity. Their rivals, the citizens of Carrhæ, + adhered, on the contrary, to the cause of Paganism, as late as + the sixth century.] + + 182 (return) [ According to Bardesanes (ap. Euseb. Præpar. + Evangel.) there were some Christians in Persia before the end of + the second century. In the time of Constantine (see his epistle + to Sapor, Vit. l. iv. c. 13) they composed a flourishing church. + Consult Beausobre, Hist. Cristique du Manicheisme, tom. i. p. + 180, and the Bibliotheca Orietalis of Assemani.] + + + + + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part IX. + + From this impartial though imperfect survey of the progress of + Christianity, it may perhaps seem probable, that the number of + its proselytes has been excessively magnified by fear on the one + side, and by devotion on the other. According to the + irreproachable testimony of Origen, 183 the proportion of the + faithful was very inconsiderable, when compared with the + multitude of an unbelieving world; but, as we are left without + any distinct information, it is impossible to determine, and it + is difficult even to conjecture, the real numbers of the + primitive Christians. The most favorable calculation, however, + that can be deduced from the examples of Antioch and of Rome, + will not permit us to imagine that more than a twentieth part of + the subjects of the empire had enlisted themselves under the + banner of the cross before the important conversion of + Constantine. But their habits of faith, of zeal, and of union, + seemed to multiply their numbers; and the same causes which + contributed to their future increase, served to render their + actual strength more apparent and more formidable. + + 183 (return) [Origen contra Celsum, l. viii. p. 424.] + + Such is the constitution of civil society, that, whilst a few + persons are distinguished by riches, by honors, and by knowledge, + the body of the people is condemned to obscurity, ignorance and + poverty. The Christian religion, which addressed itself to the + whole human race, must consequently collect a far greater number + of proselytes from the lower than from the superior ranks of + life. This innocent and natural circumstance has been improved + into a very odious imputation, which seems to be less strenuously + denied by the apologists, than it is urged by the adversaries, of + the faith; that the new sect of Christians was almost entirely + composed of the dregs of the populace, of peasants and mechanics, + of boys and women, of beggars and slaves, the last of whom might + sometimes introduce the missionaries into the rich and noble + families to which they belonged. These obscure teachers (such was + the charge of malice and infidelity) are as mute in public as + they are loquacious and dogmatical in private. Whilst they + cautiously avoid the dangerous encounter of philosophers, they + mingle with the rude and illiterate crowd, and insinuate + themselves into those minds whom their age, their sex, or their + education, has the best disposed to receive the impression of + superstitious terrors. 184 + + 184 (return) [ Minucius Felix, c. 8, with Wowerus’s notes. Celsus + ap. Origen, l. iii. p. 138, 142. Julian ap. Cyril. l. vi. p. 206, + edit. Spanheim.] + + This unfavorable picture, though not devoid of a faint + resemblance, betrays, by its dark coloring and distorted + features, the pencil of an enemy. As the humble faith of Christ + diffused itself through the world, it was embraced by several + persons who derived some consequence from the advantages of + nature or fortune. Aristides, who presented an eloquent apology + to the emperor Hadrian, was an Athenian philosopher. 185 Justin + Martyr had sought divine knowledge in the schools of Zeno, of + Aristotle, of Pythagoras, and of Plato, before he fortunately was + accosted by the old man, or rather the angel, who turned his + attention to the study of the Jewish prophets. 186 Clemens of + Alexandria had acquired much various reading in the Greek, and + Tertullian in the Latin, language. Julius Africanus and Origen + possessed a very considerable share of the learning of their + times; and although the style of Cyprian is very different from + that of Lactantius, we might almost discover that both those + writers had been public teachers of rhetoric. Even the study of + philosophy was at length introduced among the Christians, but it + was not always productive of the most salutary effects; knowledge + was as often the parent of heresy as of devotion, and the + description which was designed for the followers of Artemon, may, + with equal propriety, be applied to the various sects that + resisted the successors of the apostles. “They presume to alter + the Holy Scriptures, to abandon the ancient rule of faith, and to + form their opinions according to the subtile precepts of logic. + The science of the church is neglected for the study of geometry, + and they lose sight of heaven while they are employed in + measuring the earth. Euclid is perpetually in their hands. + Aristotle and Theophrastus are the objects of their admiration; + and they express an uncommon reverence for the works of Galen. + Their errors are derived from the abuse of the arts and sciences + of the infidels, and they corrupt the simplicity of the gospel by + the refinements of human reason.” 187 + + 185 (return) [ Euseb. Hist. Eccles. iv. 3. Hieronym. Epist. 83.] + + 186 (return) [ The story is prettily told in Justin’s Dialogues. + Tillemont, (Mem Ecclesiast. tom. ii. p. 384,) who relates it + after him is sure that the old man was a disguised angel.] + + 187 (return) [ Eusebius, v. 28. It may be hoped, that none, + except the heretics, gave occasion to the complaint of Celsus, + (ap. Origen, l. ii. p. 77,) that the Christians were perpetually + correcting and altering their Gospels. * Note: Origen states in + reply, that he knows of none who had altered the Gospels except + the Marcionites, the Valentinians, and perhaps some followers of + Lucanus.—M.] + + Nor can it be affirmed with truth, that the advantages of birth + and fortune were always separated from the profession of + Christianity. Several Roman citizens were brought before the + tribunal of Pliny, and he soon discovered, that a great number of + persons of _every order_ of men in Bithynia had deserted the + religion of their ancestors. 188 His unsuspected testimony may, + in this instance, obtain more credit than the bold challenge of + Tertullian, when he addresses himself to the fears as well as the + humanity of the proconsul of Africa, by assuring him, that if he + persists in his cruel intentions, he must decimate Carthage, and + that he will find among the guilty many persons of his own rank, + senators and matrons of noblest extraction, and the friends or + relations of his most intimate friends. 189 It appears, however, + that about forty years afterwards the emperor Valerian was + persuaded of the truth of this assertion, since in one of his + rescripts he evidently supposes that senators, Roman knights, and + ladies of quality, were engaged in the Christian sect. 190 The + church still continued to increase its outward splendor as it + lost its internal purity; and, in the reign of Diocletian, the + palace, the courts of justice, and even the army, concealed a + multitude of Christians, who endeavored to reconcile the + interests of the present with those of a future life. + + 188 (return) [ Plin. Epist. x. 97. Fuerunt alii similis amentiæ, + cives Romani—-Multi enim omnis ætatis, omnis ordinis, utriusque + sexus, etiam vocuntur in periculum et vocabuntur.] + + 189 (return) [ Tertullian ad Scapulum. Yet even his rhetoric + rises no higher than to claim a tenth part of Carthage.] + + 190 (return) [ Cyprian. Epist. 70.] + + And yet these exceptions are either too few in number, or too + recent in time, entirely to remove the imputation of ignorance + and obscurity which has been so arrogantly cast on the first + proselytes of Christianity. 1901 Instead of employing in our + defence the fictions of later ages, it will be more prudent to + convert the occasion of scandal into a subject of edification. + Our serious thoughts will suggest to us, that the apostles + themselves were chosen by Providence among the fishermen of + Galilee, and that the lower we depress the temporal condition of + the first Christians, the more reason we shall find to admire + their merit and success. It is incumbent on us diligently to + remember, that the kingdom of heaven was promised to the poor in + spirit, and that minds afflicted by calamity and the contempt of + mankind, cheerfully listen to the divine promise of future + happiness; while, on the contrary, the fortunate are satisfied + with the possession of this world; and the wise abuse in doubt + and dispute their vain superiority of reason and knowledge. + + 1901 (return) [ This incomplete enumeration ought to be increased + by the names of several Pagans converted at the dawn of + Christianity, and whose conversion weakens the reproach which the + historian appears to support. Such are, the Proconsul Sergius + Paulus, converted at Paphos, (Acts xiii. 7—12.) Dionysius, member + of the Areopagus, converted with several others, al Athens, (Acts + xvii. 34;) several persons at the court of Nero, (Philip. iv 22;) + Erastus, receiver at Corinth, (Rom. xvi.23;) some Asiarchs, (Acts + xix. 31) As to the philosophers, we may add Tatian, Athenagoras, + Theophilus of Antioch, Hegesippus, Melito, Miltiades, Pantænus, + Ammenius, all distinguished for their genius and learning.—G.] + + We stand in need of such reflections to comfort us for the loss + of some illustrious characters, which in our eyes might have + seemed the most worthy of the heavenly present. The names of + Seneca, of the elder and the younger Pliny, of Tacitus, of + Plutarch, of Galen, of the slave Epictetus, and of the emperor + Marcus Antoninus, adorn the age in which they flourished, and + exalt the dignity of human nature. They filled with glory their + respective stations, either in active or contemplative life; + their excellent understandings were improved by study; Philosophy + had purified their minds from the prejudices of the popular + superstitions; and their days were spent in the pursuit of truth + and the practice of virtue. Yet all these sages (it is no less an + object of surprise than of concern) overlooked or rejected the + perfection of the Christian system. Their language or their + silence equally discover their contempt for the growing sect, + which in their time had diffused itself over the Roman empire. + Those among them who condescended to mention the Christians, + consider them only as obstinate and perverse enthusiasts, who + exacted an implicit submission to their mysterious doctrines, + without being able to produce a single argument that could engage + the attention of men of sense and learning. 191 + + 191 (return) [ Dr. Lardner, in his first and second volumes of + Jewish and Christian testimonies, collects and illustrates those + of Pliny the younger, of Tacitus, of Galen, of Marcus Antoninus, + and perhaps of Epictetus, (for it is doubtful whether that + philosopher means to speak of the Christians.) The new sect is + totally unnoticed by Seneca, the elder Pliny, and Plutarch.] + + It is at least doubtful whether any of these philosophers perused + the apologies 1911 which the primitive Christians repeatedly + published in behalf of themselves and of their religion; but it + is much to be lamented that such a cause was not defended by + abler advocates. They expose with superfluous wit and eloquence + the extravagance of Polytheism. They interest our compassion by + displaying the innocence and sufferings of their injured + brethren. But when they would demonstrate the divine origin of + Christianity, they insist much more strongly on the predictions + which announced, than on the miracles which accompanied, the + appearance of the Messiah. Their favorite argument might serve to + edify a Christian or to convert a Jew, since both the one and the + other acknowledge the authority of those prophecies, and both are + obliged, with devout reverence, to search for their sense and + their accomplishment. But this mode of persuasion loses much of + its weight and influence, when it is addressed to those who + neither understand nor respect the Mosaic dispensation and the + prophetic style. 192 In the unskilful hands of Justin and of the + succeeding apologists, the sublime meaning of the Hebrew oracles + evaporates in distant types, affected conceits, and cold + allegories; and even their authenticity was rendered suspicious + to an unenlightened Gentile, by the mixture of pious forgeries, + which, under the names of Orpheus, Hermes, and the Sibyls, 193 + were obtruded on him as of equal value with the genuine + inspirations of Heaven. The adoption of fraud and sophistry in + the defence of revelation too often reminds us of the injudicious + conduct of those poets who load their _invulnerable_ heroes with + a useless weight of cumbersome and brittle armor. + + 1911 (return) [ The emperors Hadrian, Antoninus &c., read with + astonishment the apologies of Justin Martyr, of Aristides, of + Melito, &c. (See St. Hieron. ad mag. orat. Orosius, lviii. c. + 13.) Eusebius says expressly, that the cause of Christianity was + defended before the senate, in a very elegant discourse, by + Apollonius the Martyr.—G. ——Gibbon, in his severer spirit of + criticism, may have questioned the authority of Jerome and + Eusebius. There are some difficulties about Apollonius, which + Heinichen (note in loc. Eusebii) would solve, by suppose lag him + to have been, as Jerome states, a senator.—M.] + + 192 (return) [ If the famous prophecy of the Seventy Weeks had + been alleged to a Roman philosopher, would he not have replied in + the words of Cicero, “Quæ tandem ista auguratio est, annorum + potius quam aut rænsium aut dierum?” De Divinatione, ii. 30. + Observe with what irreverence Lucian, (in Alexandro, c. 13.) and + his friend Celsus ap. Origen, (l. vii. p. 327,) express + themselves concerning the Hebrew prophets.] + + 193 (return) [ The philosophers who derided the more ancient + predictions of the Sibyls, would easily have detected the Jewish + and Christian forgeries, which have been so triumphantly quoted + by the fathers, from Justin Martyr to Lactantius. When the + Sibylline verses had performed their appointed task, they, like + the system of the millennium, were quietly laid aside. The + Christian Sybil had unluckily fixed the ruin of Rome for the year + 195, A. U. C. 948.] + + But how shall we excuse the supine inattention of the Pagan and + philosophic world, to those evidences which were represented by + the hand of Omnipotence, not to their reason, but to their + senses? During the age of Christ, of his apostles, and of their + first disciples, the doctrine which they preached was confirmed + by innumerable prodigies. The lame walked, the blind saw, the + sick were healed, the dead were raised, dæmons were expelled, and + the laws of Nature were frequently suspended for the benefit of + the church. But the sages of Greece and Rome turned aside from + the awful spectacle, and, pursuing the ordinary occupations of + life and study, appeared unconscious of any alterations in the + moral or physical government of the world. Under the reign of + Tiberius, the whole earth, 194 or at least a celebrated province + of the Roman empire, 195 was involved in a preternatural darkness + of three hours. Even this miraculous event, which ought to have + excited the wonder, the curiosity, and the devotion of mankind, + passed without notice in an age of science and history. 196 It + happened during the lifetime of Seneca and the elder Pliny, who + must have experienced the immediate effects, or received the + earliest intelligence, of the prodigy. Each of these + philosophers, in a laborious work, has recorded all the great + phenomena of Nature, earthquakes, meteors, comets, and eclipses, + which his indefatigable curiosity could collect. 197 Both the one + and the other have omitted to mention the greatest phenomenon to + which the mortal eye has been witness since the creation of the + globe. A distinct chapter of Pliny 198 is designed for eclipses + of an extraordinary nature and unusual duration; but he contents + himself with describing the singular defect of light which + followed the murder of Cæsar, when, during the greatest part of a + year, the orb of the sun appeared pale and without splendor. The + season of obscurity, which cannot surely be compared with the + preternatural darkness of the Passion, had been already + celebrated by most of the poets 199 and historians of that + memorable age. 200 + + 194 (return) [ The fathers, as they are drawn out in battle array + by Dom Calmet, (Dissertations sur la Bible, tom. iii. p. + 295—308,) seem to cover the whole earth with darkness, in which + they are followed by most of the moderns.] + + 195 (return) [ Origen ad Matth. c. 27, and a few modern critics, + Beza, Le Clerc, Lardner, &c., are desirous of confining it to the + land of Judea.] + + 196 (return) [ The celebrated passage of Phlegon is now wisely + abandoned. When Tertullian assures the Pagans that the mention of + the prodigy is found in Arcanis (not Archivis) vestris, (see his + Apology, c. 21,) he probably appeals to the Sibylline verses, + which relate it exactly in the words of the Gospel. * Note: + According to some learned theologians a misunderstanding of the + text in the Gospel has given rise to this mistake, which has + employed and wearied so many laborious commentators, though + Origen had already taken the pains to preinform them. The + expression does not mean, they assert, an eclipse, but any kind + of obscurity occasioned in the atmosphere, whether by clouds or + any other cause. As this obscuration of the sun rarely took place + in Palestine, where in the middle of April the sky was usually + clear, it assumed, in the eyes of the Jews and Christians, an + importance conformable to the received notion, that the sun + concealed at midday was a sinister presage. See Amos viii. 9, 10. + The word is often taken in this sense by contemporary writers; + the Apocalypse says the sun was concealed, when speaking of an + obscuration caused by smoke and dust. (Revel. ix. 2.) Moreover, + the Hebrew word ophal, which in the LXX. answers to the Greek, + signifies any darkness; and the Evangelists, who have modelled + the sense of their expressions by those of the LXX., must have + taken it in the same latitude. This darkening of the sky usually + precedes earthquakes. (Matt. xxvii. 51.) The Heathen authors + furnish us a number of examples, of which a miraculous + explanation was given at the time. See Ovid. ii. v. 33, l. xv. v. + 785. Pliny, Hist. Nat. l. ii. c 30. Wetstein has collected all + these examples in his edition of the New Testament. We need not, + then, be astonished at the silence of the Pagan authors + concerning a phenomenon which did not extend beyond Jerusalem, + and which might have nothing contrary to the laws of nature; + although the Christians and the Jews may have regarded it as a + sinister presage. See Michaelis Notes on New Testament, v. i. p. + 290. Paulus, Commentary on New Testament, iii. p. 760.—G.] + + 197 (return) [ Seneca, Quæst. Natur. l. i. 15, vi. l. vii. 17. + Plin. Hist. Natur. l. ii.] + + 198 (return) [ Plin. Hist. Natur. ii. 30.] + + 199 (return) [ Virgil. Georgic. i. 466. Tibullus, l. i. Eleg. v. + ver. 75. Ovid Metamorph. xv. 782. Lucan. Pharsal. i. 540. The + last of these poets places this prodigy before the civil war.] + + 200 (return) [ See a public epistle of M. Antony in Joseph. + Antiquit. xiv. 12. Plutarch in Cæsar. p. 471. Appian. Bell. + Civil. l. iv. Dion Cassius, l. xlv. p. 431. Julius Obsequens, c. + 128. His little treatise is an abstract of Livy’s prodigies.] + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE *** + +***** This file should be named 731-0.txt or 731-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/7/3/731/ + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the +United States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part +of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, +and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following +the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use +of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for +copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very +easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation +of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project +Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away--you may +do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected +by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark +license, especially commercial redistribution. + +START: FULL LICENSE + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full +Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at +www.gutenberg.org/license. + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or +destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your +possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a +Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound +by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the +person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph +1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this +agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the +Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection +of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual +works in the collection are in the public domain in the United +States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the +United States and you are located in the United States, we do not +claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, +displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as +all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope +that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting +free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm +works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the +Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily +comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the +same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when +you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are +in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, +check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this +agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, +distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any +other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no +representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any +country other than the United States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other +immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear +prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work +on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, +performed, viewed, copied or distributed: + + This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and + most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no + restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it + under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this + eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the + United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where + you are located before using this eBook. + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is +derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not +contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the +copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in +the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are +redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply +either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or +obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm +trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any +additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms +will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works +posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the +beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including +any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access +to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format +other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official +version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm website +(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense +to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means +of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain +Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the +full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +provided that: + +* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed + to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has + agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project + Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid + within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are + legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty + payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project + Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in + Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg + Literary Archive Foundation." + +* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all + copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue + all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm + works. + +* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of + any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of + receipt of the work. + +* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than +are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing +from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of +the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set +forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project +Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may +contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate +or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or +other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or +cannot be read by your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium +with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you +with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in +lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person +or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second +opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If +the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing +without further opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO +OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of +damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement +violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the +agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or +limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or +unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the +remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in +accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the +production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, +including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of +the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this +or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or +additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any +Defect you cause. + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of +computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It +exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations +from people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future +generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see +Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at +www.gutenberg.org + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by +U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, +Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up +to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's website +and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without +widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND +DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular +state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To +donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project +Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be +freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and +distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of +volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in +the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not +necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper +edition. + +Most people start at our website which has the main PG search +facility: www.gutenberg.org + +This website includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + |